THE AESTHETICS OF CROCE AHDJ|3RG-SOI hy John Alexander McDonald -oOo-A Thesis submitted for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS (y—'i^'l1 i n the Department •'• v 7 PHILOSOPHY The University of Br i t i sh Colombia APRIL« 1936 P r e l i m i n a r y no te Were i t the cus tom t o d e d i c a t e M . A . t h e s e s , I s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y w i s h to d e d i c a t e t h i s one to the member's o f the l i b r a r y s t a f f o f t h i s U n i v e r s i t y , i f f o r no : o t h e r r e a s o n t han t h a t I have found them c o n s i s t e n t l y t o be m a r v e l s o f p a t i e n c e . J . A . M . The c r i t i c i s every i n s t a n t on the edge of metaphysics, Baudelaire -0O0-I have been t o l d that a e s t h e t i c s i s an "impossible" subject. I almost agree. A e s t h e t i c s , i f not wholly impossible, i s I v e r i l y b e l i v e , as d i f f i c u l t as any-t h i n g could w e l l be. I t i s d i f f i c u l t because i t courts vagueness and evades p r e c i s i o n . The a e s t h e t i c experience—.-and sthe a e s t h e t i c object i s a d e l i c a t e and e l u s i v e t h i n g , v a n i s h i n g at a touch. When we th i n k we have the object, s o l i d , coloured, resonant, we f i n d but the dampness of a disappearing cloud or the smell of a passing smoke. A e s t h e t i c s i s d i f f i -c u l t because i t demands t r e b l e q u a l i f i c a t i o n - — t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n of being a s e n s i t i v e a e s t h e t i c exper-i e n t , of being a competent witness, and of being able to analyse-the given data c l e a r l y and philosoph-i c a l l y . I t i s d i f f i c u l t because we mus't avoid the mere o b i t e r d i c t a of of a r t i s t s and connoisseurs on the one hand and mere pronouncements of system-making philosophers on the otherv I t i s d i f f i c u l t because there i s not one a e s t h e t i c experience but man, and i t simply w i l l not do to manufacture a theory which f i t s one a r t and f i t s none of the r e s t . On the other, hand, a e s t h e t i c theory must be as exact as i t can, and must not, i n i t s attempt to be general, lapse i n t o nebulousness. L.A. Reid -0O0-G O j T E p S P r e l i m i n a r y n o t e CHAPTER ONE. HISTORICAL PEES PEC T I V E P r e l i m i n a r y I . CLASSICAL AESTHETICS 1 • P l a t o ' s a e s t h e t i c s 2. Emphasis on A r t ' a s I m i t a t i o n 3 • B e a u t y as a p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e s o u l ; a f o r e s h a d o w -i n g o f s u b j e c t i v e i d e a l i s m 4• P l o t i n u s s t h e d i c h o t o m y r e s o l v e d 5• The C l a s s i c Age r a t i f i e s , t h e " R u l e s " o f A r t I I . THE EMERGENCE OJ?vA FEW IDEAL 1 • The monadology o f L e i b n i t z s • Vague s t i r r i n g s o f a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y i n t h e S e i c e n t o 3. The p l a c e o f I m a g i n a t i o n i n a r t i s t i c a c t i v i t y ^• V i c e and t h e g e n e t i c c o n c e p t o f a r t . I I I . THE INTELLECTUAL1ST TRADITION REMAIHS ACTIVE 1 „ Baumgarten: c o n t i n u i n g t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t t r a d i t i o n 2 T h e c f d r m a l i s m o f K a n t 3. C r o c e ' s e s t i m a t e o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f K a n t 4• The p o s t - K a j i t i a n movement IV . AHTI-METAPHYSICAL REACTION 1 • S c h o p e n h a u e r ' s e m o t i o n a l i s t t h e o r y f o r e s h a d o w s t h e a n t i - m e t a p h y s i c a l r e a c t i o n 2• Prom b i o l o g y : t h e t h e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n 3. P s y c h o l o g y : t h e e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h to a r t V. CONCLUSION COJ^TENTS ( c o n t . ) CHAPTER TWO. CROCE P r e l i m i n a r y 1 • ( a ) S o u r c e s o f G r o c e ' s a e s t h e t i c ("b ) P r o c e ' s p h i 1 oBoplay o f mind 2.(a) T h e s u b j e c t i v i t y o f b e a u t y , b ) I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n t u i t i o n and e x p r e s s i o n 3• (a) A r t not f e e l i n g ' i n i t s iramediacy ("b) B e a u t y and u g l i n e s s 4 . fa) The s e n s i b l e o b j e c t n o t t h e r e a l work o f a ("b / D i f f i c u l t y t h i s i n v o l v e s f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( 0 ) A r t as l a n g u a g e 5. ( a ) The l n d i v i s l a b i l i t y o f a r t ("bJ E x t e n s i o n , b u t no d e g r e e s o f b e a u t y (c ) The autonomy o f a r t 6. A r t and l i f e CHAPTER THREE. . BJIRJJSON P r e l i m i n a r y 1 • B e r g s o n ' s p h i 1 o s ophy o f Be coming 2• The two modes o f knowledge 3 • The d i f f i c u l t y o f l a n g u a g e 4. The a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y • (b j t h e a r t i s t ( c ) t h e u n i n s p i r e d CHAPTER POUR. C O H C L U S I 0 1 J CHAPTER Om. HISTORICAL ESLSPECTIV1 P r e l i m i n a r y . I f an H i s t o r i c a l sketch, p r e f a c i n g an a c c o u n t of t h e a e s t h e t i c s o f two c o n t e m p o r a r i e s r e q u i r e s d e f e n s e , i t may he f o u n d , i n t h i s c a s e , i n t h e a u t h o r s t h e m s e l v e s . B o t h C r o c e and B e r g s o n a r e Time p h i l o s o p h e r s , who r e g a r d r e a l i t y as Becoming r a t h e r t h a n B e i n g : f o r each, l i f e i s an u n f o l d i n g and e x p r e s s i o n . Hence, t o know t h e p r e s e n t , one must know t h e p a s t , f o r t h e p r e s e n t c o n t a i n s t h e p a s t w i t h i n i t . The man who s a i d , "The dead w r i t e r s a r e remote f r o m us b e c a u s e we know so much vmore t h a n t h e y d i d " , no doubt ex-p r e s s e d a v i e w o f t h e past.common t o most o f u s . B u t when suc h myopia, o v e r t a k e s us we w o u l d do w e l l to r e c a l l T.S. E l i o t ' s d r y r e j o i n d e r : " P r e c i s e l y , and t h e y a r e t h a t w h i c h we know." I t i s p e r f e c t l y t r u e t h a t t h e v i e w o f h i s t o r y h e l d b y k C l a s s i c i s t , s u c h as E l i o t , d i f f e r s f u n d a m e n t a l l y f r o m t h a t o f a Romantic p h i l o s o p h e r : ( i f we may r i s k a n o t h e r p a i r o f t a g s ) .the v i e w o f t i m e h e l d b y t h e one i s s t a t i c , and b y t h e o t h e r , dynamic. E v e n t h e s e t a g s a r e not as n e u t r a l as we might w i s h them t o be, f o r " s t a t i c " and. "dynamic" c o n n o t e n o t i o n s o f v i t a l i t y w h i c h a r e a p t q u i t e t o c o n f u s e the i s s u e . But f o r our p u r p o s e h e r e i t i s enough^ to n o t e t h a t a l l would s u b s c r i b e t o C r o c e ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t "We can n o t j u d g e t h e t r u t h o f an answer u n l e s s we u n d e r s t a n d t h e . m e a n i n g o'f t h e q u e s t i o n , and so i f we w o u l d j u d g e t h e t r u t h o f a p h . i l -• 1 osophy we must know t h e h i s t o r y . " H. W i l d o n C a r r , e c h o i n g t h e t h o u g h t o f C r o c e , ex-p r e s s e s i n d i f f e r e n t terms t h e p o i n t made b y E l i o t : "The -2-ph.ilosoph.er o f t o - d a y , however much he may w i s h t o , c a n n o t c a s t o f f f r o m h i m t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n w h i c h he l i v e s , n o r can he t r e a t e v e n t s w h i c h have happened as t h o u g h t h e y had not happened. Those e v e n t s a r e hone o f h i s hone, f l e s h o f h i s f l e s h , to d i v e s t h i m s e l f o f them i s i m p o s s i b l e . He must t a k e them i n t o a c c o u n t , he must know h i s t o r i c a l l y , and a c c o r d i n g to t h e f u l n e s s o f h i s h i s t o r i c a l knowing i s t h e f u l n e s s o f 2 h i s p h i l o s o p h y . " And. only v i e w i n g , a p h i l o s o p h e r ' s w r i t i n g s i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e can we hope t o r e c o g n i z e t o what e x t e n t t h e y a r e o r i g i n a l . T h i s f a c t i s f o r c i b l y b o r n e - u p o n anyong who happens to rea-d^, say, t h e C l a . s s i c p h i l o s o p h e r ^ , p a r -t i c u l a r l y P l o t i n u s , a f t e r h a v i n g r e a d B e r g s o n . I m m e d i a t e l y one's e s t i m a t e o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y u n d e r g o e s a r e a d j u s t m e n t . T h i s s i n g l e i n s t a n c e w i l l , p e r h a p s , s u f f i c i e n t l y u n d e r l i n e t h e m o r a l b y w h i c h t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f a e s t h e t i c t h e o r i e s g i v e n below seeks to j u s t i f y i t s e l f . Whether or n o t t h e v i o l e n t f o r e s h o r t e n i n g o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e t a k e n c a n be j u s t i f i e d on t h e s c o r e o f s p a c e l i m i t a t i o n i s , o f c o u r s e , a n o t h e r m a t t e r . I . CLASSICAL AESTHETICS !• P l a t o ' s a e s t h e t i c . E.P. C a r r i t t makes t h i s p r o v o c a t i v e s t a t e m e n t , " I f I had to choose t h e two a u t h o r s who might g i v e most i n s i g h t i n t o what i s meant b y a e s t h e t i c , I s h o u l d choose one f r o m each end o f t h e s e r i e s , P l a t o and C r o c e . i f I had. 3 t o choose one i t w o u l d be P l a t o . " I t i s c e r t a i n t h a t , t o P l a t o - 3 -a l l s u c c e s s i v e t h e o r i s e r s on a r t , o r " a e s t h e t i c i a n s " to use a c l u m s y word owe more or l e s s d i r e c t l y a g r e a t d e b t . B u t i t need n o t s u r p r i s e us t o d i s c o v e r i n i r i s w r i t i n g s c e r t a i n i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s w h i c h have aggravated, c o n f u s i o n i n a, s u b j e c t i-rr-er---s-u4>;3-&<3-t s e e m i n g l y i n t r i n s i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t . I n one b r a n c h o f h i s t h e o r y P l a t o seems to r e g a r d a r t as an i m i t a t i o n , b u t b e i n g an i m i t a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t s w h i c h a r e t h e m s e l v e s o n l y c o p i e s o f t h e i n t e l l i g i b l e u n i v e r s a l s \ _ o r i d e a s , i t i s an i l l u s i o n t h r e e t i m e s removed f r o m r e a l i t y . T r u t h , however, can be g o t o n l y about u n i v e r s a l s , h ence we must not be m i s l e d i n t o t h i n k i n g t h a t we can g e t t r i \ t h i n t h e a r t i s t ' s w o r l d o f i l l u s i o n . And a l t h o u g h a r t c l e a r l y y i e l d s p l e a s u r e , i t i s apt to s t i r t h e p a s s i o n s ; f o r t h i s P l a t o f e l t compelled, t o r u l e t h e a r t i s t s f r o m h i s i d e a l R e p u b l i c . (Bote h e r e a j u s t i c a t i o n l e n t to t h e P u r i t a n vie\v o f a r t . I t i s b u t a s t e p f r o m t h i s to t h e c r u d e n o t i o n t h a t a r t i s t s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y immoral p e r s o n s . ) A n o t h e r a s p e c t o f P l a t o ' s d o c t r i n e , however, t r e a t s beauty_ as an e d u c a t i o n . I n h i s Symposium P l a t o d e v e l o p s t h e t h e s i s t h a t b e a u t i f u l t h i n g s p o i n t to a b s o l u t e b e a u t y . And t h i s a b s o l u t e becomes l i n k e d w i t h two -other a b s o l u t e s t o f o r m t h e i l l u s t r i o u s t r i a d , t h e T r u e , t h e Good, and t h e B e a u t i f u l . " ( 2 1 0 E . } When a. man h a s gone deep enough i n t h e l o r e o f l o v e , and. t u r n e d h i s a t t e n t i o n t o t h i n g s o f b e a u t y i n t h e i r due o r d e r , and has a t l a s t become a -master i n t h a t s c h o o l , t h e r e s h a l l dawn upon h i s eyes a v i s i o n o f s u r p a s s i n g b e a u t y , f o r whose sake he endured a l l h i s f o r m e r t o i l s ; a b e a u t y w h i c h , place i n t h e f i r s t , i s e t e r n a l , w i t h o u t b e g i n n i n g and w i t h o u t end, u n b e g o t t e n and w i t h o u t d e c a y ; and s e c o n d l y , i s not b e a u t y f u l - 4 -i n one way and u g l y i n a n o t h e r , nor b e a u t i f u l a t one t i m e o r p l a c e o r f r o m one p o i n t o f v i e w and t h e n a g a i n u g l y , as i f i t s b e a u t y depended upon t h e b e h o l d e r s . . .When anyjone c l i m b s t h e l a d d e r o f t r u e l o v e i n t h i s w o r l d t i l l he c a t c h a g l i m p s e o f t h a t o t h e r b e a u t y , he has a l m o s t a t t a i n e d h i s g o a l . And t h i s i s t h e t r u e d i s c i p l i n e o f l o v i n g or/b"eing l o v e d : t h a t a man b e g i n w i t h t h e b e a u t ^ i e s o f t h i s "world and use them as s t e p -p i n g - s t o n e s f o r an u n c e a s i n g j o u r n e y t o t h a t o t h e r b e a u t y , g o i n g f r o m one to two and f r o m two t o a l l , and f r o m b e a u t i f u l c r e a t u r e s to b e a u t i f u l l i v e s , and f r o m b e a u t i f u l l i v e s t o b e a u t i f u l t r u t h s , and f r o m b N e a u t i f u l t r u t h s a t t a i n i n g f i n a l l y t o n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n t h e t r u e knowledge of. B e a u t y i t ' s e l f , and 4 so t o know a t l a s t , what B e a u t y i s . " I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o b e a r i n mind t h a t P l a t o ' s p r e -o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e U n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r o f b e a u -t i f u l t h i n g s made i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r h i m t o r e m a i n c o n t e n t w i t h t h e i n d e p e n d e n t i n t r i n s i c a p p e a l o f s e n s u o u s b e a u t y and works o f a r t r e f l e c t i n g s u c h b e a u t y . When we come to c o n s i d e r t h e a e s t h e t i c o f C l a s s i c i s m , we s h a l l see what a s t u l t i f y i n g e f f e c t upon a r t s u c h a d o c t r i n e was to l e a d t o . But t h e t e x t u r e o f P l a t o ' s w r i t i n g s i s so r i c h t h a t we may s e l e c t o t h e r s t r a n d s t o s e r v e as t h e warp upon w h i c h t o weave t h e o r i e s o f a r t c l o s e r t o our f a n c y . I n t h e Timaeus, f o r example, t h e i d e a i s de-v e l o p e d t o some e x t e n t t h a t t h e b e a u t y o f s i g h t s and sounds i s e x p r e s s i v e o f s p i r i t u a l s t a t e s : " ( 4 7 B.) God d e v i s e d t h e g i f t o f s i g h t f o r us so t h a t we m i g h t o b s e r v e t h e movements w h i c h have been d e s c r i b e d b y r e a s o n i n t h e h e a v e n s , and a p p l y them t o t h e m o t i o n s o f o u r own minds, w h i c h a r e a k i n t o them, 0 so f a r as what i s t r o u b l e d can c l a i m k i n s h i p w i t h fthat i s s e r e n e . F o r so we migh t l e a r n a l e s s o n , and. by e n t e r i n g i n t o the i d e a l n a t u r e o f t h a t d e s i g n and i m i t a t i n g the p e r f e c t p a t -t e r n se t ~bj God migh t a d j u s t t h e r e t o our own random m o t i o n s . . . And rhy thm a g a i n was g i v e n as f rom the same sou rce and f o r the same pu rnose , to h e l p us i n d e a l i n g w i t h what i s unmeasured 5 and c h a o t i c i n the minds o f most o f u s . " A g a i n , i n the P h i l e b u s we f i n d the germ o f the c o n -t empora ry f a s h i o n a b l e d o c t r i n e o f S i g n i f i c a n t Form; " (51 33. S o c r a t e s ) ; I do not now i n t e n d by b e a u t y o f shapes what most p e o p l e w o u l d e x p e c t , such asN t h a t o f l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s o r p i c -t u r e s , b u t , f o r the purpose o f my argument , I mean s t r a i g h t l i n e s and c u r v e s and the s u r f a c e s or s o l i d forms p roduced out ^ o f t hese by l a t h e s and r u l e r s and s q u a r e s , i f you u n d e r s t a n d me. F o r I mean t h a t t h e s e a re not b e a u t i f u l r e l a t i v e l y , l i k e o t h e r t h i n g s , bu t a lways and n a t u r a l l y and a b s o l u t e l y ; and t h e y have t h e i r p r o p e r p l e a s u r e s , no way depend ing on the i t c h o f d e s i r e . And I mean c o l o u r s o f the same k i n d , w i t h the same 6 k i n d o f b e a u t y and p l e a s u r e s . " 2 . The emphasis on A r t as I m i t a t i o n . Many of P l a t o ' s most s u g g e s t i v e i d e a s , i n p a r t i c u l a r the l a s t one q u o t e d , h e l d no a t t r a c t i o n f o r h i s s u c c e s s o r s . The a e s t h e t i c t r i n i t y : the Good, the True and the B e a u t i f u l ; and the concep t o f A r t as I m i t a t i o n w e r e , however , g i v e n an added a u t h o r i t y by P l a t o ' s younger con tempora ry , A r j t i s t o t l e , and f o r s e v e r a l hundred y e a r s t h e y w e r E r e g a r d e d as s a c r o s a n c t . A r t i s t o t l e , s p i r i t u a l f a t h e r o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , and ^He p a t r o n s a i n t o f the Age o f C l a s s i c i s m , - 6 -t a u g h t t h a t as a r t d e a l s n o t w i t h p a r t i c u l a r s b u t w i t h U n i v e r -s a l e , t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e a r t i s t was t o d e s c r i b e o r i m i t a t e n o t what has been, b u t what m i g h t be, o r ought t o be; f o r h i m A r t was t h e i d e a l i z i n g i m i t a t i o n o f a g i v e n r e a l i t y . " S i n c e T r a g e d y i s an i m i t a t i o n o f p e r s o n s who a r e above t h e common l e v e l , t h e example o f good p r o t r a i t - p a i n t e r s s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d , They, w h i l e p r o d u c i n g t h e d i s t i n c t i v e f o r m o f t h e o r i g i n a l , make a l i k e n e s s w h i c h i s t r u e t o l i f e and y e t more b e a u t i f u l . So t o o t h e p o e t , i n r e p r e s e n t i n g men who a r e i r a s c i b l e o r i n ~ d o l e n t , o r h a v e o t h e r d e f e c t s o f c h a r a c t e r , s h o u l d p r e s e r v e t h e t y p e and ennoble i t . . . . These- then, a r e r u l e s t h e p o e t s h o u l d o b s e r v e . M'or s h o u l d he n e g l e c t a p p e a l s t o t h e s e n s e , # w h i c h t h o u g h not among t h e e s s e n t i a l s , axe t h e c o n c o m i t a n t s o f p o e t r y . " >& T r u e , t h e r e a r e "modern" n o t i o n s about a r t to f o u n d A. i n A r i s t o t l e ; t a k e , f o r example, "not t o know t h a t a h i n d has no h o r n s i s a l e s s s e r i o u s m a t t e r t h a n t o p a i n t i t i n a r t i s t i -7 c a l l y . " N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e e f f e c t o f s u c h s u g g e s t i o n s as t h e s e p r o v e d t o have been n e g a t e d b y t h e p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e upon h i s s u c c e s s o r s o f h i s c o n c e p t o f " i m i t a t i o n " and t h e " p r i n c i p l e s " o f a r t . 3• B e a u t y as a p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e ^ s o u l ; a f o r e s h a d o w i n g o f sub,j e c t i y e i d e a l i s i n . An i m p o r t a n t t r i b u t a r y w h i c h j o i n e d w i t h t h e m i g h t i e r c u r r e n t o f " A r i s t o t l e 1 s a e s t h e t i c t o f e e d t h e main s t r e a m o f p h i l o s o p h i c t h o u g h t i n trie M i d d l e Ages and t h e Re-n a i s s a n c e was t h a t o f L o n g i n u s , a w r i t e r o f t h e F i r s t c e n t u r y A.D. ' I n h i s Der S u b l i m i t a t e , p o p u l a r i z e d by B o i l e a u , he o u t l i n e d # i t a l i c s mine. t h e t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e may he two t y p e s o f b e a u t y i n b o t h a r t and n a t u r e , one u s u r p i n g t h e g e n e r i c name, and t h e o t h e r c a l l e d l o f t y , e l e v a t e d and g r e a t . The l a t t e r , a c c o r d i n g t o E . P . C a r r i t t . , u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f L o n g i n u s , a p p e a l s t o a c o r r e s p o n d i n g c h a r a c t e r o f c a p a c i t y o f o u r own, w h i c h we r e c o g n i z e as embodied i n i t , w h i l e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f b e a u t y i n t h e narrow s e n s e i s mere i n -o f f e n s i v e n e s s . "The h i s t o r i c a l i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n h a s b e e n v e r y g r e a t , " C a r r i t t s a y s ; " i t shows i t s e l f whenever, owing t o new f a s h i o n s i n a r t , o r new d i s c o v e r i e s i n a r c h a e o l o g y , men become a c u t e l y v c o n s c i o u s o f d i s c r e p a n c y among t h e i r own 9 t a s t e s o r between the t a s t e s s o f t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r f a t h e r s . " " S u b l i m i t y , " s a i d L o n g i n u s , " i s t h e echo o f a g r e a t s o u l . . . T h e s o u l seems to be n a t u r a l l y u p l i f t e d , by t r u e s u b l i m -i t y and, r i s i n g on l o f t i e r p i n i o n s , to be f i l l e d w i t h j o y and 10 p r i d e , as h a v i n g i t s e l f b r o u g h t f o r t h what i t has h e a r d . " A s e n t i m e n t w h i c h we s h a l l d i s c o v e r echoed i n G r o c e . 4. P l o t i n u s i t h e d i c h o t o m y resolved... P l o t i n u s h o l d s an e s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t f o r t h e s t u d e n t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y a e s t h e t i c s , f o r i n t h e Enneads he w i l l be a b l e t o t r a c e t h e same t e n d e n c y t o " i r r a t i o n a l m y s t i c i s m " o f w h i c h t h o s e t o d a y l e n d i n g s u p p o r t t o t h e I d e a l i s t i c and s p i r i t u a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n a r e a c c u s e d . G r o c e , one o f i t s l e a d i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , s e l e c t s as P l o t i n u s ' t i t l e to fame t h a t i t was he "who f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e u n i t e d t h e p r e v i o u s l y d i s c o n n e c t e d c o n c e p t s o f ' a r t ' and 'the beautiful'.» P l o t i n u s r e g a r d e d a l l b e a u t y as a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e d i v i n e e s s e n s e , God; p h y s i c a l b e a u t y as the u n i f i c a t i o n o f o f t h e f o r m l e s s m u l t i p l i c i t y o f m a t t e r by t h e u n i t y o f some e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r , - - - i n n a t u r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e w o E l d - s o u l , and i n a r t by t h e w o r l d - s o u l as m a n i f e s t e d i n a human s o u l . . . "Our b e l i e f i s t h a t t h e (human.) s o u l , b e i n g what i t i s , and be- • l o n g i n g t o t h e w o r l d o f t r u e r e a l i t y , when i t s e e s what i s a k i n to i t or a t r a c e o f k i n s h i p , acknowledge i t w i t h t r a n s p o r t and 10 i s r e m i n d e d o f I t s e l f and o f i t s own t h i n g s . " " N a t u r e , w h i c h has created... . b e a u t i f u l t h i n g s , i s b e a u t i f u l i n a p r i o r s e n s e j y e t we, who a r e wont t o have no s e n s e o f knowledge o f s p i r i t u a l t h i n g s , f o l l o w a f t e r m a t e r i a l t h i n g s , not r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t i s i s t h e s p i r i t u a l w h i c h m o v e s y u s . As i f one s e e i n g h i s own r e - . 11 f l e c t i o n , and knowing n o t whence i t came, s h o u l d p u r s u e t h a t . " The l e n g t h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n on the n a t u r e and o r i g i n o f a r t i s t i c b e a u t y e x c u s e s i t s e l f b y t h e l i g h t i t w i l l c a s t upon t h e a e s t h e t i c t h e o r i e s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s . " ( V . i i i . ) l . Suppose two t h i n g s , two s t o n e s f o r i n s t a n c e , l y -i n g s i d e by s i d e i n s p a c e , one s h a p e l e s s and u n t o u c h e d by a r t , t h e o t h e r subdued a l r e a d y b y a r t i n t o t h e image o f god or man, some G r a c e o r Muse, p e r h a p s , i f i t be d i v i n e , o r , i f human, not any i n d i v i d u a l , b u t composed, o f a l l b e a u t i e s . That s t o n e w h i c h t h e a r t h a s f o r m e d to t h e b e a u t y o f an e s s e n t i a l c h a r -a c t e r I s n o t b e a u t i f u l i n v i r t u e o f b e i n g a s t o n e , f o r t h a n the o t h e r w o u l d have b e e n so e q u a l l y , b u t i n v i r t u e o f t h e c h a r -which- t h e a r t has g i v e n i t . Now t h i s e s s e n c e or c h a r a c t e r was not i n t h e m a t e r i a l , b u t was i n t h e c o n c e i v i n g mind, even b e -f o r e - i t e n t e r e d i n t o t h e s t o n e . But i t was i n t h e a r t i s t n o t b y v i r t u e o f h i s h a v i n g eyes and, hands, b u t b y v i r t u e o f h i s i m a g i n a t i o n . And t h i s b e a u t y , a l r e a d y comprehended i n h i s I m a g i n a t i o n , was f a r g r e a t e r . F o r t h i s went n o t out o f h i m i n t o t h e s t o n e , h u t abode w i t h h i m .and gave b i r t h t o a l e s s e r b e a u t y . And even s o , t h i s l e s s e r b e a u t y c o u l d not t h e r e p r e -s e r v e t h e p u r i t y o f t h e d e s i g n , b u t o n l y so f a r as t h e s t o n e was subdued to t h e a r t . But i f t h e e x t e r n a l p r o d u c t o f t h e a r t i s a f t e r a r t ' s own n a t u r e and image, and i f what a r t p r o -duces i s ' b e a u t i f u l so f a r as t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o d u c t a l l a y s , t h e n t h e s h a p i n g s p i r i t must be more h i g h l y and t r u ^ l y b e a u t i -f u l , , s i n c e i t has t h e t r u l y a r t i s t i c b e a u t y , which--.is g r e a t e r and more b e a u t i f u l &han e x i s t s i n a n y t h i n g e x t e r n a l . . . "But i f a n y one c e n s u r e t h e a r t s on t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e i r p r o d u c t s o n l y copy t h e o r i g i n a l s o f nature,, we may r e -p l y t h a t n a t u r a l o b j e c t s , t o o , a r e c o p i e s o f an O r i g i n a l . A n d f u r t h e r we must r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e arts." do not m e r e l y copy t h e v i s i b l e world, b u t a s c e n d t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f w h i c h n a t u r e i s 13#~ b u i l t up." And what f a c u l t y e n a b l e s one t o "ascend t o t h e p r i n -c i p l e s on w h i c h n a t u r e i s b u i l t up"? I m a g i n a t i o n , i s what P l o t i n u s c a l l e d , it,*. "LV. i i i . 