INDIAN EDUCATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA by LESTER RAY PETERSON B.A., U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1951 B.Ed., U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1953 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n the Department of E d u c a t i o n We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA October, 1959 THESIS ABSTRACT Most a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s agree today that the Indians of Amer-i c a came t© t h i s c o n t i n e n t hy way of the B e r i n g Sea somewhere between f i f t e e n and e i g h t thousand years ago. During t h e i r years ©f occupancy of the northwest, they developed a c u l t u r e adapted t© i t s economy. They p e r f e c t e d n e i t h e r w r i t i n g nor f o r m a l edu-c a t i o n , but a s s e r t e d t h e i r h e r a l d r y and t r a n s m i t t e d t h e i r legends and t r a d i t i o n s o r a l l y . Europeans, i n s e a r c h of a westward route to the o r i e n t , reached the American northwest l a t e i n the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . They i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the n a t i v e way of l i f e a modicum of European a r t i f a c t s , but a l s o , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g the c o a s t , began the d e s t r u c t i o n ©f the a b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e through d i s e a s e , l i q u o r , /-and c r e a t i o n ©f u n n a t u r a l v i l l a g e s about t r a d i n g p o s t s . P r o t e s t a n t and Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s began to a r r i v e toward the middle of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . They worked t© cou n t e r a c t the i n f l u e n c e of the f u r - t r a d e r s but, i n t h e i r e f f o r t s at evangelism, helped to p r e c i p i t a t e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ©f the n a t i v e way ©f l i f e . A n g l i c a n , Methodist and Roman C a t h o l i c Churches g r a d u a l l y founded m i s s i o n s , and l a t e r s c h o o l s , among Indian groups throughout the p r o v i n c e . Sponsored e n t i r e l y by Church funds and c o n t r i b u t i o n s from the Indians themselves at f i r s t , these schools began t o r e c e i v e F e d e r a l government grants as r e s e r v e s became e s t a b l i s h e d f o l l o w i n g B r i t i s h Columbia's e n t r y i n t o Con- \~ f e d e r a t i o n i n I87I. Each Church e s t a b l i s h e d a dual system of s c h o o l i n g , c o n s i s t i n g of s m a l l day schools l o c a t e d on such r e -serves as i t was p r a c t i c a b l e to place them, and l a r g e r ( i l l ) r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s , s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d , a t which orphans and c h i l d r e n from o u t l y i n g r e s e r v e s c o u l d remain while r e -c e i v i n g t h e i r e d u c a t i o n . L i t t l e d i r e c t government i n t e r e s t was shown i n t h e i r e d u c a t i o n u n t i l a f t e r World War I I , when census f i g u r e s began to r e v e a l the f a c t that the Indians were not a dying r a c e . In 19U8 a j o i n t P a r l i a m e n t a r y committee made recommendations which became embodied i n the r e v i s e d I n d i a n A c t of 195l» which has s i n c e r e c e i v e d f u r t h e r r e v i s i o n . The I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch ©f the Department of C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration has assumed almost the e n t i r e c o s t s of o p e r a t i n g both day and r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s , has e r e c t e d day s c h o o l s , and has appointed i n s p e c -t o r s to s u p e r v i s e the system. E i g h t e e n agency superintendents a c t as l o c a l s c h o o l boards In B.C. P r o v i s i o n i n the r e v i s e d I n d i a n Act f o r F e d e r a l - p r o v i n c i a l c o o p e r a t i o n has g r e a t l y Increased the number of I n d i a n students a t t e n d i n g r e g u l a r p u b l i c s c h o o l s . In 1958* out of a t o t a l of 87I+6 students at s c h o o l , 61+11 were e n r o l l e d In a system of 78 I n d i a n schools,,and the remaining 2335 were a t t e n d i n g p r o v i n c i a l and p r i v a t e s c h o o l s . The standard of I n d i a n e d u c a t i o n i s r i s i n g but, i n r e l a t i o n to t h at ©f the average non-Indian p o p u l a t i o n element, the Ind-i a n s ' economic standards are d e c l i n i n g . I n t e g r a t i o n of the I n d i a n i n t o the Canadian way of l i f e ; e t h n i c a l l y , c u l t u r a l l y , or e c o n o m i c a l l y , i s not t a k i n g p l a c e . E t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n i s not being r e a l l y sought; c u l t u r a l I n t e -g r a t i o n i s . I t cannot proceed u n t i l some degree of economic p a r i t y has been a c h i e v e d . Indians today cannot a f f o r d the ( i v ) impedimenta of White c u l t u r e ; to date the d e s t i n a t i o n of the Indian, educated or not, i s the r e s e r v a t i o n whence he came. In remote l o c a l i t i e s Indians should he t r a i n e d f o r t h e i r way of l i f e r a t h e r than ours, u n t i l c i v i l i z a t i o n advances to meet them. Wherever p o s s i b l e , the a d u l t Indian must be granted f a i r employ-ment and a f a i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n a u n i f i e d p r o v i n c i a l edu-c a t i o n a l system. Only then can h i s c h i l d r e n become a c c u l t u r a t e d . (v) I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I. f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by t h e Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department of E d u c a t i o n The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, Vancouver 8 , Canada. Date October. 1959 CONTENTS THESIS ABSTRACT CHAPTER I . THE ABORIGINAL BRITISH COLUMBIAN Where They Came From - The Land They.Found -C u l t u r a l Groups They Formed - T h e i r B e l i e f s and Myths - T h e i r S o c i a l and Economic L i f e -T h e i r A r t - T h e i r E d u c a t i o n CHAPTER I I . THE EUROPEAN APPEARS E x p l o r e r s - Fur-Traders - Spain, B r i t a i n , and R u s s i a - The Hudson's Bay and North-west Companies - A l c o h o l i s m and Disease -Inter-marriage CHAPTER I I I . THE MISSIONARIES ARRIVE M i s s i o n a r y v s . Trader - M i s s i o n a r y v s . Shaman-R e l i g i o u s Sects - M i s s i o n s - Schools CHAPTER IV. THE IN-BETWEEN YEARS The Gold Rush - Re s e r v a t i o n s - F e d e r a l J u r i s -d i c t i o n - I n d i a n Acts - A Dying Race CHAPTER V. THE SOCIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF INDIAN LIFE I n t e g r a t i o n - The Fr a n c h i s e - Liquor -. Economy - Land - R e l i g i o n - E d u c a t i o n CHAPTER V I . INDIAN EDUCATION TO-DAY Enrolment - I n d i a n Schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia - The Revised I n d i a n Act -In d i a n E d u c a t i o n P h i l o s o p h i e s - Extent to Which In d i a n E d u c a t i o n Has Succeeded CHAPTER V I I . CONCLUSIONS - RECOMMENDATIONS APPENDIX "A" EXCERPTS, INDIAN ACT OF 1951 APPENDIX "B" EXCERPTS, INDIAN DAY SCHOOL REGULATIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY ( v i ) TABLES Number Page 1. Synopsis from Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report, 1880 61+ 2. P o p u l a t i o n o f Indians by Groups, Pre-European and 1935 7i+ 3 . I n d i a n P o p u l a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia, T o t a l s 75 1+. Enrolment, R e s i d e n t i a l and I n d u s t r i a l S c h o o l s , 1907 and I927 79 5 . Schools by Denomination, I907 79 6. Enrolment by Grades, 1907, 1927, 191+7 80 7. Indian S c h o o l Expenses, 1917 and I9I+7 80 8. Language D i s t r i b u t i o n , 1913 and 1917 8 l 9. Enrolment of Indian Students i n B r i t i s h Columbia, 1957 107 10. Indian Schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia 108 ( v i i ) ILLUSTRATIONS The Lord's Prayer i n Chinook F r o n t i s p i e c e P l a t e Number F o l l o w i n g Page I I . C u l t u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n Map: Language Boundaries 25 I I I . The Portage 3k IV. T r a d i n g Posts i n Northwest America 1+1 V. Indian Agencies - P o p u l a t i o n , 1958 -06 V I . Indian Schools In B r i t i s h Columbia, 1958 123 V I I . B u r i a l Grounds of S a l i s h Indians 136 ( v i i i ) Ok LORD'S PRAYER IN CHMOK Nesika papa klaksfa mitUte kopa SBohalle., Out- father who s tayeth m ike a&ove, Kloshe kopa -nesika tumtum mika nennj Good in our hearts ihe'} thy -name', HIoshe wika t y a e kopa konaway t i i i i c u w ; G o o d i h o u c h f e f a ^ o x \ q aM p e o p l e ; kloshe m i k a tumtutn kopa i j l ah ie , Good t k y wil l upon ear - th , As in rhe above , Pot/a^ch k o n a w a y sun n e s i k a muckawuck. Give e v e r y day out- f o o d . S p o s e nesiisa m a m o o k Kt tasahck/ 'e , If w_ do _ v t l , L b e J Wake m i k a k y a s so i ldks , p e s p o * * Mot th o u ve»*N anqr-y, andt 'if K f a k s t a m a s a h c h i e kopa n e s i k a , / Anyone t o w a r d s u s , Wake vie* t fa Sol|«ks hopa k l a s K a fVot angry t d v / a r - d ^ t h a w y .Scnotaway f a r f t-ovn u.s a l l evi l . ^ CHAPTER I THE ABORIGINAL BRITISH COLUMBIAN What, i n our human world, i s t h i s power to l i v e ? I t i s the a n c i e n t , l o s t reverence and p a s s i o n f o r human p e r s o n a l i t y , j o i n e d w i t h the a n c i e n t , l o s t reverence and p a s s i o n f o r the e a r t h and i t s web of l i f e . 1 No evidence of human l i f e on the land mass of what i s now c a l l e d North America p r i o r t o the l a s t g l a c i a l p e r i o d has as yet been p found. Oldest remains found to date are from the v i c i n i t y of Polsom, A r i z o n a , and i n the Sandia Caves of C a l i f o r n i a . 3 Carbon t e s t s made on animal remains l y i n g i n the same s t r a t a as stone spear-heads, i n d i c a t e the presence of human beings i n the former l o c a l i t y about 9000 B.C., and i n the l a t t e r s i t e approximately 13,000 B.C. Future a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e x c a v a t i o n s may of course unearth f i n d s o f much g r e a t e r age, but f o r the present we can wi t h any degree of c e r t a i n t y s t a t e o n l y t h a t man's tenancy of t h i s c o n t i n e n t has endured through about f i f t e e n thousand y e a r s . Many t h e o r i e s have been advanced as to the o r i g i n ©f the American p r o t o t y p e . U n t i l the t u r n of the century a b e l i e f popular p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g the A t l a n t i c seaboard a s s e r t e d an o r i g i n of human l i f e on North America i t s e l f . Charles H i l l - T o u t , i n h i s Oceanic O r i g i n of the Kwakiutl-Nootka and S a l l s h Stocks of B r i t i s h Columbia.^ sought words and customs of South P a c i f i c 1 John C o l l i e r , Indians of the Americas. New York, Mentor, 19Ltf, p. 7. 2 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, I n t r o d u c t i o n to Our Native Peoples. V i c t o r i a , P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s , 1951, p. 9. 3 W.W. Elmandorf, L e c t u r e s , Anthropology 301, Summer S e s s i o n , 1958, U.B.C. I4 Ottawa, J . Hope and Sons, 1898. 2 d e r i v a t i o n among Indian c u l t u r a l groups i n B r i t i s h Columbia as proof of t h e i r A s i a t i c o r i g i n . Most s c h o l a r s now agree that these peoples d i d indeed come from A s i a , but that they c r o s s e d the B e r i n g S t r a i t , not the P a c i f i c Ocean, to reach h e r e . C o l l i e r says of t h e i r o r i g i n : ^ They came from A s i a by way of the B e r i n g S t r a i t a t a date so f a r back t h a t the long e x t i n c t horse and ca-mel, the g i a n t beaver and g i a n t bear, the four-horned antelope and the d i r e wolf and mammoth were t h e i r f o e s and t h e i r p r ey.... The year 13,000, or perhaps 18,000 B.C. saw these migrant hunters moving a c r o s s the g r e a t c e n t r a l p l a i n of A l a s k a . Date of r e c e s s i o n of the l a s t of the f o u r g l a c i a l ages, t r a d i t i o n a l l y p l a c e d a t about 25,000 years ago, has, s i n c e per-f e c t i o n of the carbon r a d i a t i o n t e s t , been advanced t o a much more r e c e n t time of some 6000 years ago. I f p r e v i o u s l y mentioned m i g r a t i o n t h e o r i e s are c o r r e c t , migrants must have made t h e i r way t o t h i s c o n t i n e n t thousands ©f years b e f o r e the i c e - s h e e t ' s r e c e s s i o n was complete. However, g e o l o g i s t s now b e l i e v e t h a t the P a c i f i c and the Laurentide i c e - s h e e t s may not have met, but that a c o r r i d o r may have e x i s t e d immediately east of the Rocky Mountains, and a l s o t h a t a s t r i p of the c o a s t l i n e along the A r c t i c Ocean l i k e l y remained f r e e of the cake of compressed snow which i n p l a c e s reached a depth of three thousand f e e t . ^ M i g r a t i o n d i d not occur, a p p a r e n t l y , e i t h e r a l l a t one time nor c o n t i n u o u s l y , but r a t h e r i n a s e r i e s of i n f i l t r a t i o n s spaced hundreds, and perhaps even thousands, ©f years apart.7 Some of the e a r l i e s t " p i o n e e r s " might, then, have d r i f t e d south 5 C o l l i e r , op. c i t . , p. 17. 6 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , op. c i t . . p. 12. 7 Loc. c i t . 3 to the i c e - s h e e t ' s southern l i m i t s , then turned west across the mountains and f o l l o w e d i t s r e c e s s i o n northward. L a t e r a r r i v a l s could have made t h e i r way almost d i r e c t l y southward a l o n g r i v e r v a l l e y s of the inter-montane i n t e r i o r p l a t e a u s . As r o u t e s to the coast became a v a i l a b l e , s p l i n t e r groups a p p a r e n t l y made t h e i r way thence, to e s t a b l i s h themselves u l t i m a t e l y as hunters of sea, r a t h e r than l a n d , c r e a t u r e s . Examination of t o o l s and u t e n s i l s excavated from the lowest s t r a t a of kitchen-middens' l o c a t e d near the mouth of the F r a s e r R i v e r tend t o i n d i c a t e a 8 movement from an i n t e r i o r c u l t u r e to a c o a s t a l one, and c o a s t a l Indians of the Nass have r e t a i n e d a s t o r y of how t h e i r a n c e s t o r s shot under an i c e b a r r i e r t h a t blocked t h e i r m i g r a t i o n by canoe 9 down the r i v e r . How l o n g , then, has what we now c a l l B r i t i s h Columbia been i n h a b i t e d ? H i l l - T o u t , e s t i m a t i n g the time element from examin-a t i o n s of the great Marpole Midden, produced an answer to t h i s q u e s t i o n d u r i n g the f i r s t decade of t h i s century:: H i s t o r y of t h e i r own, i n the s t r i c t sense of the word, the n a t i v e r a c e s of B r i t i s h Columbia and a d j -o i n i n g t e r r i t o r i e s have none. Like other p r i m i t i v e peoples they have o r a l t r a d i t i o n s of the f a m i l y and t r i b e , and records of descent, more or l e s s r e l i a b l e , which go back f o r f i v e or s i x or even, i n some i n s t -ances, f o r ten g e n e r a t i o n s . Beyond these they can supply us w i t h no i n f o r m a t i o n concerning t h e i r past;: such knowledge as we would gather of t h a t we must gle a n f o r o u r s e l v e s from, t h e i r o l d camp s i t e s and from a n c i e n t b u r i a l grounds. From these two sources we l e a r n t h a t the country has been occupied by r a c e s l i v i n g i n a s t a t e of p r i m i t i v e c u l t u r e s i m i l a r to that of the t r i b e s now occupying the l a n d f o r two or perhaps three thousand y e a r s . Beyond t h i s p e r i o d we 8 Diamond Jenness, Indians of Canada. B u l l e t i n 65, Nat-i o n a l Museum of Canada, Ottawa, 1932., p. 228. 9 G.T. Emmons, The T a h l t a n Indians, U n i v e r s i t y of Penn-s y l v a n i a , Museum A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1911, p. 15. have no evidence of man's presence i n t h i s p a r t of the w o r l d . 10 P r o f e s s o r Charles Borden of the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l -umbia, d i g g i n g i n the same s i t e n e a r l y f i f t y years l a t e r , con-firmed t h i s p e r i o d of occupancy on the b a s i s of carbon remains from lodge p o s t - h o l e s dug i n t o b a r r e n g l a c i a l t i l l . I t i s b e l i e v e d that m i g r a t i o n by way of the B e r i n g S t r a i t 12 ceased between e i g h t and s i x thousand years ago. About f i v e thousand years a f t e r the l a s t migrants had made t h e i r way i n t o the vast reaches of the Americas, then, some of t h e i r descend-ants had searched out most of the i n h a b i t a b l e corners of what i s now B r i t i s h Columbia. What of t h i s l a n d which was to be the new home of these immigrants? A c c o r d i n g to H i l l - T o u t , The h a b i t a t and n a t u r a l surroundings of a people , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f that people be i n the e a r l i e r , ruder stages of l i f e , have such an important b e a r i n g upon t h e i r c h a r a c t e r and c u l t u r a l development that any attempt "to t r e a t of t h e i r n a t i o n a l o r t r i b a l l i f e must ... g i v e some account o f t h e i r geographic p o s i t i o n . 13 The c h i e f g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s of the area under study here were a c o a s t - l i n e indented by lon g , narrow i n l e t s , and p r o t e c t e d from the open ocean by one l a r g e i s l a n d t h a t covered almost h a l f of the e n t i r e c o a s t , plus innumerable s m a l l e r islands;; a 10 The Native Races of the B r i t i s h Empiret B r i t i s h North America: The Far West. The Home of the S a l i s h and Dene. London, A r c h i b a l d Constable & Co. L t d . , I9O7, p. l k . 11 Information r e c e i v e d d u r i n g an i n t e r v i e w on l a s t day of ex c a v a t i n g , August, 1955• 12 B r i t i s h Columbia H e r i t a g e S e r i e s , op. c i t . . p. li}.. 13 H i l l - T o u t , i b i d . , p. 1. 5 c o a s t a l mountain range, h i g h , rocky and steep, which crowded cl o s e to the water's edge, l e a v i n g l i t t l e or no i n t e r v e n i n g p l a i n ; i n l a n d , a s e r i e s of a l t e r n a t e plateaus and mountain ranges running i n a g e n e r a l n o r t h - t o - s o u t h d i r e c t i o n , and d r a i n e d by waterways which u l t i m a t e l y wound through p r e c i p -i t a t e , g l a c i a t e d v a l l e y s to tidewater at the i n l e t s ' heads. C l i m a t i c a l l y , the coast underwent a c y c l e of c o o l , r a i n y w i n t e r s and m i l d summers, while the i n t e r i o r remained compara-t i v e l y a r i d throughout the year to the south, p r e c i p i t a t i o n g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g toward the n o r t h . A dense c o n i f e r o u s r a i n -f o r e s t covered the c o a s t l i n e throughout i t s l e n g t h ranged, from south to n o r t h , through sagebrush to b o r e a l f o r e s t to near-tundra . C o a s t a l waters abounded w i t h f i s h and sea-mammals of many spe c i e s and v a r i e t i e s , and beaches, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s h e l t e r e d bays where f r e s h and s a l t waters mingled, were r i c h w i t h clams, mussels, c o c k l e s and other sea-foods. Salmon, by f a r the most p l e n t i f u l of the many kinds of f i s h , ascended streams and r i v e r s i n s e a rch of s u i t a b l e spawning grounds, one v a r i e t y , the sock-eye, r e a c h i n g the very h e a r t of the i n t e r i o r up the Skeena and the F r a s e r . Deer frequented almost the e n t i r e a r e a , and moose, e l k , and c a r i b o u wandered about c e r t a i n areas of the i n t e r i o r , the c a r i b o u alone remaining e x c l u s i v e l y to the n o r t h . V a r y i n g kinds of b e r r i e s grew d u r i n g the summer season along the e n t i r e coast and i n r i v e r v a l l e y s . Ducks and geese frequented i n l e t s and lakes d u r i n g t h e i r m i g r a t i o n s , and one or another kind of grouse could be found almost everywhere. I t was i n g e n e r a l a la n d of p l e n t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y along the c o a s t , where, so a s a y i n g has come down, "When the t i d e i s out, the t a b l e Is s e t " . John Wesley Powell i n l891 1^' made the f i r s t major a n a l -y s i s of American I n d i a n languages, of which he found over f i f t y i n North America. Edward S a p i r 1 ^ reduced the number of c u l t -u r a l language groups to seven, three of which he found r e p r e -sented i n B r i t i s h Columbia. S a p i r grouped the Athapascas and Haidas together i n t o the Na-Dene group; the S a l i s h , Kootenays, and Kwakiutls w i t h the Mosan-Algonkin, and p l a c e d the Tsimsh-i a n s w i t h the Penutian stock of the Western United S t a t e s . The N a t i o n a l Museum of Canada i n 1932 d e l i n e a t e d nine l i n g u i s t i c f a m i l i e s (see P l a t e I I ) as they occupied the P a c i f i c l i t t o r a l between the [4.9th and 60th P a r a l l e l s about 1725, A.D. The areas of occupancy as so d e l i n e a t e d have remained more or l e s s s t a t i c d u r i n g the ensuing two hundred y e a r s . The l a n g -uages spoken by a l l of these groups d i f f e r so much from any present-day A s i a t i c tongue that i t i s v i r t u a l l y impossible to t r a c e t h e i r o r i g i n on l i n g u i s t i c grounds. Since there are q u i t e marked d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t r a - g r o u p d i a l e c t s , those of Squamish, S e c h e l t , and Nanaimo v i l l a g e s b e i n g mutually u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , a l though the g r e a t e s t s e p a r a t i o n between v i l l a g e s i s only s i x t y m i l e s , would tend to i n d i c a t e t h a t settlements as d i s c o v e r e d by e a r l y European a r r i v a l s have remained r e l a t i v e l y i s o l a t e d over many c e n t u r i e s . I f we can reason from midden remains that Indians have occ u p i e d s i t e s i n B r i t i s h Columbia f o r a t l e a s t two thousand years i l l I n d i a n L i n g u i s t i c F a m i l i e s , Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, I89I. 15 " C e n t r a l and North American Languages', E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , llj,th e d i t i o n , v o l . $. 16 Map 27OA, A b o r i g i n e s of Canada. 7 and deduce from language d i f f e r e n c e s which e x i s t even w i t h i n any g i v e n l i n g u i s t i c boundary t h a t d i a l e c t groups have main-t a i n e d t h e i r l e s s e r boundaries through many hundreds of y e a r s , then we can f u r t h e r c o n j e c t u r e t h a t the c u l t u r e s which the f i r s t white men to a r r i v e observed to e x i s t among them hatfe e v o l v e d over e q u a l l y lengthy p e r i o d s of time. Although here again many l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s endured, the en-t i r e area c o u l d be d i v i d e d i n t o three g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l r e g i o n s ; the Northwest Coast, the P l a t e a u , and the Mackenzie, or Atha-bascan. 17 D i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s of the Coast r e g i o n were: ' depend-ence on sea foods, use of wood, and the development of a soc-i a l c l a s s system. P r e c i p i t o u s t e r r a i n and dense undergrowth r e p e l l e d the land hunter, while s h e l t e r e d waters and compara-t i v e l y e a s i l y procured sea-game a t t r a c t e d the fi s h e r m a n . Cus-t o m a r i l y , the ab l e - b o d i e d men f i s h e d , o l d e r men tended s e a l -nets a t the shore, and women and c h i l d r e n gathered b e r r i e s and clams. Although f i s h was the s t a p l e d i e t , the s o f t s k e l e t o n of t h i s c r e a t u r e soon decomposed, while the clam's hard s h e l l r e -mained. The word "midden" on t h i s coast has thus become almost synonymous w i t h "clam-heap". Since f i s h of one type or another could be caught almost anywhere, the determining f a c t o r f o r the l o c a t i o n of a permanent v i l l a g e s i t e was the presence of a clam-bed. Wood, p a r t i c u l a r l y cedar, found almost u n i v e r s a l use. I t provided p o s t s , beams and planks f o r lodges so l a r g e , some of 17 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Haida, Nootka, B e l l a Coola. Tslmshian. K w a k i u t l . Coast S a l l s h , V i c t o r i a . P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s . 1952. 8 them hundreds of f e e t l o n g and f i f t y f e e t wide, t h a t t h e i r t e n -i fi ants comprised an e n t i r e v i l l a g e . I t s u p p l i e d m a t e r i a l f o r boxes, bowls, and canoes. I t s bark could be used f o r c l o t h i n g , ropes and mats, and i t s r o o t s f o r b a s k e t s . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n was almost e n t i r e l y by water, every v i l l a g e m a i n t a i n i n g i t s f l e e t of dug-out canoes. Haida and Nootka Ind-ians p e r f e c t e d t h i s v e s s e l to the p o i n t where i t c o u l d take to the open sea. S p e c i a l i z e d Nootka men employed t h e i r high-prowed canoes i n whale-hunting. Perhaps because of the comparative permanence of t h e i r v i l -l a g e s , peoples of t h i s maritime c u l t u r e developed a c o n s c i o u s -ness of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y ownership. A l s o , p a r t l y at l e a s t no doubt because of the f a c t t h a t enough food c o u l d be gathered d u r i n g the summer to l a s t through the w i n t e r , l e a v i n g a p e r i o d of comparative l e i s u r e time, a s e r i e s of f e s t i v i t i e s came i n t o e x i s t e n c e to h e l p while away t h i s otherwise d r e a r y season. S o c i a l rank, p a r t i c u l a r l y among the Nootka, Kwakiutl, Haida, and Tsimshian, thus came to be determined by a combin-a t i o n of p r o p e r t y p o s s e s s i o n , r i g h t s t o c e r t a i n f o o d - g a t h e r i n g areas, and p r i v i l e g e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n c e r t a i n ceremonial per-formances. V i l l a g e s o c i e t y , a g a i n p a r t i c u l a r l y among the group j u s t mentioned, was g e n e r a l l y made up of three c l a s s e s ; n o b l e s , commoners, and s l a v e s . Leaders tended to be lodge major-domos r a t h e r than v i l l a g e or t r i b a l c h i e f s , as found among p l a i n s Ind-i a n s . P o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y went a l o n g w i t h s o c i a l rank, and d i s c u s s i o n s which would a f f e c t the e n t i r e v i l l a g e l a y i n the 18 John Rodgers J e w i t t , A J o u r n a l Kept a t Nootka During the Years 1803 - 1805. Boston, C E . G-oodapeed, l f e l " 9 hands of an u p p e r - c l a s s o l i g a r c h y , a group which remained r e l -a t i v e l y s t a t i c , but to which commoners had some access through v e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y . Since no w r i t t e n language had been developed, claims to t i t l e s , p r o p e r t y and p r i v i l e g e s were made o r a l l y . The customary o c c a s i o n f o r such claims to be made, g e n e r a l l y upon the b i r t h or marriage w i t h i n the f a m i l y h o l d i n g i t , became known as a p o t l a t c h . Although Webster's D i c t i o n a r y c r e d i t s the term tio the Chinook " p a t s h a t l " , and denotes i t as a ceremonial d i s t r i b u t i o n of g i f t s a t a f e s t i v a l , i t meant much more than j u s t t h a t . The p o t l a t c h was a time f o r g r a n t i n g names, l a y i n g claims to h e r i -tage, r e c i t i n g f a m i l y h e r a l d i c legends, and d i s p l a y i n g wealth, and the degree of i t s success l a r g e l y determined the s o c i a l p o s i t i o n of the f a m i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r I t . Commoners seldom had s u f f i c i e n t p r o p e r t y of claims to h o l d p o t l a t c h e s ; s l a v e s were simply p i e c e s of p r o p e r t y , a c q u i r e d by the c l a s s e s above them, I n i t i a l l y through wars or r a i d s , which could be disposed of on p o t l a t c h o c c a s i o n s . Tsimshian and Haida v i l l a g e s were d i v i d e d i n t o c l a n s , the Tsimshian i n t o four c l a n s , and the Haida i n t o two. Marriage i n both groups was exogamous,and descent m a t r i l i n e a l . Kwakiutl, Nootka, and S a l i s h v i l l a g e s had no c l a n s ; the f i r s t two groups f o l l o w e d a b i l i n e a l , and the l a s t a p a t r i l i n e a l descent. Throughout the l e n g t h of the c o a s t , noble f a m i l i e s c r e -ated and maintained a l l i a n c e s through i n t e r - v i l l a g e marriages, g e n e r a l l y w i t h i n t h e i r own l i n g u i s t i c b o u n d a r i e s . 1 ^ The I n t e r i o r S a l i s h and Kootenay groups hunted game animals 19 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Haida. K w a k i u t l . Nootka. Coast S a l i s h . T s imshian. 10 as w e l l as f i s h e d f o r f o o d , and developed a l e s s e l a b o r a t e 20 s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e than d i d t h e i r maritime n e i g h b o r s . There seems t o have been l i t t l e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , c h i e f t a i n s h i p and other p o s i t i o n s of importance being gained by m e r i t . There was l i t t l e a f f i l i a t i o n among v i l l a g e s , and the v i l l a g e , r a t h e r than any l a r g e r t r i b a l or band grouping, remained the c u l t u r a l u n i t . Horse-back r i d i n g , and the use of l e a t h e r c l o t h i n g and f e a t h e r adornments seem to have been borrowed, p a r t i c u l a r l y by the Kootenays, from n e i g h b o r i n g p l a i n s groups, but b a s i c s o c i a l customs i n g e n e r a l seem to have remained a r a t h e r s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n of those of the C o a s t a l S a l i s h peoples, w i t h whom the westernmost of the Plateau groups came i n t o c o n t a c t . The Dene of the n o r t h geared t h e i r economic l i f e to move-ments of the r o v i n g herds of c a r i b o u , on which they depended 21 f o r food and c l o t h i n g . These nomadic groups were made up of f a m i l i e s of r e l a t e d males, who cooperated i n t h e i r s e a r c h f o r game on known hunting grounds. Again, although t h e i r economic way of l i f e was s i m i l a r to t h a t of t h e i r neighbors to the e a s t , they adopted t h e i r s o c i a l customs from peoples to the west of them. Throughout the e n t i r e i n t e r i o r , p r o p e r t y tended to be h e l d i n communal, r a t h e r than p r i v a t e , ownership. The a r t of p l a n t d o m e s t i c a t i o n , which had been a c q u i r e d by the peoples of Mexico and C e n t r a l America about 3000 B.C., and which by 1500 A.D. or so had spread throughout most of the western North American d e s e r t , d i d not r e a c h the 49th P a r a l l e l , and a l l 20 T e i t , James A., The S a l l s h a n T r i b e s of the Western P l a t -eaus , Washington, U.S. P r i n t i n g Bureau, 1930. 2.1 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s ; Our Native Peoples, Dene. 11 peoples n o r t h of t h a t remained food-gathers r a t h e r than food-growers. That they d i d so undoubtedly hindered t h e i r t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s , but not n e c e s s a r i l y t h e i r c u l t u r a l growth i n other r e s p e c t s . In the words of C o l l i e r : , T e c h n o l o g i c a l l y , a n c i e n t man advanced s l o w l y . In the c o n t r o l and b e n e f l c i e n t development of human nature through i n s t i t u t i o n s he advanced f a s t and f a r . 