THE NOVELS AND THE POETRY OF P H I L I P LARKIN by JOAN SHEILA MAYNE B . A . , U n i v e r s i t y o f H u l l , 1962 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF M . A . i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E n g l i s h We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A p r i l , 1 9 6 8 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o lumbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n -t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department o f English The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada A p r i l 26, 1968 i i THESIS ABSTRACT P h i l i p L a r k i n has been c o n s i d e r e d p r i m a r i l y i n te rms o f h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Movement o f t h e F i f t i e s ; t h i s t h e s i s c o n s i d e r s L a r k i n as a n a r t i s t i n h i s own r i g h t . H i s n o v e l s , J i l l and A G i r l i n W i n t e r , and h i s f i r s t volume o f p o e t r y , The N o r t h S h i p , have r e c e i v e d v e r y l i t t l e c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n . L a r k i n ' s l a s t two vo lumes o f p o e t r y , The L e s s D e c e i v e d a n d The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s , have b e e n c o n s i d e r e d as two v e r y s i m i l a r works w i t h l i t t l e o r no r e l a t i o n t o h i s e a r l i e r w o r k . T h i s t h e s i s i s a n a t t e m p t t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e r e i s a v e r y c l e a r l i n e o f d e v e l o p m e n t r u n n i n g t h r o u g h L a r k i n ' s w o r k , i n w h i c h t h e n o v e l s p l a y a s i m p o r t a n t a p a r t a s t h e p o e t r y . The N o r t h S h i p c o n t a i n s i n e m b r y o n i c form t h o s e themes w h i c h become i m p o r t a n t i n t h e l a t e r w o r k ; i t i s d i f f e r e n t i n t e c h n i q u e , l a r g e l y b e c a u s e i t i s immature and i n f l u e n c e d v e r y s t r o n g l y by t h e p o e t r y w h i c h L a r k i n was r e a d i n g a t t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g . The l y r i c e lement i n t h i s vo lume o f p o e t r y a n t i c i p a t e s t h e l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t i n L a r k i n ' s p o e t i c t e c h n i q u e . The n o v e l s a r e c o n s i d e r e d as n o v e l - p o e m s a n d t h e i r p o e t i c q u a l i t y i s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h r o u g h c l o s e a n a l y s i s w h i c h r e v e a l s t h e i r c l o s e l y p a t t e r n e d q u a l i t y and t h a t t h e n a r r a t i v e l e v e l i s i m p o r t a n t o n l y a s i t m i r r o r s t h e i n t e r n a l a c t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s . The n o v e l s d e v e l o p i i i i d e a s w h i c h a r e p r e s e n t i n The N o r t h S h i p a n d t h e y r e p r e s e n t a c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n c e i n t h e w r i t e r ' s c o n f i d e n c e i n h a n d l i n g h i s m a t e r i a l i n h i s own w a y . The L e s s D e c e i v e d a n d The W h i t s u n Weddings u s e many o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e n o v e l s and a r e v e r y c l o s e l y l i n k e d w i t h them i n t h e i r b a s i c t h e m e s . The L e s s D e c e i v e d shows L a r k i n b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y s e l f - a w a r e and f r o m t h i s a w a r e -n e s s e x a m i n i n g h i s s o c i e t y i n a new l i g h t . I n The W h i t s u n Weddings h i s s e l f - a w a r e n e s s i s i n c r e a s e d and he i s more t o l e r a n t o f h i s own f a i l i n g s . H i s t o l e r a n c e i s e x t e n d e d a l s o t o h i s s o c i e t y a n d t h e volume a s a whole r e p r e s e n t s L a r k i n ' s a t t e m p t t o v i e w man a n d s o c i e t y c l e a r l y and t o a c c e p t them a s t h e y a r e . B o t h t h e n o v e l s and t h e l a t e r p o e t r y c o n t a i n l y r i c e l e m e n t s o f a n u n u s u a l n a t u r e . The d e v e l o p m e n t t h r o u g h -o u t h i s work i s b a s e d on h i s a b i l i t y t o d e v e l o p h i s t e c h n i q u e t o e x p r e s s h i s c h a n g i n g i d e a s . He moves f r o m t h e u s e o f t o t a l l y c o n v e n t i o n a l fo rms t o e x p r e s s c o n v e n t i o n a l i d e a s t o t h e u s e o f i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c f o r m s , d e v e l o p e d f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l i n c l u d i n g t h e l y r i c , t o e x p r e s s h i s sense o f a s o c i e t y l o o k i n g f o r , b u t n o t f i n d i n g , o r d e r i n t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s . i v TABLE OP CONTENTS Chapter Page I . INTRODUCTION 1 I I . J I L L . . . 26 I I I . A GIRL IN WINTER 6 l IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TREATMENT OF THE THEME OF LOVE IN LARKIN'S POETRY . . . 103 V. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TREATMENT OF ALL OTHER MAJOR THEMES IN LARKIN'S POETRY . . I 3 6 V I . CONCLUSION: LARKIN'S DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNIQUE FROM THE NORTH SHIP THROUGH THE NOVELS TO THE LESS DECEIVED AND THE WHITSUN WEDDINGS 18? BIBLIOGRAPHY 215 V ACKNOWLEDGMENT I s h o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k D r . J . F . H u l c o o p , M r . George G a r n e t t and M r . B r i a n Mayne f o r t h e h e l p w h i c h t h e y h a v e g i v e n me i n t h e w r i t i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s . CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION P h i l i p L a r k i n i s b e s t known as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e Movement p o e t s . T h i s g r o u p c o n s i s t s o f p o e t s who g a i n e d a name f o r t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e F i f t i e s and who became a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r l a r g e l y b e c a u s e o f t h e a n t h o l o g i e s p r o d u c e d by R o b e r t C o n q u e s t and D a v i d E n r i g h t . The f i r s t a n t h o l o g y , New L i n e s , e d i t e d by R o b e r t C o n q u e s t , a p p e a r e d i n 1956,^ E n r i g h t * s b o o k , P o e t s o f t h e 1950 ' s t A n A n t h o l o g y o f New E n g l i s h V e r s e . ^ f i r s t a p p e a r e d i n J a p a n i n 1955 b u t was n o t p u b l i s h e d i n E n g l a n d u n t i l 1958. N i n e p o e t s a r e i n c l u d e d i n C o n q u e s t ' s books E l i z a b e t h J e n n i n g s , J o h n H o l l o w a y , P h i l i p L a r k i n , Thom G u n n , D o n a l d D a v i e , D a v i d E n r i g h t , K i n g s l e y A m i s , J o h n W a i n a n d R o b e r t C o n q u e s t . The same p o e t s a r e i n c l u d e d I n E n r i g h t ' s vo lume w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f Thom G u n n . The g r o u p i n g t o g e t h e r o f t h e s e p o e t s i n two a n t h o l o g i e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f common a i m s w h i c h p r e f a c e d each v o l u m e , c a u s e d t h e c r i t i c s t o r e s p o n d t o t h e p o e t s a s a n e s t a b l i s h e d s c h o o l . The s t r e s s on t h e p o e t s as a "Movement" c a u s e d them t o be v i e w e d i n a p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h d i d none o f them j u s t i c e . I n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n t o New L l n e s - I l 3 C o n q u e s t •'"Robert C o n q u e s t , e d . , New L i n e s ( L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n , 1956). 2 D . J . E n r i g h t , P o e t s o f t h e l g ^ O ' s : A n A n t h o l o g y o f New E n g l i s h V e r s e ( T o k y o : K e n k y u s h a L t d . , 1958). ^ R o b e r t C o n q u e s t , e d . , New L l n e s - I I ( L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n , 196.3). 