18.) D e l i b e r a t e r e a s o n i n g o c c u r s i n our m o r t a l l i f e when t h e s o u l - i s u n c e r t a i n and t r o u b l e d and n o t a t I t s b e s t . F o r t h e need of. r e a s o n i n g i s a d e f e c t o r i n a d e q u a c y o f ^ sppr.ehension ' p hSb i-hethe^ar.tsip.when a r t i s t s f a l t e r , r e a s o n i n g t a k e s t h e r e i n s ; b u t when t h e r e i s n o ' h i t c h 14# " t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n g o v e r n s them and a c h i e v e s t h e work. "j^T) We s h a l l have c a u s e t o remember the d i s t i n c t i o n P l o t i n u s has h e r e drawn when we come to d i c u s s t h e I n t u i t i o n o f G r o c e and o f B e r g s o n . // i t a l i c s mine . -10- . .. -5. The C l a s s i c Age r a t i f i e s t h e "Rules" o f A r t . The t r u t h c o n -t a i n e d i n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f P l o t i n u 3 above r e f e r r e d t o r e -mained v i r t u a l l y h i d d e n f o r t h e span o f f i f t e e n h u n d r e d y e a r s c o m p r i s i n g t h e M i d d l e Ages, t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , and t h e . C l a s s i c a l R e v i v a l . A r t i n t h e M i d d l e Ages was s u b o r d i n a t e d t o m o r a l and r e l i g i o u s a l l e g o r y . The R e n a i s s a n c e , f o r a l l t h e f i n e f l o w e r -i n g of ir,s a r t i s t i c a c t i v i t y , was c o n t e n t f o r t h e most p a r t t o l e a n upon t h e a p r i o r i canons o f t h e A n c i e n t s i t had newly 15 d i s c o v e r e d . I n t h e words o f C r o c e , "Hp t h i n k e r a r o s e c a p a b l e o f d o i n g f o r t h e R e n a i s s a n c e t r e a t i s e s on p o e t r y and a r t what M a c h i a v e l l i d i d f o r p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , a s s e r t i n g w i t h emphasis, not m e r e l y b y t h e way and as an a d m i s s i o n , i t s o r i g i n a l and 16 autonomous c h a r a c t e r . " And t h e Academy o f P r a n c e , t h a t a r b i t e r o f ta,ste i n t h e C l a s s i c Age o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h and. e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , had as i t s r a i s o n d ' e t r e " p r e ' c i s e r l e s p a s s i o n s " and t h e l e g i s l a t i n g o f t h e i n f l e x i b l e r u l e s o f a r t . " I t i s an i n s u f f e r a b l e abuse," w r o t e F r e a r t de Chaiabray, a l e a d i n g A c a d e m i c i a n , " t o c o n f o u n d p a i n t i n g w i t h t h e m e c h a n i c a l a r t s , s i n c e she i s f o u n d e d upon a d e m o n s t r a b l e s c i e n c e , c l e a r e r and more r e a s o n a b l e t h a n t h a t p e d a n t i c p h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h p r o d u c e s f o r us n o t h i n g b u t Q u e s t i o n s and Doubts...whereas o u r P a i n t i n g , e s t a b l i s h e d upon t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f Geometry, makes a t t h e same time a d o u b l e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f what she r e p r e s e n t s . B u t i t i s n e c e s s a r y to have two o t h e r eyes t o e n j o y h e r b e a u t y t r u l y ; f o r t h e eyes o f U n d e r s t a n d i n g i s t h e f i r s t and p r i n c i p a l j u d g e 17 of. her-Works." I n F r a n c e a t t h a t t i m e an academic c o n t r o v e r s y was w a g i n g c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f c o l o u r and d e s i g n i n - i l -i a a p a i n t i n g . Those who u p h e l d T i t i a n and Kubens a g a i n s t R a p h a e l and P o u s s i n were t h o u g h t t o be r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s . De P i l e s , one o f t h e most d a r i n g p r o t a g o n i s t s o f c o l o u r , d e c l a r e d t h a t T i t i a n m i g h t h ave s u r p a s s e d even R a p h a e l had he s t u d i e d , t h e a n t i q u e . " G ' e s t l e d e s s i n q u i f a i t l e m e r i t e ' de l a p e i n t u r e e t non pas l e c o l o u r " e x p r e s s e d t h e c o n s e n s u s o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e o p i n i o n . As one may g a t h e r f r o m s e e i n g t h e p a i n t i n g s o f P o u s s i n , t h e a n t i q u e p r o v i d e d t h e e m o t i o n a l k e y f o r t h e works o f a r t a t t h a t t i m e . The a r t i s t s o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e had a h h e r e d t o a t y p e - f o r m o f b e a u t y ; - " l a b e l i e n a t u r e " i t came to be c a l l e d i n P r a n c e . I n a t r e a t i s e w i t h t h e s i g n i f i c a n t t i t l e , L e s beaux A r t s r e d u i t s a un raeme i g r i n c i p e , t h e Abbe' B a t t e u x made i t . t h e c e n t r a l p r i n c i p l e o f M s a e s t h e t i c , "La b e l l e n a t u r e , s u c h as she ought t o be r e p r e s e n t e d b y a r t , i n c l u d e s a l l t h e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e b e a u t i f u l and t h e good. She i s t o e n t e r t a i n t h e mind by t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o b j e c t s , w h i c h , p e r f e c t i n t h e m s e l v e s , a r e c a p a b l e o f r e n d e r i n g our i d e a s l i k e w i s e more e x t e n s i v e and p e r f e c t . T h i s i s t h e b e a u t i f u l . She i s l i k e w i s e to i n d u l g e t h e h e a r t b y p o i n t i n g out i n t h o s e o b j e c t s s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s as a r e more p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g to i t , i n t e n d i n g e i t h e r to p r e s e r v e or improve our b e i n g . T h i s i s t h e good; w h i c h j o i n e d to t h e b e a u t i f u l , i n one and t h e -same o b j e c t , g i v e s to i t a l l t h e q u a l i t i e s - n e c e s s a r y , as much f o r t h e e n t e r t a i n i n g 19 as f o r t h e p e r f e c t i n g o f h e a r t and mind." I n E n g l a n d t h e C l a s s i c a l R e v i v a l f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e creed, o f S i r J o s h u a R e y n o l d s and S i r C h r i s t o p h e r ¥ r e n . The former, i n h i s famous and s t i l l i n f l u e n t i a l D i s c o u r s e s , r e s t a t e d t h e d o c t r i n e e n u n c i a t e d b y A r i s t o t l e t w e n t y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e . " A l l t h e o b j e c t s w h i c h a r e e x h i b i t e d to our v i e w by N a t u r e , upon c l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n w i l l be f o u n d t o have t h e i r b l e m i s h e s and d e f e c t s . The most b e a u t i f u l .forms have s o m e t h i n g about them l i k e weakness, m i n u t e n e s s , o r i m p e r f e c t i o n . . . T h e P a i n t e r who aims a t t h e g r e a t e s t s t y l e . . . c o r e c t s N a t u r e b y h e r s e l f , h e r i m p e r f e c t s t a t e by h e r more p e r f e c t . H i s eye b e i n g e n a b l e d to d i s t i n g u i s h t h e a c c i d e n t a l d e f i c i e n c i e s , e x c r e s c e n c e s , and ^ d e f o r m i t i e s o f t h i n g s , f o r t h e i r g e n e r a l f i g u r e s , he makes out an a b s t r a c t i d e a o f t h e i r forms more p e r f e c t t h a n any one o r i g i n a l . . . . T h i s i d e a o f the\ p e r f e c t s t a t e o f N a t u r e , w h i c h t h e a r t i s t c a l l s t h e I d e a l b e a u t y , i s t h e g r e a t l e a d i n g p r i n c i p l e 20 by w h i c h works o f g e n i u s a r e c o n d u c t e d . " 6* Summary. I f o u r c o n c e r n h e r e were w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f s t y l e i n p a i n t i n g we might commence t o d i s c u s s ; now t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n f l u e n c e s o f Rousseau, C o n s t a b l e and D e l a c r o i x , and t h e c o n -f l i c t o f t h e l a s t named w i t h t h e d i s c i p l e o f t h e C l a s s i c i s t , P o u s s i n D a v i d . I n s t e a d , our p u r p o s e i s t o t r a c e t h e main d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c u r r e n t o f a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y as r e v e a l e d , i n t h e work o f B e r g s o n and C r o c e . S u f f i c i e n t f o r our p u r p o s e a t " t h i s s t a g e i s " t o - e m p h a s i z e ' t h a t the C l a s s i c i d e a l was a. s t a t i c i d e a l ; t h e a r t i s t ' s f u n c t i o n was t o embody an a b s t r a c t i d e a o f p e r f e c t i o n w h i c h c o u l d be a p p r e c i a t e d b y t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e . The u l t i m a t e a u t h o r i t i e s were P l a t o and A r i s t o t l e , o f t e n a r b i t r a r i l y i n t e r p r e t e d . O r d e r and " t h e g o l d e n mean" were t h e watchwords, w h i c h we have seen, came to be a t r o p h i e d i n t o t h e dogmas o f t h e P r e n c h Academy. I I . THE EMERGENCE OE A NEW IDEAL 1;. The monadology o f L e i b n i t z . ; C o n c u r r e n t w i t h t h e growth o f A c a d e m i c i s m t h e r e were a t work f o r c e s a t f i r s t l i t t l e h e e d e d w h i c h r e s u l t e d u l t i m a t e l y i n t h e breakdown o f t h e C l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n . P r i o r even t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e F r e n c h Academy, . 21 L e i b n i t z (1646-1716) h a d e v o l v e d a dynamic u n i v e r s e w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e of" c o n t i n u i t y o p e r a t i n g Int.hothgo.rganic development and m e n t a l l i f e . H i s d i s c o v e r y o f t h e p r i n c i p l e . o f change t h r o u g h i n s e n s i b l e d e g r e e s , w i t h emphasis on m i n u t e p r o c e s s e s , i n f i n i t e s i m a l s , p e t i t e s p e r c e p t i o n s ( s u b c o n s c i o u s ) w h i c h h e r -a l d e d t h e c u r r e n t e v o l u t i o n i s t d o c t r i n e marks a d e c i d e d r e a c t i a g a i n s t , o r , more p r o p e r l y , a d i v e r g e n c e f r o m , t h e s h a r p d i v -i s i o n s o f f o r m a l c a t e g o r i e s o f c l a s s i c i s m . H i s U n i v e r s e ^ w a s c o m p r i s e d o f a h i e r a r c h i c s y s t e m o f monads, e a c h monad b e i n g u n i q u e , e x i s t i n g i n i t s own r i g h t , e a c h , w h a t e v e r i t s d e g r e e 22 of c o m p l e x i t y , r e f l e c t i n g t h e s o u l - l i f e . The s t o r y i s t o l d t h a t a t o n e ; o f h i s l e c t u r e s , h a v i n g e x p l a i n e d t h a t no o b j e c t (monad) was l i k e any o t h e r o b j e c t , he : s e n t h i s i n c r e d u l o u s a u d i e n c e out i n t o t h e g a r d e n to' see, f o r t h e m s e l v e s t h a t no s i n g l e b l a d e of-.grass was e x a c t l y l i k e any o t h e r b l a d e o f g r a s s I n 1684, he w r o t e i n h i s M e d i t a t i o n s on Knowledge, T r u t h , and I d e a s ; "An o b s c u r e o r v a g u e i d e a i s one t h a t does not s u f f i c e f o r t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f i t s o b j e c t . . . I f I can r e - , c o g n i z e t h e t h i n g I h a v e c l e a r o r v i v i d knowledge o f i t , b u t t h i s a g a i n may be e i t h e r c o n f u s e d ( s e n s u o u s ) o r d i s t i n c t ( i n t e l l e c t u a l ) . I t i s c o n f u s e d i f I c a n n o t enumerate one b y one t h e marks whieh. s u f f i c e f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e t h i n g f r o m o t h e r s . . . -14-Thus we see p a i n t e r s and o t h e r a r t i s t s w e l l enough aware what i s r i g h t and what i s f a u l t y , h u t o f t e n u n a b l e t o g i v e a ny; r e a s o n f o r t h e i r t a s t e : i f a s k e d , t h e y r e p l y t h a t t h e work 24 t h e y d i s l i k e l a c k s a j e ne s a i s q u o i . " 2. Vague s t i r r i n g s o f a e s t h e t i c t h e o r y i n t h e S e i c e n t o , I n I t a l y o f t h e H i g h R e n a i s s a n c e t h e r e were p r e m o n i t i o n s o f i d e a s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e what were l a t e r to be i n t e g r a t e d , i n t h e h i g h l y s y s t e m a t i z e d t h o u g h t o f L e i b n i t z . C r o c e has u n e a r t h e d a c c o u n t s by w r i t e r s o f t h a t p e r i o d ^ w h i c h r e v e a l them t o be n o t i n s e n s i -t i v e t o t h e a e s t h e t i c v a l u e o f " i m a g i n a t i o n " , t h e " s e n s i b l e " o r " s e n s u o u s " element i n p o e t i c i m a g e r y , and o f t h e m i r a c l e s o f " c o l o u r " i n p a i n t i n g , as opposed, t o " d r a w i n g " . The q u a l i t y o f " w i t " o r " g e n i u s " as opposed t o " i n t e l l e c t " -was r e g a r d e d b y some w r i t e r s of t h e p e r i o d as b e i n g e s p e c i a l l y i n v e n t i v e o f a r t ; and t h e p h r a s e non so che (,je ne s a i s quoit) was a common. t a g . A v e r b a t i m r e p o r t o f C r o c e ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e w r i t e r s w i l l be germane t o g e n e r a l t h e s i s , as w i l l be c l e a r when we come to deal, w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c s o u r c e s o f "Croce's own a e s t h e t i c . He r e f e r s t o " Z u c c o l o ( 1 6 2 3 ) , who c r i t i c i z e d ' m e t r i c a r t ' and r e p l a c e d i t s c r i t e r i a by " t h e judgment o f s e n s e ' which-meant t o h i m n o t t h e eye o r e a r b u t a h i g h e r pow-er u n i t e d to t h e s e n s e s . M a s c a r d i , (1636), who r e j e c t e d t h e o b j e c t i v e and r h e t o r i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e s t y l e s , and r e d u c e d s t y l e to t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l manner a r i s i n g out o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r ' w i t ' o f each w r i t e r , t h u s a s s e r t i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f as many s t y l e s as t h e r e a r e w r i t e r s . P a l l a v i c i n o (1644), who ' c r i t i c i z e d ' v e r i s i m i l i t u d e ' and a s s i g n e d t o p o e t r y as i t s p r o p e r domain t h a t o f ' f i r s t a p p r e h e n s i o n s ' o r i m a g i n a t i o n , ' n e i t h e r t r u e o r f a l s e 1 ; and'-'Tesauro (1650), who t r i e d t o work ou t o f l o g i c o f r h e t o r i c as opposed, t o t h e l o g i c o f d i a l e c t i c , and e x t e n d e d t h e r h e t o r i c a l forms' h e y o n d m e r e l y v e r b a l form, 26 • to p i c t o r i a l and p l a s t i c f o r m . " 3 * The p l a c e o f I m a g i n a t i o n i n a r t i s t i c a c t i v i t y . The a d m i s s i o n o f t h e vague p h r a s e " j e ne s a i s q u o i " t o t h e j a r g o n o f a r t i s h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t ; a r t becomes t h e n n o t s o l e l y an a f f a i r o f t h e r a t i o c i n a t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e . And i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o o t o n o t e t h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n i s u s e d b y t h e o r i z e r s about a r t , not j u s t b y t h e a r t i s t s , who, i t i s h a r d f o r us not t o b e l i e v e , even p r i o r to t h a t f l o r i d p e r i o d w i t h t h e r o m a n t i c a c c e n t on . " g e n i u s " w h i c h we c a l l t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , must -always h a v e f e l t , i n t u i t i v e l y , t h a t t h e charm t h e i r works had. was dependent upon some q u a l i t y i n e f f a b l e even t o t h e m s e l v e s . S t i l l , t h e p h r a s e s u g g e s t s q u a l i t y , not s i n e qua non; we haven-'t •'•'yet r e a c h e d V i c o . I n 1706, M u r a t o r i , t h e s u c c e s s o r t o t h o s e w r i t e r s o f t h e S e i c e n t o m e n t i o n e d above, w r o t e : " ( x i v . ) The power o r f a c u l t y o f t h e mind w h i c h a p p r e h e n d s and. r e c o g n i z e s s e n s i b l e -o b j e c t s o r , to speak more a c c u r a t e l y , t h e i r i m a g e s , i s t h e i m a g i n a t i o n or f a n c y ; w h i c h , b e i n g p l a c e d , as we h o l d ; i n t h e i n f e r i o r - p a r t o f t h e s o u l we may c o n v e n i e n t l y c a l l - I n f e r i o r A p p r e h e n s i o n . Our s o u l has a n o t h e r a p p r e h e n s i o n o f t h i n g s , w h i c h we c a l l S u p e r i o r , b e c a u s e i t i s p l a c e d i n t h e s u p e r i o r , r e a s o n a b l e , : a n d : d i v i n e p a r t , and w h i c h i s commonly named U n d e r s t a n d i n g . The o f f i c e o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i s not to i n q u i r e or .know i f t h i n g s a r e t r u e o r f a l s e b u t m e r e l y to -apprehend t h i t i s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o know and t o i n q u i r e w h e t h e r t h e s e a r e true, o r f a l s e , , , .How, images a r e formed i n t h r e e way. E i t h e r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g f o r m s them i t s e l f w i t h i t d i v i n e and p e n e t r a t i n g power, t h e i m a g i n a t i o n s u p p l y i n g nothing b u t t h e s e e d . Or t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g and i m a g i n a t i o n u n i t e t o f o r m them t o g e t h e r . Or e l s e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n c o n c e i v e s them a l t a k i n g . n o c o u n s e l w i t h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g . . . " E o r example ( o f t h e f i r s t a c t i v i t y ) , o ur u n d e r s t a n d i n g s e e s many images o f men a p p r e h e n d e d b y t h e i m a g i n a t i o n and i m p r e s s e d on. i t . I t u n i t e s them, and, f r o m so many p a r t i c u l a r images w h i c h t h e i n f e r i o r a p p r e h e n s i o n h a d c o l l e c t e d , i t ex-t r a c t s and fo r m s an image, w h i c h was n o t y e t p r e s e n t , c o n -c e i v i n g , e.g., ' E v e r y man h a s t h e power o f l a u g h t e r 1 . . . "The t h i r d a c t i v i t y o c c u r s when i m a g i n a t i o n h o l d s a b s o l u t e sway i n t h e s o u l and g i v e s l i t t l e o r no h e e d t o t h e c o u n s e l s o f t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h i s i s e x p e r i e n c e d b y us i n dreams, i n v i o l e n t e x c i t e m e n t s o f pa,ssion, i n d e l i r i u m . Our c o n c e r n i s c o n f i n e d t o t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h o s e images w h i c h a r e c o n c e i v e d i n t h e s e c o n d way, t h a t i s , when t h e u n d e r s t a n d -i n g and t h e i m a g i n a t i o n u n i t e h a r m o n i o u s l y to eomseive t h i n g s 27 and to s e t them f o r t h . " , " I m a g i n a t i o n " , we f i n d , i s s t i l l l e f t i n t h e " i n f e r -i o r p a r t o f t h e s o u l . " And t h e p o e t i c imafee i s b o r n of. t h e m a r r i a g e o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n and t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , - - - a c o n -c l u s i o n t o b e a r r i v e d , a t b y K a n t e i g h t y - f o u r y e a r s l a t e r . i n h i s C r i t i q u e o f Judgement. . -17-4. V i c o and t h e g e n e t i c c o n c e p t o f a r t . H e r b e r t Read, speak-i n g o f t h e emergence o f t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f a r t t h a t was t o r e v o l u t i o n i z e t h e c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n , says,. " I f I were t o s e l e c t a s i n g l e word t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e o p p o s i n g i d e a l w h i c h a l r e a d y i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h ; ; c e n t u r y h a d made i t s o b s c u r e a/ppear-•anc'e, t h a t word would, be g e n e t i c . And i f I were t o s e l e c t a s i n g l e name as t h e o r i g i n a t o r o f t h i s i d e a l , " "that name w o u l d 28 be V'ico •" G i a m b a t t i s t a V i c o , t h r o u g h a s t u d y o f m y t h o l o g y ( i n p a r t i c u l a r , Homer's) a t t e m p t e d t o i s o l a t e t h e d i f f e r e n t i a o f t h e p o e t i c a c t i v i t y . T h i s he^was l e d t o c o n c l u d e was a spon-t a n e o u s , u n r e f l e c t i n g r e a c t i o n t o n a t u r e , a p r i m i t i v e i n t e r -a c t i o n o f man ( t h e p o e t ) w i t h h i s e n v i r o n m e n t . The s i n e qua non, now, o f p o e t r y i s i m a g i n a t i o n ; and, i n c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t i e s o n l y t h o s e who c a n a t t a i n - - - o r r e g a i n - - - t h e p r i m i t i v e f r e s h n e s s o f o u t l o o k w i l l be p o e t s . These w i l l s u c c e e d t o t h e d e g r e e t h a t t h e i r v i s i o n r e m a i n s f r e e f r o m t h e r a t i o c i n a t i v e e l e m e n t . P o e t s a r e a t t h e opposite*:- end o f t h e s c a l e f r o m t h e p h i l o s o -p h e r s , who a r e d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h d i s c o v e r i n g a b s t r a c t u n i v e r s a l s . In. h i s S c i e n z a Huova (1725-1730), V i c o s e t i n oppos-i t i o n " p o e t i c l o g i c " and. " i n t e l l e c t u a l l o g i c " and a t t h e same t i m e a s s e r t e d , t h e p r i m a c y o f t h e f o r m e r s "The E l e m e n t s , ( 3 6 ) . S t r e n g t h o f i m a g i n a t i o n i s i n p r o p o r t i o n t o weakness o f r e a s o n -i n g . "The E l e m e n t s , (53)," Men a t f i r s t f e e l w i t h o u t p e r c e p t i o n , t h e n t h e y p e r c e i v e w i t h a c o n f u s e d and d i s t u r b e d mind, f i n a l l y t h e y r e f l e c t w i t h t h e p u r e i n t e l l e c t . " T h i s a x i o m i s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f p o e t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s , w h i c h a r e f o r m e d w i t h f e e l i n g s o f p a s s i o n and e m o t i o n , whereas p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t a t e m e n t s a r e formed hy r e f l e c t i o n w i t h r e a s o n -i n g . Hence t h e l a t t e r a p p r o a c h t r u t h as t h e y r i s e t o t h e U n i v e r s a l s , t h e f o r m e r a r e more c e r t a i n t h e n e a r e r t h e y a p p r o a c h t h e p a r t i c u l a r s . t i - i . . I n t r o d u c t i o n . As much as h a d b e e n f i r s t f e l t b y p o e t s i n t h e way o f c r u d e knowledge was l a t e r u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e way o f a b s t r a c t knowledge by t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s , so t h a t we m i g h t c a l l t h e f o r m e r :the s e n s e s and t h e l a t t e r t h e mind o f t h e human r a c e . Of w h i c h i n g e n e r a l m i g h t b e > s a i d wh.at A r i s t o t l e s a i d o f each man i n p a r t i c u l a r ; 'There i s n o t h i n g i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u n l e s s : 29 i t h as f i r s t b e e n i n t h e s e n s e s . ' " I l l ^ THE INTELLECTUALIST TRADITION R1HAI3JS ACTIVE 1. Baumgarten; c o n t i n u i n g t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t t r a d i t i o n . The I t a l i a n a e s t h e t i c . a c t i v i t y .came t e m p o r a r i l y t o an end w i t h t h e d e a t h o f V i c o i n 1744. But i t s i n f l u e n c e f o u n d i t s way t h r o u g h t h e ''Swiss" c r i t i c s and p o e t s , Bodmer and B r e i t i n g e r t o Germany where i t became l i n k e d up w i t h t h e L e i b n i t z i a n l i n e o f d e s c e n t . T h i s l i n e a g e , w h i c h d e r i v e d o r i g i n a l l y f r o m D e s c a r t e s , worked downward to a e s t h e t i c i d e a s b y u l t i m a t e l y a t t e m p t i n g to e x t e n d i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t t h e o r y , w h i c h d e a l t p r i m a r i l y w i t h knowl-50 'edge, t o . t h e phJanomenon o f f e l l i n g and p e r c e p t i o n . Baumgarten was t h e f i r s t t o d e v o t e a s p e c i a l t e r m t o t h e " s c i e n c e of. s e n -suous knowledge", vriaich he c a l l e d " A e s t h e t i c s " . B u t , c o n s i s t -ent w i t h h i s m e t a p h y s i c , " A e s t h e t i c s " a p p l i e d s t i l l t o a p r i o r s c i e n c e o f t h e " l o w e r k i n d o f knowledge", a v i e w r e m i n i s c e n t o f o & h e b e a r l i e r M u r a t o r i , "An i n d i s t i n c t i d e a i s c a l l e d a s e n s u o u s i d e a . My v i t a l powers, t h e n , g i v e me sensuous p e r -31 c e p t i o n "by means o f an i n f e r i o r f a c u l t y " , he w r o t e i n h i s M e t a p h y s i c . (17 59 ). A c c o r d i n g to B o s a n q u e t , " I n many r e s p e c t s t h e a t t i t u d e o f l a t e r German p h i l o s o p h y towards a e s t h e t i c was a n t i c i p a t e d , p e r h a p s i n f l u e n c e d , b y Baumgarten. The f e e l i n g t h a t a r t was a s o r t o f p r e p a r a t o r y d i s c i p l i n e t o s p e c u l a t i v e ^ k n o w l e d g e and t h e doubt w h e t h e r t h e two c o u l d t h o r o u g h l y c o - e x i s t , seems t o r e p r o d u c e i t s e l f i n S c h i l l e r \ a n d i n H e g e l , a l t h o u g h t h e y r e -j e c t e d t h e s t i l l more d e c i d e d i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t p r e j u d i c e w h i c h makes Baumgarten a p o l o g i s e f o r h i s s u b j e c t as s o m e t h i n g b e l o w the- d i g n i t y o f p h i l o s o p h y , b u t a f t e r a l l i n t e r e s t i n g t o t h e / " ' 32 . p h i l o s o p h e r as a man among men." 2« The f o r m a l i s m o f K a n t . S e v e r a l c u r r e n t s o f t h o u g h t "converged, i n t e r m i n g l e d , and c r y s t a l l