THE SERBIAN FOREIGN POLICY BETWEEN 1900-1908 by DRAGAN DENNIS MILIVOJEVIC B.A., U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h ' C o l u m b i a , 19$$ A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n the Department of S l a v o n i c S t u d i e s We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA • A p r i l , 195*9 i i ABSTRACT The p e r i o d under c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r c h a p t e r s . I . The~Serbian S i t u a t i o n During the N i n e t e e n t h Century. I I . The Reign of Alexander Obrenovlc'. I I I . The Aftermath of the R e v o l u t i o n ; and IV. C o n c l u d i n g R e f l e c t i o n s . The chapters are i n t e r r e l a t e d t o p i c a l l y and c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y . Thus the f i r s t chapter s t a r t s i n the y e a r 1900 w i t h a b r i e f review of t h e events which preceded i t . The t o p i c c o n necting the chapters i s the r e l a t i o n s of S e r b i a w i t h the major Powers wit h e s p e c i a l l y t h a t of R u s s i a and A u s t r i a . The i n t e r e s t of these two powers c l a s h e d , but nowhere was t h e i r c o n f l i c t so apparent as i n t h e i r d e s i r e s f o r c o n t r o l of independent S e r b i a . That s m a l l country not o n l y s u r v i v e d as a p o l i t i c a l and e t h n i c e n t i t y but gathered her kinsmen i n t o a l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l u n i t - - Y u g o s l a v i a . The success of S e r b i a i n h e r s t r u g g l e f o r p o l i t i c a l and economic emancipation was i n the o p i n i o n of t h i s w r i t e r due t o two p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s — S e r b i a i n a t i o n a l i s m and Russian o p p o s i t i o n t o A u s t r i a n schemes f o r S e r b i a n s u b j u g a t i o n . In the chapter: The Aftermath of the R e v o l u t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r emphasis was l a i d on t h e S e r b i a n r o l e as a u n i f y i n g nucleus f o r South-Slavs. In the l a s t chapter under the t i t l e 'Con-c l u d i n g R e f l e c t i o n s , the feud between I m p e r i a l A u s t r i a -Hungary and S e r b i a i s shown as a s t r u g g l e not o n l y between two d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s , but of two d i f f e r e n t i d e o l o g i e s . The n a t i o n a l i s t democratic s p i r i t of S e r b i a as against the a r i s t o c r a t i c and f e u d a l i s t i c thought of Austria-Hungary. In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t t h e L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by t h e Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department of The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, Vancouver 8, Canada. Date ACKNOWLEDGMENT My acknowledgments are due t o Dr. James 0. S t . C l a i r - S o b e l l and Dr. C y r i l Bryner, as w e l l as t o Dr. S t a n l e y Pech, f o r u s e f u l c r i t i c i s m and guidance. i i i THE SERBIAN FOREIGN POLICY BETWEEN 1900-1908 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page I. The S e r b i a n S i t u a t i o n During t h e Nineteenth Century . . 1 S e r b i a and the Congress o f B e r l i n $ S e r b i a and the Great Powers, at the End of the Nineteenth Century 11 Development of P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s i n S e r b i a and the Reign of M i l a n Obrenovic' 17 < I I . The Reign of Alexander Obrenovic 33 S e r b i a n R e l a t i o n s with A u s t r i a and R u s s i a . . 33 King Alexander's Marriage 37 R e l a t i o n s w i t h R u s s i a During the Reign of Alexander 38 Domestic A f f a i r s During King Alexander's Reign 1^ 1 The Co n s p i r a c y ij-3 The A s s a s s i n a t i o n 51 The R e a c t i o n o f the Western C o u n t r i e s to the S e r b i a n Coup d'Etat $$ I I I . The Aftermath o f the R e v o l u t i o n 62 K i n g P e t e r 62 The Question o f Montenegro 66 The D i p l o m a t i c Boycott 70 The 'Pig War' and the S t r u g g l e f o r the S e r b i a n Economic Independence 75> The Annexation and the Western Powers . . . . 82 The~Reaction of Great B r i t a i n 89 The Russian R e a c t i o n 93 The S e r b i a n R e a c t i o n 96 The S i t u a t i o n i n B o s n i a and Herzegovina . . . 100 The E x t r e m i s t Tendencies i n B o s n i a and Herzegovina. 105> IV. Concluding R e f l e c t i o n s 109 Summary 121 BIBLIOGRAPHY 126 CHAPTER I . THE SERBIAN SITUATION DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY The f o u n d a t i o n s o f the S e r b i a n s t a t e were l a i d d u r i n g the f i r s t and the second u p r i s i n g s a g a i n s t the Turks i n l80lj. and i n 1813. The r e s u l t o f these u p r i s i n g s was a p a r t i a l autonomy w i t h i n t h e T u r k i s h Empire. T h i s autonomy was s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d ; f o r T u r k i s h g a r r i s o n s remained i n the c h i e f towns o f S e r b i a . Owing t o Russian d i p l o m a t i c p r e s s u r e on Turkey, however, and as a r e s u l t o f innumerable wars between R u s s i a and Turkey, S e r b i a a c q u i r e d a g r e a t e r degree o f autonomy. The T r e a t y o f A d r i a n o p l e i n 1829 d i c t a t e d by R u s s i a t o the Ottoman S u l t a n , and the »hatti s h e r i f f 1 of 1830, assured S e r b i a o f an autonomous e x i s t e n c e , and h e r s t a t u s was guaranteed by the great powers i n t h e P a r i s peace t r e a t y of 1856. I n I867 the Turks evacuated the Belgrade g a r r i s o n , t h e i r l a s t m i l i t a r y s t r o n g h o l d i n S e r b i a . The S e r b o - T u r k i s h war o f I876 and t h e T r e a t y o f B e r l i n o f I878 brought S e r b i a f u l l p o l i t i c a l independence and a d d i t -i o n a l t e r r i t o r y . And, i n 1822, S e r b i a was e l e v a t e d from a p r i n c i p a l i t y t o a kingdom. The a u t o c r a t i c a l l y governed p r i n c i p a l i t y o f Montenegro was populated by pure S e r b i a n s t o c k and had managed t o preserve i t s independence d e s p i t e a long drawn out s t r u g g l e with the Tu r k s . Bosnia and Herzegovina, the two p r o v i n c e s populated a l i k e by Serbs, Croats and Moslems, however, were not f r e e . F o r the T u r k i s h occupation which began i n B o s n i a i n li|63 was r e p l a c e d i n I878 by t h e A u s t r i a n o c c u p a t i o n when the l a s t Bosnian k i n g , Stjepan Tomasevic, d i e d . I t was under Stjepan Tomasevic's r u l e t h a t t h e union of S e r b i a and B o s n i a was completed. S e r b i a ' s e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n with R u s s i a and A u s t r i a i n t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of i t s n a t i o n a l i s m . "Ever s i n c e P e t e r the Great 1 R u s s i a stood forward as the champion o f the s u b j e c t r a c e s . " The t i e s of blood and race combined wi t h a common Orthodox r e l i g i o n exerted a powerful a t t r a c t i o n . Between 1774 and 18^6 s u c c e s s i v e r i g h t s by t r e a t i e s had assured R u s s i a a vague and e l a s t i c p r o t e c t o r a t e over the Balkan C h r i s t i a n s . P u b l i c o p i n i o n i n R u s s i a , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t i n s p i r e d by the S l a v o p h i l e s , was always ready t o support an a g g r e s s i v e Balkan p o l i c y . A somewhat l e s s i d e a l i s t i c aspect of Russian p o l i c y was i t s d e s i r e t o a c q u i r e c o n t r o l o f the S t r a i t s . A u s t r o - S e r b i a n t i e s were a r e s u l t of g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o x i m i t y , economic interdependence and a common s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t the i n f i d e l . I t was A u s t r i a who organized the South S l a v s i n the s o - c a l l e d m i l i t a r y f r o n t i e r s . The border zones of the South-Slav s e t t l e r s l i v e d t h e r e on c o n d i t i o n o f defending t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n s . D u r i n g the f i r s t u p r i s i n g i n I8024., "the S e r b i a n l e a d e r , K a r a d j o r d j e v i c , sent a l e t t e r ' t o 1 R.W. Seton-Watson, The Role of B o s n i a i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s . B r i t i s h Academy. 1931, p.. 22. 3 the A u s t r i a n major M i t e s e r i n Semlin i n which he wrote "As you order us, so s h a l l we behave." 2 In the e i g h t e e n t h century, A u s t r i a had t h r e e wars with the Turks (1716-1718, 1737-1739, and 1788-1791). In a l l of these wars, S e r b i a was the b a t t l e f i e l d . I t was a f t e r the t h i r d war t h a t the Serbs were ready to become s u b j e c t s of the A u s t r i a n Empire. In a l e t t e r of January 22, 1790, from the S e r b i a n c l e r g y , they d e c l a r e d t h a t they wished the mercy and p r o t e c t i o n o f the A u s t r i a n Emperor. But, then the t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i c y of Austria-Hungary was changed, the p a s s i v e p o l i c y of defence gave way t o an a g g r e s s i v e p o l i c y o f a c q u i s i t i o n o f t e r r i -t o r i e s , whose i n h a b i t a n t s were C h r i s t i a n s . That step c o u l d be j u s t i f i e d on any groundscexcept those i m p e r i a l i s t i c . R u s s i a , then, p l a y e d her f a v o r i t e r o l e of " C h r i s t i a n Defender', i n a very narrow sense. Both c o u n t r i e s moved from an i d e a l i s t i c viewpoint i n f o r e i g n p o l i c y t o a r e a l i s t i c one. S l a v o p h i l i s m was f o r the moment f o r g o t t e n f o r the sake of expediency. R u s s i a and A u s t r i a were not a g a i n s t the formation of independent s t a t e s , but they were d e f i n i t e l y " a g a i n s t the f o r m a t i o n of a b i g and powerful S l a v i c s t a t e , although R u s s i a worked a g a i n s t the s p i r i t o f t h i s agreement when she t r i e d t o c r e a t e a b i g Russian dominated B u l g a r i a by the T r e a t y of San Stefano. Under t h i s t r e a t y any 2 V l a d i m i r C o r o v i c , Odnosi Izmedju S r b i j e 1 Austro-Ugarske u xx veku, Belgrade, 1936, p. 83. ~ 3 I b i d . , p. 92. 4 Pribram, S e c r e t T r e a t i e s o f A u s t r i a , Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1920, v o l . 2, p. 203. type of Balkan union was prevented f o r A u s t r i a and R u s s i a d i v i d e d the Balkans i n t o spheres of i n f l u e n c e . S e r b i a came under the i n f l u e n c e of A u s t r i a , and B u l g a r i a under t h a t of R u s s i a . On September 11, 1876, Alexander I I wrote t o F r a n c i s Joseph.: Je comprends t a repugnance pour l a f o r m a t i o n d'un grand e t a t Serbe. Je repousse comme t o i c e t t e com-b i n a t i o n . 5 and a g a i n : I I f a u d r a i t done que t e s troupes f u s s e n t p r e t e s a. e n t r e r en Bosnie, t a n d i s que l e s miennes e n t r e r a i e n t en B u l g a r i e . 6 T h i s c o n c e s s i o n of R u s s i a must be a t t r i b u t e d to the change of R u s s i a ' s f e e l i n g towards S e r b i a . She decided to choose B u l g a r i a as her protegee i n the r e a l i z a t i o n o f her Balkan ambitions. S e r b i a was f o r c e d t o e n t e r i n t o c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s with Austria-Hungary. The Congress a t B e r l i n s a n c t i o n e d the above-mentioned s e t t l e m e n t . I t was c a l l e d by the Western powers, who were f r i g h t e n e d by the advance at R u s s i a i n the Balkans and attempted to check her i n f l u e n c e . The Congress of B e r l i n was the l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n of the p r e v i o u s agreements between Austria-Hungary and R u s s i a , and e s p e c i a l l y the s e c r e t convention of the " R e i c h s t a d t " i n 1878 which d i v i d e d the Balkan p e n i n s u l a i n t o two spheres o f influence.: Russian and A u s t r i a n . R u s s i a ' s protegee, b i g B u l g a r i a , was 5 R.W. Seton-Watson, "Russian Commitments i n the Bosnian Question," S l a v o n i c Review, June 1929, v. 8, no. 22, p. 578. 6 I b i d . , p. 581. 5 made smaller.and the o c c u p a t i o n of. B o s n i a and Herzegovina took p l a c e . The Congress of B e r l i n meant the ascendancy o f Austria-Hungary i n the Balkans and a defeat f o r R u s s i a . B e s s a r a b i a was s m a l l compensation f o r Bosni a and Herzegovina. The e q u i l i b r i u m i n the Balkans was thus d i s t u r b e d and the i n f i l t r a t i o n o f A u s t r i a i n t o the Balkans was deeply r e s e n t e d by R u s s i a . B u l g a r i a was reduced from 163,000 t o 64 , 0 0 0 square m i l e s , and her p o p u l a t i o n from f o u r m i l l i o n t o one and a h a l f m i l l i o n . Russian p r e s t i g e i n the Balkans f e l l very low. At the same time, the annulment of the T r e a t y of San Stefano was a n e c e s s i t y . I t was a Russian s o l u t i o n to the Balkan problem and not a S l a v one. S e r b i a and the Congress of B e r l i n Although S e r b i a ' s independence was r e c o g n i z e d , the Congress of B e r l i n was a blow t o S e r b i a n n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s . , Bosnia and Herzegovina, the p r o v i n c e s i n h a b i t e d by Serbs, C r o a t s , and Moslems speaking the same language, were g i v e n as a mandate to Austria-Hungary. The S e r b i a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a t the Congress was not allowed t o be p r e s e n t while d i s c u s s i o n s about the f a t e o f h i s country were going on. The f e e l i n g among the South S l a v s was t h a t o f d e s p a i r . F r a n j o Rachki wrote t o a f r i e n d on March 24, 1878: "How do they want us to be l i b e r a t e d by those who would drown us i n a drop of water, who work s t e a d i l y to cause q u a r r e l and disagreement between us." The onl y hope of the S e r b i a n d e l e g a t i o n l e d by Jovan R i s t i c f d u r i n g the B e r l i n Congress was to appeal to the P a n - S l a v i c f e e l i n g s o f the Ru s s i a n d e l e g a t e s . When he asked the R u s s i a l d e l e g a t e s "What con-s o l a t i o n c o u l d we have?", the l a t t e r r e p l i e d "In f i f t e e n Q ' years our accounts w i t h Austria-Hungary w i l l be s e t t l e d . " The Congress o f B e r l i n was a document which S e r b i a c o u l d n e i t h e r appeal a g a i n s t nor change, because she d i d p a r t i c i p a t e i n i t . The p r i n c i p l e which S e r b i a espoused, t h a t o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n on n a t i o n a l grounds, d i d not come under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The Congress o f B e r l i n made the mistake o f having f a i t h i n the o l d co n c e p t i o n o f power-p o l i t i c s which f a i l e d to see the s t r e n g t h o f n a t i o n a l i s m . A u s t r i a had to order a m o b i l i z a t i o n and use 200,000 men to subdue Bosn i a and Herzegovina. A u s t r i a abandoned the c o n s e r v a t i v e M e t t e r n i c h i a n p o l i c y o f the s t a t u s quo i n Turkey. " I t s o c c u p a t i o n was i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o the motto, 'The Balkans f o r the Balkans', enunciated by Baron Kalnoky," Benjamin K a l l a y , the abl e Austro-Hungarian d i p l o m a t i c agent, judged t h i s change i n the Austro-Hungarian p o l i c y t o be dangerous. In h i s d i s p a t c h e s t o Beust and Andrassy, he l a i d 7 Seton-Watson, Russian Commitments, p. 518. 8 C o r o v i c , Odnosi Izmedju S r b i j e , p. 36. 9 Zivanovic', P o l i t i e k a I s t o r i j a S r b i j e , Belgrade, Geza Kon, 1923, P. 373. s t r e s s upon th e s e n s i t i v e n e s s o f S e r b i a n n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g . The p o p u l a t i o n o f B o s n i a and Herzegovina was of t h e same n a t i o n a l s t o c k . They numbered 1,737,000 i n 1909 and con-s i s t e d of I4.3 per cent Orthodox, 35 per cent Moslems, 21.3 per cent C a t h o l i c C r o a t s , and 0.7 per cent Jews. T h i s f a c t has been e s t a b l i s h e d by K a l l a y h i m s e l f , who s t a t e d i n h i s H i s t o r y o f the Serbs t h a t t h e r e were t h r e e r e l i g i o n s and o n l y a s i n g l e Serbian stock i n B o s n i a and Herzegovina, o m i t t i n g the e x i s t e n c e o f C r o a t s , whose expression of n a t i o n a l i s m was not so i n t e n s e as t h a t of the Serbs. The r e v o l t of B o s n i a and Herzegovina against the Turks i n 1875 was d i r e c t e d against the Ottoman r u l e , and the aim o f the r e b e l s was the union o f Bosnia-Herzegovina w i t h the kingdom of S e r b i a . The A u s t r i a n I m p e r i a l p r o c l a m a t i o n emphasized t h a t the A u s t r i a n t r o o p s "do not come as enemies, but as f r i e n d s . " 1 1 Jovan C v i j i c expressed a p t l y the f e e l i n g s o f h i s compatriots i n 1908. " S e r b i a became a surrounded country and we became an a r r e s t e d people." The A u s t r i a n occupation o f Bosnia-Herzegovina was not o n l y an i n s u l t t o the n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s of S e r b i a , but S e r b i a n commercial t i e s by way o f sea r o u t e s towards the Aegean were t h r e a t -ened i n Macedonia and towards the A d r i a t i c Sea i n B o s n i a and Herzegovina. The r e s u l t was not o n l y n a t i o n a l subjug- :'' a t i o n but an economic one as w e l l . 10 K o n s t a n t i n Dumba. Memoirs o f a Diplomat, t r a n s . Morrow, London, 1933, p. - 8 8 . - v ' * 11 Dus!an-. L o n c a r e v i c , Jugoslawiens Entsteheung. L e i p z i g , Amalthea, 1929, p. 190. . 8 D e s p i t e the b e t r a y a l by R u s s i a i n the R e i c h s t a d t s e c r e t convention, and the g r e a t disappointment of S l a v o p h i l s i n B e r l i n and San Stefano, R i s t i c , the S e r b i a n d e l e g a t e , s t i l l b e l i e v e d i n R u s s i a ' s f r i e n d s h i p . He was not so naive as not to be a b l e to see through.Russian machin-a t i o n s , but he knew t h a t w i t h the a c q u i s i t i o n o f B o s n i a , A u s t r i a would become the main enemy of S e r b i a . The t r a g i c p o s i t i o n of S e r b i a was made evident i n the d e c i s i o n of the B e r l i n Congress, which formulated the t r e a t y with the a p p r o v a l of the g r e a t powers of Europe. I t meant t h a t the s t a t u s quo was guaranteed not o n l y by A u s t r i a , but by Great B r i t a i n , Germany, and R u s s i a as w e l l . I t was the E n g l i s h R e p r e s e n t a t i v e , Lord S a l i s b u r y , who brought up the ques-t i o n of A u s t r i a n o c c u p a t i o n . Bismarck suggested to A u s t r i a the a c q u i s i t i o n of B o s n i a and Herzegovina i n the hope of s e t t i n g A u s t r i a and R u s s i a a g a i n s t each o t h e r . In t h i s he completely succeeded. The b a s i c i d e a o f the B e r l i n Congress was expressed by Aehrenthal i n a l e t t e r to P r i n c e Billow i n February, 1909 when the annexation c r i s i s reached i t s c r i t i c a l p o i n t : With the weakening of Turkey and i t s g r a d u a l r e t r e a t t o A s i a , the p r o c e s s of c r e a t i n g s t a t e s s t a r t e d a g a i n on one s o u t h - e a s t e r n border. We had to have a p o l i c y , and, t h e r e f o r e we had to occupy and then 30 y e a r s l a t e r t o annex. With these two a c t s , the dream of a Great S e r b i a n s t a t e ceased to e x i s t . 12 12 C o r o v i c , Odnosi Izmedju Srbije, p. 210. 9 A u s t r i a d i d not have any p o l i c y i n the Balkans: "Our Balkan p o l i c y f a i l e d f o r want o f a d e f i n i t e aim." 1-^ I f t h e r e was any aim, i t was t o prevent and make i m p o s s i b l e a b i g and powerful s t a t e i n the Balkans. S e r b i a had t o be e i t h e r A u s t r i a n o r Ru s s i a n , but under no circumstances could she remain f r e e and independent. The Se r b i a n p o l i t i c i a n , Vladan D j o r d j e v i c , one o f the best f r i e n d s A u s t r i a ever had i n S e r b i a , maintained i n a l e c t u r e given i n B e r l i n , t h a t no f i n a l s o l u t i o n f o r the S e r b i a n q u e s t i o n was p o s s i b l e except by means o f a n a t i o n a l union o f a l l o f the Serbs and Croats i n a s i n g l e s t a t e , and t h i s could be c a r r i e d out o n l y with t h e consent of A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y . 1 ^ A u s t r i a would not g i v e such a consent. The i n t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n was p r e c a r i o u s . The i d e a o f A u s t r i a and Hungary r u l i n g the S l a v s was too deeply rooted t o al l o w any m o d i f i c a t i o n . Any democrati-z a t i o n o f the Empire would enhance the p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e of the S l a v s . Any s o l u t i o n which t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the B i g Powers imposed on the Balkans d i d not l a s t l o n g . I n the f i r s t p l a c e , the s o l u t i o n belonged t o an age l o n g p a s t . Experience.:should have taught A u s t r i a t h a t the id e o l o g y o f n a t i o n a l u n i f i c a t i o n could not be stopped. Events i n I t a l y i n 185" 9 and i n Germany i n 1866 proved t h a t A u s t r i a d i d not keep pace with events. Napoleon's s a y i n g could best be a p p l i e d t o the A u s t r i a o f F r a n c i s Joseph's 13 Dumba, Memoirs, p. 89. lij. "Future o f the Balkans," F o r t n i g h t l y Review. 1909, p. IOI4.. time: nL»Autriche est t o u j o u r s en r e t a r d d»une annee, d'une aimee, et d'une i d e e . " I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case, the i d e a was t h a t of n a t i o n a l i s m . One of the most prominent f e a t u r e s o f t h e T r e a t y of B e r l i n was i t s l a c k o f touch w i t h r e a l i t y ; borders were cut across n a t i o n a l e n t i t i e s l e a v i n g one part o f the pop u l a -t i o n on one s i d e and the r e s t o f i t on the o t h e r s i d e . D i s r a e l i foresaw t h a t the c l a u s e s of the T r e a t y of B e r l i n would soon be broken. A f t e r seven y e a r s , the f i r s t v i o l a t i o n of the T r e a t y by B u l g a r i a o c c u r r e d . G r e e c e soon f o l l o w e d . Only S e r b i a was t o f u l f i l l the c l a u s e s o f the T r e a t y which were d e s c r i b e d by P r i n c e Alexander o f Battenberg as "a monstrous monument of European d i p l o m a t i c i g n o r a n c e . " ^ B o s n i a and Herzegovina occupied an ambiguous p o s i t i o n i n the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e f r i c t i o n between A u s t r i a and Hungary, t h i s p r o v i n c e was pl a c e d under the J o i n t M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e . I t s s t a t u s i n t h e A u s t r o -Hungarian Empire continued t o be s e m i - l e g a l . No attempt was made t o evaluate and g i v e e x p r e s s i o n t o B o s n i a and Herzegovina's d e s i r e f o r s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . The A u s g l e i c h . by which the Hungarians t r i e d t o s e i z e t h e p o l i t i c a l power i n one pa r t of t h e Empire, while the A u s t r i a n s would t r y 15" D enis, E., L a Grande S e r b i e . P a r i s , Delagrave, 1915*, P. 131. 16 Seton-Watson, The Role of B o s n i a , p. 2$. 17 i M d . , p. 24. 11 t o s e i z e the p o l i t i c a l power i n the r e s t of the Empire, was a p p l i e d t o Bosnia and Herzegovina, except t h a t here both 18 a c t i o n s were s i m u l t a n e o u s l y pursued. The n a t i o n a l i d e a of the Serbs and the I m p e r i a l i s t p o l i c y o f A u s t r i a were d i r e c t l y opposed t o one another. A b a s i s f o r r e c o n c i l i a t i o n was nowhere t o be found. Only r a d i c a l measures would h e l p . I n the phrase o f F i e l d M arshal Conrad von Hotzendorf, the i s s u e was "whether the union of the South-Slavs was t o be achieved i n s i d e the Hapsburg Monarchy at S e r b i a ' s expense 19 -or under S e r b i a , at the Monarchy's expense.'* S e r b i a and the Great Powers at the End of the N i n e t e e n t h Century I n the middle of the n i n e t e e n t h century, S e r b i a had a c h o i c e o f two d i a m e t r i c a l l y - o p p o s e d f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s . E i t h e r she c o u l d l i v e on good terms w i t h i t s powerful neighbour, Austria-Hungary, enjoy h e r p r o t e c t i o n and be s u b s e r v i e n t t o h e r , o r e l s e she could i n s i s t on a broad n a t i o n a l p o l i c y of u n i f i c a t i o n which would estrange and b r i n g h e r d i r e c t l y i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h Austria-Hungary. At v a r i o u s times, S e r b i a pursued both. A t h i r d d i r e c t i o n found adherents t o o . I n the o p i n i o n of t h a t group, the f o r e i g n p o l i c y o f S e r b i a had t o f o l l o w the f o r e i g n p o l i c y o f R u s s i a . T i e s of r a c e and r e l i g i o n counted i n the o p i n i o n o f t h i s 18 " I r r e d e n t a S e r v i a , " Edinburgh Review, 1919, p. 1+1. 19 Seton-Watson, The Role o f Bosnia, p. 32. 12 p o l i t i c a l group more than geographic and economic f a c t o r s . These a s p i r a t i o n s of some Se r b i a n p o l i t i c i a n s t i e d i n w i t h R u s s i a n schemes f o r the conquest o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e and the establishment o f a Greek Empire under Russian a e g i s . R u s s i a was t e r r i t o r i a l l y s a t i a t e d , so ran the arguments of the Russian f o r e i g n o f f i c e and the S e r b i a n S l a v o p h i l s , and she d i d not and would not pursue a p o l i c y of t e r r i t o r i a l aggrandizement. H i s t o r i c a l precedent was t o be found i n the union of the crowns of Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland i n the f o u r -t e e n t h century. Why c o u l d not a s i m i l a r f e d e r a t i o n be concluded between S e r b i a , Roumania and Greece? Constantinople would be the c a p i t a l and n a t u r a l l y the R u s s i a n Emperor would be the r u l e r of the proposed c o n f e d e r a t i o n . A p u b l i c i s t of Greek o r i g i n , J.G. P i t z i p i o s Boy, proposed i n 1858 i n h i s work, L ' O r i e n t . l e s reformes de l'Emnire B v z a n t i n . the f o r m a t i o n o f a Balkan c o n f e d e r a t i o n under R u s s i a ! I f R u s s i a "were t o take the course o f g i v i n g back t o Poland the r i g h t of self-government, and were t o f a c i l i t a t e the r e u n i o n o f t h a t country i n t o a s i n g l e independent S t a t e ... would not t h i s c o n f e d e r a t i o n too be i n a p o s i t i o n t o l a y 20 down the law t o the r e s t o f the world?" These plans f o r a Balkan c o n f e d e r a t i o n under t h e R u s s i a n a e g i s were Utopian. A l l the Balkan s t a t e s pursued c o n t r a d i c t o r y aims. The 20 "The F u t u r e o f the Balkans," F o r t n i g h t l y Review. 1909, p. IOI4.I. -w i l l i n g n e s s o f R u s s i a t o grant self-government t o the members of the f e d e r a t i o n was q u e s t i o n a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n view of the P o l i s h experience. A l s o , the a b i l i t y of the Russian government t o c r e a t e such p o l i t i c a l c o n f e d e r a t i o n s was d o u b t f u l . The number o f S e r b i a n p o l i t i c i a n s f a v o u r i n g union under A u s t r i a n auspices was n e g l i g i b l e . The p o l i t i c a l p a r t y which represented such a programme g r a d u a l l y d i e d away. There were few p o l i t i c i a n s even i n the P r o g r e s s i v e p a r t y who would agree wi t h the Czech h i s t o r i a n P a l a c k y t h a t " I f A u s t r i a d i d not e x i s t , i t would be n e c e s s a r y t o c r e a t e h e r . " The views o f one of the former adherents of the A u s t r i a n " o r i e n t a t i o n " were summed up i n t h e brochure by Vladan D j o r d j e v i c : I w i l l remain a g r a t e f u l student of the German sc h o o l and a f a i t h f u l f r i e n d of my dear Vienna, but e s p e c i a l l y because of t h a t , I must from now on f i g h t the s u i c i d a l p o l i c y of Austria-Hungary, which u n m e r c i f u l l y persecuted my Serbo-Croat n a t i o n f o r the l a s t two c e n t u r i e s . 2 1 A most d i f f i c u l t course f o r S e r b i a was i t s p o l i c y of n o n - o r i e n t a t i o n and t h a t of complete independence. T h i s p o l i t i c a l c o n ception was developed by a S e r b i a n p o l i t i c i a n , I l i j a Gara&anin, i n h i s work N a c e r t a n i l e . H i s p o l i t i c a l programme.was based on a Balkan c o n f e d e r a t i o n , whose slogan was- "The Balkans f o r the Balkans." Garasanin maintained t h a t s i n c e S e r b i a could have no assured e x i s t e n c e with h e r 21 H. Wendel, Die Hapsburger und d i e Sudslawenfrage. L e i p z i g , Geza Kon, 192q., t r a n s , by author. Ik present boundaries, she must s t r a i n every nerve t o u n i t e k i n d r e d peoples t o her. And i f t h i s aim was not r e a l i z e d , Garasanin b e l i e v e d t h a t o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s would t o s s h e r about l i k e a s m a l l boat on an open sea and end i n her b e i n g wrecked. Garasanin foresaw t h a t the T u r k i s h Empire i n Europe would e i t h e r end by b e i n g p a r t i t i o n e d o r i t would be r e p l a c e d by a new s t a t e formed from i t s C h r i s t i a n i n h a b i -t a n t s . And i f such a p a r t i t i o n took p l a c e , S e r b i a would be under A u s t r i a ; f o l l o w i n g most n a t u r a l l y the d i v i s i o n of t h e Balkan p e n i n s u l a from Vienna to S a l o n i k a , S e r b i a would be under A u s t r i a . " A u s t r i a , t h e r e f o r e , w i l l always be the enemy of t h e f u t u r e S e r b i a n s t a t e , " " - and an understanding with A u s t r i a would always remain i m p o s s i b l e . As f o r R u s s i a , Garasanin agreed w i t h P r i e d r i c h Engels who wrote as e a r l y as 18^3 about the f u t u r e r e l a t i o n s between R u s s i a and the S l a v s t a t e s . Even i f r e l i g i o n and blood t i e s the South-Slavs t o R u s s i a , t h e i r i n t e r e s t s would become d i f f e r e n t on. the day the South-Slavs o b t a i n t h e i r f r e e d o m . ^ i t i s n a t u r a l , argues Garasanin, t h a t the o t h e r ¥estern powers, p a r t i c u l a r l y Prance and Greet B r i t a i n , should oppose t h i s aggrandizement of A u s t r i a and R u s s i a but not the f o r m a t i o n of a new C h r i s t i a n Balkan s t a t e . T h i s statement of Garasanin's found i t s e x p r e s s i o n i n the speech o f Gladstone at Blackheath, 22 Ludwig B r i t t n e r , " O s terreich-Ungarn und S e r b i e n , " H i s t o r i e c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t . Munchen, 1931, P. 78. 