2 attempts to expla in what had caused him to group the poets i n the f i r s t anthology: i t was based on the r e c o g n i t i o n that a number of poets were already producing work which seemed to have something i n common, although they had s tar ted from very d i f f e r e n t s tand-p o i n t s , and maintained t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l a t t i tudes i n many respects . In t h e i r attempts to see s i m i l a r i t i e s between the poets i n the anthology, the c r i t i w s found themselves focusing on the leas t important aspects of the poets* work: One c r i t i c of New Lines sought to demonstrate a common tone by assembling, from each of the nine poets i n i t , one iambic pentameter, i n regular syntax and containing no s t a r t l i n g image. To produce even t h i s g e n e r a l i s a t i o n , i t was necessary to omit one poet, D . J . Enr ight . - 5 Undoubtedly the poets do have much i n common, but only i n that they are a l l very much products of t h e i r time as any group of contemporary poets tends to be. The poets themselves do not appear to have f e l t that they were making a d i s t i n c t break away from t h e i r predecessors, although they were c r i t i c a l of those who formed the f r i n g e s of a group such as that dominated by Auden, and of the imitators of Dylan Thomas. Conquest states t h e i r p o s i t i o n : In one sense, indeed the standpoint i s not new, but merely the r e s t o r a t i o n of a sound and f r u i t f u l a t t i t u d e to poetry, • t New L i n e s - I I , p . x i i i . 5 i b i d . , p . x x i . o f t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t p o e t r y i s w r i t t e n by a n d f o r t h e w h o l e man, i n t e l l e c t , e m o t i o n s , s e n s e s and a l l . ° I t h a d become a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e S p a n i s h C i v i l War and W o r l d War I I c r e a t e d c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h changed what t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o u l d hope t o do w i t h i n s o c i e t y , and t h e a r t i s t was a s much a f f e c t e d by t h i s change as a n y o n e . None o f t h e p o e t s w i t h i n t h e Movement c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d a s a p o l i t i c a l p o e t . W i d e s p r e a d d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h p o l i t i c s and p o l i t i c i a n s had c a u s e d them t o t u r n away f r o m p o l i t i c a l a n d p u b l i c p o e t r y t o t h a t w h i c h i s l a r g e l y i n t r o s p e c t i v e . They s h a r e a sense o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e n o r m a l e v e r y d a y s i t u a t i o n a n d e v e n t i n a s o c i e t y w h i c h has few common - p u b l i c a i m s o r a m b i t i o n s . Two poems by D o n a l d D a v i e i n d i c a t e t h e s h i f t i n t h e p o e t s ' o u t l o o k . "Too L a t e f o r S a t i r e " shows t h e - n a r r o w i n g o f t h e p o e t s ' a ims a n d t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s : I m i g h t have been as p i t i l e s s as Pope B u t t o no p u r p o s e ; i n a t r a g i c age We s h a r e t h e h a t r e d b u t we l a c k t h e hope By p i n n i n g f o l l i e s t o r e f o r m t h e a g e . To blame i s l a m e , and s a t i r i s t s a r e l a t e . ' I n "Remembering t h e T h i r t i e s " he g i v e s a n a c c o u n t o f t h e l a r g e e v e n t s w h i c h h a d e x c i t e d t h e p o e t s o f t h e t i m e a n d shows how h i s own p e r s p e c t i v e has s h r u n k u n t i l he c a n o n l y c o n s i d e r what % e w L i n e s , p . x i v . 7 N e w L i n e s , p . 69. s i g n i f i c a n c e t h e s e e v e n t s have f o r h im as a n i n d i v i d u a l : The A n s c h l u s s , G u e r n i c a — a l l t h e names A t w h i c h t h o s e p o e t s t h r i l l e d , o r were a f r a i d , F o r me mean s c h o o l s and s c h o o l m a s t e r s and g a m e s . 0 A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e n a r r o w i n g down o f themes t o t h o s e w h i c h seem i m m e d i a t e l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l poet i s t h e l i m i t -i n g o f f o r m and s t y l e i n w h i c h t h e p o e t f e l t he c o u l d e x p r e s s h i m s e l f . The c r i t i c who r a n s a c k e d t h e a n t h o l o g y f o r examples o f r e g u l a r i a m b i c p e n t a m e t e r s showed some a w a r e n e s s o f what t h e Movement r e p r e s e n t s , t h o u g h he p u r s u e d t h e p o i n t t o a b s u r d i t y . T h e r e i s no f o r m e x c l u s i v e l y common t o t h e s e p o e t s b u t t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y t o be c o n s e r v a t i v e and t o r e t u r n t o t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s . None o f t h e Movement w r i t e r s shows t h e r a n g e o f A u d e n o r E l i o t b u t t h i s seems t o be f r o m a d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e t o be l i m i t e d r a t h e r t h a n f r o m i n a d e q u a c y . B o t h E l i o t and A u d e n c o u l d assume a p o e t r y - r e a d i n g a u d i e n c e o f a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d . E l i o t i n p a r t i c u l a r assumes a d e g r e e o f f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h p o e t i c t r a d i t i o n s and a n a u d i e n c e s u f f i c i e n t -l y e d u c a t e d t o e n j o y t h e a l l u s i v e q u a l i t y o f h i s w r i t i n g . He has a c l e a r s e n s e o f a t r a d i t i o n w h i c h he c a n s h a r e w i t h h i s r e a d e r s . A u d e n c o u l d assume t h i s t o a much l e s s e r d e g r e e b u t he c o u l d w r i t e e i t h e r f o r a f a i r l y e s o t e r i c g r o u p o f s i m i l a r e d u c a t i o n o r a p p e a l t o t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e c u r r e n t p o l i t i c a l movements . E v e n i n t h e more p e r s o n a l p o e t r y o f b o t h 8 N e w L i n e s , p . 71. 5 t h e r e i s a p u b l i c t o n e s p r i n g i n g f r o m a sense o f a n a u d i e n c e who s h a r e c e r t a i n a s s u m p t i o n s and f r o m a c o n f i d e n c e i n s e l f and p e r s o n a l v a l u e s . The l a n g u a g e o f b o t h r e f l e c t s t h i s : a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e b o t h c a p a b l e o f w r i t i n g i n t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l t o n e w h i c h i s most o f t e n u s e d by t h e Movement p o e t s , t h e y by no means c o n f i n e t h e m s e l v e s t o t h i s , b u t on o c c a s i o n s u s e a l a n g u a g e and t o n e w h i c h i s p o e t i c and r h e t o r i c a l . O f t e n A u d e n ' s u s e o f e x t r e m e l y c o l l o q u i a l l a n g u a g e i s a n a t t e m p t t o r e a c h beyond what he n o r m a l l y r e g a r d s as h i s a u d i e n c e t o one much w i d e r . From t h i s i t c a n be s e e n t h a t what d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e Movement p o e t s a s a g r o u p f r o m t h o s e who came b e f o r e them i s t h e i r d e l i b e r a t e l i m i t i n g o f b o t h s u b j e c t m a t t e r and f o r m . I n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o New L i n e s I I , C o n q u e s t quotes . L a r k i n as s a y i n g , B u t a t b o t t o m p o e t r y , l i k e a l l a r t , i s i n e x t r i c a b l y bound u p w i t h g i v i n g p l e a s u r e , and i f a poet l o s e s h i s p l e a s u r e - s e e k i n g a u d i e n c e he has l o s t t h e o n l y a u d i e n c e w o r t h h a v i n g , f o r w h i c h t h e d u t i f u l mob t h a t s i g n s on e v e r y September i s no s u b s t i t u t e . . . . I f t h e medium i s i n f a c t t o be r e s c u e d f r o m among o u r d u t i e s a n d r e s t o r e d t o o u r p l e a s u r e s , I c a n o n l y t h i n k t h a t a l a r g e s c a l e r e v u l s i o n has got t o s e t i n a g a i n s t p r e s e n t n o t i o n s . 9 L a r k i n ' s s t a t e m e n t c a n be t a k e n as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f one o f t h e b a s i c l i n k s between- t h e Movement p o e t s : a d e s i r e t o r e a c h t h e w i d e s t p o e t r y - r e a d i n g a u d i e n c e p o s s i b l e , r a t h e r t h a n t o see p o e t r y as t h e p r o p e r t y o f a c a d e m i c s and t h e U n i v e r s i t i e s , ^New L i n e s , p p . x v i i i - x i x . 