i z e d t o f o r m t h e a e s t h e t i c o f K a n t , and i f t h e p a t t e r n i s i n many p l a c e s c o n f u s e d , i t has p r o -v i d e d a t l e a s t a l o c u s o f i d e a s w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t t h i n k e r s h a v e b e e n a b l e to use as a b a s i s , f o r o t h e r w i s e i n d e p e n d e n t t h e o r i e s o f a r t . A l t h o u g h n e v e r h a v i n g v i s i t i e d an a r t g a l l e r y o r museum, Ka n t became c o n v i n c e d , a f t e r h a v i n g w r i t t e n l i s f i r s t opus, She; C r i t i q u e o f P u r e Reason, t h a t t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f a r t r e q u i r e d s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t and was w o r t h y o f an autonomous p o s i t i o n i n h i s i n t r i c a t e m e t a p h y s i c a l schema. Baumgarten ( t h e l a s t i n t h e l i n e o f s u c c e s s i o n i n t h e r a t i o n a l i s t i c C a r t e s i a n s c h o o l ) h a d s u p p l i e d h i m w i t h a t e x t b o o k on a e s t h e t i c s . -20-Erom t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r i c a l s c h o o l ( d e r i v i n g o r i g i n a l l y f r o m B a c o n ) , i n p a r t i c u l a r f r o m David. Hume, who h a d s a i d , " B e a u t y i s no q u a l i t y i n t h i n g s t h e m s e l v e s ; i t e x i s t s m e r e l y i n t h e mind w h i c h c o n t e m p l a t e s them',1, Kant r e c i e v e d t h e i d e a l i s t i c c l u e t o t h e p r o b l e m o f b e a u t y . And hie was s u b j e c t to i n f l u e n c e from l i t e r a r y SOUCBS; on the one hand, t h e E n g l i s h s c h o o l o f c r i t i c s , n o t a b l y B u r k e w i t h h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s u b l i m e , a,nd on t h e o t h e r , R o u s s e a u , whose name has i n v a r i a b l y t o be men-t i o n e d s o o n e r o r l a t e r i n any d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e Z e i t g e i s t of t h e modern age. • K a n t ' s v i e w s on a e s t h e t i c s a r e s e t f o r t h i n h i s h i g h l y f o r m a l C r i t i q u e o f Judgment ( 1 7 9 0 ) . A l t h o u g h I n f l u e n c e d b y Hume, as we have s a i d , K a n t d e n i e d t h a t beauty was m e r e l y e m p i r i c a l and p u r e l y p e r s o n a l ; I n s t e a d , he a r g u e d t h a t "a c l a i m t o s u b j e c t i v e u n i v e r s a l i t y must be i m p l i e d i n t h e judgment o f t a s t e . " ''A t h i n g o f w h i c h e v e r y one r e c o g n i s e s t h a t h i s own s a t i s f a c t i o n i n i t s b e a u t y i s w i t h o u t any i n t e r e s t , must be e s t i m a t e d by h i m t o a f f o r d a gr o u n d o f s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r a l l men. E o r s i n c e h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n does not depend upon any i n -c l i n a t i o n o f h i s own ( n o r upon any o t h e r c o n s c i o u s I n t e r e s t ) , and s i n c e he f e e l s h i m s e l f a b s o l u t e l y f r e e i n t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n w h i c h he a c c o r d s to t h e o b j e c t , he can f i n d no p r i v a t e p e c u l -i a r i t y , a f f e c t i n g h i m a l o n e , as t h e cau s e o f h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n ; and c o n s e q u e n t l y he must r e g a r d t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n as c a u s e d b y s o m e t h i n g w h i c h he can p r e s u p p o s e i n e v e r y o t h e r man. So he must t h i n k he has r e a s o n f o r a t t r i b u t i n g a l i k e s a t i s f a c t i o n t o e v e r y man. Hence he w i l l speak o f b e a u t y as i f i t were a q u a l i t y o f t h e o b j e c t , and as i f hies judgement were s c i e n t i f i c . t h a t i s , c o n s t i t u t e d a knowledge o f t h e o b j e c t "by c o n c e p t i o n s o f i t , t h o u g h i t i s o n l y a e s t h e t i c a l . . . S o a c l a i m t o a sub-j e c t i v e u n i v e r s a l i t y must be i m p l i e d i n t h e judgement o f t a s t e . , B u t t h e judgment o f t a s t e as s u c h , Kant- a d m i t s t o be i n d i v i d u a l ; b e a u t y . t h e n d e r i v e s f r o m t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l ^ a p p r e -h e n s i o n o f t h e " r e a l shape ( p u r e form) o f an o b j e c t " , w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o him, i s a d a p t e d t o t h e p e r c e p t i v e f a c u l t i e s o f a l l men. K a n t i s t h e n f o r c e d , t o a t t r i b u t e b e a u t y o n l y t o t h o s e ob-j e c t s p o s s e s s i n g p u r e form; t h e s e he c a l l s A r a b e s q u e s . 7/hat-e v e r p r e s u p p o s e s a c o n c e p t of p u r p o s e or p e r f e c t i o n i s c o n s e -q u e n t l y n o t p u r e ; h s h c e beauty, c a n n o t be p r e d i c a t e d o f t h e o r g a n i c w o r l d . " I n a p i r i t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , and i n d e e d a l l t h e a,rts o f f o r m s u c h as a r c h i t e c t u r e and g a r d e n i n g , so f a r as t h e s e a r e f i n e a r t s , t h e e s s e n t i a l t h i n g i s t h e d e s i g n . And h e r e i n i t i s n o t what p l e a s e s t h e s e n s e s , b u t what s a t i s f i e s b y I t s form, t h a t fundaiaentally,. J-conceras t h e t a s t e . " 36 3. G r o c e ' s estimate...of t h e h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f K a n t . I n d i s c u s s i n g " t h a t m a s t e r p i e c e o f e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a e s t h e t i c s "kke C r i t i q u e o f Judgment" , G r o c e s a y s t h a t , i n i t " t h e a u t h o r . . . d i s c o v e r e d t h a t b e a u t y and a r t a f f o r d s u b j e c t - m a t t e r f o r a s p e c i a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c i e n c e - - - i n o t h e r words, d i s c o v e r e d t h e autonomy o f t h e a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y . As a g a i n s t t h e u t i l i t a r -i a n s he sho?/ed t h a t t h e b e a u t i f u l p l e a s e s .'without i n t e r e s t ' ( I . e . , u t i l i t a r i a n i n t e r e s t s ) ; a g a i n s t t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t s , t h a t . I t p l e a s e s ' w i t h o u t c o n c e p t s ' ; and f u r t h e r , a g a i n s t b o t h , t h a t i t has 'the f o r m o f p u r p o s i v e n e s s ' w i t h o u t ' r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p u r p o s e ' ; and, a g a i n s t t h e h e d o n i s t s , t h a t i t i s 'the # i t a l i c s mine -22-o b j e c t o f a u n i v e r s a l p l e a s u r e ' . I n sup s t a n c e , K a n t n e v e r went f u r t h e r t h a t h i s n e g a t i v e and g e n e r i c a s s e r t i o n o f t h e b e a u t i f u l . . . B u t t h e p r i n c i p l e s he l a i d down once and f o r a l l . E v e n t h e r e t u r n t o L e i b n i t z ' and•Baumgarten's t h e o r y o f a r t as c o n f u s e d o r f a n c i f u l t h i n k - w o u l d have b e e n i m p o s s i b l e , had K a n t b e e n a b l e t o l i n k up h i s own t h e o r y o f t h e b e a u t i f u l , as p l e a s i n g a p a r t f r o m c o n c e p t s , and as p u r p o s i v e n e s s w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f p u r p o s e , w i t h V i c o ' s i m p e r f e c t and i n c o n -s i s t e n t b u t p o w e r f u l t h e o r y o f t h e l o g i c o f i m a g i n a - t i o n , . .But K a n t ' h i m s e l f p r e p a r e d t h e way f o r ' t h e r e a s s e r t i o n o f t h e 'con-f u s e d c o n c e p t * when he a s c r i b e d t o g e n i u s t h e v i r t u e o f com-—~¥ * — ™ b i h l h g a i n t e l l e c t w i t h f a n c y , and d i s t i n g u i s h e d a r t f r o m 'pure 37 b e a u t y ' b y d e f i n i n g i t as ' a d h e r e n t b e a u t y ' . " 4 r : T h e p o s t - K a n t i a n movement. A l t h o u g h t h e l e a d e r s o f t h i s 38 movement,. E i c h t e , S c h e l l i n g and H e g e l showed a l i v e l y (and i n t h e c a s e o f H e g e l ) a s e n s i t i v e , i n t e r e s t i n works o f a r t e m -p h a s i z e d t h e a p r i o r i element i n K a n t ' s m e t a p h y s i c a t t h e ex-pense o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e , f o r t h e s e O b j e c t i v e I d e a l i s t s a r t was ,.a f o r m o f knowledge o f t h e A b s o l u t e o r I d e a , w h e t h e r e q u a l t o p h i l o s o p h y , i n f e r i o r and p r e p a r a t o r y t o i t \ o r 'as w i t h S c h e l l i n g ) s u p e r i o r , t o i t . E o r H e g e l , t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l o f t h e g r o u p , a r t , l i k e r e l i g i o n , was an i m p e r f e c t or m e r e l y s y m b o l i c f o r m of. p h i l o s o p h y whose c o n t r a d i c t i o n between c o n t e n t and f o r m o n l y t h e l a t t e r c o u l d r e s o l v e . The c o u r s e o f a e s t h e t i c d e v e l -opment i e d away f r o m V i c o ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f a r t towards t h a t o f t h e Baumgarten t r a d i t i o n . , # i t a l i c s mine -23-IV. ABTI-ESTAPHYSICAL REACTION 1. S c h o p e n h a u e r ' s e m o t i o n a l i s t t h e o r y f o r e s h a d o w s the; a n t i -m e t a p h y s i c a l r e a c t i o n . I n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a r e a c t i o n t o o k p l a c e a g a i n s t t h e i d e a l i s t i c p o st--• K a n t i a n m e t a p h y s i c a l s y s t e m s . As t h e I n f l u e n c e s r e l e a s e d t h e n a r e s t i l l i n o p e r a t i o n , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o t r y to t r a c e t h e i r s o u r c e s . T h e s e we s h a l l f i n d can be g r o u p e d w i t h r o u g h a p p r o x -i m a t i o n u n d e r two m a i n h e a d s s t h e b i o l o g i c a l and t h e p s y c h o l -o g i c a l . B u t b e f o r e v e n t u r i n g t o make our has%y e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e main b r a n c h e s i n t o w h i c h t h e m a i n l i n e o f a e s t h e t i c d e v e l o p m e n t d i v i d e s , we ought t o be reminded t h a t h o v e r i n g o v e r t h e f O T k i n g - p o i n t i s t h e b r o d d i n g s p i r i t o f S c h o penhauer. " I n 1818 i n h i s The W o r l d as ¥ 1 1 1 and I d e a Schopen-h a u e r d e s c r i b e d as t h e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y t h e p r i m o r d i a l " W i l l " , o r t e n d e n c y t o l i v e , w h i c h i s n o t o n l y c a r e l e s s o f our h a p p i -n e s s b u t condemned by o u r m o r a l r e a s o n . He sought f u r t h e r t o p r o v e b y an e p i s t e m o l o g y g r o u n d e d i n p h y s i o l o g i c a l p s y c h o l o g y i n c o n t r a s t t o K a n t who h a d a d o p t e d an a p r i o r i a n a l y s i s o f t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h a t t h i s " u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y " i s i n c a p a b l e o f b e i n g t h e o b j e c t o f knowledge, and becomes so o n l y i n i t s "obj e c t i f i c a - t i o n s " . w h i c h a r e t h e e x t e r n a l t y p e s o f s p e c i f i c 39 e x i s t e n c e . These u l t i m a t e t y p i c a l i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s , f o r s u c h t h e y a r e i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e c o n c e p t s o f s c i e n c e , a r e o n l y known as d i v i n e d b y a r t i s t i c p e r c e p t i o n , being, s e l f - c o n t a i n e d , 40 and S a t i s f a c t o r y t o t h e c o n t e m p l a t i v e s e n s e . The p e s s i m i s t i c emphasis i n S c h o p e n h a u e r ' s p h i l o s o p h y d e r i v e s f r o m h i s i n s i s t -ence t h a t man, a s l a v e o f o r g a n i c n e c e s s i t y , i s m i s e r a b l e t h r o u g h b e i n g a c a p t i v e . - o n t h e r e l e n t l e s s t r e a d m i l l o f e n d l e s s d e s i r e . -24-H i s o n l y s u r c e a s e f r o m sorrow comes i n moments of a e s t h e t i c c o n t e m p l a t i o n . "When some e x t e r n a l c a u s e o r i n w a r d d i s p o s i t i o n l i f t s us s u d d e n l y out o f t h e e n d l e s s s t r e a m o f w i l l i n g , and d e l i v e r s knowledge f r o m / t h e s l a v e r y o f t h e w i l l , t h e a t t e n t i o n i s no l o n g e r d i r e c t e d t o t h e m o t i v e s o f w i l l i n g , h u t compre-hends t h i n g s f r e e f r o m t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t h e w i l l , and t h u s o b s e r v e s them w i t h o u t p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t ^ w i t h o u t s u b j e c t i v i t y , p u r e l y o b j e c t i v e l y , and g i v e s i t s e l f e n t i r e l y up t o them so f a r as t h e y a r e i d e a s , b u t not i n so f a r as t h e y a r e m o t i v e s . Then a l l a t once t h e peace w h i c h we were always s e e k i n g , b u t w h i c h a l w a y s f l e d f r o m us on "\the f o r m e r p a t h o f t h e d e s i r e s , comes t o us o f i t s own accord., and i t i s w e l l w i t h u s . I t i s t h e p a i n l e s s s t a t e w h i c h E p i c u r u s p r i z e d as t h e h i g h e s t good and a,s t h e s t a t e o f t h e gods; we a r e f o r t h e moment s e t f r e e f r o m t h e m i s e r a b l e s t r i v i n g o f t h e w i l l ; we k e e p t h e S a b b a t h o f t h e p e n a l s e r v i t u d e o f w i l l i n g ; t h e w h e e l o f I x i o n s t a n d s 41 s t i l l . " The W i l l i s a l l - p e r v a s i v e ; i t i s immaheht&ahd not t r a n s c e n d e n t . The f a c t t h a t , i t i s so makes p o s s i b l e f o r us t h e a e s t h e t i c a c t o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n ; f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e s o f t h i n g s c o u l d n e v e r r e v e a l t o us t h e i r i n n e r r e a l i t y , were i t n o t t h a t w i t h i n us t h e same w i l l o r s p i r i t were a c t i v e . We f i r s t become aware i n o u r own f e e l i n g o f t h a t w h i c h we a f t e r -^ 42# wards a e s t h e t i c a l l y d i v i n e i n them.." Those most s u c c e s s f u l i n a c h i e v i n g t h e i n s i g h t n e c e s s a r j r f o r t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f b e a u t y , i . e . , a e s t h e t i c p l e a -s u r e , a r e t h o s e whom we c a l l a r t i s t s . We must n o t e as w e l l t h a t f o r - S c h o p e n h a u e r a e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e can be o b t a i n e d e q u a l l y -25-f r o m t h e , c o n t e m p l a t i o n of n a t u r e and l i f e , and f r o m works of a r t . A work of a r t , p e r s e , i s a p h y s i c a l embodiment of t h e I d e a ; and b e c a u s e of t h e a r t i s t ' s f a c u l t y f o r a r t i s t i c s e l e c t -i o n , we may o f t e n p e r c e i v e b e a u t y more r e a d i l y t h r o u g h h i s e y e s . " A e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e i s one and t h e same w h e t h e r i t i s c a l l e d f o r t h by a work o f a r t or d i r e c t l y by t h e c o n t e m p l a t i o n of n a t u r e and l i f e . The work of a r t i s o n l y a means of f a c i l i t a -t i n g t h e knowledge i n w h i c h t h i s p l e a s u r e c o n s i s t s . T h a t t h e I d e a comes to us more e a s i l y f r o m t h e work of a r t t h a n d i r e c t l y f r o m " n a t u r e and. t h e r e a l worlVl, a, r i s e s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a r t i s t , who knew o n l y t h e I d e a , no l o n g e r t h e a c t u a l , has r e p r o -d u c e d I n h i s work t h e p u r e I d e a , h a s a b s t r a c t e d i t f r o m t h e a c t u a l , o m i t t i n g a l l d i s t u r b i n g a c c i d e n t s . The a r t i s t l e t s us s e e t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h h i s e y e s . T h a t he h a s t h e s e e y e s , t h a t he knows t h e i n n e r n a t u r e of t h i n g s - - a p a r t f r o m t h e i r r e l a t i o n s . , i s t h e g i f t o f g e n i u s , i s I n b o r n ; b u t t h a t he i s a b l e to l e n d us t h i s g i f t , to l e t us see w i t h h i s e y e s , i s a c q u i r e d , and i s t h e t e c h n i c a l s i d e of a r t . . , . " F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s h i s t o r i c a l s k e t c h , -the above c o n c e p t s a r e of p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e ; we s h a l l p r e s e n t l y d i s c o v e r t h a t S chopenhauer a n t i c i p a t e d much t h a t i s v i t a l to t h e a e s t h e t -i c s of b o t h C r o c e and B e r g s o n . 2,, From B i o l o g y : , t h e t h e o r y of e v o l u t i o n . The i d e a t h a t t h e -.cosmos.'is:.the p r o d u c t of c o n f l i c t i n g f o r c e s was a common s p e c u l a t i o n i n c l a s s i c a l t i m e s . S t a r t i n g f r o m a n c i e n t G r e e c e , one c o s m o l o g i c a l t h e o r y s u c c e e d e d a n o t h e r u n t i l a c l i m a x was r e a c h e d i n t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l , l a w - e x e m p l i f y i n g sytems o f G a l i l e o and Newton. "But a l t h o u g h t h e u n i v e r s e c o u l d not he c o n c e i v e d as a s y s t e m w h i c h was p r e s e n t l y t o he i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f m a t t e r or e n e r g y , t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f n a t u r e , " a c c o r d i n g to Dr, D r e s s e r , " i t r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y s t a t i c as d e s c r i b e d hy t h e m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s . The t r a n s i t i o n to t h e a dynamic, t h e n t o a v i t a l o r l i v i n g v i e w , w i t h i n s p i r i t i n g i d e a s o f p r o g r e s s and g r e a t human a t -t a i n m e n t s i n t h e m o r a l and s p i r i t u a l r e a l m s , came w i t h the epoch-making v i e w s o f h i s t o r y and c i v i l i z a t i o n , b e g i n n i n g I n t h e age o f L e s s i n g and H e r d e r , and. c o n t i n u i n g i n t h e c o n -t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e r o m a n t i c i s t s and H e g e l ' s p h i l o s o p h y o f h i s t o r y . I t was t h e ides, o f h i s t o r y as a d e v e l o p i n g p r o c e s s I m p l y i n g i n n e r meanings and t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f v a l u e s w h i c h p r e p a r e d t h e way f o r t h e mod.ern d o c t r i n e o f e v o l u t i o n as a c o n c e p t o f n a t u r e , l e a d i n g t h e way i n t i m e t o a c o m p r e h e n s i v e 44 p h i l o s o p h y o f e v o l u t i o n . " C h a r l e s D a r w i n s e t f o r t h i n h i s O r i g a n of S p e c i e s (1851) t h e f i n d i n g s b a s e d on t h e method o f e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h f r o m w h i c h he . c a u t i o u s l y d e r i v e d h i s t h e o r y o f n a t u r a l s e l -e c t i o n t h r o u g h chance v a r i a t i o n i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . The t h e o r y b r o u g h t i n t o h i g h r e l i e f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s t r u g g l e I n n a t u r e and., by i m p l i c a t i o n and t h i s i s o f e s -p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e h e r e he showed t h a t t h e human o r g a n i s m was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f n a t u r e and was a l s o a p r o d u c t o f na-t u r a l e v o l u t i o n b y means o f b i o l o g i c a l f o r c e s . I n hise,even more s u g g e s t i v e D e s c e n t of Man (1871) D a r w i n t o y e d w i t h the -27-p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t m e n t a l and m o r a l l i f e were a l s o p r o d u c t s o f o r g a n i c e v o l u t i o n . A l t h o u g h D a r w i n was o b & i v i o u s t o t h e c a t a c l y s m i c e f f e c t h i s t h e o r y was to. have, p a r t i c u l a r l y ' o n t h e w o r l d o f t h e o l o g i c a l and m o r a l v a l u e s , i t s r e p e r c u s s i o n s a r e todgcy 45 s t i l l r e s o u n d i n g i n our e a r s . 3 * P s y c h o l o g o g y : t h e e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h to a r t . Thomas Munroe, p s y c h o l o g i s t i n t h e B a r n e s ' F o u n d a t i o n , w h i c h i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h a p p l y i n g the James/Dewey p r a g m a t i c method i n t h e f i e l d o f a r t c r i t i c i s m , has t h i s to\ s a y o f t h e i d e a l i s t i c v i e w o f a e s t h e t i c s : "The t r a d i t i o n a l dogma i s t h a t ' A e s t h e t i c t h e o r y i s a b r a n c h o f p h i l o s o p h y , and e x i s t s f o r t h e sake of k n o w l -edge and not as a g u i d e t o p r a c t i c e 1 has s a v e d many l o f t y d o c t r i n e s t h e shock o f h a v i n g t h e i r e m p t i n e s s r e v e a l e d . W i t h -out b e i n g t r i e d as a g u i d e to p r a c t i c e , no t h e o r y c a n be made 46 r e l i a b l e and g e n u i n e l j r e x p l a n a t o r y . " The p h r a s e " g u i d e t o p r a c t i c e " r e v e a l s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h . We may r e t r a c e our s t e p s t o t h e f i r s t p o s i t i v i s t s t i m u l a t i o n i n d u c e d by D a r w i n ' s t h e o r y . H e r b e r t S p e n c e r v e n t u r e d a b i o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t w h i c h , no doubt b e c a u s e o f i t s a u t h o r ' s u t t e r i n s e n s i t i v e n e s s to a r t , p r o v e d s t e r i l e . I n Germany t h e p u r e l y i n d u c t i v e method was u s e d . G u s t a v e F e c h n e r i n 1876 t a b u l a t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f h i s la.boratgrry i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f a r t . He had t r i e d to i s o l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t g e o m e t r i c a l shapes w h i c h had an i n -t r i n s i c a p p e a l f o r t h e b e h o l d e r . G o t t f r i e d Samper had a s i m -i l a r o b j e c t i n mind i n s e e k i n g amid the m u l t i p l i c i t y o f a r t p r o d u c t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e ages c o n s t a n t e l e m e n t s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e i r u n i v e r s a l a p p e a l . Such a c t i v i t y f i n d s i t s t h e o r e t i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e s t u d i e s o f Zimmerman, a H e r b a r t i a n f o r m a -l i s t , who e a r l i e r h ad t r i e d to d i s c o v e r the f u n d a m e n t a l forms w h i c h , i n t h e c o e x i s t e n c e o f i d e a s , g i v e r i s e t o p l e a s u r e and the r e v e r s e , and a p p l y them t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f b e a u t y 47 and a r t . A name i n v o k e d by H e r b e r t Read, a B r i t i s h p r o t a g o n -i s t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y a r t , i s t h a t o f E r n s t G r o s s e . He i t i s to whom Read c r e d i t s t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f what we might c a l l t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l v i e w o f a T t , v i z . , a r t p r o d u c t s (not "works o f a r t " : t h e i m p l i c a t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t ) t r e a t e d as a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e " s p i r i t u a l " l i f e o f a human s o c i e t y , w h e t h e r p r i m i t i v e o r c i v i l i z e d . To quote Read: " J u s t as s c i e n c e i n g e n e r a l , i n so f a r as i t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h o r g a n i c l i f e , i s a l m o s t i n c o n c e i v a b l e on'any b u t a g e n e t i c and e v o l u - • .be t i o n a r y b a s i s , so t h i s f a c e t o f human l i f e m u s t ^ s t u d i e d i n i t s o r i g i n s and d e v e l o p m e n t . Thus began t h a t r e s e a r c h i n t o p r e -h i s t o r i c and p r i m i t i v e a r t w h i c h i s s t i l l p r o g r e s s i n g , and w h i c h , by b r i n g i n g o t our a t t e n t i o n t h e works o f p r i m i t i v e and p r e -h i s t o r i c p e o p l e s , and. p o i n t i n g o ut t h e i r a e s t h e t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e , has b e e n one o f t h e most p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e s i n modern a r t . F o r i n p r i m i t i v e a r t we see so c l e a r l y , what i s so d i f f i c u l t t o p e r c e i v e i n t h e c o m p l e t e e x p r e s s i o n s o f h i g h l y c u l t u r e d c i v i l -i s a t i o n s t h e d i r e c t l y e x p r e s s i v e q u a l i t y o f t h e a r t i s t ' s 48 v i s i o n , i t s o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n i n s o l i d s h a p e s . " I t i s b u t a s t e p f r o m t h e R o u s s e a u i s t i c a d u l a t i o n 49 o f t h e savage t o t h e Wordsworth!an w o r s h i p o f t h e c h i l d . -29-Or, i n t h e more t e c h n i c a l l a n g u a g e o f Mr. Head, " P a r a l l e l , to t h i s l i n e o f a p p r o a c h , and on t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t o n t o g e n e s i s 50 r e p e a t s p h y l o g e n e s i s , " t h e o r e t i c i a n s and a r t i s t s a l i k e soon e v i n c e d a s t u d i o u s i n t e r e s t i n t h e a r t o f c h i l d r e n . . I t w i l l "be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e t h e s i s t o examine s t i l l f u r t h e r t h e arguments u s e d by t h e a p o s t l e s of modernism.. ( C l a s s i c i s t s w i l l u n d o u b t e d l y l a b e l t h e f o l l o w i n g as t h e a r c h e t y p e o f a c e r t a i n s p e c i e s o f R o m a n t i c i s m p o s s i b l y a 11 s e n t i m e n t a l i z e d D a r w i n i s m " ) : . "The g e n e t i c method, i n a e s t h e t i c s . . .by d r a w i n g a t -t e n t i o n to t h e p o s i t i v e q u a l i t i e s o f c h i l d r e n ' s a r t , has h a d a d i r e c t I n f l u e n c e on t h e p r a c t i c e o f modern a r t i s t s t h e r e has b e e n a d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t t o r e a c h back to t h e n a i v e t y and