22 A p r i m i t i v e people, l i v i n g i n an i n t i m a c y w i t h nature to h i g h l y c i v i l i z e d n a t i o n can comprehend, developed t h e i r b e -l i e f s as e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r , and attempts to l i v e i n harmony w i t h , the n a t u r a l f o r c e s and phenomena of t h e i r environment. Although v a r i a t i o n s i n d e t a i l developed among the c u l t u r a l groups of the a r e a , the fundamental bases o f t h e i r b e l i e f s r e -v e a l e d remarkable s i m i l a r i t i e s . P h i l i p Drucker»s summing up of these fundamental bases can be a p p l i e d to a l l of the peoples of B r i t i s h Columbia: These fundamental p r i n c i p l e s that combined to give Northwest Coast r e l i g i o n i t s d i s t i n c t i v e c a s t were:: l a c k of s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n of b e l i e f s on c r e a t i o n , cos-mology and d e i t i e s ; a r a t h e r vague n o t i o n of a r e -mote, d i s i n t e r e s t e d Supreme Being or Beings; a set of b e l i e f s , r e v o l v i n g about the i m m o r t a l i t y of c e r -t a i n e c o n o m i c a l l y important s p e c i e s of animals, com-bi n e d w i t h a s e r i e s of r i t u a l p r a c t i c e s to ensure the r e t u r n of these c r e a t u r e s ; and, f i n a l l y , the concept of the p o s s i b i l i t y of l i f e l o n g a s s i s t a n c e by a p e r s o n a l guardian s p i r i t . 23 With the e x c e p t i o n of the Dene, b e l i e f i n a Supreme Being was common among I n d i a n groups of the a r e a . T y p i c a l l y , a lthough '22 John C o l l i e r , op. c i t . , p. 23. 23 P h i l i p Drucker, Indians Of the Northwest Coast. Smith-sonian I n s t i t u t i o n , 1955, p. 13b. 12 he may have taken an a c t i v e p a r t i n world events i n the p a s t ; may, i n f a c t , have been the C r e a t o r , at present he l i v e d r e -mote from the a f f a i r s of men. The Haidas r e f e r r e d t o t h i s Being as "Power-of-the-Shining-Heavens", the Tsimshians as "Laxha", and the Nootkas as f o u r "Great C h i e f s " . The K w a k i u t l s , B e l l a Coolas, and Kootenays saw the sun as t h e i r C r e a t o r , and the S a l i s h , although they r e c o g n i z e d a Supreme Being, gave him no 2k p a r t i c u l a r name. H" These Beings of the heavens seem, endeed, to have p l a y e d l i t t l e p a r t i n the n a t i v e s ' l i v e s , but t© have dwelt In a realm ©f myth r a t h e r than a t a f o c a l p o i n t of worship. M o n o t h e i s t i c gods, a l l - p o w e r f u l and ever-present as p l a i n s Indians envisaged them, peoples of the northwest d i d not have. What d i d form the b a s i s and the core of t h e i r code of l i f e was a thorough and a l l - i n c l u s i v e animism. "The gods walked on every road of man, and every road of man was s a c r e d " P h i l i p Drucker ° suggests t h a t the b e l i e f o r i g i n a t e d w i t h the salmon, whom the Indian regarded as d w e l l i n g as people l i k e themselves i n a far-away l a n d , and coming p e r i o d i c a l l y i n d i s g u i s e t© o f f e r themselves as food. Diamond J e n n e s s 2 ? found that the Sekani had once b e l i e v e d t h a t animals and human beings had once been a l i k e . The peoples of the northwest f i n a l l y found themselves l i v -i n g i n a world o f s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s , which caused e v e r y t h i n g and c o n t r o l l e d the m a t e r i a l world. Animism entered even i n t o t h e , t o us, inanimate world, endowing the elements, u t e n s i l s , t o o l s and ~~ 2h P h i l i p Drucker, op. c i t . . p. lkO. 25 John C o l l i e r , op. c i t . . p. 22. 26 P h i l i p JDrucker, op. c i t . , p. l l | 0 . 27 Diamond Jenness, op. c i t . , p. 67. 13> weapons w i t h p e r s o n a l s p i r i t s . S p i r i t s were l i t e r a l l y every-where, and t h e i r power determined man's v e r y d e s t i n y . These f o r c e s , however, were not beyond a p p e a l . The a n i m i s -t i c and magical world-view of the Indian l e d him to an assump-t i o n t h at i n t e n s i t y of consciousness - c o n c e n t r a t e d , sus-t a i n e d l o n g i n g and the f e e l i n g of power, joy, h a p p i -ness, beauty, and of union w i t h the sources of being - was e f f e c t u a l i n the magical c o n t r o l of nature through c o - p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h the gods. 28 The attainment o f c o - p a r t n e r s h i p c o u l d be won, on the b a s i s of t h i s assumption, through group ceremony and i n d i v i d u a l r i t -u a l . One of the most r i g i d l y adhered-to ceremonies, p a r t i c u l a r l y among a l l groups which depended on c y c l i c spawning runs o f f i s h f o r t h e i r main food supply, was the " f i r s t - f i s h " ceremony. W i l -l i a m Duncan, m i s s i o n a r y d u r i n g much of the l a s t h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h century among the Tsimshian, has l e f t a d e t a i l e d r e c o r d of the treatment accorded the f i r s t eulochan c a t c h by some of these people a t the Nass R i v e r . " A l l o f these plans must be c a r r i e d out without a d d i t i o n or change," he concludes h i s account, "otherwise the f i s h w i l l be ashamed, and perhaps never come again".^9 These same people and others c a r r i e d out s p e c i a l ceremonies, l i k e w i s e , over the f i r s t salmon c a t c h of the season, on to honor and welcome the f i r s t of the s p e c i e s . J The Kootenays, p o s s i b l y through P l a i n s i n f l u e n c e , each day extended p e t i t i o n s to the Dawn and to the Sun, and t h e i r d a i l y 28 John C o l l i e r , op. c i t . , p. 21. 29 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Tsimshian, p. 36. 30 P h i l i p Drucker, op. c i t . , p. II4.O. I l l round was f i l l e d w i t h many small ceremonies aimed at s e c u r i n g f a v o r from the s p i r i t w o r l d . J S i m i l a r l y , the s e c r e t s o c i e t y dances and w i n t e r ceremonials o f the Kwakiutls, the t o s s i n g i n t o the sea of g i f t s to the k i l l e r whale by the Haidas, the Wolf Dance of the Nootkas, the C a n n i b a l Dance of the B e l l a Coola, and the h a r v e s t songs of thanks of the I n t e r i o r S a l i s h were a l l aimed, i n p a r t a t l e a s t , a t g a i n i n g r a p p o r t w i t h which-32 ever s p i r i t s each people f e l t a p p r o p r i a t e . E n t i r e v i l l a g e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n appeals to these s p i r i t s , but they were l e d by a type of p r i e s t known as a shaman. Wearing costumes and masks, the shaman, accompanied by c e r t a i n chosen members of the t r i b e s i m i l a r l y a c c o u t r e d , sought by i n c a n t a t -i o n s , dances, and the m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e i r masks to p r o p i t i a t e s p i r i t s whose a i d they wished to s o l i c i t . ^ The masked a c t o r s were, i n e f f e c t , the embodiment of the s p i r i t s of the c r e a t u r e s b e i n g appealed t o , g e n e r a l l y wolves, b e a r s , k i l l e r whales, and the legendary c a n n i b a l s and t h u n d e r b i r d s . Thus the ceremonies r e p r e s e n t e d a kind of sympathetic magic, as the performers acted out p o r t i o n s of the m y t h o l o g i c a l and legendary h e r i t a g e of t h e i r audience group. The Kwakiutls were so i n f l u e n c e d by t h i s type of ceremony that they r e f e r r e d to summer as the "profane" 1, and to winter as the " s a c r e d " season. During the l a t t e r p e r i o d of time, v i l l a g e s , i n s t e a d of being grouped i n c l a n s , waived t h i s 31 B r i t i s h Columbia H e r i tage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Kootenay, p. 28. 32 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Kwakiutl, p. 50; Haida, p. 2l+; Nootka, p. 1+0; B e l l a Coola, p. 60; I n t e r i o r S a l l s h . p. 1+0. 333 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Our Native Peoples, p. 28. 15 form of o r g a n i z a t i o n , and membership i n a s e c r e t s o c i e t y became the paramount grouping. The i n d i v i d u a l , i n a d d i t i o n to p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n group ce r e -monies, observed p e r s o n a l r i t u a l i s t i c behavior i n h i s d a i l y l i f e . No a d u l t , i t was b e l i e v e d , c o u l d f u n c t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y un-l e s s he had obtained d u r i n g h i s youth the s p i r i t f o r c e of some cr e a t u r e or o b j e c t as h i s p r i v a t e g u a r d i a n s p i r i t . From e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , boys i n p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n e d to l o o k among the f e a t u r e s of h i s n a t u r a l surroundings f o r some p a r t i c u l a r element which presented i t s e l f to h i s p e r c e p t i o n i n an unusual way. Some time during e a r l y puberty he would wander out, to a customary s i t e a t f i r s t , where f o r s e v e r a l days and n i g h t s he would pursue h i s quest, while h i s f a m i l y at home e n j o i n e d i n ceremonies t o f a c i l -i t a t e h i s s u c c e s s . L a t e r , he would disappear from h i s v i l l a g e and remain absent f o r weeks, or even months, during a l l of # i l c h time he sought r e v e l a t i o n by h i s chosen b i r d , beast, or o b j e c t that i t s s p i r i t was w i l l i n g to be h i s g u a r d i a n . Some time a f t e r h i s r e t u r n home, aid e d by a shaman at a s p e c i a l ceremony, the s p i r i t , about which he vhad t o l d no one, would a s s e r t i t s e l f i n 3k song through h i s l i p s . T h i s g u a r d i a n - s p i r i t d i d not enter the i n d i v i d u a l to poss-ess him, but a i d e d him i n the p u r s u i t of h i s h u n t i n g , f i s h i n g , woodworking, and other a c t i v i t i e s . The i n d i v i d u a l had h i s own s o u l ; i l l n e s s or death c o u l d r e s u l t i f t h i s s o u l were l o s t or i f some extraneous e v i l i n f l u e n c e were to i n t r u d e h i s body. Cer-t a i n shamans made a p r a c t i c e of c a l l i n g upon t h e i r s p i r i t h e l p e r s 3l+ W.W. Elmandorf, Anthropology 301, Summer S e s s i o n , U.B.C. 1958> and Mrs E l l e n P a u l l , S e c h e l t , s e r i e s of i n t e r v i e w s 1958-59. 16 to seek the l o s t s o u l , which might have s t r a y e d t o the land of the dead, and of removing i n t r u d i n g a r t i c l e s and contaminat-35 i o n s . The s o u l was of g r e a t e s t concern to the f a m i l y d u r i n g times of b i r t h and death. I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t the s o u l of a new-born c h i l d was h e l d only p r e c a r i o u s l y i n the body; that the s l i g h t e s t f a l s e a ct on t h e i r p a r t might cause i t to r e t u r n t o the dead ancestor whence i t came. When a member of a f a m i l y d i e d h i s k i n were t o r n between g r i e f a t the l o s s and f e a r of the ghost. Wakes, a t which f a m i l y d i r g e s were sung, were h e l d to encourage the s o u l t o journey to the l a n d of the dead, f o r i f i t remained i n the v i l l a g e i t might s t e a l souls from the l i v -i n g . There was no h e a v e n - h e l l a n t i t h e s i s i n northwest Indian b e l i e f . The Kootenays and I n t e r i o r S a l l s h b e l i e v e d that the land of the dead was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an abundance of food; most other peoples envisaged i t merely as a vague shadow-land 37 i n one d i r e c t i o n or another from t h e i r p l a c e of abode. Mythology played a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n the l i v e s of a l l northwest p e o p l e s . G e n e r a l l y speaking, myths were of three c a t -e g o r i e s : those i n v o l v i n g c r e a t i o n , or a " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " of the world; those i n v o l v i n g f a m i l y h e r a l d r y from a n c i e n t times, and those of more r e c e n t times, o f t e n based on some s l i g h t i n c i d e n t . U s u a l l y , however, myths h e l d the common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of b e i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s of why things are as they are a t the presen t time. "35 P h i l i p Drucker, op. c i t . . p. 114+. 3:6 I b i d . , p. 159. 3>7 B r i t i s h Columbia H e r i t a g e S e r i e s ; Our Native Peoples. 17 Indian mythology s t r e s s e d the f a c t that a t some age f a r i n t o the p a s t , animals c o u l d a l t e r n a t e from t h e i r own guise to that of the human being, and animals and man spoke the same language. Since peoples the world over have a t t r i b u t e d s o u l to the human b e i n g , t h i s p a r t of t h e i r mythology e x p l a i n e d to the I n d i a n peoples why animals a l s o had s o u l s , or s p i r i t s . P o s s i b l y stemming from a t r i b a l remembrance of c r e a t u r e s encountered by t h e i r ancestors d u r i n g the g l a c i a l epoch, a type of myth dwelt upon the deeds of a "transformer", g e n e r a l l y termed "Raven", who i n ages gone by a i d e d the people by r i d d i n g the world of monsters who had preyed upon them, and even m o d i f i e d the human being i n t o i t s present form from a more rudimentary s t a t e of ex-i s t e n c e . S i m i l a r i t y between these and myths from A s i a suggest that some of the Indian h i s t o r i c legends may have endured from before the time of t h e i r m i g r a t i o n . Myths of l e s s a n c i e n t o r i g i n g e n e r a l l y p e r t a i n e d to the d e r i v a t i o n of f a m i l y h e r a l d i c emblems, and were the a s s e r t i o n , which could be made at a p o t l a t c h or other a p p r o p r i a t e ceremony, of the r i g h t s of c e r t a i n l i n e a g e s to use a bear, a toad, an eagle, or other c r e a t u r e on a totem p o l e , which was the p h y s i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of such legends. The B e l l a Coola b e l i e v e d t h e i r myths, and even maintained t h a t t h e i r f a m i l y names had been brought down from above by remote ancestors.^® Most legends of more re c e n t o r i g i n were intended l a r g e l y f o r amusement, but even these u s u a l l y c o n t a i n e d , even i f as a n o n - e s s e n t i a l element, e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r c e r t a i n phenomena. 38 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s ; Our Native Peoples, B e l l a C oola. p. 28. 18 Indian a r t grew d i r e c t l y out of r e l i g i o n and mythology. The whole a r t .... was aimed at the d e p i c t i o n of the s u p e r n a t u r a l beings, i n animal, monster, or human form, who a c c o r d i n g to l i n e a g e or c l a n t r a d -i t i o n s had appeared to some a n c e s t o r . . . . The desc-endants of that a n c e s t o r , i n the proper l i n e , i n -h e r i t e d the r i g h t t o d i s p l a y symbols of the super-n a t u r a l b eing to r e p r e s e n t t h e i r noble descent .... Thus the a r t s t y l e i t s e l f , through the o b j e c t s made a c c o r d i n g to i t s d i c t a t e s , was i n t i m a t e l y l i n k e d w i t h the s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , rank, and s t a t u s , as w e l l as the ceremonial p a t t e r n s , of the Northern groups. 39 A r t , i n f a c t , c o u l d not be s a i d to have e x i s t e d as a pur-s u i t i n i t s e l f among these p e o p l e s . No space on b u i l d i n g , p o s t , or u t e n s i l was carved or c o l o r e d as f i n e a r t , merely to be d e c o r a t i v e . The a r t i s t a p p l i e d h i s a r t to u t i l i t a r i a n m a t e r i a l s and ceremonial c l o t h i n g . Men worked t h e i r c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a r t i n wood, bone, and stone - totem p o l e s , boxes, c l u b s , t o o l s , spoons, masks, and canoes. Women worked t h e i r geometric designs i n t o t h e i r weaving - c l o t h i n g , b a s k e t s , and mats. V i l l a g e and a l s o i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e s developed, and no a r t i s t c ould borrow from another, s i n c e he would not have the r i g h t to use the other's c r e s t s . A r t r e f l e c t e d the s o c i a l as w e l l as the r e l i g i o u s l i f e of a v i l l a g e ; the magnitude of a p i e c e of work such as a totem p o l e , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n d i c a t e d the s o c i a l s t a t u s of the l i n e a g e d e p i c t e d as much as d i d the c r e s t s r e p r e s e n t e d on i t . As might be expected, the maritime peoples, e n j o y i n g a more s t a b l e v i l l a g e l i f e , and more l e i s u r e time, developed a more e l a b o -r a t e a r t form than d i d those of the i n t e r i o r . In g e n e r a l , the extent to which o b j e c t s were carved and c o l o r e d d i m i n i s h e d from 39 P h i l i p Drucker, op. c i t . . p. 166. li.0 W'.W. Elmandorf, Anthropology 301, TJ.B.C. Summer S e s s i o n , 1958. 19 n o r t h to south a l o n g the c o a s t , and from coast t o p l a t e a u . The I n t e r i o r S a l l s h and Dene d i d v i r t u a l l y no c a r v i n g , hut the f o r -mer group decorated t h e i r b a s k e t r y , and the l a t t e r ornamented t h e i r l e a t h e r c l o t h i n g . E x t e n s i v e t r a d i n g was c a r r i e d on between groups whose prod-u c t s d i f f e r e d . I n t e r i o r Indians thus exchanged deer and c a r i b o u a n t l e r s , h i d e s , and other animal products f o r oolachan o i l and cured salmon from maritime peoples, and b u f f a l o robes from the p l a i n s made t h e i r way as f a r west as Spences B r i d g e . A n o r t h -south trade r o u t e a l s o e x i s t e d a l l the way from A l a s k a to nor-thern C a l i f o r n i a . The Chinook band, l o c a t e d on the Columbia R i v e r where, so one of t h e i r legends goes, a huge n a t u r a l stone bridge once e x i s t e d , became engaged i n t h i s trade to such an extent t h a t , even before a r r i v a l of the white man i n t e n s i f i e d the p r o c e s s , t h e i r tongue had come to be the accepted b a r t e r language throughout the P a c i f i c l i t t o r a l . E d u c a t i o n , as a r t , stemmed from, and was concerned w i t h , the r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l , and economic s t r u c t u r e complex of the s o c i e t y . Taking place e n t i r e l y w i t h i n the f a m i l y and w i t h i n the v i l l a g e t e r r i t o r y , i t e x i s t e d as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of l i f e to an extent t h a t nowhere obtains i n our modern t e c h n o l o g i c a l s o c i e t y . As w i t h a r t , i t d i d not a t any time, i n f a c t , e x i s t as an e n t i t y i n i t s e l f , but a c t e d as the warp which s u s t a i n e d the weave and the p a t t e r n of s o c i e t y i n i t s e n t i r e t y . John C o l l i e r , United S t a t e s Commissioner of Indian A f f a i r s from 1933 to 19kS, says of t h i s e d u c a t i o n i n h i s book, Indians of the Americas; Hence was b u i l t and s u s t a i n e d the l i f e a r t . The elements of t h i s l i f e a r t were language, song, dance, 20 ceremonial, c r a f t s m a n s h i p , a s c e t i c d i s c i p l i n e , f i g h t i n g , and the chase. A l l o f these, I n c l u d i n g language, were s u s t a i n e d by u n w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n , and the t r a d i t i o n was communicated through the ge n e r a t i o n s by systematized e d u c a t i o n . U s u a l l y the e d u c a t i o n was aimed toward, and was c a r r i e d out from, the c r i s i s of adolescence i n the i n d i -v i d u a l and the e r i s e s o f sacred ceremony In the group. L|.l The u l t i m a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the p r i m i t i v e group was upon ed u c a t i o n , and the u l t i m a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h i s e d u c a t i o n was upon the c r i s i s o f adolescence, the b r i e f p e r i o d i n the l i f e of the i n d i v i d u a l which determined whether or not the c h i l d would succeed i n growing up. E v e r y t h i n g t h a t was done w i t h the baby and the c h i l d was aimed a t t h i s most important b r i d g e i n h i s l i f e . At b i r t h the baby was g i v e n a name. This name was not a mere a p p e l a t i o n , but an i n t i m a t e p a r t o f the b e i n g concerned. The name i t s e l f c a r r i e d c o n s i d e r a b l e power, and could be used to c o n t r o l i t s possessor to some e x t e n t . G e n e r a l l y , i t was a h e r i t a g e name, a v a i l a b l e from a deceased f o r e b e a r , who had i n t u r n obtained i t i n l i k e manner. The bearer c o u l d add to t h i s i n i t i a l name d u r i n g h i s l i f e , as he earned the p r i v i l e g e t o do so, each of these a d d i t i o n a l names being l i k e w i s e f a m i l y p r o p -e r t y . Some time d u r i n g v e r y e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , an e l d e r o f the f a m i l y , g e n e r a l l y a grandmother, sang a song a p p r o p r i a t e to the endowed name. T h i s song was repeated at i n t e r v a l s and memorized 142 by the c h i l d . Ill p. 21. 1+2 Information obtained from t a l k w i t h S h i r l e y J u l i a n , S e c h e l t , J u l y , 1958. _a A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Indian psychology was absence o f corp-o r a l punishment. I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t harsh c o r r e c t i o n l e d t o l a c k of s e l f - c o n t r o l . The young c h i l d was t h e r e f o r e r e a r e d i n a permis s i v e s i t u a t i o n i n which he would l e a r n s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . T h i s permissive i n f a n c y and apparent l a c k o f formal t r a i n i n g among most t r i b e s d u r i n g the f i r s t three or fo u r years was i n -tended t o make te a c h i n g e a s i e r l a t e r on. Formal t r a i n i n g , when i t began, v a r i e d s l i g h t l y from t r i b e to t r i b e , but i n the main i t i n v o l v e d l e a r n i n g myths, c r a f t s and c o r r e c t b e h a v i o r . Haidas, i n p a r t i c u l a r , l a i d g r e a t s t r e s s on the t e l l i n g , over and over a g a i n , c e r t a i n s t o r i e s , a n c e s t o r ad-venture legends, and f a m i l y h i s t o r i e s . The I n t e r i o r S a l i s h em-phasized hardihood of body, honesty, and moral s c r u p u l o u s n e s s . The Kootenay taught the young c h i l d to do f a m i l y chores. Coast 1+3 S a l i s h i n c u l c a t e d e t i q u e t t e and taboos. Emphasis on boys' edu c a t i o n of course d i f f e r e d from g i r l s ' In t h a t the former r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g i n woodcraft and the making and u s i n g of hunting and f i s h i n g equipment by male r e l a t i v e s , while the l a t t e r were i n s t r u c t e d In cooking, weaving, and the use o f m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s by female members of the l i n e a g e or fam-i l y . Boys, i n a d d i t i o n , were t r a i n e d to endure s u f f e r i n g . Pain was i n f l i c t e d by o l d e r members of the t r i b e a t a p p r o p r i a t e stages of the t r a i n i n g , not as punishment, but as t e s t s o f the novi c e s * s t o i c i s m . The concept of p a i n was thus employed i n a p o s i t i v e , not a n e g a t i v e , way by these p e o p l e s . 1+3 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , Our Native Peoples, Haida, p. 38, I n t e r i o r S a l i s h . p. 38, Kootenay. p. 38, Coast S a l i s h , p. h7. 22 Both boys and g i r l s were taught accepted codes of b e h a v i o r , together w i t h the r i g h t s and d u t i e s of t h e i r c l a s s . Rules of conduct were taught i n a p r a c t i c a l manner. Taboos were made tan-g i b l e by g i v i n g them c o r r e l a t i v e s . Thus, the c h i l d might be taught, " i t i s bad to s t e a l because people w i l l not have you i n t h e i r house", or " i t i s bad to be cowardly, because people w i l l laugh a t you and impose upon you, and the women w i l l say, *He should wear a s k i r t " . ^ Since there was no w r i t t e n language, d e t a i l s o f l e a r n i n g had to be memorized and r e t a i n e d , not o n l y by the ve r y young, as i n our s o c i e t y , but by a l l ages, s i n c e no p r i n t e d r e f e r e n c e e x i s t e d t h at c o u l d be turned t o i f memory l a p s e d . C h i l d r e n were thus taught to pay c l o s e a t t e n t i o n while s t o r i e s were being t o l d , and p u r p o s e f u l l y made to s i t s t i l l to the p o i n t of be-coming uncomfortable to emphasize the need f o r l i s t e n i n g and watching c a r e f u l l y . " I f you go to s l e e p while s t o r i e s are be i n g t o l d " , so one precept r a n , "you w i l l grow up hunchbacked".^ "'I learned e a s i l y " , says Mrs. E l l e n P a u l l of S E c h e l t , e i g h t y years of age, who can n e i t h e r read nor w r i t e , but who can s i n g L a t i n hymns and speak f l u e n t l y In S a l l s h , Chinook, and E n g l i s h . A b i l i t y to endure i n t e n s i t y of c o n c e n t r a t i o n over a pro-longed p e r i o d of time without l e s s e n i n g of mental or p h y s i c a l v i g o r seemed to be the aim of the i n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s . At puberty, boys' and g i r l s ' t r a i n i n g f o r adulthood entered i t s f i n a l s t a g e s. The boy's guardian s p i r i t ceremony, accomp-an i e d , i n some n o r t h e r n maritime groups, by I n i t i a t i o n i n t o a I4I4. B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s ; Our Native Peoples, I n t e r i o r S a l l s h . p. 39. 1+5 W'.W. Elmandorf, Anthropology 301, Summer U.B.C., 1958.. 2:3 s e c r e t s o c i e t y , marked h i s e n t r y i n t o manhood. The g i r l ' s t r a i n i n g a t t h i s time of l i f e i n v o l v e d negative admonitions i n the form of taboos as w e l l as p o s i t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n . She must av o i d c e r t a i n foods, e a t w i t h only c e r t a i n u t e n s i l s , and comb her h a i r w i t h only a s p e c i a l comb. She must at a l l times keep her f i n g e r s busy. ("I want to b r i n g my hands back to l i f e , " s a i d Mrs. E l l e n P a u l l , who r e c e n t l y resumed basket-making a f t e r a year of enforced i n a c t i v i t y i n h o s p i t a l ) . A l l such mode of con-duct was aimed at the d e v e l o p i n g , at an age when such an aware-ness might w e l l not have developed n a t u r a l l y , of the s i g n i f i c a n c e of womanhood and motherhood. P r e s t i g e of the f a m i l y could be maintained through success-f u l i n s t r u c t i o n , and damaged through poor t r a i n i n g . S o c i a l pressure was t h e r e f o r e a powerful goafc, d r i v i n g p u p i l and i n -s t r u c t o r a l i k e to do t h e i r b e s t . Since i n t e r - v i l l a g e marriages l i n k e d many noble f a m i l i e s t o g e t h e r , the s i z e of the group a f f -ected was o f t e n v e r y l a r g e , and the s o c i a l p r e s s u r e p r o p o r t i o n -a t e l y g r e a t . Behavior b e f i t t i n g s o c i a l p o s i t i o n was i n s t i l l e d I n t o youngsters from the e a r l i e s t p o s s i b l e age. High s o c i a l rank im-p l i e d d i g n i t y ; one must not, under any circumstances whatever, behave i n an u n d i g n i f i e d way. " I t i s a l l v ery w e l l f o r the com-moner f a m i l y to be l a x i n t h e i r b e h a v i o r , " a noble grandparent might say to h i s charges, "but you must maintain a r i g i d code of behavior at a l l times." Since many commoner f a m i l i e s were s t r u g g l i n g to ascend the s o c i a l l a d d e r , they too, however, tended to i n s i s t on a s t r i c t moral code. For examples o f s l a c k conduct there e x i s t e d always the s l a v e c l a s s , whose members 2k could not g a i n p r e s t i g e through moral r e c t i t u d e , and which seems t o have been c r e a t e d as an ever-present example o f be-h a v i o r c o n t r a s t r a t h e r than as a labor f o r c e . E d u c a t i o n i n the pre-European I n d i a n s o c i e t y was, through-out c h i l d h o o d , a continuous process c a r r i e d on w i t h i n the group of h i g h e s t potency, the primary, f a c e - t o - f a c e s o c i a l group. Each v i l l a g e was a cosmos unto i t s e l f , c o n t a i n i n g w i t h i n v i s -i b l e c o n f i n e s every i n g r e d i e n t of a h i g h l y developed r e l i g i o u s socio-economic complex. The c h i l d c o u l d p e r c e i v e every phase, every s p e c i a l t y , of human behavior and endeavor take p l a c e . B i r t h , death, warfare, the g a t h e r i n g of food, the making o f c l o t h i n g , the c o n s t r u c t i o n of b u i l d i n g s and canoes, a l l went on In a world i n which every i n d i v i d u a l was p a r t i c i p a n t as w e l l as observer. Every a c t was of s i g n i f i c a n c e - no act c o u l d take place unseen by the eyes of o t h e r s , and every nuance of be-h a v i o r i n v o l v e d a l l others i n i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s . The break from c h i l d h o o d i n t o adulthood, towards which a l l the years of t r a i n i n g had been aimed, i n v o l v e d t e s t s which had to be met and passed, but, once passed, the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was complete. Proofs of how m e r i t o r i o u s an a d u l t the new graduate would become l a y yet ahead, but a d u l t he was. The l i n e of demar-c a t i o n was c l e a r and d e c i s i v e ; the c h i l d d i d not l a y c l a i m to the a d u l t world, which was not yet h i s , and the a d u l t d i d not behave as a c h i l d . When I was a c h i l d , I spoke as a c h i l d , I understood as a c h i l d , I thought as a c h i l d , but when I became a man, I put away c h i l d i s h t h i n g s . J4.7 I4.6 John C o l l i e r , op. c i t . . p. 21. i+7 I C o r i n t h i a n s 13::11. 25 I t was a world founded on a group ethos which p e r c e i v e d the whole of e x i s t e n c e as one magic c i r c l e , and on an i n d i v i d u a l psyche which l i v e d a c c o r d i n g to the p a r t i n i t that I t must p l a y . P l a t e I I CULTURE- DISTRIBUTION MAP'. LANGUAGE 0OOtf J?0/?