6 a p p e a l i n g t o a k i n d of i n t e l l e c t u a l s n o b b e r y . T h i s d e s i r e c o u p l e d w i t h t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s i t u a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y f o r c e d t h e p o e t s w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s . They c a n no l o n g e r assume common v a l u e s and t r a d i t i o n s , so t h a t t h e p o e t r y must seem t o have a n i m m e d i a t e i f l o c a l r e l e v a n c e t o t h e r e a d e r . A s a r e s u l t t h e Movement p o e t s t e n d t o s t a r t f r o m t h e b a s i s o f i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h a r e u s u a l l y v e r y r e g i o n a l . The u n i v e r s a l i t y o f t h e i r poems a r i s e s b e c a u s e any m a n ' s r e f l e c t i o n s on h i s own I d e n t i t y and t h e l i m i t a t i o n s and p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f h i s e n v i r o n m e n t and l i f e must s t r i k e a r e s p o n s e i n t h e r e a d e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e poet i s v e r y s o l i d l y m i d d l e - c l a s s and i s d e l i b e r a t e l y u s i n g t h i s t o a p p e a l t o o r t o a t t a c k a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f h i s p o t e n t i a l a u d i e n c e . The l a n g u a g e o f t h e s e p o e t s i s v e r y much t h a t o f w i t t y c o n v e r s a t i o n a n d i n t h i s r e s p e c t t h e y owe a n u n d o u b t e d d e b t t o A u d e n ; a d e b t w h i c h L a r k i n a c k n o w l e d g e s i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o The N o r t h S h i p . The f o r m w h i c h i s most common t o t h e Movement p o e t s i s t h e d r a m a t i c n a r r a t i v e poem, t h o u g h W a i n , u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Empson , became i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e more c o m p l e x and r i g i d f o r m o f t h e v i l l a n e l l e . The d r a m a t i c q u a l i t y o f much of t h i s p o e t r y s p r i n g s f r o m t h e p o e t s ' u n c e r t a i n t y o f any p o s i t i v e v a l u e s . T h e i r poems o f t e n work t o w a r d s r e s o l v i n g t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n a n a w a r e n e s s o f t h e m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s o f l i f e and a d e s i r e n o t t o a c c e p t t h i s b u t e i t h e r t o f i n d o r c r e a t e 7 s o m e t h i n g p o s i t i v e and m e a n i n g f u l . I t i s t h i s a t t i t u d e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r use o f t r a d i t i o n a l u n e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r s e f o r m s and rhyme schemes , t o a s s e r t t h e i r sense o f h a v i n g been l e f t w i t h o u t t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e g e n e r a l l y i r o n i c t o n e o f much o f t h e i r p o e t r y . I n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o New L i n e s , C o n q u e s t summarises t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e Movement p o e t s as f o l l o w s : I f one had b r i e f l y t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h i s p o e t r y o f t h e f i f t i e s f r o m i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s , I b e l i e v e t h e most i m p o r t a n t g e n e r a l p o i n t w o u l d be t h a t i t s u b m i t s t o no g r e a t s y s t e m s o f t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s n o r a g g l o m e r a t i o n s o f u n c o n s c i o u s commands. I t i s f r e e f r o m b o t h m y s t i c a l and l o g i c a l c o m p u l s i o n s a n d — l i k e modern p h i l o s o p h y — i s e m p i r i c a l i n i t s a t t i t u d e t o a l l t h a t c o m e s . . . . On t h e more t e c h n i c a l s i d e , t h o u g h o f c o u r s e r e l a t e d t o a l l t h i s , we see r e f u s a l t o a b a n d o n a r a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e and c o m p r e h e n s i b l e l a n g u a g e , even when t h e v e r s e i s most h i g h l y c h a r g e d w i t h sensuous o r e m o t i o n a l i n t e n t . ^ W i t h i n t h e g r o u p o f t h e Movement p o e t s L a r k i n has most i n common i n te rms o f t e c h n i q u e w i t h A m i s a n d W a i n — a f a c t w h i c h i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i r common b a c k g r o u n d a n d t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p . H o w e v e r , i n terms o f themes a n d t h e i r r e l a t i v e s e r i o u s n e s s , L a r k i n i s much c l o s e r t o E l i z a b e t h J e n n i n g s and Thorn G u n n , b o t h o f whom f o c u s on m a n ' s e s s e n t i a l i s o l a t i o n . Thorn Gunn a l s o i n d i c a t e s a s e n s e , s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f L a r k i n , o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b e i n g aware o f t h e i m p o s s i -b i l i t y o f p e r f e c t i o n w i t h i n m a n ' s l i f e . T h i s i s shown most c l e a r l y i n h i s poem "On The M o v e " , w h i c h i s a b o u t % e w L i n e s , p p . x i v - x v . 8 y o u n g m o t o r - c y c l i s t s : A m i n u t e h o l d s t h e m , who have come t o g o : The s e l f - d e f i n e d , a s t r i d e t h e c r e a t e d w i l l They b u r s t a w a y ; t h e towns t h e y t r a v e l t h r o u g h A r e home f o r n e i t h e r b i r d n o r h o l i n e s s , F o r b i r d s and s a i n t s c o m p l e t e t h e i r p u r p o s e s . A t w o r s t , one i s i n m o t i o n ; a n d a t b e s t , R e a c h i n g no a b s o l u t e , i n w h i c h t o r e s t , One i s a l w a y s n e a r e r by n o t k e e p i n g s t i l l . H A m i s and W a i n have t h e same d e l i g h t as L a r k i n i n t h e m u l t i -p l i c i t y o f m e a n i n g i n any w o r d , and e x p l o i t t h i s w i t t i l y w i t h o u t a l l o w i n g i t t o d e s t r o y t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e i r poems. They a l s o s h a r e w i t h L a r k i n t h e sense o f t i m i n g w h i c h r e s u l t s i n t h e i r o n i c t w i s t s e f f e c t i v e l y c o n c l u d i n g some poems. H o w e v e r , t h e i r poems do n o t p e n e t r a t e i n a t o t a l l y m e a n i n g f u l way t h e b a s i c p r o b l e m s f a c i n g m a n . The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p o e t r y o f A m i s and Wain and t h a t o f L a r k i n i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s be tween t h e i r n o v e l s . I n L a r k i n ' s n o v e l s t h e I s s u e s w h i c h any s i t u a t i o n r a i s e s a r e f a c e d , and i f no r e s o l u t i o n seems p o s s i b l e , t h e n t h i s i s made c l e a r . I n t h e n o v e l s o f A m i s and Wain t h e r e i s a c o n s i s t e n t and d e l i b e r a t e a v o i d a n c e o f f a c i n g t h e m o r a l i s s u e s w h i c h a r e r a i s e d ; t h e r e i s l i t t l e o f L a r k i n ' s c o n s t a n t i n s i s t e n c e on t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t o t a l a w a r e n e s s . D e s p i t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n s e r i o u s n e s s o f i n t e n t i o n and s k i l l i n e x e c u t i o n A m i s ' and W a i n ' s n o v e l s have r e c e i v e d a n a t t e n t i o n w h i c h 11 J--LNew L i n e s , p . 3 3 . 9 L a r k i n ' s have n o t . J i l l 1 2 and A G i r l i n W i n t e r 1 ^ have been d e a l t w i t h o n l y i n b r i e f book r e v i e w s and i n i n c i d e n t a l comments d e a l i n g p r i n c i p a l l y w i t h L a r k i n ' s p o e t r y . W i t h i n e v e n t h i s l i m i t e d c o v e r a g e t h e r e a p p e a r s t o be a r a n g e o f c o n f l i c t i n g o p i n i o n s a b o u t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e n o v e l s , b o t h i n t h e i r own r i g h t , and w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e l a t e r p o e t r y . Edmund C r i s p i n i n " A n O x f o r d G r o u p , " a r e v i e w o f J i l l , s t a t e s , "Anyone c a s t i n g i n J i l l f o r p o r t e n t s o f t h e n o t a b l e p o e t - t o - c o m e w i l l f i n d o n l y few and sk impy f i s h r i s i n g t o t h e f l y . " R e v i e w i n g t h e same n o v e l , S t e p h e n H u g h - J o n e s a s s e r t s , "The q u a l i t i e s one has l e a r n e d t o v a l u e i n h i s p o e t r y a r e t h e r e : c o n t r o l o f e m o t i o n and l a n g u a g e , k e e n o b s e r v a t i o n , and I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e v e r y p r e c i s e e x p r e s s i o n o f h a l f s u c c e s s , a n t i c i p a t e d f a i l u r e o r s a d n e s s . " ^ W i l l i a m Van O ' C o n n o r i n The New U n i v e r s i t y W i t s e x p r e s s e s l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n t h e n o v e l s and f o r t h e most p a r t c o n t e n t s h i m s e l f w i t h b r i e f p l o t s u m m a r i e s . He comments on h i s v i e w o f L a r k i n ' s p u r p o s e i n J i l l : "He seems t o have i n t e n d e d t o show t h a t d e f e a t i s f i n a l l y a c c o m p a n i e d , o r c a n b e , by a g l i m m e r o f j o y , b u t he 1 2 P h i l i p L a r k i n , J i l l ( L o n d o n : P a b e r and F a b e r , 1964, 1st e d . 