23 Wendel, Die Hansburger. p. lj.0. 15" i n September, i n which speaking s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t the Turks he s a i d : I f anybody asks me how I would d i s t r i b u t e the s p o i l , my answer i s , I would not d i s t r i b u t e i t at a l l . I say t h a t these p r o v i n c e s were not d e s t i n e d t o be the p r o p e r t y of R u s s i a o r the p r o p e r t y of A u s t r i a , o r the p r o p e r t y of England. They were f o r the i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e p r o v i n c e s . ^ 4 That s t a t e which w i l l g a t h e r the o t h e r Balkan peoples i n t o the p r o j e c t e d f e d e r a t i o n could o n l y be S e r b i a , s a i d he. And, a c c o r d i n g t o Garasanin, S e r b i a would have become the s u c c e s s o r t o the Byzantine Empire i f the Turks had not destroyed h e r . To secure the l e a d e r s h i p of t h e Balkans, Garasanin f e l t t h a t S e r b i a must have an o u t l e t t o the sea which would i n s u r e h e r o f economic independence. T h i s scheme was b o l d and simple. However, P r i n c e M i c h a e l , the r u l e r t o whom Garasanin was an a d v i s o r , r u l e d f o r o n l y n i n e y e a r s , and n i n e years was too short a time f o r the f u l f i l l -ment of such an ambitious p r o j e c t . P r i n c e M i c h a e l s t a r t e d t h i s new b o l d course i n S e r b i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y . He c l e a r l y saw what the p r i n c i p a l o b s t a c l e was f o r the independence o f S e r b i a . "The immediate neighbourhood of A u s t r i a condemns us t o the a l t e r n a t i v e e i t h e r of remaining t r i b u t a r y t o Turkey with the prospect o f being dominated by A u s t r i a , o r of becoming the v a s s a l s o f R u s s i a . A l l Serbs f e e l t h i s i n s t i n c t i v e l y as much as I d o . " ^ I am of the o p i n i o n 2l|. "The F u t u r e of the Balkans," F o r t n i g h t l y Review. p.lOlj.3. 25 Loc. c i t . 16 t h a t the d i s s o l u t i o n o f Turkey i s o n l y a q u e s t i o n o f time. I am c e r t a i n [he wrote t o Kossuth] t h a t i f t h e T u r k i s h Empire must p e r i s h , she should not f a l l a prey t o R u s s i a and A u s t r i a , but t h a t i t should mean freedom f o r the people t h a t „26 i n h e r i t i t . " P r i n c e M i c h a e l c h e r i s h e d the dream of a war a g a i n s t Turkey, which would r e a l i z e h i s ambition d u r i n g h i s own l i f e t i m e . However, the time was not yet r i p e . The s t a t u s quo of Turkey was j e a l o u s l y guarded by the B i g Powers who hoped t o d e s t r o y Turkey o n l y when i t s u i t e d t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . Garasanin wanted t o win over R u s s i a t o h i s p l a n ; however, the Russians were not w i l l i n g t o h e l p S e r b i a . Baron S t a c h e l b e r g , the Russian ambassador t o Vienna, wrote t o M i c h a e l : The g e n e r a l n e c e s s i t y f o r keeping w i t h i n bounds the c o m p l i c a t i o n s caused by the present s i t u a t i o n prevents the p o s s i b i l i t y of provoking h o s t i l i t i e s i n the East ... the i n t e r e s t of S e r b i a demands t h a t you should husband your r e s o u r c e s . . . . The great day of d e l i v e r a n c e has not yet come.... Ru s s i a w i l l not encourage the step which she c o n s i d e r s premature. 27 I n h i s a c t i v i t y , P r i n c e M i c h a e l c r e a t e d the b a s i s of a bdard n a t i o n a l p o l i c y f o r the u n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e Balkans, which was repeated In the work of K i n g Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c . We can agree w i t h E. Denis: 26 "Europe and the Annexation o f Bosnia and Herzegovina," F o r t n i g h t l y Review. 1909, p. 135. 27 "The F u t u r e of the Balkans," F o r t n i g h t l y Review, p. 1014-3. I t i s - i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t e x a c t l y the same words were d i r e c t e d t o S e r b i a by the Russian f o r e i g n o f f i c e on the eve of the war with Turkey i n 1912. Le meurtre de M i c h e l , au moment qu'11 t r a v a i l l a i t a l a f o r m a t i o n d»une union©' balkanique, e'tait pour l a monarchie habsbourgeoise un coup de f o r t u n e . Pour l a S e r b i e c'e'tait un immense malheur. 28 Development of P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s i n S e r b i a (and the Reign of M i l a n Obrenovici.) In the l a s t decades of the n i n e t e e n t h century, S e r b i a was an a g r i c u l t u r a l country o f s m a l l peasant l a n d -h o l d i n g s . There were no c o n s i d e r a b l e c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s . In 1885, t h e r e were on l y e i g h t people i n the whole country 2 9 who possessed more than two hundred h e c t a r e s . Since the c l a s s s t r u g g l e was not an e s s e n t i a l p o l i t i c a l i s s u e , o t h e r i s s u e s stepped i n t o the foreground of p o l i t i c a l l i f e . The most important p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s d e a l t w i t h the f o r e i g n p o l i c y o f the country. The i n f l u e n c e o f the West i n c r e a s e d . Many students were educated i n Germany, Prance, and S w i t z e r l a n d , from which democratic i d e a s were i n t r o d u c e d t o S e r b i a . S i n c e S e r b i a and Western Europe were at d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of p o l i t i c a l and economic development, an i n t r o d u c t i o n of Western i n s t i t u t i o n s was bound t o b r i n g about p a i n f u l readjustments. The Western world, however, was not the o n l y f a c t o r which I n f l u e n c e d S e r b i a n p o l i t i c a l l i f e . Because of the s i m i l a r i t y of the S e r b i a n and Russian economies, Russian ideas and Russian methods of s o l v i n g 28 Denis. La Grande S e r b i e . p. 94. 29 " S e r b i a and the R i v a l D y n a s t i e s , " Contemporary Review. 1903, p. 13. 18 problems pen e t r a t e d and became p o p u l a r among the students who were the f o r e r u n n e r s i n the development and a p p l i c a t i o n of new i d e a s . The p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s d i d not have, espec-i a l l y i n t h e i r b e g i n n i n g s , a c l e a r - c u t programme, n e i t h e r d i d they represent any p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t group. There were t h r e e major p a r t i e s i n S e r b i a : the R a d i c a l P a r t y which re p r e s e n t e d the i n t e r e s t s o f the s m a l l b o u r g e o i s i e o f the c i t y and v i l l a g e : the L i b e r a l P a r t y which re p r e s e n t e d the i n t e r e s t s o f the middle c l a s s e s ; and Naprednjachka o r P r o g r e s s i v e P a r t y , which re p r e s e n t e d the c o n s e r v a t i v e s o c i a l group. T h i s p a r t y c o n s i s t e d of an upper b o u r g e o i s i e , which was f i n a n c i a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y 30 poor i n comparison with the Western b o u r g e o i s i e . What d i s t i n g u i s h e d one p a r t y from another was i t s a t t i t u d e towards v i t a l n a t i o n a l q u e s t i o n s . S i n c e the S e r b i a n people i n times of c r i s i s r e a c t e d as one, the d i f f e r e n c e s o f p a r t y programmes, i n s o f a r as programmes e x i s t e d , were b l u r r e d . The P r o g r e s s i v e P a r t y , which advocated f r i e n d s h i p w i t h A u s t r i a , disappeared completely d u r i n g the annexation c r i s i s " when A u s t r i a t h r e a t e n e d the a n n i h i l a t i o n o f S e r b i a as a s t a t e . The R a d i c a l P a r t y was formed from a s o c i a l i s t group l e d by Sve t o z a r Markovic, a s o c i a l i s t , who had s t u d i e d i n Petrograd and i n Z u r i c h . In S w i t z e r l a n d , S e r b i a n s o c i a l i s t students found t h e i r way t o the c i r c l e s o f Bakunin a n a r c h i s t s 30 B o l s h a i a S o v e t s k a i a E n t s i k l o p e d i a . 19i?0, v. $, p. 617. 19 and other e x t r e m i s t s . The founders of the R a d i c a l P a r t y were i n f l u e n c e d by the U t o p i a n s o c i a l i s t s , Owen and F o u r i e r , as w e l l . But most of a l l they were i n f l u e n c e d by the R u s s i a n N a r o d n i k i . The S e r b i a n r a d i c a l s l i k e the Russian N a r o d n i k i wanted t o go t o the people, and c u l t i v a t e the peasant masses i n o r d e r t o enable them t o accept the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f self-government. The i n s t i t u t i o n of the s t a t e was an i n s t r u -ment of o p p r e s s i o n t o them and i n the b e g i n n i n g of t h e i r " p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y " they d i d not h e s i t a t e t o use t e r r o r i s t methods against i t . I n a book, What i s a S t a t e ? . one of the f a v o u r i t e s of the S e r b i a n s t u d e n t s , the g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e towards the s t a t e i s n e a t l y summed up i n a b r i e f sentence, " I t i s t o perpetuate t y r a n n y by those who have some p r o p e r t y 31 against those who do not possess any." R u s s i a n i n f l u e n c e predominated i n the development of t h e S e r b i a n R a d i c a l P a r t y , and i t s r a d i c a l programme was not an e x p r e s s i o n of a c l e a r -cut Western Marxian s o c i a l i s m . The extremes t o which the S e r b i a n r a d i c a l s went expressed almost r e l i g i o u s and m y s t i c a l f e r v o u r . Those young i d e a l i s t s u s u a l l y r e t u r n e d to t h e i r country, where t h e i r sublime ideas had t o stand the t e s t of r e a l i t y . The r u l e r of S e r b i a at t h a t time was King M i l a n , whose views were d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed t o the views o f the i n t e l l i g e n t s i a . The R a d i c a l P a r t y demanded f i r s t l y , t h a t 31 Quoted i n Z i v a n o v i c , P o l l t i c f r k a I s t o r l l a S r b i l e . v. 2 , P. 117. 20 the K i n g should r e l i n q u i s h a b s o l u t i s t r u l e and gi v e s e l f -government t o the people. Secondly, they asked t h a t the people's assembly have f u l l l e g i s l a t i v e power and the monarch should have only the r i g h t o f suspensive v e t o . T h i r d l y , the K i n g would be de p r i v e d o f the p o l i t i c a l power which would accrue t o the n a t i o n a l assembly. T h e i r most important p r i n c i p l e was the f i r s t : That the people were t o be s o v e r e i g n and as such t h e begin n i n g and the end o f every sovereignty.32 The names o f the R a d i c a l P a r t y ' s paper was "Samouprava," o r "Self-government," i n d i c a t i n g the main aim of t he p a r t y . I t s views on f o r e i g n p o l i c y were R u s s o p h i l e . The Russian government encouraged the R a d i c a l s , although the l a t t e r were u l t r a - l e f t i s t s , and the same Russian ambassadors who at home were the adherents o f ab s o l u t i s m , i n S e r b i a supported the r i g h t s o f t h e people against the r u l e r s . ^ 3 The programmes o f democratic reforms at home and of f r i e n d s h i p w i t h R u s s i a abroad made the R a d i c a l P a r t y extremely p o p u l a r . During the e l e c t i o n s of 1883, the R a d i c a l s won an overwhelming v i c t o r y over the government-sponsored p a r t y , though the pressure against them was s t r o n g and the e l e c t i o n p u b l i c and i n d i r e c t . The e l e c t i o n v i c t o r y , however, d i d not assure a m a j o r i t y f o r the R a d i c a l p a r t y i n the government. R a d i c a l l e a d e r s h i p was prevented by a 32 "Radikalna Stranka," Nova Europa. 1926, V o l . X I I I , p. 386. 33 "The Foreign* P o l i c y o f S e r b i a , " Nova Europa. v. 18, Ap r i l . 2 6 , 1928, p. .256. 21 r o y a l decree from a c c e p t i n g the m a j o r i t y i n the government which i t had l e g a l l y won. The regime o f a b s o l u t i s m at home was f u r t h e r compromised by a weak and a n t i - n a t i o n a l f o r e i g n p o l i c y . During the r e b e l l i o n i n Bosnia-Herzegovina i n 1875, the S e r b i a n government was i n a dilemma: should i t support the n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s o f her compatriots under t h e Turk-i s h r u l e o r pursue a noncommital f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n deference t o A u s t r i a and Turkey? The new cabinet i n s t a l l e d by K i n g M i l a n was opposed to any form o f m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n B o s n i a . The t i d e o f p a t r i o t i c and n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g s , however, threatened t o overthrow the government. In m u n i c i p a l e l e c -t i o n s , t h e R a d i c a l P a r t y won the m a j o r i t y of s e a t s . P u b l i c meetings c e l e b r a t e d the v i c t o r y w i t h great enthusiasm, and p r o c e s s i o n s f o l l o w e d the red f l a g . Economic problems added, t o o , t o the d i s t r e s s . S e r b i a was h e a v i l y i n debt; m a i n l y t o A u s t r i a from where most f o r e i g n c a p i t a l came. The programme of r a i l w a y b u i l d -i n g i n 1887 indebted S e r b i a t o an amount of 286,000,000 d i n a r s although S e r b i a was d e s c r i b e d i n 1872 by Dudley Baxter i n h i s work, N a t i o n a l Debts. as the "only country without any s t a t e d e b t s . " ' ^ The Viennese S t a t e Bank, the P a r i s Comptoir d'Escompte, and the B e r l i n Trade Bank, u s i n g h i g h - l o a n percentages, plundered the S e r b i a n n a t i o n . The most 34 " R a d i k a l n a Stranka," Nova Eurona. 1926, V o l . X I I I , p. 386. 22 predatory power was Austria-Hungary, t o which went 80 per cent of the S e r b i a n exports and which used the economic dependence of S e r b i a as a p o l i t i c a l whip.-^ The cumulative e f f e c t of absolutism, wretched economic c o n d i t i o n s , and an a n t i - n a t i o n a l f o r e i g n p o l i c y brought about a bloody u p r i s i n g i n 1883 which l a s t e d f o r ten days. Twenty-one persons were k i l l e d , more than seventy-three executed, and f i v e hundred and s i x t y - s e v e n were committed t o long p r i s o n terms. The R a d i c a l p a r t y was then d e c l a r e d i l l e g a l . In o r d e r t o understand th e s e events i t i s necessary to analyze t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s who embodied the s t r u g g l e between t h e f o r c e s of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and r e s p o n s i b l e government and those of A b s o l u t i s m i n S e r b i a ; namely, the l e a d e r of the R a d i c a l P a r t y , P a s i c . , and King M i l a n , who r u l e d the country. Pasic^was an engineer by p r o f e s s i o n . A man o f few words, p r e c i s e and s e l f - p o s s e s s e d , he represented an exception among h i s compatriots who o f t e n tended t o l o s e themselves i n p a s s i o n a t e o u t b u r s t s , . w i t h e r r a t i c changes of emotion. Always t a c i t u r n and a hard worker, he d i s t i n g u i s h e d h i m s e l f at s c h o o l and obtained a government f e l l o w s h i p t o study i n Z u r i c h . At t h a t time, Z u r i c h was the refuge of p o l i t i c a l e x i l e s and a centre f o r students from a l l o v e r E a s t e r n Europe and R u s s i a . He was about t h i r t y when he reached 35 H. Wendel, Per Kampf der Sudslawen urn F r e i h e i t und E i n h e i t . 1925. F r a n k f u r t -am-Main, p. lf.82. 36 " S e r b i a , " B o l s h a i a S o v e t s k a i a E n t s i k l o p e d i a . v. 38. 23 Z u r i c h on h i s f i r s t t r i p t o Western Europe. Here he had the o p p o r t u n i t y t o l i s t e n t o every p o s s i b l e creed, but he was not a convert t o any. The d o c t r i n e s and creeds d i d not appeal t o h i s a n a l y t i c a l mind, n e i t h e r d i d the c l e v e r and l e a r n e d c o n v e r s a t i o n . An anecdote i s t o l d about h i s conver-s a t i o n with Bakunin and h i s z e a l o t s . Bakunin a p p r e c i a t e d the s i l e n t young Serb, and urged him to devote h i m s e l f t o the cause. " I l i k e you, I even admire you," P a s i c answered at l a s t , "but I f i n d myself q u i t e unable t o adopt your c e r t i t u d e s , as I cannot see c l e a r l y what i s t o be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s once your s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n i s accom-p l i s h e d . " Then, t h i n k i n g probably he had been too b o l d , added, "I am s t u d y i n g t o be a c i v i l engineer, you know, and I would not a l l o w m yself t o t e a r down a house u n l e s s I saw what I might b u i l d up i n i t s place. " 3 7 Pasic»s enthusiasm f o r the cause, i f t h e r e was any, was e x t i n g u i s h e d i n the f i r s t b a t t l e . A f t e r t h e unsuc-c e s s f u l r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t King M i l a n i n 1883, he r e a l i z e d the f u t i l i t y of t e r r o r i s m and decided t o achieve h i s p o l i -t i c a l ends by p a r l i a m e n t a r y means. Prom then on, P a s i c t a l k e d and p r a c t i s e d the p o l i c y of c o a l i t i o n and c o n c i l i a -t i o n . The r a d i c a l s i d e o f h i s programme a c q u i r e d i n Z u r i c h under the i n f l u e n c e o f Bakunin was g r a d u a l l y abandoned, o n l y l e a v i n g t h e n a t i o n a l R u s s o p h i l e programme s t i l l i n t a c t . "He i s not," wrote an observer who knew him d u r i n g t h a t 37 Count S f o r z a , F i f t y Years o f War and Diplomacy i n the Balkans. New York, I9I4.O, p. 11. p e r i o d , "a great master i n the realm of higher ideas and p r i n c i p l e s but i n the p r a c t i c a l s t r u g g l e f o r power. His s k i l l i s not i n o r a t o r y and i n persuasive propaganda, but i n the p a t i e n t s k i l l of s e t t i n g a t r a p f o r h i s v i c t i m by magical s u r p r i s e s . He i s not an opponent who approaches h i s enemies from the f r o n t , but one who remembers and when the time of revenge comes, s t r i k e s . " - ^ The p o l i c y of c o a l i t i o n and compromise d i d much to d i l u t e the o r i g i n a l r e v o l u t i o n -ary z e a l of the R a d i c a l P a r t y , and to make P a s i c a "pro-f e s s i o n a l " p o l i t i c i a n , who abandoned h i g h p r i n c i p l e s to expediency. The p e a c e f u l and l o y a l L i b e r a l P a r t y and the r e v o l u t i o n a r y R a d i c a l P a r t y formed an a l l i a n c e . As a r e s u l t Pas'ic' became a leader o f a respectable m i d d l e - c l a s s party. The C o n s t i t u t i o n of December 22, 1888 was another example of compromise. Pas i c \ who i n h i s student days thought t h a t every s t a t e was an instrument of oppression, abandoned h a l f of h i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y programme i n c l u d i n g the n o t i o n that people are the source o f sovereignty. The people's assemblies were not any more frequent and the King r e t a i n e d the r i g h t of veto. The i n d i r e c t t a x , too, was not a b o l i s h e d . There was no common v o t i n g system, and the bureaucracy was not destroyed. However, the C o n s t i t u t i o n represented a step forward towards the development of the young Serbian democracy. Personal freedom was guaranteed as 38 " L i c n o s t N i k o l e Pas'ica'',, Nova Evropa. X I I I , Simplex, p. i+lO. .. . 25 w e l l as t h e freedom o f a s s o c i a t i o n and t h e s e c r e c y o f t h e m a i l s . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o compare K i n g M i l a n and N i k o l a , P a s i c as t h e r e was l i t t l e resemblance r e g a r d i n g t h e i r i d e a s , temperament and p e r s o n a l i t y ' . K i n g M i l a n was a n b o n v i v a n t , " a man o f t h e w o r l d , who d e s p i s e d h i s own p e o p l e . D i s s o l u t e i n h i s p r i v a t e l i f e , he shocked h i s p e o p l e by f a m i l y q u a r r e l s and a d i v o r c e . I n h i s l e t t e r s t o h i s Greek m i s t r e s s , he r e f e r r e d t o h i s o n l y son as " t h e l i t t l e worra-39 l e t . " He f r e q u e n t e d r a c e t r a c k s i n Europe, and was known t h e r e as " l e mastoqueur,," o r t h e cad. Whenever he needed money, he r e t u r n e d t o B e l g r a d e . O f t e n o b t a i n i n g m i l l i o n s o f f r a n c s i n g o l d f r o m t h e wretched S e r b i a n t a x - p a y e r s , he would l e a v e , s w e a r i n g n e v e r a g a i n t o r e t u r n t o S e r b i a . He even went so f a r as t o renounce h i s t i t l e o f P r i n c e and h i s S e r b i a n c i t i z e n s h i p . ^ " 0 Such was t h e m o r a l f i b e r o f t h e K i n g who was supposed t o u n i f y t h e s o u t h e r n S l a v s . A ^ . d i s t r i c t was t h e o n l y t e r r i t o r i a l g a i n he o b t a i n e d f o r h i s c o u n t r y . He was b e a t e n , i n t h r e e w a r s , w i t h t h e t r e a s u r y showing a debt o f two hundred and f i f t y m i l l i o n f r a n c s g o l d . H i s i d e a s about f o r e i g n p o l i c y were d i r e c t l y opposed t o t h o s e o f t h e R a d i c a l s and t h e m a j o r i t y o f h i s p e o p l e . He was opposed t o t h e P a n - S l a v i c i d e a s : "La pensee s l a v e a dans l e p a n s l a v i s m e son p r i n c i p a l e n nemi."^ 1 I n h i s o p i n i o n , R u s s i a 39 D e n i s , L a Grande S e r b i e . p. 116. ij.0 Z i v a n o v i c , P o l i t i c k a I s t o r i i a S r b i . i e . v. 2, p. 199. 1|1 S f o r z a , F i f t y Y e a r s i n t h e B a l k a n s , p. 19. 26 r e p r e s e n t e d a r e t a r d e d c i v i l i z a t i o n ; a semi-barbarian s t a t e t h r e a t e n i n g the main streams o f European c u l t u r e and p o l i t i -c a l and economic development. He was a f r a i d o f R u s s i a . "La R u s s i e est i n s a t i a b l e , e l l e veut e n g l o u t i r l a S e r b i e , t a n d i s que l a germanization n'est guerre redout ab l e . " ^ He envisaged as a main p o l i t i c a l i s s u e o f t h a t age the s t r u g g l e between the S l a v s and the Germans. In such a con-f l i c t he wanted t o remain n e u t r a l . "Dans l e c o n f l i t immin-ent, entre l a germanisme et l e s l a v i s m ^ mon i n t e n t i o n et ma volonte' est que l a S e r b i e r e s t e neutre."43 j n f a c t King M i l a n was f o r c e d t o i n s t i t u t e a fo r e i g n , p o l i c y which would r e l y on A u s t r i a . At the B e r l i n Congress i t was the Russian d e l e g a t e , Count Shuvalov, who urged R i s t i c ' t o come t o terms w i t h A u s t r i a and advised him not to r e s i s t Andras/sy! s p r o p o s a l s . The Russian F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , G i e r s , admitted t o the S e r b i a n ambassadors, t h a t " F i r s t came the Russian i n t e r e s t s , t h e n the B u l g a r i a n and onl y afterwards f o l l o w the Ser b i a n i n t e r e s t s ; sometimes t h e B u l g a r i a n and the Russian i n t e r e s t s c o i n c i d e . " In an open speech t h e Russian T s a r p r a i s e d the v a l o u r of the Montenegrins, but as much as he r e g r e t t e d i t , could not say t h e same about the Serbs.^+ So King M i l a n was f o r c e d by these events t o pursue the o n l y I4.2 S f o r z a , F i f t y Years i n the Balkans, p. 117. 43 I b i d . . p. 116. I4I4. C o r o v i c , Odnosi. p. lf?0. f o r e i g n p o l i c y which was l e f t t o him, namely a f r i e n d l y p o l i c y toward A u s t r i a . That p o l i c y estranged the people from him, and was the cause o f h i s b i g g e s t p o l i t i c a l m i stakes, the war a g a i n s t B u l g a r i a and e s p e c i a l l y the s e c r e t t r e a t y concluded with A u s t r i a i n 1881. "Crime supreme et i n e x p i a b l e - d ' a v o i r vendu a l ' A u t r i c h e l e s d r o i t s e s s e n t i e l s et l e s i n t e r e t s v i t a u x de son royaume."^ T h i s s e c r e t convention o f 1881 was a unique docu-ment i n the d i p l o m a t i c h i s t o r y of Europe. I t was concluded by a k i n g with a f o r e i g n power ag a i n s t the v i t a l i n t e r e s t s and a s p i r a t i o n s o f h i s own people. One of the c h e r i s h e d hopes o f the S e r b i a n people was Gorchakov's promise t h a t the arrangement r e g a r d i n g B o s n i a would.be changed some time i n the f u t u r e and t h a t the i n h a b i t a n t s o f B o s n i a would be a b l e t o e x e r c i s e a f r e e choice i n regard t o t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a l l e g i a n c e . T h i s wish was expressed i n the l e t t e r o f the i Bosnian r e b e l s t o the Russian T s a r Alexander I I on March 1, I878. " I t i s our e t e r n a l wish t o become part of S e r b i a n princedom. We cannot enter the e n t i t y of Austria-Hungary and we do not d e s i r e h e r occupation." 4" As t h e F r e n c h had regarded as t h e i r sacred duty t o r e g a i n the p r o v i n c e s taken by t h e Germans i n the war o f I87I, so d i d p a t r i o t i c Serbs d e s i r e t o h e l p t h e i r compatriots i n B o s n i a . T h i s was the most sacred and important n a t i o n a l ambition o f S e r b i a at the b£ Denis, La Grande S e r b i e . p. 96. I4.6 Wendel, Per Kampf. p. 28 end o f the n i n e t e e n t h and b e g i n n i n g o f the t w e n t i e t h century. K i n g M i l a n concluded a s e c r e t convention w i t h A u s t r i a -Hungary which s a c r i f i c e d these n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s . I n A r t i c l e I I of the s e c r e t convention, King M i l a n , i n the name of the government of S e r b i a , promised the A u s t r i a n govern-ment, "That S e r b i a w i l l not t o l e r a t e p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s o r o t h e r i n t r i g u e s , which, t a k i n g h e r t e r r i t o r y as a p o i n t of departure, might be d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t the Austro-Hungarian monarch, i n c l u d i n g t h e r e i n B o s n i a , Herzegovina and t h e Sandjak of Novi Pazar."^-? A u s t r i a undertook s i m i l a r o b l i g a t i o n s " w i t h regard t o S e r b i a and her dynasty, t h e maintenance and s t r e n g t h e n i n g of which she w i l l support with a l l h e r i n f l u e n c e . " ^ I f A u s t r i a f e a r e d S e r b i a n pene-t r a t i o n i n t o B o s n i a , P r i n c e M i l a n f e a r e d a K a r a d j o r d j e v i c ' p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o S e r b i a . A u s t r i a f u r t h e r promised t h a t " i f the P r i n c e o f S e r b i a should deem i t n e c e s s a r y , i n the i n t e r e s t of H i s dynasty and of H i s country, t o take on b e h a l f of H i m s e l f and of H i s descendants the t i t l e of K i n g , A u s t r i a -Hungary w i l l r e c o g n i z e t h i s t i t l e ... and w i l l use h e r i n f l u e n c e t o secure r e c o g n i t i o n of i t on t h e part of o t h e r powers" ( A r t i c l e I I I ) . To e s t a b l i s h her r o l e as v i r t u a l p r o t e c t o r o f S e r b i a , Austria-Hungary sought t o c o n t r o l S e r b i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y . Thus A r t i c l e IV of the convention 47 Pribram. Secret T r e a t i e s , p. 5*2. 48 I b i d . . p. $2. 29 bound S e r b i a " n e i t h e r t o n e g o t i a t e nor conclude any p o l i t i c a l t r e a t y w i t h another government and not t o admit t o h e r t e r r i -t o r y a f o r e i g n armed f o r c e , r e g a r d l e s s o f type without a previous understanding with A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y . " ^ The s e c r e c y of the convention was c l o s e l y guarded. Besides K i n g M i l a n , o n l y t h r e e o r f o u r p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s knew about i t . The convention was i n a sense c o r o l l a r y t o the 'Dreikaiserbund' signed on June 18, 1881.^° The s e c r e c y of the document was q u i t e j u s t i f i e d i n view of the o p p o s i t i o n i t would encounter among the people. A r t i c l e IV which bound S e r b i a n e i t h e r t o n e g o t i a t e nor to conclude any p o l i t i c a l t r e a t y w i t h another government was incompatible w i t h t h e g o a l o f independence f o r S e r b i a . Prime M i n i s t e r P i r o c a n a c , a f t e r r e a d i n g t h i s c l a u s e of the conven-t i o n concluded t h a t S e r b i a ' s subservience t o Austria-Hungary was no d i f f e r e n t than that of T u n i s * t o France,-' 1 and immediately r e s i g n e d . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o see what K i n g M i l a n ' s motives were i n c o n c l u d i n g such an h u m i l i a t i n g t r e a t y . A u s t r i a -Hungary's guarantee t o support h i s dynasty and t i t l e was c e r t a i n l y a dominant reason. F o r the e x i s t e n c e of h i s dynasty was not secure. He had t o reckon with two power-f u l r i v a l s : K i ng N i k o l a of Montenegro, t h e r u l e r o f an independent S l a v s t a t e , and P r i n c e P e t e r K a r a d j o r d j e v i c ' . 49 Z i v a n o v i c , Politicka,-. I s t o r i i a S r b i . i e . p. 181. 