f r e s h s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e c h i l d l i k e o u t l o o k a r e t r o g r a d e s t e p * o f c o u r s e , i f you r e g a r d 'the march o f i n t e l l e c t ' with, compla-c e n c y o r s a t i s f a c t i o n . I t i s n o t claimed, t h a t t h e a r t o f s a v a g e s , p r e h i s t o r i c men and c h i l d r e n c a n be g i v e n t h e same v a l u e as t h e a r t o f c i v i l i s e d men: i n t h e h u m a n i s t i c s c a l e o f v a l u e s , s u c h a r t i s a l m o s t n e g l i g i b l e . But i n any c a s e , t h e w h o l e q u e s t i o n o f v a l u e s i s o u t s i d e our e n q u i r y : i t i s not t h e b u s i n e s s o f a e s t h e t i c s to e s t a b l i s h , t h e v a l u e s o f a r t , b u t to e x p l o r e i t s n a t u r e , and f r o m t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w i t i s impos-4lie vk*|*<~\'-a.v!7 e r e s t t h e y a r e n o t m o r a l i n c h a r a c t e r and have n o t h i n g i n e W common w i t h t h e good,, They may be d e f i n e d as c o n t e m p l a t i v e , b u t i t i s -a c o n t e m p l a t i o n w h i c h i s n o t c e n t r e d on c o n c e p t s and, a c c o r d i n g l y , i s i n d e p e n d e n t a l i k e o f t h e i d e a o f e x t e r n a l p u r p o s e o r p e r f e c t i o n . And so f a r . as the. judgments a r e u n i v e r s a l , t h e i r u n i v e r s a l i t y r e v e a l s i t s e l f as s u b j e c t i v e o n l y , d e v o i d o f an o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n . Though t h e y a r e accompanied by t h e f e e l -i n g o f a p p r o v a l o r d i s a p p r o v a l , t h e y a r e i n t r i n s i c a l l y f r e e f r o m t h e emotions and f r o m a l l u r e m e n t s . T h i s s u i g e n e r i s form, s a i d k a n t , i s t h e f o r m o f v t h e judgments o f t a s t e . The f a c t s to w h i c h t h e s e judgments r e f e r a r e b e a u t y and a r t , " C r o c e goes w i t h h i m t h i s f a r ; b u t when Ka n t goes on to d e f i n e c a w o r k o f a r t as t h e adequs,te p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a c o n c e p t , i n w h i c h i n t e l l e c t and. i m a g i n a t i o n a r e combined., t h e n t h e y must p a r t company, A t t , a c c o r d i n g to C r o c e , i s an a c t i v i t y c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e mind; t h e one, i n d e e d , f r o m which. a l l t h e o t h e r s d e r i v e . B u t b e f o r e we can hope to f o l l -ow t h e s u b t l e t i e s o f C r o c e ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f b e a u t y , i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o examine h i s i d i o m i n r e l a t i o n to h i s p h i l o s o p h y as a w h o l e , 1 (ft) C r o c e 1 s p h i l o s o p h y o f mind. In. t h e i n c e s s a n t b a t t l e be-tween t h e I d e a l i s t s and t h e R e a l i s t s , C r o c e m a r s h a l s h i s f o r c e s u n d e r t h e b a n n e r o f t h e f o r m e r . To r e c a l l t h e o l d e s s e e s t p e r c i p i s l o g a n o f B e r k e l e y ' s w i l l p r o v i d e a k e y to h i s p l a n o f a t t a c k . E v e r y f o r m w h i c h r e a l i t y c a n assume has i t s g r o u n d w i t h i n mind; t h e c l a s s i c •»thing-in-itself" c o n c e p t i s , i n . terms o f C r o c e ' s p h i l o s o p h y , m e a n i n g l e s s . We have a l r e a d y , t h e n , a # i t a l i c s mine. c l u e t o w h a t b h i s a n o t i o n o f b e a u t y w i l l b b e . Ho W i l d o n C a r r , a s y m p a t h e t i c i n t e r p r e t e r o f Srooej; a l r e a d y n e a t l y summarized h i s s y s t e m : " T h i s mind w h i c h i s r e a l i t y , o r t h i s r e a l i t y w h i e h i s mind, i s a n a c t i v i t y t h e forms o f w h i c h we may d i s t i n g u i s h ; and a l s o we may d i s t i n g u i s h t h e o r d e r and r e l a t i o n o f t h e f o r m s ; b u t we c a n n o t s e p a r a t e them, f o r t h e y a r e i n a n n i n d i s o l u b l e o r g a n i c u n i o n o f dependence and i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e on one a n o t h e r . R e a l i t y i s a s y s t e m . The work o f p h i l o s o p h y i s t o p r e s e n t t h e s e forms o f a c t i v i t y and show how i n t h e i r p r o c e s s e s t h e y u n i t e t o f o r m t h e c o n c r e t e w o r l d o f e x p e r i e n c e . Two forms o f t h i s a c t i v i t y we a r e a c c u s t o m e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h -knowing and a c t i n g . The f i r s t i s t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a c t i v i t y ; t h e s e c o n d i s t h e w i l l , t h e p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y , t h e y stand, to one a n o t h e r i n t h e r e l a t i o n o f a d e f i n i t e o r d e r . W i l l depends on u n d e r s t a n d i n g ! i n a manner i n w h i c h u n d e r s t a n d i n g does n o t depend upon w i l l . A l l knowing h a s a c t i o n i n vie?/, b u t i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o w i l l i n o r d e r to know, and knowing does n o t depend on any o t h e r f o r m o f m e n t a l # • a c t i v i t y l o w e r t h a n i t s e l f . - "We may now u n d e r s t a n d G r o c e ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d o c t r i n e . Knowing i s n o t a s i m p l e r e l a t i o n between t h e mind and a n o b j e c t i n mind. I t i s not c o n t e m p l a t i o n , i t i s an a c t i v e p r o c e s s , and i t s a c t i v i t y has two f o r m s , one a n a c t i v i t y o f i n t u i t i o n , one an a c t i v i t y o f c o n c e p t u a l t h i n k i n g . The s c i e n c e o f t h e one i s a e s t h e t i c ; o f t h e o t h e r , l o g i c . A e s t h e t i c s t a n d s t o l o g i c as a f i r s t t o s e c o n d d e g r e e , f o r l o p ; i c i s dependent on a e s t h e t i c , # w h i l e a e s t h e t i c depends on no o t h e r a c t i v i t y , ^ i t a l i c s mine. If The p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y i s a a l s o s u b d i v i d e d i n t o a an economic and an e t h i c a c t i v i t y . Knowing and a c t i n g each w i t h i t s two s u b d i v i s i o n s y i e l d t o us f o u r p u r e c o n c e p t s w h i c h t o g e t h e r ex-h a u s t r e a l i t y . The f o u r p u r e c o n c e p t s a r e b e a u t y , t r u t h , u s e f u l -4 n e s s , g o o d n e s s . " I t f o l l o w s f r o m G r o c e ' s i n s i s t e n c e upon t h e p r i m -4a a c y o f t h e i n t u i t i o n I n t h e a c t i v i t y o f l o s p i r i t o , t h a t t h e s c i e n c e o f t h e i n t u i t i o n , a e s t h e t i c w i l l h o l d a h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t p l a c e i n h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t r u c t u r e . " A e s t h e t i c s , though a s p e c i a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l science"", h a v i n g as i t s p r i n c i p l e a s p e c i a l and d i s t i n c t c a t e g o r y o f t h e mind, can n e v e r , j u s t b e c a u s e i t i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l , be d e t a c h e d f r o m tfce main body o f p h i l o s o p h y ; f o r i t s p r o b l e m s a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s between a r t and o t h e r m e n t a l f o r m s , a n d t h e r e f o r e i m p l y b o t h d i f f e r e n c e and i d e n t i t y . A e s t h e t i c s i s r e a l l y t h e whole o f p h i l o s o p h y , b u t w i t h s p e c i a l 5 emphasis on t h a t s i d e o f i t w h i c h c o n c e r n s a r t , " 2 ( a ) . The s u b j e c t i v i t y o f b e a u t y . The "common-sense" n o t i o n o f b e a u t y u n d o u b t e d l y i s t h a t t h e c a u s e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e e l i n g we a s s o c i a t e w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f b e a u t y i s e x t e r n a l to o u r s e l v e s . When we speak o f b e a u t y we t e n d t o t h i n k o f i t as b e i n g i m p l i c i t i n t h e p l a y , H a m l e t ; i n t h e Cezanne s t i l l - l i f e , i n t h e f l a m i n g s u n s e t , o r w h a t e v e r i t i s we choose t o c a l l b e a u t y f u l . G r o c e makes i t q u i t e d e f i n i t e t h a t s u c h a n o t i o n i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h s u b j e c t i v e i d e a l i s m i n t e r m s o f v w h i c h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f b e a u t y , he b e l i e v e s , c a n a l o n e be e x p l a i n e d . The k e y n o t e o f h i s a e s t h e t i c i s t h e i d e n t i -f i c a t i o n o f b e a u t y w i t h t h e p r i v a t e i n t u i t i o n o f t h e " b e h o l d e r " . MO The u l t i m a t e i r r e d u c i b l e r e a l i t y c a n n o t bee measured, i n terms-o f a p l a y , a s t i l l - l i f e , o r a n e x t e r n a l n a t u r e . The u l t i m a t e i r r e d u c i b l e r e a l i t y i s t h e s p i r i t ' s own v o l i t i o n a l s t a t e s ; n o t h i n g e l s e , Now i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o know p r e c i s e l y what i s i n -t e n d e d by t h e " S p i r i t ' s own v o l i t i o n a l s t a t e s " ; C r o c e d e s c r i b e s them v a r i o u s l y as " s e n s a t i o n s and i m p r e s s i o n s " , " c r u d e emotion-a l i t y " , " a p p e t i t e , p r o p e n s i t y , w i l l " , " s t a t e s o f our own p a s s l o n g " , "a w o r l d d e s i r e d o r l o a t h e d , o r m i n g l e d d e s i r e and l o a t h i n g " , 6 " a s p i r a t i o n o r y e a r n i n g " . These s t a t e s s e e m i n g l y e x i s t i n a s o r t o f t e n s i o n a w a i t i n g t o r e c e i v e " l y r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n " , Now a n o v e l f e a t u r e o f C r o c e 1 s d o c t r i n e i s t h a t o n l y t h e s p i r i t i t s e l f c a n p r e c i p i t a t e t h e i n t u i t i o n o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l image f r o m t h e raw s t u f f a w a i t i n g e x p r e s s i o n . The s p i r i t b r i n g s f o r m t o i t s ownu c o n t e n t . And f r o m t h i s a c t i v i t y t h e r e r e s u l t s , i n v a r i a b l y , t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f b e a u t y . I n t h e f a l l o w i n g e x c e r p t we s h a l l be s t r u c k b y t h e s t r i k i n g r e s e m b l a n c e C r o c e ' s a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o b l e m of b e a u t y b e a r s , t o t h a t o f P l o t i n u s whom we have a l r e a d y b r i e f l y r e f e r r e d to % " I t h a s b e e n n o t i c e d t h a t to g e t a e s t h e t i c s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m n a t u r a l o b j e c t s , we must n e g l e c t t h e i r a c t u a l o r h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y , and d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r p u r e a p p e a r a n c e o r m a n i f e s t a t i o n f r o m t h e i r a c t u a l e x i s t e n c e , . t h a t n a t u r e i s o n l y b e a u t i f u l f o r t h e man who s e e s i t w i t h t h e eyesmof an a r t i s t ; t h a t z o o l -o g i s t s and b o t a n i s t s know n o t h i n g o f b e a u t i f u l a n i m a l s o r f l o w e r s and t h a t n a t u r a l b e a u t y i s r e v e a l e d to u s . W i t h o u t t h e a i d o f 14-1 i m a g i n a t i o n , n o t h i n g i n n n a t u r e i s b e a u t i f u l ; and w i t h i t s a i d , a c c o r d i n g to o u r d i s p o s i t i o n , t h e same t h i n g i s now e x p r e s s i v e , now unmeaning, now e x p r e s s i v e i n one way, now i n a n o t h e r , s a d o r j o y f u l , s u b l i m e o r r i d i c u l o u s , . . . . H a n , f a c e d w i t h n a t u r a l b e a u t y i s e x a c t l y t h e m y t h i c a l N a r c i s s u s a t t h e pool....One a r t i s t i s i n r a p t u r e s b e f o r e a s m i l i n g l a n d s c a p e , a n o t h e r b e f o r e a r a g and b o n e shops one b e f o r e t h e f a c e o f a p r e t t y g i r l a n d a n o t h e r b e f o r e t j i e s q u a l i d f e a t u r e s o f some o l d r u f f i a n . The f i r s t w i l l p e r h a p s s a y thai t h e r a g - s h o p and r u f f i a n a r e d i s g u s t i n g , a n d t h e s e c o n dd t h a t t h e s m i l i n g l a n d s c a p e and t h e p r e t t y g i r l a r e b o r i n g . They may d i s p u t e e n d l e s s l y ; t h e y w i l l n o t a g r e e t i l l t h e y have been t r e a t e d w i t h s u c h a, d ose o f a e s t h e t i c s as w i l l e n a b l e them t o 7 s e e t h a t t h e y a r e b o t h r i g h t . " B u t many w i l l f i n d t h e dose o f a e s t h e t i c s t h a t G r o c e p r e s c r i b e s h a r d t o s w a l l o w . We a r e t o l d t h a t what i s i n t u i t e d i n a work o f a r t i s c h a r a c t e r , i n d i v i d u a l physiognomy o r image. Ebw t h e a r t i s t c a n o n l y be " i n r a p t u r e s " o v e r h i s own i n t u i t i o n , w h e t h e r t h i s he o f a l a n d s c a p e , a rag-and-bone-shop, a g i r l , or a r u f f i a n . "What we must c l e a r l y u n d e r s t a n d i s t h a t f o r G r o c e t h e e x t e r n a l o b j e c t o f p e r c e p t i o n i s n o t t h e m a t t e r t o w h i c h t h e a e s -t h e t i c a c t i v i t y g i v e s f o r m . H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f K a n t s u p p o r t s t h i s c o n t e n t i o n : "Kant c o n s i d e r e d h a r d n e s s , i m p e n e t r a b i l i t y , c o l o r and t h e l i k e t o be t h e m a t e r i a l o f s e n s a t i o n s . B u t i n so f a r as t h e s p i r i t becomes aware o f c o l o r o r h a r d n e s s i t h a s a l r e a d y g i v e n f o r m t o i t s s e n s a t i o n s ; s e n s a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d as b r u t e m a t e r i a l a r e o u t s i d e t h e knowing s p i r i t , t h e y a r e a l i m i t s c o l o r , h a r d n e s s i m p e n e t r a b i l i t y and t h e l i k e , so f a r as we a r e aware o f them, a r e a l r e a d y i n t u i t i o n s , s p i r i t u a l l y e l a b o r a t e d , r u d i m e n t a r y 8 m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y . " • ¥ e must t h e n n o t c o n f u s e i n t u i t i o n w i t h s e n s a t i o n , t h e u n f o r m e d s t u f f o f w h i c h t h e s p i r i t i n t u i t s i n d i v i d u a l images; o r w i t h p e r c e p t i o n , w h i c h , u n l i k e i n t u i t i o n , i n v o l v e s t h e judgment o f t h e r e a l i t y o r t h e u n r e a l i t y o f i t s obj e c t t i . The i n t u i t i o n i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e i n t u i t i n g p r o c e s s , w h i c h i s w h o l l y an i n -9 t e r n a l a f f a i r o f mind. The i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s v i e w o f b e a u t y i s s t a r t l i n g j H a m l e t , t h e Cezanne s t i l l - l i f e ( s a y t h e s t i l l - l i f e w i t h P e a c h e s ) o r t h e s u n s e t , h a v e none o f them i n t r i n s i c b e a u t y . T h e s e " b e a u t i f u l o b j e c t s " h a v e even no a b s o l u t e e x i s t e n c e . They e x i s t , a n d a r e b e a u t i f u l , o n l y as t h e r e s u l t o f i n t u i t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l knowing s p i r i t . As s t a t e d b y C a r r i t t ; " I t i s n o t t h e w r i t t e n o r spoken poem, n o r t h e p e r c e i v e d a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h must s t r i c t l y be c a l l e d b e a u t i f u l , b u t o n l y a p a r t i c u l a r way i n ' w h i c h a t a g i v e n 10 moment any i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s e s h i m s e l f i n them" 2 (b) I n d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n t u i t i o n and, e x p r e s s i o n . The s y n o n i m i t y o f i n t u i t i o n and e x p r e s s i o n i n C r o c e ' s v o c a b u l a r y and t h e f e a s a b -i l i t y o f s u b s t i t u t i n g e i t h e r t e r m f o r t h e o t h e r i n h i s a e s t h e t i c e q u a t i o n : A r t / Bea.ut.3r ~ I n t u i t i o n / E x p r e s s i o n , c a u s e s dismay even t o many o f h i s s t a u n c h s u p p o r t e r s . Y e t t|je . p o i n t i s a c a r d i n a l one i n h i s a e s t h e t i c : he i n s i s t s t h a t o n l y b y so i d e n t i f y i n g t h e s e c o n c e p t s cann we a v o i d t h e dilemma o f d u a l -i s m , " "When t h e i n t u i t i o n h a s been|f d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m th e e x p r e s s i o n , and t h e one h a s b e en made d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e o t h e r , no i n g e n -u i t y o f m i d d l e terms c a n r e u n i t e them; a l l t h e p r o c e s s e s p r o p o s e d h y t h e p s ychologist© and l a b o r i o u s l y d e v e l o p e d b y them, f i n a l l y a l l o w t h e r i f t t o a ppear? on t h i s s i d e t h e e x p r e s s i o n , 11 on t h a t , t h e image." So i n s t e a d o f u s i n g i n t u i t i o n and e x p r e s s -i o n &s terms i n a s y n t h e t i c judgment c o n c e r n i n g b e a u t y , he c hooses t o a v o i d d i f f i c u l t y b y l i n k i n g them i n a t a u t o l o g y , ( r e m i n d i n g us f a i n t l y o f K e a t s ' famous o b i t e r d i c t u m ) , I n t u i t i o n i s E x p r e s s i o n ; E x p r e s s i o n , I n t u i t i o n . „ . \ . "One o f t h e f i r s t p r o b l e m s t o a r i s e , when t h e work o f a r t i s d e f i n e d as l y r i c a l image, c o n c e r n s t h e r e l a t i o n o f " i n t u i t -i o n 1 and ' e x p r e s s i o n ' and t h e manner o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m one t o t h e o t h e r . A t b o t t o m o f t h i s i s t h e same p r o b l e m o f i n n e r and o u t e r , o f mind and m a t t e r , o f s o u l and body, and, i n e t h i c s , o f i n t e n t i o n and w i l l , w i l l and a c t i o n , and s o f f o r t h . Thus / s t a t e d , t h e p r o b l e m i s i n s o l u b l e ; f o r once we have d i v i d e d t h e .Inner f r o m t h e o u t e r , body f r o m mind, w i l l f r o m a c t i o n , o r i n t m i t -i o n f r o m e x p r e s s i o n , t h e r e i s no way o f p a s s i n g f r o m t h e one t o t h e o t h e r and r e u n i t i n g them, u n l e s s we a p p e a l f & r t t h e i r r e u n i o n to a t h i r d t e r m , , v a r i o u s l y r e p r e s e n t e d as God o r t h e Unknowable. D u a l i s m l e a d s N e c e s s a r i l y t o e i t h e r t r a n s c e n d a n c e o r t o a g n o s t i -c i s m . B u t when a p r o b l e m i s f o u n d t o be i n s o l u b l e i n t h e terms i n w h i c h i t i s stated, t h e o n l y c o u r s e open i t t o c r i t i c i z e t h e s e t e r m s t h e m s e l v e s , t o i n q u i r e how t h e y h a v e been a r r i v e d a t , and w h e t h e r t h e i r g e n e s i s i s l o g i c a l l y soumd. I n t h i s c a s e , s u c h i n / q u i r y l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e terms t h e m s e l v e s depend n o t upon a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r i n c i p l e , "but upon an e m p i r i c a l and n a t u r a l i s t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , w h i c h h a s c r e a t e d two g r o u p s o f f a c t s c a l l e d i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l r e s p e c t i v e l y (as i f i n -terna,! f a c t s were n o t a l s o e x t e r n a l , and as i f an e x t e r n a l f a c t c o u l d e x i s t w i t h o u t b e i n g i n t e r n a l a l s o ) , o r s o u l s o r b o d i e s , o r images and e x p r e s s i o n s . . . . ( T h e ) i n t u i t i o n i s o n l y . 1 2 i n t u i t i o n i n s o f a r a s i t i s , i n t h a t v e r y a c t , e x p r e s s i o n . " "What t h e n i s e x p r e s s i o n ? " we may a s k . " I t i s a f o r m t h e mind g i v e s t o i t s i n t u i t i o n s , t h e f o r m i n t u i t i o n makes as i t u t t e r s t o i t s e l f . And as t h e r e i s n o t m a t t e r w i t h o u t f o r m an d 1 3 no f o r m w i t h o u t m a t t e r , t h e i n t u i t i o n i s t h e e x p r e s s i o n . " Hence t h e s u b j e c t i v i t y o f b e a u t y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g E x p r e s s i o n i s t t h e o r i e s o f a r t . "Hot o n l y 'a l a n d s c a p e i s a mood 1, b u t e v e r y l i n e , 1 4 c o l o r o r t o n e i s t h e embodiment o f r e a l i t y o f a'mood 1 ". So, I n s t e a d o f s a y i n g t h a t " t h e a r t i s t i s i n r a p t u r e s o v e r the l a n d s c a p e " , o r "he has a l y r i c a l i n t u i t i o n o f the l a n d s c a p e , " we ough?t r e a l l y t o say, "The a t t i s t 1 s n ( l y r i c a l ) i n t u i t i o n i s t h e l a n d s c a p e . " " L a n d s c a p e " , i n t e r m s o f C r o c e ' s a e s t h e t i c , i s m e r e l y t h e l a b e l we may, f o r c o n v e n i e n c e , a p p l y t o t h e e x p r e s s -i o n o f t h e a r t i s t 1 s i n t u i t i o n . E o r , b e f o r e an i n t u i t i o n c an be p r o p e r l y t ermed an i n t u i t i o n , i t must have come t o a head • to u s e an u n f i t t i n g f i g u r e — - t h a t i s , i t must be e x p r e s s e d . And t h e i n d i v i d u a l image ( o r i n t u i t i o n , or e x p r e s s i o n ) i s i n s e p a r -a b l e f r o m t h e knowing s p i r i t e x p r e s s i n g ( o r i n t u i t i n g i t ) . " A n image t h a t does n o t e x p r e s s , t h a t i s n o t s p e e c h , song, d r a w i n g , p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e o r a r c h i t e c t u r e - - — s p e e c h a t l e a s t murmured /AT t o o n e s e l f , song a t l e a s t e c h o i n g w i t h i n one's b r e a s t , l i n e and c o l o r s e e n i n i m a g i n a t i o n and c o l o r i n g w i t h i t s own t i n t the whole s o u l and o r g a n i s m - - i s an image t h a t does n o t exist,, We may a s s e r t i t s e x i s t e n c e , b u t we c a n n o t s u p p o r t a s s e r t i o n ; f o r the o n l y t h i n g we c o u l d adduce i n s u p p o r t o f i t would be t h e f a c t t h a t w t h e image was embodied o r e x p r e s s e d . T h i s p r o f o u n d p h i l o s o p h -i c a l d o c t r i n e , t h e i d e n t i t y o f i n t u i t i o n and e x p r e s s i o n i s , more-o v e r , a p r i n c i p l e o f o r d i n a r y common s e n s e , w h i c h l a u g h s a t p e o p l e who c l a i m t o have t h o u g h t s t h e y c a n n o t e x p r e s s o r t o have i m a g i n e d 1 5 a g r e a t p i c t u r e w h i c h t h e y c a n n o t p a i n t . " V We may r e m a i n u n c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n t u i t i o n and e x p r e s s i o n , and t h e e q u a t i n g o f t h e two w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f b e a u t y , i s e i t h e r " p r o f o u n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l do.cltgi-ne o r " o r d i n a r y common s e n s e " . Many c r i t i c s i n s i s t , i n s t e a d , t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y i s e x t r e m e l y e q u i v o c a l ; even E.3y C a r r i t t , who i s a s y m p a t h e t i c commentator, a g r e e s t h a t t h e p h r a s e w o u l d be more m e a n i n g f u l i f i t were changed t o r e a d i n t u i t i o n t e n d s to become e x p r e s s i o n . M o r e o v e r , what c a u s e s a "raw p a s s i o n " t o c o a g u l a t e i n e x p r e s s i o n ? D i d t h e emo t i o n , o r w h a t e v e r , w h i c h i s e x p r e s s e d as an i n d i v i d u a l image, p o s s e s s p r e v i o u s to i t s e x p r e s s i o n , a c e r t a i n p s y c h i c a l p o t e n t i a l ? Or i s t h s a c t o f e x p r e s s i n g r a t h e r to be e q u a t e d w i t h s p o n t a n e o u s , and e f f o r t l e s s , c r e a t i o n ? F u r t h e r m o r e , must we b e l i e v e t h a t w h a t e v e r bobs to t h e s u r f a c e F 1 Q o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s t h e r e b y e x p r e s s i v e , and b e a u t i f u l ? T h e c r i t i c i s m made b y C a r r i t t i s ' s i g n i f i c a n t : "By s a c r i f i c i n g ^ i t a l i c s mine. asi unproven t h i s a t t r a c t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of i n t u i t i o n with expression we have renounced immediate possession of a p h i l o s -phy so completely symmetrical as his...'