1946). 13 P h i l i p L a r k i n , A G i r l i n W i n t e r ( L o n d o n : F a b e r and F a b e r , 1964, 1st e d . 1947)• i ^ T h e S p e c t a t o r . A p r i l 17th, 1964, 525. ^ S t e p h e n H u g h - J o n e s , " R e v i e w o f J i l l , " The New S t a t e s m a n . A p r i l 3rd, 1964, 533. 10 d i d n o t manage t o g e t t h i s g l i m m e r i n t o h i s n o v e l . n ^ W h i l s t t h i s has some r e l e v a n c e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f A G i r l I n W i n t e r — t h o u g h even t h e r e " j o y " i s a s t r a n g e d e s c r i p t i o n — i t seems i n a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f J i l l , as does h i s a s s e r t i o n o f t h e theme o f J i l l ; " a sense o f peace i s t o be f o u n d i n f a c i n g o n e ' s f r u s t r a t i o n s . " Edmund C r i s p i n ' s d e s c r i p -t i o n o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f J i l l t o w h i c h he r e f e r s a s t h e " raw n i g h t m a r i s h n e s s o f t h e c l i m a x , " 1 7 seems more a c c u r a t e and d i r e c t l y c o n t r a d i c t s O ' C o n n o r ' s s t a t e m e n t , as does A l u n J o n e s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f J i l l and A - G i r l I n W i n t e r a s " b l e a k and p e s s i m i s t i c t o t h e p o i n t o f n i h i l i s m . " - ^ I n P o s t w a r B r i t i s h F i c t i o n , James G i n d i n sees J i l l as t h e f o r e r u n n e r o f n o v e l s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s . I n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e 1964 e d i t i o n o f J i l l . L a r k i n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c h o i c e o f a w o r k i n g - c l a s s h e r o has b e e n m i s u n d e r s t o o d : "My h e r o ' s b a c k g r o u n d , t h o u g h a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e s t o r y , was n o t what t h e s t o r y was a b o u t . i n a more g e n e r a l comment, G i n d i n p i n p o i n t s more a c c u r a t e l y what L a r k i n i s t r y i n g t o do i n t h e n o v e l : ^ W i l l i a m Van O ' C o n n o r , The New U n i v e r s i t y W i t s ( C a r b o n d a l e : I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963), p . 23. 1 7 T h e S p e c t a t o r , A p r i l 17th, 1964, 525. 1 8 A . R . J o n e s , "The P o e t r y o f P h i l i p L a r k i n : A N o t e on T r a n s a t l a n t i c C u l t u r e , " W e s t e r n H u m a n i t i e s R e v i e w XVI (1962), 1 4 6 . 1 9 P . l a r k i n , J i l l ( L o n d o n : F a b e r and F a b e r , 1964), p . 11. 11 t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s h a v e , i n one s e n s e , become t h e p r o b l e m s o f many o f t h e t h o u g h t f u l men i n t h e w h o l e s o c i e t y : how t o a s s e r t a n d d e f e n d o n e s e l f i n t h e m i d s t o f c h a o s a n d i n d i f f e v e n c e . B u t i t i s S t e p h e n H u g h - J o n e s who c r y s t a l l i z e s t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e n o v e l : " C l a s s I s n o t t h e e s s e n c e h e r e ; what M r . L a r k i n was r e a l l y l o o k i n g a t was t h e s o f t s h e l l i n a w o r l d f u l l o f s p i k e s . " 2 ^ D e s p i t e t h e d i s a g r e e m e n t s amongst t h e m a j o r c r i t i c s o f L a r k i n ' s work a s t o t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s n o v e l s and p o e t r y , t h e r e i s f a i r l y g e n e r a l agreement on t h e m a j o r themes w h i c h r e c u r i n t h e l a t e r v o l u m e s . C . B . C o x c o n s i d e r s t h a t L a r k i n op d e a l s w i t h " u n i v e r s a l themes o f t i m e , s u f f e r i n g and d e a t h " a c c e p t i n g u n c e r t a i n t y a s a c o n d i t i o n o f l i f e . J o h n Wain s a y s t h a t L a r k i n d e a l s w i t h " t h e gap be tween dream and r e a l i t y , o r what happens t o i d e a l s when t h e y come down among t h e i n e s c a p a b l e f a c t s o f o r d i n a r y l i v i n g . " 2 3 S i m i l a r l y a number o f s t a t e m e n t s on t h e s t r u c t u r e o f L a r k i n ' s p o e t r y i n d i c a t e a g e n e r a l c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e . 2 0 J . G i n d i n , P o s t w a r B r i t i s h F i c t i o n ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963), p . 105. 2 l T h e New S t a t e s m a n . A p r i l 3, 1964, 533. 2 2 C . B . C o x , " P h i l i p L a r k i n , " The C r i t i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , I , 1 ( S p r i n g 1959), 16. 2 3 j o h n W a i n , "Engagement o r W i t h d r a w a l ? Some n o t e s on t h e Work o f P h i l i p L a r k i n , " The C r i t i c a l Q u a r t e r l y . V I , 2 (Summer 1964), 172. 12 A n t h o n y T h w a i t e d e s c r i b e s L a r k i n t h e poet as h a v i n g " t h e a b i l i t y t o f e e l h i s way i n t o c o m p l e x e m o t i o n s o r r e s o l u t i o n by b e g i n n i n g w i t h a c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n as a s o r t o f p a r a b l e i m p l i c i t i n h i s r e s o l u t i o n . " 2 ^ F r e d e r i c k Grubb t a l k s o f L a r k i n ' s " n o v e l i s t ' s f e e l i n g f o r v a r i e t y o f n a r r a t i v e e f f e c t , " J and J o h n P r e s s s t a t e s t h a t " t h e v i s u a l a s p e c t s o f h i s images f u s e p e r f e c t l y w i t h t h e i r e m o t i o n a l and I n t e l l e c t u a l r e s o n a n c e . " D e s p i t e t h e o b v i o u s t r e n d o f t h e s e r e m a r k s t o w a r d s a s s o c i a t i n g q u a l i t i e s o f n o v e l s w i t h t h e poems, no c r i t i c has c o n s i d e r e d i t w o r t h w h i l e t o t h i n k o f L a r k i n as a p o e t - n o v e l i s t r a t h e r t h a n as n o v e l i s t and t h e n p o e t a n d t o l o o k a t t h e n o v e l s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h i s work as a w h o l e , n o t o n l y i n t e r m s o f t h e i r themes b u t a l s o t h e i r s t r u c t u r e s . L a r k i n h i m s e l f g i v e s a h i n t t h a t t h i s i s a l i n e t h a t c o u l d be f o l l o w e d w i t h a d v a n t a g e , s i n c e i n t h e comment p r e f a c i n g t h e r e - i s s u e o f J i l l he e x p l a i n s , " A s , d e s p i t e i t s l e n g t h , i t r e m a i n s i n e s s e n c e a n u n a m b i t i o u s s h o r t s t o r y , c h a p t e r - d i v i s i o n s have b e e n d r o p p e d , l e a v i n g i t m e r e l y as a n a r r a t i v e w i t h b r e a t h i n g - s p a c e s . u ^ No s u c h comment p r e f a c e s A G i r l i n W i n t e r b u t i t t o o l a c k s r e a l 2 ^ A n t h o n y T h w a i t e , C o n t e m p o r a r y E n g l i s h P o e t r y ; A n I n t r o d u c t i o n ( L o n d o n : H e i n e m a r m , 1959), p . 87. ^ F r e d e r i c k G r u b b , A V i s i o n o f R e a l i t y ( L o n d o n : C h a t t o & W i n d u s , 1965) , p . 226. 26john P r e s s , R u l e a n d E n e r g y ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d , 1963)* p . 101. 2 7 J i l l , p . 