5-0 I b i d . . p. 180. £1 I b i d . . p. 181. the descendant of the l e a d e r of the f i r s t S e r b i a n u p r i s i n g i n 1804, who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the Bosnian R e b e l l i o n of 1875*. R e l a t i o n s between K i n g M i l a n and R u s s i a were near the break-i n g p o i n t . King N i k o l a of Montenegro,!..... whom Alexander I I I of R u s s i a c a l l e d h i s only f r i e n d , had become Russia's protege' R u s s i a meanwhile, gave refuge t o the e x i l e d Bishop M i k h a i l ; and P r i n c e P e t e r , the most dangerous r i v a l of K i n g M i l a n , do was g i v e n an u n o f f i c i a l r e c e p t i o n . T h i s , t o o , c o n t r i -buted t o the d e c i s i o n of King M i l a n t o e n t e r i n t o a c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Austria-Hungary. The l e n g t h t o which he went i n h i s subservience t o A u s t r i a , however, cannot be j u s t i f i e d by any of the above-mentioned reasons. I t was one o f the axioms of the Serbian f o r e i g n p o l i c y t h a t S e r b i a i n the f u l f i l l m e n t of h e r n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s could count o n l y on R u s s i a . That was the formula i n t r o d u c e d by the S e r b i a n diplomat Jovan R i s t i c , a f t e r the b i t t e r disappointment of San Stefano and the Congress o f B e r l i n . With the s e c r e t convention, t h i s axiom o f the S e r b i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y was d i s c a r d e d , and a shameful b a r g a i n was concluded at the expense of the oppressed S e r b i a n n a t i o n a l s i n B o s n i a and Herzegovina. King M i l a n had con-ducted a s e l f i s h d y n a s t i c p o l i c y at the expense of the n a t -i o n a l p o l i c y . H i s m i n i s t e r s f e a r e d t h a t by the implementat-i o n of A r t i c l e IV of the s e c r e t convention, S e r b i a would be 52 Wendel, Per Kampf. p. I4.83 -53 W i t t e , Vospominania. B e r l i n , 1922, p. 21\1. 31 reduced t o the s t a t u s o f an A u s t r i a n p r o t e c t o r a t e . As a r e s u l t , A r t i c l e IV of the s e c r e t convention was changed, and the f o l l o w i n g d e c l a r a t i o n was i s s u e d on October 25, 1881: " A r t i c l e IV cannot impair the r i g h t o f S e r b i a t o n e g o t i a t e and t o conclude t r e a t i e s even o f a p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e , w i t h another government. I t i m p l i e s f o r S e r b i a no other engagement than t h a t o f n e g o t i a t i n g and o f not con-c l u d i n g any p o l i t i c a l t r e a t y which would be c o n t r a r y t o the s p i r i t and the t e n o r o f the s a i d s e c r e t t r e a t y . " ^ T h i s d e c l a r a t i o n c a l l e d P i r o c a n a c - K a l l a y , a f t e r i t s c r e a t o r s , was annu l l e d by P r i n c e M i l a n who condemned the a c t i o n o f P i r o -canac and promised t o "assume t h e f o r m a l engagement on my honour and my q u a l i t y as P r i n c e o f S e r b i a , not t o en t e r i n t o any n e g o t i a t i o n s whatsoever r e l a t i v e t o any k i n g o f a p o l i t i c a l t r e a t y between S e r b i a and a t h i r d s t a t e without communication wi t h and p r e v i o u s consent o f A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y . " ^ M e t t e r n i c h once s a i d that S e r b i a should be e i t h e r T u r k i s h o r A u s t r i a n ; K i n g M i l a n d i d e v e r y t h i n g t o r e a l i z e the second s o l u t i o n . "Chez un peuple," wrote E. Denis, " q u i , depuis des s i e c l e s , ne v i v a i t que pari'enthousiasme et l a f o i a r r i v a i t de P a r i s un adolescent de n i a i s e q u i ne c r o y a i t a r i e n , n i a l'honneur, n i ..au d r o i t , n i a l a p a t r i e n i a 1»human i t i. n^ T h i s judgment i s h a r d , but seems j u s t i f i e d . The f o r e i g n p o l i c y was s u b s e r v i e n t . In domestic p o l i c y the r i s e o f the 54 Wayne S. V u c i n i c . S e r b i a Between East and West. Stan-f o r d , U n i v e r s i t y Press,,.1954, P> '. ~ 55 I b i d . . p. 175. 56 Denis, L a Grande S e r b i e . p. 95. 32 S e r b i a n young democracy was r e t a r d e d u n t i l 1903. In the meantime, l i t t l e was b eing done toward n a t i o n a l u n i f i c a t i o n . I n the same yea r when the s e c r e t convention was concluded, the n e w l y - e s t a b l i s h e d R a d i c a l P a r t y took as i t s p r i n c i p l e p l a t f o r m the establishment of complete n a t i o n a l independence and the u n i f i c a t i o n o f a l l Serbs i n t o one s t a t e . The great success of the R a d i c a l s i n S e r b i a can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i r f i e r y n a t i o n a l i s m . S e r b i a was f i r m l y t i e d t o A u s t r i a and R u s s i a had every reason t o r e g r e t h e r behaviour d u r i n g the Congress of B e r l i n . King M i l a n was r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e Russian F o r e i g n O f f i c e as " M i l a n , the i n c o r r i g i b l e " and N i c h o l a s I I commented: "Nothing can be done .57 about Serbia,* i t must be l e f t t o i t s f a t e . " Thus, any i n t e r f e r e n c e by R u s s i a i n S e r b i a n a f f a i r s would break any agreements which R u s s i a had concluded w i t h A u s t r i a i n 1877, and, a c c o r d i n g to t h e Congress o f B e r l i n i n 1877, S e r b i a belonged t o the A u s t r i a n sphere of i n f l u e n c e . The d i r e c t enemy of S e r b i a was t h e r e f o r e Austria-Hungary. R u s s i a , however, d i d not l i v e up to the hopes o f the Serbs, who saw i n her t h e i r p r o t e c t o r and defender. T h i s could be seen from the behaviour of the Russian F o r e i g n O f f i c e . 57 Loncarevic'.-... J u g o s l a v i e n ' s Entstehung. p. 34' CHAPTER I I THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER OBRENOvTc" S e r b i a n R e l a t i o n s with A u s t r i a and R u s s i a With the departure o f King M i l a n from S e r b i a , the f o r e i g n p o l i c y o f f r i e n d s h i p t o Austria-Hungary l o s t i t s i n i t i a t i v e . The f u t u r e o f S e r b i a was u n c e r t a i n . R u s s i a was t r y i n g more than ever to e l i m i n a t e A u s t r i a n i n f l u e n c e from S e r b i a by r e l y i n g on the R a d i c a l P a r t y . R u s s i a e x e r c i s e d i n c r e a s i n g l y g r e a t e r power. The R a d i c a l P a r t y slogan o f n a t i o n a l u n i f i c a t i o n and union w i t h Montenegro and Bosnia-Herzegovina won many adherents i n the areas under A u s t r i a -Hungary as w e l l as In S e r b i a . P o p u l a r f e e l i n g f e l t i n s t i n c t -i v e l y where the danger l a y . News of the o p p r e s s i v e p o l i c y of d e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n i n Bosnia-Herzegovina p e n e t r a t e d i n t o S e r b i a and became c l e a r t o everyone. The number of Aus t r o -p h i l e s who thought wi t h Vladen D j o r d j e v i c f t h a t " S e r b i e n s e l b s t dann, wenn es jedem B e f e h l aus P e t e r s b u r g b l i n d gehorchte und s i c h wie eine r i c h t i g e r u s s i s c h e P r o v i n z benahm, dennoch n i e von Russland eine w i r k l i c h e Wohltat e r l e b t e , " 1 was becoming s m a l l e r and the author of t h i s statement became convinced a t the end of h i s l i f e o f i t s f u t i l i t y . F o r e i g n 1 Hermann Wendel, Per Kampf der Sudslawen urn F r e l h e l t und E l n h e i t , F r a n k f u r t A.M., S o c i e t a t s P r u c k e r e i , 1925, p. 444. 34 observers c o u l d p e r c e i v e t h a t the s o l u t i o n of the Balkan problem would be n e i t h e r a f e d e r a t i o n sponsored by A u s t r i a nor a Balkan league of n a t i o n s i n which R u s s i a would p l a y a predominant r o l e . A u s t r i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y was obsessed with the f e a r of Panslavism, without r e a l i z i n g t h a t the S l a v n a t i o n s had o t h e r i n t e r e s t s , d i f f e r e n t from those of race or r e l i g i o n . C u n i b e r t , i n h i s E s s a i s sur l e s r e v o l u t i o n s e t 1 1independance de l a S e r b i e , envisaged t h a t S e r b i a would "d e v e n i r un j o u r l e c e n t r e , autour duquel se r e t i e n d r o n t t o u t e s l e s n a t i o n a l i t y ' s it s l a v e s . " The Hungarian p o l i t i c i a n , Eotvos, i n h i s work Uber ! II d i e G l e i c h b e r e c h t i g u n g der Nationen i n O s t e r r e i c h , warned t h a t the i n e v i t a b l e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f Turkey would take p l a c e and t h a t S e r b i a would then p l a y the r o l e of a Piedmont i n the union of South Slavs.2 A l l hopes and dreams about the f u t u r e r o l e of S e r b i a were i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the p e r s o n a l i t y of K i n g M i l a n ' s s u c c e s s o r and son, Alexander. S e r b i a and h e r e x p a t r i a t e s i n the p r o v i n c e s under Austria-Hungary looked up to him. Alexander was not the man t o f u l f i l l the r o l e of the u n i f i e r which circumstances had prepared f o r him. He began h i s r e i g n w i t h a p r o c l a m a t i o n t h a t should h i s f a t h e r r e t u r n to S e r b i a , he was to be imprisoned, and i f he r e s i s t e d , he was t o be shot. Such a step made him unpopular at the very b e g i n n i n g o f h i s r e i g n . In h i s speech to the Narodna S k u p s t i n a i n N i s h , 2 D r a g i s a Vasic', Devetsto T r e c a , Beograd, Tucovic', 1925, p. 46. 35 Alexander d e c l a r e d t h a t King M i l a n had l e f t the country-f o r e v e r . Such a d e c l a r a t i o n was n e c e s s a r y to d e s c r i b e the changed p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n of S e r b i a to R u s s i a , with which a f i r m f r i e n d s h i p was e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s campaign a g a i n s t M i l a n was f u t i l e f o r M i l a n d i e d January 29, 1901. Before h i s death, he d e c l a r e d that he was too good a s o l d i e r to r e b e l a g a i n s t the King, too good a f a t h e r to undertake any-t h i n g a g a i n s t h i s son, and too good a Serb to i n s t i g a t e a 3 c i v i l war i n h i s f a t h e r l a n d . The campaign was d i r e c t e d not a g a i n s t the A u s t r o p h i l e p o l i c y of King M i l a n , but a g a i n s t the King p e r s o n a l l y . I f that campaign had had p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , i . e . , l i b e r a t i o n o f S e r b i a from A u s t r i a n i n f l u e n c e , the n a t i o n a l i s t i c f e e l i n g s of the people would have responded to i t . But i n a p a t r i a r c h a l S e r b i a n s o c i e t y , t h r e a t s of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e d i r e c t e d from son to f a t h e r aroused contempt. Normal r e l a t i o n s with R u s s i a would have g r e a t l y enhanced A l e x a n d e r 1 s p o s i t i o n a t home. But, there were s e r i o u s hindrances i n the way. P r i n c e Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c ' s r e p u t a t i o n at the R u ssian c o u r t was v e r y high, s i n c e h i s s i s t e r s - i n - l a w , daughters of the Montenegrin King, N i k o l a , were m a r r i e d to Peter N i k o l a i e v i c h , and the Grand Duke k N i k o l a i N i k o l a i e v i c h r e s p e c t i v e l y . Through t h e i r husbands, 3 V a s i c , Devetsto Treoa, p. I40. [j. W i t t e , Vospominania, B e r l i n , Slovo, 1922, p. 239. I the Montenegrins ""Number one" and Number two" as Witte c a l l e d them, they approved of Alexander. The A u s t r i a n F o r e i g n O f f i c e d i d not loo k f a v o u r a b l y upon Alexander, a f t e r the marriage scheme arranged by Franz Joseph f a i l e d . Alexander, a f t e r some h e s i t a t i o n , r e f u s e d to marry the A u s t r i a n or German p r i n c e s s e s who were o f f e r e d t o him, and s t a r t e d h i s own marriage p l a n s which were u l t i m a t e l y the cause of h i s d i s -a s t e r . He was i s o l a t e d d i p l o m a t i c a l l y abroad, and he c u t h i m s e l f o f f from the people of the c o u n t r y he r u l e d so a u t o c r a t i c a l l y . E. Denis d e s c r i b e s him as "un grand e t gros gar^on l o u r d , myope, barbu, bonasse, sans r e s i s t a n c e c o n t r e 5 ceux q u i 1 1 e n t o u r a i e n t . " He has been d e s c r i b e d as the l a s t B o r g i a , and as a l u n a t i c . To h i s m i n i s t e r s , he c o n f i d e d h i s f a v o u r i t e wish, t h a t o f seei n g the Bishop o f S e r b i a hanging from a chestnut t r e e i n f r o n t o f h i s o f f i c i a l r e s i d e n c e . H i s M i n i s t e r of the I n t e r i o r was asked whether i t would be p o s s i b l e to p o i s o n the Prime M i n i s t e r , R i s t i c , and o f f e r e d the former ten thousand ducats to commit the crime. Yet the A u s t r i a n Ambassador i n S e r b i a , who was p e r s o n a l l y a c q u a i n t e d with Alexander, t e s t i f i e s t h a t : I t i s q u i t e a mistake to suppose t h a t the King was p h y s i c a l l y or m e n t a l l y d e f i c i e n t or abnormal. What was u n f o r t u n a t e l y com-p l e t e l y l a c k i n g was any s o r t of home t r a i n i n g , a mother's i n f l u e n c e and decent surroundings i n h i s youth.° 5 E. Denis, La Grande S e r b i e . P a r i s , Delagrave, 1915, p.120. 6 K o n s t a n t i n Dumba, Memoirs of a Diplomat, London, Ian Morrow, 1933, p. 95. 37 I t was c l e a r t h at King Alexander had need of some home t r a i n i n g : l y i n g became second nature to him, and cunning and i n s i n c e r i t y became synonymous with p o l i t i c a l a b i l i t y . With such a person p o s s e s s i n g absolute power, the S e r b i a n s t a t e was bound to be e r r a t i c and u n s t a b l e i n both f o r e i g n and domestic p o l i c y . King Alexander's Marriage There was some hope t h a t a s u c c e s s f u l marriage might h e l p the t o t t e r i n g Obrenovicr. dynasty to preserve i t s absolute r e i g n . H i s marriage was s i g n i f i c a n t , p o l i t i c a l l y , f o r M i l a n had e a g e r l y expected h i s son to marry a German p r i n c e s s , thus connecting S e r b i a with the T r i p l e A l l i a n c e and a s s u r i n g h i s own continued c o n t r o l of S e r b i a n f o r e i g n a f f a i r s . Goluchowski, the A u s t r i a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , promised the S e r b i a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r that both the A u s t r i a n and German Emperors would j o i n e f f o r t s to f i n d Alexander a s u i t a b l e p r i n c e s s . T h i s would be an A u s t r i a n d i p l o m a t i c v i c t o r y . The scheme was proposed by the A u s t r i a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r and the bridegroom's f a t h e r and n e a r l y r e a l i z e d . But i n 1897, Alexander had a l r e a d y found a f u t u r e b r i d e and queen. Draga Masin was a widow, much o l d e r than Alexander, and came from a m i d d l e - c l a s s f a m i l y . She had many admirers and was p r o b a b l y f r e e i n her way of l i v i n g . Alexander's mother Queen N a t a l i e e l e v a t e d Draga Masin to the p o s i t i o n of her dame d'honneur, and i n that p o s i t i o n she met young Alexander. He was impressed 38 by her modesty and wisdom, and decided to marry her. Perhaps t h i s d e c i s i o n was i n f l u e n c e d by the knowledge t h a t the marriage would be w e l l - r e c e i v e d by the Russians, and c o u l d serve as a b a s i s f o r the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of b e t t e r r e l a t i o n s . This marriage was r e s e n t e d by Alexander's M i n i s t e r s , because Alexander and Draga were s o c i a l l y not e q u a l . The r e p u t a t i o n of the Masin f a m i l y was not good. I t was known that Draga's former husband d i e d of " d e l i r i u m tremens," and on her f a t h e r ' s s i d e of the f a m i l y , there were known cases of mental d i s e a s e . R e l a t i o n s with R u s s i a During the Reign of Alexander One of the f i r s t a c t s of King Alexander was to g i v e amnesty to the l e a d e r s of the R a d i c a l p a r t y , of whom G-iers, a R u s s i a n diplomat, s a i d t h at on s e v e r a l occasions they had attempted to induce R u s s i a to h e l p i n t h e i r r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t King 7 M i l a n . The R a d i c a l l e a d e r s had been d e p r i v e d of p o l i t i c a l power f o r twenty y e a r s . They had been g r a d u a l l y shedding a l l l e f t i s t i d e a s and emerged d u r i n g the r e i g n of King Alexander as a p a r t y which b e t t e r deserved the name Conser-v a t i v e . T h e i r R u ssophile programme was not abandoned, however, but t h e i r new r e a c t i o n a r y p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n p l e a s e d the R u ssian F o r e i g n O f f i c e more than t h e i r p r e v i o u s r e v o l u t i o n a r y mood. As a new King, Alexander d i d not have any 7 Wendel, Per Kampf der Suedslawen urn F r e l h e l t und E i n h e i t , P. 432. 39 p o l i t i c a l support, but the b a r g a i n had been made. The Rad-i c a l s would support the unpopular regime and the King would be f o r c e d to c r e a t e m i n i s t e r s from former p r i s o n e r s . T h i s new s i t u a t i o n combined with the King's marriage was most f a v o u r a b l e to Russian i n t e r e s t s . Although the agreement between A u s t r i a and R u s s i a r e a f f i r m e d the p r e v i o u s d i v i s i o n of the Balkan p e n i n s u l a and e x p r e s s l y s t a t e d t h a t "the advantages accorded to A u s t r i a by the T r e a t y o f B e r l i n are and remain a c q u i r e d by her." The Russians d i d not adhere to t h a t agreement. King Alexander t o l d h i s F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r t h a t Pasic*., while M i n i s t e r i n R u s s i a , had n e g o t i a t e d w i t h the Russians to r e p l a c e him with a Russian Duke and thus 8 extend R u s s i a n i n f l u e n c e to S e r b i a . He a l s o r e l a t e d how he had been taken to C e t i n j e , o s t e n s i b l y to r e t u r n the v i s i t of P r i n c e N i k o l a , but a c t u a l l y to p r e v a i l upon him to marry the P r i n c e ' s daughter, K s e n i a . M i j a t o v i c , M i l a n ' s F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , b e l i e v e d t h a t the Russians wanted to use Draga Masin "as a wedge between f a t h e r and son i n order to separate them f o r e v e r . " From the same source, came the i n f o r m a t i o n that Draga Masin, while v a c a t i o n i n g with Alexander i n Merano i n T y r o l i n 1897, had been v i s i t e d by Alexander I s v o l s k y . M i j a t o v i c ' a f f i r m e d t h a t Draga a t that time p l a c e d h e r s e l f a t the s e r v i c e of the R u s s i a n cause. There was i n d i c a t i o n enough to show that the Russians were p l e a s e d w i t h the marriage. At d i p l o m a t i c 8 Zivanovic', P o l i t i c k a I s t o r i . i a Srbi.je. Beograd, Getsa Kon, 1925, P. 87. 9 Dragisa V a s i c , Devetsto Treca, p. 15. ho r e c e p t i o n s i n Belgrade the Russian Ambassador, Pavel Mansurov, was most c o r d i a l to h e r . C o n f i r m a t i o n o f the new developments i n the r e l a t i o n s between Russia and S e r b i a came with the s t a r t l i n g announcement at the Russian c o u r t t h a t Tsar N i c h o l a s I I would be the King's be s t man. T h i s a c t was i n t e r p r e t e d as a new o r i e n t a t i o n of the regime and t e m p o r a r i l y helped King Alexander. There c o u l d be no doubt now that R u s s i a approved o f f i c i a l l y o f the King's marriage.' In h i s speeches, King Alexander dwelt on the t r a i t o r o u s A u s t r o p h i l e p o l i c y of h i s f a t h e r , King M i l a n . In a speech on Topchider H i l l near Belgrade i n the presence of thousands, he denounced the regime of h i s f a t h e r , and announced h i s s o l i d a r i t y with the p r i n c i p l e s of r a d i c a l i s m and n a t i o n a l -10 ism. I t seemed, however, t h a t Tsar N i c h o l a s was not informed of the c h a r a c t e r of Draga Masin, and t h a t h i s emissary Mansurov d i d not f o l l o w h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s . He e l a b o r a t e d on h i s r o l e of a best man by proxy, by i n t e r p o l a t i n g more e x p r e s s i o n s of sympathy than were c o n t a i n e d i n the o r i g i n a l message. There are some doubt about the p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s a c t , because of the low rank of the Tsar's deputy, who was o n l y a second S e c r e t a r y of the Russian Embassy i n Belgrade.''"''" 10 Wayne S. V u c i n i c , S e r b i a between East and West, S t a n f o r d , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 195k, p. l b . 11 Z i v a n o v i c , op. c i t . , p. 210. 41 Domestic A f f a i r s During King Alexander's Reign The government of Alexander was the embodiment of c o n t r a r i e s , the p r a c t i c a l outcome of p o l i t i c a l paradoxes; today he would p r o c l a i m a v e r i t a b l e S a t u r n a l i a , to-morrow, a regime o f a b s o l u t e despotism. H i s p o l i t i c a l maxims, i f one may give name to u n c o n t r o l l e d impulses, remind one of the simple n o t i o n s of the H i b e r n i a n farmer who f e d h i s p i g s to excess one day, and kept them w h o l l y without f o o d the next, i n order t h a t "the f a t and the l e a n o f the bacon might be p r o p e r l y mixed." A c c o r d i n g to a then contemporary p o l i t i c i a n , a l l decrees i s s u e d on a c e r t a i n date must be benevolent, and those i s s u e d on the other must be malevolent because those were the l u c k y and unlucky days of the s o v e r e i g n . I t became c l e a r that the task of n a t i o n a l u n i f i c a t i o n c o u l d not be accomplished under such a s o v e r e i g n . The regime of h i s f a t h e r , King M i l a n , had a l r e a d y Introduced many c o r r u p t p r a c t i c e s i n t o the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the country. B r i b e r y and c o r r u p t i o n were commonplace occurrences, while the whims of King Alexander changed c a b i n e t s i n a matter of days or even hours. I t was not a bloody r e i g n , but i t was a s e l f i s h and b r u t a l one i n which the p u r s u i t of p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s over-looked the i n t e r e s t s of the S e r b i a n p e o p l e . The p e r s o n a l i t y of King Alexander's wife made the r e i g n worse. Draga Masin was a s o c i a l u p s t a r t , whose Western veneer, bad t a s t e i n romantic and cheap l i t e r a t u r e c o u l d not 42 hide the manners of the low or middle c l a s s to which she belonged. ""Draga a v a i t p l u s de v a n i t e que de coeur e t moins d 1 i n t e l l i g e n c e que d'ambition. E l l e se compromit dans de s o t t e s combinations que l u i a l i e n e r e n t l a cour de R u s s i e , et e l l e i n v i t a l'armee par l e s f a v o u r s dont e l l e combla ses \ „13 f r e r e s . A system of bestowing favo u r s on those r e l a t e d to the Queen's f a m i l y was i n s t a l l e d . The b a s i s f o r promotion was not a b i l i t y but a l l e g i a n c e to the regime and to Queen Draga p e r s o n a l l y . The two b r o t h e r s of the Queen were g i v e n e x c e p t i o n a l honours. F u r t h e r o p p o s i t i o n was aroused by the announcement of the coming b i r t h of an h e i r . T h i s , however, was a d e l i b e r a t e f a l s e h o o d , manufactured by the Queen h e r s e l f . The i n t e n t i o n of the l i e was to endear the regime to the people by the hope that the marriage of the King and Queen would not remain as f r u i t l e s s as had been rumoured. F o r e i g n doctors were c o n s u l t e d about the a l l e g e d pregnancy of the Queen and one of them c r e a t e d an i n t e r n a t i o n a l scandal by p u b l i s h i n g an a r t i c l e "La fausse grossesse de l a Reine de S e r b i e " i n Semaine Medicale. the week of May 22, 1901.1^ The q u e s t i o n of r o y a l s u c c e s s i o n was open. Popular o p i n i o n h e l d t h a t one of the Queen's b r o t h e r s was to be d e c l a r e d s u c c e s s o r to the throne. Even o f f i c i a l d e n i a l by King 12 V u c i n i c , S e r b i a between East and West, p. 13. 13 Denis, La Grande S e r b i e , p. Ik Zivanovic", P o l i t l c k a I s t o r i . i a S r b i j e , V o l . IV, p. 2l+9. 15 Alexander was not b e l i e v e d . King Alexander's p a r e n t s were sending p o s t c a r d s to S e r b i a i n which they r e f e r r e d to the Queen i n the most v u l g a r manner. A c e r t a i n p o l i t i c i a n , who had to f l e e the country r e f e r r e d to the regime as a " C e n t r a l A s i a t i c Khanats." Despite the s t r i c t c e n s o r s h i p o p p o s i t i o n r a i s e d i t s head and spread. During those p a s t t e n years s i x t e e n c a b i n e t s had h e l d o f f i c e , two c o n s t i t u t i o n s had been a b o l i s h e d and two others promulgated. I t i s d i f f i c u l t f u l l y : t o comprehend the t e r r i b l e a b s o l u t i s m of tbe r e i g n . The regime of " D r a g i j a d a " was so o p p r e s s i v e that one o f the S e r b i a n p o l i t i c i a n s d e c l a r e d that "the f a c t t h a t we s t i l l c a r r y heads on our shoulders should not be a t t r i b u t e d to the kindness of our a u t h o r i t i e s but to the f r e e p r e s s i n the West." The C o n s p i r a c y The democratic f o r c e s , no matter how s t r o n g , c o u l d not have threatened the regime without an a l l i a n c e with the army. I t was b e l i e v e d that the r e v o l u t i o n was coming, and o n l y the army, b e i n g the p i l l a r of the regime, c o u l d have t i p p e d the balance of power i n f a v o u r of the o p p o s i t i o n . By that time, i n the middle of 1902, the regime was d i s c r e d i t e d both at home and abroad. A v i s i t o f King Alexander to h i s f a t h e r i n K a r l s b a d and the meeting with F r a n c i s Joseph d i d 15 V e s e l i n V u k i c e v i c , " P o l i t i c k o I d o l o p o k l o n s t v o , " Nova Europa, 1926, V o l . X I I I , p. 29. 16 D r a g i s a V a s l c , Devetsto T r e c a , p. 32. not r e s u l t i n an improvement of r e l a t i o n s between A u s t r i a -Hungary and S e r b i a . Alexander's l a s t hope o f o b t a i n i n g an Impe r i a l r e c e p t i o n by the R u s s i a n court was not f u l f i l l e d . E v e r y t h i n g depended on the army, which was composed of young p a t r i o t i c peasants, many of whom were e x c e p t i o n a l l y i n t e l l i g e n t . T h i s was due to a s p e c i a l law promulgated i n S e r b i a a t the end of the nine t e e n t h century, by which the number of h i g h - s c h o o l s was reduced. T h i s l e d to an overflow i n the h i g h - s c h o o l s 17 causing many students to e n r o l l i n the m i l i t a r y academies. In a way, they resembled the Rus s i a n D e k a b r i s t s w i t h t h e i r Western and p r o g r e s s i v e i d e a s . They were conscious of t h e i r h i s t o r i c m i s s i o n which was the u n i f i c a t i o n o f the South S l a v s and they were much more l i b e r a l and broadminded than most of the R a d i c a l p a r t y . I n the p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y of S e r b i a , the army had always been a p a s s i v e instrument of the sovereign's w i l l . I n the regime of King M i l a n , the army was r e o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g to the R u s s i a n model, and was a f f o r d e d generous p r i v i l e g e s as a reward f o r s t e a d f a s t l o y a l t y to the House of Obrenovic: . The army had never been an independent f a c t o r i n p o l i t i c s and i t was g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t the army would continue to be s u b s e r v i e n t . King Alexander never doubted the l o y a l t y o f h i s 18 o f f i c e r s even when p r o o f s to the c o n t r a r y were produced. 17 V e s e l i n Vukicevic", " P o l i t i c k o I d o l o p o k l o n s t v o , " Nova Europa, 1926, V o l . X I I I . 