. (But) by allowing that we can become aware of r e a l ormimaginary objects i n which we do not express our own de s i r e s or aversions, i t seems more possiblee to e x p l a i n , not only the communication of expressions and the apprehension of u g l i n e s s , but also the d i f f e r e n c e of a dream or 17 l i s t l e s s and incoherent awareness from the a e s t h e t i c act." According to Croce, "What we admire i n a work of a r t i s the p e r f e c t imaginative form i n which a state of mind has 18 clothed i t s e l f . " ; and beauty i s a manifestation, or expression, of hjte s t a t e of mind to_ the mind. Such l o c u t i o n s y i e l d a concept of the a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y which would seem to reduoe a r t to a sort of p s y c h i c a l parthenogenesis. We s h a l l have to defer f o r a moment Mie v i t a l ques-t i o n r a i s e d by the references to communication i n the above ex-cerpts from C a r r i t t and Croce. We must tu r n our attentionnow to the d i s t i n c t i o n Croce makes between a r t and non-art. 3 (a) Art not f e e l i n g i n i t s immediacy. The dictum: "Art i s the expression of emotion," draws f i r e from C l a s s i c i s t s and R e a l i s t s a l i k e , who are sure that they can espy, l u r k i n g beneath a verbal camouflage, t h e i r arch-enemy, Romanticisml However snat may be, 19 i t i s necessary to a s s e r t , i n f a i r n e s s to Croce, who does na& subscribe to the aphorism and who indeed has c a l l e d h i s p h i l o s -phy the philosophy of Expression, that a proper understanding of what he i n t e n d s hy e x p r e s s i o n w i l l o l e a r from him the c rude ' charge o f e m o t i o n - m o n g e r i n g . " A r t / ' he s a y s / ' i s no v a i n - i m a g i n i n g , o r tumul tuous p a s s i o n a l i t y , but the s u r p a s s i n g o f t h i s a c t "by means o f ano the r a c t , or, i f i t be p r e f e r r e d , the s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h i s t u m u l t f o r ano the r t u m u l t , t h a t o f the l o n g i n g t o opgate and t o comtemplate w i t h the j o y and a n g u i s h o f a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n . " " E x p r e s s i o n i s the a c t i v i t y of the i m a g i n a t i o n , the a c t i v i t y w h i c h produces o r i n v e n t s o r c r e a t e s images , images w h i c h a re p a r t i c u l a r and i n d i v i d u a l * I t i s not i m a g i n a t i o n i n the s econda ry meaning i n w h i c h i t i s a f a c u l t y o f r e p r o d u c i n g and r e c o m b i n i n g f a n c i f u l images out o f e lements o f pa s t E x p e r i e n c e . I n i t s o r i g i n a l meaning.;:-the i m a g i n a t i o n i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the i n t e l l e c t as 21 an i n t u i t i o n i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from a concept* " Groce r e p u d i a t e s the h e d o n i s t i c A e s t h e t i c ; p l e a s u r e he s a y s , i s no t the d i f f e r e n t i a o f a r t . "The b e s t t h a t can be done i n s suppor t of t h e ; : d e f i n i t i d b * : of a r t as what p l e a s e s , i s t o m a i n t a i n t h a t i t i s no t s i m p l y what p l e a s e s , but what p l e a s e s i n a i p a r t i c u l a i ? way. Bu t sueh a q u a l i f i c a t i o n i s not a defense but an abandonment o f t h e p o s i t i o n , s i n c e , i f a r t i s s a p a r t -i c u l a r k i n d o f p l e a s u r e , i t s d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r wouldmdepend, not on i t s p l e a s a n t n e s s but on what d i s t i n g u i s h e s i t from o t h e r 22 p l e a s a n t t h i n g s . " C e r t a i n l y t h e n , Croce does not i d e n t i f y a r t w i t h any " r o m a n t i c " e m o t i o n a l i t y . Y e t he concedes " s i n c e e v e r y e r r o r i s founded upon some t r u t h . . . . the h e d o n i s t i c t h e o r y has i t s e t e r n a l b a s i s o f t r u t h i n i t s emphasis on the h e d o n i s t i c / i t a l i c s mine accompaniment o r p l e a s u r e w h i c h i s common t o the a e s t h e t i c a e t i v -23# i * y and a l l o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s o f the mind* I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o know what Croce i n t e n d s p r e c i s e -l y by the i t a l i c i z e d p h r a s e ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , as f a r as h i s i n t e n t -i o n r e g a r d i n g the a e s t h e t i c performance i s c o n c e r n e d , we may be o b l i g e d t o agree w i t h the E x p r e s s i o n i s t s t h a t he has no t a s s i g n e d t o f e e l i n g a r o l e g r e a t l y more e m o t i o n a l t h a n have even the Herb -24 a r t i a n f o r m a l i s t s . The r e a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e $ i s o f c o u r s e , t h a t w h i l e t he l a t t e r s e e v i n t h e f o r m a l e x t e r n a l e lements com-p r i s i n g t h e work o f a r t t h e o&use o r sou rce o f b e a u t y , C r o c e , de -n y i n g a r e a l i t y e x t e r n a l t o e x p e r i e n c i n g m i n d , sees the cause o r sou rce i m p l i c i t i n the mind i t s e l f , i . e . , i n f e e l i n g . "What g i v e s u n i t y and coherence t o i n t u i t i o n i s f e e l i n g . I n t u i t i o n s a re t r i l y such because t h e y r e p r e s e n t f e e l i n g , and o n l y thenoe can t h e y a r -i s e i I t i s no t a thought bu t f e e l i n g t h a t g i v e s t o a r t the a i r y 25 l i g h t n e s s o f i t s s s y m b o l i s m . " I n t u i t i o n s r e p r e s e n t and e x p r e s s f e e l i n g : t h e y b r i n g fo rm t o t h© chaos o f f e e l i n g . But h e r e the metaphor c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n the v e r b " b r i n g " i s ap t t o m i s l e a d : fo rm must no t he t hough t o f as b o t t l e s i n t o m w h i c h f e e l i n g i s p o u r e d , l e a v i n g e a c h , fosm and f e e l i n g , t o r e t a i n i t s s epa ra t e i d e n t i t y . Such s e t t i n g o f fo rm ove r a g a i n s t f e e l i n g l e a d s t o the di lemma o f d u a l i s m , w h i c h , as has a l r e a d y been shown, Croce r e g a r d s as the n e g a t i o n o f a e s t h e t i c . I f we must r e s o r t t o metaphor—and sooner we o r l a t e r we mus t , i n m e t a p h y s i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s . s e e i n g f o r c e d to-—• our o r i g i n a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t he i n t u i t i n g p r o c e s s as a " c r y s t a l l -i z a t i o n " i s pe rhaps more m e a n i n g f u l . # I t a l i es m i n e . The a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y i s , f o r Croce, analogous to the A r i s t o t e l i a n c a t h a r s i s : a r t has the power o f " l i b e r a t i n g us from the passions." " . . . . a r t i n c r e a t i n g beauty does not simply seek pleasure, though, as A r i s t o t l e saw,it a t t a i n s i t s propel pleasure. And t h i s proper pleasure i s our s a t i s f a c t i o n i n that t h e o r e t i c triumph by which our imagination creates a convincing p i c t u r e , not h i s t o r i c a l l y t r u e , but coherent, i n d i v i d u a l , necess ary, i m i t a t i v e of ao t i o n and yet rjrwmioal; by the order or form which i t thus imposes on passions purging them away so that as a r t i s t a we have no longer b l i n d impulses of l u s t or s h r i n k i n g , 26 but a p u r i f i e d , an expressed emotion." ( C a r r i t t : Theory of Beauty, p. 284} And the poet w r i t i n g a tragedy "does not lose h i s wits or grow s t i f f as he gazes; he does not t o t t e r or weep or cry; he expresses himself i n harmonious verse, having had 27 these various p e r t u r b a t i o n s , the object ofmwhich he sings." 3 (b). Beauty and u g l i n e s s . Pleasure, as has been said above, i s not the d i f f e r e n t i a of a r t ; "nothing can be born i n t o the sou l without the consent of the s o u l , and consequently without corresponding pleasure."# How i t i s n o t o r i o u s l y d i f f i c u l t to dispute a metaphor, and, i n any case, an an a l y s i s of the metaphysical s u b t l e t i e s i m p l i c i t i n t h i s one l i e s f a r beyond the scope of t h i s essay. What does immediately concern us i s the n o t i o n that pleasure accompanies whatever id"born i n t o the so u l " . This I take to mean that pleasure accompanies every ex-pression of an i n t u i t i o n , — a l t h o u g h we need to be reminded that the "hedonistic accompaniment or pleasure i s common t o . . . a l l . . . a c t i v i t i e s of the mind." The point i s that whenever an image i s # i t a l i o s mine "born" , 1the soul experiences beauty; and whenever an image i s s t i l l b o r n , — - w h e n e v e r an embryonic i n t u i t i o n s t r u g g l i n g to be expressed does not aoheive expression, the r e s u l t i s u g l i n e s s . In b r i e f , Crooe means by beauty, s u c c e s s f u l expression; by u g l i -ness, unsuccessful expression. Ugliness i n a r t may he caused by the i n t r u s i o n of a p r a e t i e a l a c t i v i t y . "The a r t i s t who s u b s t i t u t e s f o r a represent-a t i o n of h i s a f f e c t i o n s an argument about h i s affections...oomm-28 i t s the a r t i s t i c e r r o r , that i s to say, u g l i n e s s . " The p u r i t y and u n s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of the mental image i s the sine qua non of the experience of beauty: so soon as s c i e n t i f i c "pseudoooncepts n or i n t e l l e c t u a l and moral judgments supervene upon the ae s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y , the l a t t e r vanishes. Ae s t h e t i c knowledge or beauty i s simply knowledge of our own mental images. E.F. C a r r i t t o f f e r s t h i a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n j "We know ne i t h e r n a t u r a l things,which meta-p h y s i c a l l y do not e x i s t ; nor our crude v o l i t i o n s which I under-stand, do; a l l o u r images are expressions of the l a t t e r . When the sound of a fog-horn bursts upon my ears, that sound, p r i o r to mental c o n s t r u c t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n , i s an expression, and noth- i n g e l s e t than an expression , of ray s t a t e , i n j u s t the same way as i s my own s i l e n t l y formulated oath or chuckle. I f i t s " i n d i v -i d u a l physiognomy" i s o l e a r l y i n t u i t e d , i t w i l l always, previous to a b s t r a c t i o n , be, i n i t s own l i t t l e way, b e a u t i f u l . " By the process of simple s u b s t i t u t i o n i n Crooe's f l e x i b l e a e s t h e t i c equation we obtain two statements which are ne.ceasarfc to an understanding of h i s t h e s i s * v i z . , # i t a l i c s mine beauty i a an expression, i . e., al i b e a u t y i s expressive (of mental s t a t e s ) ; and expression i s beauty, i . e., whatever i s expressed i s b e a u t i f u l . The p r o p o s i t i o n as stated i n the f i r s t form we have discussed; there remains an issue r a i s e d by the second form. I f by chance the a r t i s t gives expression to matter regarded by s o c i e t y as immoral, s i n f u l , or ugly; i s the express-i o n of i t , ipso f a c t o , b e a u t i f u l ? Yes, answers Croce. He i n s i s t s that the a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y , as such, has no concern with judgments of any k i n d , moral or otherwise. The a r t i s t , qua a r t i s t , " w i l l always be morally blameless and p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y uncensurable; even though h i s a r t should i n d i c a t e a low mo r a l i t y and philosophy: Insofar as he i s an a r t i s t , he does hot act and does not reason, 30 # but p o e t i s e s , p a i n t s , sings, and i n short, expresses himself..." We must add, p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y , that t h i s freedom the a r t i s t enjoys, nevertheless, does not preclude censorship; on the contrary, Croce admits he would have no hesitancy about even burning works of a r t " * i n ap pyre of v a n i t i e s " a, l a Savon-31 .. -, a r o l a n , should s o c i e t y f i n d the a r t i s t ' s works offensive on moral grounds. 10. The a r t i f a c t not the r e a l work o f a r t . Croce 1s stand on the vex. matter of censorship w i l l not su r p r i s e us when we discover that the p h y s i c a l a r t i f a c t s do not c o n s t i t u t e the true works of a r t . Censorship can-:"affect not the works of a r t , but the books and canvases whieh serve as instruments f o r the reproduce/ i o n of the a r t , which, as p r a c t i c a l works, are paid f o r i n the market at a p r i c e equivalent to so much corn or gold." / i t a l i c s mine " I t i s c l e a r , " he saya, "that the poem i s complete as soon as the poet has expressed i t i n words which he repeats to himself. When he comes to repeat them aloud, f o r others to hear, or looks f o r someone to l e a r n them hy heart and repeat them as i n a schola oantorum, or gets them down i n w r i t i n g or i n p r i n t i n g , he has entered upon a new stage, not aesthetic but p r a c t i c a l , whose s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l importance need not, of course, be i n s i s t e d upon. So with the p a i n t e r ; he paints on h i s panel or canvas, but he could not paint unless at every stage of h i s workj from the o r i g i n a l b l u r or sketch to the f i n i s h i n g toue hes, the i n t u i t e d image, the l i n e and c o l o r painted i n h i s imag-32 i n a t i o n , preceded the brush stroke." I f i n a n a l y s i n g " i n t u i t i o n " and "expression" a reader came to suspect that Groce's use of key-terms i s h i g h l y a r b i t r a r y , h i s s u s p i c i o n w i l l deepen i n t o a c o n v i c t i o n when he 34 discovers what Croce s i g n i f i e s by a'work of a r t ' . The'work of a r t , ' the s o - c a l l e d p h y s i c a l a r t i f a c t i s f o r Crooe completely i n c i d e n t a l to the a r t i s t ' s a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y and serves merely the p r a c t i c a l , p u r p o s e (see above) of " f i x i n g the memory of our 35 b i n t u i t i o n s " The a r t i s t , who v i b r a t e s " w i t h expressed images which break f o r t h by i n f i n i t e channels from h i s whole being, i s t,a?whole man, and t h e r e f o r e a l s o a p r a c t i c a l man, and as such takes measures against l o s i n g the r e s u l t of h i s S p i r i t u a l labour and i n favour of rendering p o s s i b l e or easy, f o r himself or f o r others, the reproduction of h i s images; hence he engages i n p r a c t i c a l a r t s which a s s i s t that work of reproduction. These prac-t i c a l acts are guided, as are a l l p r a c t i c a l a c t s , by knowledge, S3 and f o r t h i s r e a s o n are c a l l e d t e o h n i a a l ; a n d , s i n c e t h e y a re p r a c t i c a l , t h e y a re d i s t i n g u i s h e d f rom c o n t e m p l a t i o n , w h i c h i s t h e o r e t i a a l , and seem t o be e x t e r n a l t o i t , and are t h e r e f o r e c a l l e d p h y s i c a l : t h e y assume t h i s name the more e a s i l y i n s o f a r a s , t h e y a r e f i x e d and made a b s t r a c t by the i n t e l l e c t . Thus w r i t -i n g and phonography a r e connec ted w i t h words and m u s i c , and p a i n -t i n g canvas and wood and w a l l s c o v e r e d w i t h c o l o r s , s tone cut and i n c i s e d , i r o n and b ronze and o t h e r m e t a l s , m e l t e d and moulded t o c e r t a i n shapes , w i t h s c u l p t u r e and a r c h i t e c t u r e , go d i s t i n c t among t h e m s e l v e s a r e t h e two forms o f a c t i v i t y t h a t i t i s p o s s -i b l e t o be a g r e a t a r t i s t w i t h bad t e c h n i q u e , apoet who who c o r r e c t s t h e p r o o f s o f h i s v e r s e s b a d l y , an a r c h i t e c t who makes use o f u n s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l s o r does no t a t t e n d t o s t a t i c s a p a i n t e r who u s e s c o l o r s t h a t d e t e r i o r a t e r a p i d l y : examples o f t h e s e weaknesses a re so fre.qu.ent t h a t i t i s not w o r t h whilfe c i t i n g any o f them. Bu t what i s i m p o s s i b l e i s t o be a g r e a t poet who w r i t e s v e r s e s b a d l y , a g r e a t p a i n t e r who does no t g i v e tone t o h i s c o l o r s , a g r e a t a r c h i t e c t who does no t harmonise h i s l i n e s a g r e a t composer who does not ha rmonise h i s n o t e s , i n s h o r t , a geeat a r t i s t who cannot e x p r e s s h i m s e l f ; I t has beens s a i d o f R a p h a e l t h a t he w o u l d have "been a g r e a t p a i n t e r even i f he had not, p o s s e s s e d h a n d s ; b u t c e r t a i n l y , no t t h a t he would have been a geeat h i m . " ' geeat p a i n t e r i f the sense o f d e s i g n a and c o l o r were w a n t i n g i n 36 However d i s i n c l i n e d one may be t o s p e c u l a t e about a r m l e s s R a p h a e l s and l e g l e s s P a v l o v a s , I t h i n k i t i s t r u e t h a t , w i t h i n the terms o f C r o c e ' s l o g i c , a l l t he i d e a s , ( e x c e p t i n g / i t a l i c s mine the s l i p ahout the a r c h i t e c t ) i n the above passage have been expressed with p e r f e c t c o n s i s t e n c y , My purpose i n the next s e c t i o n i s not to discuss swhether h i s i s the most meaningful d e s c r i p t i o n of the a r t i s t ' s a c t i v i t y , but to d i s c o v e r whether h i s concept of the "work of a r t " being what i t i s , Croce succ© eeds i n a v o i d i n g i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s when he undertakes to e x p l a i n communication. 11. The problem of communication. The problem of communic-a t i o n i s a rook upon which many an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l theory has foundered. Here the c r i t i c s seem agreed that at t h i s point Croce s t e e r s a dangerous, i f not f a t a l course. But he hi m s e l f r e s t s s e r e n e l y c o n f i d e n t , i f rock there be, how easy to d i s s o l v e i t , o h r i s t i a n - s o i e n c e - w i s e , i n t o the i m m a t e r i a l i t y of the c r i t i c s r E r r o r . To examine the charge we must r e c a l l how thorough-going C r o c e 5 s i d e a l i s m i s . "Art, understood as i n t u i t i o n , accord-i n g to the concept that I have exposed, having denied the e x i s t - ence of a p h y s i c a l world outside of i t . , which i t looks upon simply aa a c o n s t r u c t i o n of our i n t e l l e c t , does not know what to do with a p a r a l l e l i s m of the t h i n k i n g substance and of substance extended i n space, and has no need to promote imposs-i b l e marriages, because i t s t h i n k i n g substance or, r a t h e r i t s i n t u i t i v e a c t — - i s p e r f e c t i n i t s e l f , and i s that same f a c t 37 which the i n t e l l e c t l a t e r c o n s t r u c t s as extended." We noted e a r l i e r that i n t u i t i o n , u n l i k e p e r c e p t i o n # i t a l i o s mine 55 •• ' .- ^ i s not concerned with the r e a l i t y or the u n r e a l i t y of i t s ob-j e c t s ; hut i s d i r e c t e d s o l e l y to the pur® apprehension of the s p i r i t 1 s i n d i v i d u a l image*. How we di s c o v e r that when feoce . meets with the problem of communication he f i n d s i t convenient to r e s o r t to a p h y s i c a l frame of r e f e r e n c e , whieh, however he 38 r e f e r s t o , p a t r o n i z i n g l y , a s merely 'metaphorical'. "Commun-i c a t i o n ," he says, " i s the f i x a t i o n of the i n t u i t i o n - e x p r e s s -i o n upon an object m e t a p h o r i c a l l y c a l l e d m a t e r i a l or p h y s i c a l ; i n r e a l i t y , even here we are not concerned with the m a t e r i a l 39 t h i n g s , but with a mental process," \ . We may witness the f u l l f l o w e r i n g of t h i s l o g i c i n the f o l l o w i n g passage from the chapter, P r e j u d i c e s R e l a t i n g to A r t , i n The Bssense o f A e s t h e t i c ( c o n t i n u i n g from the above qu o t a t i o n ) "This apparent t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the i n t u i t i o n s i n t o p h y s i c a l t h i n g s a l t o g e t h e r analogous with the apparent t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of wants and economic l a b o r i n t o things and i n t o merchandise a l s o e x p l a i n s how people have come to t a l k not only of " a r t i s t i c t h i n g s " and of " b e a u t i f u l t h i n g s , but of a "beaut-i f u l of nature•" I t i s evident t h a t , besides the instruments that are made f o r the r e p r o d u c t i o n of images, objects already e x i s t i n g aan be met with, whether produced by man or not, which perform such a s e r v i c e that i s to say, are more or l e s s adapted to f i x i n g t h e m«mory of our i n t u i t i o n s ; and these things take the name of " n a t u r a l b e a u t i e s , " and e x e r c i s e t h e i r f a s c i n a t i o n only when we know how to understand them with the same s o u l with which the a r t i s t or a r t i s t s have takengf and appropriated them, g i v i n g value to them and i n d i c a t i n g the point of view^c / i t a l i c s mine from which we must look at them,thus connecting them with t h e i r own i n t u i t i o n s , But the always imperfect a d a p t a b i l i t y , the, f u g i t i v e nature, the m u t a b i l i t y of 'natural beauties' also .j u s t i f y the i n f e r i o r place accorded to. them, compared with beauties produced by, a r t . Let us leave i t tfr the rhetor jo jama or" the i n t o x i c a t e d to a f f i r m that a b e a u t i f u l , t r e e , a beautifufel r i v e r , a b e a u t i f u l human f i g u r e , are superior to the c h i s e l -stroke of Michelangelo or the verse of Dante; but l e t us aay « wi t h greater p r o p r i e t y , that "nature 1 1 i a atupid compared with a r t , gnd that she la'mute 1 1 i f man does not make her apeak." But ( r i s k i n g ; themunflattering i m p l i c a t i o n ) we may ask, are the r h e t o r i c i a n s and the i n t o x i c a t e d l e f t only one alw t e r n a t i v e , and t h a t , the s u p e r i o r i t y of stupid "nature"? May i t not be that the question of value does not enter here? Furthermore, why even the implied imperfection of 'nature', i f the p h y s i c a l world be but a con s t r u c t i o n of the i n t e l l e c t , -what i s the model of p e r f e c t i o n by which the i n t e l l e c t judges "nature"? And why the poverty of n a t u r a l beauties i f they e x i a t anyway only by aufferanee of the a r t i s t a * i n t u i t i o n s convenient hooks upon which the a r t i s t s may, f o r purpose of l a b -e l l i n g , hang t h e i r s e l f generated a r t i s t i c images? And again, why should a soulpttifcfj or any other a r t i a t , bother to atruggle with a p h y s i c a l medium when the completed work of art i s already i n h i a mind before he s t a r t s ? and even i f he does not indulge i n the supererogatory a c t i v i t y , how can he be sure that the alleged a r t i f a c t correaponds to the mental image, when he learns that "To attempt to f i n d a passage or oonnexion betweenthe ' 5/ s p i r i t u a l i t y of the image and the p h y s i c a l complexes of 42 colors,qsounds, and words i s a desperate e n t e r p r i s e " ? But has not Groce h i m s e l f undertaken t h i s "desper-ate e n t e r p r i s e " i n the f o l l o w i n g account of the a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y ? "In r e a l i t y , we know no t h i n g hut expressed i n t u i t -i o n s , a thought i s not thought f o r us, unless i t he p o s s i b l e to formulate i t i n words; a musical,image e x i s t s f o r us only when i t becomes concrete ine, sounds, a p i s t o r i a l image, only when i t i s c o l o r e d . We do not say that the words must necess-a r i l y be declaimed i n a loud->volce , the music performed, or Ihe p i c t u r e painted upon wood or canvas; but i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t when a thought i s r e a l l y thought, when i t has a t t a i n e d t o the maturity of thougmt, the words run through our whole organism, s o l i c i t i n g the muscles of our mouth and r i n g i n g i n t e r n a l l y i n our ears; when musie i s t r u l y music, i t t r i l l s i n t e r n a l l y i n thn t h r o a t and s h i v e r s i n the f i n g e r s that toucfi. i d e a l notes; when a p i c t o r i a l image i s p i o t o r i a l l y r e a l we are impregnated w i t h lymphs that are c o l o r s , and maybe, i f c o l o r i n g matters weee not at our d i s p o s a l j we might spontaneous*! 