20. c h a p t e r d i v i s i o n s . The n o v e l s , i t seems t o me, c a n i n f a c t be b e s t c o n s i d e r e d a s l o n g s h o r t s t o r i e s o r a s n a r r a t i v e . , p r o s e poems. The i d e a o f t h e n o v e l a s poem i s f a r f r o m b e i n g a new o n e . I n s e v e r a l o f h e r c r i t i c a l e s s a y s V i r g i n i a W o o l f d i s c u s s e s t h e i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween p o e t r y a n d p r o s e i n t h e modern n o v e l , i n p a r t i c u l a r i n t h e work o f J o y c e a n d L a w r e n c e , and she d i s c u s s e s t h e w o r k s o f w r i t e r s s u c h as t h e B r o n t e s and H a r d y i n te rms a p p l i c a b l e t o p o e t r y r a t h e r t h a n p r o s e . A p a r t f r o m t h e g e n e r a l p o e t i c t e x t u r e o f l a n g u a g e I n t h e s e n o v e l i s t s , she f e e l s t h a t t h e i r n o v e l s a p p r o a c h poems when t h e emphas is s h i f t s f r o m t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s be tween c h a r a c t e r s t o t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h f o r c e s s u c h a s l o v e , d e a t h and n a t u r e . P . R . L e a v i s and G ; D . K l l n g o p u l i s i n t h e s e r i e s o f S c r u t i n y e s s a y s e n t i t l e d "The N o v e l as D r a m a t i c P o e m " 2 0 e x p r e s s s i m i l a r v i e w s , i n t h a t i n t h e i r a n a l y s e s o f n o v e l s w h i c h t h e y see a s d r a m a t i c poems t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s on t h e " M o r a l f a b l e " a s p e c t , o r , a s K l l n g o p u l i s s t a t e s i n h i s comments on W u t h e r i n g H e i g h t s , " t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r i s a way o f f e e l i n g a b o u t m a n ' s p l a c e i n t h e u n i v e r s e . " 2 9 2 w F . R . L e a v i s and G . D . K l l n g o p u l i s , "The N o v e l a s D r a m a t i c P o e m , " S c r u t i n y . X I V , 3 & 4, 1947 : X V , 3, 1948; X V I I , 1 & 3, 1950; X V I I , 4, 1951; X V I I I , 1, 1951. 2 9 G . D . K l l n g o p u l i s , "The N o v e l as D r a m a t i c Poem ( I I ) : W u t h e r i n g H e i g h t s , " S c r u t i n y , X I V , 4, September 194?, 205. 14 I n A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s I n P o e t r y . Maud B o d k i n d i s c u s s e s b o t h p o e t r y and t h e n o v e l , s i n c e A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h e n o v e l , r a t h e r t h a n v e r s e , a p p e a r s t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h i c h even t h e poet must u s e , i f he w o u l d r e a c h any b u t a v e r y r e s t r i c t e d a u d i e n c e .30 I n t h e n o v e l s o f L a w r e n c e , W o o l f and E m i l y B r o n t e she t r a c e s t h e w o r k i n g s o u t o f a r c h e t y p a l p a t t e r n s i n p o e t i c t e r m s . D a v i d Lodge i n Language o f F i c t i o n , h a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t l a n g u a g e i s a c o n t i n u u m r a t h e r t h a n made o f two p a r t s , r e f e r e n t i a l a n d p o e t i c , goes on t o s t a t e t h a t i f we a r e t o r e g a r d t h e a r t o f p o e t r y a s e s s e n t i a l l y a n a r t o f l a n g u a g e , t h e n so i s t h e a r t o f t h e n o v e l ; and [ that ) t h e c r i t i c o f t h e n o v e l h a s no s p e c i a l d i s p e n s a t i o n f r o m t h a t c l o s e and s e n s i t i v e engagement w i t h l a n g u a g e w h i c h we n a t u r a l l y e x p e c t f r o m t h e c r i t i c o f p o e t r y ."31 I t i s p e r h a p s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t among t h e n o v e l s he c h o o s e s t o examine i n c l o s e d e t a i l a r e H a r d y ' s Tess o f t h e D ' U r b e r v i l l e s , C h a r l o t t e B r o n t e ' s Jane E y r e , a n d D i c k e n s ' H a r d T i m e s , a l l o f w h i c h n o v e l s o r n o v e l i s t s have a l s o b e e n t h e f o c u s o f V i r g i n i a W o o l f a n d t h e S c r u t i n e e r s . I t w o u l d seem, t h e n , t h a t some common e l e m e n t s e x i s t be tween t h e s e n o v e l s w h i c h make them o b v i o u s examples o f t h e n o v e l - p o e m . I t i s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n 3°Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n P o e t r y ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1934), p . 289. 3lDavid L o d g e , Language o f F i c t i o n ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e a n d Kegan P a u l , 1966), p . 47. 15 e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e s e w r i t e r s t h a t L a r k i n seems t o have a p l a c e . Commenting on E m i l y a n d C h a r l o t t e B r o n t e , V i r g i n i a W o o l f ' s a y s s They s e i z e d t h o s e a s p e c t s o f t h e e a r t h w h i c h were most a k i n t o what t h e y t h e m s e l v e s f e l t o r i m p u t e d t o t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s , a n d so t h e i r s t o r m s , t h e i r m o o r s , t h e i r l o v e l y s p a c e s o f summer w e a t h e r a r e n o t ornaments a p p l i e d t o d e c o r a t e a d u l l page o r d i s p l a y t h e w r i t e r s ' powers o f o b s e r v a t i o n — t h e y c a r r y on t h e e m o t i o n and l i g h t u p t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e b o o k.3 2 T h i s comment c o u l d be a p p l i e d w i t h e q u a l , v a l u e t o t h e work o f H a r d y , D i c k e n s i n H a r d T i m e s , Lawrence and t o some e x t e n t V i r g i n i a W o o l f h e r s e l f . S i m i l a r l y a comment on t h e n o v e l s o f M e r e d i t h a n d H a r d y c o u l d be a p p l i e d s u c c e s s f u l l y t o any o f t h e above n o v e l i s t s : P o e t r y , i t w o u l d seem, r e q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r i n g o f t h e s c e n e ; human b e i n g s a r e n e e d e d , b u t needed i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o l o v e , o r d e a t h , o r n a t u r e r a t h e r t h a n t o each o t h e r . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e i r p s y c h o l o g y i s s i m p l i f i e d , a s i t i s b o t h i n M e r e d i t h a n d H a r d y , and i n s t e a d o f f e e l i n g t h e i n t r i c a c y o f l i f e , we f e e l i t s p a s s i o n , i t s t r a g e d y .33 I p r o p o s e t o t a k e t h e a b o v e two q u o t a t i o n s f r o m V i r g i n i a W o o l f a s t h e b a s i s f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f L a r k i n ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e t r a d i t i o n o f n o v e l - p o e m . 3 2 V i r g i n i a W o o l f , " Jane E y r e and W u t h e r l n g H e i g h t s , " The Common R e a d e r I (New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t B r a c e and W o r l d , 1925), p . 163. 33virginia W o o l f , " P h a s e s o f F i c t i o n , " G r a n i t e a n d R a i n b o w ( L o n d o n : H o g a r t h P r e s s , i960), p p . 140-141. 16 V i r g i n i a W o o l f ' s comment on E m i l y a n d C h a r l o t t e B r o n t e p o i n t s t o one o f t h e i m p o r t a n t common a s p e c t s o f t h e n o v e l as poem, s i n c e i n a l l o f t h o s e n o v e l s w h i c h seem t o q u a l i f y most c l e a r l y f o r t h i s d e f i n i t i o n t h e N a t u r a l w o r l d p l a y s a n I m p o r t a n t p a r t , n o t o n l y a s a b a c k g r o u n d b u t a l s o a s a p e r v a s i v e i n f l u e n c e on and a r e f l e c t i o n o f m a n ' s p o s i t i o n , and a s a p a r t o f b o t h theme and s t r u c t u r e . S i n c e L a r k i n h i m s e l f e s t a b l i s h e s h i s a f f i n i t i e s w i t h H a r d y t h e p o e t and makes c l e a r h i s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h H a r d y ' s n o v e l s i n h i s p r e f a c e t o The N o r t h S h i p , i t w o u l d p e r h a p s be r e l e v a n t i n p l a c i n g h i m i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e p o e t - n o v e l i s t t o c o n s i d e r h i s a f f i n i t i e s w i t h H a r d y t h e n o v e l i s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e i r r e l a t i v e u s e o f p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t . The c l e a r e s t c o m p a r i s o n c a n be made be tween The R e t u r n o f t h e N a t i v e and A G i r l i n W i n t e r . The o p e n i n g c h a p t e r s o f t h e n o v e l s i l l u s t r a t e t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s be tween t h e w r i t e r s ' u s e o f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t i n a t o t a l l y r e a l i s t i c m a n n e r , w h i c h , i n r e t r o s p e c t expands i n t o a s y m b o l o f t h e b a s i c i s s u e s o f t h e n o v e l . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f Egdon H e a t h becomes more t h a n a s i m p l e l o c a t i n g o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l , f o r , t h r o u g h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n , t h e mood o f t h e n o v e l i s e s t a b l i s h e d and t h e h e a t h t a k e s on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a n a r c h e t y p a l m e n t a l l a n d s c a p e . I t s q u a l i t y o f t i m e l e s s n e s s i n d i c a t e s t h e c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h H a r d y sees man. L a r k i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w i n t e r l a n d s c a p e s i m i l a r l y t r a n s c e n d s t h e 17 s i m p l e f u n c t i o n o f b a c k g r o u n d and becomes a p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e mood and t h e theme o f A G i r l I n W i n t e r . Much o f t h i s i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e o p e n i n g s e c t i o n i n my t h i r d c h a p t e r . B o t h h e r e and i n J i l l t h e u s e o f t h e s e a s o n as a p r e d o m i n a t i n g image s e r v e s a l s o t o i n d i c a t e t h e s c a l e o f L a r k i n ' s v i s i o n . Whereas H a r d y c h o o s e s a n image o f permanence and u n i v e r s a l i t y , L a r k i n c h o o s e s p a r t o f t h e c y c l i c movement o f t h e y e a r and u s e s t h i s more as t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a n o f a c o l l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s does H a r d y . L a r k i n ' s f o c u s i s e s t a b l i s h e d h e r e , as e l s e -where i n t h e poems, on t h e i n d i v i d u a l and h i s p r o g r e s s i o n t o w a r d s d e a t h ; he e x p r e s s e s c o n c e r n t h a t t h i s i s t h e end f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l r a t h e r t h a n s e e i n g h i m as p a r t o f a c y c l i c movement i n h i s t o r y . I n L a r k i n , a s i n H a r d y , t h e o p e n i n g s y m b o l i s t a k e n u p and r e i n f o r c e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e n o v e l , so t h a t i t g i v e s t o t h e n o v e l a r h y t h m w i t h i n t h e l a r g e p a t t e r n i n t h e same way as i n d i v i d u a l words and p h r a s e s work w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a poem. A s a r e s u l t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e n o v e l s comes t o be l e s s dependent on t h e s i m p l e p r o g r e s s i o n o f p l o t and n a r r a t i v e a n d m o r e , as i n p o e t r y , on t h e s a t i s -f a c t o r y p a t t e r n i n g and w o r k i n g o u t o f t h e I m p o r t a n t i m a g e s . I n f a c t t h e m e a n i n g o f L a r k i n ' s n o v e l s ^ i s n o t c a r r i e d by t h e p l o t o r theme a l o n e b u t a l s o by t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i m a g e s . The u s e o f images r a t h e r t h a n s t a t e m e n t s o r d e s c r i p t i o n o f a c t i o n t o r e s o l v e b o t h n o v e l s shows t h i s c l e a r l y and p u t s 18 L a r k i n i n t h e c l a s s o f t h o s e w r i t e r s whose "meaning i s i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m h i s l a n g u a g e , and i t s e l f r a t h e r a mood t h a n a p a r t i c u l a r o b s e r v a t i o n . " J I n h e r comment on H a r d y and M e r e d i t h , V i r g i n i a W o o l f i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c h o i c e o f f o c u s i n a p o e t i c n o v e l i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e u s u a l engagement w i t h t h e I n t e r a c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s . She s u g g e s t s t h a t i n t h e a t t e m p t t o p r e s e n t man i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t s o f l o v e , d e a t h and n a t u r e , t h e n o v e l i s t s i m p l i f i e s t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s , n o t i n v e s t i g a t i n g i n d e p t h t h o s e a s p e c t s o f p e r s o n a l i t y most c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d i n s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e . I n L a r k i n ' s n o v e l s t h e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i s e f f e c t e d by t h e v e r y c l o s e f o c u s on t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r . We do become f u l l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f b o t h J o h n and K a t h e r i n e , b u t i t i s o n l y t h e i r m i n d s we see i n o p e r a t i o n and o u r v i s i o n o f t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s i s l a r g e l y c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r . S i n c e , i n each c a s e , o n l y one m i n d i s e x p l o r e d i n any d e p t h , t h e emphas is does f a l l on t h a t i n d i v i d -u a l ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e a b s t r a c t i o n s o f l o v e and d e a t h and n a t u r e . I n A G i r l i n W i n t e r t h i s i s most c l e a r l y a p p a r e n t , s i n c e much o f t h e n o v e l i s d e v o t e d t o K a t h e r i n e ' s t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s , i n w h i c h human r e l a t i o n s h i p s become i m p o r t a n t onlf as t h e y s e r v e t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n s i n K a t h e r i n e ' s m i n d a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f l i f e and t h e ways i n w h i c h i t c a n be 34 T h e C ommon R e a d e r I , p . 163. 19 made m e a n i n g f u l . J o h n i s l e s s m a t u r e a n d r e f l e c t i v e t h a n K a t h e r l n e h u t , by i m p l i c a t i o n , he c o n s i d e r s a l l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e same w a y . I n b o t h n o v e l s t h e v e r y c l o s e f o c u s i s e m p h a s i s e d by t h e l a c k o f any k i n d o f s u b s i d i a r y p l o t o r theme, a n d a c l e a r s e n s e o f a c t i o n and d e t a i l s i m p l i f i e d t o t h e p o i n t where n o t h i n g e x t r a n e o u s t o t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s i s I n c l u d e d f o r any r e a s o n . The n o v e l s c a n be r e a d l i k e poems i n t h e s e n s e t h a t e v e r y word c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e c l o s e l y d e f i n e d p a t t e r n o f t h e n o v e l . T h i s i s shown i n t h e way i n w h i c h t h e n o v e l i s d o m i n a t e d by s t r a n d s o f i n t e r w o v e n images r e v e a l i n g t h e c e n t r a l theme r a t h e r t h a n by a c t i o n . The economy i s f u r t h e r a s s i s t e d by t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e a u t h o r . The n o v e l s a r e , i n f a c t , d r a m a t i c poems, s i n c e t h e themes a r e p u r s u e d p u r e l y i n t h e t e r m s o f t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s . A l l p h i l o s o p h i z i n g , r e f l e c t i o n and r e s o l u t i o n t a k e p l a c e i n t h e i r m i n d s ; t h e r e i s no a u t h o r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n . N o t h i n g i n t r u d e s w h i c h i s o u t s i d e t h e p o s s i b l e c o g n i z a n c e o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s , so t h a t t h e w r i t e r i s o n l y p r e s e n t a s t h e c r e a t o r o f t h e r e a d e r ' s o m n i s c i e n c e o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s ' t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s . The nove ls f u r t h e r r e s e m b l e p o e t r y i n t h a t t h e y have t h e d e p t h a n d a l l u s i v e q u a l i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t . B o t h n o v e l s make u s e o f t h e s e a s o n Imagery i n a way w h i c h p u t s them c l e a r l y i n t o a n e s t a b l i s h e d l i t e r a r y a n d even p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n . I n h i s e s s a y "The A r c h e t y p e s o f L i t e r a t u r e " N o r t h r o p P r y e 20 d i s c u s s e s t h e u