18 Wayne Vucinic', S e r b i a between E a s t and West, p. $\\. The t e s t of army l o y a l t y came i n the demonstration of March 23, 1903, an event which foreshadowed the e x t i n c t i o n o f the House of Obrenovic.. T h i s demonstration d i d not have the c h a r a c t e r of a t r a d e - u n i o n demonstration, although i t was l e d by a s o c i a l i s t , D i m i t r i j e T u c o v i c . N e i t h e r d i d i t have any c l a s s c h a r a c t e r . I t s t a r t e d with tradespeople and spread to the students. P o l i c e were h e l p l e s s i n t h e i r attempts to c o n t r o l the demonstration. Army u n i t s were c a l l e d out f o r a d d i t i o n a l h e l p , and they c o n f r o n t e d the crowd which had a l r e a d y s u f f e r e d c a s u a l t i e s by p o l i c e b u l l e t s . The whole a f f a i r ended with f r a t e r n i z a t i o n between the people and the army. I t showed p l a i n l y t h a t there was a u n i f i e d f r o n t a g a i n s t tyranny, and that the army was a p a r t of t h a t f r o n t . A f t e r the demonstration, a conference of army o f f i c e r s was c a l l e d . King Alexander questioned h i s o f f i c e r s c oncerning t h e i r l o y a l t y and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i r a t t i t u d e towards h i s marriage. The o f f i c e r s who had been informed of the t o p i c of the forthcoming conference decided i n a r e s o l u t i o n t h a t they, as o f f i c e r s , would remain f a i t h f u l to t h e i r oaths, but as Serbs, c o u l d not approve of King Alexander's 19 marriage. The atmosphere i n the conference room was tense. The k i n g b r u s q u e l y approached the rostrum and with a c l e a r v o i c e read a prepared statement: R e c e n t l y rumours have spread t h a t I was abnormal i n c o n n e c t i o n with my wedding. I c a l l on you o f f i c e r s to suppress these rumours. That i s why I c a l l e d on you.20 19 Dragisa Vasic', Devetsto Treca, p. J47 20 Loc. c i t . There was a p a i n f u l s i l e n c e . A s e n i o r o f f i c e r exclaimed "Long l i v e the K i n g , " but o n l y a few v o i c e s j o i n e d him. At the end of the conference, the o f f i c e r s f e l t ashamed of the confidence t h a t the King had put i n them. They p r o t e s t e d l o u d l y a f t e r d i s p e r s i n g s l o w l y through the s t r e e t s of Belgrade. I t was t h i s s i t u a t i o n which p r o v i d e d a b a s i s f o r the movement which s t a r t e d i n the ranks of the army and l a t e r spread to the c i v i l i a n s . Seven o f f i c e r s comprised the core of the c o n s p i r a c y . S e v e r a l p l a n s f o r a s s a s s i n a t i o n were made, but a l l f a i l e d . However, they d i d not g i v e up. D j o r d j e Gencic', who had r e c e n t l y been r e l e a s e d from p r i s o n , l e d the c i v i l i a n branch of the c o n s p i r a c y . T h i s c o n s i s t e d of members of a l l p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s . The f i r s t meeting of the m i l i t a r y and the c i v i l i a n branches was h e l d on Topcider H i l l . "At once, d i s -c u s s i o n s were i n i t i a t e d r e g a r d i n g the f u t u r e of the"vacated 21 throne." I t was a t t h i s p o i n t that the predominant domestic i s s u e assumed an i n t e r n a t i o n a l a s p e c t . The q u e s t i o n s f a c i n g the c o n s p i r a t o r s were: What would be the a t t i t u d e of A u s t r i a and R u s s i a towards a change on the throne? What k i n d of s t a t e would these powers fav o u r ? And f i n a l l y , would t h e i r nominee be acc e p t a b l e to both powers? These q u e s t i o n s u r g e n t l y needed answers. N e i t h e r the m i l i t a r y nor the c i v i l i a n branch of the c o n s p i r a c y had any c l e a r - c u t i d e a as to the f u t u r e form of Government. Another q u e s t i o n t h a t was to be d e a l t with was the 21 D r a g i s a V a s i c , Devetsto Treca, p. i|9» f u t u r e government o r g a n i z a t i o n of S e r b i a . I t was commonly agreed t h a t a monarchy would be the o n l y form a c c e p t a b l e , both because of the p r e f e r e n c e s of the b i g powers, and because of S e r b i a n h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n s . There was, however, a repub-l i c a n c u r r e n t of o p i n i o n which was popular, e s p e c i a l l y among 22 the students. Students, however, were not r e p r e s e n t e d i n the c o n s p i r a c y . I t was agreed that the most s u i t a b l e person to succeed to the throne would be P e t e r K a r a d j o r d j e v i c , the descendant of the l e a d e r of the f i r s t S e r b i a n U p r i s i n g , Kara-d j o r d j e . S e v e r a l meetings were arranged with him to determine h i s w i l l i n g n e s s to ascend the S e r b i a n throne, were i t to become vacant. I t seemed that the A u s t r i a n a u t h o r i t i e s knew about the c o n s p i r a c y but d i d not attempt to stop i t . Benjamin K a l l a y , the j o i n t Austro-Hungarian Finance M i n i s t e r , p r e d i c t e d i n March, 1903, to the E n g l i s h j o u r n a l i s t , Wlckham Steed, t h a t King Alexander was i n a p e r i l o u s p o s i t i o n , and might not have many more weeks to l i v e . T h i s same person expressed the o f f i c i a l A u s t r i a n view on the q u e s t i o n of the r o y a l s u c c e s s i o n i n S e r b i a . The K a r a d j o r d j e v i c s have always had two elements i n t h e i r p o l i c y - not to q u a r r e l with A u s t r i a -Hungary, and not to q u a r r e l with Turkey, t h e i r most powerful neighbours. 2 3 Some w r i t e r s go as f a r as to c l a i m : I I est e'tabli que l e B a l l p l a t z c o n n a i s s a i t l a c o n s p i r a t i o n q u ' i l n ' a v a i t en r i e n essaye' 22 Ruski, Jedan, "Savremeni Dokument o 290m Maju," Nova Europa, 1927, P. 225. 23 Wickham Steed, The Habsburg Monarchy, London, Constable, 1914* P. 2I4I. k8 de l ' a r r e t e r et qu'on lendemain de 1' a s s a s s i n a t d 1Alexandre, l'organe o f f i c i e l , l e Fremdenblatt, p a r l a i t du meurtre avec un cynisme t e l qu»il provoque un scandale u n i v e r s a l . M. de K a l l e y e x p r i m a i t a M. Steed sa s a t i s f a c t i o n de I'aven-ement du r o i P i e r r e . Towards the end of May (the a s s a s s i n a t i o n took p l a c e on May 29, 1903), the M i n i s t e r of War requested t h a t the Austro-Hungarian M i l i t a r y Attache", Major Pomiankowski, enquire i n s t r i c t con-f i d e n c e , i f the Emperor would r e c e i v e King Alexander at the I m p e r i a l manoeuvres of Temisvar, and a l s o to e x p l o r e c a r e f u l l y whether on t h i s o c c a s i o n the Queen might a l s o be r e c e i v e d o f f i c i a l l y e i t h e r i n Vienna or i n Budapest. T h i s r e q u e s t was r e f u s e d . When the change on the throne took p l a c e , Dumba wrote, raWe r e c o g n i z e d King Peter immediately, and d i d every-25 t h i n g p o s s i b l e to c o n s o l i d a t e h i s p o s i t i o n . " P e t e r K a r a d j o r d j e v i c was compared to h i s f a t h e r Alexander K a r a d j o r d j e v i c ' (1842-1858) who had been d o c i l e I n h i s a t t i t u d e toward A u s t r i a . S e v e r a l p r o - A u s t r i a n w r i t e r s a f f i r m e d that King Peter owed h i s throne to A u s t r i a n h e l p . ^ As f a r as the R u s s i a n r e a c t i o n was concerned, i t was w i d e l y known t h a t P e t e r was f a v o u r a b l y regarded a t the Russian c o u r t , due to the a l l - p e r v a s i v e i n f l u e n c e of the two daughters of P r i n c e 2I4 E. Denis, La Grande S e r b i e , p. 176. 25 K o n s t a n t i n Dumba, The Memoirs of a Diplomat, p. 106. 26 E d i t h Durham, Twenty Years of Balkan Tangle, London, A l l e n , Unwin, 1920, p. 23* N i k o l a . There was apprehension a t the R u s s i a n c o u r t t h a t any a c t i o n with r e g a r d to the r o y a l s u c c e s s i o n might r e s u l t i n the a c t of A u s t r i a n annexation. Consequently an immediate 27 r e c o g n i t i o n of Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i e was accepted. The Russian a t t i t u d e , however, was not simple support of Peter Kara d j o r d j e vie'. Support of the independence and the l e a d i n g r o l e of Montenegro among the South S l a v s was a R u s s i a n creed of f a i t h . T h e r e f o r e , the son of P r i n c e N i k o l a , Mirko, was regarded by them as a p o s s i b l e c a n d i d a t e . In view o f the 1897 understanding with A u s t r i a , R u s s i a d i d not pursue an a c t i v e p o l i c y i n the Balkans; s t i l l , Charikov, the Russian Ambassador, found i t necessary on one o c c a s i o n to assure h i s A u s t r i a n c o l l e a g u e Dumba th a t R u s s i a had no candidate f o r the S e r b i a n throne. At the same time, he asked why A u s t r i a opposed the 28 oandidacy of the Montenegrin p r i n c e . He d i d not r e c e i v e an answer. I t has been e s t a b l i s h e d that a Russian agent, Vaisman, gave warning to King Alexander before h i s a s s a s s i n a t i o n and that the c o n s p i r a t o r s p o p u l a r l y c a l l e d " M a j e v c i " were suspected by 29 the Russian Government of b e i n g r e p u b l i c a n s . F u r t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s i n the way of P e t e r K a r a d j o r d j e v i c were r e v e a l e d i n the i n s t r u c t i o n s of Charikov, the Ambassador i n Belgrade, 27 R u s k i , Jedan, "Savremeni Dokument o 29 om Maju," Nova Europa, 1927, V o l . XVI, p. 225. 28 M a j e v c i , D. Semiz, Nova Europa. 1927, V o l . XVI, p. 9. 29 Jedan, l o c . c i t . 50 t o h i s agent, Vaisman: i t was necessary, a c c o r d i n g to these i n s t r u c t i o n s , t h a t Peter K a r a d j o r d j e y i c s h o u l d o b t a i n the Tsar's a p p r o v a l of h i s e l e c t i o n ; a l s o , i t was a d v i s a b l e t h a t v 30 he should o b t a i n the unanimous vote of the S k u p s t i n a . The paradox i n the r e s p e c t i v e a t t i t u d e s o f A u s t r i a and R u s s i a was the benevolence with which Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c was regarded i n Vienna and the s u s p i c i o n of o f f i c i a l R u s s i a . O f f i c e r s handled the t e c h n i c a l p a r t of the c o n s p i r a c y . I t had been decided to murder Alexander. Not to do so might have r e s u l t e d i n h i s e x i l e to A u s t r i a , and then, i n combination with A u s t r i a , King Alexander might have occupied S e r b i a , or brought about c i v i l war. N e i t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e was a c c e p t a b l e . I t i s n e c e s s a r y to p o i n t out t h a t the a s s a s s i n a t i o n was prepared f o r and planned by the o f f i c e r s o n l y , and t h a t n e i t h e r A u s t r i a nor Russia h e l p e d i n i t s e x e c u t i o n . I n view of the l a t e r developments and the p a r t i c u l a r l y f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s between R u s s i a and S e r b i a a f t e r the a s s a s s i n a t i o n , i t was a f f i r m e d i n . some A u s t r i a n newspapers that the p l o t was o r g a n i z e d by the S e c r e t S e r v i c e branch of the Russian F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y . I n c o n n e c t i o n with the above-mentioned a t t i t u d e of R u s s i a , and i n view of a c a t e g o r i c a l d e n i a l by the A u s t r i a n Ambassador, t h i s 31 view i s unacceptable. The main o r g a n i z e r of the p l o t was 30 Loc. c i t . 31 K o n s t a n t i n Dumba, Memoirs of a Diplomat, p. 26. 51 D r a g u t i n D i m i t r i j e v i c - A p i s . He was known as a n a t i o n a l i s t , and a l e a d e r of youth. His d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h Artamanov, the R u s s i a n m i l i t a r y a t t a c h e , were f r e q u e n t , but one can not a t t r i b u t e to them any p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e . The o f f i c e r s were suspected o f R e p u b l i c a n tendencies, and the Russians d i d not t r u s t them. As amongst the D e k a b r i s t s , the p l o t t e r s saw t h a t the reason f o r the d e c l i n e of t h e i r c o u n t r y i n a b s o l u t i s m . They d i d not have an e l a b o r a t e p o l i t i c a l programme, but never-t h e l e s s , had the support of p o p u l a r Jugoslav n a t i o n a l i s m . T h e i r g o a l was the l i b e r a t i o n of the Balkan peoples and a Balkan f e d e r a t i o n . For p o l i t i c i a n s , they had n o t h i n g but contempt. T h e i r slogan was "Union or death." The p l o t t e r s d i d not have a sense of o r i e n t a t i o n , which was the p l i g h t of S e r b i a n p o l i t i c s i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . They were n e i t h e r R u s s o p h i l e s , l i k e the members of the R a d i c a l p a r t y , nor A u s t r o p h i l e s l i k e the P r o g r e s s i v e p a r t y , but were true n a t i o n a l -i s t s . The A s s a s s i n a t i o n Much has been w r i t t e n about the a s s a s s i n a t i o n of King Alexander and Queen Draga. In most a r t i c l e s d e a l i n g with the s u b j e c t , emphasis was l a i d on i t s more gruesome a s p e c t s . Few attempts have been devoted to the p o l i t i c a l and s o c i o l -o g i c a l background of the a s s a s s i n a t i o n and to the causes which '""Apis was a school nickname. u l t i m a t e l y l e d to i t . For the Western world, i t was a s p e c t a c l e of h o r r o r and v i o l e n c e which reminded t h e i r contemporaries of the p r a c t i c e s of the French R e v o l u t i o n . For the i n h a b i t a n t s of S e r b i a , t h i s was the end of a nightmare which had begun with the r e i g n of Alexander. The c o n s p i r a t o r s met, a c c o r d i n g to a p l a n , i n a f a s h i o n a b l e t a v e r n . They planned to a c t the p a r t of young, i n t o x i c a t e d , happy pe o p l e . A p a l a c e c o n c e r t was to take p l a c e t h a t evening a t which the King and Queen were to be p r e s e n t . On t h a t p a r t i c u l a r n i g h t , the p l o t t e r s had an accomplice who guarded the p a l a c e gate. There had been rumours b e f o r e of a s s a s s i n a t i o n . Some Belgrade papers had p u b l i s h e d "The p r o p h e c i e s of the c l a i r v o y a n t peasant, Mata of Kremna,"1' and the King and Queen were much d i s t u r b e d by the news, hence they seldom appeared i n the s t r e e t s of Belgrade. In the midst of f e s t i v i t i e s , the King r e c e i v e d an anonymous l e t t e r about the c o n s p i r a c y , and very e l a b o r a t e s e c u r i t y p r e c a u t i o n s were arranged. Vasic' v i v i d l y and d r a m a t i c a l l y d e s c r i b e s the evening of the f a t a l May 28, 1903. At 12:30 p.m. the p l o t t e r s gathered on the premises of the O f f i c e r s Tavern. They f e i g n e d drunkenness so as to a l l a y any s u s p i c i o n . The agents and the s p i e s r e t u r n e d home with the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t the government, and the King and Queen would be p e r f e c t l y secure. In the midst of t h e i r g a i e t y and t h e i r happy mood, the o f f i c e r s c a r e f u l l y gathered around the l e a d e r s of t h e i r groups, A n t i c l , and D i m i t r i j e v i c / , who t o l d them t h a t there would be no p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n that n i g h t . I t was 53 1:^5 a.m. when the l e a d e r , D r a g u t i n Dimi t r i j e v i c , shouted a b r u p t l y , "Gentlemen, Forward!" The c o n s p i r a t o r s soon reached the main gate of the p a l a c e . L i e u t e n a n t Z i v k o v i o , t h e i r accomplice, took s e v e r a l seconds to unlock the heavy i r o n gate. H a s t i l y , they rushed through the pa l a c e rooms i n groups, i n search of the King and Queen. They were nowhere to be found. Detonations and the exchange of g u n f i r e between the p l o t t e r s and the guards alarmed the members of the Ru s s i a n embassy who r e s i d e d i n a house s i t u a t e d o pposite the King's p a l a c e . Thus, the Russian ambassador, Charikov, was a witness to the a s s a s s -i n a t i o n . ^ Since the whereabouts of the King and Queen c o u l d not be a s c e r t a i n e d , some of the p l o t t e r s proposed the d e s t r u c t i o n of the whole p a l a c e with dynamite. The p o s i t i o n of the p l o t t e r s was p r e c a r i o u s . They c o u l d not t r u s t the l o y a l t y o f the surrounding troops and the n i g h t was r a p i d l y p a s s i n g . At t h a t moment, one of the p l o t t e r s remembered that one man who would know the whereabouts of the Royal couple was the King's a d j u t a n t , Lazar P e t r o v i c 7 . He was found, and was t o l d to r e v e a l the whereabouts of the r o y a l couple i n ten minutes time. He was conducted through the empty h a l l s , c a l l i n g a t the door of each room f o r "Your Majesty.™ No one answered. Suddenly one of the c o n s p i r a t o r s n o t i c e d t h a t on the s i d e of the chamber which f a c e d the s t r e e t , there were no windows behind the d r a p e r i e s . P e t r o v i c / assured the c o n s p i r a t o r s t h a t they h i d 32 Z i v a n Z i v a n o v i c , P o l i t i c ' k a I s t o r i j a S r b i j e , Beograd, 1921+, P.. 3 2 6 . 1 5k n o t h i n g . At the i n s i s t e n c e of the c o n s p i r a t o r s he was asked to c a l l the King and Queen. T h i n k i n g p r o b a b l y t h a t the storm was over, King Alexander answered the c a l l and stepped out. He was f e l l e d by a v o l l e y of b u l l e t s from the p l o t t e r s * guns. 33 T h i r t y b u l l e t s r i d d l e d h i s body and e i g h t e e n t h a t of the Queen. The troops o u t s i d e , confused as to t h e i r m i s s i o n , and under the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t they were c a l l e d out to p r o t e c t the King, suddenly heard the shout from the p a l a c e window, "The t y r a n t i s no more." Pe t e r M i s i c , commandant of the troops, who had surrounded the p a l a c e , shouted "Long l i v e Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c . " The s o l d i e r s f o l l o w e d s u i t , and thus the p l o t was ended. Besides the King and Queen, the Queen's b r o t h e r s and s e v e r a l members r of Alexander's government were a l s o k i l l e d . The coup d ' e t a t , however, d i d not amount to a r e v o l u t i o n . A change of l e a d i n g p e r s o n a l i t i e s took p l a c e , but the e v i l s of the regime were not e n t i r e l y e l i m i n a t e d . However, the p o l i t i c a l atmosphere of the c a p i t a l became l i g h t e r and the joy and happiness of the people were apparent. Students marched through the s t r e e t s of Belgrade shouting, "Long l i v e Freedom! Long l i v e the R e p u b l i c ! Long l i v e Freedom!" I n the words of the A u s t r i a n Ambassador i n Belgrade, K o n s t a n t i n Dumba: The c a p i t a l had accepted the new o r d e r . No shooting was going on and there would be no more bloodshed. I wander a l l over Belgrade without being molested. The o f f i c e r s had been so c e r -t a i n of t h e i r power t h a t they had not even h e l d 33 Z i v a n Zivanovld', P o l l t i c k a Is t o r i j a S r b i j e , 1925, p. 35. 55 up the 5:30 a.m. t r a i n from Belgrade to Budapest and Vienna, and the l o c a l steamers were d e p a r t i n g from Zemlin as usual.31+ The main concern of the p l o t t e r s was an u n i n t e r r u p t e d c o n t i n -u a t i o n of S e r b i a ' s s o v e r e i g n t y . Any i n t e r n a l d i s t u r b a n c e would have g i v e n A u s t r i a a l e g i t i m a t e excuse f o r i n t e r f e r i n g . The thought of m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n was p r e s e n t i n the A u s t r i a n F o r e i g n O f f i c e . A r e quest f o r m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n would have been q u i t e u s e l e s s ; s a i d Dumba: We had s c a r c e l y f i v e hundred r i f l e s i n Zemlin. On the o t h e r hand, Belgrade was g a r r i s o n e d by f i v e or s i x regiments. I f King Alexander and Queen Draga had f l e d from the p a l a c e to seek refuge with T s c h a r i b y o v (the Russian envoy i n the palace) or myself, the q u e s t i o n of r e q u i s -i t i o n i n g m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e would no doubt have become actual.3 5 The R e a c t i o n of the Western Oountries to the S e r b i a n Coup d'e^tat The a s s a s s i n a t i o n of the King and Queen was a n e c e s s i t y . There had been a c u r r e n t of thought among t h e . p l o t t e r s who a d v i s e d m i l d e r measures such as e x p u l s i o n . But, any such measure might have had a f a t a l consequence f o r the independence of the country. The p o l i c y of Goluchowski, the P o l i s h - b o r n A u s t r i a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , was not a g g r e s s i v e . But S e r b i a had always been apprehensive i n her r e l a t i o n s with A u s t r i a . Jovan 3l+ K o n s t a n t i n Dumba, Memoirs of a Diplomat, p. 117. 35 Loc. c i t . 36 Nova Europa. 1921. V o l . I l l , p. 1|02. 56 R i s t i c , one of the most i l l u s t r i o u s S e r b i a n statesmen of the n i n e t e e n t h century, commented about the Conference o f B e r l i n : L ! e x p e r i e n c e acquise en t r a i t e de B e r l i n e s t s u f f i s a n t e pour nous convaincre que l a monarchie v o i s i n e (Austria-Hungary) se sent de p l u s en p l u s d ' a p p e t i t pour l 1 O r i e n t e t que nous, gens d 1 O r i e n t , Serbe en p a r t i c u l i e r , nous ne pouvons gagner a son a m i t i e . T6t ou t a r d , nous devrons nous engager dans une p o l i t i q u e de r e s i s t a n c e , de defense.37 S t i l l , the a s s a s s i n a t i o n of a King and Queen was a blow to monarchy as an i n s t i t u t i o n , and as such was bound to be r e s e n t e d by monarchies throughout Europe. S e r b i a was a s m a l l country, and the l a r g e r , monarchist c o u n t r i e s thought t h a t t h e i r duty c o n s i s t e d i n g i v i n g a proper l e s s o n to the r e g i c i d e s , and the country which harboured them. I t i s t r u e that the a s s a s s i n -a t i o n caused i n d i g n a t i o n a l l over Western Europe. In the words of E. Denis: Dans l'Europe e n ^ i e r e un c r i de stupeur e t d 1 i n d i g n a t i o n s'eleva contre l e s p r e t e n s i e u x q u i r e n o u v e l a i e n t au XX s i e c l e l e s o r g i e s „ sanglantes de l a Rome impe'riale ou de Byzance.3° No matter how hideous the S e r b i a n crime appeared to them, the f o r e i g n powers d i d not have a moral r i g h t to expose the whole country to a l o n g d i p l o m a t i c and commercial b o y c o t t . They allowed the S u l t a n and the governors of h i s p r o v i n c e s to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the massacres and t o r t u r e s of Armenians i n Turkey. They were not concerned over the f a t e of s o c i a l i s t s i n C a t a l o n i a 37 E. Denis, La Grande S e r b i e , p. 177. 38 I b i d , , p. 121. 57 and Jews i n K i s h i n e v . Why then should they meddle when sub-39 j e c t s massacred Kings? The J o u r n a l of S t . Petersburg b e t r a y s uneasiness a t the example set i n Belgrade and had every reason to do so. Two of t h e i r Kings, P e t e r I I I and Paul I, had been murdered by c o u r t i e r s . The most t e r r i b l e p a r t of the crime, i n the o p i n i o n of the Western p r e s s , was the f a c t t h a t the nude bodies of the King and Queen were thrown from a b a l c o n y of the Royal p a l a c e i n t o the c o u r t y a r d . What were the motives of such a gruesome deed? A c c o r d i n g to an e x p l a n a t i o n of one of the ko p l o t t e r s , there was too much u n c e r t a i n t y as to the behaviour of the troops surrounding.the p a l a c e and i n order to show the troops t h a t the a s s a s s i n a t i o n had been a l r e a d y accomplished and that the oath which bound them to the s o v e r e i g n was no l o n g e r v a l i d , t h i s a c t was r e s o r t e d t o . The European press judged the whole country too s e v e r e l y and a t the same time showed ignorance of the background and the reasons f o r the r e g i c i d e . A c c o r d i n g to them, the p a r t i c i p a n t s i n the a s s a s s i n a t i o n were d i s s a t i s f i e d army o f f i c e r s and the prime reason f o r t h e i r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n was the slow pace of t h e i r promotions. The motives behind t h e i r c o n s p i r a t o r y a c t i o n was sheer s e l f - i n t e r e s t . T h i s " a s s a s s i n a t i o n a l a serbe" was the cause of t h r e a t s and sharp reproaches i n which the enemies of S e r b i a i n d u l g e d . The Roman P r a e t o r i a n Guard, the Russian s t r e l t s y , and the T u r k i s h J a n i s s a r i e s were 39 Loc. c i t . kO "The S e r v i a n Massacre," Contemporary Review, 1903,'p. 63. 58 no match f o r the Belgrade p a t r i o t s . Europe was deceived when she thought t h a t S e r b i a was more c i g i l i z e d than the Turks or 41 A l b a n i a n s . Le Temps i n an i n t r o d u c t o r y a r t i c l e wrote t h a t the heroes of S l i v n i c a were revenged and washed,the shame from t h e i r weapons on men and women, who were s l e e p i n g i n t h e i r b e d s . ^ 2 In Le Temps' o p i n i o n , S e r b i a and i t s army had been com-promised i n Europe and the whole world. A l s o European c o u n t r i e s should cut a l l d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h S e r b i a and should not h e l p her i n case h e r e x i s t e n c e becomes endangered. The European p r e s s , however, d i d not know or choose to acquaint i t s e l f w i t h the causes of the u n f o r t u n a t e a s s a s s i n a t i o n . For i n s t a n c e , the S e r b i a n S t a t e T r e a s u r y was empty while the investments' of the l a t e Queen amounted to t h i r t y thousand pounds i n London and elsewhere i n Europe. The f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n was desperate. The n a t i o n a l debt was more than 450 m i l l i o n f r a n c s and i n t e r e s t ho alone absorbed more than a q u a r t e r o f the t o t a l budget. J P a r l -iament and o t h e r democratic i n s t i t u t i o n s were suppressed. What was the best s o l u t i o n i n such circumstances? I t was obvious t h a t the Western p r e s s was misinformed and t h e r e f o r e i n c a p a b l e of a c o r r e c t judgement. Most of the f o r e i g n embassies were completely•unaware of any c o n s p i r a c y . They were not c e r t a i n at f i r s t who the a s s a s s i n s were and what 41 D r a g i s a V a s i c , Devetsto Trec'a, p. 128. 42 "The S e r v i a n Massacre," Contemporary Review, 1903, p. 63. 43 V a s i c , l o c . c i t . 59 were t h e i r motives. The B r i t i s h Ambassador i n Vienna observed that the Se r b i a n people had not g r i e v e d , but a p p a r e n t l y r e j o i c e d a t the e x t e r m i n a t i o n of the Royal f a m i l y . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the B r i t i s h government was the i n i t i a t o r of the di p l o m a t i c b o y c o t t and the most a n t a g o n i s t i c to S e r b i a . The B r i t i s h Prime M i n i s t e r , B a l f o u r , s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i z e d the Se r b i a n murders be f o r e the House of Commons. Edward" was p a r t -i c u l a r l y alarmed and i n s i s t e d on the " r e c a l l o f the m i n i s t e r s of the Great Powers i n B e l g r a d e . " ^ In s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s , c o u r t mourning was o r d e r e d . ^ I t a l y f o r the moment r e f u s e d to rec o g -n i z e the new Government but l a t e r the Members of Parliament agreed t h a t the events which took p l a c e a t Belgrade were p r i m a r i l y r e l a t e d to i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s . A c c o r d i n g to V a s i c , the Western p r e s s and the.Western diplomats misjudged the motives of the c o n s p i r a t o r s -They were a c t i n g i n the name of the people; they regarded themselves as i t s e x e c u t o r s . T h e i r task was to l i b e r a t e the country from the crowned b a n d i t and a f t e r the accomplished f a c t , g i v e the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s t h e i r p l a c e s i n government. Modest and s a t i s f i e d with t h e i r successes, convinced that they had saved t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d , these admirers of freedom i n uniform went to t h e i r former jobs, l i k e C i n c i n -natus, who from,the m i l i t a r y d i c t a t o r s h i p went to h i s plough.4o I t would be wrong to t h i n k that the p l o t t e r s thought i n terms of S e r b i a a l o n e . The removal of the Obrenovic dynasty I4I4 Wayne V u c i n i c , S e r b i a between E a s t and West, p. 77. 1+5 Loc. c i t > 1|6 Vasic'', op. c i t . , p. 127. 60 was regarded as a step nearer to the r e a l i z a t i o n of the u n i t y of South S l a v s . In that year three events took p l a c e almost s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ; and each event brought c l o s e r t hat u n i t y . The oppressive regime of Ban Kluen-Eedervary I n C r o a t i a was a b o l i s h e d ; Benjamin K a l l a y , the Governor of Bosnia-Herzegovina, d i e d , and the dynasty o f Obrenovic was e x t i n g u i s h e d . The r e a c t i o n of tbe Balkan c o u n t r i e s to the news of the Palace murders was q u i t e d i f f e r e n t than those o f Western Europe. In Montenegro, (an independent kingdom a t the time) the a f f a i r as a whole was regarded as a b l e s s i n g . Not o n l y was the populace pleased,, but c h i l d i s h l y i g n o r a n t of the Western p o i n t of view and a c t u a l l y expected Europe to r e j o i c e with them. I t was a c l e a n s i n g o f the Temple; a c a s t i n g - o u t of abominations .... 1+7 Everywhere the crime was approved. In B u l g a r i a , the Prime M i n i s t e r and the F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r s t a t e d t h a t the S e r b i a n a f f a i r was a matter which d i d not concern the B u l g a r i a n Government a t a l l . As f a r as they were concerned i t made l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e who the next S e r b i a n 48 King would be. P u b l i c o p i n i o n i n C r o a t i a was d i f f i c u l t to e v a l u a t e , because any e x p r e s s i o n o f sympathy f o r S e r b i a would have been regarded as t r e a s o n by the A u s t r i a n s . But, when Pe t e r K a r a d j o r d j e v i c passed through Vienna on h i s way from Geneva 47 E d i t h Durham, Twenty Years o f Balkan Tangle, London, A l l e n & Unwin, 1920, p. 77. 