4 3 # l y c o l o r surrounding o b j e c t s by a s o r t of i r r a d i a t i o n * . . " Is he not v i r t u a l l y a d m i t t i n g that the passage from the s p i r i t u a l i t y of the image (whose autonomy, i n t h i s case, we are not -concerned w i t h denying) to the p h y s i c a l complexes of c o l o r s sounds and words i s at l e a s t the t e s t , i f not the essence of the a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y ? In the one breath Croce proclaims us a l l to be #i t a i i c s mine to some extent, mute, i n g l o r i o u s M i l t o n s : everyman h i s own poet, i n s o f a r as he i n t u i t s image®; and i n the next, pours scorn on'those impotent poets, p a i n t e r s , or musicians, who a l -ways have t h e i r heads f u l l of p o e t i c , p i c t o r i a l , and musical c r e a t i o n s , and only f a i l to t r a n s l a t e them i n t o e x t e r n a l form e i t h e r because, as they say, they are impatient of expression, or because technique i s not s u f f i c i e n t l y advanced torn a f f o r d 44 them means of e x p r e s s i o n . Now i t i s true that Croce deprec-i a t e s the "play of fancy", i . e . , the p a s s i n g from image to image " i n search of v a r i e t y , r e s t , or d i v e r s i o n , seeking to amuse e i t s e l f with the l i k e n e s s e s of things that give p l e a s u r e or 45 : have emotional or p a t h e t i c i n t e r e s t " . But, (as??suspect as we w i l l b a g r e e t h e i r r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n ^ are, can i t be f a i r l y s a i d that the "impotent" poets, e t c . , are being i n c o n s i s t e n t i n the terms of Croce's d o c t r i n e ? How can Crooe prove that the "hadon i s t i c accompaniment" whioh undoubtedly does a t t a c h to such " o r e a t i o n s " as t h e i r s to be a bastard emotion and not hie t r u l y a e s t h e t i e ? Now one may choose to argue that the experience of beauty produced by Beethoven's N i n t h Symphony e x i s t s i n the mind of the l i s t e n e r , and not i n e i t h e r the symbols of the conductor's score or the p a t t e r n of sound waves of various frequencies produced by the d i f f e r e n t instruments and v o i c e s j i n other words, beauty i s a q u a l i t y of mind and not a qual-i t y of t h i n g s . But whether beauty be a q u a l i t y o f mind, a qual i t y of t h i n g s , or a q u a l i t y of r e l a t i o n between subject and o object does not g r e a t l y oonoern us. Whajr does concern us i s , how can Crooe, h o l d i n g the f i r s t of our a l t e r n a t i v e s to be the / i t a l i c s mine o n l y v a l i d one , r e o o n o i l e h i s d o c t r i n e o f b e a u t y as i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i o n w i t h communica t ion o f t h a t e x p e r i e n c e , o r any p a r t o f i t , t o o t h e r s . The k e y s t o n e o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y , we have o b s e r v e d , i s the d e n i a l o f a r e a l i t y e x t e r n a l t o e x p e r i e n c i n g mind : " i d e a l i t y i s r e a l i t y " . The " o u t e r " w o r l d i s a m e t a p h o r i c a l c o n c e p t : an a b s t r a c t c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s c i e n t i s t s i n o r d e r t o d e a l w i t h our p r a c t i c a l o r " c o n v e n t i o n a l " e x p e r i e n c e s . I t f o l l o w s t h a t a " t r a n s l a t i o n " o f a s p i r i t u a l q u a l i t y ( i n t u i t i o n ) i n t o a p h y s i c a l q u a n t i t y ( c o m p l e x s o f c o l o r s , e t c . ) i s a m e t a p h y s i c a l C o n t r a d i c t i o n w h i c h can l a y c l a i m o n l y to the same o r d e r o f t r u t h as the book c l e r k ' s s t a t e m e n t : " S h a k s p e r e ' s comple te works a re w o r t h t h r e e d o l l a r s . " B u t , h a v i n g had the r e a l i t y o f e x t e r n a l i t y d e n i e d u s , h o w - — u n l e s s we a r e expec t ed t o r e s o r t t o some m y s t i c a l s o r t o f t e l e p a t h y j i ^ - c a n the gap between one man's e x p e r i e n c e an& a n o t h e r ' s be b r i d g e d ? "The e x a c t l i n e t h a t d i v i d e s e x p r e s s i o n from communica t ion i s d i f f i c u l t t o draw i n a conc re t e c a s e , f o r i n the c o n c r e t e case the two p r o c e s s e s g e n e r a l l y a l t e r n a t e r a p i d l y and appear t o m i n g l e , bu t i t i s c l e a r i n i d e a and must be f i r m l y g r a s p e d . Through o v e r l o o k i n g i t , o r b l u r r i n g i t t h r o u g h i n s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n , a r i s e the c o n f u s i o n s between a r t and t e c h n i q u e . Technique i s not an i n t r i n s i c element... o f a r t bu t has t o do p r e c i s e l y w i t h the concept o f communica t ion . C r o c e , as we Jiave seen , e x p r e s s l y r e j e c t s the v a l i d i t y o f e x t e r n a l i t y # i t a l i c s mine . Co whether of nature or of a r t on the grounds of i t s leadings to the d u a l i s t i s dilemma "which i s the s u i c i d e of philosophy. Yet he admits that ..an artist.hean take measures against l o s i n g the r e s u l t - o f h i s s p i r i t u a l l a b o r s , and rendering "possible, or easy, f o r himself and f o r others, the reprodustion of h i s images" To me t h i s seems l i k e denying admittance to appoor r e l a t i o n at the f r o n t door, and l e t t i n g him s l i n k i n at the back i n order to borrow a d o l l a r from him* I f " i n t u i t i o n s are t r u l y such because they represent f e e l i n g , and only thence can they a r i s e , " i f t h e essence of a r t i s "the p e r f e c t imaginative form i n which a state of mind clothes I t s e l f , " then how can sensations reoelved from without, i . e . , from a "reproduction" (whether p h y s i a a l or'metaphorical') have any e f f e o t whatsoever upon the i n t u i t i n g process of e i t h e r the a r t i s t h i m s e l f , when he returns to i t i n "cold blood", or any other p o s s i b l e beholder? Moreover, does not perception involve the c r i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n between r e a l i t y andd u n r e a l i t y — ~ a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e r e i g n to the i n t u i t i o n ? Surely thenthere can be no question of i n t u i t i n g a "work of a r t " , about whose r e a l i t y or u n r e a l i t y the beholder could never e n t e r t a i n a moment!s doubt. From t h i s I $hink i t f o l l o w s that to adapt the conventional n o t i o n that a p i c t u r e may arouse emotionality i n the beholder, i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to Croce's idea, that the beholder creates the p i c t u r e i n expressing h i s own emotionality i n i t . Thus when Crooe says "'Works of a r t ' e x i s t only i n the minds that create 47 or recreate them" I t h i n k we are forced to the uncharitable conclusion, t h a t , by d e f i n i t i o n , h i s statement i s meaningless, / i t a l i c s mine. 6 / 12« A r t aa language. The question of the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f f a r t and language stems d i r e c t l y from the l a s t s e c t i o n , or, more properly, i n terms of s t r i c t l o g i c a l p r i o r i t y , i t should have been t r e a t e d before the concept of e x t e r n a l i z a t i o n . At the end of hism h i s t o r i c a l sketch i n the En- cyclopedia Bri&annica Grooe concludes wit h : "The general r e v i v a l oS s p e c u l a t i v e thought l e d to greater successes i n a e s t h e t i c s i n the f i r s t decades of the twentieth century. E s p e c i a l l y noteworthy i s the union which i s t a k i n g place be^ tween a e s t h e t i c s and thev philosophy of language? f a c i l i t a t e d by .the d i f f i c u l t i e s under whieh l i n g u i s t i c , conceived as the n a t u r a l i s t i c and p o s i t i v i s t i c science of the phonetio laws of, 48 language and s i m i l a r a b stractions Is l a b o r i n g * " Which confirms a s u s p i c i o n already growing i n our minds that Croce i a quite out of aympathy with p o s i t i v l s t s , 49 e m p i r i c i s t s and experimental p s y c h o l o g i s t s , et a l : Croce refuses eredenoe^in theory, at l e a s t , to any arguments threatening the autonomous i d e a l i t y of a r t , — w h a t e v e r may app-ear i n the s l i g h t e s t degree to d i c t a t e from without to the s e l f c r e a t i n g expreasion which i s beauty. The marriag® of form and content must remain i n d i s s o l u b l e . Croce was e a r l y a t t r a c t e d towYico's equation of poetry and p r i m i t i v e speech. "(Vico) regarded poetry as a mode of consciousness or t h e o r e t i c form preceding the p h i l o s o p h i c a l or reasoning form,and asserted aa i t s sole p r i n c i p l e the i m a g i n a t i o n , . w h i c h l a s t r i n g i n p r o p o r t i o n t h a t i t i s f r e e 50 f rom r a t i o c i n a t i o n , i t s enemy and d e s t r o y e r , " Upon t h i s assum-p t i o n Crooe has c o n s t r u c t e d h i s m e t a p h y s i o . "The p h i l o s o p h y o f l a n g u a g e , , . , i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h the p h i l o s o p h y o f p o e t r y and a r t , t he s c i e n c e o f i n t u i t i o n - e x p r e s s i o n , a e s t h e t i c s ; w h i c h embraces language i n i t s whole e x t e n s i o n , p a s s i n g beyond the l i m i t s o f p h o n e t i c and s y l l a b i c l a n g u a g e , and i n i t s u n i m p a i r e d r e a l i t y as l i v i n g and c o m p l e t e l y s i g n i f i c a n t e x p r e s s i o n , , . , " " T h i s i d e n t i f i a a t i o n ( o f language and p o e t r y ) appears t o us t o be • • . as m n a v o i d a b l e a s l i t l i s e a s y , h a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d the c o n -c e p t o f a r t as i n t u i t i o n and o f i n t u i t i o n as e x p r e s s i o n , a n d t h e r e f o r e i m p l i c i t l y I t s i d e n t i t y w i t h l a n g u a g e : a lways assum-i n g t h a t l anguage be oonde ived i n i t s f u l l e x t e n s i o n , w i t h o u t a r b i t r a r y r e s t r i c t i o n s t o s o - c a l l e d i n a r t i c u l a t e language and w i t h o u t a r b i t r a r y e x c l u s i o n o f t o n i c , m i m e t i c , and g r a p h i c ; and i n a l l i t s e x t e n s i o n - that i s , t a k e n i n i t s r e a l i t y , w h i c h i s t he act, o f speafeing i t s e l f , w i t h o u t f a l s i f y i n g i t w i t h t h e ab- s t r a c t i o n s o f grammars and v o c a b u l a r i e s , and w i t h o u t the f o o l i s h b e l i e f t h a t man speaks w i t h t h e v o c a b u l a r y and w i t h grammar. Man speaks a t e v e r y moment l i k e the p o e t , because , l i k e ; t h e poet he e x p r e s s e s h i s s i m l f r e s s i o n s and h i s f e e l i n g s i n the form s a i l e d / c o n v e r s a t i o n a l o r f a m i l i a r , w h i c h i s no t s e p a r a t e d by any abyss f rom the o t h e r forms c a l l e d p r o s a i c , p o e t i o ^ p r o s a i c , n a r r a t i v e , 5i# e p i c , d i a l o g u e , d r a m a t i c , l y r i c , m e l i c , s i n g i n g , and so o n . " No doubt r a t i o n a l i s t s and e m p i r i c i s t s would p r o t e s t a t the o u t s e t t h a t the e x p r e s s i o n " t a k e n i n i t s r e a l i t y ? ism b e g g i n g the q u e s t i o n . Whether t h a t charge can be p roved o n t o -# i t a l i o s m i n e . &3 l o g i c a l l y o r n o t , t he e x p r e s s i o n does serve i n t h i s con t ex t t o r e i t e r a t e once more the, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c emphasis o f C r o c e ' s app roach i n d e a l i n g w i t h a l l the p rob lems i n h i s meaaphys ic . A b s t r a c t i o n s and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , though s e r v i n g a p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e a r e , by t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e s , f a l s i f i e r s o f t r u t h . A symbol or s i g n has the u s e f u l n e s s o f a l a b e l : not b e i n g the t h i n g - i n - i t s e l f , i t cannibt e x i s t i n p l a c e o f , o r p r o p e r l y " t r a n s l a t e " t h a t w h i c h i t i s n o t . A r o s e by ano the r name would s m e l l as swee t . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e sum o f the q u a l i t i e s c o m p r i s i n g the r o s e can n e v e r be the r o s e . Thus by mere r a t i o -c i n a t i v e means we can o n l y approx ima te a c o n c e p t u a l i d e a o f the r o s e ' s b e a u t y . That i n d i v i d u a l image w h i c h we agree t o l a b e l r o s e can o n l y be p r e d i c a t e d o f an i n t u i t i o n . And the e x p e r i e n c e o f feauty i s eaua ted w i t h the. i n t u i t i o n o f i t s i n d i v i d u a l image. " A r t i s a t r u e a e s t h e t i c s y n t h e s i s , a p r i o r i o f f e e l i n g and image i n the i n t u i t i o n , as t o w h i c h i t may be r e p e a t e d t h a t f e e l i n g 52 w i t h o u t image i s b l i n d , and image w i t h o u t f e e l i n g i s v o i d . " Now t o r e p e a t what has been s a i d p r e v i o u s l y , a r t p r ecedes a l l o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e ( i n a . ! l o g i c a l , not t e m p o r a l , 53 s e n s e ) ; i t doe® not need the concept or p h i l o s o p h y , but p h i l o s o p h y and the concept depend on a r t , w i t h o u t w h i c h they ; \ $ & l o s ^ •ffefpAafli.oii. sarfc, wlth.acrfe whisix t h s y would no t p o s s e s s the o r i g i n a l f l o w o f l a n g u a g e — t h e p o e t r y n a t u r a l t o man and on w h i c h t h e i r s t r u c t u r e o f u n i v e r s a l meanings has t o be e r e c t e d . • T h u s b o t h i n a r t and i n language ( c o n c e i v e d h i s t o r i c a l l y ) spontaneous image p recedes c o n v e n t i o n -a l s i g n . " I t i s u r g e n t t h a t ( l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s ) s h o u l d be disencumbered o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l , and p sychophys -i o l o g i c a l methods , now the f a s h i o n , and be f r e e d from the eve r r e t u r n i n g t h e o r y o f the c o n v e n t i o n a l o r i g i n o f l anguage , w h i c h has the i n e v i t a b l e c o r r e l a t i v e o f the m y s t i c a l t h e o r y as i t s i n e v i t a b l e r e a c t i o n . Here t oo i t w i l l no l o n g e r be n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s t r u c t absurb p a r a l l e l i s m s , o r t o promote m y s t e r i o u s n u p t i a l s between s i g n and image: when language i s no l o n g e r c o n c e i v e d as a s i g n , bu t as an image w h i c h i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i s , a s i g n i n i t s e l f , and t h e r e f o r e c o l o r e d , s o u n d i n g , s i n g i n g , a r t i c u l a t e . The s i g n i f i c a n t image i s t he spontaneous work o f the i m a g i n a t i o n , whereas the s i g n , w h e r e w i t h man agrees w i t h man, presupposes l anguage ; and when i t p e r s i s t s i n e x p l a i n i n g language by s i g n s , i t i s o b l i g e d to have r e c o u r s e t o God, as g i v e r o f f i r s t s i g n s -— t h a t i s , t o p resuppose language i n ano the r way, by c o n s i g n i n g 54 i t t o t h e u n k n o w a b l e . " S t i l l a n o t h e r head o f the hydra -headed mons te r , comm-u n i c a t i o n , l i e s c u n n i n g l y c o n c e a l e d benea th the f a i r a spec t o f t h i s e x t e n s i o n o f C r o c e ' s r e a s o n i n g . Bosanquet d i d i t b a t t l e 55 i n 1919. I f by the s ta tement " i t w i l l no l o n g e r be n e c e s s a r y to promote m y s t e r i o u s n u p t i a l s between s i g n and image" Croce means t h a t t h e r e can be no o n t o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s between the two, t h e n no one would t a k e i s s u e w i t h h i m ; o b v i o u s l y a r o s e can e x i s t by ano the r name. And when he s a y s , "The s i g n i f i c a n t image i s the spontaneous work o f the i m a g i n a t i o n " , we may choose not t o q u e s t i o n the ' p s y c h o l o g y , - i f we may v e n t u r e such a t e r m . B u t when he c o n c l u d e s t h a t " the s i g n , wherewi th man agrees w i t h man, p resupposes l a n g u a g e , " we may c o u n t e r w i t h "Language I. w h e r e w i t h man communisatess.. w i t h man, a l a o p resupposes the: s i g n . " F o r u n l e s s t h e r e he i d e n t i t y o f r e f e r e n t when y o u say r o s e ana I say r o s e , howm can we hope t o compare our r e s p e c t i v e images , i . e . , t he e x p e r i e n c e o f b e a u t y w h i c h a r i s e s f rom the e x p r e s s i o n o f our i n t u i t i o n , r o s e ? U n d o u b t e d l y Croce would h a s t e n t o deny t h a t we have c o u n t e r e d a l a l l ; - and the accep tance o f such a n o t i o n w w o u l d s u b v e r t a fundamenta l t e n e t o f C r o c e ' s c r e e d : the i d e a l i t y o f r e a l i t y . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g i t o compare t h i s f a c e t o f C r o c e T s i d e a l i s m w i t h t h a t o f a n o t h e r i d e a l i s t , Bosanque t , who m a i n -t a i n e d t h a t t o deny language i t s c o n c e p t u a l s i d e , "and t o eq -ua t e language w i t h i n t u i t i o n , and t r e a t i n t u i t i o n as p r i o r to t h i n k i n g , i s t o s h a t t e r and o v e r t h r o w the whole c o n c e p t i o n o f 56 t he u n i t y o f t h e human m i n d . " B o s a n q u e t ' s c r i t i c i s m o f C r o c e ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a r t and language l e a d s h im t o the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s " T r u e , an o b j e c t not e x p e r i e n c e d cannot be the e x p e r i e n c e o f b e a u t y . T r u e , we hope t o b e l i e v e t h a t a l l w h i c h we c a l l body, i s i n some sense i n c a r n a t i o n , and i s not a mere s t a t e o f m i n d . We e x p e r i e n c e n a t u r a l o b j e c t s as f u l l c o n c r e t e e x i s t e n c e s , w i t h r r e a l q u a l i t i e s o f c o l o r and sound and s p l e n d o r . E x t e r n a l i t y i s a c h a r a c t e r o f t he w o r l d and a s i g n and v e h i c l e o f s p i r i t u a l a che ivemen t , and y e t t h e r e can be no doubt t h a t t he c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n y e a r n s towards e x t e r n a l i t y , and e x t e r n a l i t y i n some 57 s p e c i a l medium." 13. The i n d i v i s i b i l i t y o f a r t . "The p roved i n a b i l i t y o f e m p i r i c a l methods t o y i e l d knowledge o f r e a l i t y , w h i c h i n f a c t t hey o n l y c l a s s i f y and reduce t o t y p e s , i n v o l v e s the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f an a e s t h e t i c s a r r i v e d a t by c o l l e c t i n g a e s t h e t i c f a c t s i n 58 c l a s s e s and d i s c o v e r i n g t h e i r laws by i n d u c t i o n . " Hot o n l y does Croce deny the v a l i d i t y o f e m p i r i c a l met ho as,t bu t i h e o r u l e s 1 out. o f f c c u r t Ia; : p o s t e r i o r i a e s t h e t i c judgments w h i c h seek t o p i g e o n - h o l e works o f a r t a c c o r d i n g t o v a r i o u s s y s t e m s ; p a i n t i n g , m u s i c , drama, e t c . ; o r l y r i c , t r a g e d y , 59 comedy, and so on , Such c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s have mere ly p r a c t i c a l c o n v e n i e n c e t o recommend them; t o expec t more f rom them i s t o deny the i n d i v i s i b i l i t y o f a r t . " I t i s u s e f u l t o d i s t r i b u t e an a r t i s t e W o r k s , f o r p u r p o s e s o f p u b l i c a t i o n , i n t o these c l a s s e s , p u t t i n g l y r i c s i n one vo lume , dramas i n a n o t h e r , poems i n a t h i r d and romances i n a f o u r t h ; and i t c o n v e n i e n t , i n f a c t , i n d i s p e n s a b l e , t o r e f e r t o works and groups Of works by these names i n s p e a k i n g and w r i t i n g o f them. But here a g a i n we mustd deny and pronounce i l l e g i t i m a t e the t r a n s i t i o n s from these c l a s s i f i c a t o r y concep t s t o the p o e t i c laws o f c o m p o s i t i o n and a e s t h e t i c c r i t e r i a o f judgments , as when peop le t r y t o d e c i d e t h a t a t r a g e d y must have a s u b j e c t o f a c e r t a i n k i n d , c h a r a c t e r s o f a c e r t a i n k i n d , a p l o t o f a c e r t a i n k i n d and a c e r t a i n l e n g t h ; and , when c o n f r o n t e d by a work , i n s t e a d o f l o o k -i n g f o r and a p p r a i s i n g i t s own p o e t r y , ask whether i t i s a t r a g e d y o r a poem, and whether i t obeys the ' l a w s ' o f ones 60 or o t h e r ' k i n d ' . " Mrs G i l b e r t has n e a t l y summarized C r o c e ' s -meta-p h y s i c a l b a s i s f o r h i s p o l e m i c a g a i n s t d e s p o i l i n g the u n i t y o f the a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y . " S i n c e a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e s c o n s t i t -u t e f o r Croce an a d j e e t i v e l e s s u n i v e r s e , and s i n c e no c o n c r e t e p r o c e s s o f a n a l y s i s can t ake p l a c e where no s p e c i f i c a t i o n e x i s t s beau ty c o n s i s t s f o r h im a sum o f s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t e n t i t i e s , each one an u n a n a l y z a b l e e x p r e s s i o n ; and the work o f c r i t i c i s m reduces i t s e l f f o r h im t o the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a ba re i d e n t i t y * 'The who le c r i t i c i s m o f a r t , ' he s a y s , ' c a n be r e d u c e d t o t h i s b r i e f e s t p r o p o s i t i o n , There i s a work o f a r t , a , w i t h a c o r r e s -~ 61 p o n d i n g n e g a t i v e , T h e r e i s n o t a work o f a r t , b_, ' " " I t i s o b v i o u s , ? she s a y s , " t o what i n t e l l e c t u a l b a t t l e - f i e l d Groce c a r r i e s h i s i d e a s when he c o n v e r t s them i n t o mere l a b e l s . He i s a m e d i a e v a l n o m i n a l i s t i n r e s p e c t t o a e s t h e t i c c o n c e p t -62 i o n s . " C r o c e ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f works o f a r t r e c a l l s t h e w i n d o w l e s s , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d monads o f L e i b n i t z , each o f w h i c h r e f l e c t e d the u n i v e r s e o f s p i r i t f rom i t s own u n i q u e 63 p o i n t o f v i e w . " . . . . s i n c e e v e r y work o f a r t e x p r e s s e s a s t a t e o f the s o u l , and the s t a t e o f the s o u l i s I n d i v i d u a l and a lways new, the i n t u i t i o n i m p l i e s i n f i n i t e i n t u i t i o n s , w h i c h i t i s i m -p o s s i b l e : t o p l a c e i n p i g e o n - h o l e s as k i n d s , u n l e s s t h e r e be i n f i n i t e p i g e o n - h o l e s , and t h e r e f o r e not p i g e o n - h o l e s o f k i n d s , but o f i n t u i t i o n s . And s i n c e , o n the o t h e r hand, i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f i n t u i t i o n i m p l i e s i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f e x p r e s s i o n , and a p i c t u r e i s d i s t i n c t f rom a n o t h e r p i c t u r e , n o t l e s s t h a n from ap a poem, and p i c t u r e and poem are not o f v a l u e because o f the sounds t h a t bea t the a i r and the c o l o r s r e f r a c t e d i n the l i g h t , bu t because o f what t h e y can t e l l t o the s p i r i t , i n s o f a r as t h e y e n t e r i n t o i t , i t i s u s e l e s s t o have r e c o u r s e t o a b s t r a c t means o f e x p r e s s i o n , t o c o n s t r u c t the o t h e r s e r i e s o f k i n d s and c l a s s e s : w h i c h amounts t o s a y i n g t h a t any t h e o r y o f t h e d i v i s i o n o f the a r t s Us w i t h o u t f o u n d a t i o n . The k i n d o r c l a s s i s i n t h i s case one o n l y , a r t i t s e l f o r the i n t u i t i o n , whereas p a r t i c u l a r , works o f a r t a re i n f i n i t e : a l l are o r i g i n a l , each one i n c a p a b l e o f b e i n g t r a n s l a t e d t i n t o the o t h e r ( s i n c e t o t r a n s l a t e , t o t r a n s l a t e w i t h s . a r t i s t i c s k i l l , i s t o c r e a t e a new work o f a r t ) , e ach one subdued by the i n t e l l e c t . Ho i n t e r m e d i a t e e lement i n t e r p o s e s i t s e l f p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y between t h e u n i v e r s a l and the p a r t i c u l a r , no s e r i e s o f k i n d s or s p e c i e s , no g e n e r a l i a . N e i t h e r the a r t i s t who produces a r t , n o t the s p e c t a t o r who con t emp la t e s i t , has any need o f a n y t h i n g but the u n i v e r s a l and the i n d i v i d u a l , o r r a t h e r , the u n i v e r s a l i n d i v i d u a l i s e d * t h e u n i v e r s a l a r t i s t i c a c t i v i t y , w h i c h i s a l l c o n t r a c t e d and c o n c e n t r a t e d i n the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a s i n g l e 64 s t a t e o f the s o u l . " I t f o l l o w s t h a t Croce w i l l , r u l e out o f c o u r t t h e o r i e s o f s t y l e s a p p l i e d t o the h i s t o r y o f a r t ( o f . W o l f f l i n and o t h e r s ) , w h i c h , he s a y s , a re n e v e r more t h a n o t h e r " i r r u p t i o n s o f the r h e t o r i c a l a b s t r a c t i o n i n t o the judgment and h i s t o r y o f works o f a r t . " C r o c e 's approach t o the C l a s s i c - R o m a n t i c c o n t r o -versy also bears witness to h i s s u i generis conception of a r t * To set C l a s s i c and Romantic a r t i n opposition i s as s t u l t i f y -i n g as the analogous opposition of form and content. Even though c o g n i t i o n may, i n t u i t i o n does not recognize i n these two p a i r s of terms two modes of the same a c t i v i t y , the aesthetic — r e g a r d l e s s of whether we hasten to add: modes d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e 65 # but inseparable. "The c r i s i s of the romantic period ...ass-erted an a n t i t h e s i s between ... c l a s s i c a l and romantic a r t , and thus denied the u n i t y of a r t and asserted a d u a l i t y of two fundamentally d i f f e r e n t a r t s , of which i t took the side of the second, as that appropriate to* the modern age, by upholding the primary, importance i n a r t of f e e l i n g , p a s s i o n , and fan c y . . • . i n part romanticism was a r e b e l l i o n not against c l a s s i c i s m . but against the c l a s s i c a l as auch; t against the idea of s e r e n i t y and i n f i n i t y of the a r t i s t i c image, but against c a t h a r s i s and i n favor of a t u r b i d emotionalism that would not and could not undergo p u r i f i c a t i o n , . T h e problem of ae s t h e t i c s to-day i s the reass-e r t i o n and defense of the o i a a s i o a l as against romanticism: the s y n t h e t i c , formal, t h e o r e t i c element which i s the proprium of a r t , as against the a f f e c t i v e element which i t i s the busin-ess of a r t to resolve i n t o , but which to-day has turned against 66 i t and threatens to d i s p l a c e i t . " Do we detect the shadow of an inconsistency? Does Croce, while maintaining that a r t i s a u n i v e r s a l containing i n -d i v i d u a l s , but no species, compromise h i s doctrine by making use of the terms C l a s s i d and Romantic? - — F o r these well-worn tags c e r t a i n l y do suggest that there can be a modality of behaviour w i t h i n / i t a l i c s mine w i t h i n the i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f b e a u t y . I s he not bound by h i s own d i a l e c t i c t o c o n f i n e h i m s e l f t o s a y i n g s i m p l y , "The p rob lem o f a e s t h e t i c s t o - d a y i s the r e a s s e r t i o n o f a r t a g a i n s t n o n / a r t " ? Croce*s defence he re i s ana logous t o the way i n w h i c h he j u s t i f i e s e x t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f the a r t i s t ' s image* The p h i l o s o p h e r , l i k e the a r t i s t , c a n , w i t h o u t compromis ing h i s t h e o r y , s u b m i t , f o r convenience;?;/ sake t o the demands o f p r a c t i c a l e x i g e n c y . " I f the pu re a r t i s t and the pure c r i t i c , and a l s o the pure p h i l o s o p h e r , a re not o c c u p i e d w i t h g e n e r a l - i a , w i t h c l a s s e s or k i n d s , th&se r e t a i n t h e i r u t i l i t y on o the r g r o u n d s ; and t h i s u t i l i t y I s the t r u e s i d e o f t hese e r roneous t h e o r i e s . . . . I t i s c e r t a i n l y u s e f u l t o c o n s t r u c t a n e t o f gener -a l l y , no t f o r the p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t , w h i c h i s spon taneous , no r f o r t he judgment o f i t , w h i c h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l , bu t to c o l l e c t and t o some e x t e n t c i r c u m s c r i b e the i n f i n i t e s i n g l e i n t u i t i o n s f o r the use o f the, a t t e n t i o n and memory, i n o r d e r t o group t o g e t h e r t o some e x t e n t t he innumerab le p a r t i c u l a r works o f a r t . These c l a s s e s w i l l a lways be fo rmed , as i s n a t u r a l , e i t h e r by means o f t he a b s t r a c t image o r the a b s t r a c tb e x p r e s s i o n , and t h e r e f o r e as c l a s s e s o f s t a t e s o f t he s o u l ( l i t e r a r y and a r t -i s t i c k i n d s ) and c l a s s e s o f means o f e x p r e s s i o n A a r t s ) . . • T h e a r b i t r a r i n e s s becomes innocuous and u s e f u l f rom the v e r y f a c t t h a t e v e r y p r e t e n s i o n o f b e i n g a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r i n c i p l e and c r i t e r i o n f o r the judgement o f a r t i s removed f rom i t . " C r o o e ' s r e f u s a l t o impute any t h e o r e t i o s i g n i f i c a n c e / / i t a l i c s mine 7/ t o c l a s s i f i c a t i o n which,• we s u b m i t , may become someth ing more 67 s u b t l e t h a n p i g e o n - h o l i n g - i s r a t h e r p u z z l i n g i n the f a c e o f h i s own n e a t l y f o u r - f o l d d i v i s i o n o f m e n t a l a c t i v i t y i n t o the a e s -t h e t i c , t he l o g i c a l , the economic and the e t h i c . 