/5 s CHAPTER I I THE EUROPEAN APPEARS There was an I n d i a n , who had known no change, Who s t r a y e d content along a s u n l i t beach Gathering s h e l l s . He heard a strange Commingled n o i s e ; looked up; and gasped f o r speech, Fo r i n the bay, where nothi n g was b e f o r e , Moved on the sea, by magic, huge canoes, With b e l l y i n g c l o t h s on p o l e s , and not one oar, And f l u t t e r i n g c o l o u r e d s i g n s and clambering crews. , And he, i n f e a r , t h i s naked man a l o n e , His f a l l e n hands f o r g e t t i n g a l l t h e i r s h e l l s , His l i p s gone p a l e , k n e l t low behind a stone, And s t a r e d , and saw, and d i d not understand, Columbus's doom-burdened c a r a v e l s S l a n t to the shore, and a l l t h e i r seamen l a n d . S i r John C o l l i n s Squire The f i r s t e x p l o r e r s and f u r - t r a d e r s to v i s i t the north-west corner of North America encountered and observed, along i t s coast and throughout i t s i n t e r i o r , bands of a b o r i g i n e s . C o n t i n u i n g an e r r o r made c e n t u r i e s e a r l i e r by C h r i s t o p h e r Columbus on the Car-' lbbean I s l a n d s , they c a l l e d these o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s '"Indians". Subsequent i n v e s t i g a t i o n s by s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s of anthro-p o l o g i s t s have determined t h a t a l l of the n a t i v e peoples of t h i s c o n t i n e n t and i t s adjacent i s l a n d s almost c e r t a i n l y possess some common a n c e s t r a l o r i g i n , so t h a t a c o n t i n u a t i o n of the o r i g i n a l misnomer throughout the l a n d mass a t l e a s t d i d not i n o r d i n a t e l y compound the o r i g i n a l e r r o r . E a r l y European o b s e r v e r s , however, were not concerned w i t h the o r i g i n of these p e o p l e s . They sought no l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n of t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s , but were s a t i s f i e d w i t h r e g a r d i n g them as e t h n i c sub-groups of the a l l - i n c l u s i v e a p p e l -a t i v e "North American I n d i a n " . Any study of the " d i s c o v e r y " of t h i s area must be made wit h 27 the r e a l i z a t i o n i n mind t h a t a t no time s i n c e i t became h a b i t -able thousands of years ago has i t been u n i n h a b i t e d , Europeans, i t must be f u r t h e r admitted, thought of t h i s l o c a l i t y , not as a g o a l , but o n l y as a span of water and l a n d , and a time-consuming hindrance, on the way to the o r i e n t . Since the s i x t e e n t h cent-ury, when t h i s search f o r f i r s t an e l u s i v e north-west, and, l a t e r , a n o r t h - e a s t , passage through the v a s t b u l k of North America began, a c o n s t a n t l y changing s e r i e s of resources has brought s u c c e s s i v e waves o f seekers i n t o the a r e a . When i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t Columbus had not indeed reached the o r i e n t , succeeding e x p l o r e r s s t i l l b e l i e v e d that t h e i r g o a l l a y only a s h o r t d i s t a n c e to the west. While a search f o r a passage through the Americas was p r o v i n g f r u i t l e s s , one of Mag-e l l a n ' s s h i p s i n 1J?22 succeeded i n c i r c u m n a v i g a t i n g the globe westward from S p a i n . Even a f t e r t h i s voyage, which cros s e d the P a c i f i c near the Equator, the b e l i e f p e r s i s t e d t h a t , somewhere to the n o r t h , a very narrow body of water separated the bother-some mass of North America from the fabulous East."'" In the l a t e l^OO's, then, i t was i n search of t h i s s o - c a l l e d " S t r a i t s of Anian" t h a t c a r a v e l s came from Europe to the P a c i f i c c o a s t . Hakluyt's Voyages, p r i n t e d i n 15^7, names S i r F r a n c i s Drake's e x p e d i t i o n , i n 1580, as the f i r s t e x p l o r a t i o n of the c o a s t . Purchas, i n h i s P l l g r i m e s , r e l a t e s having i n t e r v i e w e d an e l d e r l y mariner, one Juan de Fuca, who had supposedly, In 1592, s a i l e d up the west coast of North America, a g a i n i n search of the e l u s i v e S t r a i t s of A n i a n . Between the l a t i t u d e s of I4.7 and 1+8 degrees North he had discovered, s© he maintained, a broad arm of the sea extending i n t o the c o n t i n e n t a l mass. 1 See maps of Hakluyt, D e l i d e , and o t h e r s . 28 F i r s t a u t h e n t i c a t e d voyage to the North P a c i f i c coast of America seems to be that of the v e s s e l s of V i t u s B e r i n g , which made a l a n d f a l l i n T l i n g i t t e r r i t o r y i n 171+1. The^ , e x p e d i t i o n s a i l e d away when the crew of a boat sent ashore f a i l e d to r e t u r n , and when a number of war canoes came out to t h r e a t e n the s h i p i t s e l f . 2 In 177U» Juan Perez Hernandez, a Spa n i a r d , hove to a t a spot which he c a l l e d "San Lorenzo", near the entrance to what Captain Cook l a t e r named Nootka Sound. He d i d not l a n d , but gave, among other trade goods, two s i l v e r spoons to Indians who came out to h i s s h i p i n canoes.^ F i r s t e x p l o r a t i o n of any d e t a i l along the coast was t h a t c a r r i e d out by C a p t a i n James Cook of the Royal Navy, who a r r i v e d i n 1778 w i t h orders to s a i l along the coast from L a t i t u d e 1+5 to L a t i t u d e 65, and to explore a l l i n l e t s n o r t h of the l a t t e r p a r a -l l e l which appeared to p o i n t toward Hudson's Bay, the hoped-for North-East Passage. He named Cape F l a t t e r y but, d r i v e n out to sea by adverse winds, f a i l e d to f i n d de Fuca's s t r a i t , and made h i s f i r s t l a n d f a l l at Nootka Sound.^ Cap t a i n Cook's j o u r n a l s , p u b l i s h e d i n I78I+, contained r e f e r e n c e s to the s e a - o t t e r , p e l t s of which h i s crew members had seen a t Nootka, and c h a r t s of much of the coast along which they might be found. During the next few years ships commanded by Captains P o r t -l o c k , Hanna, Dixon, and others took cargoes of p e l t s to China. 2 P h i l i p Drucker, op. c i t . , p. 19. 3 Loc. c i t . 1+ J . Austen B a n c r o f t , op. c i t . , p. 6. 5 Margaret A. Ormsby, B r i t i s h Columbia: a H i s t o r y , Van-couver, Evergreen Press, 195b, p. 10. 29 In I787 C a p t a i n John Meares s a i l e d i n t o the S t r a i t of Juan de Puca and took p o s s e s s i o n of the surrounding lands i n the name of the King of E n g l a n d . 0 Captain George Vancouver, sent out from B r i t a i n i n 179 2 to ensure implementation of terms of the Nootka Convention, r e -ce i v e d no s p e c i f i c orders as t o t e r r i t o r i a l s t a t u s , b u t, by co-o p e r a t i n g i n h i s e x p l o r a t i o n s w i t h G a l i a n o and Valdez, who shared w i t h him work they had a l r e a d y done, pr o v i d e d remarkable accurate c h a r t s of the e n t i r e coast of what was to become B r i t i s h C o l -umbia. The Russians made no f u r t h e r r e a l attempts t o e x p l o i t t h i s s e c t i o n of c o a s t l i n e . When, i n 1795 > B r i t a i n and Spai n agreed to an i n f o r m a l s h a r i n g of the t e r r i t o r y of which Nootka Sound had been the c e n t r e , b o t h nati o n s withdrew d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n . B r i t a i n would r e - e n t e r h i s t o r y t h e r e ; S p a i n would n o t . Meanwhile, the f u r - t r a d e r was s t i l l p r e s ent, and he would remain the dom-in a n t element d u r i n g the f o l l o w i n g s i x t y y e a r s . P u r - t r a d e r s , who up to 1800 remained e n t i r e l y maritime, while p r o v i d i n g the b a s i s f o r impact of European c u l t u r e , working o n l y , as they d i d , from t h e i r t r a n s i e n t v e s s e l s , c r e a t e d no deep c o n v u l s i o n i n the n a t i v e way of l i f e . The t r a d e r s , i t i s t r u e , had duped the naive a b o r i g i n e s i n t o a c c e p t i n g t r i f l e s f o r f u r s which c o u l d be r e - s o l d a t a tremendous p r o f i t . Indians e v e n t u a l l y gained some awareness of the value of the products they had to o f f e r , and le a r n e d to b a r g a i n f o r b e t t e r r e t u r n s . Some f r e e -b o o t e r s , such as Hanna, took f u r s by f o r c e . ? The n a t i v e s d i d not take a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h i s type of European e t h i c s , but where, " 6 B a n c r o f t , op. c i t . t p. 6. 7 Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 13. p a r t i c u l a r l y , an offense a g a i n s t p e r s o n a l d i g n i t y was i n v o l v e d , o c c a s i o n a l l y r e t a l i a t e d by massacring e n t i r e crews. An e p i -demic, undoubtedly brought by a t r a d i n g v e s s e l , a p p a r e n t l y spread as f a r east as the Rockies about 178£, decimating even t r i b e s which had never seen Europeans.9 Diseases and a r t i f a c t s remained as the most prominent r e -s u l t s o f e a r l y v i s i t s by Europeans to the n o r t h P a c i f i c c o a s t . Metal u t e n s i l s and c o t t e n c l o t h i n g tended g e n e r a l l y merely to augment stone implements and bark garments. D i s a s t r o u s as d i s -eases might have been to some v i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n s , they d i d not a l t e r the n a t i v e c u l t u r e . D i s p u t e s , even those i n v o l v i n g v i o -l e n c e , were s e t t l e d p r i v a t e l y . Since the t r a d e r s were unorgan-i z e d and g r e a t l y outnumbered, and s i n c e i n t e r v e n t i o n by n a t i o n a l armed f o r c e s was n e g l i g i b l e , the Indians tended to h o l d t h e i r own i n these c r i s e s . The a t t a c k on I n d i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n would be made by l a n d , not by sea. While s e a - o t t e r t r a d e r s were s c o u r i n g the P a c i f i c n o r t h -west coast of America by sea, a continuous search f o r beavers was r e a c h i n g f o r the same go a l by l a n d . In 1793 Alexander Mac-ken z i e , seeking a . p r a c t i c a l r i v e r route a c r o s s the t e r r a i n west of the Ro c k i e s , reached the P a c i f i c near B e l l a C o o l a . The North-west Company, i n which he was a p a r t n e r , had been organized i n I787 i n Montreal to combat the o l d e r company's monopoly i n the Hudson's Bay T e r r i t o r y . Organized by S c o t t i s h entrepeneurs, and employing French-Canadian t r a p p e r s , i t was d e s t i n e d , d u r i n g the next t h i r t y y e a r s , to explore the f a r corners of the l a n d be-yond the R o c k i e s . 8 See John J e w i t t , pp. c i t . 9 W. Elmandorf, Anthropology 301, U.B.C. Summer Se s s l o r i , 1958. 31 During the e a r l y years of the n i n e t e e n t h century, Simon Fr a s e r and David Thompson e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i n g posts a t vantage p o i n t s throughout the i n t e r i o r from the country of the Sekani to that of the Kootenay (see P l a t e I I ) . In 1808 F r a s e r f o l l o w e d the r i v e r which David Thompson l a t e r named a f t e r him to the Musqueam v i l l a g e , and i n 1812 David Thompson descended the Columbia. Late the next year the North-West Company purchased F o r t A s t o r i a , which John Jacob A s t o r ' s P a c i f i c Fur Company had e s t a b l i s h e d a t the mouth of that r i v e r , and re-named i t F o r t G e o r g e . ^ The Red R i v e r c o n f l i c t of l 8 l 6 , added to c o m p e t i t i v e over-expansion across the vast North American h i n t e r l a n d i n a c o n t i n -u a l race f o r new sources of f u r s , r e s u l t e d In a merger of the two companies i n 1821, and the North-West name disappeared from use. In 1821; George Simpson, Governor of the Columbia Department of the c o a l i t i o n Company, made h i s f i r s t c r o s s i n g o f the c o n t i n -ent.''"'1" He immediately i n v e s t i g a t e d the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of e s t a b -l i s h i n g t r a d i n g posts on or near the P a c i f i c c o a s t . These posts would a l s o a c t as arguing p o i n t s when the q u e s t i o n of s o v e r e i g n t y of the t e r r i t o r y reached a c r i t i c a l s t a g e . In 1825, Dr. John McLaughlin, Chief F a c t o r , moved h i s head-q u a r t e r s to a new s i t e on the Columbia, F o r t Vancouver. In 1827 he sent James McMillan to the F r a s e r r i v e r , where he e r e c t e d F o r t Langley on the south bank. During the next twenty y e a r s , p u r s u i n g Governor Simpson's p o l i c y , the Company b u i l t f o r t s C o l -v i l e , Kilmaurs, Simpson, Connoly, Dease, McLaughlin, N i s q u a l l y , Hope, C h i l c o t i n , Y a l e , Nanaimo, and V i c t o r i a (see P l a t e I I ) . 10 Margaret Ormsby, op. c i t . . p. 38. 11 I b i d . , p. 52-60 32 Although North-West Company e x p l o r e r s were f i r s t to c r o s s overland from Canada to the P a c i f i c , a t the B e l l a Coola, the P r a s e r , and the Columbia, t r a d e r s f o r that company never reached the P a c i f i c s e a l grounds. In 1792, Captain Vancouver had l i s t e d e l e v e n B r i t i s h ships and s i x American i n the t r a d e . By 1802 the 12 f i f t e e n American shi p s had the i n d u s t r y t o themselves. Be-tween t h a t date and I82I4. they had v i r t u a l l y no c o m p e t i t i o n . These ships were i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c e n t e r p r i s e s , w i t h the r e -s u l t that when a l l i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i o n was removed, each t r a d e r competed a g a i n s t a l l o t h e r s . What happened can be r e a l -i z e d from an examination of the p r i c e of brandy over the y e a r s . In I7I+8, the Hudson's Bay Company's standard of trade i n Rupert's Land, where i t operated by monopoly, asked f o u r beavers per g a l -l o n f o r t h i s d r i n k . ^ i n 1835, American t r a d e r s on the P a c i f i c coast were exchanging s i x g a l l o n s of brandy f o r one beaver. 1^" Governor Simpson a t t a c k e d h i s c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h s h i p s as w e l l as w i t h f o r t s . These v e s s e l s not only traded on t h e i r own b e h a l f a l o n g the c o a s t , but a l s o stood by f o r the p r o t e c t i o n of b u i l d e r s of shore p o s t s , and a c t e d as supply s h i p s f o r them once they were i n o p e r a t i o n . The combined pressure of f o r t s and ships f o r c e d the Americans to r e t i r e , l e a v i n g the Hudson's Bay Company i n f u l l p o s s e s s i o n of the c o a s t a l t r a d e . ^ The f u r trade i n the P a c i f i c north-west was now c a r r i e d on through a network of p o s t s , both i n l a n d and on the c o a s t . A l l 12 P. W. Howay, B r i t i s h Columbia. Toronto, The Ryerson Pr e s s , 1928, p. 07. 13 Maria Lawson, H i s t o r y of Canada. Toronto, W.J. Gage & Co. L i m i t e d , 190b, p. 231. i l l Margaret Ormsby, op. c i t . . p. 70. 15 Howay, op. c i t . . p. 83. 33 through the no r t h e r n i n t e r i o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y , where d i f f i c u l t i e s of t r a n s p o r t kept import of e v e r y t h i n g but trade goods t o a min-imum, post f a c t o r s had to depend f o r foods on what the surround-ing country c o u l d p r o v i d e . Each f o r t had i t s own garden, and i t s own c a t t l e and swine. Wheat was grown as f a r n o r t h as A l e x a n d r i a . Horses f o r the f u r brigade which terminated f i r s t at the Colum-b i a , and l a t e r a t F o r t Hope, were kept at Kamloops. F o r t Lang-l e y w i t h i n i t s f i r s t year of o p e r a t i o n harvested over two thou-17 sand bushels o f p o t a t o e s . The main d i e t , however, of t r a d e r s , t r a p p e r s , and other occupants of the f o r t s , as w e l l as of the Indians around them, c o n s i s t e d of f i s h . As many as tw e n t y - f i v e thousand salmon were needed f o r the annual sustenance of a post."1" Inland, e s p e c i a l l y , i f the salmon run f a i l e d , a post could face a v e r y s e r i o u s food shortage, as game was scarce i n New C a l e -donia." 1"^ T r a n s p o r t of s u p p l i e s to c o a s t a l p o r t s was of course somewhat e a s i e r . Although almost a l l t r a d e r s and f a c t o r s were of S c o t t i s h e x t r a c t i o n , not many other occupants of a post were B r i t i s h . Alexander Mackenzie i n 1793 w a s accompanied by Alexander McKay, 2 0 s i x voyageurs, and two In d i a n s . Simon F r a s e r i n 1807 had a p a r t y made up of John S t u a r t , J u l e s Maurice Quesnel, seven voy— 21 ageurs, and two I n d i a n s . David Thompson completed h i s journey 16 F.W. Howay, op. c l t . t p. 101. 17 Denys Nelson, F o r t Langley: 1827-1927, Vancouver, A r t s H i s t o r i c a l and S c i e n t i f i c A s s o c i a t i o n , 1927, p. 7, 8. 18 Margaret Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. lj.6. 19 Walter Sage, S i r James Douglas and B r i t i s h Columbia, The U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s , 1930, p. LL. 20 Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 31. 21 I b i d . , p. 35. 31+ 22 down the Columbia w i t h seven voyageurs and two I n d i a n s . James McMil l a n , on h i s journey to e s t a b l i s h P o r t Langley i n I827, took a l o n g twenty-four men: Donald Manson, George Barnston, F r a n c o i s Noel Annance, Amable A r q u o i t h , James Baker, Louis B o i s v e r t , O l -i v e r Bouchard, P i e r r e C h a r l e s , Como (Sandwich I s l a n d e r ) , Joseph Cornoyer, Jean B t e . E t t i e r s , Jean Bte.Dubois, Dominique Faron, John Kennedy, Anawiskum d i t Macdonald, Peopeoh (Sandwich I s l a n d -e r ) , Antoine P i e r r a u l t , Jacques P i e r r a u l t (2), F r a n c o i s P i e t t e d i t F a n i a n t , Simon Pomondeau, Louis Satakarata d i t Rabaska, Laur-ent Sauve d i t L a p l a n t e , F r a n c o i s X a v i e r Tarihonya, and Abraham V i n c e n t . 2 3 There was f u l l employment throughout the year, as l a b o r was always scarce i n New C a l e d o n i a . Indians, as w e l l as t r a p p i n g f o r p e l t s , cut timber f©reconstruction and f u e l , h e l p e d w i t h b u i l d -i n g , c a r r i e d goods and, at F o r t Langley, learned to m i l k cows and to plough w i t h b u l l o c k s . 2 ^ - In the Kamloops d i s t r i c t , they became s k i l l e d horsemen. The North-West Company, and, l a t e r , the Hudson's Bay Company, were i n t e r e s t e d i n m a i n t a i n i n g an Indian p o p u l a t i o n , to act not only as trappers and employees, but a l s o to use trade goods. There are signs here o f the growing up of a unique c u l t u r e , a r i s i n g out of a p o p u l a t i o n of mixed peoples, m u t u a l l y i n t e r d e -pendent, w i t h those p o s s e s s i n g the most advanced technology much i n the m i n o r i t y , and a l l having to l i v e t o a great extent d i r e c t -l y o f f the land on which they l i v e d . To help make f o r amicable r e l a t i o n s w i t h the groups w i t h 22 Margaret Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 1+0. 23 Denys Nelson, op. c i t . , p. 9 . 2k I b i d . , p. 20. P l a t e I I I T H E PoKT/\C>e 35 whom i t was t r a d i n g , the Company encouraged i t s non-Indian males to take Indian w i v e s . 2 ^ James Douglas, i n 1828, while a t S t u a r t Lake, married Amelia Connolly, whose f a t h e r was c h i e f f a c t o r t h e r e , and whose mother was Chippewyan, " a f t e r the custom o f the c o u n t r y " . 2 ^ Men l i k e John Work, says Margaret Ormsby, 2^ were kind to these women, o r d e r i n g t r i n k e t s f o r t h e i r adornment, s c h o o l i n g them, and p r o v i d i n g what comforts they c o u l d . No matter how much the t r a d e r s might long to leave the s e r v i c e and r e t u r n t o c i v i l i z a t i o n , a f f -e c t i o n and g r a t i t u d e helped to keep them i n I n d i a n cou n t r y . "Why shouldn't I speak E n g l i s h w e l l ? " s a i d Mrs. E l l e n P a u l l r e -c e n t l y . "My daddy was an Englishman." John B a l l , who taught a t a sc h o o l s t a r t e d by Dr. McLoughlin a t P o r t Vancouver, r e c a l l e d that i n 1832 " a l l the boys were h a l f breeds, as there was not a white woman i n Oregon"'. Douglas* son, James, was educated i n England, and a l l of h i s f o u r daughters married w e l l and were PQ made welcome i n t o the most impeccable s o c i e t y . 7 The meeting was not simply one of European and P a c i f i c north-west Indian s o c i e t i e s . Voyageurs, many of whom were them-se l v e s of mixed b l o o d , Kanakas from the Sandwich I s l a n d s , and ea s t e r n Canadian I n d i a n s , as w e l l as Northern Europeans, were i n v o l v e d i n the l i f e of a t r a d i n g p o s t . Since each f a c t o r made e f f o r t s to ma i n t a i n a semblance of European c u l t u r e w i t h -i n h i s post, and since accoutrements imported were g e n e r a l l y of European manufacture, the dominant interchange tended to be "25 Denys Nelson, op. c i t . , p. 20. 26 Walter Sage, op. c i t . , p. I4.I4.. 27 Op. c i t . . p. 52. 28 Sage, op. c i t . , p. K5. 29 I b i d . , p. 338. 36 between European and Indian c u l t u r e complexes. However, i n c r e a s e i n use o f Chinook^ 0 reduced dependence on E n g l i s h as a b a r t e r language, and the presence of a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of voyageurs kept t h e i r p a t o i s a l i v e d u r i n g and beyond the d u r a t i o n of t h e i r r e s i -dence. The gre a t m a j o r i t y of Indian women, then, had l i t t l e d i -r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h Europeans, and Indian males had no o p p o r t u n i t y whatever t o be i n f l u e n c e d by European women. Although S e c h e l t Indians traded at Nanaimo from the time a post was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1852, a g e n e r a t i o n l a t e r a g i r l whose f a t h e r was E n g l i s h had to a c t as i n t e r p r e t e r f o r the remainder of the v i l l a g e p o p u l a t -31 i o n . I t can h a r d l y be s a i d t h a t the P a c i f i c north-west a b o r -i g i n e was Europeanized by the f u r - t r a d e r . I n t e r i o r and coast I n d i a n c u l t u r e s were a f f e c t e d to d i f f e r -ent degrees by the f u r - t r a d e e r a . The e a r l y maritime trade was " ' e s s e n t i a l l y a h u r r i e d l o o t i n g of the c o a s t " . ^ 2 The Indians were e n r i c h e d i n w o r l d l y possessions and f r e e to make such use of them as they p l e a s e d , on t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l v i l l a g e s i t e s . A t t -r a c t i o n to f o r t s d i d not d i s r u p t n o r t h e r n I n d i a n l i f e too much, as the Dene were t r a d i t i o n a l l y a nomadic people. The I n t e r i o r S a l i s h and Kootenay had an e s t a b l i s h e d v i l l a g e l i f e , but congre-g a t i o n o f s e v e r a l groups a t a post a g a i n d i d not a f f e c t t h e i r way o f l i f e too much, s i n c e s o c i a l caste was not a s i g n i f i c a n t moral pressure among them. Liquor was such a r a r e commodity i n New Caledonia that D a n i e l W i l l i a m s Harmon, f a c t o r among the Car-r i e r s , was "embarrassed when Indians observed debauches of 30 Charles H i l l - T o u t , Oceanic O r i g i n of the Kwakiutl-Nootka and S a l i s h Stocks o f B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 201. 31 Mrs. E l l e n P a u l l , nee E l l e n J e f f r e y . 32 F.W. Howay, op. c i t . . p. 90. 37 voyageurs" 1 d u r i n g a New Year's c e l e b r a t i o n , and only v i s i t i n g c h i e f s were allowed to d r i n k w i n e . 3 3 E f f e c t s of European impact on c o a s t a l Indians was much more d r a s t i c . There, f r e e lance t r a d e r s had, from the d i s c o v e r y of the sea o t t e r , peddled l i q u o r , among t h e i r other trade goods, f o r f u r s . The Hudson's Bay Company, when they entered the maritime t r a f f i c a f t e r 1821+, went so f a r to meet t h i s c o m p e t i t i o n t h a t i n I832 Dr. McLoughlin engaged a former American c a p t a i n , and p e r -m i t t e d him, i n c o n t r a v e n t i o n of the Company's r u l e s and i n t e r -n a t i o n a l agreement, to s e l l guns and l i q u o r to the I n d i a n s . 3 ^ Governor Simpson d i d not d i s c o n t i n u e t h i s p o l i c y u n t i l 181+1, by which time he had d r i v e n a l l competitors from the c o a s t as f a r n o r t h as A l a s k a , and had e l i m i n a t e d c o m p e t i t i o n there through an agreement w i t h the Russian-American Company by which h i s Com-pany would t r a p the Panhandle. 3^ In l8li.6, S i r John P e l l y , Governor of the Hudson's Bay Com-pany, wrote to Lord Grey, s e c r e t a r y of s t a t e f o r the c o l o n i e s : 3 ^ ... I s h a l l , a t p r e s e n t , merely submit to E a r l Grey's c o n s i d e r a t i o n whether t h a t o b j e c t ( c o l o n i z a t i o n of Van-couver I s l a n d ) embracing as I t r u s t i t w i l l , the c o n -v e r s i o n to C h r i s t i a n i t y and c i v i l i z a t i o n of the n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n might not be most r e a d i l y and e f f e c t u a l l y accomplished through the i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y of the Hud-son's Bay Company... On January 13, l81+9> Vancouver I s l a n d was ceded to the Com-pany. 3 7 i n 1850, proof that c o a l e x i s t e d at Nanaimo was purch-ased from an o l d Indian of that v i c i n i t y by Joseph McKay at 33 Margaret Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 1+5• 3l+ I b i d . , p. 6 9 . 35 F.W. Howay, op. c i t . , p. 8 5 . 36 Walter Sage, op. c i t . , p. l l + l . 37 Howay, op. c i t . . p. 10i+. 38 V i c t o r i a f o r a b o t t l e of rum.^0" Worse i n i t s e f f e c t s on Coast Indians than the s e l l i n g of i n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r s to them from i t i n e r a n t t r a d i n g v e s s e l s , which brought t h e i r wares to the v i l l a g e s , was the c o n s t r u c t i o n of permanent, f i x e d f o r t s along the c o a s t . These e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , l o c a t e d a t s i t e s most s u i t a b l e to the f u r - t r a d e r , and not nec-e s s a r i l y a t the h e a v i e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ©f p o p u l a t i o n , a t t r a c t e d Indians from many m i l e s away, and from many v i l l a g e s , t© move t© the white man's place of b u s i n e s s . Dr. R.G. Large, who spent ten years d u r i n g h i s youth a t P o r t Simpson, t e l l s of I t s c o n s t r u c t -i o n i n 1 8 3 1 : 3 9 There were no Indians encamped i n McLeughlln Bay, l a r g e s ettlements were l o c a t e d f i v e m i l e s south a t a creek c a l l e d Lahou, and a g a i n twenty m i l e s f u r -t h e r south i n what was l a t e r t o become the harbor of P r i n c e Rupert. With the b u i l d i n g of the P o r t , the n a t i v e s r a p i d l y congregated i n i t s v i c i n i t y , e r e c t -i n g t h e i r l a r g e community houses along the beach on e i t h e r s i d e u n t i l over two thousand were permanently l i v i n g t h e r e . P o r t McLoughlin, l o c a t e d i n B e l l a Coola, and P o r t Rupert, In Kwakiutl t e r r i t o r y , a l s o l u r e d Indians from s e v e r a l v i l l a g e s t© t h e i r p r o x i m i t y * Emphasizing, as they d i d , s o c i a l s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e i r own v i l l a g e , and b a s i n g t h e i r whole moral code on s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s d e r i v e d from s t a t u s consciousness, these people found themselves b e r e f t of t h e i r v ery s o c i a l b a s i s . V i l l a g e c h i e f s and noblemen groups, u n c e r t a i n of t h e i r ranks i n these e n l a r g e d , m u l t i - t r i b a l groups, v i e d f o r p o s i t i o n s of p r e s t i g e i n t h e i r customary man-ner, through a s e r i e s of p o t l a t c h e s . At the same time, deprec-i a t i o n of the value of trade goods brought i n c r e a s e d wealth, so 38 Walter Sage, op. c i t . . p. 1J2. 39 R.G. Large, The Skeena, R i v e r of D e s t i n y , Vancouver, M i t c h e l l P r e s s , 1957, p. l b . 3>9 t h a t p o t l a t c h r i v a l r i e s became d i s t o r t e d out of a l l t r a d i t i o n a l p r o p o r t i o n s , and the o l d system whereby p r i v i l e g e s , t i t l e s , h e r -a l d r y , and names were wont to be a s s e r t e d , a l t h o u g h I n t e n s i f i e d i n i t s outward d i s p l a y s , was f a l l i n g i n t o r u i n as a c u l t u r a l base. Voyageurs, whose numbers were i n the m a j o r i t y i n the con-s t r u c t i o n of P o r t Langley i n 1827, d i d not go n o r t h from Por t Vancouver to V i c t o r i a w i t h Douglas i n 181+3. There was no p l a c e f o r t h e i r kind of work i n the maritime t r a d e . A f t e r d i s c o n t i n u -a t i o n of the c r o s s - c o n t i n e n t f u r brigade i n 181+8, most of them withdrew to the S t . Boniface area T h e i r e m i g r a t i o n from New Caledonia and the Columbia meant the end of French-Canadian i n -f l u e n c e on Indians of those a r e a s , and p e r m i t t e d new elements which began to impinge on the c u l t u r e s c o a l e s c i n g there to have more e f f e c t than they would have had a l a r g e body of t h i s group remained s o l i d l y r o o t e d throughout the a r e a . On Vancouver I s l a n d , s i n c e one term of the Royal Grant c a l l e d f o r the Company to s e l l l a n d to immigrant B r i t i s h sub-j e c t s , C h i e f F a c t o r Douglas was faced w i t h the problem of r e -moving o b j e c t i o n s to such s a l e s from i t s o r i g i n a l occupants, the I n d i a n s . He overcame t h i s d i f f i c u l t y by purchasing, from the Songhees and C l a l l u m t r i b e s , f o r a l i t t l e more than &150, a l l lands f o r some f o r t y m i l e s u p - i s l a n d from V i c t o r i a "with the e x c e p t i o n of v i l l a g e s i t e s and enclosed f i e l d s " . 4 1 Thus, even before government other than that enacted by the Company i t s e l f came i n t o e f f e c t , the n a t i v e peoples began to f i n d themselves 1+0 Dean WoodJ, E l . 519, H i s t o r y of E d u c a t i o n i n Canada, U.B.C. Summer S e s s i o n 1957, notes. 1+1 Walter Sage, op. c i t . . p. l 6 l . r e s t r i c t e d t o s m a l l p l o t s of ground, which soon took the name " r e s e r v a t i o n " . To sum up, then, the impact of the f u r - t r a d i n g e r a on B r i t -i s h North America west of the R o c k i e s : (1) In New C a l e d o n i a , the complete absence of e i t h e r white women or p r i e s t s l e d a mixture of non-Indian males, f o r a p e r i o d of at l e a s t t h i r t y y e a r s , to mate w i t h I n d i a n females In the customs o f the a b o r i g i n a l peoples: (2) Company employees of B r i t i s h s t o c k i n s t r u c t e d t h e i r wives and c h i l d r e n as best they c o u l d I n the language and man-ners of t h e i r homeland. A f t e r the coming of the Hudson's Bay Company, a few c h i l d r e n r e c e i v e d f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n ; most d i d n o t . A l l c h i l d r e n l e a r n e d an In d i a n d i a l e c t from t h e i r mothers, and the m a j o r i t y , i f they gained a second language from t h e i r f a t h -e r s , l e a r n e d not E n g l i s h but some other tongue. (3) E x t e n s i o n o f the f u r - t r a d e brought the Chinook jargon i n t o use throughout most of the a r e a , w i t h the r e s u l t t h a t mem-bers of most e t h n i c groups c o u l d c a r r y on a b a s i c c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h one another. Hudson's Bay Company f o r t s and American f r e e b o o t e r s along the coast competed f o r tr a d e , but combined i n the e f f e c t s they produced, through a t t r a c t i o n away from home s i t e s and s a l e of l i q u o r , to d e s t r o y the Ind i a n s * way of l i f e . (5) Before the end of the e r a , a r r i v a l of European women and m i s s i o n a r i e s , and s t a r t of r e s e r v a t i o n r e s t r i c t i o n s , com-bined to mark the begin n i n g of the end of the unique c u l t u r e that had begun to s p r i n g up a f t e r the North-Westers' a r r i v a l . The o n l y way f o r an i n d i v i d u a l of mixed blo o d to a v o i d r e s t r i c t -i o n and low s o c i a l s t a t u s was to cross the c o l o r l i n e . A few cou l d do so; most c o u l d n o t . hi (6) The term "Indian" came o f t e n to be a p p l i e d to a person i n whose v e i n s ran as much European as a b o r i g i n a l b l o o d , but who knew l i t t l e or n o t h i n g of the ways of h i s f a t h e r . The f u r - t r a d e e r a , i n g e n e r a l , sowed some seeds which d i d not grow to f r u i t i o n , and others which would continue to bear an unwanted y i e l d to the present day.