48 Wayne V u c i n i c , S e r b i a between E a s t and West, p. 77. to assume the crown a t Belgrade, the crowd o f C r o a t i a n and S e r b i a n students t h a t assembled to welcome him a t the Western Railway S t a t i o n cheered f o r "Peter, King of C r o a t i a . " There were two forms of f o r e i g n r e a c t i o n to the a s s a s s i n a t i o n i n S e r b i a . Western c o u n t r i e s c r i t i c i z e d the a s s a s s i n a t i o n s e v e r e l y and u n r e s e r v e d l y on tbe b a s i s of humanity and the i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f the sovereign's person. These count-r i e s , e x c e p t i n g Prance, were monarchist c o u n t r i e s . The other r e a c t i o n , t y p i c a l of the South S l a v c o u n t r i e s , thought i n terms of a South S l a v s o l i d a r i t y ( a t l e a s t the common man i n those c o u n t r i e s did) f o r they r e a l i z e d t h a t tbe a s s a s s i n a t i o n of Obrenovic c r e a t e d a new epoch i n the h i s t o r y of S e r b i a , which was going to be marked by the development of p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n i s m and democracy along Western l i n e s . They saw t h a t t h e i r own h i s t o r y , was h e n c e f o r t h , going to be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r c l o s e r a s s o c i a t i o n with S e r b i a , which would p l a y the r o l e of the Piedmont of the Balkans. Prom 1903 onward, t h i s tremendous surge of n a t i o n a l i s m was r e a l i z e d , r e s u l t i n g i n the d e s t r u c t i o n of the o l d or d e r . New n a t i o n - s t a t e s emerged i n i t s s t e a d . CHAPTER I I I THE AFTERMATH OF THE REVOLUTION King Peter A f t e r May 29, 1903, the new r e v o l u t i o n a r y govern-ment and King P e t e r found themselves i n a v e r y unpleasant s i t u a t i o n . The Westerners had been f o r weeks e l a b o r a t i n g on the d e t a i l s of the death which b e f e l l h i s predecessor and he was suspected of " s p i r i t u a l l e a d e r s h i p i n the matter." A French observer wrote, "The s i t u a t i o n of Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c i s , m o r a l l y speaking, as bad as i t can be; and i t s l e g a l i t y i s more than d o u b t f u l . He i s the r e c e i v e r of the s t o l e n goods. I f he had no foreknowledge o f a massacre, he knew of the c o n s p i r a c y , and whether he d i d or not, he i s an accomplice a f t e r the fact."''" There i s no doubt that Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c was chosen by the people a c c o r d i n g to the r e q u i r e d p a r l i a m e n t a r y procedure. Of 158 deputies and sen-a t o r s , a l l but one voted f o r Peter, and the v o t i n g was 2 accomplished i n l e s s than three q u a r t e r s of an hour. The monarchial s p i r i t In Europe was so s t r o n g that monarchy was 1 "The S e r b i a n Massacre," Contemporary Review, 1903, P» 63. 2 Wayne V u c i n i c , S e r b i a Between East and West, S t a n f o r d , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 195i|, p. 83. the o n l y a c c e p t a b l e p o l i t i c a l system. I t was known t h a t there were demonstrations a f t e r the coup d'etat during 3 which the demonstrators h a i l e d the Republic and that the Russians were apprehensive about these o c c u r r e n c e s . Although S e r b i a r e t a i n e d the monarchial form of the government and although Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c was e l e c t e d by an overwhelming m a j o r i t y , the i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n of S e r b i a was never-t h e l e s s very c r i t i c a l . The p e r s o n a l i t y of the newly e l e c t e d Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c d i d not warrant such a h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e from the Western powers. He was a Western man by u p b r i n g i n g and temperament and h e l d l i b e r a l p o l i t i c a l views. In h i s 2i^th year he t r a n s l a t e d the t r e a t i s e of John S t u a r t M i l l , On L i b e r t y . In the p r e f a c e to t h i s book he d e c l a r e d h i s attachment to l i b e r a l p r i n c i p l e s and a f f i r m e d t h a t the h Serbs were r i p e f o r p o l i t i c a l freedom. Not o n l y d i d he p r a i s e l i b e r t y as a t h e o r e t i c a l p o l i t i c a l I d e a l but fought f o r i t i n the Bosnian u p r i s i n g of 1875 under the assumed name of Peter M r k o n j i c . During the F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n War he fought under the French g e n e r a l Bourbaki, and was decorated f o r h i s e x p l o i t s . In one, he was: " F a i t p r i s o n n i e r sur l e a bords de l a L o i r e , i l s'echappe, t r a v e r s e l e f l e u v e a l a 5 nage." H i s m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s and h i s e d u c a t i o n a t S t . Cyr, 3 Dragisa V a s i c , Devetsto T r e c a , Beograd, Tucovic, 1925, p.112. k Nova Europa. 1921, V o l . I l l , p. 395. 5 Emile Haumont, La Formation de l a Y u g o s l a v i e , P a r i s , Bossard, 1930, p. the famous French m i l i t a r y c o l l e g e and i n the a r t i l l e r y s c h o o l a t Metz l e f t i t s m i l i t a r y i m p r i n t on him. This was expressed i n h i s s i m p l i c i t y and modesty. But the g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e on him was c e r t a i n l y the p a r l i a m e n t a r y and c o n s t i t -u t i o n a l government systems of Western Europe and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f S w i t z e r l a n d where he had spent t h i r t e e n y e a r s . When l e a v i n g f o r S e r b i a he t o l d h i s Swiss f r i e n d s t h at h i s i n t e n -t i o n was: "To teach the Serbs to r u l e the country and to be 6 as happy and as f r e e as you a r e . " I n h i s f i r s t p r o c l a m a t i o n to the S e r b i a n people on June 25, 1903, he d e c l a r e d h i s views on the c o n s t i t u t i o n and p a r l i a m e n t : "Die Verfassung und a l l e Verfassungsmassigen G a r a n t i e n fua? d i e F r e i h e i t und Rechte des Volkes, d i e s e Grundlage e i n e r o r d e n t l i c h e n und g l u c k l i c h e n Entwicklung und des F o r t s c h r l t t e s des n a t i o n a l e n und s t a a t l i c h e n Lebens s i n d f u r mich H e i l i g t u m e r , welche i c h immer i n der aufmerk-7 samsten Weise achten und huten werde." This promise c o u l d be made o n l y by a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r u l e r . H i s d e e p l y - r o o t e d p a t r i o t i s m was another f e a t u r e of h i s c h a r a c t e r . Despite the f a c t t h a t he had spent most of h i s l i f e abroad and had l e a r n e d to a p p r e c i a t e Western i d e a s , he r e t a i n e d the simple and un p r e t e n t i o u s manners of h i s c o m p a t r i o t s . H i s p a t r i o t i s m was not narrowly S e r b i a n , 6 Nova Europa, 1921, V o l . I l l , pp. 1+02. 7 Dus'an L o n c a r e v i c , Jugoslawlen's Entstehung, Amalthea V e r l a g , 1929, p. 43. but Yugoslav. "The n a t i o n a l energy was unharnessed. Hence-8 f o r t h begins the r e a l n a t i o n a l - S e r b i a n and Yugoslav p o l i c y . " U n i t y was the p o l i t i c a l s l o g a n of that time and c u l t u r a l I l l y r i a n i d e a r i p e n e d i n t o a quest f o r p o l i t i c a l u n i o n of the South S l a v s . The marriage of Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c ' served the p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s of u n i f i c a t i o n . His wife Zorka was a daughter of King N i k o l a of Montenegro. The u n i o n of these two c o u n t r i e s became one of the f i r s t g o a l s of the Yugoslav n a t i o n a l movement. There was no l o n g e r a q u e s t i o n as to which one of the two c o u n t r i e s s h o u l d p l a y the r o l e of the South S l a v 'Piedmont.' Thanks to P e t e r Karadjordjevic', S e r b i a developed along the l i n e s o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . On the other hand, Montenegro u n t i l 1905 was the o n l y corner i n Europe i n which there was no f r e e press and no f r e e 9 p o l i t i c s , except that l e d by N i k o l a . The marriage to Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c had an i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Karadjordjevic'' s f a t h e r - i n - l a w was on the b e s t terms with the R u s s i a n c o u r t , where two o f h i s daughters had been m a r r i e d . The p ro-Russian o r i e n t a t i o n of the S e r b i a n govern-ment a f t e r May 29, 1903 was not o n l y due to t h i s f a c t , but a l s o to the well-known o p p o s i t i o n of Austria-Hungary towards 8 Wayne Vucinic', S e r b i a Between E a s t and West, S t a n f o r d , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1954, P» 65. 9 Jovan, "Crna Gora u E u r o p i , " Nova Europa, 1926, V o l . X I I I , p. 301. any a c t , no matter how sma l l , o f South S l a v u n i f i c a t i o n . P e t e r K a r a d j o r d j e v i c ' was w e l l aware of the Austro-Hungarian a t t i t u d e . In 1912 when a meeting between King Peter and F r a n c i s Joseph was to take p l a c e , King P e t e r remarked to h i s F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r t h a t h i s f o o t would not touch A u s t r i a n s o i l and th a t he would d e l i b e r a t e l y s p o i l the arranged v i s i t because, "When my mother was dying she l e f t me these words to remember: 'Remember son, our g r e a t e s t enemy i s A u s t r i a . ' " I t i s c o r r e c t to say t h a t "Karadjordjevic''s dynasty would never have a t t a i n e d power, had i t not r e c e i v e d the a c t i v e support of Count G o l u c h o w s k i . F o r the A u s t r i a n F o r e i g n O f f i c e hoped that P e t e r K a r a d j o r d j e v i c would continue the p o l i c y of h i s f a t h e r who was a d o c i l e instrument of the Austro-Hungarian p o l i c y i n the Balkans. But, the domestic p o l i c y o f P e t e r K a r a d j o r d j e v i c ' was the d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n of the country and h i s f o r e i g n p o l i c y t h a t of u n i f y i n g the South S l a v s . The Q uestion of Montenegro U n t i l 1903> there were two cen t e r s o f the n a t i o n a l movement and two p o t e n t i a l Piedmonts i n the Balkans. From 1856, when Montenegro was r e c o g n i z e d as a s t a t e there were two dynasties which competed f o r l e a d e r s h i p i n the task of 10 P e t e r Karadjordjevic', Nova Europa, 1921, V o l . I l l , P. 395. 11 M. B o g i t s c h e v i c h , Causes of the War, B e r l i n , 1921, Chapter I . 6 7 n a t i o n a l u n i f i c a t i o n . Due to the impotency of the S e r b i a n Obrenovic dynasty, Montenegro enjoyed g r e a t e r p o p u l a r i t y among the South S l a v s . However, there were s e r i o u s d i s -advantages i n Montenegro's b i d f o r supremacy. The economic resources of the country were n e g l i g i b l e compared with S e r b i a ' s , and i t s government was based on a harsh a b s o l u t i s m . The r u l i n g dynasty of P e t r o v i c encouraged p r o v i n c i a l p a r t -i c u l a r i s m . A d i s t i n c t Montenegrin h i s t o r y was c r e a t e d as opposed to t h a t of S e r b i a . Such p a r t i c u l a r i s m was a poor i d e o l o g y f o r a n a t i o n a l u n i f i c a t i o n movement. I t seems that an overwhelming v a n i t y b l i n d e d the Montenegrin r u l e r to the r e a l i t i e s of the s i t u a t i o n . Austria-Hungary knew 12 t h i s and supported the ambitions of King N i k o l a . But, the younger g e n e r a t i o n imbibed p r o g r e s s i v e democratic ideas and r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t a b s o l u t i s m and p a r t i c u l a r i s m , and demanded l i b e r t y at home and n a t i o n a l union with S e r b i a . One youth l e a d e r , A n d r i j a Radovic', summed up the experience of three g e n e r a t i o n s i n one sentence: "My grandmother was a member of h i s t r i b e , my f a t h e r was a Montenegrin and I 13 am a Serb." Without any support from h i s people King N i k o l a turned to Austria-Hungary f o r d i p l o m a t i c and economic h e l p . "The p r o c l a m a t i o n of h i m s e l f , King of 12 M. E d i t h Durham, Twenty Years of Balkan Tangle, London, A l l a n and Unwin, 1920, p. 33. 13 Hermann Wendel, Per Kampf der Sudslawen urn F r e l h e l t und E l n h e i t , F r a n k f u r t A.A., S o c i a t a ' t s - P r u c k e r e i , 1925, p. 559. Montenegro was the apex of N i k o l a ' s a n t i - n a t i o n a l i s m and 11+ v a n i t y . " The country was not enlarged, f o r no success i n f o r e i g n p o l i c y warranted t h i s s t e p . T h i s a c t was understood as r e p r e s e n t i n g o n l y a ch a l l e n g e to S e r b i a . The Montenegrin n a t i o n a l i s t s were p a r t i c u l a r l y enraged by h i s t r i p to Vienna where he was promoted to the rank of c o l o n e l . The f r i e n d s h i p of A u s t r i a was f a t a l to P r i n c e N i k o l a , f o r at l e a s t two reasons. In the f i r s t p l a c e he was m o r a l l y o b l i g a t e d to A u s t r i a and i n the second p l a c e many Montenegrins were con-v i n c e d that he took the A u s t r i a n s i d e . A f t e r 1Q03 R u s s i a n f r i e n d s h i p gave way to s u s p i c i o n . The Ru s s i a n r e p r e s e n t -a t i v e s accused P r i n c e N i k o l a o f b e t r a y i n g Slavdom. T h i s produced an h o s t i l i t y to P r i n c e N i k o l a among the people, 15 "where the c u l t of Rus s i a c a r r i e d great weight." The development i n Montenegro was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the n a t i o n a l movement f o r u n i f i c a t i o n , which was not o n l y p r o g r e s s i v e on account of i t s n a t i o n a l i s t i d e o l o g y , but s o c i a l l y p r o g r e s s i v e as w e l l . The movement f o r n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n went hand i n hand with the s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t f e u d -a l i s m and f o r democracy. The triumph of Pe t e r K a r a d j o r d j e v i c i n S e r b i a was not onl y the triumph of n a t i o n a l i s m but a v i c t o r y of democracy over a b s o l u t i s m . In Bosnia the unsolved a g r a r i a n problem was as an acute a problem as the r e a l i z a t i o n of n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n . Austria-Hungary's p o l i c y was an li+ Marko. Dakovic 7, "0 padu Crnogorske Drzave i njene d i n a s t i Nova Europa, 1926, V o l . X I I I , p. 315. 15 Loc. c i t . embodiment of conservatism to the e x t e n t that a c c o r d i n g to Hermann Wendel, "Von j e t z t ab f u h r t e die habsburgische P o l i t i k immer die Sache der T u r k i s c h e n Unterdriicker gegen die der s l a w i s c h e n Unterdruckten." Austria-Hungary which had been the defender o f the C h r i s t i a n f a i t h i n the Balkans a g a i n s t the I s l a m i c i n v a s i o n , was transformed a f t e r the French r e v o l u t i o n i n t o the bulwark of the European p r i n c i p l e o f l e g i t i m a c y a g a i n s t r e v o l u t i o n and democracy. Under such circumstances S e r b i a had to r e l y on R u s s i a ' s p o l i t i c a l support although a c c o r d i n g to a prominent S e r b i a n p o l i t i c i a n V i a dan D j o r d j e v i c , " R u s s i a had always used the S e r b i a n n a t i o n as convenient 'loose 17 change' i n n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h Austria-Hungary." S e r b i a was not a n a t u r a l outpost of Panslavism and as such a f t e r 1903 f o l l o w e d an independent n a t i o n a l p o l i c y . That power which would be w i l l i n g to i d e n t i f y i t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y with the n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s of S e r b i a was bound to win i t s f r i e n d s h i p . With P e t e r K a r a d j o r d j e v i c as r u l e r and the R a d i c a l P a r t y i n the government, R u s s i a n i n f l u e n c e had to i n c r e a s e i r r e s p e c t i v e of the R u s s i a n a t t i t u d e . The R a d i c a l p a r t y l e a d e r s were a f f i l i a t e d i n t h e i r youth, with the r a d i c a l i d e o l o g y of Chernyshevsky and Dobrolubov. With the gradual abandonment of r a d i c a l i s m , 16 Hermann Wendel, Die Habsburger und d i e Siidslawen Frage, L e i p z i g , Geza Kon, 1921*., p. 22j. 17 H e i n r i c h F r i e d j u n g , H i s t o r i s c h e A u f s a t z e , B e r l i n , C o t t a , 1919, P. 180. 70 the p a r t y became more ac c e p t a b l e to the Russian F o r e i g n O f f i c e . (The a c c u s a t i o n t h a t they were f i n a n c i a l l y supported by R u s s i a i n order to combat A u s t r i a does not correspond to 18 the f a c t s . ) The R a d i c a l p a r t y not o n l y f a v o u r e d the c o o p e r a t i o n of S e r b i a with R u s s i a but p r o c l a i m e d as i t s f o r e i g n p o l i t i c a l programme, f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h other Balkan n a t i o n s of n o n - S l a v i c o r i g i n such as Rumania, Greece and A l b a n i a . As a b e g i n n i n g toward the achievement of t h i s aim a Balkan t a r i f f - f r e e economic uni o n was envisaged. Such a p l a n would g r a d u a l l y e l i m i n a t e the f i e r c e economic com-p e t i t i o n among the v a r i o u s Balkan s t a t e s . The D i p l o m a t i c Boycott Because of the a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f the l a s t Obrenovic c o n t a c t between European r u l e r s and the S e r b i a n c o u r t was a b r u p t l y i n t e r r u p t e d . The f o r e i g n d i p l o m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s which were a c c r e d i t e d found themselves i n a p e c u l i a r p o s i t i o n . Thus, as they were a c c r e d i t e d to the l a t e King t h e i r m i s s i o n was terminated. The f o r e i g n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s had to f i n d a s o l u t i o n to t h i s dilemma q u i c k l y because on June 11, 1903, Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c ' o c c u p i e d the King's r e s i d e n c e i n B e l g r a d e . Those c o u n t r i e s which d i d not have d i r e c t d e a l i n g s with S e r b i a and which were not i n t e r e s t e d i n the South-Eastern 18 M. B o g i t s c h e v l c , Causes of the War, B e r l i n , 1921. 71 q u e s t i o n based t h e i r d i p l o m a t i c break with the r e v o l u t i o n a r y government on a moral i s s u e . The new regime a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r o p i n i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d by a group of u n s a t i s f i e d elements i n the army who broke t h e i r oath and murdered the King. Great B r i t a i n and H o l l a n d r e c a l l e d t h e i r r e p r e s e n t -a t i v e s i n Belgrade. A. J . B a l f o u r d e f i n e d B r i t i s h S e r b i a n r e l a t i o n s i n the f o l l o w i n g way: "They came i p s o f a c t o to an end with the death of the King of S e r b i a , because our 19 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n S e r b i a was a c c r e d i t e d o n l y to the Ki n g . " There was a great deal of a n x i e t y i n the S e r b i a n p a r l i a m e n t because of Great B r i t a i n ' s r e f u s a l to en t e r Into d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s with the S e r b i a n government. Hope was expressed that good r e l a t i o n s with Great B r i t a i n might make i t p o s s i b l e f o r the S e r b i a n government to improve S e r b i a ' s p o s i t i o n i n Macedonia. When B a l f o u r ' s c a b i n e t r e s i g n e d and the l e a d e r o f the L i b e r a l s , Campbell Bannerman, came to power the S e r b i a n government expected r e l a t i o n s with Great B r i t a i n to improve because the L i b e r a l s and e s p e c i a l l y Gladstone were f r i e n d l y toward the n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s of the Balkan p e o p l e s . Attempts were made through the good o f f i c e s of the I t a l i a n ambassador i n Belgrade to b r i n g about a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n and S e r b i a n p o l i t i c i a n s i n q u i r e d about 20 B r i t i s h c o n d i t i o n s f o r a s e t t l e m e n t . The B r i t i s h demanded 19 Wayne Vucinic', S e r b i a between East and West, S t a n f o r d , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1954, p. BO. 20 D r a g i s a Vasic", Devetsto Treca, Beograd, Tucovic, 1925, p. 207. 72 t h a t the o f f i c e r s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the a s s a s s i n a t i o n s h o u l d e i t h e r be r e l e a s e d from t h e i r duty or t r a n s f e r r e d from the c a p i t a l . The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of other European s t a t e s with the e x c e p t i o n o f A u s t r i a and R u s s i a d i d not r e c a l l t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . They were i n s t r u c t e d to remain i n t h e i r Belgrade p o s t s and a b s t a i n from any d i p l o m a t i c f u n c t i o n s . Austria-Hungary and Rus s i a were not able to f o l l o w the a t t i t u d e of Great B r i t a i n , nor would i t have been r e a l i s t i c f o r them to adopt an a t t i t u d e of 'wait and see.' S u s p i c i o u s of each other, they were eager to e s t a b l i s h t h e i r p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e i n S e r b i a , paying o n l y l i p - s e r v i c e to the i n d i g - -n a t i o n f o l l o w i n g the r e g i c i d e . The governments of A u s t r i a -Hungary and Russia i n s i s t e d on the removal of the r e g i c i d e s from r e s p o n s i b l e p o s t s i n the S e r b i a n c o u r t , but the f a c t t h a t they were not removed d i d not d i s t u r b r e g u l a r d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s . "We r e c o g n i z e d King P e t e r immediately and had done a l l we c o u l d to c o n s o l i d a t e h i s p o s i t i o n i n the country on the understanding that he should muster the s t r e n g t h and courage to punish the murderers and s a t i s f y the outraged 21 sense of j u s t i c e of the whole c i v i l i z e d world," wrote K o n s t a n t i n Dumba, the A u s t r i a n ambassador i n Belgrade. The phrase "he should muster s t r e n g t h and courage" expressed a b e l i e f t h a t Peter K a r a d j o r d j e v i c was not the master of the newly c r e a t e d s i t u a t i o n but o n l y a puppet df the o f f i c e r s ' c l i q u e . 21 K o n s t a n t i n Dumba, Memoirs of a Diplomat, London, Ian Morrow, 1933, P. 132. T h i s argument served as j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r c o n t i n u i n g normal r e l a t i o n s between Austria-Hungary and S e r b i a d e s p i t e the r e g i c i d e . A f t e r a c c e p t i n g the throne, P e t e r a d v i s e d the A u s t r i a n and the Rus s i a n emperor by t e l e g r a p h from Geneva, and asked f o r t h e i r r e c o g n i t i o n and a s s i s t a n c e . The Russian Tsar addressed h i s telegram to the 'King of S e r b i a 1 and r e c o g n i z e d him as a s o v e r e i g n . T h i s a t t i t u d e was "mit den v e r w a n d t s c h a f t l i c h e n Banden, welche die Dynastie K a r a d j o r d j e v i c 22 mit der Dynastie Romanov sowie die be i d e n V o l k e r Verbinden.™ The c o n d i t i o n s f o r the n o r m a l i z a t i o n of r e l a t i o n s with R u s s i a was the punishment of those o f f i c e r s who had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the murder of the l a s t Obrenovic. The Rus s i a n as w e l l as the A u s t r i a n government agreed that p r i o r to any improvement i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with S e r b i a the r e g i c i d e o f f i c e r s had to be removed from the S e r b i a n c o u r t . The t h r e a t was not o n l y i n a d i p l o m a t i c b o y c o t t , but i n an economic p r e s s u r e which the Serbs would f i n d d i f f i c u l t to r e s i s t . The l a n d l o c k e d p o s i t i o n o f a co u n t r y without any o u t l e t to the sea would make her v u l n e r a b l e to an economic blockade. When the whole d i p l o m a t i c corps had been c o n s p i c u o u s l y absent from a Court B a l l I n the f i r s t week of February a c a b i n e t c r i s i s o c c u r r e d . Measures had to be found to solve the thorny q u e s t i o n of 22 Dusan L o n c a r e v i c , Jugoslawien's Entstehung, L e i p z i g , Amalthea V e r l a g , 1929, p. 48. 23 Wayne Vucinic", S e r b i a between E a s t and West, S t a n f o r d , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1954, . P. 81. "~ 24 K o n s t a n t i n Dumba, Memoirs of a Diplomat, London, Ian Morrow, 1933, p. 135. Ik d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s with o t h e r powers without compromising the s o v e r e i g n t y of the country. Time was p r e c i o u s , f o r R u s s i a had t e m p o r a r i l y abandoned the Balkans and devoted her a t t e n t i o n to the Par E a s t . With u n s e t t l e d c o n d i t i o n s a t home, S e r b i a was l e f t to the mercy of the ambiguous s t a t u s quo of 1897 between Russia and A u s t r i a . There was apprehension that A u s t r i a would use t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y to i n t e r f e r e i n the i n t e r n a l p o l i c y o f S e r b i a . A compromise was found which p r e s e r v e d the form of S e r b i a ' s s o v e r e i g n t y and a t the same time corresponded to the wishes of the f o r e i g n governments who had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the d i p l o m a t i c b o y c o t t . At the end of March, a r o y a l decree appeared by which a l l the compromised o f f i c e r s were removed from t h e i r p o s i t i o n s at Court and the m a j o r i t y of them promoted to o t h e r spheres of a c t i v i t y . In that way the main o b s t a c l e i n the r e l a t i o n s between S e r b i a and the f o r e i g n powers was removed. The r e v o l u t i o n a r y o f f i c e r s were r e c o g n i z e d as p a t r i o t s but removed from Court. The f o r e i g n powers were s a t i s f i e d . The d i p l o m a t i c s t r i k e was over when the A u s t r i a n ambassador r e t u r n e d to h i s Belgrade pos t on A p r i l 11, I90I4. Other powers f o l l o w e d e x c e p t i n g Great B r i t a i n , who p e r s i s t e d i n her ' p r i v a t e ' d i p l o m a t i c ' s t r i k e ' u n t i l 1906. The formal a c t of f o r e i g n r e c o g n i t i o n took p l a c e on the a n n i v e r s a r y of King P e t e r ' s r e s i d e n c e i n Beograd. "Nach der Begrussung der d i p l o m a t i s c h e n V e r t r e t e r gab der Konig s e i n e r Preude Ausdruck, dass es ihm gelungen s e i , i n seinem e r s t e n Regierungsjahre die Preundschaftsbande zwischen S e r b i e n und der fremden S t a a t e n enger zu knupfen." Thus the end came to the d i p l o m a t i c s t r i k e . The 'Pig War' and the S t r u g g l e f o r the S e r b i a n Economic Independence One of the b a s i c p o i n t s i n the programme of the R a d i c a l p a r t y was i t s p r i n c i p l e , 'The Balkans f o r the Balkan peoples.' I n t e r p r e t e d i n economic terms, i t meant the a b o l i t i o n of customs' b a r r i e r s amongst the v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s of the Balkans. T h i s would be a f i r s t step towards a probable p o l i t i c a l u nion of the Balkan p e o p l e s . The S e r b i a n govern-ment p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s i s t e d on an economic union, which might permit an escape from the economic p r e s s u r e s of A u s t r i a -Hungary. The n e a r e s t country to S e r b i a , g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , r e l i g i o u s l y and r a c i a l l y was B u l g a r i a and so the p r o p o s a l of S e r b i a f o r a customs u n i o n was f a v o u r a b l y r e c e i v e d by B u l g a r i a n p o l i t i c i a n s . The o r i g i n a l i d e a was to keep the S e r b o - B u l g a r i a n trade document s e c r e t . E c o n o m i c a l l y , S e r b i a was completely dependent on the A u s t r i a n market. T h i s dependence r e p r e s e n t e d a p o l i t i c a l weapon which might be used a g a i n s t S e r b i a i n case the l a t t e r showed a s i g n of an indep-endent f o r e i g n p o l i c y . Thus i n 1903 from the s i x t y m i l l i o n f r a n c s worth of exports, f i f t y two m i l l i o n went to A u s t r i a -26 Hungary. mThe exports p r e s e n t e d a one s i d e d p i c t u r e - c a t t l e 25 Dusan L o n c a r e v i c , J u g o s l a v i e n ' s Entstehung, L e i p z i g , Amalthea V e r l a g , 1929, p. 69. 26 E. Denis, La Grande S e r b i e , P a r i s , Delagrave, 1915, P.137. 76 and f r u i t s were tbe main items of the o v e r a l l e x p o r t s . The A u s t r i a n market dominated S e r b i a n trade and A u s t r i a n c a p i t a l found i t s way to S e r b i a to such a degree t h a t the l a t t e r 27 began to " e x p l o i t S e r b i a n n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s . " Austria-Hungary was opposed to any change i n the commercial p o l i c y of S e r b i a , which would t h r e a t e n the p r e f e r -e n t i a l t a r i f f s which A u s t r i a enjoyed i n S e r b i a , a c c o r d i n g to t r e a t i e s , concluded during the time of the Obrenovics. T h i s was a p u r e l y economic reason. A customs union between S e r b i a and B u l g a r i a was d i s l i k e d by the A u s t r i a n government not o n l y on economic but a l s o on p o l i t i c a l grounds. Even Baron Goluchowski, the A u s t r i a n f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , who f o l l o w e d a moderate p o l i c y of t e r r i t o r i a l non -aggrandisement, saw i n the S e r b o - B u l g a r i a n commercial agreement a danger to the Dual Monarchy. Such an a l l i a n c e , i t was f e a r e d i n Vienna, would l e a d to an e x c l u s i o n of A u s t r i a from the Balkan pen-i n s u l a . Goluchowski expressed the o p i n i o n to Milovanovic", the S e r b i a n f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , t h a t a S e r b o - B u l g a r i a n customs 28 union c o u l d not be r e c o g n i z e d . The o f f i c i a l organ of the A u s t r i a n f o r e i g n o f f i c e 'Neue P r e i e P r e s s e ' on the i|th of January, p u b l i s h e d an a r t i c l e d e a l i n g with the S e r b o - B u l g a r i a n customs t r e a t y . "The Danube monarchy w i l l a c t with the b i g g e s t energy" the a r t i c l e s a i d , "and the Danube monarchy i s going to perform a blow (Den Gegenstoss) a g a i n s t the a l l e g e d customs 27 B o l s h a i a S o v e t s k a i a E n t s i k l o p e d i a , No.38, 1955, P. 544. 