14 . Degrees o f b e a u t y . We have examined one major c o n f u s i o n i s s -u i n g f rom t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a r t w i t h i n t u i t i o n - e x p r e s s i o n , i . e . , c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e r e remains y e t ano the r t o be l o o k e d i n t o . The i n d i v i d u a l image, we a r e t o l d , i_s_ a r t : e i t h e r an i n t u i t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d o r i t i s no t e x p r e s s e d ; and i n the former case we have a r t , and i n the l a t t e r weN have n o t - a r t o r u g l i n e s s ; o r , more p r o p e r l y , we have no t even an i n t u i t i o n , f o r , by d e f i n i t i o n , what i s i n t u i t e d i s i p s o f a c t o e x p r e s s e d . I t f o l l o w s from t h i s t h a t t h e r e can be no degrees o f e x p r e s s i o n : t h e r e i s e i t h e r e x p r e s s i o n or n o n - e x p r e s s i o n . Hence a r t i f a c t s are e i t h e r s u c c -e s s f u l , and c o n s e q u e n t l y b e a u t i f u l ; o r e l s e u n s u c c e s s f u l , and c o n -sequent l y u g l y . A v e r s e t h e n i s e i t h e r a poem or i t i s no t a poem. A Japanese hokku o f a dozen words , w h i c h everyone may agree t o be p e r f e c t i n i t s way, i s "as g r e a t " a work o f a r t as Hamle t . We may make t h e c o n c e s s i o n t o p o p u l a r usage ; we may i n d e e d be p e r m i t t e d t o " say g r e a t and s m a l l i f we w i l l , but met aphor i c a l l y . " Croce i s h i m s e l f aware t h a t the d o c t r i n e t h a t " A # l i t t l e p i e c e o f p o e t r y i s a e s t h e t i c a l l y e q u a l t o a poem; a t i n y l i t t l e p i c t u r e or a s k e t c k , t o an a l t a r o r an a f f r e s c o ; a l e t t e r i s a work o f a r t , no l e s s t h a n a romance; even a f i n e t r a n s l a t i o n i s as o r i g i n a l as an o r i g i n a l work"does" produce at f i r s t s i g h t i t a l i n a m -y s mine 7% a s o r t o f b e w i l d e r m e n t " . But he a s s u r e s us these p r o p o s i t i o n s are i r r e f u t a b l e t t T b e Q a i i a s _ l o g i c a l l y deduced from v e r i f i a b l e : ?o# ! • premises ."• Many p e n e t r a t i n g c r i t i c s a r e , however , not m e r e l y b e w i l d e r e d by t h i s ex c a t h e d r a pronouncement : t h e y are down-r i g h t i n d i g n a n t . W i t n e s s , f o r example , the f o l l o w i n g i r o n i c comment by. O . K . Ogden, I , A . R i c h a r d s , and James Wood, c o -a u t h o r s o f The F o u n d a t i o n s o f A e s t h e t i c s . "The k e y s t o n e o f C r o c e ' a method c o n s i s t s i n a s k i l f u l a p p l i c a t i o n o f the l a w o f I d e n t i t y combined w i t h a p a r t i a l d e n i a l o f the Law o f C o n t -r a d i c t i o n . Thus when I n t u i t i o n i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h E x p r e s s i o n i t may be a s s e r t e d t h a t a l l i n t u i t i o n s are e x p r e s s e d w i t h o u t any f u r t h e r n e c e s s i t y o f p r o o f . Then i f I n t u i t i o n - e x p r e s s i o n be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h A r t , i t f o l l o w s t h a t a l i i i n t u i t i o n s are works o f A r t . S i n c e t h i s p r o c e s s c o n s i s t s s i m p l y i n t h e j u d i c i o u s i n t e r c h a n g e o f t h e s e s t r i c t synonyms the i r r e s i s t i b l e sweep o f C r o o e ' s argument meets no o b s t a c l e , and a h e a l t h y a i r o f v i g o r o u s r a t i o c i n a t i o n i s engendered I - B u t i t may be o b j e c t e d t h a t too many t h i n g s become A r t . To t h i s Croce r e p l i e s t h a t i t does not d i s t r e s s h im because 'noone has e v e r been a b l e t o i n d i c a t e i n what the someth ing more c o n s i s t s . . . t h e l i m i t s o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n s t h a t a re c a l l e d A r t as opposed t o those t h a t are 71 v u l g a r l y c a l l e d ' n o t A r t ' a re e m p i r i c a l and i m p o s s i b l e to d e f i n e . I f an ep ig ram be a r t why no t a s i n g l e w o r d ? ' . "Why n o t ? That i s p r e c i s e l y the d i f f i c u l t y o f eve ry 7£ i m p r e s s i o n i s t ' s v i e w . . ' . ' /3 Hor- can E . F i C a r r i t t , sympathetic to most of Croce's t e n e t s , accept t h i s one. "Croce admits a 'difference of extension between such expressive acts as a s i n g l e word and a novel, apparently because the l a t t e r expresses a more complex state of mindj and t h i s i s not i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n to h i s i n s i s t e n c e i n the same passage on the i d e n t i c a l nature of both as expressive. For i n j u s t the same way the simplest judgment of memory and the most comprehensive metaphysic are, i f t r u e , true? yet the one i s a greater t r u t h thaia the other. And though t h i s concession seems hard to harmonise w i t h h i s approval of Schleiermacher's contention that the greatest and most complicated p i c t u r e and the smallest arabesque are, i f each i s perfect i n i t s own way, a b s o l u t e l y equal, yet i t i s a concession which the a r t i s t i c ex-perience r i g h t l y demands to account f o r such a p o s s i b l e d e l i v e r -ance as that Measure f o r Measure i s greater, as a work of a r t , than Mariana's song by i t s e l f . " 15. The, autonomy of a r t . In order to leave no doubt i n the reader's mind about h i s conception of the autonomy of a r t , Croce has taken pains to enumerate those things that a r t must not be 74 confused w i t h . I t w i l l be worth while to r e f e r to these negative a s s e r t i o n s before concluding w i t h the main tenet of h i s p h i l o s -ophy of a r t . Art i s not philosophy: the l a t t e r concerns the " l o g -i c a l t h i n k i n g of the u n i v e r s a l categories of being"* whereas the former i s "the u n r e f l e o t i v e i n t u i t i o n of being". "Hence, while philosophy transcends the image and uses i t f o r i t s own purposes . / i t a l i c s mine 7 ^ §rt l i v e s i n i t as i n a kingdom," Art cannot "be said to be e i t h e r a l o g i a a l or an i l l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y - i t i s , r a ther, an a l o g i c a l one. A r t , Poetry, or Beauty i s an a p r i o r i r e a l i t y . Art i s not h i s t o r y , f o r the l a t t e r , u n l i k e the form-er, implies the o r i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n between r e a l i t y and u n r e a l i t y In one of Shakspere's H i s t o r i e s , f o r example, the h i s t o r i c a l accuracy of h i s characters does not i n any way a f f e c t the a r t i s t i c value of the plays themselves. Art i s not concerned a s i i s n n a t u r a l science with h i s t o r i c a l f a c t c l a s s i f i e d and made abstract. Systems of c l a s s -i f i c a t i o n a pplied to a r t have only a p r a c t i c a l value, and no metaphysical importance whatsoever. Neither i s a r t t o be confused w i t h the play of fancy, which i s an aimless f l i t t i n g from image to image; or with f e e l -i n g i n i t s immediacy, which because of i t s formlessness has to be i n t u i t e d (thus expressed) to b r i n g about the c a t h a r t i c e f f e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the a e s t h e t i c a c t i v i t y . Art i s not i n s t r u c t i o n . "Art i s not l i m i t e d by ser-v i c e to any p r a c t i c a l purpose whatsoever, whether t h i s be the i n -c u l c a t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r p h i l o s o p h i c a l , h i s t o r i c a l or s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h , or the advocacy of a p a r t i c u l a r way of f e e i l i n g and the a c t i o n corresponding to i t . " The c a t h a r s i s i s a e s t h e t i c , not moral i n nature. Thus, as noted inao.previous s e c t i o n , i t may be pos s i b l e to have a play at onoe a e s t h e t i c , and judged by 75 t c o n v e n t i o n a l a s t a n d a r d s , i m m o r a l . A n d , aa the work o f a r t e x i s t s i n r e a l i t y o n l y i n the mind o f i t s c r e a t o r and i n the mind o f whomsoever is a b l e t o e x p r e s s a n i n t u i t i o n by means o f i t , s o c i e t y cannot harm i t by e x e r t i n g c e n s o r s h i p ; F i n a l l y , a r t i s not d i r e c t e d t o the p r o d u c t i o n o f c e r t a i n e f f e c t s as p l e a s u r e , en joyment , u t i l i t y , goodness , m o r a l u p l i f t , and so o n . A r t i s u n i q u e , autonomous, a phase o f s p i r i t -u a l a c t i v i t y e x i s t i n g i n i t s own r i g h t , and the one f rom w h i c h a l l t h e o t h e r phases i s s u e . 6. A r t and l i f e . To have c o n c l u d e d the c h a p t e r on Croce w i t h h i s n e g a t i v e a s s e r t i o n s about a r t would have l e f t our account o f h i s a e s t h e t i c out o f f o c u s . I t would have sugges ted t h a t f o r Croce a r t e x i s t e d i n a s p i r i t u a l vacuum w i t h o u t r o o t s i n human s o c i e t y . H i s i n t e n t i o n i s q u i t e the c o n t r a r y . Hee m a i n t a i n s t h a t "we a l l know more o r l e s s t h e j o y o f t he complete , e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h we succeed i n g i v i n g t o our p r o p e r , i m p u l s e s , and t h e j o y i n t h o s e o f o t h e r s , w h i c h a r e a l s o o u r s ; when we con templa te the work o f a r t , w h i c h a r e t o some e x t e n t o u r s , and w h i c h we make o u r s . A e s t h e t i c a o t i v i t y i s common t o e v e r y o n e ; we, the p e d e s t r i a n s o u l s , a r e d i f f e r e n t i n deg ree , no t i n e s sence , f rom t h e p r a c -t i s i n g a r t i s t . How e l s e , Croce a sks r h e t o r i c a l l y , c o u l d commun-i c a t i o n t a k e p l a c e ? W e , t o o , c an a c h e i v e the p r o c e s s o f l i b e r a t i o n 76 f rom the s e n t i m e n t a l t u m u l t and o b j e c t i f y i t i n a l y r i c a l , i m a g e . And t h e a r t i s t , by e x t e r n a l i z i n g h i s l y r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n , p r o v i d e s us w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o share i n the j o y o f h i s i n d i v i d u a l image. T h i s he w i l l do i f h i s work o f a r t c a t a l y z e s i n us an i n -# i t a l i o s mine 7^ t u i t i o n of our own " s e n t i m e n t a l t u m u l t . " " C o n s i d e r e d f rom the e m p i r i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , t h e r e i s i n d e e d a most i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e between the g e n i u s who wrote O t h e l l o and me, who r e a d and en joy i t . Bu t f rom the p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , the a c t o f p r o d u c i n g and she a c t o f e n j o y i n g are f i d e n t i o a l » because p h i l o s o p h y i s concerned w i t h q u a l i t y and no t w i t h q u a n t i t y . The l i t t l e dose o f i n v e n t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n I p o s s e s s r e q u i r e s the a i d o f Shakspere t o i n t e n s i f y i t t o the p o i n t o f f o r m i n g w i t h i n m y s e l f the whole t r a g e d y o f O t h e l l o ' s p a s s i o n , and Shakspere had no s need o f me o r o t h e r s l i k e me t o r a i s e h i m s e l f t o t h a t complex v i s i o n . I . i n d e e d , when I r e a d O t h e l l o , am not i d e n t i c a l w i t h the a r t i s t Shakspere , but I and the a u t h o r o f O t h e l l o a r e f a c t s o f the same a e s t h e t i o s u b s t a n c e , however uneven the d i s t r i b u t i o n , however d i f f e r e n t t he dose i n each o f u s , and however d i f f e r e n t the s t i m u l a t i o n under v a r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s . " -I t i s e v i d e n t t h e n t h a t Croce i s not a v o t a r y o f any a r t - f o r - a r t $ s sake c u l t ; he does no t c o n f i n e the p r a c t i c a l a r t i s t i n an i v o r y tower remote f rom the w o r l f i o f men. A l t h o u g h he does i n f a c t a s s i g n t o a r t the p r i m a c y i n the s p i r i t u a l o r d e r , he does no t argue e i t h e r t h a t a a r t ou twe ighs i n impor tance the o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s o f man, o r even t h a t i t e x i s t s independent o f the o t h e r s . "The o r d e r and l o g i c o f the v a r i o u s forms o f the s p i r i t mak ing the one n e c e s s a r y f o r the o t h e r , and t h e r e f o r e a l l n e c -e s s a r y , r e v e a l the f o l l y o f n e g a t i n g the one i n the name o f the o t h e r : the e r r o r o f the p h i l o s o p h e r ( e . g . , P l a t o ) , o r o f the / i t a l i c s minis m o r a l i s t , ( e . g . , S a v o n a r o l a or Proudhon) 0 r o f the n a t u r a l i s t and p r a c t i c a l man . . .who r e f u t e a r t and p o e t r y ; and , on the * o t h e r h a n d , the e r r o r o f the a r t i s t who r e b e l s a g a i n s t t hough t , 78 s c i e n c e , p r a c t i c e , and m o r a l i t y . " Now a moment ago i t was impres sed upon us t h a t a r t must no t be confused w i t h p r a c t i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n o r w i t h m o r a l u p -l i f t . We l e a r n e d a l s o t h a t a p l a y r e q u i r i n g c e n s o r s h i p may s t i l l be a work o f a r t . And s e e k i n g f u r t h e r we f i n d : "To judge immora l D a n t e ' s F r a n e e s o a , o r m o r a l Shakspere's C o r d e l i a , whose f u n c t i o n s a r e p u r e l y a r t i s t i c and who are l i k e no t e s o f music from the s o u l o f Dante o r S h a k s p e r e , would be no b e t t e r t h a n t o judge a t r i a n g l e 79 w i c k e d , o r a squa re m o r a l . " Does t h e above r e f e r e n c e t o the f o l l y o f the a r t i s t who r e b e l s a g a i n s t m o r a l i t y p r e s e n t us t h e n w i t h s t i l l ano the r pa radox? Or can the seeming c o n t r a d i c t i o n be r e s o l v e d i n terms o f 80 C r o c e ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " m a n - a r t i s t " a n d " a r t i s t - m a n " ? Such would seem t o be C r o c e ' s i d e a . " A r t " he says "as was Idmg ago o b s e r v e d , i s no t p roduced by an a c t o f w i l l ; the g o o d w i l l w h i c h makes a good man does no t make a good a r t i s t . And s ince , i t i s not p r o -duced. by an a c t o f w i l l , a r t i s exempt f rom m o r a l d i s t i n c t i o n s , not by any p r i v i l e g e o f immun i ty , but because m o r a l d i s t i n c t i o n s 81 do not a p p l y . " "But"——and here i s the c r u x o f t he m a t t e r - " i f a r t i s o u t s i d e the sphere o f m o r a l i t y , the a r t i s t - is n o t . As a man he comes under i t s l aws and n e v e r escapes the d u t i e s o f a man. H i s a r t i t s e l f , t h a t a r t which, -is?.? not andm canno.t be' m o r a l i t y , he must c o n s i d e r as a m i s s i o n , to be e x e r c i s e d as i f / i t a l i c s mine . 82 i t were a p r i e s t h o o f i . " 72 Those o f us who may have though t t o f r a t e r n i z e on more o r l e s s e q u a l t e rms w i t h the a r t i s t s escaped from the i v o r y tower w i l l he somewhat d ismayed on f i n d i n g them,, he p r epa red f o r a • • ; A p r i e s t h o o d , ' 1 But t h e r e can he no doubt about C r o c e f s i n t e n t i o n " A r t . . . w i t h o u t m o r a l i t y , " he says w i t h c o n v i c t i o n , " i s decomposed as a r t , and becomes c a p r i c e , l u x u r y , and c h a r l a t a n r y owing t o the l a c k o f m o r a l i t y i n the l i f e f rom w h i c h i t s p r i n g s and w h i c h s u r r o u n d s , but i t s e l f s e r v i n g the p r i v a t e and f u t i l e i n t e r e s t s 83 o f the a r t i s t as the v i l e s t o f bondmaids . " The a r t i s t becomes i m m o r a l - — - i f we i n t e r p r e t Croce c o r r e c t l y - — t h a t i s , he becomes non-a r t1s t when he p r o s t i t u t e s h i s s p i r i t u a l h e r i t a g e ; when he f a i l s t o "keep t h e i n n o c e n t and a t t e n t i v e l o o k o f c h i l d h o o d " ; when he becomes conce rned w i t h p r a c t i c a l p r e - o c c u p a t i o n s ; o r i n any way compromises h i s a r t i s t i c s i n c e r i t y , Now a l t h o u g h Croce r e i t e r a t e s t h a t a r t aannot be equa ted w i t h m o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n , he concedes t h a t the " m o r a l i s t i c d o c t r i n e " w h i c h b i d s a r t " p l a y the h a r l o t ( s i n c e he r o r i g i n -a l s i n ( c o u l d ) no t be r o o t e d out ) , but a l l i n the s e r v i e e o f o f H o l y C h u r c h and o f . m o r a l i t y " — "has i n t u r n , and i s "and ever. t w i l l be p r o f i t a b l e i n v i r t u e o f i t s v e r y c o n t r a d i c t i o n s ? i t has b e e n , i s , and w i l l be an a t t emp t , however m i s g u i d e d , t o d i s t i n g u i s h a r t f rom mere p l e a s u r e , and g i v e e t o i t a more 84 w o r t h y p l a c e . " / i t a l i c s mine 79 W h i c h , a l s o , i s a c h i e f a im o f Ci toce ' s own a e s t h e t i c . I t i s t h e a r t i s t ' s s a c r e d f u n c t i o n , Croce m a i n t a i n s , t o fuse the " v a r i o u s p e r t u r b a t i o n s " o f h i s t u r b u l e n t s o u l . F o r , whenever he succeeds i n i n t u i t i n g and o b j e c t i f y i n g a l y r i c a l image, p a t t -e rns o f a c c e l e r a t i n g c o m p l e x i t y grow i n t o b e i n g , as when a s i n g l e c r y s t a l i s d ropped i n t o a s u p e r s a t u r a t e d s o l u t i o n . The e x p r e s s i o n o f e ach i n d i v i d u a l image w i l l " r o l l f rom s o u l t o s o u l , and grow f o r e v e r and f o r e v e r " throughout 'n the i n f i n i t u d e o f u n i -v e r s a l s p i r i t . " F e e l i n g , no t c r u s g e d but con templa ted by the work o f p o e t r y , i s seen t o d i f f u s e i t s e l f i n w i d e n i n g c i r c l e s over a l l t he eeaim o f the s o u l , w h i c h s i s the r e a l m o f the u n i v e r s e , echo-i n g and r e - e c h o i n g e n d l e s s l y : j o y and s o r r o w , p l e a s u r e and p a i n , ene rgy and l a s s i t u d e , e a r n e s t n e s s and f r i v o l i t y , and so f f o r t h , a re l i n k e d t o g e t h e r t h r o u g h i n f i n i t e shades and g r a d a t i o n s so t h a t the f e e l i n g , w h i l e p r e s e r v i n g i t s i n d i v i d u a l physiognomy and i t s o r i g i n a l d o m i n a t i n g m o t i v e , i s not exhaus ted or r e s t r i c t e d 85 t o t h i s o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r . " ?0 CHAPTER THREE. BERGSOH P r e l i m i n a r y . B e r g s o n ' s Time p h i l o s o p h y , l i k e t h a t o f C r o c e , has e x e r t e d a g r e a t i n f l u e n c e on contemporary t h o u g h t . We may r e c a l l the e u l o g y o f W i l l i a m James: "Open B e r g s o n , and new h o r i z o n s open on e v e r y page you r e a d . I t t e l l s o f r e a l i t y i t s e l f , i n s t e a d o f r e i t e r a t i n g what d u s t y - m i n d e d p r o f e s s o r s have w r i t t e n ahout what p r e v i o u s p r o f e s s o r s have t h o u g h t . " And t h r o u g h James much o f B e r g s o n ' s thought has f i l t e r e d i n t o 1 the w r i t i n g s o f the o f f i c i a l p h i l o s o p h e r o f A m e r i c a , John Dewey. But u n l i k e C r o c e and Dewey, B e r g s o n has not devo ted a s p e c i a l vo lume t o the p rob lems o f a r t . As a r e s u l t , i f we a r e s e e k i n g B e r g s o n ' s a e s t h e t i c we s h a l l have to range t h r o u g h h i s magnum o p u s , w h i c h has i t s e l f been d e s c r i b e d as "a m y s t i c a l a e s t h e t i c o f l i f e . " Sometimes we s h a l l be r educed to p l u c k i n g a s i n g l e metaphor f rom i t s c o n t e x t and s q u e e z i n g f rom i t some i n s i g h t i n t o the n a t u r e o f a r t . We s h a l l be f o r e e d t o g l e a n where we c a n . 1. Be rgson*s p h i l o s o p h y o f b e c o m i n g . B e r g s o n bases h i s p h i l -osophy on t h e concep t o f c r e a t i v e e v o l u t i o n . He p o s i t s the r e a l i t y o f a l i f e f o r c e ( e l a n v i t a l ) whose m y s t i c a l n a t u r e he r e p r e s e n t s as an i n d i v i s i b l e s t r e a m f o r c i n g i t s way t h r o u g h i t s o n l y o b s t a c l e , i n e r t m a t t e r . T h i s m a t t e r , i t s e l f a p r o -d u c t o r sed iment o f t he v i t a l i m p e t u s , may be compared i n e f f e c t t o t h e i c e b l o c k s , formed f rom the r i v e r w a t e r , w h i c h i n S p r i n g impede the p r o g r e s s o f the pa ren t s t r e a m . I t i s "by f o l l o w i n g as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e t h e e v i d e n c e o f b i o l o g y t h a t we r e a c h e d tne c o n c e p t i o n o f a v i t a l impetus and o f a c r e a t i v e e v o l u t i o n . . . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n i s by no means a h y p o t h -e s i s , s u c h as can be found a t the b a s i s o f any m e t a p h y s i c a l s y s t e m : i t i s a c o n d e n s a t i o n o f fiact, a summing up o f summings u p . Now, whence came t h e i m p e t u s , arid what, was the p r i n c i p l e b e h i n d i t ? I f i t s u f f i c e d unto i t s e l f , what was i t i n i t s e l f , and what meaning a r e we t o a s c r i b e t o i t s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s as a w h o l e ? To such q u e s t i o n s t h e f a c t s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n s u p p l y no d i r e c t answer ; b u t we see c l e a r l y f r o m what d i r e c -t i o n t h e answer may come. F o r the energy p r e c i p i t a t e d th rough m a t t e r appears to u s , as i t w e r e , be low o r above c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i n any ca se o f t h e same o r d e r v a s c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I t has to ge t 2 a r o u n d many o b s t a c l e s , squeeze i t s e l f t h r o u g h o t h e r . . . " To speak, of• the., e l an : v i t a l o* v i t a l impetus as a s t r e a m i s a p t t o g i v e a f a u l t y i d e a o f i t s t r u e n a t u r e . T h i s v i t a l i m p u l s e does not pu r sue a s i n g l e l i n e o f p r o g r e s s as a c u r r e n t o f e l e c t r i c i t y u s u a l l y does i n jumping a gap; r a t h e r , i t p r o c e e d s more i n t h e manner o f t he s p r a y o f a f o u n t a i n . E a c h o f t h e m y r i a d s o f j e t s c o m p r i s i n g the f o u n t a i n w i l l , wha t -e v e r i t s o r i g i n a l i m p e t u s , r e a c h an optimum h e i g h t de t e rmined ( i f we may o m i t g r a v i t y ) b y t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e a i r t h r o u g h w h i c h i t p a s s e s . Now b y s t r a i n i n g our i m a g i n a t i o n we may make s t i l l f u r t h e r use o f t h e a n a l o g y . Suppose t h a t by a s l e i g h t -o f - h a n d we can make i n v i s i s i b l e the m a t e r i a l j e t s o f t he f o u n -t a i n and make v i s i b l e t h e i m m a t e r i a l f a i r i e s d a n c i n g upon the head o f each j e t . The l i v i n g o rgan isms m a t e r i a l i z e d by our magic w i l l c o r r e s p o n d i n B e r g s o n ' s schema t o the s p e c i e s i n the e v o l u t i o n a r y s c a l e . The topmost f i g u r e i s man. L e t us come a t t h e p r o b l e m f rom ano the r a n g l e . " L e t us imagine a v e s s e l f u l l of steam at a high pressure, and here and there i n i t s sides a crack through which the steam i s es-caping i n a j e t . The steam thrown i n t o the a i r i s nearly a l l condensed i n t o l i t t l e drops which f a l l hack, and t h i s conden-s a t i o n and t h i s f a l l represent simply the l o s s of something, an i n t e r r u p t i o n , a d e f i c i t ^ . But a small part of the j e t of steam s u b s i s t s , uncondensed, f o r some seconds; i t succeeds at most i n r e t a r d i n g t h e i r f a l l . So, from an immense r e s e r v o i r of l i k e , j e t s must he gushing our unceasingly, of which each, • « £ ^ i r h , f a l l i n g hack i s a world. But l e t us not carry too f a r t h i s comparison. I t gives us hut a feeble and even deceptive image of r e a l i t y , f o r the crack, the j e t of steam, the forming of the drops, are determined n e c e s s a r i l y , whereas the c r e a t i o n of a world i s a f r e e a c t , and the l i f e w i t h i n the m a t e r i a l world . ^ _ _ p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h i s l i b e r t y . Let us think rather of an ac-t i o n l i k e that of r a i s i n g the arm; then l e t us suppose that the arm, l e f t to i t s e l f , f a l l s back, and yet that there s u b s i s t s i n i t , s t r i v i n g to r a i s e i t up again, something of the w i l l that animates i t . I n t h i s image of a c r e a t i v e a c t i o n which unmakes i t s e l f we have already a more exact representation of matter. In v i t a l a c t i v i t y we see, then, that which sub s i s t s of the d i r e c t movement i n the i n v e r t e d movement, a r e a l i t y which i s 3 making i t s e l f i n a r e a l i t y which i s unmaking i t s e l f . " . I t i s important to note that the v i t a l impetus i n i t s e l f i s homogeneous| whereas i t s m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n , those "congealed parts of i t s own substance which i t c a r r i e s along 4 i t s course©" i n c l u d i n g a l l the species p r e c i p i t a t e d from the tim e l e s s f l u x , are heterogeneous. The d i r e c t i o n of l i f e may # i t a l i c s mine be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as p r o g r e s s i o n f rom the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. A t t h i s stage we must l o o k i n t o Be rgson"s concept o f d u r a t i o n . " E n e r g y , " he says above, "appears to us (to be) of t h e same o r d e r as c o n s c i o u s n e s s . " Now t he a n a l o g i e s so f a r used tend to g i v e a f a l s e impression of t h e n a t u r e o f t ime as p o r t r a y e d by a philosophy of Becoming whether conceived as by Bergson i n terms of d u r a t i o n , or as by Croce i n terms of the contemporaneity o f h i s t o r y . L i f e or c o n s c i o u s n e s s e x i s t s only i n the immediate span of awareness; a l l the p a s t i s r o l l e d up i n t o the present and gi v e s t he present, r e a l i t y , i t s ever u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r . "The more we f i x our a t t e n t i o n on (the) c o n t i n u i t y of l i f e , the more we see that organic e v o l u t i o n resembles t h e e v o l u t i o n o f consciousness, i n which the pas t presses a g a i n s t the present and causes the upspringing of a new form of consciousness, incommeasurable w i t h i t s antecedent Hence time and space are not s t a t i c c o n tainers i n t o which l i f e i s crowded; they are i n s t e a d f u n c t i o n s of mobile r e a l i t y . Thi r e a l i t y Bergson equates w i t h d u r a t i o n . "The universe endures. The more we s t u d y the nature of time, the more we s h a l l com-prehend that d u r a t i o n means i n v e n t i o n , the c r e a t i o n of forms, 6 the c o n t i n u a l e l a b o r a t i o n of the a b s o l u t e l y new." Duration, the e t e r n a l becoming, which f o r Bergson denotes r e a l i t y , i s a homogeneous f l u x , a psyc h i c s t a t e not t r a n s l a t a b l e i n t o con-v e n t i o n a l s y m b o l i z a t i o n s . What we t h i n k ©f as ego i s , there-f o r e , not a t h i n g having an i d e n t i t y separate from d u r a t i o n . L i k e w i s e what we conceive of as a s i n g l e sensation i s not a s t a t i c , immutable e n t i t y , a segment capable of being divorced from consciousness. Ho psychic s t a t e i s evenly deployed i n a temporal plane; there I s not state of mind, however simple, which does not change each moment. "Inner duration i s the continuous l i f e of a memory which prolongs the past i n t o the present, the present e i t h e r containing w i t h i n i t i n a d i s t i n c t form the c e a s e l e s s l y growing image of the past, or, more prob-a b l y , showing by i t s c o n t i n u a l change of q u a l i t y tne neavier and s t i l l heavier l o a d we drag oehind us as we grow older. Without t h i s s u r v i v a l of the past i n t o the present there would 7 '-if be no d u r a t i o n , but only xnstantaneity." 2 . The two modes of knowledge. We might w e l l expect a person u n f a m i l i a r w i t h the idiom of time philosophies to exclaim: " I f r e a l i t y i s none otner than c h a r a c t e r l e s s , conceptless, u n t r a n s l a t a b l e , i n d e f i n a b l e , i n i f f a b l e f l u x , how then do we know anything; what s i g n i f i c a n c e can any of our nouns possess? What meaning has language? Is there no rock bottom upon which to rest; limbs weary of swimming c e a s e l e s s l y down the f l u x of duration? Do time philosophers allow us notning s o l i d to han£ on to?" Indeed the philosopher t a c i t l y confesses t h i s to be the prote s t of p r i m o r d i a l man. "Against the idea of the absolute o r i g i n a l i t y and u n f o r e s e e a b i l i t y of forms our whole 8'. i n t e l l e c t r i s e s i n r e v o l t . " I n t e l l e c t was the d i f f e r e n t i a bestowed by the c r e a t i v e urge upon the species, Homo sapiens. "Among conscious beings...man comes to occupy a p r i v i l e g e d p lace. Between him and the animals the d i f f e r e n c e i s no 9 longer one of degree, but of kind. " I n t e l l e c t i n Bergson's schema matches co g n i t i o n i n Croce*ss i t i s the instrument required f o r the l i f e of a c t i o n . "The e s s e n t i a l f u n c t i o n of our i n t e l l e c t , as the evolution of l i f e has fashioned i t , i s to be a l i g h t f o r our conduct, to make ready f o r our a c t i o n on things, t o foresee, f o r a given s i t u a t i o n , the events, favourable or unfavourable, which mav 10 f o l l o w thereupon." We s h a l l see l a t e r how i n t e l l e c t attacks i t s problems., We have now to note that knowledge has two modes? the one, i n t e l l e c t ; and the other, i n s t i n c t , which may, and indeed i f i t would serve i t s f u n c t i o n adequately, must, 11 become "enlarged and pur i f ied^ i n t o i n t u i t i o n . 1 1 We l e a r n that not only has the c r e a t i v e impulse had to overcome m a t e r i a l obstacles, but i t has had to d i v i d e i t s e l f between two main di v e r g i n g l i n e s of e v o l u t i o n . Bergson has summarized a d e s c r i p t i o n of the process as f o l l o w s : " . . . a t the extremity of. the two main l i n e s we u l t i m a t e l y found two modes of knowledge i n t o which i t ( c r e a t i v e energy) nad resolved i t s e l f i n order to m a t e r i a l i z e ; the i n s t i n c t of i n s e c t s , the i n t e l l i g e n c e of man. I n s t i n c t was i n t u i t i v e ; i n t e l l i g e n c e r e f l e c t e d and reasoned. I t i s true that i n t u i t i o n had had to debase i t s e l f to become i n s t i n c t ; i t had become i n t e n t , as though hypnotized, on the i n t e r e s t of the species, and what had survived of i t s consciousness had assumed a somnambulisttic form. But j u s t as there subsisted around animal i n s t i n c t a f r i n g e of i n t e l l i g e n c e , so human i n t e l l i g e n c e preserved a halo of i n t u i t i o n . The l a t t e r , i n man, had remained f u l l y d i s i n t e r e s t e d and conscious, but i t was only a f a i n t glow and d i d not r a d i a t e very f a r . Yet i t i s from t h i s l i g h t must come, tC i f ever the_inner working of the v i t a l impetus were to "be made c l e a r i n i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e and i n i t s object. For t h i s i n t u i t i o n was turned inward; and i f , i n a f i r s t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , i t made us r e a l i z e the c o n t i n u i t y of our inner l i f e , i f most of us went no f u r t h e r , a deeper i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n might c a r r y i t to the roots of our being, and thus to the very p r i n c i p l e of l i f e i n general. (The whole bent of Bergson 1s philosophy reveals i t s e l f i n the concluding sentence)-—Now i s not t h i s p r e c i s e l y . 12# * the p r i v i l e g e of the mystic soul?" We should a n t i c i p a t e the main body of our argument by appending to h i s remark: " - x - — a n d (to a l e s s e r degree) that other e s p e c i a l l y endowed being, the a r t i s t . " We touch here the core of Bergson's a e s t h e t i c . But i n order to obtain a more tangiDle p r e c i p i t a t e of meaning from the mystic f l u i d i t y of Bergson 1 s prose we s h a l l have to analyse i n more d e t a i l the ideas contained i n the above. There are two ways of knowing: i n t e l l e c t whose fu n c t i o n y i e l d s r e l a t i v e knowledge, and i n t u i t i o n whose f u n c t i o n y i e l d s absolute knowledge. I n t e l l e c t , impatient w i t h the m o b i l i t y and the r e c i p r o c a l i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n of the v i t a l urge, freezes the r e s t l e s s stream i n order to b r i n g to bear i t s instrument, a n a l y s i s , upon the c r y s t a l l i z e d patterns we know as concepts. Words are simply the stock l a b e l s concepts wear. But t h i s s t a t i c , geometricized world of concepts—-the world of a c t i o n to from which most of us r a r e l y e s c a p e - — i s ^ t h e true r e a l i t y as the corpse i n the d i s s e c t i n g theatre i s to the l i v i n g body i t once was. When we are confined to t h i s world we lose sight of "the i n t e n t i o n of l i f e , the simple movement that runs # i t a l i c s mine *7 through the l i n e s , that binds them together and gives them 13 s i g n i f i c a n c e . " I t i s as though between us and r e a l i t y there hangs a v e i l , and most of us are too myopic to penetrate be-yond i t . L i k e the dwellers i n the PIatonian cave we mistake f o r r e a l i t y the f l e e t i n g shadows on t h e w a l l . I n order to act upon a t h i n g i n t e l l e c t s e l e c t s a r -b i t r a r i l y those aspects that immediately concern i t and then proceeds to regard these as though they possess an independent r e a l i t y . "There i s i n t h i s something very l i k e what an a r t i s t passing through P a r i s does when he makes, f o r example, a sketch of a tower of Notre Lame. The tower i s inseparably united to the ground^, to i t s surroundings, to the whole of P a r i s , and so on. I t i s f i r s t necessary to detach i t from a l l these; only one aspect of the whole i s noted, that formed by the tower of Notre Dame. Moreover, the s p e c i a l form of t h i s tower i s due to the grouping of the stones of which i t i s composed; but the a r t i s t does not concern himself w i t h these stones, he notes only the s i l h o u e t t e of the tower. For the r e a l and i n t e r n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n of the t h i n g he s u b s t i t u t e s , then, an external and schematic re p r e s e n t a t i o n . So t h a t , on the whole, h i s sketch corresponds to an observation of the object from a c e r t a i n point of view and to the choice of a c e r t a i n means of repres-14 ent a t i o n . " Knowledge determined by a point of view, necessar-i l y e x ternal to the obj e c t , Bergson defines as r e l a t i v e . I t needs to be said that Bergson i s not denying the pragmatic value of the a n a l y t i c f u n c t i o n . L i f e as a c t i o n " i m p l i e s the acceptance only of the u t i l i t a r i a n side of things i n order to respond to them by appropriate ac t i o n s : a l l other 0 i m p r e s s i o n s must "be dimmed o r e l s e r e a c h us vague and b l u r r e d . . My senses and my c o n s c i o u s n e s s . . . g i v e me no more than a p r a c -t i c a l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f r e a l i t y . I n the v i s i o n t hey f u r n i s h me o f m y s e l f and o f t h i n g s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t a r e u s e l e s s t o man a r e o b l i t e r a t e d , t h e resemblances t h a t a r e u s e f u l to h i m a r e emphas i sed ; ways a r e t r a c e d out f o r me i n advance a l o n g w h i c h my a c t i v i t y i s t o t r a v e l . These ways a re the ways w h i c h a l l mank ind has t r o d b e f o r e me. T h i n g s have been c l a s -s i f i e d w i t h a v i e w t o the use I can d e r i v e f rom them. And i t i s t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n I p e r c e i v e , ga r more c l e a r l y than the 15 c o l o u r and t h e shape o f t h i n g s . " No one w o u l d deny the v a l u e t o a f i r s t - a i d c l a s s o f a s k e l e t o n hung t o g e t h e r w i t h w i r e s p r i n g j o i n t s . The w i s e i n s t r u c t o r w i l l , however , impres s upon h i s p u p i l s t h a t t h i s s k e l e t o n i s no t a r e a l s k e l e t o n , b u t m e r e l y a m e c h a n i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t he l i v i n g t h i n g . That w h i c h we c a l l the s k e l e t o n has no a b s o l u t e i d e n t i t y a p a r t f rom the o r g a n i s m as a s h o l e ; " i t " cannot be s e p a r a t e d oufc f rom the c o n t e x t o f f l e s h , b l i o d , n e r v e f i b r e s and marrow upon w h i c h i t depends f o r i t s e x i s t e n c e . The concep t " s k e l e t o n " b e a r s the r e l a t i o n t o t h e w h o l e l i v i n g o r g a n i s m t h a t a s i n g l e frame does t o a c i n e m a t o -g r a p h i c s h o t o r sequence . I n B e r g s o n ' s schema the frame i s a n a l o g o u s t o t h e c o n c e p t , and the who le shot as p r o j e c t e d on t h e s c r e e n , the i n t u i t i o n . The i l l u m i n a t i n g p a r t o f t h i s f a v o u r i t e metaphor o f B e r g s o n ' s l i e s i n t h i s : no m a t t e r how h i g h the speed a t w h i c h my movie camera i s o p e r a t i n g , no ma t t e r how many frames per second I am u s i n g i n o r d e r to "shoot a of M o r a l i t y and R e l i g i o n , p p . 213 -14 . 1 3 . C r . E v o l . , p . 1 8 6 . 1 4 . An I n t r o d . , p p . 2 2 - 3 . 1 5 . L a u g h t e r , p p . 1 5 1 - 2 . 1 6 . An I n t r o d . , p . 5 9 , 1 7 . i b i d . , p . 6 . 1 8 . i b i d . , p . 56 . 1 9 . i b i d . , p . 4 1 . 20. I t i s . c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e a r t i s t migh t say w i t h some i m p a t i e n c e s "What do you expect me to do merge m y s e l f i n t o the c a t h e d r a l and o s s i f y my s o u l i n i t s s t o n e s and m o r t a r ? Anyway, i s t he cosmos the o n l y i n d i v i d u a l i t y ? h a s n ' t the c a t h e d r a l i t s own p rope r c h a r a c t e r ? Would the p h i l o s o p h e r p r e f e r t h a t I c o n t e m p l a t e the ' r h y t h m o f the u n i v e r s e ' and , l i k e t he m y s t i c , do n o t h i n g about i t ? A t a l l e v e n t s , my s t a n d i s t h a t t h e s k e t c h I make I s to be j udged b y i t s own i n t e r n a l l a w s , and not b y any c r i t e r i o n e x t e r n a l to i t , whe the r t h a t be an a r c h i t e c t u r a l segment o r n o t . " 2 1 . C r . E v o l . , p . 9 5 . 2 1 a . A c c o r d i n g to one o f the d i s c i p l e s , T .E .Hulmes ( re I n t u i t i o n ) I - i sa-l t i 1 , 1 To p l a c e y o u r s e l f i n s i d e the o b j e c t ' ( i s ) no l o n g e r a m e r e l y m e t a p h o r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n . I n t h a t s t a t e o f mind i n w h i c h you f e e l and e x p e r i e n c e d u r a t i o n , and w h i c h we have c a l l e d i n t u i t i o n , ySu a re a c t u a l l y i n s i d e t h a t s t r e a m o f i m p u l s e w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s l i f e ' . 1 o p . c i t . , p . 2 1 3 . E d i t o r i a l i t a l i c s w o u l d he s u p e r f l u o u s . 2 2 . A n I n t r o d . , p . 8 . 2 3 . l o c . c i t . , ¥ . T . S t a c e , The Meaning o f B e a u t y ; quoted i n P h . o f B e a u t y , p . 302 . 2 3 a . P e r h a p s t h e f o o t n o t e p . 376, The Meaning o f Meaning a p p l i e s h e r e a l s o . " C o l e r i d g e ' s ' w i l l i n g s u s p e n s i o n o f d i s -b e l i e f i s perhaps as had a d e s c r i p t i o n p s y c h o l o g i -c a l l y o f t h i s r e q u i r e d accep t ance as c o u l d he g i v e n . l A v , 4 "I J-' A n i n v o l u n t a r y a c c e s s i o n o f c o n v i c t i o n ' w o u l d be b e t t e r . " 2 4 . On the o t h e r h a n d , we a r e r eminded how open-minded W i l l a & m James was c o n c e r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t were d e n i e d h i m . c f . V a r i e t i e s o f R e l i g i o u s E x p e r i e n c e . 2 5 . c f . "Our p h i l o s o p h y i s t h e n not a m e t a p h y s i c s but a me-t h o d o l o g y , a mode o f knowing w h i c h apprehends t h i s a c t i v e l i f e o f mind i n i t s c o n c r e t e n e s s and not i n i t s a b s t r a c t n e s s , and w h i c h apprehends i t f rom w i t h -i n as immanent r e a l i t y o r l i f e and not f rom w i t h o u t as t r a n s c e n d e n t r e a l i t y t y o r t h i n g - i n - i t s e l f . " — H . W i l -don C a r r , P h i l , o f C r o c e , p . 3 9 . 2 6 . M o r . & R e l . , p . 2 1 6 . 2 7 . "The g r e a t e s t t h i n g b y f a r ( i n s t y l e ) i s to have a command o f me taphor . T h i s a l o n e cannot be i m p a r t e d by ano-t h e r ; i t i s the mark o f g e n i u s , f o r to make good metaphors i m p l i e s an eye f o r r e s e m b l a n c e s . " - - A r i s t o t l e ( B u t c h e r t r a n . , p . 8 7 . ) quo ted i n I M o r . & R e l , quo ted i n 1 O r . E v o l . , M o r . So R e l , i b i d . , p . 2 M o r . & R e l . / - 1 3 2 -3 5 . c f . C r . E v o l . . p , 35 et s e q . 36 . M o r . & R e l . , p p . 3 1 - 2 . 3 7 . " I n v a i n do we ex tend our v i e w i n t o the heavens , and p r y i n t o the e n t r a i l s o f the e a r t h ; i n v a i n do we c o n s u l t t h e w r i t i n g s o f l e a r n e d men, and t r a c e the dark f o o t s t e p s o f a n t i q u i t y - - - w e need o n l y draw the c u r -t a i n o f words to b e h o l d the f a i r e s t t r e e o f knowledge whose f r u i t i s e x c e l l e n t and w i t h i n t h e r e a c h of our h a n d . " B e r k e l e y , P r i n c i p l e s o f Human Knowledge , (Works; ed , F r a s e r ; v o l . I . , p . 154 . Quoted by Ogden & R i c h a r d s , op . c i t . , p . 1 1 6 . ) " . . . k n o w l e d g e o f such a s o u l ( the concept o f w h i c h i s the c o n v e n t i o n a l one s u p p l i e d by l anguage ) i s . . . i n c a p a -b l e o f e x t e n s i o n , nay , i t r i n g s h o l l o w a t the f i r s t b l o w o f an o p p o s i n g p h i l o s o p h y . How much b e t t e r to t u r n back t o t h e vague s u g g e s t i o n s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s f rom w h i c h we have s t a r t e d , t o d e l v e i n t o them and f o l l o w them up t i l l we r e a c h a c l e a r i n t u i t i o n ! " B e r g s o n , M o r . & R e l . , p . 228 . F o r c o n t r a s t , c f . - ti~"' "What t h e R e l a t i v i t y handbook i s s a y i n g the who le t ime i s : How t r y and f e e l about a l l t hese t h i n g s /just l i k e a l i t t l e c h i l d . Look a t a l l these t h i n g s p r i m i t i v e l y ! ! L o o k a t t h a t b i g s t a r up t h e r e , o r a t t h a t duck-pond over t h e r e , o r a t t h e image i n t h a t g r e a t b i g m i r r o r o f t h a t fun r i \ y l i t t l e g i r l o r b o y . . . a s though you saw i t f o r t he f i r s t t i m e ! " Wyndham L e w i s , Time and W e s t e r n Man, p . 416 . 3 8 . A n I n t r o d . , p . 3 1 . 3 9 . E n c y . B r i t . 4 0 . " P o e t r y a lways e x p r e s s e s i n w a r d s t a t e s . B u t amongst t he se s t a t e s some a r i s e m a i n l y f rom c o n t a c t w i t h our f e l l o w - m e n . They a r e t h e most i n t e n s e as w e l l as t he most v i o l e n t . " L a u g h t e r , p p . 1 5 7 - 8 . As B e r g s o n grows more m y s t i c a l , he seems to d r i f t f u r t h e r away f rom t h i s s o c i a l v i e w o f a r t . 4 1 . " I f we t a k e f rom a poem i t s m e t r e , i t s rhy thm, and I t s w o r d s , p o e t i c a l t hough t does n o t , as some o p i n e , r e m a i n b e h i n d : There remains n o t h i n g . " C r o c e , The Essence o f A e s t h e t i c , p . 4 4 . 4 2 . L a u g h t e r , p . 154 . 4 3 . M o r . & R e l . , p . 1 8 2 . 4 5 ' C r . E v o l . , p . 272 . 4 6 . L a u g h t e r , pp . 1 5 5 - 6 . 4 7 . M o r . & R e l . , p . 219 . 4 8 . i b i d . , p . 216 . 4 9 . I b i d . , p . 34 . 5 0 . i b i d . , p . 9 5 . 5 1 . M i n d - E n e r g y , p p . 2 8 - 9 . 5 2 . M o r . & R e l . , p . 2 8 . 5 3 . i b i d . , p . 216 . 54 . i b i d . . , p . 217 . 5 5 . i b i d . , p p . 2 1 6 - 1 7 . 5 6 . i b i d . , p . 3 5 . 57 . M i n d - E n e r g y , p . 2 9 . 58 . L a u g h t e r , p p . 1 5 8 - 9 . 5 9 . I b i d . , pp . 1 5 3 - 4 . 6 0 . M o r . & R e l . , p . 7 8 . 6 1 . J u l ! e n Benda i s ano the r who a t t a c k s v i c i o u s l y the a e s -t h e t i c s o f t i m e - f l u x , w h i c h because o f i t s emphasis upon t h e I n t u i t i v e he sneers " ( a r e ) e n t i r e l y made f o r women . . .Men s t r u g g l e . . , . A l a s J They must succomb; t h e r e i s a degree o f u n i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y and shameless , ness t o w h i c h t h e y w i l l never a t t a i n . " B e l p h e g o r , p p . 8 0 - 1 . v .. And r e mus ics " (The ) i n s i s t e n c e on mus ica la .z*ng a l l t h e a r t s i s t he s t r o n g e s t i n d i c a t i o n o f the d i l -i g e n c e w i t h w h i c h our c o n t e m p o r a r i e s seek to d e p r i v e a r t o f a l l i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y and to demand f rom i t mere s e n s a t i o n suah as one ge t s f rom d r i n k i n g w ine o r f rom t h e f r a g r a n c e o f a f l o w e r . M o r e o v e r ; mus ic a c q u i r e s i t s h i g h p o s i t i o n i n t h e i r o p i n i o n no t o n l y f o r i t s l a c k o f f o r m , b u t a l s o because o f t he s t a t e o f pu re a f f e c t i v i t y w h i c h i t i s a b l e t o c r e a t e , because o f i t s c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a r e a l i z a t i o n o f a pure s t a t e f rom w h i c h a l l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s w i t h d r a w n and whose c o n d i t i o n i s v e g e t a t i v e and : i r r e d u c i b l e to i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y ; because o f i t s power t o sugges t r a t h e r t h a n e x p r e s s . " o p . c i t . , p . 28 I n c i d e n t a l l y , WJmdham L e w i s sha res w i t h Benda the same g ro t e sque p r e j u d i c e about m u s i c . 3 - 1 3 * -6 2 . M o r . & R e l . . p . 2 8 . 6 3 . L a u g h t e r , p . 57 . 6 4 - O r . E v o l . , p . 186 . 6 5 . M o r . & R e l . . p . 1 8 2 . . 6 6 . L a u g h t e r , p . 166 . 6 7 . c f . p . 7 f f . s u p r a . 6 8 • ^ s s a y on the Immediate D a t a o f C o n s c i o u s n e s s , p . 144 . quo ted w i t h d i s a p p r o v a l by Benda , op . c i t . , p . 6 0 . 6 9 . L a u g h t e r , p . 1 6 7 . 7 0 . i b i d . , pp . 1 6 6 - 7 . CHAPTER POUR. CONCLUSION \ l . c f . no te 4 9 , p . 127 , s u p r a . 2 « P h i l . C r o c e , p . 4 7 . 3 . E s s e n c e , p p . 5 4 - 5 . 4 . E n c y . B r i t . 5 . c f . H e r b e r t Read , o p . c i t . 6 . A n I n t r o d u , p . 57 . 7 . c f , p . 99 s u p r a . 8 . "Some p h i l o s o p h e r s have put f o r t h i d e a t h a t a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t o r b e a u t y i s a k i n d o f e t h e r e a l , essence w h i c h , i n a ccomoda t ion to f l e s h , i s compellecffuse e x t e r n a l sensuous m a t e r i a l as a v e h i c l e . The d o c t r i n e implies t h a t were no t the s o u l i m p r i s o n e d i n the body , p i c -t u r e s w o u l d e x i s t w i t h o u t c o l o r s , mus ic w i t h o u t sounds , and l i t e r a t u r e w i t h o u t w o r d s . E x c e p t , however , f o r c r i t i c s who t e l l us how they f e e l w i t h -ou t t e l l i n g o r knowing i n terms o f media used why/,4) t h e y f e e l as t h e y do , and excep t f o r pe rsons who i d e n t i f y gush w i t h a p p r e c i a t i o n , media and a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t a r e comple te f u s e d . " - - - D e w e y , op . c i t . , p . 199 9 . op . c i t . , p . 5 3 . C f . a l s o , L i s t o w e l , A C r i t i c a l H i s t o r y o f Modern A e s t h e t i c s , pp . 195 f f . 1 6 . c f . pp.. 7 f f . s u p r a . 1 1 . quo ted i n H i s t o r y o f T a s t e , p . 263 . 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A : The N a t u r e o f A r t ; an open l e t t e r to the P r o f e s s o r o f P o e t r y i n the U n i v e r s i t y o f O x f o r d . C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , London . 1924 T u r q u e t - M i l n e s , G : From P a s c a l to P r o u s t ; s t u d i e s i n the gen -e a l o g y o f a p h i l o s o p h y . Jona thon G a p e , L o n d o n . 1926 . A r i s t o t e l i a n S o c i e t y s y m p o s i a , "Modern Tendenc ies i n P h i l o s o p h y . 1934 . H a r r i s o n & Sons , L o n d o n . NOTE: r e C r o c e ' s a e s t h e t i c : 1. The f o l l o w i n g i s a s i g n i f i c a n t f o o t n o t e appended by E . F . C a r r i t t to h i s i n v a l u a b l e P h i l o s o p h i e s o f B e a u t y ; " S i g n o r G r o c e , i n g e n e r o u s l y a l l o w i n g me to e x t r a c t f rom h i s w r i t i n g s a sked t h a t s t r e s s s h o u l d be l a i d on the B r e v i a r i o £ \ a s r e p r e s e n t i n g h i s mature r t h o u g h t , r a t h e r t h a n on the f u l l e r and more f u l l y a rgued E s t e t i c a ( 1 9 0 1 ) , and t h a t i t s h o u l d be r e a d i n the l i g h t o f h i s a r t i c l e on A e s t h e t i c s i n the 1 4 t h e d i t i o n o f the E n c y -c l o p e d i a B r i t a n n i c a (1929) . I have f e l t bound to com-p l y . There i s a t r a n s l a t i o n o f the B r e v i a r i o by A i n s l i e ( E s s e n t i a l s o f A e s t h e t i c , 1921)" 2 . I t i s g e n e r a l l y conceded t h a t A i n s l i e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e c l u m s y , sometimes even to t h e p o i n t o f m i s c o n -s t r u i n g C r o c e ' s mean ing . -oOo-