s e o f t h e s e a s o n s and t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r a c c u m u l a t e d a s s o c i a t i o n s . He d e s c r i b e s t h e autumn m y t h a s t h e t h i r d o f t h e s e a s o n a l p h a s e s : The s u n s e t , autumn and d e a t h p h a s e . M y t h s o f f a l l , and o f t h e d y i n g g o d , o f v i o l e n t d e a t h and s a c r i f i c e and o f t h e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e h e r o . S u b o r d i n a t e c h a r a c t e r s : t h e t r a i t o r and t h e s i r e n . The a r c h e t y p e o f t r a g e d y and e l e g y .35 C l e a r l y L a r k i n i s m a k i n g f u l l u s e o f a l l t h e s e a s s o c -i a t i o n s , b u t a s we a l r e a d y n o t i c e d i n c o m p a r i n g h i s u s e o f e n v i r o n m e n t t o t h a t o f H a r d y ' s , he p r e s e n t s e v e r y t h i n g on a r e d u c e d s c a l e , so t h a t he i s u s i n g t h e a r c h e t y p a l a s s o c i a t i o n s i n a somewhat I r o n i c m a n n e r : he sees man and h i s w o r l d as much s m a l l e r and l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n d i d h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s . I n s t e a d o f a d y i n g god we h a v e ' J o h n , i l l b u t n o t beyond r e c o v e r y ; t h e manner o f h i s becoming i l l i s v i o l e n t a n d i n t h i s p r o c e s s he i s s o m e t h i n g o f a s a c r i f i c e . He i s n o t , h o w e v e r , s a c r i f i c e d t o w a r d s any c l e a r c r e a t i v e ends b u t s i m p l y t o r e c r e a t e a s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y f o r C h r i s t o p h e r Warner and h i s f r i e n d s . He does e x p e r i e n c e d e a t h o f a k i n d i n t h a t he h a s c l e a r l y r e a c h e d t h e end o f a p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d he has t o l e a r n a new v i s i o n o f l i f e b e f o r e he c a n b e g i n a g a i n . H i s i s o l a t i o n i s c o m p l e t e b u t i t i s a c c i d e n t a l r a t h e r t h a n c l e a r l y c h o s e n . C h r i s t o p h e r Warner c a n be s e e n as a t y p e o f t r a i t o r on a s m a l l s c a l e , j u s t as J i l l o r even 35Northrop F r y e , F a b l e s o f I d e n t i t y . S t u d i e s i n P o e t i c M y t h o l o g y (New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t B r a c e and W o r l d , I 9 6 3 ) , p . 16. 21 E l i z a b e t h a r e s i r e n s r e d u c e d t o t h e s c a l e o f t h e O x f o r d w o r l d . The n o v e l i s n o t , h o w e v e r , t r a g i c . The r e d u c t i o n I n s c a l e o f a l l v a l u e s a n d c h a r a c t e r s makes t h i s i m p o s s i b l e . L a r k i n does n o t see man a s s u f f i c i e n t l y h e r o i c t o be t r a g i c a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y he t e n d s t o w a r d s i r o n y r a t h e r t h a n t r a g e d y . A G i r l I n W i n t e r f i t s l e s s c l o s e l y w i t h t h e a r c h e t y p a l a t t r i b u t e s t h a t F r y e sees i n t h e w i n t e r m y t h o l o g y , b u t L a r k i n ' s u s e o f t h e w i n t e r m y t h i s so c l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o a t r a d i t i o n t h a t h i s f i n a l d e v i a t i o n i s a n a s s e r t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n h i s v i s i o n o f man. The E n g l i s h l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n o f t h e w i n t e r m y t h , i n w h i c h l a r k i n seems t o have a p l a c e , goes b a c k t o s u c h A n g l o - S a x o n poems a s t h e " S e a f a r e r " , i n w h i c h t h e p o e t , l i k e L a r k i n , u s e s t h e w i n t e r m y t h i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e j o u r n e y i m a g e . I n t h i s poem t h e r e i s t h e c l e a r sense o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f t h e w i n t e r j o u r n e y i f s e l f - k n o w l e d g e i s t o be a c h i e v e d ; and t h e r e i s a l s o t h e s e n s e o f i s o l a t i o n and l o v e l e s s n e s s . The poet e m p h a s i s e s h i s p o i n t by c o n t r a s t i n g t h e p r e s e n t w i t h t h e summer h a p p i n e s s he e x p e r i e n c e d when he was p a r t o f a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . He c r e a t e s a s t r o n g I m p r e s s i o n t h a t a f t e r t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e w i n t e r j o u r n e y s u c h d e l i g h t i n s i m p l e p l e a s u r e s w i l l no l o n g e r be c o m p l e t e l y p o s s i b l e . T h e r e i s a pagan l a c k o f o p t i m i s m i n t h e poem w h i c h L a r k i n ' s own work a p p r o a c h e s . A l t h o u g h t h e w i n t e r inage r e c u r r s f r e q u e n t l y i n L a w r e n c e ' s w o r k , A a r o n ' s Rod seems t o a f f o r d t h e most f r u i t f u l 22 c o m p a r i s o n w i t h A G i r l i n W i n t e r , s i n c e i n b o t h n o v e l s t h e w r i t e r s a r e a l s o c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e r e t e n t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y w i t h i n t h e most i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h a t L a r k i n sees t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f any o t h e r s i t u a t i o n e x i s t i n g , w h i l s t Lawrence i s s t r i v i n g t o a s s e r t t h a t t h i s i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t must be sought a s t h e most d e s i r a b l e k i n d o f r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n b o t h n o v e l s t h e j o u r n e y image i s c e n t r a l a s t h e c h a r a c t e r s move t o w a r d s m a t u r i t y , a n d i n b o t h i t i s t h e w i n t e r w h i c h s y m b o l i s e s t h e end o f a way o f l i f e b a s e d on t h e t r a d i t i o n a l , u n w o r k a b l e I d e a s o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . L a w r e n c e , h o w e v e r , i s s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e t o t h e C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t o f man t o b e g i n h i s n o v e l a t C h r i s t m a s a n d t o make u s e of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s t h e s e a s o n h a s . He makes u s e o f t h e w i n t e r a s p a r t o f t h e c y c l i c p a t t e r n and he p r e s e n t s A a r o n u n d e r g o i n g a r e b i r t h p r o c e s s i n t o a more h o p e f u l l i f e . I n L a r k i n ' s n o v e l t h e sense o f t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a new way o f l i f e does n o t c a r r y w i t h i t any i d e a o f h o p e . K a t h e r i n e ' s e x t e n d e d awareness o n l y r e v e a l s t o h e r t h e s e v e r e l i m i t a t i o n s w i t h i n w h i c h man must work and t h e p r o s p e c t o f t h e l i f e ahead o f h e r w i t h h e r new a w a r e n e s s i s n o t a n i n v i t i n g o n e i I n t h i s r e s p e c t L a r k i n i s c l o s e r t o t h e A n g l o - S a x o n t r a d i t i o n t h a n t o t h e more c o n t e m p o r a r y o n e . E l i o t ' s poem " J o u r n e y o f t h e M a g i " has even c l o s e r a f f i n i t i e s w i t h L a r k i n ' s n o v e l t h a n does L a w r e n c e ' s w o r k . The poem t o o u s e s t h e j o u r n e y image i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e 23 w i n t e r i m a g e , a n d i t t o o s t r e s s e s t h a t , "The summer p a l a c e s on s l o p e s , t h e t e r r a c e s , / A n d t h e s i l k e n g i r l s b r i n g i n g sherbet'*36 c a n n e v e r a g a i n be e n j o y e d a f t e r t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e w i n t e r j o u r n e y and i t s r e v e l a t i o n o f a sense o f a l i e n -a t i o n , i s o l a t i o n and d i s c o m f o r t ; " A n d t h e n i g h t f i r e s g o i n g o u t , a n d t h e l a c k o f s h e l t e r s , / A n d t h e c i t i e s h o s t i l e a n d t h e towns u n f r i e n d l y " ( p . 