^ 2 The f u r trade not o n l y opened up the Dominion of Canada and determined i t s boundaries, but i t a l s o i n -t e n s i f i e d t h a t d i s a s t r o u s c o n t a c t between two c i v i l -i z a t i o n s , the European and the North American... The s t r u g g l e i n c u l t u r e between the I n d i v i d u a l i s m , the p r o g r e s s i v e n e s s , and the C h r i s t i a n i t y of the w h i t e s , and the s o c i a l i s m , the conservatism, the paganism, and the taboos of the I n d i a n s , was to f o l l o w the f u r trade a c r o s s Canada's broad expanse. Before the l u r e of gold brought i t s thousands o f seekers i n t o the north-west to p r e c i p i t a t e the d i s r u p t i o n of both the Indians' a b o r i g i n a l way of l i f e and the new c u l t u r e that was r i s i n g t h e r e , another f a c e t of European c i v i l i z a t i o n made i t -s e l f f e l t . T h i s was the advent of C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s , who added another s t r a n d to the t a p e s t r y of l i f e i n the new c o l o n y . 1+2 H.A. Innes, The Fur Trade i n Canada, Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1930, p. 392. P l a t e IV — 7 j 7°° T r —r >zcf I V Mo Toronto, The Musson Book Co. L t d . , 1 9 1 0 , p. 2 9 2 . ll+ Rev. George Forbes OMI, op. c i t . 1 5 Rev. A.G. Morice, op. c i t . , p. 2 9 6 . 1 6 Rev. George Forbes, op. c i t . 47 Joseph's M i s s i o n near W i l l i a m s Lake, and a m i s s i o n was e s t a b -l i s h e d there i n I 8 6 7. 1 7 In I863 a m i s s i o n was opened at F o r t Rupert, but d e s p i t e the e f f o r t s of three d i f f e r e n t m i s s i o n a r i e s , Father Fouquet, Father D u r i e u and Father LeJacq, i t was abandoned i n 187)+. In that same y e a r , Father Fouquet founded the M i s s i o n of the Kootenays at Cranbrook. Father Blanchet a t about the same time b u i l t a church near F o r t S t . James, and a m i s s i o n under the 1 8 charge of Father Chirouse opened i n Kamloops i n I878. 0 In I863 the Holy See d i v i d e d the no r t h e r n d i o c e s e , and made Father D'Herbomez V i c a r A p o s t o l i c of the Mainland. By I89O, when Father D'Herbomez d i e d , he had b u i l t seventy churches on the mainland of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 1 9 Meanwhile, on Vancouver I s l a n d m i s s i o n s were founded under d i r e c t i o n of Bishop Demers a t Clayoquot i n 1875, a t Namukamus, B a r c l a y Sound, i n 1877, and a t Ahousat In l 8 8 l . 2 0 Monseigneur D u r i e u , OMI, succeeded Bishop D'Herbomez as A p o s t o l a t e , and i n I89O he became Bishop of New Westminster. Rev. Forbes says of the "Durieu System": I t was based on love f o r the B l e s s e d Sacrement and aimed at making the India n s ' every act a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r or an act of Thanks g i v i n g a f t e r Holy Communion... The Euchar-i s t i c C h i e f and h i s Watchmen sought to prevent crimes and misdemeanours and, a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r immemorial custom, t r i e d and punished those who had g i v e n s c a n d a l . To pro-t e c t the Indians from e v i l i n f l u e n c e , fche Bishop b u i l t model v i l l a g e s at S e c h e l t and North Vancouver to which only those l i v i n g completely exemplary l i v e s were ad-m i t t e d and from which those who set bad examples were 17 H i s t o r i c Y a l e , B r i t i s h Columbia, Vancouver S e c t i o n B r i t i s h Columbia H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , 1951+, p. 32. 18 Rev. A.G. Morice, op. c i t . , pp. 3U3—3^7• 19 Rev. George Forbes OMI, op. c i t . 20 Morice, op. c i t . , pp. 355-370. 1*8 e x p e l l e d . Even a f t e r he became bishop, he spent months at a time at the North Vancouver Indian V i l l a g e . 21 The A n g l i c a n Diocese of Vancouver I s l a n d was formed In 1859, and Very Reverend George H i l l s became f i r s t A n g l i c a n b i s h o p . The f i r s t m i s s i o n a r y to the new diocese was the Rev-erend R i c h a r d Dowson, who a r r i v e d i n V i c t o r i a d u r i n g the same year. Unable to f i n d accommodation w i t h i n the suddenly expanded 22 c i t y , he s e t t l e d some fou r m i l e s away, at C r a i g f l o w e r . In i860 the Reverend Alexander G a r r e t t came to the colony, to work among the two thousand Indians who had gathered across the h a r -bor from the p o r t . 2 3 Unlike the Roman C a t h o l i c Church, which d i d most of i t s work among the Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, the A n g l i c a n Church d i v i d e d i t s energies between the Indians and the white miners and s e t t l e r s , who w i t h the g o l d r u s h i n c r e a s e d suddenly i n num-bers from s e v e r a l hundred to s e v e r a l thousand. This study w i l l r e s t r i c t i t s e l f to work done among the I n d i a n peoples of the p r o v i n c e . One of the f i r s t tasks undertaken by Bishop H i l l s was an e x t e n s i v e tour of the southern mainland of the newly c r e a t e d Crown Colony of B r i t i s h Columbia. Accompanied by Reverend R.J. Dundas and Reverend John Sheepshanks, he made h i s way as f a r n o r t h as L i l l o o e t , speaking w i t h Indian groups at many stops along the way. 2^ 21 Rev. George Forbes, op. c i t . 22 Rev. Frank A. Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church i n B r i t i s h C o l -umbia, Vancouver, M i t c h e l l P ress, 1959, P« 22. 23 I b i d . , p. 60 *k I b i d . , pp. 30-3£. 1+9 In 1861 Reverend John Good and h i s wife made t h e i r way up-i s l a n d from V i c t o r i a t o Nanaimo, where they e s t a b l i s h e d a church f o r the I n d i a n s . In l86£ Reverend Good moved to Y a l e , and thence to L y t t o n , where he worked among the Thompson Indians f o r f i f -teen y e a r s . 2 ^ In 1866 Reverend W.S. Reece, a s s i s t e d by W. Henry Lomas, became r e s i d e n t m i s s i o n a r y among twelve hundred Indians a t Cow-i c h a n . Reverend R.R.A. Doolan i n 1861+ t r a v e l l e d n o r t h from M e t l a -k a t l a to the Nass R i v e r . His plac e was taken, b r i e f l y , by Rev-erend P.B. G i b b e l l i n 1865, and h i s i n t u r n by Reverend Robert Tomlinson i n 1867. W i l l i a m Henry C o l l i s o n was sent t o M e t l a k a t l a i n I873; to a s s i s t W i l l i a m Duncan. In 1876 he l e f t the c o l o n y to e s t a b l i s h a m i s s i o n a t Massett, among the Haidas of the Queen C h a r l o t t e s . The Reverend A . J . H a l l at about the same time went south to work 27 w i t h the Kwawkewlth Indians a t A l e r t Bay, ' Reverend R.W. Gurd to K i t k a t l a , on P i t t I s l a n d , occupied by Kwakiutl peoples, and Reverend John F i e l d to H a z e l t o n , i n Tsimshian c o u n t r y . In I88I4, Right Reverend R i d l e y , who i n I879 had been appointed bishop of the newly c r e a t e d diocese of C a l e d o n i a , sent Reverend A.H. S h e l -don to Port E s s i n g t o n , a t the south entrance to the Skeena R i v e r , a l s o Tsimshian t e r r i t o r y . In I889 Reverend A l f r e d Edwin P r i c e e s t a b l i s h e d a m i s s i o n a t Kitwanga, on the Skeena, and Reverend 2^ Rev. Frank A. Peake, Heroes of the Church i n B r i t i s h C o l -umbia , Diocese of New Westminster, Board of R e l i g i o u s E d u c a t i o n ( A n g l i c a n ) , pp;. 18-20. 26 Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church i n B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 63. 27 I b i d . , pp. 17, 18. 50 James McCullagh a t A i y a n s h , on the Nass. In 1897 Reverend F. Palgrave t r a v e l l e d as f a r n o r t h as the bend of the S t i k l n e , 2'fl where he worked among the T a h l t a n s . Non-conformist m i s s i o n a r y work began i n the north-west i n I83I4., when the Reverend Jason Lee, a Methodist m i n i s t e r from the U n i t e d S t a t e s , t r a v e l l e d to F o r t Vancouver, and from there e s t -a b l i s h e d m i s sions i n the Willamette V a l l e y and at The D a l l e s , among the Chinooks. P r e s b y t e r i a n missions were e s t a b l i s h e d soon a f t e r at W a l l a Walla and a t Lapwai, i n the Nez Perce Country. In l8i;0 Methodist missions were b u i l t a t N i s q u a l l y , on Puget Sound, and at C l a t s o p , on the Columbia. 29 A Methodist m i n i s t e r , Reverend A r t h u r Browning, made h i s way to Nanaimo i n 1859 to work among the Cowichan S a l l s h t h e r e . In I872, Reverend Thomas Crosby l e f t the Songees Reserve to take over the Nanaimo m i s s i o n , and two years l a t e r he t r a v e l l e d up the coast to Port Simpson, from where W i l l i a m Duncan had l e f t to form h i s M e t l a k a t l a colony ten years b e f o r e . C h i e f Scow-Gate o f f e r e d the use of h i s house f o r a church u n t i l a separate b u i l d i n g c o u l d be r a i s e d , and the Indians gave a thousand d o l l a r s worth of goods towards i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n . About the r e s u l t s ob-t a i n e d among these people Dr. Crosby wrote : 3 <^ We had a t Simpson, about t h i s time, nine c l a s s e s o r g a n i z e d . I t was a b l e s s e d s i g h t to see f i f t y or s i x t y a d u l t s coming forward to be b a p t i z e d , a f t e r weeks and, i n some cases, months of p r e p a r a t i o n i n s p e c i a l c l a s s e s . A f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g experience was the p r e s e n t a t i o n of i n f a n t s f o r baptism, the young parents d e c e n t l y dressed and the c h i l d r e n b e a u t i f u l l y arranged, i n i m i t a t i o n of white babies whom they had seen. 28 Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church In B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 92. 29 I b i d . , p. 11. 30 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. 6 l . 51 As about one thousand people had gathered at the a r t i f i c -i a l l y c r e a t e d v i l l a g e , the m i s s i o n a r y f e l t that there should be some kind of law or r u l e . A M u n i c i p a l C o u n c i l was suggested. I t was to be an e n t i r e l y C h r i s t i a n v i l l a g e . The f i r s t law was a g a i n s t gambling, then a g a i n s t c o n j u r i n g . There was t o be no dog-eating, w h i s k y - d r i n k i n g , q u a r r e l i n g , f i g h t i n g , or heathen marriages. Watchmen were appointed, and "For many years before any J u s t i c e of the Peace, Indian Agent or other o f f i c e r o f the law was sent to t h a t p a r t of the country, these people were gov-e r n i n g themselves under the d i r e c t i o n of t h e i r m i s s i o n a r y , and no more p e a c e f u l or q u i e t community could be f ound" In I876 the Reverend C M . Tate went from Port Simpson to the s i t e of F o r t McLoughlin, which had been abandoned by the Hudson's Bay Company, and there founded the n a t i v e v i l l a g e of B e l l a B e l l a , complete w i t h h o s p i t a l , c o u n c i l h a l l , m i s s i o n house, saw m i l l , wharf, and s t o r e . In I877 C h a r l i e Amos, a s e c r e t s o c i e t y dancer from K i t a -maat, converted to C h r i s t i a n i t y i n V i c t o r i a , spent time at the Port Simpson s c h o o l , and then w i t h George Edgar, a Tsimshian, r e t u r n e d to e s t a b l i s h a m i s s i o n i n h i s v i l l a g e i n I 8 7 8 . In I883 Mr. George Robinson, at the request of the Haidas of Skidegate, who had l e a r n e d how w e l l the Tsimshians were doing, went to t h e i r v i l l a g e to h e l p them. There were by t h i s date Methodist churches a l s o a t K i t - w a n - s i l k , Nass, Kit-la-tamux, Hyhise, and Wee-ke-no. Three m i s s i o n a r i e s looked a f t e r a l l of these s c a t t e r e d s e t t l e m e n t s , a s s i s t e d by s i x n a t i v e s . 3 2 31 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. 66. 32 I b i d . , p. 56. 52 In 188k a seventy-one f o o t v e s s e l , the "Glad T i d i n g s " , was b u i l t at V i c t o r i a by W i l l i a m O l i v e r . With Crosby as c a p t a i n , O l i v e r e n g i n e e r , and a n a t i v e deck-hand, t h i s s h i p f o r twenty years helped to b u i l d and s e r v i c e t h i r t y churches along the c o a s t . 3 3 In the Nootka t e r r i t o r y of Vancouver I s l a n d ' s west c o a s t , a Methodist m i s s i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d a t U c l u e l e t i n 1892 and, a church b u i l t a t Clo'ose i n 1893. In 1896 the P r e s b y t e r i a n Church e s t a b l i s h e d a m i s s i o n a r y a t Ahousat. 3^" The s t o r y of m i s s i o n a r y endeavor i n the north-west would i n no wise be complete without r e f e r e n c e b e i n g made to the work of W i l l i a m Duncan. Although sponsored by the Church M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y , he was never ordained by the A n g l i c a n Church. He would undoubtedly have r e t a i n e d the support of t h i s church, r e g a r d l e s s of h i s r e f u s a l of o r d i n a t i o n , had he a b i d e d by A n g l i c a n r i t u a l and d o c t r i n e . Duncan's stubbornness had made i t s e l f evident even before h i s journey to Port Simpson to e s t a b l i s h a m i s s i o n t h e r e . At E s q u i m a l t , upon h i s a r r i v a l i n 1857 on Captain Prevost's " S a t e l l i t e " , he was informed by the Hudson's Bay Company that he could accomplish n o t h i n g by going nortlh, s i n c e i t would be too hazardous f o r him to leave the f o r t , and the I n d i a n s , among whom •it he wished to work, c o u l d not e n t e r i t . In 1862, a f t e r he had been at Port Simpson f o r f o u r y e a r s , W i l l i a m Duncan was ready to make h i s move to his- new c o l o n y . On "33 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. 318. 3I4. Captain Robert C. S c o t t , My Captain O l i v e r : A S t o r y of Two M i s s i o n a r i e s on the B r i t i s h Columbia Coast, Toronto, I947, PP. 162-165. 35 Rev. F.A. Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church i n B r i t i s h C o l -umbia , Vancouver, M i t c h e l l Press, 1959, p. 13. 53 May 27 of that year, f i f t y men, women and c h i l d r e n moved w i t h t h e i r F a t her Duncan to the s i t e of t h e i r a n c e s t r a l v i l l a g e , from which n a t i v e s had gathered around the Hudson's Bay Company post a t Port Simpson. Three hundred more persons j o i n e d the f i r s t group w i t h i n a few weeks. There he d i r e c t e d h i s people i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a w a t e r - d r i v e n sawmill, w i t h which they c o u l d cut lumber f o r houses, a church, and a s c h o o l . By r e t u r n i n g t o England to study v a r i o u s t r a d e s , he was able to teach the Indians b l a c k s m i t h i n g , b r i c k making, soap manufacturing, weaving, and other i n d u s t r i e s . The n a t i v e s operated t h e i r own t r a d i n g post and even a salmon cannery. In t h i s c i t y b u i l t under h i s own d i r e c t i o n W i l l i a m Duncan allowed no h e r e d i t a r y c h i e f , but was h i m s e l f supreme r u l e r . Twelve c o n s t a b l e s appointed by him helped m a i n t a i n s t r i c t d i s c i -p l i n e . The r e s i d e n t s were of course f r e e to leave i f they so wished. On the c o n t r a r y , however, they continued to a r r i v e , u n t i l i n time the p o p u l a t i o n of the e c o n o m i c a l l y s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t c o l -ony grew to a t h o u s a n d . 3 0 Duncan planned to make h i s M e t l a k a t l a colony a C h r i s t i a n v i l l a g e , guided by the f o l l o w i n g objects: 3"^ (1) To p l a c e a l l C h r i s t i a n s , when they became w i s h f u l to be taught C h r i s t i a n i t y , out of the miasma of heathen l i f e , and away from the deadening and en-t h r a l l i n g i n f l u e n c e of heathen customs. (2) To e s t a b l i s h the M i s s i o n where we c o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y shut out i n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r s , and keep l i q u o r s a t bay. (3) To enable us to r a i s e a b a r r i e r a g a i n s t the Indians v i s i t i n g V i c t o r i a , except on l a w f u l b u s i n e s s . 36 R.G. Large, op. c i t . . 20-21. 37 F.A. Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church In B r i t i s h Columbia, pp. 15-16. 5k (1+) That we might be able to a s s i s t the people thus gathered out to develop i n t o a model community, and r a i s e a C h r i s t i a n v i l l a g e , from which n a t i v e E v a n g l i s t s might go f o r t h , and C h r i s t i a n t r u t h r a d i a t e to every t r i b e around. (5>) That we might gather a community round us, whose moral and r e l i g i o u s t r a i n i n g and bent of l i f e might render i t safe and proper to impart secu-l a r i n s t r u c t i o n . (6) That we might be able to break up a l l t r i b a l d i s -t i n c t i o n s and a n i m o s i t i e s , and cement a l l who came to us, from whatever t r i b e , i n t o one common brotherhood. (7) That we might a l s o p l a c e o u r s e l v e s i n a p o s i t i o n to s e t up and e s t a b l i s h the supremacy of law, teach l o y a l t y to the Queen, conserve the peace of the country around, and u l t i m a t e l y develop our settlement i n t o a m u n i c i p a l i t y w i t h i t s Native C o r p o r a t i o n . Duncan's c l a s h w i t h the Church i n t e n s i f i e d w i t h the a r r i v a l a t the c o l o n y of Bishop R i d l e y i n 1879 • The cause f o r d i s s e n t i o n seemed to centre around r i t u a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y communion s e r v i c e . Duncan was a p p a r e n t l y l o a t h to teach p a r t a k i n g of the conse-c r a t e d elements because he b e l i e v e d that h i s people would f i n d i n i t too c l o s e an a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the r i t e s of the pagan can-n i b a l s o c i e t i e s . Dr. Thomas Crosby, twenty years l a t e r a t Port Simpson, speaks of the "Man-Eater" as a r e a l and s t i l l - p r e s e n t e v i l . 3 8 The outcome of the c o n t r o v e r s y was t h a t i n I887 Duncan and e i g h t hundred and f i f t y of h i s f o l l o w e r s removed to a p l o t of land on Annette T s l a n d , i n the A l a s k a A r c h i p e l a g o , granted by the United S t a t e s Government, and h i s colony was t h e n c e f o r t h l o s t to B r i t i s h Columbia. The m i s s i o n a r y to north-west America found h i s passage d i s -puted by two a d v e r s a r i e s ; the l i q u o r p e d d l e r , and the shaman. The i n d i s c r i m i n a t e s e l l i n g of a l c o h o l i c d r i n k to the Indians was 38 Op. c i t . . pp. 319-32i+. 55 c a r r i e d on from the time of the f i r s t maritime t r a d e r s . Since the m i s s i o n a r y d i d not b e g i n work among these peoples u n t i l f i f t y years had e l a p s e d , he d i d not see what was happening to them be f o r e the l i q u o r t r a f f i c had been wreaking i t s havoc i n t o the second g e n e r a t i o n . No great c r y seems to have been r a i s e d a g a i n s t t h i s t r a f f i c d u r i n g t h i s time. Of course, the t r a d e r s themselves could h a r d l y have been expected t o p r o t e s t , and few other Europeans wandered i n t o the I n d i a n s ' domain to observe what went on t h e r e . In 1856, however, Captain James Prevost's request f o r a m i s s i o n a r y f o r the n o r t h coast was made because of the e v i l i n -f l u e n c e of white t r a d e r s he observed t h e r e . 3 9 James Douglas, while Governor of the Crown Colony of B r i t i s h Columbia, appointed W i l l i a m Duncan J u s t i c e of the Peace at M e t l a k a t l a , and I n f l e x i b l y prosecuted o f f e n d e r s of l i q u o r laws to the f u l l l i m i t of h i s powers.^ 0 The Methodist m i n i s t e r Reverend Ebenezer Robson, at Hope d u r i n g the f i r s t year of the g o l d r u s h , observed "with g r i e f and d i s t r e s s the ignorance and d e g r e d a t i o n of the Indians i n the area rendered a l l the deeper by sudden contact w i t h white and o f t e n u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d a d v e n t u r e r s " . ^ 1 Reverend Thomas Cros b y ^ 2 quotes from H i g g i n s ' The P a s s i n g of a Race: An Indian's love of s t r o n g d r i n k i s so keen that he w i l l s e l l h i s wife or h i s c h i l d r e n i n t o worse than s l a v e r y to o b t a i n money to buy i t . No s a c r i f i c e i s too g r e a t , no p r i c e too h i g h to g r a t i f y h i s a p p e t i t e 39 Rev. F.A. Peake, The A n g l i c a n Church In B r i t i s h C o l -umbia , p. 13. J+0 R.G. Large, op. c i t . . pp. 2 0 , 2 1 . i | l G. Dorey, No V a n i s h i n g Race, Toronto, Ryerson, 1955, P. 1+7. 1+2 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . . p. l 6 . 56 f o r the i n e b r i a t i n g bowl... The g u i l t y p a r t i e s are immune from the v i s i t s of c o n s t a b l e s , and J u s t i c e was not only b l i n d , she was a l s o s® deaf t h a t she could not hear the p l a i n t i v e c r i e s of the wretched v i c t i m s of man's greed and r a p a c i t y as they r e n t the n i g h t a i r and seemed to c a l l down Heaven's ven-geance upon t h e i r p o i s o n e r s . E. Odium, i n a l e t t e r to Dr. Crosby r e m i n i s c i n g t h e i r days t o -gether i n m i s s i o n work d u r i n g the l a t t e r years of the n i n e t e e n t h century :^"3 The most debased heathen l i f e I have witnessed has been the d i r e c t r e s u l t of the white man's whisky... Under the i n f l u e n c e of the white men, ap a r t from the m i s s i o n a r y , the Indians were r a p i d l y s i n k i n g i n t o debasement and dying out. Dr. Crosby h i m s e l f ^ estimated that l i q u o r obtained from f u r -t r a d e r s , p l u s i n t e r - t r i b a l wars r e s u l t i n g from the use o f t h i s l i q u o r , had by h i s day reduced the A l a s k a n coast Indians t o a tenth of t h e i r former numbers. There can be no doubt that the In d i a n l e a d e r s , those who, through t h e i r s o c i a l consciousness p e r c e i v e d the e v i l s of t h i s t r a f f i c and wished to combat i t , asked h e l p from t h i s one group of white men a g a i n s t the ravages of other white men. In 1866 the Reverend John Good went to L y t t o n i n answer to a request made to him i n the form of a telegram i n C h i n o o k : ^ " L y t t o n siwashes turn turn mika c l o o s h hyaek chaco. Tikke wawwa mika" : (the L y t t o n Indians t h i n k you had b e t t e r make haste and come. They wish to speak to you). The l a b o r s of these men i n t h i s r e s p e c t seem not to have been i n v a i n . The Reverend A.G. Morice,OMI,^ c i t e s an e a r l y 1|3 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. 396. kk I b i d . . p. 115. I4.5 Rev. PvA. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 66. J+6 Op. c i t . . p. 327. 57 example of the success gained by one of the g r e a t Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s a f t e r only three years e f f o r t : In May, 1861+, Governor S i r James Douglas r e s o l v e d to have a g r e a t c e l e b r a t i o n to commemorate the Queen's B i r t h d a y . Wishing to reach t h e r e f o r e as l a r g e a c o n -course o f Indians as p o s s i b l e , he a p p l i e d to t h e i r r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r , the d e s p i s e d French m i s s i o n a r y . As a consequence, Father Fouquet went down from S t . Mary's M i s s i o n to New Westminster w i t h a f l o t i l l a of s i x or seven hundred canoes, c a r r y i n g some 3,500 n a t i v e s , w i t h s i x t y temperance f l a g s - a r e d c r o s s on a white f i e l d bordered i n r e d , and the words " R e l i g i o n , Temperance, C i v i l i z a t i o n " i n l a r g e golden l e t t e r s . Photographs taken years a f t e r t h i s time show groups, some from as f a r away as S t u a r t Lake, gathered a t S t . Mary's and a t S e c h e l t , and c a r r y i n g these f l a g s to show t h a t they had taken the p ledge. The obvious opponent t© m i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t w i t h i n the t r i b a l group was the shaman. He saw i n the m i s s i o n a r y a u s u r p e r of h i s place as a c o n t r o l l e r of s p i r i t s of good and e v i l , and the mis-s i o n a r y saw i n him i n t u r n the symbol o f heathen b e l i e f . He t h e r e f o r e exerted a l l of h i s power toward the e l i m i n a t i o n of the "medicine-man". In the s t r u g g l e the shaman was g e n e r a l l y a t a disadvantage. With h i s v i l l a g e uprooted, t r a n s p l a n t e d and t o r n a p a r t by the i n g r e s s of f u r - t r a d i n g , mining, and other a c t i v -i t i e s of the white man, the p o s i t i o n which a shaman had once h e l d w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c f a c e - t o - f a c e group was l o s t . In a d d i t i o n , he could c o n t r o l n e i t h e r the disease nor the a l c o h o l which the European was i n t r o d u c i n g i n t o h i s d i s r u p t e d s o c i e t y . The v i l l a g e c h i e f , unable to g a i n the h e l p needed from h i s shaman, and im-p e l l e d t o c a l l upon the m i s s i o n a r y , f e l t g e n e r a l l y o b l i g a t e d to s i d e w i t h the l a t t e r i n d i s p u t e s . The shaman d i d not c a p i t u l a t e e a s i l y or suddenly. Almost a l l e a r l y m i s s i o n a r i e s found that they had to overcome the i n -f l u e n c e of the l o c a l shaman before they could make progress w i t h 58 t h e i r e f f o r t s . As Late as 1878, when the Methodist Church was attempting to e s t a b l i s h a m i s s i o n a t Kitamaat, a " c o n j u r e r " , as Dr. Crosby r e f e r r e d to him, o f f e r e d p h y s i c a l r e s i s t a n c e . The m i s s i o n a r y then "assumed the r o l e of the m i l i t a n t preacher", and the shaman backed down. H' The m i s s i o n a r y sometimes found h i m s e l f o b l i g a t e d to meet the shaman on h i s own grounds, the h e a l i n g of the s i c k . F i r s t i n the I n d i a n s ' own lodges, then i n m i s s i o n s o l a r i u m s , they p i t t e d t h e i r s k i l l s to win those who needed med i c a l a i d t o t h e i r c a r e . Medical m i s s i o n a r i e s thus made t h e i r appearance. In 1888 Dr. A r t h u r Pease was appointed M i s s i o n a r y Doctor by the A n g l i c a n Church. In 1893 he opened the S t . Bartholomew I n d i a n H o s p i t a l a t L y t t o n . 4 ^ The Methodist Church appointed Dr. A.E. B o l t o n M e d i c a l M i s s i o n a r y a l s o i n 1888. He e s t a b l i s h e d a h o s p i t a l a t Port Simp-son i n I892, and branch h o s p i t a l s a t Port E s s i n g t o n i n 1895 and at R i v e r s I n l e t i n 1897, to which he r o t a t e d as I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n s h i f t e d w i t h s e a s o n a l o c c u p a t i o n . For some years he was the only C h r i s t i a n m e d i c a l doctor on the coast n o r t h of Nanaimo. A hos-p i t a l under Dr. R.W. Large was b u i l t a t B e l l a B e l l a i n 1898, and at Haze I t on under Dr. H.C. Wrinch i n 1900.^ 9 In 190!+ a h o s p i t a l s h i p , the "Columbia", was put i n t o s e r v i c e under d i r e c t i o n of the Reverend John A n t l e , Superintendent of the Columbia Coast M i s s i o n . T h i s M i s s i o n was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n the b u i l d i n g of S t . George's A n g l i c a n H o s p i t a l a t A l e r t Bay In 1909.^° " 1+7 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . . pp. 251+ -255. 1+8 Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . . p. 71. 1+9 Crosby, op. c i t . . pp. 297-299. 50 Peake, op. c i t . . p. 71. 59 The Roman C a t h o l i c Church d i d not appoint medical doctors as m i s s i o n a r i e s , but s i s t e r s of the t e a c h i n g orders who a r r i v e d i n the province d u r i n g m i s s i o n a r y days acted as nurses i n m i s s i o n s o l a r i u m s , and the h o s p i t a l which burned i n 1958 a t Anaham served f o r many years the Cariboo and W i l l i a m s Lake d i s t r i c t s . A l l Cath-o l i c h o s p i t a l s have of course been a v a i l a b l e to the I n d i a n s . M i s s i o n a r i e s , i n order t o make themselves understood t o t h e i r l i s t e n e r s , had to l e a r n a language which they c o u l d under-stand. Since d i a l e c t v a r i e d g r e a t l y from group to group, many of the e v a n g e l i s t s , who t r a v e l l e d from group to group, l e a r n e d Chin-ook, the " l i n g u a f r a n c a " west o f the Rocky Mountains. They, as w e l l as the f u r - t r a d e r s , were thus i n s t r u m e n t a l i n promulgating use of t h i s d i a l e c t . Hymns and prayers (see F r o n t i s p i e c e ) were, throughout the p r o v i n c e , l e a r n e d i n the l o c a l tongue, Chinook, and e i t h e r E n g l i s h or L a t i n . - ^ The m i s s i o n a r y u s u a l l y could not l e a r n i n advance the l a n g -uage of the group w i t h whom he was going to work, s i n c e no one out s i d e of that group c o u l d teach i t . He would q u i t e l i k e l y , then, a r r i v e a t a v i l l a g e unable t o speak the d i a l e c t of i t s occ-upants . E a r l y m i s s i o n t e a c h i n g thus i n v o l v e d a t t a c k s on the language b a r r i e r r a t h e r than formal e d u c a t i o n as we now t h i n k of i t . I t i n v o l v e d of course not only c h i l d r e n , but the e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n , as s t u d e n t s , f o r n e i t h e r young nor o l d knew e i t h e r the new l a n g -uage nor the new r e l i g i o n . In the e a r l y m i s s i o n a r y days, then, when i t i s s a i d t h a t a s c h o o l was e s t a b l i s h e d what was f r e q u -e n t l y meant was t h a t a group of Indians of a l l ages had been 51 Some S e c h e l t Indians know L a t i n , Chinook, Chataleech S a l i s h , and E n g l i s h . 6o assembled f o r the purposes of language and r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n . I t i s t h e r e f o r e impossible to d i s s o c i a t e , i n those y e a r s , edu-c a t i o n and m i s s i o n work, s i n c e they were of a n e c e s s i t y i n t e r -dependent, and t h e i r terminology, as a r e s u l t , o f t e n synonymous. M i s s i o n a r y work, by i t s v e r y name, i m p l i e s t e a c h i n g of the Gospel as a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r c o n f i r m a t i o n i n t o some s e c t of C h r i s t i a n church. Emphasis was t h e r e f o r e p l a c e d e n t i r e l y upon b r i d g i n g the communication gap, and, once i t was b r i d g e d , upon i n s t r u c t i o n i n catechism, s t o r y , song, music and ceremony of some form of C h r i s t i a n i t y . The Reverend Herbert Beaver, d u r i n g h i s s h o r t s t a y as chap-l a i n of F o r t Vancouver, gave up the task of p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n t© the c h i l d r e n of surrounding Indian t r i b e s because he d i d not know Chinook.^ 2 Father Demers, one of the f i r s t m i s s i o n a r i e s to the n o r t h -west a f t e r abandonment of the Spanish Nootka p o s t , when i n 1839 he met w i t h Indians of twenty-two peoples, d i s t r i b u t e d among them " C a t h o l i c Ladders"; wood w i t h groups of notches and symbols carved to r e p r e s e n t passage of time and p r i n c i p a l events s i n c e C r e a t i o n . He e x p l a i n e d these devices to h i s "congregation" i n the Chinook j a r g o n . ^ 3 While t r a v e l l i n g n o r t h w i t h the f u r b r i g -ade i n I8I4.2, Father Demers spent a l l the time he c o u l d l e a r n i n g the languages of the Indians w i t h whom he came i n c o n t a c t . ^ The Reverend Alexander G a r r e t t l e a r n e d Chinook to teach 5>2 Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 3 . 