28 V. Corovic", Odnosi Izmedju Austro~U-garske 1 S r b i j e u Xxveku, Beograd, 193b,,,p. 72. • 77 union between S e r b i a and B u l g a r i a . T h i s w i l l be done not by severance of d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s , but on another f i e l d , where t h i s w i l l have more e f f e c t . " 2 ^ I t was g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d i n the A u s t r i a n f o r e i g n o f f i c e t h a t a complete t c l o s u r e of the A u s t r i a n market f o r S e r b i a n c a t t l e would r e s u l t i n the economic c o l l a p s e of S e r b i a . In the o p i n i o n of a f r i e n d l y A u s t r i a n w r i t e r "Das K l e i n e Land ohne d i e Gefahr w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e n Ruine keinen Zollkampf gegen O s t e r r e i e h -Ungarn wagen konne."-^ An economic c o l l a p s e would produce t u r m o i l i n the country where the new dynasty had not y e t con-s o l i d a t e d i t s power. The peasant who c o n s t i t u t e d the b u l k of the S e r b i a n p o p u l a t i o n would e s p e c i a l l y s u f f e r from any econ-omic boyc o t t undertaken by Austria-Hungary. T h i s viewpoint was r e p r e s e n t e d by the members of the A u s t r i a n Embassy i s Belgrade who moulded the views of the A u s t r i a n f o r e i g n o f f i c e . Herr Von Lbwenthal the l e g a l a d v i s e r to the A u s t r i a n Embassy was of the o p i n i o n t h a t the economic i n t e r e s t s of the S e r b i a n peasants would f o r c e the government to y i e l d , "Wenn der se r b -i s c h e Bauer s p u r t , dass er s e i n V i e h Uberhaupt n i c h t v e r -kaufen kann, dann wird S e r b i e n i n weniger a l s M o n a t s f r i s t auf den Knien l i e g e n . " ^ The s t r u g g l e f o r the economic independence o f S e r b i a was understood by i t s i n h a b i t a n t s not 29 V. Corovic', Odnosi Iz Medju Austro-Ugarske i S r b i j e u XX veku, Beograd, 193©, p. 73. 30 Hermann Wendel, Der Kampf der Siidslawen urn F r e i h e i t und E i n h e i t , F r a n f u r t A.M., S o c i e t a t s D r u c k e r e i , 1925, p. 588. 31 Dusan L o n c a r e v i c , J u g o s l a w i e n 1 s Entstehung, L e i p z i g , Amalthea V e r l a g , 1929, p.112. o n l y as an economic, but as a n a t i o n a l s t r u g g l e , as w e l l . The i s s u e of the c o n f l i c t was not o n l y economic independence, but the c o n t i n u i t y of the e x i s t e n c e of the S e r b i a n s t a t e as a l e g a l e n t i t y . The p o p u l a t i o n o f the country s u b o r d i n a t e d economic i n t e r e s t s to n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s and gave i t s f u l l support to the government i n i t s p u r s u i t of an independent f o r e i g n p o l i c y . On January 22, 1903, the A u s t r i a n government c l o s e d the A u s t r o - S e r b i a n border. The o f f i c i a l e x p l a n a t i o n was the f e a r - o f i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s which the c a t t l e imported from S e r b i a might spread i n Austria-Hungary. The r e a l reason d i s c l o s e d by a Viennese newspaper, was the n e g a t i v e answer of the S e r b i a n government to the A u s t r i a n ultimatum f o r the 32 r e n u n c i a t i o n of the S e r b o - B u l g a r i a n customs u n i o n . The b e g i n n i n g o f the s o - c a l l e d ' p i g war' between A u s t r i a and S e r b i a found the l a t t e r not unprepared. Parliament accepted an emergency c r e d i t i n the amount of 500,000 d i n a r s , and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s abroad were g i v e n d i r e c t i o n s to e s t a b l i s h 33 trade agreements with I t a l y , Egypt and Sweden. An overseas trade route v i a S a l o n i k a was o r g a n i z e d and steps were taken f o r the e r e c t i o n of a slaughter-house, which would be able to conserve meat pr o d u c t s . A l l these measures were voted f o r i n Parliament and r e p r e s e n t e d the popular w i l l . For the 32 Dus'an Loncarevic', Jugoslawlen's Entstehung, L e i p z i g , Amalthea V e r l a g , 1929, p. 111. 33 Narodna E n t s i k l o p e d i j a , Zagreb, 1920, Vol.IV, p. 875. 79 f i r s t time s i n c e M i l a n Obrenovic tbe c o u n t r y pursued not a d y n a s t i c , but a n a t i o n a l p o l i c y . The Habsburgs had been accustomed to d e a l with kings but they found d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e a l i n g with democratic governments. Thus the Viennese p r e s s reminded King P e t e r of the d o c i l i t y of h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s . ' Neue P r e i e Presse,' wrote on 5th of January, 1903 "King of S e r b i a , Peter f o r g o t S l i v n i c a , otherwise he would have not concluded an a l l i a n c e with h i s o l d enemy ( B u l g a r i a ) . Obrenovics have always r e a l i z e d t h a t they were at the mercy of the g o o d w i l l of A u s t r i a . And the monitors on tbe Danube should always remind S e r b i a t h a t she needs the g o o d w i l l o f her g r e a t neighbour .... T h i s customs union was not caused by any n e c e s s i t y and w i l l b r i n g about r e t a l i a t i o n , which 3k c o u l d have f a t a l consequences f o r S e r b i a . " The p r e s s u r e of A u s t r i a was two-fold, economic i n the f i r s t p l a c e and m i l i t a r y i n the second. The economic c o n f l i c t was a t e s t -case of the genuineness of the S e r b i a n r e v o l u t i o n of 1903. The appeal of the r e v o l u t i o n was p a t r i o t i c and n a t i o n a l i s t i c , the i d e o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n of tbe new regime. The uncom-prom i s i n g a t t i t u d e of A u s t r i a put S e r b i a i n t o a dilemma. Was she to r e p u d i a t e the i d e o l o g i c a l contents o f the May r e v o l u t i o n and to y i e l d to A u s t r i a n pressure or to pursue an independent course r e g a r d l e s s of the s a c r i f i c e s and i n t h a t way continue tbe l e g a c y o f 1903? That the country 2>k V. C o r o v i c , Odnosi Izmedju Austro-Ugarske S r b i j e u XX Veku, Beograd, 193b, p. 73. d e c i d e d to defy i t s powerful neighbour proved that i t had reached a s u f f i c i e n t n a t i o n a l m a t u r i t y . Success i n economic c o n f l i c t gave a d d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h to t h i s n a t i o n a l p r i d e . At the same time the n e c e s s i t y of economic s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y produced a r a p i d advancement of home i n d u s t r y . The 'pig war' was on the whole b e n e f i c i a l to S e r b i a . "For the f i r s t time she became f r e e of f e a r and f o r the f i r s t time she f e l t 35 her s t r e n g t h . " In the o p i n i o n of f o r e i g n observers "Sur l e t e r r a i n economique l ' A u t r i c h e s u b i s s a i t une d e f a i t e i n c o n t e s t a b l e et ses diplomates e t a i e n t dans une posture 36 r i d i c u l e . " I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t to see that the h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e o f the western European powers toward S e r b i a sub-s i d e d and t h a t the B r i t i s h informed the S e r b i a n government they c o n s i d e r e d the A u s t r i a n demands on S e r b i a not com-p a t i b l e with the u s u a l " s t i p u l a t i o n s i n commercial under-37 standings between independent s t a t e s . Not o n l y Western Europe approved of the independent p o l i c y of S e r b i a , but l a r g e segments of p o p u l a t i o n o f the Dual Monarchy shared p r o - S e r b i a n f e e l i n g s . The p r i n c i p a l Hungarian newspapers (Pest e r L l o y d , e t c . ) c r i t i c i s e d the p o l i c y of t h e i r govern-ment on the ground of economic incompetency. The a c c u s a t i o n s 35 Narodna E n t s i k l o p e d i . j a , Zagreb, 1920, V o l . IV, p. 874. 36 E. Denis, La Grande S e r b i e , P a r i s , Delag, 1915, P. 137-37 Wayne V u c i n i c , S e r b i a between East and West, S t a n f o r d , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1954, p. 183. 81 were t h a t tbe economic war waged a g a i n s t S e r b i a , with the e x c l u s i o n of the a g r i c u l t u r a l S e r b i a n products on the A u s t r i a n market, f a v o u r e d the b i g producer a t the expense of the s m a l l e r . I n t h i s l i g h t the economic war a g a i n s t S e r b i a seemed to be aimed at e n r i c h i n g o n l y a c e r t a i n s t r a t a of p o p u l a t i o n of the Dual Monarchy. The Hungarian p r e s s a s s u r e d S e r b i a n p u b l i c o p i n i o n t h a t i t c o u l d count on the „38 support and sympathy of the Hungarians. The most d e c i s i v e f a c t was t h a t the Austro-Hungarian p r e d i c t i o n s about the t o t a l c o l l a p s e of the S e r b i a n economy proved to be f a l s e . The Budget f o r 1906 showed a s u r p l u s of 1,500,000 39 <* d i n a r s (& 60,000 pounds). A c c o r d i n g to Denis "a l a f i n de 1906 l e s revenues des douanes n'ava i e n t presque pas / ho diminue." Tbe S e r b i a n market was l o s t f o r A u s t r i a n trade and the country which p r o f i t e d to the g r e a t e s t extent by the new s i t u a t i o n was Germany who concluded a trade agreement with S e r b i a . A u s t r i a had to accept the b r u t a l f a c t of her d e f e a t . In e a r l y February of 1906 Goluchowski and F r a n c i s Joseph t o l d the S e r b i a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n Vienna on s e v e r a l occasions that i t was to the mutual b e n e f i t of the two c o u n t r i e s to resume normal trade r e l a t i o n s . They advised, p r o b a b l y as a 38 Dus'an L o n c a r e v i c , J u g o s l a v i e n 1 s Entstehung, L e i p z i g , Amalthea V e r l a g , 1929, p. 113. 39 "The S e r b i a n Massacre, i n Contemporary Review, 1903, P» 63. l+O E. Denis, La Grande S e r b i e , P a r i s , Delagrave, 1915, P« 136. f a c e - s a v i n g device, t h a t the Serbs should make the f i r s t move toward re-opening n e g o t i a t i o n s . Arrangements were made f o r a d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n of a trade agreement which o n l y to a very l i m i t e d extent corresponded with the wishes of A u s t r i a -Hungary. The attempt of an economic s t r a n g u l a t i o n of S e r b i a f a i l e d . T h i s was the f i r s t defeat of the Habsburgs i n t h e i r la p l a n to "subjugate the South S l a v s . " The Annexation and the Western Powers The l o s s of p r e s t i g e s u f f e r e d by Austria-Hungary i n the economic s t r u g g l e with S e r b i a brought about a change i n A u s t r i a n p o l i c y . T h i s change was more pronounced when Conrad von H o t z e n d o r f b e c a m e C h i e f - o f - S t a f f of the A u s t r i a n army. I t was known t h a t he was the candidate of Pranz Ferdinand and that he f a v o u r e d an a g g r e s s i v e p o l i c y of m i l i t a r y expansion i n t o the Balkan p e n i n s u l a . In h i s numerous co n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h the Emperor, the h e i r - a p p a r e n t , and other members of the c a b i n e t he p e r s i s t e n t l y urged m i l i t a r y a c t i o n the aim of which was: "Eine gewaltsame Ausmerzung des f r e i e n 1*2 S e r b i e n s . " I f Austria-Hungary s i n c e r e l y wanted to e s t a b -a predominant i n f l u e n c e i n the Balkans, i t would be o n l y p o s s i b l e through the p o s s e s s i o n of the Morava v a l l e y " E r s t 41 Hermann Wendel, Der Kampf der Sudslawen urn f r e i h e i t und E i n h e i t , F r a n k f u r t A.M., Sociat*a*ts-Druckerei, 1925, p.113. 42 I b i d , p. 589. mit dem B e s i t z S e r b i a n s , s p e z i e l l des Moravatals, e r s c h e i n t dies g e w a h r l e i s t e t . T h i s a t t i t u d e of the m i l i t a r y men i n f l u e n c e d p o l i t i c i a n s , u s u a l l y not I n c l i n e d to t h i n k i n t m i l i t a r y terms. Two years a f t e r the coup d'etat i n S e r b i a , Aebrenthal seemed to r e g r e t t h a t missed o p p o r t u n i t y which might have been used f o r the o c c u p a t i o n of S e r b i a . The c o o l r e l a t i o n s between A u s t r i a and Russia d i d not permit such an i n t e r v e n t i o n . Aehrenthal's missed o p p o r t u n i t y f o r 1903 was 'Mass O s t e r r e i c h mit einem b e f r i s t e t e n Mandat i n kk S e r b i e n einmarschiere und Ordnung mache.'™' The reason f o r such a h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e of the A u s t r i a n ' m i l i t a r y ' p a r t y was that the S e r b i a n q u e s t i o n became an i n t e r n a l q u e s t i o n of the 'ramshackle' Empire. I t gave an o p p o r t u n i t y to v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l and s o c i a l elements to v o i c e t h e i r own sentiments i n f a v o u r of S e r b i a . The s o l u t i o n o f the South S l a v q u e s t i o n became the main problem of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The i n i t i a t i v e and the power of making d e c i s i o n s on that problem passed i n t o the hands of m i l i t a r y and p o l -i t i c a l e x t r e m i s t s , who were i n c l i n e d to r e f r a i n from p e a c e f u l measures and r e l y m a i n l y on b r u t e f o r c e . Thus the o f f i c i a l 'Danzers Armee Z e i t u n g ' wrote i n 1905 " I I nous f a u t a Salonique par l a seule route aisement p r a c t i c a b l e , c e l l e de S e r b i e , e t par consequent, imposer a c e t e t a t un a c c o r d 43 Hermann Wendel, Per Kampf der Sudslawen urn F r e i h e i t und E i n h e l t , F r a n k f u r t , A.M., Sociata'ts D r u c k e r e i , 1925, p. 589. 44 Loc. c i t . 8k m i l i t a i r e q u i tournera a 1 1 a b s o r p t i o n . n When v i t a l q u e s t i o n s were approached i n such a i r r e c o n c i l a b l e and h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e i t was c l e a r t h at the seeds were sown f o r f u t u r e m i l i t a r y c o n f l i c t . The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina gave to those u t t e r a n c e s a d d i t i o n a l emphasis. The i n t e n t i o n s of Austria-Hungary i n the Balkans were r e v e a l e d and they were proved i n p r a c t i c e to correspond to the theory o f the m i l -i t a r y p a r t y i n Vienna. Emile de Lavaleye informs us that the o c c u p a t i o n of Bosnia and Herzegovina had been the pe r s o n a l and p e r s i s t e n t d e s i r e o f the Emperor F r a n c i s Joseph, and that the v i s i o n s of the greatness of the O s t e r r e i c h c o n t i n u a l l y haunted the I m p e r i a l Burg. The c h a n c e l l o r s succeeding one another a t the B a l l - P l a t z , a l l denied the i n t e n t i o n of 'a march towards S a l o n i k a 1 but the 'Burg* never f o r g o t the t r a d i t i o n of Empire and of Eugene 1+6 of Savoy. Not o n l y 'Burg' but c e r t a i n p o l i t i c i a n s shared i d e n t i c a l views. In the Aehrenthal's memorandum of August 9» 1908, which covered the aims of Austria-Hungary i n the event of a complete break-up of Turkey i n Europe, the g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l y i n g the annexation o f Bosnia and Herzegovina were c l e a r l y and s u c c i n c t l y expressed. Aehrenthal's assumption kS Emile Haumont, La Formation de l a Ydugoslavie, P a r i s , Bossard, 1930, p. 51|1. 46 "The Annexation o f Bosnia and Herzegovina,'™ The F o r t n i g h t l y Review. 1909, p. 1. was that the war between B u l g a r i a and S e r b i a was i n e v i t a b l e s i n c e both s t a t e s c l a i m e d Macedonia. " I f I n t h i s s t r u g g l e (between B u l g a r i a and S e r b i a ) we promote the B u l g a r i a n cause and f a v o u r tbe c r e a t i o n o f a Gr e a t e r B u l g a r i a a t Se r b i a ' s expense, the way w i l l be open to us .... to l a y our hands on what remains of S e r b i a . " T h i s was tbe t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i c y ' d i v i d e et impera' c a r r i e d to the extreme. The f i r s t step i n t h i s p o l i c y would n a t u r a l l y be the annex-a t i o n of Bosnia and Herzegovina. There were two reasons Why annexation o c c u r r e d i n the October of 1908. The r e v o l u t i o n of young Turks made the f u t u r e of Bosnia and Herzegovina very confused. For i f Austria-Hungary wanted to e s t a b l i s h i t s s o v e r e i g n t y In Bosnia-Herzegovina t h i s was her most f a v o u r a b l e moment. The chosen moment f o r annexation c o i n c i d e d a l s o with the a n n i v e r s a r y of F r a n c i s Joseph's r e i g n . The annexation as a p o l i t i c a l a c t confirmed the e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n i n these p r o v i n c e s , which had been r u l e d by Austria-Hungary f o r t h i r t y y e a r s . The g e o g r a p h i c a l map of Europe was not changed, claimed the A u s t r i a n a p o l o g i s t s on t h i s p o i n t . "Aus der Okkupation war eben eine Annexion, aus einem P r o v i s o r i u m e i n D e f i n i t i v u m 48 geworden; e i n anderer Name f u r d i e s e l b e Sache n i c h t mehr." The d i f f e r e n c e between the p r e v i o u s and the e x i s t i n g s i t -u a t i o n was one of the q u a l i t y , not q u a n t i t y . At the B e r l i n 47 B a e r n r e i t h e r , Fragments of a P o l i t i c a l D i a r y , London, Ian Morrow, 1930, p. 43. 48 Theodor von Sosnosky, Die B a l k a n p o l l t i k O s t e r r e i c h Ungarns, B e r l i n and S t u t t g a r t , Deutsche V e r l a g - a n s t a l t , 1914, P» 15<4» 86 congress, the Aus t r i a n - H u n g a r i a n Empire was e n t r u s t e d w i t h governing Bosnia and Herzegovina by a mandate g i v e n her by the major European powers. T h i s mandate was regarded by Lo r d B e a c o n s f i e l d as a 'great duty' imposed upon A u s t r i a -Hungary which c o n s i s t e d of the maintenance of order and the esta b l i s h m e n t o f p r o s p e r i t y and above a l l i n " s t r e n g t h e n i n g 49 the Ottoman government." The i m p l i c a t i o n of t h i s s t a t e -ment was that the A u s t r i a n o c c u p a t i o n was temporary, u n t i l the time came when normal c o n d i t i o n s c o u l d be r e - e s t a b l i s h e d . The temporary c h a r a c t e r of the o c c u p a t i o n was e x p l i c i t l y . s t a t e d i n a s e c r e t l y w r i t t e n memorandum s t a t i n g t h a t the Su l t a n ' s s o v e r e i g n t y would not be dimi n i s h e d by the a c t of oc c u p a t i o n which was onl y p r o v i s o r y (que 1 ' o c c u p a t i o n sera c o n s i d e r e d comme p r o v i s o i r e ) . T h i s document was s i g n e d on So the 13th of J u l y , I878, i n B e r l i n . I n the law of the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina on February 22, i t was e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d that 51 the occupation was onl y p r o v i s o r y . A c c o r d i n g to the S e r b i a n ambassador i n P a r i s , M. Vesn i c of A u s t r i a made a p r o p o s a l to Belgrade t h a t the g r e a t e r p a r t of Bosnia should be u n i t e d with S e r b i a , while the north-west p o r t i o n - the 49 "The European Powers and the Annexation o f B o s n i a -Herzegovina," The F o r t n i g h t l y Review, 1909. 50 V. C o r o v i c , Odnosi Izmedju Austro-Ugarske i S r b l j e u XX Veku, Beograd, 193b, p. 207. 51 Loc. c i t . s o - c a l l e d T u r k i s h C r o a t i a - should r e v e r t to Austria-Hungary. T h i s o f f e r was made by Benjamin K a l l a y , h i m s e l f , i n the b e g i n n i n g of h i s s e r v i c e as the governor of Bosnia and 52 Herzegovina. The change of s t a t u s f o r these p r o v i n c e s from temporary to permanent, amounted to the a c q u i s i t i o n of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a new t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t i n the Dual Monarchy. In other words a mandatory t e r r i t o r y was to be converted i n t o a permanent p o s s e s s i o n of the Dual Monarchy without the p r e v i o u s knowledge of the major powers who e n t r u s t e d the Dual Monarchy with the mandatory r i g h t s . The o p p o s i t i o n to the annexation was very s t r o n g w i t h i n the Empire i t s e l f . The Independent Hungarian p a r t y was a g a i n s t i t , m ainly because i t f e a r e d that the numerical s t r e n g t h of the S l a v s would endanger t h e i r p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the Empire. The sudden news of the annexation produced a wave of i n d i g n a t i o n abroad. The main reason f o r such i n d i g n a t i o n was tbe u n i l a t e r a l a c t of Austria-Hungary i n r e g a r d to the annexation. H i n t s were made by A e h r e n t h a l to I s v o l s k y about the annexation but no date was s e t . Even Germany, A u s t r i a ' s a l l y was not informed beforehand. The Emperor Wilhelm o n l y l e a r n t about the annexation on the very day i t was announced. "I am deeply h u r t i n my f e e l i n g s as an a l l y a t not b e i n g 52 "The European Powers and the Annexation o f Bosnia Herzegovina," The F o r t n i g h t l y Review, 1909. 88 taken i n t o the confidence o f h i s majesty ( F r a n c i s Joseph)."53 He complained of Aehrenthal's ' f r i g h t f u l s t u p i d i t y ' and d e s c r i b e d the a c t i o n o f Austria-Hungary as felonous.5^ H i s a t t i t u d e a t the begi n n i n g of the annexation c r i s i s was f a r from 'Nibelungen T r e u e 1 which was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h i s changed a t t i t u d e a t the end of the c r i s i s . Under the f i r s t impact of the annexation Emperor Wilhelm I I wrote about Aehrenthal's step; "He [Aehrenthal) d i d not t e l l us anything [to I s v o l s k y and T i t t o n i ] , he gave o n l y very d i s t a n t warnings, so t h a t they f e e l b e t r a y e d . He d i d not have any regards f o r the S u l t a n , who was mostly concerned w i t h the annexation act."55 The S e r b i a n ambassador i n I s t a n b u l was t o l d by the German ambassador t h a t 'Germany was not informed beforehand' about the annexation. I f she had been .informed, Germany would p o s s i b l y have t r i e d t o prevent i t f o r she was i n a p o s i t i o n t o see the d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n o f Serbia."5^ The German a t t i t u d e however, was completely changed a t the end of the annexation c r i s i s . Emperor Wilhelm became r e c o n c i l e d to the l o s s o f German p r e s t i g e i n Turkey. In v a i n d i d the l e a d e r s o f the S e r b i a n government p l e a d "dass es u n t e r den s i e b z i g M i l l i o n Menschen, d i e ,das grosse deutsche Volk. 53 " W i l l i a m I I ' s Balkan P o l i c y , " The S l a v o n i c Review, June, 1928. 54 Loc. c i t . 55 Loc. c i t . 56 V. C o r o v i c , Odnosi Izmedju Austro-Ugarske S r b i j e u XX veku, Beograd, 1936, p. 201. z a n l t } auch noch welche g i b t , deren Seele Spuren der grossen Bewegung, der grossen Ideen und der g r o s s e n Manner bewahrt^ : . " ' 57 ' ' die., d i e deutsche N a t i o n a l e i n h e i t g e s c h a f f e n haben. O T German f o r e i g n p o l i c y was conducted by Wilhelm I I , who a p p r e c i a t e d the value of A u s t r i a n f r i e n d s h i p more than any p e r s o n a l advantage which Germany might g a i n . I n that way Germany became the A u s t r i a n s a t e l l i t e i n her Balkan adventure, and f o l l o w e d b l i n d l y her mistakes w i t h a slogan 'Nieder m i t S e r b i e n . Neider mit den Slawen. Hoch O s t e r r e i c b . ' I t was due to the German demarche of March 21, 1909, i n S t . Petersburg that the Bosnian annexation c r i s i s ended f a v o u r a b l y f o r A u s t r i a . A d o l f H i t l e r commented on t h i s strange A u s t r o -German a l l i a n c e : ^A Jew at Radom once s a i d to one of my o f f i c e r s t h a t he c o u l d not understand why so s t r o n g and v i t a l a body as Germany should a l l y i t s e l f with a corpse? He was r i g h t . The R e a c t i o n of Great B r i t a i n The a t t i t u d e of Great B r i t a i n towards the annex-a t i o n c r i s i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n view of the . 57 Hermann Wendel, Der Kampf der Sudslawen urn F r e i h e i t und E i n h e l t , p. 6 l 0 . 58 Loc. c i t . 59 B u l l o c h , H i t l e r , London, 1952, p. I4I4. 90 f a c t t h at i t was the B r i t i s h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , L o r d S a l i s b u r y , at. the Congress of B e r l i n who proposed the o c c u p a t i o n of Bosnia and Herzegovina. R e l a t i o n s between A u s t r i a and England were r e l a t i v e l y f r e e of c o n f l i c t s . A u s t r i a was predominantly a l a n d power with a very weak navy, and she was i n c a p a b l e of t h r e a t e n i n g the B r i t i s h r u l e of the sea. Austria-Hungary was a n a t u r a l a l l y of Great B r i t a i n a g a i n s t Russia and disagreement between the two seemed u n l i k e l y . The B r i t i s h a t t i t u d e however, on the q u e s t i o n of annexation was uncompromising. The A u s t r i a n mistake was, i n the words of Goshen, the B r i t i s h Ambassador In Vienna, "wrong i n p r i n c i p l e , precedent, time and the way i n 60 which the a f f a i r was conducted." The e x p l a n a t i o n f o r Great B r i t a i n ' s a t t i t u d e was sought by the p r o - A u s t r i a n w r i t e r s , I n the i n c r e a s i n g h o s t i l i t y of Great B r i t a i n towards Germany, and the attempt of the B r i t i s h to show themselves as the f r i e n d s of Turkey and Islam. I n German op i n i o n , King Edward was the i n i t i a t o r o f the ' E i n k r e i s u n g s -> p o l i t i k . ' The B r i t i s h a t t i t u d e was d e s c r i b e d as h y p o c r i t -i c a l by them because while the B r i t i s h encouraged the slogan, "The Balkans f o r the Balkan p e o p l e s , " they d i s r e g a r d e d the same p r i n c i p l e i n India f o r the Indians. The breach of i n t e r n a t i o n a l agreement i n the case of the annexation was so obvious that B r i t i s h f o r e i g n p o l i c y 60 V. C o r o v i c , Odnosi Izmedju Austro-Ugarske i S r b i j e u XX Veku, Beograd, 193b, p.203. must be c r e d i t e d w i t h more n o b l e r motives than the ones mentioned by p r o - A u s t r i a n w r i t e r s . The reason f o r the excitement i n the B r i t i s h p r e s s and the f i r m a t t i t u d e of the f o r e i g n o f f i c e was the breach i n the observance of the t r e a t y . T h i s was repugnant to the s t r o n g B r i t i s h sense of f a i r p l a y . The f e e l i n g of f r i e n d s h i p i n England towards S e r b i a was l a c k i n g because of t e n s i o n between them s i n c e the time of the S e r b i a n coup d ' e t a t . S i r Edward Grey and S i r C h a r l e s Harding d e c l a r e d i n the name of the E n g l i s h government t h a t they c o u l d not r e c o g n i z e A u s t r i a ' s r i g h t t o annexation. Austria-Hungary was o b l i g e d by the p r o t o c o l of January 17, 1891, added to the London T r e a t y , not t o change o r f a i l t o observe the agreement without the c o n t a c t 62 of the o t h e r powers concerned. "The annexation," s a i d Prime M i n i s t e r A s q u i t h " i s a v i o l e n t d i s r e g a r d o f p u b l i c European law."^3 s i a v k o Grujic', the S e r b i a n ambassador i n London, was t o l d on October 7, 1908, by S i r Edward Grey t h a t the conduct and behaviour o f A u s t r i a and B u l g a r i a cannot i n any way be j u s t i f i e d . The a c t of annexation came as a complete s u r p r i s e t o Edward who i n the summer of 1908 d i s m i s s e d as improbable a s u g g e s t i o n t h a t Austria-Hungary 61 Theodor von Sosnosky, Die B a l k a n p o l i t i k b s t e r r e i c h -Ungarns, S t u t t g a r t , 1914, p. 159. 62 V. C o r o v i c , Odnosi Izmedju Austro-Ugarske i S r b i j e u XX veku, Beograd, 1936, p. 203. 63 I b i d . 64 I b i d . , p. 202. 92 was p r e p a r i n g to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. H i s optimism was d e r i v e d from the c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h Emperor F r a n c i s Joseph, t h a t same summer. However, i t turned out to be u n j u s t i f i e d and the B r i t i s h monarch f e l t b e t r a y e d and cheated. The l e t t e r of King Edward to Emperor F r a n c i s Joseph as an answer to- the news about the annexation was f u l l of reproaches. The A u s t r i a n ambassador Count Mensdorf was afterwards r e c e i v e d 66 with an i n s u l t i n g coolness by the K i n g . The words of L o r d B e a c o n s f i e l d which had p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d Austria-Hungary as a power t h a t never thought to i n t e r f e r e with the i n t e r e s t s of other n a t i o n s i n any q u a r t e r of the globe were s t i l l remembered and the p r e s e n t views of England were regarded as a v i c t o r y of humanitarian G l a d s t o n i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y on the ' E a s t e r n 1 q u e s t i o n . P u b l i c o p i n i o n i n Great B r i t a i n was i n sympathy with S e r b i a and the dispute between S e r b i a and Austria-Hungary was regarded as a q u e s t i o n of moral values i n which Austria-Hungary was found to be i n the wrong. Gladstone's words, "There i s no p l a c e on the map where one c o u l d put a f i n g e r and be able to say 'here A u s t r i a 67 d i d something w e l l , ' were quoted." The D a i l y Telegraph wrote, "the annexation i s a deadly blow a g a i n s t moral 65 Wickham Steed, The Hababurg Monarchy, London, Constable 1914, P. 2L5. 66 V. C o r o v i c , l o c . c i t . 67 Theodor Von Sosnosky, op. c i t . , p. l 6 l . 93 68 p r i n c i p l e s . " T h i s a n i m o s i t y towards A u s t r i a and sympathy f o r S e r b i a was c o n f i n e d to the l i b e r a l s . The C o n s e r v a t i v e s , on the other hand, drew a p a r a l l e l between Egypt and S e r b i a . ^ A t y p i c a l I m p e r i a l i s t argument was advanced. Bosn i a and Herzegovina a c c o r d i n g to t h i s view were c o l o n i a l p o s s e s s i o n s i n which l a r g e Austro-Hungarian c a p i t a l was i n v e s t e d . "Are we prepared to r e t u r n Egypt to the E g y p t i a n s ? " the Conser-v a t i v e s asked t h e i r compatriots.7° The i n f l u e n c e of such arguments however, was d i m i n i s h i n g . The c o n v i c t i o n of the Balkan-committee of the b r o t h e r s Buxton t h a t the C r e s c e n t had to r e t i r e t o A s i a and t h a t i t s i n h e r i t a n c e had to be d i v i d e d among the Balkan n a t i o n s became a g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e of E n g l i s h f o r e i g n p o l i c y . These s e l f - a p p o i n t e d ambassadors d i d much to arouse sympathy i n B r i t i s h p u b l i c o p i n i o n f o r the cause of the s m a l l Balkan n a t i o n s . The Russian R e a c t i o n The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina came as a r e s u l t of d i r e c t n e g o t i a t i o n s between Aehrenthal and I s v o l s k y at Buchlau. There are v a r i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of these n e g o t i a t i o n s , but one c o n c l u s i o n seems to be beyond 68 Theodor von Sosnosky, l o c . c i t . 