53 Wayne S u t t l e s , "The P l a t e a u Prophet Dance Among the Coast S a l i s h " , Southwestern J o u r n a l o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y of New Mexico, Winter, 1957, p. 357. 51+ Rev. George Forbes, op. c i t . 61 f i f t y - f o u r c h i l d r e n who spoke f i v e languages at V i c t o r i a i n 1 8 6 0 . ^ The Reverend J . Wlllem, i n h i s sch o o l a t A l b e r n i i n 1868, asked students who knew Chinook or E n g l i s h to h e l p him w i t h others .-^ Dr. Crosby l e a r n e d Chinook while a t the Songees r e s e r v e i n 1870, and while a t Port Simpson had h i s Indian c o n g r e g a t i o n mem-o r i z e B i b l e t e x t s i n both Tsimshian and E n g l i s h . - ^ In the l a t e l880's the Reverend Charles H a r r i s o n worked on a t r a n s l a t i o n of the A n g l i c a n Prayer Book i n t o the Haida d i a l e c t , and the Reverend John Henry Keen undertook the task of c o m p i l i n g a grammar of Haida language.-^ Father M o rice, d u r i n g the same y e a r s , d e v i s e d f o r the bene-f i t o f h i s charges a t S t u a r t Lake a system of s y l l a b i c p r i n t i n g . He c a s t type and p r i n t e d a primer, p r a y e r book, and a monthly p e r i o d i c a l . Father LeJeune adapted a k i n d of stenography to the t r a n s c r i p t i o n of Chinook, and f o r years p u b l i s h e d the well-known Kamloops "Wawa".^9 In 1882 Reverend Crosby brought out a paper c a l l e d the "Simpson H e r a l d " , the f i r s t newspaper on the upper c o a s t . I t was f o l l o w e d by the S i t k a "North S t a r " , the Wrangel "Northern Light"', and the Nass R i v e r "Ahah". At Kitamaat the Reverend George Raley compiled the f i r s t d i c t i o n a r y of n o r t h e r n coast dialects.^° 55 Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 60. 56 I b i d . . p. 70. 57 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. J4.7. 58 Peake, op. c i t . , p. 92. 59 Rev. A.G. Morice, op. c i t . , p. 377. 60 Crosby, op. c i t . . p. 76. 62 W i l l i a m Henry Lomas, commenting i n the Columbia M i s s i o n Report of 1867 on h i s work among the Cowichans, r e v e a l e d the r e l a t i o n s h i p between language and e v a n g e l i s m : 0 1 Of course the i n s t r u c t i o n was of a v e r y elementary nature, and I f e a r we can have but l i t t l e hope of imparting much r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n u n t i l the l a n g -uage has been a c q u i r e d . At a v e r y e a r l y date, however, what could be c a l l e d schools began to make t h e i r appearance. Before any m i s s i o n a r y came west of the Rockies, some I n d i a n boys from Hudson's Bay Company posts were being taught a t Red rei 63 62 R i v e r , where they were a p p a r e n t l y taught r e a d i n g , r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n , and a g r i c u l t u r e . The Methodist Church e s t a b l i s h e d a s c h o o l among the Indians of Nanaimo i n 18£7, w i t h C o r n e l i u s Bryant as t e a c h e r T h e Rev-erend Ebenezer Robson's g r i e f and d i s t r e s s a t c o n d i t i o n of the Indians a t Hope l e d him i n 1859 to open a s c h o o l f o r them there.°^ The Reverend Alexander G a r r e t t i n i860 opened a s c h o o l i n a t e n t near V i c t o r i a , When, a year l a t e r , the t e n t suddenly be-came a s a i l on a dug-out canoe, he appealed to f r i e n d s , and r a i s e d a thousand d o l l a r s f o r a wooden s c h o o l . The b u i l d i n g was l a i d out i n the shape of an octagon "so that one d i v i s i o n might be used by the m i s s i o n a r y , while the c h i l d r e n of the s e v e r a l t r i -bes who d i d not love each other might be p l a c e d i n the o t h e r s " . 0 0 ~6l Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 61+. 62 I b i d . , p. 63. 63 Charles E . P h i l l i p s , op. c i t . , p. 15I4. 61+ Peake, op. c i t . , p. 63. 65 G. Dorey, op. c i t . , p. 1+7. 66 Peake, op. c i t . , p. 62. 63 W i l l i a m Duncan, although he encountered o p p o s i t i o n from some c h i e f s and medicine men, was a b l e , a f t e r spending a w i n t e r l e a r n i n g the Tsimshian language, to open a classroom i n a s m a l l lo g b u i l d i n g the year a f t e r h i 3 a r r i v a l at P o r t Simpson.^? By 1880, Duncan's s c h o o l at M e t l a k a t l a , w i t h an enrolment of 160 (see Table 1) , was by f a r the l a r g e s t Indian s c h o o l In the prov-i n c e , and h i s system, added to t h a t a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d by F a t h e r Lacombe i n A l b e r t a , s e t the p a t t e r n f o r I n d i a n I n d u s t r i a l Schools across C a n a d a . ^ S t . Mary's M i s s i o n e s t a b l i s h e d an i n d u s t r i a l s c h o o l i n I863, w i t h separate establishments f o r boys and g i r l s . ^ 9 _ n 1875J the S i s t e r s of S t . Ann e s t a b l i s h e d an i n d u s t r i a l s c h o o l a t W i l l i a m s Lake, and the same t e a c h i n g order opened a day s c h o o l i n Nanaimo i n 1 8 7 7 . 7 0 The Reverend John Good i n I867 opened an Indian boys' s c h o o l at L y t t o n . A f l a g r u n up a t ten o ' c l o c k showed students t h a t i t was time to go to s c h o o l . A b e l l was rung f o r p r a y e r s , f o l l o w e d by work t i l l twelve. A f t e r a noon r e c e s s , academic work continued t i l l t h r e e p.m., then i n d u s t r i a l a r t s t i l l f o u r . O c c a s i o n a l l y there were evening c l a s s e s . In the same year, f i n d i n g t h a t there were no funds f o r a s c h o o l b u i l d i n g at Y a l e , David Holmes h e l d c l a s s e s i n the parsonage t h e r e . S t . George's I n d u s t r i a l S c h o o l was opened i n L y t t o n i n 1901* w i t h the Reverend George Ditcham p r i n c i p a l 67 R.G. Large, op. c i t . , p. 19. 68 Dean Wood. Ed. $19, Summer S e s s i o n U.B.C., 1957. 69 Rev. A.G. Morice, op. c i t . . p. 317. 70 I b i d . , pp. 352-255. 71 Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . . pp. 67-70. Table 1. Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report - 1880 Salarv How Raised Enrolled. Boys Enrolled. Girls r-i a O EH Average Attendance Reading & Spelling Writing Arithmetic 1 & J3 p ct! w o M e t l a k a t l a u © o ft o c •P •ri O ft -P CS O P p ^ E CM £ r-i £ i Funds sutions 87 73 180 69 160 120 92 .Nass R i v e r i Funds sutions 19 51+ 1+6 51+ 1+2 7 _ S t . Mary's M1fln1nn i Funds sutions 133 26 39 11 21+ 13 26 13 25 10 25 6 25 6 ' 16 Port Simpson i Funds sutions 6)i 58 122 ho 10Q 81+ V 1 ' - 3 s Mass4t-t Indiar Contril _72 3 75 75 75 12 Indiar Contril 28 22 50 20 50 50 50 • \ . V i c t o r i a Indiar Contril 23 21 1+1+ 12 39 19 71 65 The Reverend Thomas Crosby's f i r s t words i n the Cowichan I n d i a n language, w i t h which he addressed h i s p r o s p e c t i v e p u p i l s at Nanaimo, were "Muek-stow-ay-wilth may-tla ta s c h o o l " ( a l l c h i l d r e n come to s c h o o l ) . A p p a r e n t l y they d i d not always come to 72 s c h o o l , but f r e q u e n t l y went swimming i n s t e a d . At Port Simpson Dr. Crosby was able by 1875 to stage a F a i r , a t which n e a r l y a hundred a r t i c l e s were e x h i b i t e d , i n c l u d i n g samples of needlework, k n i t t i n g , beadwork, patchwork, c a r v i n g s , and other woodwork. The students a l s o d i s p l a y e d t h e i r p r o f i c i e n c y i n s p e l l i n g and In the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n t a b l e . 7 3 W i l l i a m Henry C o l l i s o n , sent from England by the Church M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y , founded a school a t Massett i n 187!+. From there he was posted to the Skeena, where he e s t a b l i s h e d a s c h o o l at K i n c o l i t h , and where, i n 1878, he was ordained by Bishop Bom-bus. 71+ The Methodist Church sent the Reverend CM. Tate to the Skeena duri n g these same y e a r s , where he b u i l t the f i r s t day school a t H a z e l t o n . The Skeena a l s o r e c e i v e d Methodist schools f o r a time a t Hagwilget and at K i s p i o x . Reverend and Mrs. Tate l a t e r r e t u r n e d south, where they began, a t f i r s t i n t h e i r own home, at S a r d i s , what was to become the Coqualeetza I n s t i t u t e . By the t u r n of the c e n t u r y , when the m i s s i o n a r y p e r i o d might be s a i d to have more or l e s s ended, t h i s Church was a l s o o p e r a t i n g I n d i a n schools a t China Hat, H a r t l e y Bay, and K i t l o p e . 7 ^ 72 L e t t e r from Mrs. H.L. H i l l , Nanaimo, A p r i l 21, 1958. 73 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. 7ij.. 7I4. Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 90* 75 Crosby, op. c i t . , pp. 8I4.-89. 66 In 188k S l a t e r Mary P e l i c i a n , of the S i s t e r s of C h i l d Jesus, from Lepuy, Prance, came to t e a c h twelve students a t S t , Paul's Indian S c h o o l , e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t year i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the North Vancouver M i s s i o n . Land was c l e a r e d and the s c h o o l b u i l t by the Indians t h e m s e l v e s R o m a n C a t h o l i c r e s i d e n t i a l schools f o r Indians were e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1890 a t Cranbrook, i n 1893 a t Kamloops, i n 1900 a t Kakawis, and, e a r l y i n the twent-i e t h century, a t S e c h e l t and a t L e j a c . 7 7 A l l Hallows School grew out of an a p p e a l by Bishop Acton Windeyer S i l l i t o e , f i r s t A n g l i c a n bishop of New Westminster, who sent out a c a l l t o England f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n h i s work w i t h the n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n . The response came from A l l Hallows community of High A n g l i c a n nuns i n Ditchingham, N o r f o l k . In 1881+ three teachers of t h i s order used a vacant parsonage a d j o i n i n g S t . John's Church a t Y a l e as a s c h o o l f o r Indian g i r l s . In 1885 the s c h o o l moved i n t o the abandoned C.P.R. h o s p i t a l , and i n 1888 i n t o a wing of the Onderdonk house. The s c h o o l , attended by both White and I n d i a n g i r l s , was w e l l known throughout the West u n t i l i t s c l o s u r e i n 1916.78 The S a l v a t i o n Army began m i s s i o n a r y work i n the Skeena area towards the end of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . In 1898 t h a t o r g a n i -s a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d a s c h o o l a t the newly-created v i l l a g e of Glen Vowell, an o f f s h o o t of K i s p i o x , 7 ^ a n a d u r i n g t h i s century has e s t a b l i s h e d s e v e r a l other schools i n s m a l l v i l l a g e s on the Skeena and Nass r i v e r s . 76 E l i n o r Glenn, The Vancouver Sun. August 27, I9I4.9. 77 C h r i s t i e School J u b i l e e , 1900-1950. (Unpaged). 7 8 H i s t o r i c Y a l e , pp. 22-25. 79 R.G. Large, op. c i t . , p. 20. 67 To sum up t h i s e r a : The m i s s i o n a r y came t o the northwest to work among the I n d i a n s , who d e s p e r a t e l y needed h e l p , when no one e l s e would come. They came, a t f i r s t , when there was i n ex-es tence no government except that of a f u r - t r a d i n g company. The government which was l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d was d i s i n t e r e s t e d i n the welfare of the Indians and of them. 8 0 They r e c e i v e d no o f f i c i a l f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e , i n the main, and many labored throughout t h e i r l i v e s w i t h l i t t l e or no p e r s o n a l income even from p r i v a t e s o u r c e s . Knowing that t e a c h i n g can take place o n l y where a sense of worth i s i n v o l v e d , they sought t o e s t a b l i s h t h i s b a s i s of worth i n t h e i r C h r i s t i a n i n s t r u c t i o n . They l a b o r e d , o f t e n , among i n c r e d i b l y h a rsh and t r y i n g c o n d i t i o n s , which c o s t the h e a l t h of many, and the l i f e of not a few. What l i t t l e thanks they have r e c e i v e d from t h i s world they have been awarded, most of them, posthumously; few were the p r a i s e s sung them d u r i n g t h e i r own l i f e t i m e s . Some of them a t t a i n e d r e s u l t s t h a t were t r u l y remark-able . Yet they came too l a t e and they gave too l i t t l e . To a people who f o r anywhere from f i f t y to a hundred years had s u f f e r e d a p h y s i c a l and moral de g r e d a t i o n from the white man's l i q u o r , d i s -ease, and i l l e g i t i m a t e b r e e d i n g , they brought a kind of solace which was i n i t s f i n a l a n a l y s i s almost e n t i r e l y s p i r i t u a l . 80 Dr. I.W. Powell, Indian Superintendent, i n 1880 wrote i n the Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report, page 121: "The m i s s i o n s as a r u l e are unable t o e r e c t proper schoolhouses, most of them b e i n g c o m f o r t l e s s and un-a t t r a c t i v e , and on account of the v a r i o u s l o c a l i t i e s b e i n g unreserved, no grants from the Government have been made to a i d i n the e r e c t i o n of e f f i c i e n t b u i l d i n g s " . 81 In 1880, only s i x s c h o o l s ; V i c t o r i a , Port Simpson, Met-l a k a t l a , K i n c o l l t h . Nass R i v e r , and Mas s e t t , r e c e i v e d g r a n t s . For some J4.65 s t u d e n t s , these t o t a l l e d only $1777. (Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report, page 1 2 1 ) . 68 Intent on e v a n g e l i z i n g , they f i s h e d not so much f o r men as f o r s o u l s , and brought the heathen g i v e n them f o r t h e i r i n h e r i t ance merely t o where "Knowing God, they g l o r i f i e d Him not as God" . P e r s i s t e n t i n t h e i r constant b a t t l e to break the heathen way o f l i f e , they broke the whole of the Ind i a n s ' way of l i f e , and s u b s t i t u t e d a realm f o r the s p i r i t , but not f o r the body, 1 Op i t s p l a c e . Thomas Crosby w r i t e s : The M i s s i o n a r y f i n d s among a people that are so con-s t a n t l y moving about that i f he i s to expect r e a l , good work i t must be done by g a t h e r i n g a number of the c h i l d r e n together i n a Home or Boarding S c h o o l or I n d u s t r i a l I n s t i t u t i o n , where they can be kept c o n s t a n t l y and r e g u l a r l y a t Schoo l and away from the e v i l i n f l u e n c e s of the heathen l i f e . One o f the few who sought to nu r t u r e more than the s p i r i t was W i l l i a m Duncan, of whom Dr. R.G. Large says:. 0* 3 I t would seem, however, t h a t he e a r l y grasped the n e c e s s i t y of f e e d i n g the body as w e l l as the s o u l . . . . B y making the Indian e c o n o m i c a l l y independent, he gave him a chance to develop s p i r i t u a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y . T h i s man was f o r c e d e v e n t u a l l y to break w i t h h i s Church, and ha never been completely f o r g i v e n h i s t r e s p a s s e s , ^ one of which was a f a i l u r e to conduct a s u f f i c i e n t number of B i b l e c l a s s e s 1 c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h i s s c h o o l . ^ F i r e d w i t h the energy of a z e a l which drove them c o n s t -a n t l y , they sometimes p e r m i t t e d a m i s d i r e c t i o n of t h e i r d r i v e to the undoing of the work of others r a t h e r than a t the doing of t h e i r own. The r e s u l t s o f such r i v a l r y o v e r - e v a n g e l i z e d "82 Up and Down the North P a c i f i c Coast by Canoe and Mis-s i o n Ship, p. tik. 83 The Skeena, R i v e r of D e s t i n y , p. 22. 81; Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . , p. 16. 85 I b i d . , p. 9 1 . 69 86 some I n d i a n groups, and l e f t other groups almost untouched. F a i l i n g t o comprehend the nature of the n a t i v e p o l y t h e i s m , they attempted to make a h o l y vow of marriage, the one s i g n i f -i c a n t i n s t i t u t i o n i n the I n d i a n s ' l i f e which was not bound by a s p i r i t u a l f o r c e . While attempting to h e l p the I n d i a n l e a d a l i f e i n which he c o u l d f i n d r e s p e c t , they engendered a sense o f shame i n the h i t h e r t o accepted Indian marriage custom, which d i e d s l o w l y i n many groups. James Douglas, to name but one ex-ample, was persuaded by the Reverend Herbert Beaver to remarry h i s I ndian wife by Church of England r i t e s i n 1837, nine years a f t e r he had married by Indian c u s t o m . 8 7 T h i s c r e a t i o n of a d u a l l e v e l of acceptance of marriage r i t e added i t s weight to the continued d e p r e s s i o n of Indian and p a r t - I n d i a n s t a t u s . While attempting to overcome the d e s t r u c t i v e i n f l u e n c e of the rum-peddler, they themselves d i d much, through c r e a t i o n of a r t i f i c i a l v i l l a g e s , o f t e n f a r from immemorial hunting grounds, to sow the seeds f o r a break-down of the s o c i a l and economic c u l t u r e p a t t e r n s of the I n d i a n . One sept was brought some s i x t y m i l e s to the a r t i f i c i a l v i l l a g e of S e c h e l t i n I889. The v i l l a g e today i s almost completely without i t s own r e s o u r c e s . D e s p i t e t h e i r undoubted love f o r the i n d i v i d u a l b e i n g , and t h e i r unquestioned s i n c e r i t y i n t h e i r work, i n t h e i r eagerness to remake the n a t i v e Indian " c l o s e r to the h e a r t ' s d e s i r e " , and from t h e i r d i s t a s t e f o r almost the whole of h i s a b o r i g i n a l c u l -t u r e , they b u i l t a w a l l between themselves and t h e i r p u p i l s which must f r e q u e n t l y have thwarted good t e a c h i n g . 86" See M. Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. l 6 8 . 87 I b i d . , p. 9i;. CHAPTER IV THE IN-BETWEEN YEARS There i s but one n a t i v e race i n Canada, now r a p i d l y p a s s i n g away. 1 The I n d i a n , d u r i n g the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , had met the t r a d e r , who depended on him f o r f u r s , and the m i s s i o n a r y , who came to h e l p him a g a i n s t the f i r s t comer and to convert him to C h r i s t i a n i t y . J u s t a f t e r the middle of the century he encountered a t h i r d type of European, the go l d miner. The Hudson's Bay Company had been r e c e i v i n g some g o l d at 2 Kamloops f o r s e v e r a l years before the major d i s c o v e r y , but the main f i n d was made on the sand-bars of the lower F r a s e r Canyon i n 1858. W i t h i n months, thousands of gold-seekers had entered the f i e l d s , some o v e r l a n d , but mostly through the post of V i c -t o r i a . By i 8 6 0 , the source o f t h i s g o l d had been t r a c e d to the Cariboo country; by 1861+ to the Kootenays, and by 1869 to the Skeena, S t i k i n e , and other r i v e r s of the f a r n o r t h . 3 Each new g o l d f i n d brought i t s thousands of p r o s p e c t o r s to one area a f t e r another, u n t i l almost the whole o f the province had f e l t t h e i r presence. But whereas the f u r - t r a d e r s , even w i t h the t r o u b l e s they brought, needed the I n d i a n , and t h e r e f o r e encroached l i t t l e on h i s p r o p e r t y , the miner f e l t no such dependence. For the f i r s t time, t o o, non-Indians began to outnumber Indians along the r i v e r -v a l l e y s where gold was to be found. The miners ignored the Ind-i a n s ' t r a d i t i o n a l h u n t i n g and t r a p p i n g grounds, and i n many 1 Rev. Thomas Crosby, op. c i t . , p. v i i . 2 M. Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. I38. 3 F. Howay, op. c i t . . p. I 7 I - I 7 2 . 71 l o c a l i t i e s e i t h e r k i l l e d or drove o f f the animals from which they had obtained t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d . Admixture of Indian and non-Indian bloods g r e a t l y a c c e l e r -ated d u r i n g the years i n which these unattached men roamed the c o u n t r y . N a t i v e s as f a r n o r t h as the S t i k i n e , who had had almost no c o n t a c t w i t h the white r a c e , suddenly found themselves over-whelmed by the f l o o d t h a t now Invaded t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . Between I87O and 1900, miners and t r a d e r s i n t e r b r e d w i t h the Indians u n t i l a t T e l e g r a p h Creek they completely l o s t not o n l y t h e i r r a c i a l p u r i t y , but a l s o t h e i r o l d ways of l i f e , and a c q u i r e d an i n h e r -i t a n c e of White c u l t u r e A Many other v i l l a g e s underwent s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e s . Hawthorn, Belshaw, and Jamieson comment on t h i s impact of White on I n d i a n c u l t u r e d u r i n g t h i s period:;-' Despite the long h i s t o r y of c o n t a c t s , the Indians of the Province have been subjected to I n t e n s i v e a c c u l t -u r a t i o n o n l y i n r e c e n t times - d a t i n g from the middle of the n i n e t e e n t h century f o r some, and from the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o r o t h e r s . The phenomenon which f i r s t brought Whites i n l a r g e numbers to the northwest was the d i s c o v e r y of g o l d . The d i s c o v e r y of other r e s o u r c e s brought more Whites over the y e a r s , so t h a t the p r o p o r t i o n o f White over Indian p o p u l a t i o n continued t o i n c r e a s e . For s i x t y years the Indians of the northwest knew no law except that of the f u r - t r a d e r . In 1828 James Douglas, w h i l e s t a t i o n e d at S t u a r t Lake, had an I n d i a n , who had s e v e r a l years before been one of the k i l l e r s of two Hudson's Bay Company men, " I4, Information obtained 1958 from Fred Brown, p r i n c i p a l of Telegraph Creek Elementary-High S c h o o l . 5 H.B. Hawthorn, C.S. Belshaw, S.M. Jamieson, The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, The U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s , 1950, P. 19. 72 clubbed t o death w i t h garden implements and thrown t o the dogs of the f o r t In I8I4.2, a Hagwilget I n d i a n , who had k i l l e d the Postmaster at P o r t Kilmaurs i n what he b e l i e v e d to be revenge f o r the death 7 of a r e l a t i v e , was shot by a p a r t y of Hudson's Bay Company men.' Even when R i c h a r d Blanshard i n 18^0 t r a v e l l e d to N e w i t t i i n an attempt to apprehend n a t i v e s who had murdered three s a i l o r d e s e r t e r s , he was t o l d by the c o l o n i a l o f f i c e t h a t he should i n f u t u r e not undertake to " p r o t e c t or attempt to punish i n j u r i e s committed on B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s who v o l u n t a r i l y p l a c e d themselves o at a d i s t a n c e from the s e t t l e m e n t s " . There was as yet l i t t l e l e g a l i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h the I n d i a n s ' r i g h t s of tenancy. Three years l a t e r , however, Governor James Douglas d i d app-rehend an a l l e g e d murderer a t Cowichan. While t h e r e , he informed a group of Indians t h a t the whole country was a p o s s e s s i o n of the B r i t i s h Crown. 9 In l 8 6 l , Douglas o f f i c i a l l y d i r e c t e d the C h i e f Commissioner of Lands and Works to "take measures as soon as p r a c t i c a b l e f o r marking out d i s t i n c t l y the Indian Reserves throughout the C o l -ony". He added t h a t "the extent of the I n d i a n Reserves to be d e f i n e d " was to be "as they may s e v e r a l l y be p o i n t e d out by the n a t i v e s themselves". The d i r e c t i v e was n o t , however, put i n t o e f f e c t . By S e c t i o n 91, s u b - s e c t i o n 2 I 4 , o f the B r i t i s h North America 6 Walter Sage, op. c i t . , p. I4.6. 7 R.G. Large, op. c i t . , p. 13. 8 F.W. Howay, op. c i t . , p. 106. 9 Sage, op. c i t . , p. 179* 73 A c t , the Dominion Government was t o l e g i s l a t e f o r "I n d i a n s , and lands f o r I n d i a n s " . By terms of the Act of Union of I 8 7 I , by which B r i t i s h C o l -umbia entered the Dominion, contained the f o l l o w i n g phrases i n Clause 13: ... the charge of the Indians and t r u s t e e s h i p and management of the land r e s e r v e d f o r t h e i r use and b e n e f i t s s h a l l be assumed by the Dominion Govern-ment, and a p o l i c y as l i b e r a l as h i t h e r t o pursued by the B r i t i s h Columbia Government, a f t e r Union. To c a r r y out such a p o l i c y t r a c t s of l a n d of such extents as has h i t h e r t o been the p r a c t i c e of the B r i t i s h Columbia Government to a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h a t purpose s h a l l from time t o time be conveyed by the L o c a l Government t o the Dominion Government. The B r i t i s h Columbia Pre-emption A c t of I87O excluded Ind-ians from c l a i m i n g Crown l a n d s . Clause 13, intended t o p r o t e c t the Indian a g a i n s t the onrush of White p o p u l a t i o n , d i d not f o r some years do so, w i t h the r e s u l t that many o r i g i n a l v i l l a g e s i t e s e i t h e r disappeared a l t o g e t h e r or were hemmed i n t o extremely s m a l l corners of ground. In I876 three commissioners, Alexander Anderson, to r e p r e -sent the Dominion Government; A r c h i b a l d McKinley, to r e p r e s e n t the P r o v i n c i a l Government, and G i l b e r t Sproat, j o i n t member, were appointed to i n v e s t i g a t e and r e p o r t on the r e s e r v e s problem."' - 0 Main r e s e r v e s were surveyed by I89O, and v i r t u a l l y a l l de-t a i l s completed by 1916, i n t h a t year, 1628 r e s e r v e s were l i s t e d , t o t a l l i n g 821,Ij.lO a c r e s . 1 1 One obvious f a c t o r important to the study of the e d u c a t i o n o f a people i s the number o f persons i n v o l v e d . The I n d i a n popu-l a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia over the years has been estimated 10 Report, Deputy Superintendent-General o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , I876. 11 Canada Year Book, p. 172. many times, w i t h g r e a t v a r i a t i o n i n the e s t i m a t e s . Diamond 12 Jenness has made what i s probably the most d e t a i l e d p r e -European a n a l y s i s , g i v i n g estimates from a number of sources f o r f o u r t e e n groups (see Table 2 ) . Table 2 P o p u l a t i o n of Indians by Groups Group Pre-European T l i n g i t 5 8 5 0 * Haida 8]+00 Tsimshian 6000 B e l l a Coola 2500 Kwakiutl 7200 Nootka 6000 Coast S a l i s h 15000 I n t e r i o r S a l i s h 15500 Kootenay C h i l o o t i n 2500 C a r r i e r 8500 T s e t s a u t 500 T a h l t a n 1000 Sekani 1000 75950&k 1935 1+L26 650 3 ^ 8 300 2000 1500 kOOO 6000 500 kSO 2000 3 288 160 257Z5 k Smallpox i n t r o d u c e d by Spaniards 1775 && Plus Kootenays One e s t i m a t e 1 3 put the I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n a t t h i r t y thousand i n 1853, but the Report of the Hudson's Bay Company to the Com-mons i n 1857 p l a c e d the f i g u r e at s e v e n t y - f i v e thousand. The White p o p u l a t i o n of the northwest was approximately one thousand i n 1 8 5 3 ^ During three months of I858, n e a r l y f i f t e e n thousand persons a r r i v e d a t V i c t o r i a a l o n e . ° A l t o g e t h e r , some "12 The Indians of Canada, pp. 3 3 I - 3 8 2 . 13 M. Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 127. 14 A. Begg, op. c i t . , p. I l 6 . 15 Ormsby, op. c i t . , p. 127. 16 P. Howay, op. c i t . , p. 119. 75 t w e n t y - f i v e thousand miners had made t h e i r way to the F r a s e r R i v e r . 1 7 H i l l - T o u t , from examinations he made of v i l l a g e s i t e s , c a l -c u l a t e d that the a b o r i g i n a l S a l i s h p o p u l a t i o n alone had been "I fi s i x t y thousand a t the time of Simon F r a s e r . Of course, no o f f i c i a l count of the n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n was made by e a r l i e s t Europeans. Soon a f t e r the time t h a t schools began to be e s t a b l i s h e d among them, however, census t a l l i e s were begun (see Table 3 ) . E d u c a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia's I n d i a n pop-u l a t i o n i n v o l v e d a t o t a l , as r e v e a l e d by these f i g u r e s , of be-tween twenty and t h i r t y thousand persons. Table 3 1 Q Indian P o p u l a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia- 1" 7 1871 - 2 3 , 0 0 0 1881 - 25,661 1891 - 3U,202 1901 - 28,91+9 1911 - 20,131+ 1921 - 22,377 1931 - 2l+,599 19U1 - 2l+,875 191+9 - 27,936 1951+ - 31 ,086 S c h o o l s , while s c a t t e r e d throughout much of the p r o v i n c e , reached by no means a l l o f the n a t i v e peoples at any e a r l y date. The Report o f Superintendent J.W. Powell f o r 1887 showed twenty-f i v e hundred Indians whose r e l i g i o n was known to be pagan a t that time, and seventeen thousand whose r e l i g i o n was unaccounted f o r , and c o u l d t h e r e f o r e be assumed to be pagan. Sinee e d u c a t i o n g e n e r a l l y began w i t h c o n v e r s i o n , or purported c o n v e r s i o n , to "17 M. Ormsby, op. c i t . . p. ll+O 18 The Far West. The Home of the S a l i s h and Dene, p. ll+. 19 From I n d i a n A f f a i r s R e p o r t s . 76 C h r i s t i a n i t y , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t these n e a r l y twenty thousand n a t i v e s had had l i t t l e up to t h i s time. E d u c a t i o n of Indians was p l a c e d under the newly c r e a t e d o f f i c e of the S e c r e t a r y of State i n 1868. In I873 i t was t r a n s -f e r r e d to the Department of the I n t e r i o r , to the Department of Indian A f f a i r s from 1880 to 1936, and to the Department of Mines and Resources from then to 191+9• Since t h a t date i t has come 20 under j u r i s d i c t i o n of C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration. S e c t i o n 93 °f the B r i t i s h North America Act s t a t e s t h a t "Nothing i n any law s h a l l p r e j u d i c i a l l y a f f e c t any r i g h t or p r i v -i l e g e w i t h r e s p e c t t o denominational schools which any c l a s s of persons have by law i n the province a t the u n i o n " . The government of B r i t i s h Columbia was i n any case not prepared to undertake the task of I n d i a n e d u c a t i o n i n I 8 7 I , and the e f f e c t of t h i s c l a u s e has been to leave the management of I n d i a n schools under the con-t r o l of the C h r i s t i a n church denominations which s t a r t e d edu-c a t i o n of the n a t i v e s . With no s t a t u t e to enforce attendance, enrolment i n these m i s s i o n schools f l u c t u a t e d g r e a t l y . The twenty students a t the s c h o o l founded by Father Lacombe a t Edmonton i n l 8 6 l were " w i l d as hares and a t the sound of the voyageurs 1 songs or cheers i n autumn, they flew l i k e arrows from t h e i r bows to the bank to o -1 welcome the brigade home". W i l l i a m Henry Lomas, w r i t i n g of h i s s c h o o l among the Cow-ichans i n 1867, commented on the attendance s i t u a t i o n as he saw i t t h e r e : 2 2 20 C. P h i l l i p s , op. c i t . . p. 337. 21 I b i d . , p. 156. 22 Rev. F.A. Peake, op. c i t . . p. 61+. 77 The s c h o o l was open f o r a f o r t n i g h t , w i t h an average attendance of 12, but a t the end of that time a l l the boys l e f t the v i l l a g e to go w i t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s to d i f f e r e n t s t a t i o n s on the coast to f i s h f o r clams, and gather r o o t s t h a t grow on the h i l l s i d e s , which they dry f o r winter use. T h i s w i l l , f o r some time, be one drawback of the work of t e a c h i n g the young as at i n t e r v a l s , throughout the season, they a l l go away to f i s h , e t c . A f t e r I875, schools l o c a t e d on g a z e t t e d r e s e r v e s were to be e n t i t l e d to g r a n t s . 2 3 However, o n l y a h a l f - d o z e n schools i n B.C. r e c e i v e d grants d u r i n g the next s e v e r a l y e a r s , and these grants amounted to o n l y about f o u r d o l l a r s a p u p i l per year. 2^" Attendance seems not to have improved, however, f o r i n h i s 1880 Report Dr. Powell wrote: Judging from tone r e p o r t s forwarded to t h i s o f f i c e , a very e x t e n s i v e r o l l or l i s t of p u p i l s i s n e c e s s a r y to show a l i m i t e d average attendance d u r i n g the q u a r t e r . Many of the c h i l d r e n appear, i n t h i s way, to have v i s i t e d the s c h o o l two or three times i n the q u a r t e r , and can t h e r e f o r e r e c e i v e l i t t l e b e n e f i t , or indeed produce any e f f e c t , except t h a t of h e l p i n g out a d e f e c t i v e and u n s a t i s f a c t o r y average a t the end of the r e q u i r e d p e r i o d . I n 1888 W.H. Lomas, by t h i s time Superintendent of the Cow-ichan Agency, repeated i n h i s Report the complaints he had made twenty years e a r l i e r as a teacher t h e r e , c o n c l u d i n g that there was "very s l i g h t b e n e f i t d e r i v e d from these day schools". 2-' R.H. Pidcock, Superintendent f o r the P o r t Rupert Agency, of. r e p o r t e d i n the same year that The s c h o o l , I am s o r r y to say, i s not so w e l l attended as could be d e s i r e d , the c h i l d r e n are not averse to l e a r n i n g , but t h e i r parents see i n edu-c a t i o n the d o w n f a l l of a l l of t h e i r most c h e r i s h e d customs * "23 "Report of Dr. I.W. Powell, Indian Superintendent f o r B.C., I87U" S e s s i o n a l Papers. 1873. V o l 6, No. 23, p. 7. 2l+ P. 121. 25 P. 102. 26 P. IOI4.. 78 Dr. Powell's 1880 Report had suggested a p o s s i b l e remedy 27 f o r t h i s attendance problem:; 1 The q u e s t i o n of i m p a r t i n g common school e d u c a t i o n to Indians i s one not unattended w i t h d i f f i - c u l t i e s , and the v a r i o u s systems adopted o f t e n appear to end i n f a i l u r e . A c c o r d i n g t o my own e x p e r i e n c e , I am of the o p i n i o n that no I n d i a n s c h o o l can be s u c c e s s f u l which Is not connected w i t h some i n d u s t r i a l system, and more or l e s s i s o l a t e d from the d i r e c t l y opposing tendencies of camp l i f e . A lthough they had t h e i r disagreements i n other r e s p e c t s , I n d i a n Agents and m i s s i o n a r i e s found common ground i n t h e i r answers t o the attendance problem. In 1894, l e g i s l a t i o n s e t up the f i r s t important code f o r Indian e d u c a t i o n . I t r e q u i r e d the attendance a t s c h o o l of a l l Indian c h i l d r e n between the ages of seven and s i x t e e n and made parents or others who prevented t h e i r attendance l i a b l e to p e n a l t i e s . The Go v e r n o r - i n - C o u n c i l was a u t h o r i z e d to e s t a b l i s h i n d u s t r i a l and boarding s c h o o l s , and to d e c l a r e any e x i s t i n g s c h o o l to be such an I n s t i t u t i o n . By 1907, e i g h t r e s i d e n t i a l and nine i n d u s t r i a l s c h ools had been e s t a b l i s h e d by the v a r i o u s Churches. Du r i n g the f o l l o w i n g twenty years 3ome schools dropped out of e x i s t e n c e , and others came i n t o b e i n g (see Table !+)• Although numbers of students f o r which grants were p a i d d i d not i n a l l schools correspond to exact enrolment f i g u r e s , r e s i d e n t i a l schools r e c e i v e d $60 per c a p i t a f o r d esignated number of p u p i l s , and i n d u s t r i a l schools $130 per 20 c a p i t a . 7 A t o t a l of t h i r t y - s i x day schools were a l s o i n oper-a t i o n a t t h i s time (see Table 5). 27 P. 121. 28 C E . P h i l l i p s , op. c i t . . p. 338. 29 Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report. 79 Table 1+ Enrolment, R e s i d e n t i a l and I n d u s t r i a l Schools 30 Name of School L o c a t i o n Ahousat A l b e r n i A l e r t Bay Cariboo C h r i s t i e Coqualeetza K l t i m a t Kootenay Kuper I s l a n d Lejac Port Simpson S t . George's S t . Mary's-S e c h e l t -Squamish Kamloops A l l Hallows Port Simpson Clayoquot S t . Eugene M e t l a k a t l a W i l l i a m s Lake Ahousat A l b e r n i A l e r t Bay 150 Mile House Kakawis S a r d i s K i t i m a t M i s s i o n Cranbrook Kuper I s l a n d Lejac P o r t Simpson L y t t o n M i s s i o n S e c h e l t North Vancouver Kamloops Y a l e P o r t Simpson Clayoquot Sound Kootenay M e t l a k a t l a W i l l i a m s Lake Denomination United (Pres.) United (Pres.) Church of Eng. Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c United (Meth.) United (Meth.) Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c United (Meth.) Church of Eng. Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c Church of Eng. Methodist Roman C a t h o l i c Roman C a t h o l i c Church of Eng. Roman C a t h o l i c Enrolment 1907 1927 !+2 1*8 3 OA 95* 67* 1*1* 102 k 3>3> 53 102 159 19 109 122 83 l k 8 A I n d u s t r i a l Schools 79 ^ 3 63A-36 58A 51A 5 PA 899 ( G i r l s ) ( G i r l s ) ( G i r l s ) (Boys) Table 5 Schools by Denomination - 1907 Day 36 Boarding 8 I n d u s t r i a l 9 T o t a l Number of Schools 53 Undenominational 0 Roman C a t h o l i c 16 Church of England 15 Methodist 17 P r e s b y t e r i a n 1* S a l v a t i o n a l Army 1 T o t a l Enrolment 191*9 A l l boys i n i n d u s t r i a l schools were taught farming. They c o u l d a l s o l e a r n c a r p e n t r y , shoemaking, t a i l o r i n g , b l a c k s m i t h i n g , 30 Department of I n d i a n A f f a i r s Reports. 1907, 1927. 31 Department of Ind i a n A f f a i r s Report, 1907. 80 baking, harnessmaking, p r i n t i n g , p a i n t i n g , and t i n s m i t h i n g . The g i r l s were taught cooking, homemaking, sewing, and k n i t t i n g . Boys worked i n the shops or f i e l d s f o r h a l f of each day, and attended c l a s s e s f o r the remaining h a l f . H a l f of each day was s i m i l a r l y spent a t non-academic a c t i v i t i e s by the g i r l s . 3 2 Table 6 i n d i c a t e s enrolment by grade f o r day and r e s i d e n t i a l schools a t i n t e r v a l s of twenty year3. Table 6 ^ Enrolment by Grades-*-* Day Schools R e s i d e n t i a l Schools Grade 4Year 1907 1927 191+7 1907 1927 191+7 1 671 735 931 165 535 523 2 231 / 208 33l+ 157 289 3kk 3 107 l 6 l 243 260 286 331 k 1+1+ I l k 174 ll+2 227 2 64+ 5 / 7 1+6 15k 107 118 2k5 6 11+ 88 58 118 188 7 1+3 111 8 1+1 73 9 2 22 T o t a l 1060 1278 2010 889A 1573 2109 ft R e s i d e n t i a l and I n d u s t r i a l Schools Combined. Table 7 shows t o t a l expenses i n c u r r e d by I n d i a n e d u c a t i o n f o r two y e a r s , separated by a time i n t e r v a l of t h i r t y years Table 7 Indian School Expenses 1917 191+7 Day $38,867.91 $ 95,1+25.95 R e s i d e n t i a l k l , 6 l 8 . 3 0 390,936.18 I n d u s t r i a l 83,897.66 32 Department of I n d i a n A f f a i r s Report, 1907 33 Department of Indian A f f a i r s Reports. 3l+ Department of Indian A f f a i r s R eports. 81 if In 1907, A.W. Vowell, I n d i a n Superintendent f o r B r i t i s h Columbia, r e p o r t e d t h a t i n areas where there were no I n d i a n schools students were allowed to a t t e n d the r e g u l a r p r o v i n c i a l p u b l i c s c hools "where, by t h e i r good b e h a v i o r , neat appearance, c l e a n l i n e s s and a t t e n t i o n to t h e i r s t u d i e s , they give g e n e r a l s a t i s f a c t i o n and cause no l i t t l e s u r p r i s e " J N a t i v e boys, Super-inte n d e n t Vowell continued, were teaching i n t h e i r v i l l a g e s , and f o r the most p a r t g i v i n g ^ o o d s a t i s f a c t i o n . The r i s i n g g e n e r a t i o n , he s a i d , were speaking E n g l i s h . 3 ^ The number of Indians who a c t u a l l y d i d speak E n g l i s h i s shown i n Table 8 f o r the o n l y I n t e r v a l i n which t h i s phenomenon i s quoted. I t i s obvious from the f i g u r e s t h a t , i f the r i s i n g Table 8 , Language D i s t r i b u t i o n ^ 0 No. Who Speak No. Who Write No. Who Speak No. Who Write E n g l i s h E n g l i s h French French 1913 8272 2899 1 33 3 1917 8955 2898 123 3 g e n e r a t i o n were speaking E n g l i s h , two-thirds of the t o t a l popu-l a t i o n s t i l l were n o t . Two g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r s c h o o l s were b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d , o n l y one I n d i a n In three could a p p a r e n t l y speak En-g l i s h , and o n l y one In seven c o u l d w r i t e i t . ( B y 19U7, however, about the same p r o p o r t i o n of Indians as Whites, approximately one out of s i x of the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , were a t t e n d i n g school,! R e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s , i t w i l l be a s c e r t a i n e d from a study of Table 6, d i d a b e t t e r job of combatting p u p i l drop-out than d i d day s c h o o l s . The problem of b r i n g i n g the p u p i l along to the end 35 Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report, p. 259. 36 Canada Year Book. 1913. p. 605-606. of elementary s c h o o l i n g was contemplated a t the time of i n c e p -t i o n of the m i s s i o n s c h o o l by Roman C a t h o l i c teachers and ad-m i n i s t r a t o r s . The theory by which they worked was that p u p i l s of the f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n taught i n any p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l should be taken o n l y as f a r as Grade I I , the next g e n e r a t i o n to Grade IV, and so on, u n t i l f i n a l l y a g e n e r a t i o n would be ready to go through h i g h s c h o o l . The f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n , h a v i n g o n l y two grades of s c h o o l i n g , would not f e e l so f a r s u p e r i o r t o t h e i r parents t h a t they would despise them and t h e i r r e s e r v a t i o n . A t u r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e i r p a r e n t s , i t was b e l i e v e d , would d r i v e the youth, on l e a v i n g s c h o o l , t o the c i t i e s where, s i n c e they would not be accepted there by the Whites, they would be d r i v e n t o p r o s t i -t u t i o n and other low-status employments. L i k e w i s e , the second g e n e r a t i o n , having a t t a i n e d o n l y two grades above t h e i r p a r e n t s , would not f e e l s u p e r i o r to them and to t h e i r home l i f e . 3 7 How-ever, the p o l i c y of g i v i n g students but h a l f of each day i n academic s t u d i e s i n these schools m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t t h i s p h i l -osophy, and prob a b l y accounted a t l e a s t i n p a r t f o r the f a c t that only one student i n three reached Grade VI i n 191+7 • Day s c h o o l s , however, which d i d not r e q u i r e t h e i r students to spend h a l f of t h e i r day i n manual work, e x e r t e d a h o l d i n g power much weaker than t h a t o f the r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s , fewer than one i n ten students r e a c h i n g grade s i x on an average i n 19lr7. One former student o f such a s c h o o l s t a t e s t h a t he spent three years In Grade V because there were f o r t y - f i v e students i n the room, and no m a t e r i a l f o r Grade V I . 3 8 37 Information r e c e i v e d from Rev. George Forbes,OMI, S t . Peter's Rectory, May 30, 19$8. 38 Information r e c e i v e d from Gordon Robinson, K i t i m a t , Sept. 19, 1958. 83 The f a c t that as l a t e as 191+7 I n d i a n day schools were oper-a t i n g on a gross budget of f o r t y - f i v e d o l l a r s per p u p i l w h ile p r o v i n c i a l schools were expending some two hundred d o l l a r s annu-a l l y on i t s students e x p l a i n s a t l e a s t the obvious reason f o r the shortage of s u p p l i e s . Although r e s i d e n t i a l schools r e c e i v e d a much l a r g e r per c a p i t a g r a n t , much of t h i s income was needed t o provide food and c l o t h i n g f o r the s t u d e n t s . Interviews w i t h former r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l students have r e v e a l e d a p i c t u r e of r a t h e r b l e a k s u r r -oundings - v i r t u a l l y no l i t e r a t u r e except on the t o p i c o f r e -l i g i o n ; no newspapers; almost no contact w i t h the o u t s i d e world to acquaint the student i n advance w i t h what s o c i e t y beyond the environments of M s school was l i k e . One former student s t a t e d t h a t the r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l she attended was on her own r e s e r -v a t i o n , w i t h i n s i g h t of her own home. She c o u l d not, however, go to her home except d u r i n g the same h o l i d a y s d u r i n g which students who had come from d i s t a n t r e s e r v e s could r e t u r n to t h e i r s . Proponents of the r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l system c r e d i t i t w i t h h e l p i n g to combat d i s e a s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t u b e r c u l o s i s , which con-t i n u a l l y ravaged the I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n . - ^ By keeping c h i l d r e n out of contact w i t h r e s e r v a t i o n l i f e , i t was f e l t t h a t they would a t the same time be kept out of con t a c t w i t h d i s e a s e s t h a t were p r e v a l e n t t h e r e , and a l s o away from u n d e s i r a b l e elements of r e s e r v a t i o n l i f e . These schools a l s o a c t e d as homes, not o n l y f o r c h i l d r e n from o u t l y i n g v i l l a g e s where no schools e x i s t e d , 39 Information r e c e i v e d from Reverend George F o r b e s . He maintains t h a t the care r e c e i v e d by students of S t . Eugene from Father John P a t t e r s o n , a former chemdist, who went there i n 1928, d i d much t o save the Kootenays from e x t i n c t i o n . 81+ but a l s o f o r c h i l d r e n from broken homes, who c o u l d thus not a t t e n d r e g u l a r day s c h o o l s . However, t e a c h i n g s i s t e r s admit that u n t i l the advent of modern drugs there was l i t t l e they could do f o r c h i l d r e n who had a l r e a d y c o n t r a c t e d t u b e r c u l o s i s except give them r e s t i n s c h o o l s o l a r i u m s . The r u l e which con-f i n e d students to the s c h o o l , however, while i t p r o t e c t e d some from disease and unwholesome s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , at the same time worked a h a r d s h i p on those f a m i l i e s who r e t a i n e d the s o c i a l p r i d e to keep up acceptable l i v i n g standards and y e t c o u l d not have t h e i r school-age c h i l d r e n w i t h them. In 1912 an a c t was passed a b o l i s h i n g p o t l a t c h e s . The a c t was based on the r e a s o n i n g t h a t these a f f a i r s had become so de-bauched and e x c e s s i v e through the use of l i q u o r that they d i d not r e f l e c t I n d i a n c u l t u r e . In 1920 the G o v e r n o r - i n - C o u n c i l was g i v e n a u t h o r i t y to e s t a b l i s h day s c h o o l s . Such schools were g r a d u a l l y b u i l t on r e s -e r v a t i o n s which were not being adequately served by any denom-i n a t i o n a l s c h o o l . These schools d i d much to overcome the nec-e s s i t y of removing the c h i l d from h i s home f o r ten months of the year during h i s elementary y e a r s . Day schools have not p r o v i d e d h i g h s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . As r e c e n t l y as 191+6-117 average day s c h o o l attendance throughout the province was s t i l l o nly s i x t y - f i v e per cent The o f f i c i a l p o l i c y of the Canadian government toward the Indian p o p u l a t i o n has v a r i e d over the y e a r s . In I873, an a c t o f the Canadian P a r l i a m e n t ^ 1 s t a t e d t h a t The aim of the Department of I n d i a n A f f a i r s i s 1+0 Department of Indian A f f a i r s Report. 1+1 R-S., c. 81. 85 the advancement of the I n d i a n i n the a r t s of c i v -i l i z a t i o n , and agents have been appointed t o en-courage the Indians under t h e i r charge t o s e t t l e on the r e s e r v e s and to engage i n i n d u s t r i a l pur-s u i t s . S e v e r a l i n f e r e n c e s can be re a d i n t o t h i s p o l i c y . There seems to have been some s l i g h t t r e p i d a t i o n , f i r s t , t h a t the Indians might r e s i s t the move to s e t t l e them on r e s t r i c t e d r e s e r v a t i o n s . Re-se r v e s , the a c t i n f e r s , were to be a permanent arrangement. I t was hoped that the Indians would take to i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n on these s i t e s , and there i s no su g g e s t i o n that they would merge w i t h the non-Indian p o p u l a t i o n . In 1911, Duncan Campbell S c o t t , who had been appointed Superintendent o f I n d i a n E d u c a t i o n i n 1909, enunciated the p o l -i c y of the educa t i o n branch as "the f i t t i n g of the Indians f o r c i v i l i z e d l i f e i n t h e i r own environment".^ - 2 There s t i l l seems to be an i n f e r e n c e of permanence i n the r e s e r v e system, and i n the Ind i a n s ' e x i s t e n c e as a r a c i a l group. In 1913, throughout Canada, the average b i r t h r a t e among Indians was 36 per 1000; the death r a t e , 1+0 per 1 0 0 0 T h e Can-ada Year Book f o r 1922-23 s t a t e d t h a t the system of r e s e r v e s was designed " to p r o t e c t the Indians from encroachment, and to provide a s o r t of sanctuary where they c o u l d develop unmolested, u n t i l advancing c i v i l i z a t i o n had made p o s s i b l e t h e i r a b s o r p t i o n i n t o the g e n e r a l body of the c i t i z e n s " . The a t t i t u d e here has changed. The I n d i a n i s not d e s t i n e d t o remain i n d e f i n i t e l y on the r e s e r v a t i o n , nor i s he d e s t i n e d t o remain i n d e f i n i t e l y as. a r a c e . 1+2 S e s s i o n a l Papers. 1911, V o l . 19, Paper 27, p. 271. 1+3 Canada Year Book, p. 60£. 86 To sum up these "in-between y e a r s " - the l a s t f o r t y years of the n i n e t e e n t h century and the f i r s t f o r t y years o f the t w e n t i e t h : (1) The p e r i o d began w i t h the I n d i a n s ' i n t r o d u c t i o n to a new example of White c i v i l i z a t i o n , the go l d miner and the land seeker. These men d i s r e g a r d e d the n a t i v e s ' r i g h t s . Government, d u r i n g the e a r l y years of the Crown c o l o n i e s and the p r o v i n c e , made l i t t l e or no attempt to a d m i n i s t e r f o r them. (2) Government a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , when i t d i d come i n t o e x i s t -ence, attempted t o c o n t a i n the n a t i v e s behind a s e t of p a l e s , where i t was presumed they would develop a quasi-White c i v i l i z a t i o n , safe from the onslaught of a c t u a l White c i v i l i -z a t i o n . (3) A c t s concerning e d u c a t i o n , when a t l e n g t h they d i d apply to the Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, tended f o r many years to r e f l e c t the r e s e r v a t i o n p o l i c y of containment. Some agents, however, mentioned what appeared to be s u c c e s s f u l t r i a l s a t sc h o o l i n t e g r a t i o n . (1+) During the second decade of the present century, depart-mental p o l i c y began openly to vo i c e the b e l i e f t h a t the Indian was a v a n i s h i n g race which would, through h i g h death r a t e and a b s o r p t i o n i n t o the g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n , i n time d i s a p p e a r . (5>) The denominational r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l system was i n gen-e r a l based on the p h i l o s o p h y t h a t the Indian's b e s t oppor-t u n i t i e s l a y i n being l e f t to h i m s e l f , and aimed a t p r e p a r i n g him f o r making h i s own way on the r e s e r v a t i o n . (6) The day s c h o o l system, i n t r o d u c e d l a t e i n t h i s e r a , arose from a departmental p h i l o s o p h y which p r e d i c a t e d the even-t u a l merging of the Indian i n t o the White p o p u l a t i o n . I n d i a n 87 p o p u l a t i o n d i d , i n g e n e r a l , d e c l i n e throughout t h i s p e r i o d . (7) Almost a l l f o r c e s throughout the p e r i o d combined, w i t t i n g l y or u n w i t t i n g l y , to wipe out the I n d i a n s ' pre-European c u l -t u r e . In most areas the o l d way of l i f e was completely ploughed under, and i n some even memory of i t was l o s t . (8) The popular b e l i e f h e l d by Whites - openly expressed by some; t a c i t l y accepted as a philosophy by others - was that the Indian c o u l d accomplish only a l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l programme. He c o u l d not progress i n t o h i g h s c h o o l . (9) The a t t i t u d e to assume toward the I n d i a n b e s t s u i t e d to h i s w e l f a r e , i t was f e l t by the Whites, was one o f p a t e r n a l i s m . He was a c h i l d , who c o u l d be best l e g i s l a t e d f o r by t r e a t i n g him as a ward of the s t a t e . T h i s b e l i e f c o u l d , i n a sense, be s a i d to sum up a l l other a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p h i l o s o p h i e s , which stemmed from CHAPTER "V • THE SOCIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF INDIAN LIFE Our r e s e a r c h work takes as axiomatic that the a c c u l t u r a t i v e change of the I n d i a n i s i r r e v e r -s i b l e and i s going to c o n t i n u e , no matter what i s done or d e s i r e d by anyone. 1 But the Indian d i d not d i e out. By 195U, the I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia had r i s e n to 3 1 , 0 8 6 (see Table 3 ) , an i n -crease of over three thousand from the count f o u r years b e f o r e . In 1959, the p o p u l a t i o n has been estimated a t between t h i r t y -2 f i v e and t h i r t y - s i x thousand. Nor i s he d i s a p p e a r i n g through i n t e g r a t i o n . No group which can, through n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e , grow i n numbers by some twenty-e i g h t per cent i n t e n years can be l o s i n g very many of i t s mem-b e r s . In any case, were the process of i n t e g r a t i o n be s a i d to be t a k i n g p l a c e , by v e r y d e f i n i t i o n of the term the net number of Indians would decrease from year to y e a r . One of the d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h working w i t h these f i g u r e s a r i s e s from the meaning of the word " I n d i a n " . The I n d i a n A c t 3 says "'Indian* means a person who pursuant to t h i s A c t i s r e g i s -t e r e d as an Indian or i s e n t i t l e d t o be r e g i s t e r e d a 3 an I n d i a n " . P r o f e s s o r s Hawthown, Belshaw and Jamieson say of t h i s t e r m i n -ology:^-T h i s d e f i n i t i o n i s adequate f o r the great m a j o r i t y of the people we have s t u d i e d , y e t i t has no f i x e d c u l t u r a l or b i o l o g i c a l meaning, an Indian d e f i n e d by the Act p o s s i b l y having fewer I n d i a n f o r b e a r s than another person not so c a l l e d . 1 H.B. Hawthorn, C.S. Belshaw, S.M. Jamieson, op. c i t . , p. 2 J o i n t Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons on Indian A f f a i r s , 1959, Minutes. No. 3 . p. l i j . 8 . 3 R.S. 1952, Chapter li+9, 2 ( g ) . I4, Hawthorn, e t a l , op. c i t . . p. 16. 89 The f a c t i s t h a t the d e f i n i t i o n of an In d i a n i n B r i t i s h Columbia i s a l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n , not an a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l one. A non-Indian woman may become an In d i a n pursuant to t h i s A c t by marrying a man e n t i t l e d to be so c l a s s e d by i t ; ^ an In d i a n woman may become non-Indian through marriage to a non-Indian.^ E i t h e r male or female I n d i a n may cease to be so c l a s s e d through e n f r a n -chisement.' 7 The term "I n d i a n " w i l l , i n t h i s and the subsequent chapters, be used t o designate those persons i n B r i t i s h Columbia who come under j u r i s d i c t i o n of the "Indian A c t " . The Act i s admi n i s t e r e d by the M i n i s t e r of C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration, who i s a l s o superintendent g e n e r a l o f In d i a n A f f a i r s . The Province of B r i t i s h Columbia Is d i v i d e d i n t o e i g h t e e n agen-c i e s (see P l a t e V ), each w i t h a superintendent r e s p o n s i b l e t o the Q I n d i a n Commissioner f o r B r i t i s h Columbia. By S e c t i o n 73 (1) of the Indian A c t the G o v e r n o r - i n - C o u n c l l may d e c l a r e by order t h a t a band c o u n c i l s h a l l be e l e c t e d by the procedure l a i d down i n the A c t . The c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s which g i v e r i s e to problems wi t h r e -gard t o the In d i a n a r e , i n g e n e r a l , those which p e r t a i n to l e g a l r i g h t s (other than r e s e r v a t i o n s ) , the r e s e r v a t i o n system, s o c i a l and economic c o n d i t i o n s , r e l i g i o n , i n t e g r a t i o n , and e d u c a t i o n . A H of these f a c t o r s a r e , to a g r e a t e r or l e s s e r degree, i n t e r -r e l a t e d . In t h i s chapter an attempt w i l l be made to d e l i n e a t e problems t h a t have a r i s e n i n r e l a t i o n to the f i r s t f i v e c a t e g o r -~~ 5 R.S. 1952. Chapter l k 9 , S e c t i o n 11. 6 I b i d . . S e c t i o n 12. 7 I b i d . , S e c t i o n 109. 8 Information r e c e i v e d from A.V. Parminter, R e g i o n a l I n -spec t o r of Schools f o r B r i t i s h Columbia. 90 i e s , keeping each category as d i s t i n c t i v e as p o s s i b l e f o r the sake of c l a r i t y . E d u c a t i o n w i l l form the body of the f o l l o w i n g c h a p ter. The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia have over the years organ-i z e d i n t o movements to a i r t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s . Out of these groups, on the Coast, the Native Brotherhood of B r i t i s h Columbia d e v e l -oped. In I9I4JL4. C h i e f Andy P a u l l of North Vancouver i n f l u e n c e d a number of Coast and I n t e r i o r Indians to form a chapter of the North American I n d i a n Brotherhood, of which he was B r i t i s h Colum-b i a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e u n t i l the time of h i s death i n J u l y of 1959* In 19U5, under l e a d e r s h i p of Mr. B a s i l Falardeau of Kamloops, the B r i t i s h Columbia I n t e r i o r Confederacy came i n t o e x i s t e n c e . 9 These groups, n a t i v e l e a d e r s , and non-Indian t e a c h e r s , church o f f i c i a l s and members of Parliament, g r a d u a l l y made the F e d e r a l government aware of the f a c t t h a t the Indian was not a v a n i s h i n g r a c e , but a growing one. In I9I+6 a S p e c i a l J o i n t Comm-i s s i o n of the Senate and the House of Commons convened to d i s -cuss I n d i a n problems. Recommendations made by t h i s Commission i n 19i+8 were l a r g e l y i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o r m u l a t i o n of the Revised I n d i a n Act of 1 9 5 1 . 1 0 An amendment In 1955 p e r m i t t e d Indians to d r i n k a l c o h o l i c beverages i n beer p a r l o r s where p e r m i s s i o n was so granted by p r o v i n c i a l law. In 1956, S e c t i o n 69 of the A c t was r e v i s e d to i n c r e a s e the r e v o l v i n g l o a n fund to one m i l l i o n d o l l -a r s . B r i t i s h Columbia Indians were g i v e n the p r o v i n c i a l vote i n 191+9, and i n 1950 an I n d i a n , Frank C a l d e r , r e p r e s e n t e d the e l e c -t o r a l d i s t r i c t of A t l i n i n the l e g i s l a t i v e assembly. In 1951 9 Hawthorn e t a l , op. c i t . , pp. I47I1-I4.75. 10 Dominion Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s Reference Papers 1952, p. 290. K 91 the Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia were g i v e n the r i g h t to d r i n k a l c o h o l i c beverages i n beer p a r l o r s . P r o f e s s o r s Hawthorn, Belshaw and Jamieson comment thus on the new a t t i t u d e toward the Indian r e f l e c t e d by such l e g a l a c t i v i t y : 1 1 Now the Indian i s not v a n i s h i n g a t a l l . He i s a per-son w i t h an i n c r e a s i n g say i n h i s own f u t u r e , who has outgrown some forms of g u a r d i a n s h i p by government and churches. Headed f o r a s s i m i l a t i o n , he i s an economic f a c t o r and a neighbor whose d e s i r a b i l i t y i s a matter of v a r i e d o p i n i o n . Such a c t s and amendments have not of course s o l v e d a l l of the I n d i a n s ' problems. ""• j o i n t P a r l i a m e n t a r y Committee i s c u r r -e n t l y again i n s e d s i o n . One b r i e f a l r e a d y submitted to i t i s t h a t of the Native Brotherhood of B r i t i s h Columbia, presented by Reverend Peter K e l l y , Chairman of the L e g i s l a t i v e Committee of the Brotherhood. The main request i n t h i s b r i e f i s f o r the Fed-e r a l vote f o r I n d i a n s . I t a l s o asks f o r the e l i m i n a t i o n of the power of veto by the m i n i s t e r and I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch o f f i c i a l s , and the removal of J u s t i c e of the Peace a u t h o r i t y from department 12 o f f i c i a l s . In a s k i n g that the r e v o l v i n g l o a n fund be i n c r e a s e d to f i v e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , Reverend K e l l y , a Haida Indian by b i r t h , s a i d : 1 3 I f the Indian i s to be i n t e g r a t e d e c o n o m i c a l l y he needs to be encouraged i n f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and i n t e g r i t y . . . I t should be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the Indian can no l o n g e r l i v e h i s t r a d i t i o n a l way of l i f e on the r e s e r v e . Contrary to the o r d i n a r y pub-l i c concept of h i s p o s i t i o n as a "ward of the gov-ernment" the In d i a n i s fa c e d w i t h the problem of 11 The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 59. 12 Minutes, p. 138. 13 I b i d . , p. l i p . . 92 making a l i v i n g l i k e any other c i t i z e n , and i s doing so i n the face of unequal c o m p e t i t i o n i n the Canadian economy. The b r i e f f u r t h e r claims income tax exemption f o r the Ind-i a n , and makes the c o n t e n t i o n t h a t "the a b o r i g i n a l t i t l e s t o the land of B r i t i s h Columbia have never been e x t i n g u i s h e d " The r e s e r v e system has i n f l u e n c e d Indian t h i n k i n g from i t s i n c e p t i o n . Never too l a r g e , r e s e r v e s have been encroached on by White c i v i l i z a t i o n , and where they abut or are surrounded by a c i t y they come i n f o r p e r i o d i c p u b l i c s c r u t i n y . The Songhees band, removed from the V i c t o r i a harbor i n 1912 to a l o c a t i o n near E s q u i m a l t , have r e c e i v e d overtures f o r s a l e of t h e i r present s i t e . 