69 E d i t h Durham, Twenty Years o f Balkan Tangle, London, A l l a n and Unwin, 1920, p. 162. 70 Theodor von Sosnosky, op_. c i t . , p. 162. any dispute - R u s s i a agreed to the annexation o f Bosnia and 71 Herzegovina. Disagreement occurred, but o n l y concerning the time and manner of i t s e x e c u t i o n . In view of the p r e v i o u s h i s t o r y of the A u s t r o - R u s s i a n t r e a t i e s on Bosnia and Herzegovina there i s no doubt as to the w i l l i n g n e s s of R u s s i a not to oppose the annexation i n exchange f o r a f r e e passage through the D a r d a n e l l e s . I s v o l s k y was known as 'Westerner' i n R u s s i a and to him the opening of the S t r a i t s seemed more important than the i n t e r e s t s of a s m a l l S l a v o n i c n a t i o n . The defeat of Russia i n i t s war with Japan was a t t r i b u t e d to the i n a c t i o n of the Russian B l a c k Sea f l e e t which was not allowed to pass through the D a r d a n e l l e s . In order to understand p r o p e r l y the a t t i t u d e of Russia d u r i n g the annexation c r i s i s , i t i s necessary to r e c a l l t h a t her diplomacy was handicapped by the bankruptcy of the R u s s i a n s t a t e a f t e r the u n s u c c e s s f u l r e v o l u t i o n of 1905 and Russo-Japanese war. S e r b i a c o u l d not r e l y on Russian support. A f t e r October 7, 1908, when the annexation was p r o c l a i m e d and S e r b i a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s were a s k i n g f o r compensation the o n l y support which Russia c o u l d give: them was to t e l l them through i t s f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , I s v o l s k y , 'that S e r b i a ' s l o s s by the annexation would be more than o f f s e t by the A u s t r i a n r e t r e a t from Sandjak' which a c c o r d i n g to I s v o l s k y happened at the Russian r e q u e s t . "You Serbs, cannot d r i v e 71 Bernadotte Schmitt, The Annexation of Bosnia, Cambridge, 1937, P. 20 95 away the A u s t r i a n s by f o r c e from these p r o v i n c e s and we Russians are not prepared f o r an armed c o n f l i c t . With t h i s step A u s t r i a does not o b t a i n anything. I t i s i n t e n d e d o n l y to give s a t i s f a c t i o n to the o l d K a i s e r a t the end of h i s 72 r e i g n . " The S e r b i a n government was d i s a p p o i n t e d with such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the annexation. M. M i l o v a n o v i c tbe S e r b i a n f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r was told, by I s v o l s k y about a month bef o r e the annexation was going to take p l a c e , t h a t i t was imminent, and asked Milovanovic'. to suggest some com-73 p e n s a t i o n f o r S e r b i a . The i m p l i c a t i o n was t h a t the S e r b i a n demand f o r compensation would enjoy R u s s i a n d i p l o m a t i c support. When the o f f i c i a l d e c l a r a t i o n of the annexation was p r o c l a i m e d , I s v o l s k y was caught unaware, and the promised d i p l o m a t i c support of R u s s i a was weakly implemented. M. Milovanovic' sent a telegram to the S e r b i a n ambassador i n P e t r o g r a d : " T e l l Charikov t h a t we get new reasons every day to f e a r t h a t annexation i s very near ... T h i s annexation would be under-stood by S e r b i a as a n a t i o n a l c a t a s t r o p h e . Could Russia g i v e 7k us any hope that such a catastrophe would bypass us?" There was a non-committal answer and the c o n s o l a t i o n that i n the f u t u r e tbe cause of S e r b i a would win. Prime m i n i s t e r Pasic' and tbe crown p r i n c e George soon afterwards v i s i t e d R ussia 72 V. C o r o v i c , Odnosi Izmedju Austro-Ugarske i S r b i j e u XX Veku, Beograd, 1935, p. 206. ~ 73 Steed, The Habsburg Monarchy, p. 2i|7. 7a C o r o v i c , l o c . c i t . w i t h the i n t e n t i o n o f s o l i c i t i n g i t s support on the annex-a t i o n q u e s t i o n . They were r e c e i v e d by T z a r N i k o l a s and ass u r e d that the Tzar would not rec o g n i z e the u n i l a t e r a l a c t of Austria-Hungary. But the f e e l i n g i n S e r b i a was that of d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . Sazonov d e s c r i b e d S e r b i a n p u b l i c o p i n i o n as f e e l i n g "dass es vom S c h i c k s a l v e r f o l g t s e i , und. dass s i c h 75 Russland ibm gegenuber t e i l n a h m s l o s v e r h a l t e . " The g e n e r a l view i n S e r b i a was th a t the behaviour of the Ru s s i a n f o r e i g n o f f i c e f o l l o w e d c l o s e l y i t s t r a d i t i o n i n d e a l i n g with the South S l a v q u e s t i o n which the n o t o r i o u s g e n e r a l K u r o p a t k i n summed up i n a sentence, " K o n s t a n t i n o p e l den Russen, S a l o n i k i 76 den O s t e r r e i c h e r n " In that scheme S e r b i a belonged to the A u s t r i a n sphere of i n f l u e n c e and any Russian support o f S e r b i a n a s p i r a t i o n s would be out of p l a c e . The S e r b i a n R e a c t i o n The r e a c t i o n of S e r b i a n p u b l i c o p i n i o n to the a c t of annexation was f u l l o f excitement and apprehension. Huge crowds paraded the s t r e e t s of Belgrade and c r i e s o f 'Down with A u s t r i a ' were heard. Almost the e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n was s t i r r e d to a f e r v o u r o f n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g . The government was o b l i g e d to f o l l o w p u b l i c o p i n i o n , i f i t wanted to s t a y » « 75 Hermann Wendel, Der Kampf der Sudslawen urn F r e i b e i t und E i n h e i t , F r a n k f u r t A.M. Sociata" t s - D r u c k e r e i , 1925, p. 0O4. 76 Loc. c i t . 97 i n power. P a r l i a m e n t was summoned as an e x t r a o r d i n a r y measure and p a t r i o t i c speeches were made. The news of annexation a c c o r d i n g t o a P r o - A u s t r i a n w r i t e r produced an alarming e f f e c t on the p o p u l a t i o n . "Die Kunde von i h r (annexion] w i r k t e wie eine Bombe, deren E x p l o s i o n das ganze Land erschutterte."77 The windows of the Austro-Hungarian l e g a t i o n i n Belgrade were broken and the Austro-Hungarian f l a g was burned.7^ The annexation was understood i n S e r b i a as a p r e l i m i n a r y t o f u r t h e r A u s t r i a n expansion on the Balkans. The t e r r i t o r y which was granted to A u s t r i a was beyond M i t r o v i t z a which was the c e n t e r o f the o l d S e r b i a n medieval s t a t e . S e r b i a was surrounded from the n o r t h and the west, without any o u t l e t t o the sea. A u s t r i a knew w e l l t h a t w i t h the annexation the v i t a l S e r b i a n n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s were threatened., In the s e c r e t convention o f l88l which King M i l a n Obrenovid* n e g o t i a t e d with the Austro-Hungarian government S e r b i a was e x p l i c i t l y asked to a b s t a i n from t o l e r a t i n g 'any p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s or ot h e r i n t r i g u e s , which s t a r t i n g from the S e r b i a n i.79 t e r r i t o r y would aim at Bosni a and Herzegovina. The com-p e n s a t i o n f o r t h i s S e r b i a n c o n c e s s i o n was t h a t Austria-Hungary would c o n s i d e r S e r b i a n a s p i r a t i o n d i r e c t e d towards Macedonia 77 Theodor von Sosnosky, Die B a l k a n p o l i t i k Osterreich Ungarns, S t u t t g a r t , Deutsche V e r l a g - A n s t a l t , 1914, V o l . I I , p. 154. 78 L o c . c i t . 79 C o r o v i c , Odnosi Ismedju Austro-Ugarske i S r b i j e u XX veku, p. 12. 98 i n case the d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of Turkey took p l a c e . When the annexation took p l a c e the Austro-Hungarian government d i d not f u l f i l l the l a t t e r c l a u s e of the t r e a t y , and S e r b i a d i d not r e c e i v e any compensation. The S e r b i a n s t a n d p o i n t was t h a t the q u e s t i o n of annexation d i d not concern A u s t r i a -Hungary and S e r b i a alone, and that t h i s q u e s t i o n had an i n t e r n a t i o n a l and European c h a r a c t e r . The S e r b i a n govern-ment sent a note to the s i g n a t o r i e s of the B e r l i n t r e a t y 80 i n which i t demanded compensation f o r the l o s t p r o v i n c e s . The demand f o r compensation was the work of f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r M i l o v a n o v i c and i t was not very p o p u l a r . M i l o v a n o v i c 1 s idea of compensation was i n the view of the p u b l i c both p a l t r y and i m p r a c t i c a b l e . In the o p i n i o n of an I t a l i a n diplomat, " I t would have o f f e r e d the S l a v s o f the Habsburg Monarchy the s p e c t a c l e of a S e r b i a b a r g a i n i n g f o r advantages based upon the l o s s of any hope the Bosnians might have f o r „8l independence." The hope of a t e r r i t o r i a l compensation which would c o n s i s t of an o u t l e t to the A d r i a t i c sea and a t the same time connect S e r b i a to Montenegro, (10, 5l8 square km. with 317,117 i n h a b i t a n t s ) was not p o l i t i c a l l y e x p e d i e n t . The A u s t r i a n viewpoint was that S e r b i a d i d not have any r i g h t to ask f o r compensation because she was not a s i g n a t o r y 80 Dusan L o n c a r e v i c , Jugoslawien's Entstehung, L e i p z i g , Amalthea V e r l a g , 1929, p. 112. 81 C a r l o S t o r z a , F i f t y Years of War and Diplomacy i n the Balkans, New York, I94O, p. 65. 99 of the B e r l i n T r e a t y . S e r b i a ' s p r o t e s t a g a i n s t the annex-a t i o n was not accepted by Aeh r e n t h a l f o r t h a t reason. H u m i l i a t i o n was added t o the i n j u r y . M i l o v a n o v i c ' s demand f o r compensation came a f t e r the A u s t r i a n r e f u s a l , and was d i r e c t e d to the Western powers. I t was the Western powers t h a t had to be won over to the Se r b i a n cause. Milovanovic'made a t o u r o f European c a p i t a l s , but d i d not achieve any success. The demand f o r compensation was then t a c i t l y abandoned both by i t s authors and s u p p o r t e r s . Another l i n e o f re a s o n i n g , summed up by P a s i c , r e j e c t e d the i d e a o f compensation or conference. " S e r b i a does not wish a conference because we w i l l o b t a i n n o t h i n g ; S e r b i a does not wish a war e i t h e r , because no-one would h e l p her. So much the b e t t e r : B o s n i a and Herzegovina w i l l remain an open wound."82 The sequence o f events f o r c e d the S e r b i a n government t o accept t h i s view. The arguments o f Milovanovic' were l e g a l l y sound and very i n g e n i o u s , but they were f u t i l e when c o n f r o n t e d with the s i n g l e but e f f e c t i v e argument of Austro-Hungarian f o r c e . No s t a t e i n Europe was prepared to wage a war f o r S e r b i a . Milovanovic' saw c l e a r l y the f u t i l i t y of h i s attempts. "Die Lage f u r uns Serben i s t l e i d e r schwer. Wir mussen uns biegen." At the same time he r e a l i z e d t h a t the aims he was f i g h t i n g f o r , would be r e a l i z e d i n the f u t u r e - " I g i v e my vow t h a t by 1920, Bosnia w i l l be f r e e . " ^ 82 S t o r z a , l o c . c i t . 83 Loncarevic', op. c i t . , p. 48. 100 The S i t u a t i o n i n Bosnia and Herzegovina Perhaps Austro-Hungarian r u l e i n Bosnia and Herzegovina would have been more p a l a t a b l e to the inhab-i t a n t s i f the A u s t r i a n government had p r o v i d e d the Serbs, Croats and Muslims i n that p r o v i n c e with a sense of l o y a l t y to the Dual Monarchy. That l o y a l t y was, however, deeply l a c k i n g among the Serbs and Muslims and was not very s t r o n g among the C r o a t s . A u s t r i a had never known how to win sympathy f o r i t s e l f i n Bosnia-Herzegovina. The i n f l u e n c e of neighbouring S e r b i a was too powerful, and A u s t r i a n a u t h o r i t i e s were unable to co u n t e r a c t the S e r b i a n propaganda and s u b s t i t u t e a l l e g i a n c e to the Dual Monarchy f o r S e r b i a n n a t i o n a l i s m . The proper way to achieve t h a t aim was, i n the o p i n i o n of b i a s e d A u s t r i a n f r e e t h i n k e r s - "through energy and v i g i l a n c e , always accompanied by due re g a r d to n a t i o n a l i d i o s y n c r a c i e s ; a c a r e f u l h a n d l i n g of the r e l i g i o u s q u e s t i o n , improvement of m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s . We must a c t i n such a way as to win confidence i n our r u l e so t h a t any comparison made by Bosnia i s f a v o u r a b l e to u s . " ^ A u s t r i a n p o l i c y d i d not f o l l o w these p r e c e p t s . There was no r e g a r d f o r n a t i o n a l i d i o s y n c r a c i e s on the p a r t of the A u s t r i a n government i n Bosnia-Herzegovina. A c q u i s i t i o n o f Bosnia-Herzegovina was a time honoured p r o j e c t of Austria-Hungary, but the methods of the A u s t r i a n government when the annexation was f i n a l l y 8i| B a e r n r e i t h e r , Fragments of a P o l i t i c a l D i a r y , London, 1930, p. 31. accomplished, d i d not show any evidence of a premeditated and c l e a r - c u t p l a n . The Pan-Serb n a t i o n a l movement was under estimated and p r o f o u n d l y misunderstood. "The u n i f i -c a t i o n of the Serbs i s not an o r i g i n a l i d e a , " wrote Leo p o l d Mandel, "but a p l a n t imported from the Germanic and the 85 Romanic c o u n t r i e s . " V i e s e r , p r o f e s s o r a t Vienna U n i v e r s i t y claimed, " t h a t there were no c e n t r i f u g a l t e n d e n c i e s " i n the realm of the Habsburgs. The methods o f governing these p r o v i n c e s d i d correspond w i t h such u n r e a l i s t i c statements. The f e a r of Yugoslav propaganda, l e d to the removal of Bishop Strossmeyer, who expounded the 'Yugoslav view' and to h i s replacement by an A u s t r i a n sympathizer Bishop S t a d l e r . I n s t e a d of a c a r e f u l h a n d l i n g of the ' r e l i g i o u s q u e s t i o n ' as Dr. B a e r n r e i t h e r demanded, the A u s t r i a n government openly supported the C a t h o l i c Church a t the expense of o t h e r denom-i n a t i o n s and encouraged the i d e a of a C r o a t i a n n a t i o n a l i t y . "In the beginning of the o c c u p a t i o n C a t h o l i c s possessed one church, one s c h o o l and one p a r o c h i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n the two p r o v i n c e s . I n 1903 there were 179 churches, 12 monast-e r i e s , 11 convents, 11 c o l l e g e s and 7 p h i l a n t r o p i c i n s t i t -86 u t i o n s o r g a n i z e d by the C a t h o l i c Church.™ The newly nominated Bishop S t a d l e r s t a r t e d h i s work i n Bosnia with 85 V. C o r o v i c , Odno.si Izmedju Austro-Ugarske i S r b i j e u XX Veku, Beograd, 193b, p. 170. 86 "Europe and the Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina," The F o r t n i g h t l y Review, 1909, p. 1. 102 the c o n v e r s i o n of th r e e u n w i l l i n g persons - a Moslem woman and her two c h i l d r e n . When t h i s a f f a i r became known and the bishop was asked t o j u s t i f y h i s r e l i g i o u s z e a l , he d i r e c t e d a l e t t e r t o the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the A u s t r i a n Government i n Sara j e v o , saying " I cannot accept the con-d i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g p r o s e l y t i z i n g which e x i s t as law i n Bo s n i a because they are i n c o n f l i c t w i t h the order of the Vatican. " ^ 7 P r o t e s t s arose from the Orthodox and Muslem communities. The Orthodox and the Muslems u n i t e d i n t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n a g a i n s t the p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n accorded the C a t h o l i c Church and i s s u e d a common d e c l a r a t i o n on 'that' p r o v i s i o n o f the r o y a l p r o c l a m a t i o n which spoke about the e q u a l i t y o f a l l r e l i g i o u s denominations. "Der Erhabene K a i s e r und Konig b e f i e h l t , dass a l l e S5hne d i e s e s Landes das g l e i c h e Recht nach den Gesetzen zu geniessen haben, dass das Leben und der Glaube a l l e r b e s c h u t z t werden mussen ."88 The S e r b i a n p r i e s t h o o d found t h e i r work very d i f f i c u l t because o f v a r i o u s laws l i m i t i n g t h e i r r e l i g i o u s autonomy. A d e l e g a t i o n o f S e r b i a n p r i e s t s were sent t o R u s s i a , 8 and Pobedonosteev showed much understanding o f t h e i r problems. Any attempt by the Orthodox p r i e s t h o o d t o e s t a b l i s h good r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e i r c o - r e l i g i o n i s t s i n R u s s i a and S e r b i a 87 C o r o v i c , op. c i t . , p. 169. 88 Dusan L o n c a r e v i c , Jugoslawiens Entstehung, L e i p z i g , Amalthea, V e r l a g , , 1929, p. 190. 89 C o r o v i c , op. c i t . , p. 170. 103 was regarded as an a c t of s u b v e r s i o n . Thus any exchange of 90 Church l i t e r a t u r e between Ru s s i a and S e r b i a was f o r b i d d e n . The d i f f i c u l t i e s which the S e r b i a n Orthodox Church had to endure were many: some are enumerated by E. Denis as "On opposait des d i f f i c u l t e s de toute nature a l a c o n s t r u c t i o n des e'glises orthodoxes; on l e s e l o i g n a i t du centre de l a v i l l e .... on p r o s c r i v a i t l e nom de S t . Sava, parce q u ' i l • A e s t l e p a t r o n de l ' e g l i s e serbe; on d i s s o l v a i t l e s m a i t r i s e s S ' • A que, a v a i t chante des cantiques serbes; l e nom memede serbe e s t p r o s c r i t e t i l n'est permis de p a r l e r que de l a langue 91 Iosniaque. In the o p i n i o n of the S e r b i a n p o p u l a t i o n , • A r Monseigneur S t a d l e r , l'eveque c a t h o l i q u e e s t l e v e r i t a b l e «92 gouverneur de l a P r o v i n c e . How c o u l d such a p o l i c y win tbe S e r b i a n p o p u l a t i o n and how c o u l d such a p o l i c y induce the Serbs to e n t e r t a i n any l o y a l t y to the Dual Monarchy? At the same time i t was obvious that S e r b i a n l o y a l t y was needed because a c c o r d i n g to an u n p r e j u d i c e d A u s t r i a n p o l i t -i c i a n , "the Serbs make up 43$ of the p o p u l a t i o n and are the r i c h e s t , most e n e r g e t i c and e f f i c i e n t human beings t h a t we have i n Bosnia and Herzegovina. T h e i r p r o s p e r i t y i s v i s i b l y 93 on the i n c r e a s e and they dominate trade and i n t e r c o u r s e . " 90 E. Denis, La Grande S e r b i e , P a r i s , Delagrave, 1915, p. 192. 91 Loc. c i t . 92 Loo, c i t . 93 J . B a e r n r e i t h e r , Fragments of a P o l i t i c a l D i a r y , London, MacMillan, 1930, p. 95 and p. 128. 101+ Not o n l y was there no r e l i g i o u s freedom In Bosnia and Herzegovina, but the e s s e n t i a l r i g h t of self-government d i d not e x i s t . The A u s t r i a n government i n the o p i n i o n of a Bosnian p o l i t i c i a n was not able to give the S e r b i a n p o p u l -a t i o n i n Bosnia anything 'to l o o k forward t o . 1 The S e r b i a n n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n was t r e a s o n and t h e i r r e q u e s t s f o r the a b o l i t i o n of f e u d a l p r i v i l e g e s were regarded as r e v o l u t i o n a r y and s o c i a l i s t i c . There was no way to express these g r i e v -ances i n a normal, democratic p a r l i a m e n t a r y way, because the c o n s t i t u t i o n g i v e n to Bosnia and Herzegovina i n 1911 and the e l e c t i o n system prevented t h i s . A c c o r d i n g to Hermann Wendel the r e a d i n g of a Bosnian c o n s t i t u t i o n would be the key to the understanding of Habsburg p o l i c y towards the South S l a v 91+ problem. No e f f o r t s were spared to prevent the r e a l pur-pose of the c o n s t i t u t i o n , namely the e x e r c i s e of p o l i t i c a l a s p i r a t i o n s by the m a j o r i t y of the p o p u l a t i o n . Thus r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s were e x p l o i t e d and the whole e l e c t o r a t e was d i v i d e d a c c o r d i n g to r e l i g i o u s denominations. R e l i g i o u s and s o c i a l j e a l o u s i e s were to prevent the normal f u n c t i o n of the e l e c t e d a u t h o r i t y . The d e c i s i v e vote was always the p r i v i l e g e of the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , and they were e l e c t e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r s o c i a l s t a n d i n g . In t h a t way, the c r u c i a l i s s u e s i n the Bosnian p a r l i a m e n t were always voted f o r 9l+ Hermann Wendel, Die Habsburger und die Sudslawenfrage, L e i p z i g , 1924, p. 19. 105 a c c o r d i n g to the wishes of the A u s t r i a n governor, B. K a l l a y . The E x t r e m i s t Tendencies i n Bosnia and Herzegovina A u s t r i a n o p p r e s s i o n engendered f e e l i n g s of b i t t e r -ness and f r u s t r a t i o n among the younger g e n e r a t i o n i n Bosnia and Herzegovina. The young i n t e l l e c t u a l s were f u l l y aware of the s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l backwardness of t h e i r p r o v i n c e and d e s i r e d to b e t t e r the m a t e r i a l and c u l t u r a l l o t of t h e i r c a m p a t r i o t s . The s o - c a l l e d c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l m i s s i o n of Austria-Hungary l e f t much to be d e s i r e d . A f t e r t h i r t y years of A u s t r i a n r u l e the percentage of i l l i t e r a t e people was 88$, while i n S e r b i a there was 226i| i n h a b i t a n t s p e r p u b l i c school and the percentage of i l l i t e r a t e s was 72%. I n Bosnia there was i|052 I n h a b i t a n t s per s c h o o l and the percentage of 96 i l l i t e r a c y was 16% h i g h e r than i n S e r b i a . Not o n l y c u l t -u r a l l y , but s o c i a l l y the p r o v i n c e s resembled more the f e u d a l c o n d i t i o n s of the Middle Ages than those of the ' e n l i g h t e n e d ' t w e n t i e t h century. I n 1909 there was seventy-nine thousand f a m i l i e s who were not allowed to l e a v e the p l o t of l a n d they 97 t i l l e d . This s i t u a t i o n e x i s t e d d e s p i t e the f a c t t h a t A u s t r i a 95 Hermann Wendel, Die Habsburger und die Sudslawenfrage, p.23. 96 Loc. c i t . 97 Hermann Wendel, Per Kampf der Su'dslawen urn F r e i h e i t und E i n h e i t , F r a n k f u r t A.M., S o c i a t a t s P r u c k e r e i , 1925, p.543. 106 o b t a i n e d the mandate over Bosnia and Herzegovina under con-d i t i o n s of a l l e v i a t i n g the poor s o c i a l and economic l o t of i t s i n h a b i t a n t s . Andrassy at the Congress of B e r l i n spoke about urgent reforms, "des reformes urgentes e t profondes q u ' e x i g e a i t 1 1 o r g a n i s a t i o n de l a p r o p r i e t e r u r a l e e t que seule une grande Puissance t e l l e que I ' A u t r i c h e a v a i t l a f o r c e de r e a l i s e r . " I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g that a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of Bosnian youth belonged to l e f t - w i n g c i r c l e s and e n t e r t a i n e d s o c i a l i s t i c i d e a s . T h e i r s o c i a l i s t i c ideas c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e i r n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s . The sham c o n s t i t u t i o n of Bosnia d i d not give enough scope to t h e i r r a d i c a l i s m . T h e i r p o l i t i c a l l i f e as w e l l as the p o l i t i c a l l i f e of the m a j o r i t y of the Bosnian p o p u l a t i o n e x i s t e d independently of the government. The c o n v i c t i o n t h a t the e x i s t e n c e of Austria-Hungary was a main hinderance to the r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e i r dreams, and t h a t t h e i r f u t u r e l a y i n the u n i o n with t h e i r b r o t h e r s i n S e r b i a grew strong i n theme. The most r a d i c a l newspaper i n Bosnia, Otacbina, wrote: "We do not r e f u s e the idea of a u n i f i e d S e r b i a n s t a t e . What k i n d of a man would be a German who would oppose the u n i f i c a t i o n of Germany, what k i n d of a man 99 would be an I t a l i a n who would f i g h t M a z z i n i and G a r i b a l d i ? " The wave of n a t i o n a l i s m among Bosnian youth had to 98 E. Denis, La Grande S e r b i a , P a r i s , Delagrave, 1915, p .197. 99 C o r o v i c , Odnosi Izmedju Austro-Ugarske i S r b l j e XX Veku, P. 179. 107 be expressed. When l e g a l means d i d not s u f f i c e , new methods were r e s o r t e d t o . Although t h e i r p r o f e s s e d aim was ' e v o l u t i o n and not r e v o l u t i o n , by l e g a l means and ways 1 "^^the absence of the l a t t e r however, l e d many to the f o r m a t i o n of the »KRU'2oCI>; t h e i r own p o l i t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . The 'KRU&OCI' were very much i n f l u e n c e d by the R u s s i a n t e r r o r i s t d o c t r i n e s . The s a c r i f i c e f o r n a t i o n a l causes was g l o r i f i e d and t e r r o r i s t a c t i v i t i e s were regarded as a n e c e s s i t y . Thus the model v i r -tues of a member of KRUZOCI were th a t , "He must be an a r t i s t and a c o n s p i r a t o r , must have s t r e n g t h and c a p a c i t y f o r endurance, must be a martyr and a p l o t t e r , a man of Western manners and a ' b a j d u k ' . " ^ ^ T h e i r aim was to throw o f f the Habsburg yoke and achieve Yugoslav u n i t y under S e r b i a . Many of the students s t u d i e d abroad and were able to e s t a b l i s h v a l u a b l e c o n t a c t s with the l e a d e r s o f the oppressed n a t i o n -a l i t i e s i n the Habsburg Monarchy. E s p e c i a l l y b e n e f i c i a l was the i n f l u e n c e o f Dr. Masaryk, who with h i s r e a l i s t doc-t r i n e managed to convince some of the Bosnian students t h a t the n a t i o n a l i d e a does not c o n s i s t i n h e r o i c deeds only, but I n the p a t i e n t , slow work'as w e l l . The demonstrations 102 i n the s t r e e t s o f Prague and the shouts of 'Long l i v e S e r b i a ' showed them t h a t they were not alone i n t h e i r s t r u g g l e and t h i s h e l p e d to enhance t h e i r morale. But, the harsh A u s t r i a n 100 Loc. c i t . 101 Seton-Watson, Sarajevo*, London, 1925, P. 70. • * 102 Sosnosky, Die B a l k a n p o l l t l k O s t e r r e i c h Ungarns, Vol.II,p.2 0 1 . 108 r u l e produced a f a n a t i c a l core among the young i n t e l l e c t u a l s . They d i s c a r d e d the l e g a l means of n a t i o n a l s t r u g g l e and r e s o r t e d to a s s a s s i n a t i o n as a means towards the r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e i r aims. Because of the A u s t r i a n p o l i c y o f o p p r e s s i o n the i n i t i a t i v e i n the Southern S l a v q u e s t i o n passed from the hands o f p o l i t i c i a n s i n t o those of f a n a t i c youth of whom even more d i r e consequence c o u l d not d e t e r . Thus the c u l t o f Z e r a j i c , the f i r s t a s s a s s i n , became a c h e r i s h e d t r a d i t i o n which l e d t o a s e r i e s of other a s s a s s i n a t i o n s . Such an atmosphere produced G a v r i l o P r i n c i p and l e d to a v i o l e n t s o l u t i o n o f the South S l a v problem. CHAPTER IV CONCLUDING REFLECTIONS A u s t r i a and S e r b i a a f t e r the R e v o l u t i o n o f 1903 The r e l a t i o n s between A u s t r i a and S e r b i a a f t e r May 29, 1903, assumed prime importance i n S e r b i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y . R u s s i a ' s i n t e r n a l weakness made i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r h e r to conduct an independent f o r e i g n p o l i c y . 1 A l s o , she was too occupied i n the Far East and was n e g l e c t i n g h e r Balkan p o l i c y . The emergence of the K a r a d j o r d j e v i c ' dynasty i n S e r b i a gave S e r b o - A u s t r i a n r e l a t i o n s a new t u r n . Not o n l y f o r S e r b i a , but f o r A u s t r i a as w e l l , the importance of these r e l a t i o n s was not warranted by the s i z e o f S e r b i a and i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a t u s . The reason f o r t h i s must be sought f o r i n the new i d e o l o g y which the K a r a d j o r d j e v i c dynasty r e p r e s e n t e d . For the f i r s t time s i n c e the u p r i s i n g o f l80l+, the n a t i o n had a r u l e r who pursued, not a narrow d y n a s t i c p o l i c y , but a t r u l y n a t i o n i s t p o l i c y which corresponded t o the w i l l of the m a j o r i t y of the people i n S e r b i a , as w e l l as that of t h e i r f e l l o w s u b j e c t s i n the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. The g o s p e l of separate n a t i o n a l i s m was i n i t s v e r y nature unacceptable to the m u l t i - n a t i o n a l Habsburg Empire, embued w i t h 1 I s v o l s k y ' s P e r s o n a l Correspondence, S l a v o n i c Review, J u l y 1937, Kerensky, V. 16, p. 386. 