1 - ' The Cowichans were Induced i n 1957 to s e l l a p o r t i o n of t h e i r r e s e r v a t i o n , only to d i s c o v e r t h a t the land was s u b d i v i d e d 1 6 and r e - s o l d a t a g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d p r i n e . The pressure t h a t has been put on a p o r t i o n of the North Vancouver r e s e r v e i s com-mon kn ow le d ge . Some r e s e r v e s l i e completely vacant - out of twenty-eight s m a l l p l o t s o f ground, the S e c h e l t t r i b e occupies o n l y one, the l a s t of the others having been abandoned o n l y t h i s y e a r . The Chek-Welp r e s e r v e , a d j a c e n t t o the v i l l a g e of Gibsons, i s com-p l e t e l y tenanted by Whites. Such r e s e r v e s as the l a t t e r o f course b r i n g a c e r t a i n amount o f revenue to whatever bands h o l d r i g h t s to them, which f a c t accounts i n p a r t f o r the In d i a n s ' r e l u c t a n c e to p a r t w i t h them. Understandably, r e s e r v a t i o n Indians f e e l t h a t ll+ Minutes , p. 11+3 • 15 Information r e c e i v e d from i n t e r v i e w w i t h Chief Percy Ross, Songhees, A p r i l , 1958. 16 Information r e c e i v e d from R. E l l i o t t , Cowichan. A p r i l . 1958. 93 these p l o t s of l a n d , s m a l l as they may be, are a t l e a s t t h e i r domain, and that a b o l i s h i n g them would only be g i v i n g away the l a s t b i t s of a land which was once a l l t h e i r s . Some Indian l e a s e r s f e e l t h a t the r e s e r v a t i o n stands i n the way of the Ind i a n s ' i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o White c u l t u r e . Others f e e l t h a t i t must be h e l d to m a i n t a i n the Indian s ' s o l i d a r i t y , 1 ' ' ' a sense of u n i t y they could not r e t a i n were the r e s e r v a t i o n to be a b o l i s h e d . 1 8 Dr. S t u a r t Jamieson b e l i e v e s t h a t r e s e r v e s are too s m a l l , too i s o l a t e d ; t h a t l a r g e r r e s e r v e s , w i t h b e t t e r f a c i l i t i e s , are needed, so t h a t the I n d i a n may g a i n a sense of i d e n t i t y beyond the s m a l l r e s e r v a t i o n . 1 9 Some Indians a p p a r e n t l y f e e l t h i s need a l s o - r e s i d e n t s from the "backwoods" r e s e r v e of V i l l a g e I s l a n d , f o r i n s t a n c e , i d e n t i f y themselves w i t h the l a r g e r centre of 20 A l e r t Bay. A teacher who was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n the opening of the f i r s t s c h o o l f o r the C a r r i e r Indians of Pendleton Bay i s convinced that a r e s e r v a t i o n Is needed on Babine Lake so that l i q u o r p eddlers could be prosecuted under S e c t i o n 30 of the 21 Indian A c t f o r t r e s p a s s i n g . S o c i a l and economic c o n d i t i o n s on these r e s e r v e s a r e , i n g e n e r a l , poor. The re s e r v e i t s e l f i s u s u a l l y unproductive and 17 Information obtained from C h i e f Reg P a u l l , S e c h e l t , August, 1958. 18 Information obtained from Joe M i c h e l l e , teacher, Kamloops R e s i d e n t i a l S c h o o l , August, 1958. 19 CBU Roundtable, November 8, 1958. 20 Information obtained from Clarence Joe, S e c h e l t Band s e c r e t a r y , August, 1959* 2:1 Information obtained from Mrs. Jay K u l l a n d e r , Pendleton Bay, Babine Lake, J u l y , 1958. 9k s m a l l . The Indian has a c q u i r e d enough of the White man's c u l t u r e to eat foods he d i d not have i n h i s own c u l t u r e , but he has not taken to r a i s i n g h i s own f r u i t s and v e g e t a b l e s . He remains a food g a t h e r e r , but the n a t u r a l foods he once gathered i n abund-ance are not so p l e n t i f u l now. He has l o n g s i n c e ceased t o make h i s own c l o t h i n g . He has l e a r n e d to purchase h i s n e c e s s i t i e s , 22 but h i s purchasing power i s onl y a t h i r d of the White man's, or l e s s . Therefore r e s e r v a t i o n houses tend to be s m a l l , u n p a i n t e d , and l a c k i n g In f a c i l i t i e s which the White man has come to c o n s i d e r b a s i c . The survey conducted i n 195>1+ f o r P r o f e s s o r s Hawthorn, B e l -shaw and Jamieson r e v e a l e d that only e l e v e n per cent of houses sampled throughout the province had f l u s h t o i l e t s , baths, or r e -f r i g e r a t o r s Since money i s a comparatively new f e a t u r e i n h i s economy, and s i n c e t r a d i t i o n a l l y he d i d not have to purchase f o o d , even long a f t e r he began t r a d i n g w i t h the White man, the I n d i a n does not always budget or buy on a b a s i s of t h r i f t when he does have money. Since the money he earns comes, u s u a l l y , from spor-a d i c seasonal j o b s , there are long p e r i o d s d u r i n g the year w i t h -out income. During these p e r i o d s many Indian f a m i l i e s , even dur-i n g times of comparatively f u l l employment i n White communities nearby, are f o r c e d to r e g i s t e r f o r r e l i e f . Such r e l i e f i s drawn from band f u n d s w h e n these funds are d e p l e t e d , the I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch a d m i n i s t e r s r e l i e f , g e n e r a l l y s c r i p t . Most bands are f o r c e d to expend t h e i r funds on r e l i e f , and to save d u r i n g 22 Hawthorn e t a l , op. c i t . , p. 220. 23 The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 2i+5. 21; S e c t i o n 66 (2). 95 times of comparative p l e n t y f o r such purposes. P r o v i s i o n f o r f e n c e s , s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s , and adequate d w e l l i n g s , which must a l s o be p a i d f o r out of band funds, s u f f e r as a r e s u l t . Frank Howard, MP f o r Skeena, found upon p r i c i n g the goods r e c e i v e d by an I n d i a n f a m i l y on r e l i e f that t h e i r cash e q u i v a l e n t was $10.i|.7 each per month. 2^ Even at t h i s s m a l l r a t e , one r e s e r v a t i o n w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of only three hundred r e q u i r e d some f i f t e e n thousand d o l l a r s i n r e l i e f d u r i n g the past w i n t e r . Trapping, f i s h i n g and wood-working, t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n i n d -u s t r i e s , are o f f e r i n g l e s s and l e s s employment to them, and "un-f o r t u n a t e l y f o r the In d i a n , r e l a t i v e l y few of h i s s p e c i a l i z e d pQ s k i l l s had any s i g n i f i c a n t t r a n s f e r v a l u e " . Fur p r i c e s are de-pressed; f i s h c a n n e r i e s , once s c a t t e r e d along the c o a s t , a re now almost a l l concentrated near c i t i e s , where there are l a r g e non-Indian l a b o r p o o l s . F i s h i n g boats are d e t e r i o r a t i n g on beaches a l l up and down the coast because I n d i a n s , having no c o l l a t e r a l , cannot o b t a i n loans to m a i n t a i n them a f t e r a poor season, when they l a c k funds. NHA loans are not a v a i l a b l e . The r e v o l v i n g l o a n fund i s used up each year without b e n e f i t t i n g many needy b a n d s . 2 9 In lumbering, a seasonal I n d u s t r y at b e s t , Indians say "We are the l a s t h i r e d and the f i r s t t o be l e t go". 25 Information obtained from C h i e f Reg P a u l l , S e c h e l t , August, 1958. 26 S e c t i o n 66. 27 Vancouver Sun, August 29, 1958. 28 Diamond Jenness, "Canada's In d i a n Problem", Annual Re-f o r t of the Boards of Regents of the Smithsonian I n s t -t u t l o n , 19k2, p. 373. 29 Information obtained from C h i e f Reg P a u l l , S e c h e l t , August, 1959. In an attempt te a l l e v i a t e depressed economic c o n d i t i o n s , p r o v i s i o n has been made i n t h i s year's estimates f o r the estab-lishment of a new d i v i s i o n of the Indian A f f a i r s Branch, the r e -s p o n s i b i l i t y of which w i l l be to l o o k a f t e r the economic d e v e l -opment of the I n d i a n . The Branch w e l f a r e budget, which was two m i l l i o n d o l l a r s i n I9I4.8-I4.9, i s nine m i l l i o n f o r 1 9 5 8 - 5 9 . 3 0 Yet economic and s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , measured i n t r i n s i c a l l y or compared w i t h c o n d i t i o n s i n White communities, can be f u l l y i n t e r p r e t e d o n l y i n the l i g h t of how these c o n d i t i o n s are i n -t e r p r e t e d by and a f f e c t the Indians concerned. P r o f e s s o r s Haw-tho r n , Belshaw and Jamieson say3-*- "we have a r r i v e d a t the con-c l u s i o n that no customary a c t i o n s , elements of b e l i e f or a t t i t u d e , knowledge or techniques, have been t r a n s m i t t e d from e a r l i e r gen-e r a t i o n s to the present without major a l t e r a t i o n s " , but a d d 3 2 " ( y e t ) i t must be remembered that some of the needs f e l t by Ind-ians today are not ones shared by most White communities". The p r i n c i p a l 3 3 of the p r o v i n c i a l s c h o o l a t Telegraph Creek says of the s i x hundred i n h a b i t a n t s t h e r e : "They are not I n d i a n , w i t h I n d i a n a s p i r a t i o n s , but 'people', w i t h the a s p i r a t i o n s o f 'people'. Given i n c e n t i v e , t h e i r aims and o b j e c t i v e s are the same as those of the r e s t of our p o p u l a t i o n tends to be. They want jobs, a l i v e l i h o o d . They know nothing of the o l d way of l i f e " . 30 Minutes, p. 13. 31 The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 39. 32 I b i d . , p. 1+1. 33 Information obtained from an i n t e r v i e w , J u l y , 1958. Among s t i l l other groups v e s t i g i n a l ceremonies based on a b o r i g i n a l b e l i e f s are s t i l l observed. Some remote Kwakiutl and Tsimshian v i l l a g e s continue to h o l d p o t l a t c h e s , i n camera and q u i e t l y . C a r r i e r s s t i l l keep g i r l s home from s c h o o l d u r i n g the onset of menstruation. The Cowichans openly h o l d s e c r e t s o c i e t y i n i t i a t i o n r i t e s i n a s p e c i a l h a l l . Many groups give I n d i a n names to babies a t b i r t h and, along the coast where caste was once important, keep t r a c k of i n h e r i t e d s o c i a l p o s i t i o n . E l e c t e d c h i e f s are d i s t i n g u i s h e d from h e r e d i t a r y c h i e f s . Of the former, members of one v i l l a g e s a i d " F i r s t they gave us a d r i n k i n g c h i e f then a s l e e p i n g c h i e f " . Some s u p e r s t i t i o n s remain. 3^" In g e n e r a l , I t can be s a i d t h a t the I n d i a n s ' s o c i a l l i f e i s a c h a o t i c , shaken one. A.F. F l u c k e , w r i t i n g i n the B r i t i s h C o l -umbia Heritage S e r i e s , 3 ' ' comments on t h i s d i s r u p t i o n : The white man's c i v i l i z a t i o n p resses forward as an overwhelming f l o o d , b l o t t i n g out the c u l t u r e s of l e s s e r peoples i n a l l p a r t s of the w o r l d . The l i f e of the B e l l a Coolas has been d e s t r o y e d , and wonder-i n g l y , h a l f - p r o u d l y , h a l f - p l a i n t i v e l y , the s u r -v i v o r s watch the d o w n f a l l of a l l t h a t t h e i r an-c e s t o r s c h e r i s h e d . Too o f t e n the white man f a i l s to understand t h i s ; too o f t e n he f a i l s t o r e a l i z e t h a t p r o g r e s s , as he sees i t , i s wiping out v a l u -able elements of c i v i l i z a t i o n s other than h i s own, i n s t e a d of s e e k i n g the good i n them and p r e s e r v i n g i t f o r the b e n e f i t of h i m s e l f and the n a t i v e a l i k e . ... I t i s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t the o l d r i t e s and o l d ambitions should pass, but the p r o h i b i t i o n of these before new ones had taken t h e i r p l a c e has been d i s -a s t r o u s . Such a breakdown i n c u l t u r e has of course r e s u l t e d i n per-s o n a l problems. A s u r v e y 3 0 shows that I n d i a n marriages tend to be durable, and r e s i s t a n t to such f a c t o r s as p o v e r t y , poor l i v -ing c o n d i t i o n s , and seasonal employment, f a c t o r s which tend to "3l+ Information obtained from I n d i a n s , teachers and o t h e r s . 35 B e l l a Coola, pp. 69, 70. 36 Hawthorn, Belshaw, Jamie son, op. c i t . , p. 281;. 98 break up White marriages. But n a t i v e s are f i n d i n g themselves i n the t o i l s of the law to a c o n t i n u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g degree. F o r t y -f i v e per cent of the women inmates at O a k a l l a P r i s o n Farm are Indian, i n c a r c e r a t e d mainly f o r a l c o h o l i s m and p r o s t i t u t i o n . Economic c o n d i t i o n s can be a l t e r e d f a i r l y r a p i d l y f o r a group of t h i s s i z e . S o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s cannot be changed so q u i c k l y or e a s i l y . Both of these a t t r i b u t e s of c u l t u r e have a s i g n i f i c a n t b e a r i n g on another f a c t o r , i n t e g r a t i o n . The term " i n t e g r a t i o n " has two d i s t i n c t i m p l i c a t i o n s . I t Is used i n both the c u l t u r a l and the e t h n i c sense. A r e l a t i o n s h i p might or might not e x i s t between the two k i n d s , but there i s no i n e v i t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p . Grouping peoples together f o r work or s c h o o l i n g does not n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d to e t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n , and e t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n does not n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d to c u l t u r a l i n -t e g r a t i o n . C u l t u r a l l y , s t a t i s t i c s are of l i t t l e value i n attempts to p o r t r a y a true p i c t u r e . The f a c t that two r a c i a l groups work at the same job does not mean that they p e r c e i v e any sense of c u l -t u r a l u n i t y . Negroes i n Canada work as p o r t e r s on t r a i n s , but one c o u l d h a r d l y argue from t h i s f a c t t h a t they are i n t e g r a t e d c u l -t u r a l l y w i t h engineers, firemen and conductors i n the r a i l r o a d i n g i n d u s t r y . I n d i a n s , a t what n o r t h e r n canneries remain, f i s h as do non-Indians, but they e x i s t i n s o c i a l e n c l a v e s , d i s t i n c t one from the o t h e r . There i s , then, w i t h i n c u l t u r a l i n t e g r a t i o n a f u r t h e r s u b d i v i s i o n i n t o economic i n t e g r a t i o n and s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n . From the days of the f u r - t r a d e r , B r i t i s h Columbia has seen much economic, but very l i t t l e s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n of I ndian and White r a c e s . True s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n must, i n order t o e x i s t , be per-c e i v e d by the a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s , not merely by an o b s e r v e r . 99 Apparent i n t e g r a t i o n i s not n e c e s s a r i l y r e a l i n t e g r a t i o n . U n t i l s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n can be t r u t h f u l l y s a i d , by those persons con-cerned, to be the r u l e r a t h e r than the e x c e p t i o n , c u l t u r a l i n t e -g r a t i o n has not o c c u r r e d . To date, i t i s the e x c e p t i o n r a t h e r than the r u l e i n B r i t i s h Columbia. General " f r i e n d l i n e s s " i s no c r i t e r i o n . A chat i n the market-place means n o t h i n g . The degree of s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n i n a neighborhood can probably be best d i s c o v e r e d from an i n d i c a t i o n of the extent to which I n d i a n and non-Indian f a m i l i e s v i s i t I n homes of the opposite group. In most B r i t i s h Columbia v i l l a g e s such v i s i t i n g i s v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t . I t does take p l a c e , to a l i m i t e d e x t e n t , i n A l e r t Bay and i n A l b e r n i . In most l o c a l i t i e s , even where the r e s e r v a t i o n i s completely surrounded by a White community, almost no p u r e l y s o c i a l v i s i t i n g takes p l a c e . E t h n i c i n t e g r a t i o n of a p r i v a t e nature may be s a i d to have taken place i n the mating of an Indian w i t h a non-Indian. Yet u n l e s s the dominant r a c i a l m a j o r i t y f u l l y accepts the mate who r e p r e s e n t s the dominated r a c i a l m i n o r i t y , merely b i o l o g i c a l , and not e t h n i c , i n t e g r a t i o n has o c c u r r e d . O f f s p r i n g from such a u n i o n e i t h e r become i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the dominated m i n o r i t y group of the one parent, or manage to cross the c o l o r - l i n e i n t o the dominant m a j o r i t y group &f the o t h e r . There i s no mid-point on the s c a l e i n B r i t i s h Columbia as occurred i n Manitoba w i t h the appearance of the M e t i s . A q u e s t i o n n a i r e , m a i l e d to the e i g h t e e n agency s u p e r i n t e n -dents, and responded to by t h i r t e e n of them, e l i c i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n on the i n t e g r a t i o n element i n Indian l i f e i n B r i t i s h Columbia. T h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e f o l l o w s , w i t h a summary of r e p l i e s r e c e i v e d , and comments where a p p r o p r i a t e : 100 1. What i s the t o t a l I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n of your agency? P l a t e V shows these f i g u r e s f o r a l l a g e n c i e s , f o r 195U» 2 . Do you know how many of these speak no E n g l i s h ? Most r e p l i e s gave f i g u r e s of between 2£ and £0 persons, w i t h the comment that these were e l d e r l y persons. In a l l , an es-timated $% of the In d i a n p o p u l a t i o n cannot speak E n g l i s h today. 3. Do the young s t i l l l e a r n t h e i r n a t i v e tongue? Only one r e p l y s t a t e d t h a t no c h i l d r e n l e a r n the language of t h e i r a n c e s t o r s . On an average, superintendents estimated t h a t approximately 7%% of Indian c h i l d r e n do speak t h e i r own language. Language i s a d i f f i c u l t element to d i s c o v e r . I have had In d i a n parents t e l l me on one inst a n c e t h a t they deplore the f a c t t h a t none of the young can speak t h e i r n a t i v e tongue, and at another time have heard them converse w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r own language. i+. How many young, i f any, l e a r n no E n g l i s h a t home? Superintendents i n d i c a t e d t h a t an average of through-out the p r o v i n c e , l e a r n no E n g l i s h at home. Again, i t i s d i f f -i c u l t to make an accurate estimate on language. Many teachers from the area between the lower Skeena and Babine Lake s t a t e that most or a l l of t h e i r students begin s c h o o l speaking no En-g l i s h . T h i s of course i s no c e r t a i n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t fchey c o u l d not do so - perhaps the I n d i a n tongue dominates i n some l o c a l i t i e s t o such an extent t h a t the c h i l d appears to know no E n g l i s h . 5. About how many of the Indians are pure-blood; how may mixed? One superintendent b e l i e v e d t h a t 60$ of the Indians of h i s agency are of pure b l o o d . Another estimated $0%; most estimates v a r i e d 101 from 3>0% down to 10$. I t would seem, from estimates made, t h a t about 2$% of the Indians of the pro v i n c e are f u l l - b l o o d . The r a c i a l admixture does not seem to va r y d i r e c t l y i n p r o p o r t i o n to the degree of White c o n t a c t . Some I n t e r i o r areas, overrun by Whites f o r over a hundred y e a r s , show g r e a t e r r a c i a l p u r i t y than do some c o a s t a l l o c a l i t i e s to which Whites came much l a t e r and i n much s m a l l e r numbers. Yet, eco n o m i c a l l y a t l e a s t , Indians of the former groups have i n t e g r a t e d b e t t e r than have the l a t t e r . 6. About how many are Indian l e g a l l y , but not of I n d i a n blood? Almost a l l r e p l i e s to t h i s q u e s t i o n gave an estimate of about 1%, A survey made by P r o f e s s o r s Hawthorn, Belshaw and Jamieson shows tha t i n 1954, i n 27 marriages out of a t o t a l of 21+8, a White wi f e entered an In d i a n b a n d . 3 7 Unless t h i s year was abnormal, there should be f a r more than 1% of the l e g a l l y d e f i n e d I n d i a n p o p u l -a t i o n non-Indian by b i r t h . What happens i s t h a t the White p a r t -ner who enter s the band through marriage does not remain i n the band, but d r i f t s back Into White s o c i e t y . 7. Can you estimate about how many men and women become non-Indian, a c c o r d i n g t o the A c t , each y e a r ? An average of about 7 persons per band, a l l women, gained non-Ind i a n s t a t u s through marriage to a non-Indian each y e a r . I f i t can be assumed that the f i g u r e s f o r the agencies not recorded i n t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e would show about the same average, the number of I ndian women who became non-Indian i n accordance w i t h the A c t , through marriage, approximates 130, the t o t a l enfranchisement f i g u r e f o r B r i t i s h Columbia f o r 1 9 5 8 . 3 8 Thus i t would seem that "37 The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, p. 62. 38 I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch Report, 1958, p. 65.. 102 almost no In d i a n males g a i n enfranchisement. In th a t case, how-ever, there should be a c o n s i d e r a b l e m a j o r i t y of a d u l t males on each r e s e r v e . Pew Indian males, however, tend, t o remain s i n g l e . What occurs here i s that the woman, deserte d by or otherwise separated from, her White husband, e v e n t u a l l y makes her way back to the r e s e r v a t i o n , where she mates w i t h an I n d i a n male. T h i s phenomenon has occurred w i t h i n the past week of the time o f t h i s w r i t i n g on a r e s e r v e w i t h which I am acq u a i n t e d . As i s o f t e n the case, t h i s woman has a c h i l d , which has been c l a s s e d as non-Indian while she has been o f f the r e s e r v a t i o n . With her r e t u r n , she r e g a i n s her Indian s t a t u s , and the c h i l d becomes I n d i a n . 3 9 Undoubtedly another reason f o r the presence of so few women of White b i r t h on r e s e r v e s i n p r o p o r t i o n to the number of I n d i a n -non-Indian marriages r e g i s t e r e d i s t h a t i n a c t u a l i t y many of these marriages take p l a c e between two persons both of whom are e t h n i c a l l y I n d i a n . The presence of the r e s e r v a t i o n makes the r e t u r n to her own people e a s i e r f o r a woman such as the one men-t i o n e d above than would be the ease were i t not i n e x i s t e n c e . 8. About how many mixed marriages are there i n a year? Answers here ranged from 1 to 12, w i t h an average of be-tween 1+ and 5» Since a v e r y few males (estimated a t fewer than one per r e s e r v e per ye a r ) do seek enfranchisement, and since a few I n d i a n males do marry non-Indian women and r e t a i n t h e i r Ind-i a n s t a t u s , there i s a di s c r e p a n c y between the number of mixed marriages and the number of females who g a i n enfranchisement, as estimated i n Question 7» Much of t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s undoubtedly made up by the marriages r e f e r r e d to i n the comments on Question 39 Chapter 1+0, S e c t i o n 13 of I n d i a n A c t as Amended 1956. 7; marriages i n v o l v i n g a partner who i s non-Indian l e g a l l y but Indian r a c i a l l y . 9. Of these, c o u l d you estimate how many or what f r a c t i o n take p l a c e between pure-blood Indians and non-Indians, and how many between Indians of mixed a n c e s t r y and non-Indians? Some superintendents f e l t t h a t they c o u l d not answer t h i s ques-t i o n . Among those who d i d answer, a few s t a t e d t h a t there seemed to be no a p p r e c i a b l e d i f f e r e n c e , but most i n d i c a t e d t h a t the m a j o r i t y of mixed marriages i n v o l v e an Indian p a r t n e r of mixed a n c e s t r y . This should of course be t r u e , since an average of 75$ of the Indian p o p u l a t i o n i s of mixed b l o o d , but one s u p e r i n t e n -dent commented t h a t the pure-bloods seem t o p r e f e r t o remain i n t h e i r own group. 10. Most spokesmen are of p a r t l y White a n c e s t r y . Do you b e l i e v e that these spokesmen t r u l y r e p r e s e n t the f e e l -ings and a s p i r a t i o n s of the pure-blood? Almost a l l answers agreed that spokesmen, who tend to be p a r t l y White because t h i s p o r t i o n of the p o p u l a t i o n has the b e t t e r com-mand of E n g l i s h , do r e p r e s e n t the f e e l i n g s and a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e i r group. One superintendent s t a t e d t h a t the Indians do not make a d i s t i n c t i o n between pure-blood and p a r t - b l o o d In the same way as Whites do with r e f e r e n c e t o them, and another commented t h a t a pa r t l y - W h i t e spokesman would want t o prove to h i s group t h a t he was I n d i a n . Hubert Evans, who spent many years among the Tsimshians, a t Kitamaat and along the Skeena, i n Mist on the R l v e r ^ p o r t r a y s the i n t e g r a t i o n problem as encountered and responded to by a bro t h e r and s i s t e r from a s m a l l Skeena v i l l a g e . In t h i s s t o r y , the g i r l a t l e n g t h succumbs to the a t t r a c t i o n s of the c u l t u r e she experiences i n a cannery town, while the boy f e e l s i m p e l l e d to r e t u r n t o take h i s h e r e d i t a r y place i n h i s n a t i v e v i l l a g e . I4.O Copp C l a r k , 195k. All B r i t i s h Columbia Indians are nom i n a l l y C h r i s t i a n . Over seventeen of the t h i r t y - o n e thousand p o p u l a t i o n of the 195U Indian A f f a i r s Branch census are l i s t e d as Roman C a t h o l i c , w i t h s l i g h t l y over s i x thousand each of A n g l i c a n and U n i t e d Church denominations. V i r t u a l l y the whole i n t e r i o r o f the p r o v i n c e , from the Kootenays to the C a r r i e r s , except f o r L y t t o n , which i s A n g l i c a n , i s Roman C a t h o l i c . The Skeena continues to be repr e s e n t e d by a l l s e c t s , I n c l u d i n g s e v e r a l hundred S a l v a t i o n Army adherents. The Queen C h a r l o t t e s and the coast as f a r south as B e l l a B e l l a are mainly U n i t e d . A l e r t Bay i s A n g l i c a n . The southern mainland coast from Church House to North Vancouver i s Roman C a t h o l i c . Nanaimo and A l b e r n i are U n i t e d ; from there south Vancouver I s l a n d i s mainly Roman C a t h o l i c . The west c o a s t of Vancouver I s l a n d Is comprised m a i n l y of Roman C a t h o l i c and U n i -ted denominations. The lower F r a s e r V a l l e y c o n t a i n s adherents t o Roman C a t h o l i c , A n g l i c a n and United Churches. The degree to which Indians have been converted to C h r i s t -i a n i t y v a r i e s from plac e to p l a c e , depending p a r t l y on the dur-a t i o n of White c o n t a c t , and p a r t l y on the t e n a c i t y of a b o r i g i n a l b e l i e f s . A.F. Flucke says of the B e l l a C o o a l ' s : ^ 1 The o l d b e l i e f s s u r v i v e even among members of the community who are nominal C h r i s t i a n s , and those who h o l d to t h e i r a n c i e n t r e l i g i o n l i v e i n an atmos-phere of the s u p e r n a t u r a l . For most, however, Mr. Flucke c o n t i n u e s , 1+2 Hand i n hand w i t h the e x t e n s i o n of white man's knowledge has gone d i s b e l i e f i n t h e i r own a n c i e n t l o r e . The white man denies mythology and laughs at dramatic performances, which have p e r i s h e d sinc e they can s u r v i v e o n l y i n an a t t i t u d e of profound b e l i e f . lj.1 B r i t i s h Columbia Heritage S e r i e s , B e l l a Coola, p. 23. 1+2 Loc. c i t . 105 An e l d e r l y Indian l a d y , i n r e c o u n t i n g her gra n d f a t h e r ' s r e c o l l -e c t i o n of a s o u l r e c o v e r y ceremony, went through the motions of the shaman's hands, but the event t o her had become onl y another legend from the p a s t . P r o f e s s o r Wayne S u t t l e s envisages contemporary Coast S a l i s h r e l i g i o n as r e p r e s e n t i n g "the r e s u l t of not one but a s e r i e s of compromises and r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s " Even some who acknowledge complete c o n v e r s i o n t o C h r i s t i a n -i t y have a f e e l i n g of ambivalence toward t h e i r new r e l i g i o n . One band c h i e f s t a t e d r e c e n t l y that h i s people, although devout i n t h e i r b e l i e f , f e e l h e l d i n an i r o n f i s t . He b e l i e v e s that the Church has too much a u t h o r i t y ; that i t s d i s c i p l i n e c a r r i e s i n t o the I n d i a n s ' l i f e i n realms beyond r e l i g i o u s r e g u l a t i o n . They look upon e d u c a t i o n as one f i e l d i n which they f e e l unduly f e t t -ered by the C h r i s t i a n Church. The Shaker Church, founded i n Washington S t a t e i n 1882 by John Slocum, has a p p a r e n t l y gained some f o l l o w e r s among the Cow-ichans and In the lower F r a s e r V a l l e y . I t purports to be a C h r i s -t i a n Church, but i s i n a c t u a l i t y a s y n c r e t i s m o f a b o r i g i n a l be-l i e f s and C h r i s t i a n i t y . I t s main ceremony seems t o be the a c q u i -s i t i o n of a song a t the time of c o n v e r s i o n , and i t s main t e n e t the avoidance of s i n . Although no B r i t i s h Columbia Indians are nominally Shaker, the movement has appeared as an added b e l i e f i n some communities, where i t i s looked upon as a s t r i c t l y I n d i a n r e l i g i o n . ^ I4.3 "The P l a t e a u Prophet Dance Among the Coast S a l i s h " , p. 353. kk W.W. Elmandorf, Anthropology 301, U.B.C. Summer S e s s i o n , 1958. io6 T h i s chapter can be summed up i n the words of Dr. Ben R e i f e l , Area D i r e c t o r , Aberdeen Area, born of a German f a t h e r and a Sioux mother. Although the remarks r e f e r to Indians south of the l+9th P a r a l l e l , they seem e q u a l l y p e r t i n e n t w i t h r e g a r d to those who l i v e n o r t h of i t j ^ > The s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n of the Indian Americans has l i t t l e i f anything i n common w i t h that of other r a c -i a l or e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s from the standpoint of soc-i a l adjustments.... The Indians had no need t o be apprehensive about the f u t u r e , from a m a t e r i a l stand-p o i n t . The Indian, i n h i s s o c i e t i e s over a l l those thousands of years when he was f a s h i o n i n g h i s way of l i f e , found he c o u l d have a l l t h a t he r e q u i r e d i n the way of f o o d , c l o t h i n g , and s h e l t e r by l i v i n g i n har-mony w i t h n a t u r e . T h i s means that the essence of l i f e was found i n being and not In becoming something we are not today.... To the Indians there was no reason to be c o n s t a n t l y t h i n k i n g of the f u t u r e . To them the n e c e s s i t i e s f o r l i v i n g were n e a r l y as f r e e as the a i r we b r e a t h e . A i r i s necessary f o r l i f e but we seldom t h i n k of saving i t up f o r f u t u r e use.... The wonder of our time i s not that s o c i a l a d j u s t -ment of Indian Americans has been slow but t h a t so many have found i t p o s s i b l e to f i t i n t o the American s o c i a l system i n so short a time. I t h i n k we might have speeded up the a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s . . . had i t been r e a l i z e d t h a t a l a r g e p a r t of the adjustment process hinged on the development of concepts of time, work, and s a v i n g by the I n d i a n peoples themselves. These e l e -ments are not by t h e i r nature l i k e l y t o create any great amount of emotional r e s i s t a n c e i f presented f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . To have them i n t r o d u c e d i n the c u l t u r e need not have changed t h e i r manner of d r e s s , the s y s -tem of worship, the ways of r e c r e a t i o n , or t h e i r l a n g -uage . But what was done? Indian people were asked to give up t h e i r language, t h e i r ceremonials, t h e i r way of d r e s s i n g , and other aspects of t h e i r way of l i f e t h a t had no s e n s i b l e b e a r i n g on s o c i a l adjustment. Had they been helped to understand the importance f o r the s u r v i v a l of t h e i r c h e r i s h e d way of l i f e by the i n c o r -p o r a t i o n of concepts of time, s a v i n g and work i n t o the Indian system they might have saved much that i s l o s t to a l l of us today. T+5 Indian E d u c a t i o n . A p r i l 1 5 , 1 9 5 7 . Plate V V iMJDlflrJ A G E N C I E S - P O P U L A T I O N \9S8 CHAPTER VI INDIAN EDUCATION TODAY One of the e a s i e s t mistakes a teacher can make i s t h a t of I d e n t i f y i n g those whom he i s t e a c h i n g w i t h h i m s e l f or w i t h the t h i n g he a s p i r e s t o , not r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t h i s p u p i l s may not be i n h i s s t a t e of development. 1 There are 66 day, 3 h o s p i t a l , and 11 r e s i d e n t i a l I n d i a n schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia (see P l a t e V I ) . Indians a l s o attended pro-v i n c i a l and p r i v a t e schools throughout the p r o v i n c e . A break-down of enrolment by grade a t these schools i s given below. Table 9 Enrolment of Indian Students i n B r i t i s h Columbia, 1957' Grade Day a t R e s i d e n t i a l R e s i d e n t i a l K i n d e r g a r t e n 1 2 I 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U n i v e r s i t y 1 - U n i v e r s i t y 2 Teacher T r . Nursing Burses Aide Commercial Trades Other T o t a l , 7 1+59 3U0 ? U 410 307 113 % 56 2 2 k 27 9 13 Day 108 720 U96 U50 1+50 340 321 162 118 P r o v i n c i a l H o s p i t a l and P r i v a t e 1+1+ 30 20 18 16 12 2 2560 285 21U 215 165 170 182 230 160 156 99 6 2 P r 2 1 3 I 13 28 17 286- 3065 170 2081 1 L.G.P. W a l l e r , Inspector of Indian Schools, A l b e r t a , "Workshop on Indian E d u c a t i o n " , Lecture 3, V i c t o r i a , 1952 2 I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch Report. 1957. 108 T o t a l enrolment of day, r e s i d e n t i a l , and h o s p i t a l schools f o r 1958 was 61+11, and f o r p r o v i n c i a l and p r i v a t e s c h o o l s , 2335. 3 Table 10 shows names and l o c a t i o n s of Indian schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia by agency. Numbers correspond t o Legend f o r P l a t e VI. School Babine Agency Table 10 < Indian Schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia 4 Post O f f i c e Address 1. Glen Vowell 2. K i s p i o x K i t s e g u k l a Kitwanga 5 . Rocher Deboule 6. Moricetown 7. Kitwancool B e l l a Coola Agency 8. B e l l a B e l l a 9. K i t i m a t 10. Klemtu Cowichan Agency 11. Westholme 12. Chemainus 13. S h e l l Beach llj.. S t . Catherine's 15. Nanaimo 16. T s a r t l i p 17. Songhees 18. Kuper I s l a n d 19. Nanaimo H o s p i t a l Kootenay Agency 20. Kootenay R e s i d e n t i a l HazeIton, B.C. HazeIton, B.C. Skeena C r o s s i n g , B.C Kitwanga, B.C. New Hazelton, B.C. Moricetown, B.C. Kitwanga, B.C. Campbell I s l a n d P.O., B.C. K i t i m a t I n d i a n V i l l a g e , B.C, Klemtu, B.C. Westholme, B.C. Ladysmith, B.C. Ladysmlth, B.C. Duncan, B.C. Nanaimo, B.C. Brentwood Bay, B.C. C r a i g f l o w e r P.O., V i c t o r i a , B.C, P.O. Box 510, Chemainus, B.C. Nanaimo, B.C. Cranbrook, B.C 3 Indian A f f a i r s Branch Report, 1958. 1+ Information s u p p l i e d by Mr. A.V. Parminter, R e g i o n a l Inspector of Schools f o r B r i t i s h Columbia. 109 Table 10 (cont'd.) Kamloops Agency 21. N e s k a i n l i t h 22. Deadman's Creek 23. Adams Lake 2l+. Kamloops R e s i d e n t i a l Kwawkewlth Agency 25. G i l f o r d I s l a n d 2o. Turn our I s l a n d 27. Cape Mudge 28. Kingcome I n l e t 29. M a m a l i l l i k u l l a 30. Smith's I n l e t 31. Quatsino 32. A l e r t Bay R e s i d e n t i a l L y t t o n Agency 33. Seton Lake 34. F o u n t a i n 35' S t . George's R e s i d e n t i a l New Westminster Agency 36. Douglas 37. Chehalis 38. S e a b i r d I s l a n d 9« Coqualeetza H o s p i t a l 0. S t . Mary's R e s i d e n t i a l N i c o l a Agency 1+1. Shulus 1+2. Upper N i c o l a Okanagan Agency 1+3. I r i s h Creek 1+1+. Okanagan 1+5 • P e n t i c t i o n Queen C h a r l o t t e Agency 1+6. Mas set 1+7. Skidegate St u a r t Lake Agency 1+8. Stony Creek 1+9* F o r t S t . James 50. Lejac R e s i d e n t i a l Shuswap, B.C. Savona, B.C. Chase, B.C. Kamloops, B.C. Simoon Sound, B.C. M i n s t r e l I s l a n d P.O., B.C. Qu a t h i a s k i Cove, B.C. Kingcome I n l e t , B.C. M i n s t r e l I s l a n d , B.C. Boswell Camp, Smith I n l e t , B.C. Quatsino, B.C. A l e r t Bay, B.C. S h a l a l t h , B.C. L i l l o o e t , B.C. Ly t t o n , B.C. Port Douglas v i a H a r r i s o n H a r r i s o n M i l l s , B.C. A g a s s i z , B.C. S a r d i s , B.C. M i s s i o n C i t y , B.C. M e r r i t , B.C. Douglas Lake, B.C. Vernon, B.C. Vernon, B.C. P e n t i c t o n , B.C. Masset, B.C. Skidegate M i s s i o n , B.C. Vanderhoof, B.C. F t . S t . James, B.C. Lej a c , B.C. 110 Table 10 (cont'd.) Skeena R i v e r Agency-51. M i l l e r Bay H o s p i t a l 52. Gitlakdamix 53. Canyon C i t y 5%. H a r t l e y Bay 55. K i n c o l i t h 56. K i t k a t l a 57 • Lakalsap 58. M e t l a k a t l a 5 9 ' Port Simpson Vancouver Agency 60. Sliammon 61. Mount C u r r i e 62. S e c h e l t R e s i d e n t i a l 63. Squamish R e s i d e n t i a l West Coast Agency 6i|. Kyuquot 65. U c l u e l e t 66. Ahousat 67. A l b e r n i R e s i d e n t i a l 68. C h r i s t i e R e s i d e n t i a l 69. Nootka 70. Opitaht W i l l i a m s Lake Agency 71. Upper Dean R i v e r 72. Anaham 73. Cariboo R e s i d e n t i a l 7I4.. Nazko 75. Sugar Cane 76. Canim Lake S t u a r t Lake Agency 77. F t . Babine Vancouver Agency 78. S e c h e l t Day School 79• Church House Pri n c e Rupert, B.C. Aiyansh P.O. v i a M i l l Bay, B.C. Canyon C i t y v i a M i l l Bay, B.C. H a r t l e y Bay, B.C. K i n c o l i t h , B.C. K i t k a t l a , B.C. G r e e n v i l l e , M i l l Bay P.O., B.C. M e t l a k a t l a , B.C. Port Simpson, B.C. Powell R i v e r , B.C. Mount C u r r i e , B.C. S e c h e l t , B.C. 51+1 K e i t h Rd., North Van., B.C. Kyuquot, B.C. U c l u e l e t , B.C. M a t i l d a Creek, V.I., B.C. A l b e r n i , B.C.. Kakawia P.O., v i a T o f i n o , B.C. Nootka, v i a Port A l b e r n i , B.C. v i a T o f i n o , B.C. Anaham Lake, B.C. H a n c e v i l l e , B.C. W i l l i a m s Lake, B.C. Nazko v i a Quesnel, B.C. W i l l i a m s Lake, B.C. Canim Lake, B.C. F t . Babine, B.C. (Reduced to one room) S e c h e l t , B.C. (New s c h o o l ) Church House, B.C. (New s c h o o l ) The e i g h t e e n agency s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , r e s p o n s i b l e to the Indian Commissioner of B r i t i s h Columbia, i n a d d i t i o n to other d u t i e s , perform most of the f u n c t i o n s of a School Board, super-v i s i n g maintenance, f u e l and s c h o o l s u p p l i e s , and attendance i n I l l I ndian schools i n t h e i r a r e a s . Mr. A.V. Parminter i s R e g i o n a l I n s p e c t o r of Schools f o r B r i t i s h Columbia. Beginning i n 1958, he was granted the h e l p of one a s s i s t a n t i n s p e c t o r . A l l three types of s c h o o l ; day, r e s i d e n t i a l , and h o s p i t a l , f o l l o w the p r o v i n c i a l c u r r i c u l u m as o u t l i n e d by the Department of E d u c a t i o n . Most t e x t books used are those p r e s c r i b e d f o r p r o -v i n c i a l s c h o o l s . Most day schools provide l i v i n g accommodation f o r t e a c h e r s . P u p i l s e n r o l l e d i n these schools l i v e at home. Teachers are gen-e r a l l y l a y t e a c h e r s , w i t h c e r t i f i c a t i o n from r e g u l a r teacher t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . P r i n c i p a l s of r e s i d e n t i a l schools are nominated by Church a u t h o r i t i e s and appointed by the Department. Teachers i n a l l but three of these schools are a l s o appointed by the Department and p a i d a c c o r d i n g th the Department's s a l a r y schedule f o r t e a c h i n g s t a f f . A H schools i n t h i s category are f i n a n c e d on a per c a p i t a b a s i s . R e s i d e n t i a l schools of Roman C a t h o l i c denomination are s t a f f e d by four t e a c h i n g o r d e r s ; S i s t e r s of S t . Ann, S i s t e r s of C h i l d Jesus, S i s t e r s of Providence, and the B e n e d i c t i n e S i s t e r s . P r o t e s t a n t r e s i d e n t i a l schools are s t a f f e d by l a y t e a c h e r s . H o s p i t a l s are operated by the Northern A f f a i r s Branch of the Department of H e a l t h and We l f a r e . They i n c l u d e on t h e i r s t a f f s teachers who endeavor to ensure t h a t no c h i l d i s unduly r e t a r d e d a c a d e m i c a l l y through h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n . - ^ During 1957, a t o t a l of 181 teachers h e l d p o s i t i o n s i n Ind-i a n schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia s u b j e c t to departmental super-v i s i o n . ^ i n a d d i t i o n , j o i n t p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s , attended by both 5 Information s u p p l i e d by Mr. A.V. Parminter. 6 Indian A f f a i r s Branch Report, 1957. 112 Indian and non-Indian students and not under departmental j u r i s -d i c t i o n , operate at Burns Lake, Vanderhoof, Smithers, P o r t S t . James and, commencing i n the f a l l of 1959, a t Hazelton.' Emphasis on ed u c a t i o n of Indians o r i g i n a t e d d i r e c t l y from the S p e c i a l J o i n t Commission of the Senate and the House of Com-mons which began to meet i n 191+6. On June 22, 191+8, the Committee recommended "the r e v i s i o n of those s e c t i o n s of the Act which per-t a i n to ed u c a t i o n , i n order to prepare Indian c h i l d r e n to take t h e i r place as c i t i z e n s . . . . Whenever and wherever p o s s i b l e , Ind-i a n c h i l d r e n should be educated i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h other c h i l d -r e n " . 8 Recommendations of the Committee were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the Indian A c t of 1951, and a f t e r i t s f i r s t r e a d i n g as a B i l l , n i n e -teen s e l e c t e d Indian delegates were i n v i t e d to Ottawa by the M i n i s t e r o f C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration t o study i t and present t h e i r views i n a cl a u s e - b y - c l a u s e conference with Department o f f i c i a l s , the f i r s t time n a t i v e Indians had been c o n s u l t e d on proposed l e g i s l a t i o n r e l a t i n g to t h e i r own government. 9 Chapter 29, S e c t i o n 113 of t h i s A c t e n t i t l e s the Govern©r-in-Council t o a u t h o r i z e the M i n i s t e r of C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration to estab-l i s h , operate and m a i n t a i n schools fOr I n d i a n c h i l d r e n , and t o enter i n t o agreements w i t h the government of a p r o v i n c e , a pub-l i c or separate s c h o o l board, or a r e l i g i o u s or c h a r i t a b l e or-g a n i z a t i o n f o r t h e i r e d u c a t i o n . By 1952, the P r o v i n c i a l A d v i s o r y Committee on Ind i a n A f f a i r s , 7 Information s u p p l i e d by Mr. A.V. Parminter. 8 Dominion Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s Reference Papers, 1952, p. 290. 9 P r o v i n c i a l A d v i s o r y Committee on Indian A f f a i r s F o u r t h Annual Report, 1953« P» 6. 113 organized i n 1950 under the Indian I n q u i r y A c t , r e p o r t e d t h a t twelve hundred Indian c h i l d r e n were a t t e n d i n g P r o v i n c i a l schools j i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 1 0 In 1955 the F e d e r a l and P r o v i n c i a l Governments shared i n the c a p i t a l c o s t s of c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the A l e r t Bay High S c h o o l , w i t h an enrolment of one hundred Indian and e i g h t y White p u p i l s . 1 1 By 1956, p u b l i c s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s a t Queen C h a r l o t t e C i t y were expanded to admit I n d i a n c h i l d r e n , and f o u r t e e n other con-t r a c t s f o r j o i n t F e d e r a l - P r o v i n c i a l s h a r i n g of s c h o o l c o n s t r u e t -12 i o n c o s t s were i n f o r c e . In 1957, the L e g i s l a t i v e Assembly assented to the I n d i a n A d v i s o r y A c t , of which Miss Joanna R. Wright was appointed D i r -e c t o r . 1 3 The Committee r e p o r t e d t h a t d u r i n g 1957-58* a l l s e n i o r p u p i l s boarding a t P r o t e s t a n t r e s i d e n t i a l schools were r e c e i v i n g t h e i r e d u c a t i o n i n near-by p u b l i c h i g h s c h o o l s , and that an In-c r e a s i n g number of Ind i a n c h i l d r e n were a l s o a t t e n d i n g Roman C a t h o l i c s chools o f f the res e r v e s . 1 ^ " ' A T u i t i o n fee f o r each c h i l d of Indian s t a t u s l i v i n g on Re-serve land and a t t e n d i n g a j o i n t or p u b l i c s c h o o l i s p a i d t o the School Board by Indian A f f a i r s Branch. F i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e , i n -c l u d i n g t e x t book expenses and even cost of room and board, i s a v a i l a b l e to Indian students who show a p t i t u d e f o r s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g "10 P r o v i n c i a l A d v i s o r y Committee on Indian A f f a i r s , T h i r d Annual Report, 1952, p. 1+. 11 S i x t h Annual Report. 1955. p. 8. 12 Seventh Annual Report, 1956. p. 9. 13 E i g h t h Annual Report, 1957. p. 5 . Ik N i n t h Annual Report, 1958, p. 8. 15 A.V. Parminter, "Education o f Indians i n B r i t i s h C o l -umbia", The B.C. School T r u s t e e , Sept., 1955, p. 20 Ilk Since 1950 a common v o i c e has been r a i s e d i n f a v o r of edu-c a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n . Dr. Peter K e l l y , speaking before the J o i n t Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons on Ind i a n A f f -a i r s on June 17, 1959, s a i d " I n t e g r a t i o n i s a must t o which if) there i s no a l t e r n a t i v e " . The Most Reverend Fergus 0-'Grady, OMI, i s quoted as having s t a t e d 1 7 "You cannot expect the I n d i a n to conform to white s o c i e t y , customs and manners i f he i s not educated a l o n g s i d e white c h i l d r e n from k i n d e r g a r t e n up. The most p r e s s i n g need of B r i t i s h Columbia Indians today i s high e r edu-c a t i o n i n j o i n t w h i t e - I n d i a n s c h o o l s " . While these two p o i n t s of view c o i n c i d e i n t h e i r end r e -s u l t , the p h i l o s o p h i e s which the speakers r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r In how the r e s u l t i s to be a t t a i n e d . Dr. K e l l y presents the P r o t e s -tant viewpoint, which advocates e d u c a t i o n of Indians, where p r a c t i c a b l e , i n the p r o v i n c i a l s c h o o l system, the students l i v -i n g e i t h e r at home or i n r e s i d e n t i a l boarding s c h o o l s . Bishop O'Grady presents the viewpoint of the Roman C a t h o l i c Church, the p o l i c y of which i s t o educate i n p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s . In areas where bands are predominantly of a P r o t e s t a n t s e c t , then, c h i l d r e n are In g e n e r a l a t t e n d i n g I n d i a n A f f a i r s day schools on i s o l a t e d r e s e r v e s , and r e g u l a r p u b l i c schools i n l o -c a l i t i e s where such schools are w i t h i n r e a c h . C h i l d r e n of bands whose f a i t h i s Roman C a t h o l i c a t t e n d day schools or r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s . In areas where other f a i t h s are re p r e s e n t e d , j o i n t p a r o c h i a l schools are b e i n g b u i l t t o educate both I n d i a n and non-Indian Roman C a t h o l i c c h i l d r e n . ~~l6 Minutes , p. II4.3 . 17 Vancouver D a i l y P r o v i n c e , August, 1958* H 5 Proponents of both systems have arguments to o f f e r i n f a v o r of t h e i r c h o i c e . In Nanaimo, soon a f t e r I n d i a n students began t o a t t e n d c i t y s chools i n 1950, news items such as the f o l l o w i n g appeared i n 1 fi the l o c a l p r e s s : Indian c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g Nanaimo schools are f i t -t i n g i n t o the s c h o o l system v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . T h i s statement by School I n s p e c t o r Dr. Wm. P l e n -d e r l e i t h , the p r i n c i p a l and teachers of the s c h o o l was given School Board Wednesday and heard w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e p l e a s u r e by the t r u s t e e s . . . . I t i s g r a t i f y i n g to note that s i n c e the Indian c h i l d r e n have been a t t e n d i n g p u b l i c s c h o o l , t h e i r parents have been t a k i n g an i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t i n the s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s . Reverend C o l i n Dickson, of the Shulus Indian M i s s i o n , comm-ents on the r e s i d e n t i a l school:^9 I do not b e l i e v e that an i n s t i t u t i o n i s the proper place to r a i s e c h i l d r e n , p a r t i c u l a r l y from the age of s i x or seven to e l e v e n or twelve.... By p l a c i n g c h i l d r e n i n r e s i d e n t i a l schools parents are denied the p r i v i l e g e of r a i s i n g t h e i r own f a m i l y , and i n -v a r i a b l e lose some p a r t of t h e i r own f a m i l y - r a i s i n g e x p e r i e n c e . One Superintendent contends that the d i s c i p l i n e of the r e s -i d e n t i a l s c h o o l i s o f t e n overpowering and sometimes has the opp-o s i t e e f f e c t to that assumed by the well-meaning p r i n c i p a l . Reverend G.P. K e l l y , OMI, p r i n c i p a l of Lejac I n d i a n R e s i -d e n t i a l S c h o o l , d e f i n e s the f u n c t i o n s of the r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l on system: v In the r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l the p u p i l s are In two c a t e g o r i e s . Those who come from remote areas s t a r t to s c h o o l l a t e , and have very l i t t l e knowledge of the E n g l i s h language on entrance to the s c h o o l . The others a r e , f o r the most p a r t , products of broken 18 Correspondence from Mrs. A d e l a i d e H i l l , Nanaimo, A p r i l 21, 1958. 19 Correspondence r e c e i v e d February 25, 1958. 20 Correspondence r e c e i v e d March 6, 1958. 116 homes and are assign e d here f o r c a r e . Most of these c h i l d r e n have had an i n f e r i o r u p b r i n g i n g , some have attended day s c h o o l i n t e r m i t t e n t l y f o r a few y e a r s , and some have been delayed i n t h e i r e d u c a t i o n by a long or s h o r t bout w i t h T.B. Fourteen I n d i a n s t u d e n t s , e n r o l l e d i n grades nine and ten a t the P r i n c e George p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l , were boarding w i t h White f a m i l i e s i n 1957, Reverend K e l l y s t a t e s , and about t h i r t y were expected to do so i n 1958. Reverend G.D. Dunlop, OMI, p r i n c i p a l of Kootenay I n d i a n S c h o o l , compares r e s i d e n t i a l and p r o v i n c i a l h i g h s c h o o l r e s u l t s from h i s e x p e r i e n c e : In 19l+9> arrangements were made f o r the c h i l d r e n above the grade e i g h t l e v e l t o a t t e n d the P u b l i c High School In the C i t y of Cranbrook. T h i s p o l i c y i s s t i l l f o l l o w e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t has proved a f a i l u r e . During the past e i g h t years we have had as many as f i f t e e n p u p i l s a t t e n d i n g High S c h o o l , t h i r t y - f i v e c h i l d r e n i n a l l , and as y e t we have not had one s u c c e s s f u l graduate.... In Kamloops and M i s s i o n C i t y , where we have In d i a n High Schools, there have been many graduates. A comparison between the p r o p o r t i o n of In d i a n students a t t -ending schools of t h i s v a r i e d system and non-Indian students i n the p r o v i n c i a l system to t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n s i s s l i g h t l y m i s l e a d -i n g . The Indians of B r i t i s h Columbia, i n c r e a s i n g i n numbers as they now are, are preponderantly a young p o p u l a t i o n (In 1957, the 22 1575 Indian p u p i l s e n r o l l e d i n grade one comprised one twen-t i e t h of t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n , a t a time when enrolment i n the same grade i n the p u b l i c schools system of the province accounted f o r only about one f o r t i e t h of B r i t i s h Columbia's p o p u l a t i o n ) . 2 3 There can be no doubt, then, from these f i g u r e s , t h a t Ind-i a n c h i l d r e n do go to s c h o o l . The next p o i n t to be co n s i d e r e d 21 Correspondence r e c e i v e d December 15, 1957* 22 I n d i a n A f f a i r s Branch Report, 1957. 23 B r i t i s h Columbia P u b l i c Schools Report, 1957-58. 117 i s , t o what extent i s the Indian of B r i t i s h Columbia b e i n g edu-cated i n one or another of the s c h o o l systems? At the grade e i g h t l e v e l , about the same number of I n d i a n and non-Indian c h i l d r e n , i n p r o p o r t i o n to t h e i r t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n s , are at s c h o o l . Prom that grade on, the p r o p o r t i o n of I n d i a n students d i m i n i s h e s r a p i d l y . However, t h i s p r o p o r t i o n could r i s e c o n s i d e r a b l e d u r i n g the next few y e a r s , as students who have had advantage of the f u l l day of academic s c h o o l i n g inaugurated i n 1949, a n < ^ the g r e a t l y expanded I n d i a n e d u c a t i o n program imple-mented by the Revised I n d i a n Act of 1951 a f f e c t the groups who began s c h o o l d u r i n g and a f t e r those y e a r s . In 1957 there were 24 students e n r o l l e d i n grade twelve i n r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s ; 57 i n p r o v i n c i a l and p r i v a t e schools (see Table 9)» The Vancouver V o c a t i o n a l T r a i n i n g I n s t i t u t e graduated 30 I n d i a n students i n that year, 75$ of the number who had en-r o l l e d , the same percentage as f o r non-Indian t r a i n e e s . Of 30 P r a c t i c a l Nurse T r a i n i n g D i v i s i o n "graduates, 15 were Indian g i r l s . S i x Indian boys graduated from the Nanaimo F e d e r a l -P r o v i n c i a l T r a i n i n g School. 2^" Average attendance i n 1957 was 94.74$ i n r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s ; 90-03$ i n day schools throughout B r i t i s h Columbia. 2^ I t appears, from trends i n d i c a t e d by a comparison of f i g -ures from a decade ago w i t h those of today, t h a t an i n c r e a s i n g number of I n d i a n students do graduate. Yet even such a d e d u c t i o n might w e l l be f a l l a c i o u s . The number of Indian students e n r o l l e d i n grade twelve f o r 1958 remained the same as f o r 1957 i n r e s i -d e n t i a l schools and was only h a l f of the 1957 f i g u r e f o r p r i v a t e 2I4. B r i t i s h Columbia I n d i a n A d v i s o r y Committee Report, 1957. 25 Indian A f f a i r s Branch Report. 1957. Table 7. 118 and p r o v i n c i a l s c h o o l s . There are i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t not a l l Ind-ians are a s p i r i n g to h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . As the excerpt from Reverend G.F. K e l l y ' s l e t t e r , c i t e d on page 115, i n d i c a t e s , Indians of the F r a s e r Lake area are not t a k i n g r e a d i l y t o s c h o o l i n g . Reverend K e l l y ' s l e t t e r c oncludes: " I t w i l l take many years y e t before the Indians of the Northern Regions w i l l come to understand the b e n e f i t s of White Man's edu-c a t i o n " . Teachers from the Skeena, Babine, and C h i l c o t i n areas c o n s i s t e n t l y admit t h a t c h i l d r e n f r e q u e n t l y do not b e g i n s c h o o l there u n t i l they are ten or more years o l d . Throughout much of the f i r s t two areas i n p a r t i c u l a r , many do not speak E n g l i s h on a r r i v a l at s c h o o l . One teacher from the Skeena s t a t e d t h a t h i s attendance f l u c t u a t e d from 33 to 8 . Lack of a s p i r a t i o n i s not r e s t r i c t e d t o the North. Not one Indian student a t Nanaimo, i n t e g r a t e d s i n c e 1951, has graduated from the s c h o o l system there s i n c e 1952. R e g i s t e r s of a day sc h o o l l o c a t e d on a s m a l l i s l a n d r e s e r v e show that d u r i n g the past ten years only one student has prog-r e s s e d beyond grade e i g h t . "Absent 16 (or l l i , or 18) days a t Knight I n l e t f o r o o l i c h a n o i l and grease" appears as the teacher's u n v a r i e d comment on a s c h o o l enrolment that v a r i e s from 7$% to With e d u c a t i o n , as w i t h the gen e r a l c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n of the I n d i a n , c o n d i t i o n s can be i n t e r p r e t e d only as they a f f e c t the p a r t i c i p a n t s , the Indians themselves. A School of S o c i a l Work s t u d e n t 2 ? i n 1951 wrote: "26 Information r e c e i v e d from Mrs. Ad e l a i d e H i l l , Nanaimo. 27 F.W. Thompson, The Employment Problems and Economic Status of the B r i t i s h Columbia I n d i a n s , Master of S o c i a l Work t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1951. 119 One cannot speak of e d u c a t i o n amongst Indians without r a n g i n g i n t o other f i e l d s , without d i g -g i n g a t the r o o t of the I n d i a n problem, without i n q u i r i n g i n t o h i s true p o s i t i o n and the e f f e c t of h i s p o s i t i o n i n every-day l i f e . R e g i o n a l Inspector L.G.P. W a l l e r , speaking a t a Workshop i n Indian E d u c a t i o n a t V i c t o r i a i n 1952, s a i d : Many Indians f i n d our way of l i f e p o i n t l e s s and without purpose i n the l i g h t of t h e i r c u l t u r a l i n h e r i t a n c e . . . . The Indian wants, as the White man does, to know that what he i s doing i s of j some use... D r a s t i c m o d i f i c a t i o n s of environment ' may f o r c e s e r i o u s changes w i t h i n a b r i e f p e r i o d . E d u c a t i o n , however, proceeds more slo w l y and to be most e f f e c t i v e works i t s change wi t h the con-sent and c o o p e r a t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l s a f f e c t e d . In a p a n e l d i s c u s s i o n of the B r i t i s h Columbia I n d i a n A d v i s -ory Committee i n 1957 the viewpoint was s t a t e d that the B r i t i s h Columbia Indians want a chance "to express t h e i r own o p i n i o n s 28 on how they should be educated". Looking back over the c e n t u r i e s of European oc c u p a t i o n i n Canada, H.J. V a l l e r y i n 19I4.2 wrote : 2 . (1) The l e n g t h of the s c h o o l day s h a l l be f i v e and one-h a l f hours i n c l u s i v e of time f o r r e c e s s , opening exer-c i s e s and assemblies, and s h a l l extend from 9 a.m. to twelve noon and from 1:30 p.m. to I4. p.m. (2) The Superintendent may, where necessary or d e s i r a b l e , a u t h o r i z e changes i n the hours p r e s c r i b e d i n (1). 6. The sc h o o l c u r r i c u l u m of the province or t e r r i t o r y w i t h i n the boundaries of which the s c h o o l i s s i t u a t e d s h a l l , sub-j e c t to any changes a u t h o r i z e d by the Superintendent, be the c u r r i c u l u m f o r such s c h o o l . 7. The t e x t books s h a l l , s u b j e c t to any changes a u t h o r i z e d by the Superintendent, be those p r e s c r i b e d f o r the pro v i n c e or t e r r i t o r y i n which the school Is s i t u a t e d . 8. (1) A p e r i o d of not more than one-half hour a day to be devoted t o r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n may be i n c l u d e d i n the t i m e - t a b l e f o r classroom i n s t r u c t i o n . (2) R e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n may be g i v e n by any person . a s s i g n e d f o r such purpose by the r e l i g i o u s denomin-a t i o n i n the f a i t h of which p u p i l s are to be i n s t r u c t e d . (3) A p u p i l s h a l l not be r e q u i r e d t o r e c e i v e i n s t r u c t i o n i n the f a i t h of any r e l i g i o u s denomination c o n t r a r y to the d e s i r e of such p u p i l ' s parent as expressed to the p r i n -c i p a l or teacher i n charge of the s c h o o l and reco r d e d i n the sc h o o l r e g i s t e r . 13. A p r i n c i p a l or teacher i n charge of a s c h o o l s h a l l ( f ) exclude from the s c h o o l any person whom the S u p e r i n -tendent, Indian Agency, d e s i g n a t e s . 14. The Superintendent, I n d i a n Agency, s h a l l r e g u l a r l y i n s p e c t s c h o o l p r o p e r t y . l ^ . When, pursuant t o paragraph (c) or (d) of S e c t i o n l l 6 of the I n d i a n Act a c h i l d i s not r e q u i r e d to attend s c h o o l , the Superintendent s h a l l i s s u e to the p r i n c i p a l or teacher concerned a c e r t i f i c a t e to that e f f e c t . 16. (1) Teachers s h a l l be s e l e c t e d by the Superintendent and recommended by him f o r appointment, and the S u p e r i n -tendent s h a l l n o t i f y teachers of t h e i r appointment s t a t i n g the sc h o o l to which they are a s s i g n e d . BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Adams, E v e l y n C. American Indian E d u c a t i o n . New York, Kings Crown Pr e s s , 191+6. 2. B a n c r o f t , J . Austen. Geology o f the Coast and I s l a n d s Between the S t r a i t of Georgia and Queen C h a r l o t t e Sound. B.C. G e o l o g i c a l Survey, Memoir 23, 1913. 3 . B a r n e t t , Homer G. 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The Annals of the American Academy of P o l i t i c a l and S o c i a l S c i e n c e , September, 19U-7* 27. MacLaurin. D.L. The H i s t o r y of E d u c a t i o n i n the Crown Co l o n i e s of Vancouver I s l a n d and B r i t i s h Columbia and In the Province of B r i t i s h Columbia. - U n i v e r s i t y of Washington, Unpublished d o c t o r a l t h e s i s , 193b. 28. Nelson, Denys. F o r t Langley I827-I927. Vancouver A r t , H i s t o r i c a l §nd S c i e n t i f i c A s s o c i a t i o n , 1927. 29. Ormsby, Margaret. B r i t i s h Columbia: A H i s t o r y . Van-couver, Evergreen Press, 1958• 30. Peake, Rev. Frank A. The A n g l i c a n Church In. B r i t i s h Columbia. Vancouver, M i t c h e l l P ress, 1959• 31. P h i l l i p s , Charles E . The Development of E d u c a t i o n i n Canada. Toronto, W.J. Gage, 1957. 32. P i e r c e , Rev. W i l l i a m Henry. From P o t l a t c h to P u l p i t Vancouver Bindery, 1933* ll+2 33* R a v e n h i l l , A l i c e . 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The S a l i s h a n T r i b e s of the Western P l a t e a u . Washington, U.S. P r i n t i n g Bureau, 1930. 1+1. Thompson, P.W. The Employment Problems and Economic Status of the B r i t i s h Columbia I n d i a n s . Master of S o c i a l Work t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1951. 1+2. V a l l e r y , H.J. A H i s t o r y of I n d i a n E d u c a t i o n i n Canada. King s t o n , Queen's U n i v e r s i t y , Master ©f A r t s T h e s i s , 191+2. 1+3. Wellcome, Henry S. The S t o r y of M e t l a k a h t l a , 1887. 1+1+. W e l l s , H.G. The Ou t l i n e of H i s t o r y , 1920. 1+5. Wolfenden, R. Commission on Co n d i t i o n s of Indians o f the North-West Coast. ItitJb. ' ' ~"