110 the S t a a t s i d e e . The new L i b e r a l head r e p r e s e n t e d a c e n t r i f u g a l tendency which t h r e a t e n e d to d i s s o l v e A u s t r i a i n t o separate n a t i o n a l and s o v e r e i g n e n t i t i e s . In 1871* T r e i t s o h k e s a i d about Austria-Hungary that i t was a c o u n t r y without understanding of the f u t u r e , but with I t s f u l l i n t e r e s t toward the p a s t , and t h a t " A l l e Grundlagen dieses S taates gehoren e i n e r Z e i t , die n i c h t 2 mehr i s t . n In such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , the d i f f e r e n c e s between S e r b i a and Austria-Hungary assumed a new l i g h t . I t was not o n l y a s t r u g g l e between two c o u n t r i e s , but a s t r u g g l e between the two r a d i c a l l y opposed i d e o l o g i e s which those two c o u n t r i e s r e p r e s e n t e d . In the h i s t o r y of A u s t r i a , the n a t i o n a l i s t movement of S e r b i a had a t l e a s t two p r ecedents. The n a t i o n a l Risorgimento i n I t a l y and the suocess of German n a t i o n a l i s m were two blows which were d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t A u s t r i a . T h i s happened be f o r e the acute South S l a v problem f e d by S e r b i a f i n a l l y gave r i s e to the F i r s t World War. Thus ended the e x i s t e n c e of A u s t r i a -Hungary as a m u l t i - n a t i o n a l s t a t e and as a power i n Europe. E s s e n t i a l l y the I t a l i a n , German and S e r b i a n movement were o n l y three aspects of the same n a t i o n a l i d e a . In a sense, the S e r b i a n n a t i o n a l i s m had p e c u l i a r t r a i t s which d i s t i n g u i s h e d i t from other Western n a t i o n a l movements e s p e c i a l l y those of the E n g l i s h and the French. The n a t i o n a l awakening of the Serbs came l a t e r and appeared on the h i s t o r i c a l scene not as a r e v o l t 2 Wendel, Die Habsburger und d i e Sudslawenfrage, L e i p z i g , G. Kon, 1 9 2 4 , p. 1 2 . I l l of the middle c l a s s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t the s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n of f e u d a l i s m , but as a r e a c t i o n to f o r e i g n domin-a t i o n and o p p r e s s i o n . The f i n a l aim of t h a t new i d e o l o g y was the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a n a t i o n - s t a t e . Where there i s a s o u l , there must be a body i n which t h a t s o u l ean r e s i d e . A cross the border o f the independent Kingdom of S e r b i a was s i t u a t e d the m u l t i - n a t i o n a l Habsburg Monarchy. That border s e p a r a t e d people of a common r e l i g i o n , common language, and common race, because many c i t i z e n s of Austria-Hungary were S e r b i a n n a t i o n a l s . Such a s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d many d i f f i c u l t and d e l i c a t e problems. I t meant t h a t the c i t i z e n s of the Habsburg Monarchy had dual l o y a l t y . A l o y a l t y to the Empire and a l o y a l t y to a n a t i o n . There was no A u s t r i a n n a t i o n a l i t y , there were onl y peoples over which A u s t r i a r u l e d . The A u s t r i a n I m p e r i a l c o n c e p t i o n was t h a t of p a t e r n a l i s m . The peoples were governed by the dynasty whether they served the Habsburgs or n o t . The S e r b i a n n a t i o n a l i d e a preached t h a t s o v e r e i g n t y i s not c o n t a i n e d i n the whims of the r u l e r s but i n a c o l l e c t i v e n a t i o n a l body. The s u b j e c t s of Austria-Hungary, whose n a t i o n a l i t y was Serbian, might have t o l d the Habsburgs as d i d s i m i l a r l y the French r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s t h a t , "We love a l l men, we l o v e p a r t i c u l a r l y a l l f r e e men, but we l o v e the f r e e men of S e r b i a more than a l l the others o f the u n i v e r s e . " Today, i t i s taken f o r g r a n t e d t h a t the n a t i o n a l i d e a i s j u s t i f i e d •per se.* " E i n grosses V o l k das p o l i t i s c h e l n i g s e i n w i l l bekundet 1 1 2 damit auch schon s e i n Recht auf d i e " E i n h e i t , " ^ wrote H. Wendel. The r i g h t of n a t i o n a l i t y i s deeply r o o t e d i n us, as i s our i n n a t e sense of j u s t i c e . I f we, i n t h i s l i g h t , look upon the S e r b i a n s t r u g g l e as the a f f i r m a t i o n and r e a l i z a t i o n of her n a t i o n a l i d e a l s a g a i n s t i m p e r i a l designs of A u s t r i a , we can-not but r e c o g n i z e the j u s t i c e o f the S e r b i a n case. "Nous admettons aumourd'hui sans d i s c u s s i o n que l a S e r b i e devait' triompher, parce'qu 1 e l l e r e p r e s e n t a i t l e d r o i t q u i s ' i d e n t i f i e pour nous avec l e p r i n c i p e des n a t i o n a l i t e s . Mais d'abord en admettent que l a v l c t o i r e de d r o i t s o i t f a t a l e , l a date de c e t t e v l c t o i r e demeure problematique, et i c i sous c e r t a i n e s c i r c o n s t a n c e s , e l l e p o u v a i t p a r f a i t m e n t *etre r e t a r d e e de quelques s i e c l e s . " ^ The a p p l i c a t i o n of the n a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e i n i t s s i m p l e s t form - the p o l i t i c a l u n i o n of a people speaking the same language and w i l l i n g to share the same d e s t i n y i m p l i e d the i n e v i t a b l e d i s s o l u t i o n o f the A u s t r i a n empire. The n a t i o n a l consciousness of the South S l a v s was more e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y expressed as the y e a r s went by and the s o l u t i o n of t h i s q u e s t i o n became the most important i s s u e o f A u s t r i a n p o l i t i c s . The South S l a v q u e s t i o n had two main a s p e c t s . One was r e p r e s e n t e d by the tendency of a l l branches o f the S e r b o - C r o a t i a n people to form a p o l i t i c a l u n ion, and the o t h e r by the formidable o b s t a c l e which the Dual system p l a c e d i n the way of any n a t i o n a l Austro-. Hungarian South S l a v p o l i c y . The p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n of t h i s 3 Wendel, Die Habsburger, p. 1 3 . 4 E. Denis, La Grande S e r b i e , P a r i s , 1 9 1 5 , p. 1 2 7 . 113 problem t h e o r e t i c a l l y might have had two v a r i a n t s . E i t h e r the South S l a v q u e s t i o n would be s o l v e d w i t h i n the Austro-Hungarian Empire or i t would be s o l v e d o u t s i d e i t s b o r d e r s . The f i r s t p o s s i b i l i t y can be regarded as the p o l i t i c a l u nion of f r e e S e r b i a with other p r o v i n c e s of the Habsburg realm. But, the i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e of the Austro-Hungarian Empire made such a s o l u t i o n i m p o s s i b l e . The Dual system guaranteed the domin-a t i o n of two n a t i o n s , Germans, and Magyars, over a l l the other S l a v n a t i o n a l i t i e s . Any i n t r o d u c t i o n of a new e t h n i c n a t i o n a l group would d i s t u r b the e t h n i c balance of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and i n t h a t way would endanger Austro-Magyar hegemony In the Empire. I t i s well-known t h a t the mandatory s t a t u s of Bosnia and Herzegovina was due m a i n l y to the o b s t a c l e s c r e a t e d by the Magyars, who o b j e c t e d to o u t r i g h t annexation because of t h e i r r e l u c t a n c e to admit a l a r g e number of S l a v s i n t o the Empire. A second reason a g a i n s t the A u s t r i a n s o l u t i o n of the South S l a v q u e s t i o n was the s o c i o l o g i c a l and economic s t a t u s o f Serbo-Croats i n the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Here are a few examples to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t - the p r o v i n c e of Dalmatia was without any r a i l w a y c o n n e c t i o n with the i n t e r i o r - of s i x hundred v i l l a g e s , more than h a l f d i d not have any d r i n k i n g water -i n 1910, over three hundred v i l l a g e communities were without p u b l i c s c h o o l s , and 62$ of the p o p u l a t i o n was i l l i t e r a t e ^ - I n C r o a t i a and S l a v o n i a , s e v e r a l hundred landowners, mostly of 5> Wendel, Die Habsburger, p. 22. f o r e i g n o r i g i n , possessed a q u a r t e r o f the l a n d and 180,000 peasants. I f Austria-Hungary wanted to accomplish a uni o n of the South S l a v s , she would have had to be an e n l i g h t e n e d country. For a wise i n t e r n a l p o l i c y might have served as an a t t r a c t i o n f o r S e r b i a . T h i s , however, was not the case. The t h i r d reason o p e r a t i n g a g a i n s t such a s o l u t i o n of the S l a v q u e s t i o n , ( o f t e n c a l l e d T r i a l i s t i c ) was the c l e r i c a l i s m which permeated the upper r e g i o n s of the A u s t r o -Hungarian government. The union of the other peoples of the A u s t r i a n Empire, who were mostly Roman C a t h o l i c s , with the Serbs who were Greek Orthodox, would be to the detriment of the l a t t e r . I t i s d i f f i c u l t to understand the views of many f o r e i g n observers on the South S l a v q u e s t i o n . They f e l t t h a t A u s t r o -Hungary c o u l d alone f i n d the s o l u t i o n d e s p i t e the o b s t a c l e s which such a South S l a v union would enoounter. The S e r b i a n s o l u t i o n to the South S l a v q u e s t i o n meant the dismemberment of Austria-Hungary, and t h a t was a p o s s i b i l i t y which even the b o l d e s t minds dare not contemplate. Thus Seton-Watson recog-n i z e d that "the problem of S e r b o - C r o a t i a n u n i t y might be d e s c r i b e d without e x a g g e r a t i o n as the d e c i s i v e problem of the Habsburg Monarchy. He was sure that the day of t h e i r u n i t y 6 R.W. Seton-Watson, The Southern S l a v Question, London, Constable, 1911, Ch. XIV, p. 335. * TRIALISTIC SOLUTION in t e n d e d to give equal r i g h t s to the S l a v s , Hungarians and Germans. I t would have i n t r o d u c e d the e q u a l i t y of the n a t i o n s i n the A u s t r i a n realm. 115 would come i n the same way as the I t a l i a n and the German u n i t y were r e a l i z e d . The r e a l problem was the time and manner of i t s achievement. The union of the South S l a v race c o u l d not have been r e a l i z e d by p e a c e f u l means and n e i t h e r c o u l d Austria-Hungary have been expected to surrender p a r t s of her t e r r i t o r y w i l l i n g l y . I n 1911, Seton-Watson wrote "Austria-Hungary i s f a r from b e i n g decadent, i t i s a powerful and p r o g r e s s i v e s t a t e , w i t h one of 7 the f i n e s t and b e s t prepared armies i n the world." S e r b i a i n b i s o p i n i o n was too poor and too small to accomplish such a tremendous t a s k of u n i f i c a t i o n . "En 1911, dans sa 'Southern Question', M. Seton-Watson met en cause non sans i r o n i e , l e reve des serbes de demembre l e u r p u i s s a n t e v o i s i n e " wrote Q E. Haumont. Goluchowski, the A u s t r i a n f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r c a l l e d S e r b i a "Quantite n e g l i g e a b l e " and s a i d to the German ambassador "Wir erdrucken e i n f a c h S e r b i e n , wenn es e r n s t auf dem Balkan w i r d und S e r b i e n etwa wagte, andere P o l i t i k zu machen a l s wir 9 wollen." Other w r i t e r s p r e d i c t e d t h a t i f Vienna and Budapest would continue to s a c r i f i o e the economic development of the Se r b o - C r o a t i a n l a n d s to the maintenance of the Dual System i n i t s p r e s e n t form, economic s u f f o c a t i o n would be added the sense of p o l i t i c a l o p p r e s s i o n . For the r e s u l t of such economic and p o l i t i c a l o p p r e s s i o n would be the s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f the n a t i o n a l 7 Loc. o l t . 8 Emile Haumont, La Formation de l a Yougo s l a v l e , P a r i s , Bossard, 1930, p. 552. 9 H. Wendel, Per Kampf der Sudslawen urn F r e l h e i t und E i n h e i t , F r a n k f u r t , A.M., 1925, S o o i e t a t s P r u c k e r e i , p. 589. 116 t i e s w i t h i n S e r b i a . And when S e r b i a would develop i t s n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s and advance i n p r o s p e r i t y , i t would become a powerful magnet a t t r a c t i n g the Balkan South S l a v s . But, the Southern S l a v q u e s t i o n would i n v o l v e great danger f o r the Monarchy. 1^ Austria-Hungary d i d not have a c o n s t r u c t i v e p o l i c y on the South S l a v q u e s t i o n , and'used the Southern S l a v q u e s t i o n o n l y when i t was necessary to f r i g h t e n the Magyars. Wrote H. Wendel, 11 " T r i a l i s m u s 1st der Rheinbundgedanke der Habsburger." F r a n c i s Ferdinand too, was i n favour of the T r i a l i s t i o s o l u t i o n of the South S l a v q u e s t i o n which would give the South Slavs more i n f l u e n c e i n the Empire. His b o l d conception of the r e c o n -s t r u c t i o n of the Habsburg Monarchy on the T r i a l i s t i c b a s i s would, had i t been implemented, have encountered the b i t t e r o p p o s i t i o n o f the Magyars and the h o s t i l i t y of o f f i c i a l S e r b i a . Pashic and h i s c o l l e a g u e s f e a r e d that such a scheme might thwart t h e i r g r e a t e r ambitions f o r S e r b i a . I f we examine the r a c i a l composition of the A u s t r i a n Empire, we come to the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the German and Magyar elements were o n l y comparatively s m a l l m i n o r i t i e s which had by v a r i o u s means obtained f o r themselves the dominion and d i r e c t i o n of m a j o r i t i e s . The Germans numbered some 11,500,000 or 25.3% of the p o p u l a t i o n ; the Magyars 8,750,000 or 19 .1$, and the Southern S l a v s amounted to 4 ,700,000 or 10.5$. The t o t a l S l a v 10 W. Steed, The Habsburg Monarchy. London, Constable, 1914, p. 287. 11 Wendel, Die Habsburger, p. 21. 117 p o p u l a t i o n was 22,600,000 as a g a i n s t 20,250,000 Germans and 12 Magyars. The i n t r o d u c t i o n of e l e c t o r a l e q u a l i t y would q u i t e n a t u r a l l y a f f e c t the dominant p o s i t i o n of the Germans and Magyars and as such would sound the d e a t h - k n o l l o f the " A u s g l e i c h " , the r u l e o f two h i s t o r i c n a t i o n s , the Germans and Magyars over the o t h e r s . The two master n a t i o n s would of course, not permit any Infringement upon t h e i r p r l v i l e d g e s and r i g h t s . Thus t h e i r p o l i c y r e p r e s e n t e d an i n v e r s i o n o f the l e g i t i m a t e i d e a of democratic p r o g r e s s . Such a s i t u a t i o n where a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of the p o p u l a t i o n was d e p r i v e d o f any d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e In the government was bound to be e x p l o s i v e when n a t i o n a l f o r c e s work i n opposite d i r e c t i o n s , the r e s u l t i s c o n f l i c t . "The A u s t r i a n Empire i s a mosaic o f many va r i o u s and v a r y i n g r a c e s and n a t i o n s but the v a r i o u s stones of t h i s mosaic have l i t t l e community of thought or d e s i r e as do the stones o f a r e a l mosaio that belong together; they j u s t happen to be c o l l e c t e d 13 t o g e t h e r . " The emergence of new S e r b i a a f t e r the r e v o l u t i o n of 1903 was, t h e r e f o r e , an event o f prime European and i n t e r -Ik n a t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . S e r b i a was opposed to the Dual Monarchy, not o n l y i n the i n t e n s e form of her n a t i o n a l i s m , but a l s o i n her democratic i d e o l o g y . That co u n t r y where the s a y i n g went, " t h a t a man 12 "The S i t u a t i o n i n the Near E a s t " , F o r t n i g h t l y Review, 1907, P. 695. 13 Loc. c i t . 1J4 z'ivan Z^ivanovic, P o l i t l o k a I s t o r i j a S r b i j e , Beograd, Getsa Kon, 192i|, p. 334• 118 s t a r t s o n l y to be a man a f t e r becoming a Baron" was opposed i n S e r b i a where the wave of democracy which was sweeping Europe was most apparent. A n a t i o n of r i g i d c l a s s e s o o u l d never have possessed the same f o r c e as a n a t i o n l i k e S e r b i a where the e g a l i t a r i a n s p i r i t r e i g n e d supreme. S e r b i a com-p r i s e d f o r the neighbouring Habsburg Monarchy not o n l y a n a t i o n a l but a s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n a r y danger. To the e x p l o i t e d peasants of Austria-Hungary, some of whom were s t i l l t i e d to the l a n d , S e r b i a appeared not o n l y as a p o t e n t i a l n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t o r , but as a promise of a b e t t e r and more j u s t s o c i a l system. Thus, a c c o r d i n g to the w r i t e r of the a r t i o l e i n the O e s t e r r e i c h i s c h e Rundschau, February 15, 1909, "the task of c i v i l i z i n g these c o u n t r i e s can be onl y e n t r u s t e d to A u s t r i a , which i s a forward country, t o l e r a n t of n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g . . . . A Balkan King would l o s e , none of h i s d i g n i t y by t a k i n g h i s seat before the Emperor of Vienna, j u s t as the Kings of Saxony Ba v a r i a , and Wurtemburg take t h e i r p l a c e s before the Emperor of B e r l i n . " ^ The o n l y t h i n g wanting i n t h i s A u s t r i a n scheme was the consent of the Balkan s t a t e s themselves. There were some S e r b i a n p o l i t i c i a n s i n Bosnia and Herzegovina who were p r o - A u s t r i a n and had looked forward to such a c o n f e d e r a t i o n . Thus B a e r n r e i t h e r r e p o r t e d h i s conver-s a t i o n with some S e r b i a n l e a d e r s i n Bosnia who c h e r i s h e d the n o t i o n of u n i t i n g a l l Serbs under Habsburg s o v e r e i g n t y . They 15 "The Future of the Balkans", F o r t n i g h t l y Review, 1909, p. IOI43. 119 would have l i k e d to put a son of the A u s t r i a n house (by secun-16 dogeniture) at the head of the new union. T h i s new con-f e d e r a t i o n was to i n h e r i t S e r b i a n t e r r i t o r i e s i n o l d S e r b i a and Montenegro. T h i s l a s t demand of the S e r b i a n l e a d e r s was a c a r d i n a l p o i n t . K o n s t a n t i n Dumba, the A u s t r i a n ambassador to Belgrade, r e c a l l e d t h a t d u r i n g h i s tenure of o f f i c e and d u r i n g the terms of h i s three p r e d e c e s s o r s , the o n l y o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n g i v e n them from the A u s t r i a n f o r e i g n o f f i c e was " I n no circumstances can we permit a union of the Kingdom of S e r b i a with the P r i n c i p a l i t y of Montenegro; we s h a l l prevent i t even 17 i f i t means going to war to do so. But, the A u s t r i a n scheme of South S l a v c o n f e d e r a t i o n d i d not g i v e enough scope to the South S l a v n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g . Such a f e d e r a t i o n c o u l d not o f f e r the South S l a v s any s u b s t a n t i a l g a i n s . B a e r n r e i t h e r 1 s con-c l u s i o n was that " I f the monarchy had been able to g i v e the S e r b i a n people something to l o o k forward to along these l i n e s , 18 the course of events i n the Balkans would have been d i f f e r e n t . " A f t e r A u s t r i a n schemes of South S l a v f e d e r a t i o n f a i l e d and i t became i n c r e a s i n g l y c l e a r t h a t o n l y S e r b i a c o u l d p r o v i d e l e a d e r s h i p among the South S l a v s , the A u s t r i a n f o r e i g n o f f i c e r e p r e s e n t e d S e r b i a as b e i n g a n e s t of o o n s p i r a t o r s r e s o l v e d on the d e s t r u c t i o n of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A l l e x p r e s s i o n s of s o l i d a r i t y with S e r b i a by her oompatriots 16 J . Baernreither,. Fragments of a P o l i t i c a l D i a r y , London, MacMillan, 1930, p. 95^ 17 K. Dumba, Memoirs of a Diplomat, London, Morrow, 1933, p. 92. 18 B a e r n r e i t h e r , l o o , o l t . 120 In the Austro-Hungarian p r o v i n c e s were looked upon as t r e a s o n . The n a t i o n a l i s t movement i n the p r o v i n c e s of Austria-Hungary was a r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t e d from Belgrade, and S e r b i a claimed to have been accused of h o s t i l e a c t s towards her neighbour. T h i s d i s p u t e between Austria-Hungary and S e r b i a should be judged a c c o r d i n g to the e t h i c a l contents of the n a t i o n a l i d e a per se. Another viewpoint would be to e v a l u a t e the d i s p u t e s t r i c t l y from the l e g a l a s p e c t . The w i l l to u n i t e was r e c o g n i z e d as one of the most obvious c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the n a t i o n a l i d e a . T h i s was regarded as a s u p e r i o r moral f o r c e . T h i s moral f o r c e has i t s o r i g i n a c c o r d i n g t o E. Denis, "de d e t t e a s p i r a t i o n au bonheur que „19 chacun de nous p o r t e en s o i . F i n a l l y , i t was r e c o g n i z e d as the p r i n c i p l e of s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n and one of the p r i n c i p l e s on which post-war Europe was t o be founded. The p r o - A u s t r i a n view although not denying t h i s p r i n c i p l e dwelt on the o b s t a c l e s which a union between the Serbs and the C r o a t s would encounter. The o p i n i o n was o f t e n advanced, t h a t the m a j o r i t y of C r o a t s d i d not want such a u n i o n . For the r e a l i z a t i o n of the Great Croat i d e a was p o s s i b l e o n l y w i t h i n the frame of the Habsburg Monarchy. South S l a v n a t i o n a l i s m i n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was n o t h i n g more than e x t e n s i o n of the Great S e r b i a n i d e a , whose r o o t s go back to the y e a r 1844, when Garasanin formulated h i s 20 thoughts on the f u t u r e of the South S l a v s . Hence the n a t i o n a l 19 Denis, Grande S e r b i e , p. 128. 20 L. B r i t t n e r , "Oesterreich-Ungarn und S e r b i e n , " H i s t o r i s c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t , Munchen, 1931, p. 78. 121 movements In the s o u t h e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s of Habsburg Monarohy were not supposed to be indigenous and t h e r e f o r e they were an e x p r e s s i o n o f Pan-Serb a g i t a t i o n . T h i s viewpoint, r e p r e s e n t e d by some o f the A u s t r i a n observers and p o l i t i c i a n s was denied by the Croats, themselves. Thus the Croat Medo Pucic d e f i n e d the r e l a t i o n s between the Balkan peoples and the Croats and Serbs i n p a r t i c u l a r ; "Que s e r a i t l e Serbe sans l e Croate, ce qu'est l e f r e r e sans son f r e r e . E t l e Croate sans l e Serbe? \ v 21 Ce que sans son f r e r e e s t l e f r e r e . " D espite t h i s o p i n i o n , i t must be taken i n t o account t h a t Croats and Serbs had never formed a common p o l i t i c a l u n i t . The Croats g r a v i t a t e d towards Western o u l t u r e and d i f f e r e d i n t h e i r r e l i g i o n and alphabet from the Serbs. Summary There are two q u e s t i o n s concerning the South S l a v problem which, because of t h e i r importance, deserve f u l l a t t e n t i o n . Why d i d the South S l a v problem have to be s o l v e d by "blood and i r o n " and not by p e a c e f u l means? And why d i d the s o l u t i o n of the problem not occur w i t h i n the Dual Monarchy? .....The m u l t i - n a t i o n a l A u s t r i a n Empire had p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of becoming a f e d e r a t i o n of equal n a t i o n s , and furthermore, that f e d e r a t i o n would be e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d i n an age of i n d u s t -r i a l r e v o l u t i o n , when economic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s became of paramount i n f l u e n c e . Yet the n a t i o n a l p o l i c y of Austria-Hungary s u f f e r e d 21 E. Haumont, La Formation de l a Yougoslavie, p. 3bE>. 122 one d e f e a t a f t e r another. B a e r n r e l t h e r wrote b e f o r e 1914 "No one can say that the reason why we l o s t Lombardy to Piedmont i s t h a t we were defeated a t the b a t t l e s of Magenta and S o l f e r i n o . We l o s t Lombardy because the l i v i n g c e n t r e of the I t a l i a n i d e a came to be o u t s i d e of A u s t r i a . We s h a l l now l o s e Bosnia and Herzegovina and compromise the whole South S l a v q u e s t i o n u n l e s s we succeed i n p l a c i n g the centre of the South S l a v w o r l d i n s i d e „22 A u s t r i a . The reasons f o r the repeated f a i l u r e of the Habsburgs to s o l v e the n a t i o n a l q u e s t i o n was t h e i r i d e o l o g y of f e u d a l cosmopolitanism. The Dual Monarchy d i d not sympathize with n a t i o n a l movements on two grounds: because they were n a t i o n a l -i s t i c and because they were democratic. N a t i o n a l i s m i s not c o n f i n e d to a narrow segment of the p o p u l a t i o n , and i s above s o c i a l and c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s . A u s t r i a was too c o n s e r v a t i v e to understand the wave o f n a t i o n a l i s m and democracy sweeping over Europe a f t e r I 8 4 8 . I f the centre of g r a v i t y of the Serbo-Croat problem was to be p l a c e d with the Monarchy, the p o l i c y of annexation should have been f o l l o w e d by a p o l i c y of a t t r a c t i o n , freedom, 23 and self-government. But the r e c o g n i t i o n of the n a t i o n a l r i g h t s of the Serbs and C r o a t s would have encouraged other n a t i o n s i n the Habsburg Monarchy to do the same which was 22 B a e r n r e l t h e r , Fragments, p. j?l. 23 I b i d . , p. 92. 123 p r e c i s e l y what the Habsburgs would not a l l o w . And so, i t was i m p o s s i b l e to draw S e r b i a i n t o the c u l t u r a l o r b i t of the A u s t r i a n Monarchy. " I t would be madness", wrote B a e r n r e i t h e r , " t o b r i n g a people, f r e e and independent f o r a hundred years under the c o n t r o l of the Austro-Hungarian government." There were means under which such a scheme might have been r e a l i z e d ^ but the whole s t r u c t u r e of the A u s t r i a n s t a t e would have had to be changed. These changes a c c o r d i n g to a l e a d i n g S e r b i a n p o l i t i c i a n were "Wenn Osterreich-Ungarn darauf b e z i c h t e t , eine Grossmacht zu s e i n , wenn es s i o h e n t s c h l i e s s t , die R o l l e e i n e r o s t l i o h e n Schweiz anzunehmen." A f t e r annexation, suoh a reform became improbable. Even without the i n c o r p o r a t i o n of S e r b i a i n t o the Dual Monarchy, r e l a t i o n s might have been b e t t e r than they were had the A u s t r i a n government showed more w i l l i n g n e s s to r e a l i z e some of the modest demands of the S e r b i a n government. There were three o u t s t a n d i n g problems whose s o l u t i o n might have brought b e t t e r r e l a t i o n s between Austria-Hungary, and a t l e a s t the s o l u t i o n of one was the " s i n e qua non" f o r A u s t r o -S e r b i a n understanding. M. M i l o v a n o v i c i n h i s speech i n the p a r l i a m e n t mentioned the n e c e s s i t y f o r S e r b i a to have "a window" i n t o the A d r i a t i c . Since A u s t r i a would not permit t h i s c o r r i d o r , the r e l a t i o n s between Austria-Hungary and S e r b i a c o u l d never be p e a c e f u l . "Durch d i e Annexion Bosniens und der 2l| T. von Sosnosky, Die B a l k a n p o l l t l k , S t u t t g a r t , O s t e r r e i o h -Ungarn, 1911*, p. 205. 124 Herzegovina, durch d i e Abdrangang vom A d r i a t i s c h e n Meer... zwingt C-sterreich-Ungarn, S e r b i e n , und d i e S e r b i s c h e N a t i o n i n naher Oder e n t f e r n t e r Zukunft zu einem Kampf auf Leben und T od." 2^ xt was one of the axioms of the Habsburg Balkan p o l i c y never to permit the union of S e r b i a and Montenegro. For, i n t h a t way they prevented any o u t l e t of S e r b i a to the A d r i a t i c . The second problem i n which S e r b i a was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d was the f u t u r e o f Macedonia a f t e r the p a r t i t i o n of the T u r k i s h Empire. A f t e r the way to the West was b l o c k e d by the A u s t r i a n annexation, the Serbs hoped to have an o u t l e t to the Middle East and Mediterranean, by a passage to the Aegean through S a l o n i k i . The A u s t r i a n government was bound by v a r i o u s t r e a t i e s , s t a r t i n g w i t h the s e c r e t convention o f l 8 8 l to f u l -f i l l t h i s S e r b i a n demand. When the S e r b i a n f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r M. M i l o v a n o v i c , i n h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n with the A u s t r i a n f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , A e h r e n t h a l , i n November, 1909, asked the l a t t e r , "Fur eine bestimmte Zusage iiber den A n t e i l S e r b i e n s , an der 26 t u r k i s c h e n V e r l a s s e n s c h a f t i n Makedonien." A e h r e n t h a l was e v a s i v e , "Let us speak of the p r e s e n t ; when i t improves we can begin l o o k i n g i n t o the f u t u r e . " 2 ^ F i n a l l y , the 'demand f o r c u l t u r a l exchanges between S e r b i a and Bosnia-Herzegovina was l i k e w i s e r e f u s e d . S e r b i a and the n a t i o n a l movement which she r e p r e s e n t e d were then 25 Dusan L o n c a r e v i c , Jugoslawiens Entstehung, p. 264. 26 A e h r e n t h a l , und M i l o v a n o v i c , Deutsche Revue, Nov. 19, 1909. 27 B a e r n r e l t h e r , Fragments, p. 92. 125 threatened and suppressed. But, the i d e o l o g y which t h a t t i n y country propagated p r o v i d e d the v i t a l f o r c e which destroyed the f o u n d a t i o n s o f the ramshackle Empire. 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS B a e r n r e i t h e r , J . Fragments of a P o l i t i c a l D i a r y . London: MacMillan,.1930. B o g h i t c h e v i t c h . Causes o f the War. B e r l i n , 1921. C o r o v i c , V. Odnosi izmed.iu Austro-Ugarske i Srbi.ie u XX Veku. Beograd, 1936. Denis, E. La Grande S e r b i e . P a r i s : Delagrave, 191!?. 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