1 0 ? ) . The end o f E l i o t ' s poem, l i k e t h e end o f L a r k i n ' s n o v e l , seems t o q u e s t i o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d e a t h and b i r t h w h i c h t h e e x p e r i e n c e has c a u s e d . L a r k i n p r e s e n t s K a t h e r l n e as h a v i n g moved i n t o a new phase o f l i f e , b u t t h a t phase i s a k i n d o f d e a t h w i t h i n l i f e s i n c e h e r a w a r e n e s s a n d a c c e p t a n c e a r e p u r c h a s e d a t t h e expense o f a d e a d e n i n g o f t h o s e s e n s e s w h i c h a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l i f e and h o p e . E l i o t , t h o u g h u s i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n m y t h o l o g y a s h i s b a s i s , a l s o sees t h e w i n t e r b i r t h as b r i n g i n g t h e M a g i t o a n a w a r e n e s s w h i c h makes them a l i e n t o t h e l i f e i n w h i c h t h e y have t o c o n t i n u e l i v i n g , so t h a t t h e y t o o e x p e r i e n c e a k i n d o f d e a t h w i t h i n l i f e : were we l e d a l l t h a t way f o r B i r t h o r D e a t h ? T h e r e was a B i r t h , c e r t a i n l y , We had e v i d e n c e and no d o u b t . I h a d s e e n b i r t h and d e a t h , B u t h a d t h o u g h t t h e y were d i f f e r e n t ; t h i s B i r t h was . H a r d and b i t t e r agony f o r u s , l i k e D e a t h , o u r d e a t h . We r e t u r n e d t o o u r p l a c e s , t h e s e k i n g d o m s , B u t no l o n g e r a t ease h e r e , i n t h e o l d d i s p e n s a t i o n , W i t h a n a l i e n p e o p l e c l u t c h i n g t h e i r g o d s . I s h o u l d be g l a d o f a n o t h e r d e a t h . ( p . 108) T . S . E l i o t , C o l l e c t e d Poems 1909-1935 ( L o n d o n : F a b e r , 3-936), p . 1 0 7 . A l l o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s poem w i t h i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e f r o m t h e same s o u r c e . 24 The b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e be tween t h e v i s i o n s o f t h e two w r i t e r s i s t h a t E l i o t by u s i n g s u c h a C h r i s t i a n c o n t e x t I m p l i e s t h a t , t h o u g h t h e S p r i n g and r e b i r t h may be h a r d , t h e y w i l l e x i s t . L a r k i n h o l d s out no hope o f a n y t h i n g t o a l l e v i a t e t h e p a i n o f l i f e beyond a s t a t e o f a w a r e n e s s i n w h i c h d i s i l l u s i o n -ment c a n b r i n g no f u r t h e r p a i n . He e m p h a s i s e s t h e p o i n t by h i s c h o i c e o f a f o c u s on young p e o p l e i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e images o f t h e end o f t h e c y c l e . I t i s a more s i g n i f i c a n t comment on t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e when i t becomes a l i v i n g d e a t h a t s u c h a n e a r l y p o i n t . W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f L a r k i n * s own work t h e two n o v e l s a r e more o b v i o u s l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e two l a t e r vo lumes o f p o e t r y t h a n w i t h The N o r t h S h i p . The r o m a n t i c i s m and m e l o d r a m a , t o g e t h e r w i t h b o r r o w e d f or ms and p o s e s , w h i c h a r e p r e s e n t i n The N o r t h S h i p (1945) a r e d i s a p p e a r i n g r a p i d l y i n t h e c o u r s e o f J i l l (1946) and a r e e l i m i n a t e d i n A G i r l I n W i n t e r (1947) so t h a t t h e t o n e a n d i d e o l o g y w h i c h i n f o r m The L e s s D e c e i v e d (1955) and The W h i t s u n Weddings (1964) a r e g r a d u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e n o v e l s . The v i s i o n o f man as t r a g i c , w h i c h t e n d s t o I n f o r m t h e f i r s t vo lume o f p o e t r y , changes t o a v i s i o n o f man a s b e i n g t o o d i m i n i s h e d t o be t r a g i c i n t h e l a t e r w o r k . T h e r e i s a l a c k o f o b j e c t i v i t y and a n u n t h i n k i n g i n v o l v e m e n t i n The N o r t h S h i p , w h i c h i n t h e n o v e l s d i s a p p e a r s , t h e t o n e becom-i n g i r o n i c . V e r y few o f t h e poems i n t h e e a r l y volume a r e n a r r a t i v e ; t h e n o v e l s o b v i o u s l y p r o v i d e L a r k i n w i t h t h e n a r r a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h he u s e s t o t h e f u l l i n t h e l a t e r v o l u m e s o f p o e t r y . The l a t e r p o e t r y , i n f a c t , c o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s a s e r i e s o f c o n d e n s e d n o v e l s o f t h e t y p e o f J i l l and A G i r l i n W i n t e r , s i n c e t h e t e c h n i q u e s a r e s i m i l a r b u t s h a r p e n e d a n d t h e s e n s e o f economy d e v e l o p e d t o i t s e x t r e m e . These poems l i k e t h e n o v e l s c a n be d e s c r i b e d as d r a m a t i c i n t h a t t h e n a r r a t i v e i s t h e p r o c e s s by w h i c h t h e w r i t e r i s a t t e m p t i n g t o r e a c h some r e s o l u t i o n . I n The N o r t h S h i p t h e r e i s a marked t e n d e n c y f o r t h e poems t o p r e s e n t a s i t u a t i o n a b o u t w h i c h t h e p o e t has a l r e a d y d r a w n h i s c o n c l u s i o n s so t h a t t h e s e n s e o f t e n s i o n and o f t h e d r a m a t i c e l e m e n t i s f o r t h e most p a r t a b s e n t . A s t h e d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e n o v e l s w i l l . r e v e a l ? i t i s i n them t h a t L a r k i n e s t a b l i s h e s t h o s e s y m b o l s w h i c h r e c r e a t e most c l o s e l y h i s v i s i o n o f l i f e . CHAPTER I I J I L L I n i t s s i m p l e s t t e r m s , J i l l i s a n a c c o u n t o f t h e e f f o r t s o f a w o r k i n g - c l a s s boy t o g a i n a p l a c e b o t h a c a d e m i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y a t O x f o r d i n w a r t i m e . On a r r i v a l he f i n d s h i m s e l f i n a n i s o l a t e d p o s i t i o n , h a v i n g no i n c l i n a t i o n t o j o i n h i s f e l l o w s c h o l a r s a n d l a c k i n g t h e a b i l i t y t o m i x w i t h h i s room-mate C h r i s t o p h e r a n d h i s f r i e n d s . I n a n e f f o r t t o make h i m s e l f more i n t e r e s t i n g t o C h r i s t o p h e r and t o i n c r e a s e h i s own e v a l u a t i o n o f h i m s e l f , he c r e a t e s a f i c t i t i o u s s i s t e r , J i l l . H i s o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e becomes o b s c u r e d and he f i n d s h i m s e l f i n v o l v e d i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f a l i f e a n d w o r l d f o r J i l l . By chance he meets a g i r l who p h y s i c a l l y matches h i s v i s i o n o f J i l l and he a t t e m p t s t o make t h e r e a l g i r l c o n f o r m t o h i s v i s i o n i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s . H i s a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h a n i n t i m a c y w i t h h e r f a i l , a n d t h e f a i l u r e b r e a k s down t h e t e n u o u s l i n k s he has f o r m e d w i t h h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . M o s t o f t h e a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i n O x f o r d b u t p a r t i s i n H u d d l e s f o r d , J o h n ' s home t o w n . A l t h o u g h t h e n o v e l f o c u s e s c l o s e l y on J o h n , h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a n d l i f e i n a n O x f o r d c o l l e g e , t h e r e i s t h e c o n s t a n t b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e war and a s e n s e o f a l a r g e r w o r l d and l a r g e r a c t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e e v e n t s o f t h e n o v e l . B u t t h e r e a l I n t e r e s t o f t h e n o v e l l i e s l e s s i n what happens t o 27 J o h n i n te rms o f p h y s i c a l a c t i o n t h a n i n what he becomes t h r o u g h a g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s and a l o s s o f i n n o c e n c e : e x t e r n a l a c t i o n and s e t t i n g s e r v e a s o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e s f o r p s y c h o -l o g i c a l a c t i o n . L a r k i n u s e s t h e p o e t i c t e c h n i q u e o f e x p l o r i n g and s i g n i f y i n g t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l j o u r n e y t h r o u g h t h e r e a l j o u r n e y s w h i c h t a k e p l a c e i n t h e n o v e l . The r a i l w a y j o u r n e y i n p a r t i c u l a r i s g i v e n a m e t a p h o r i c a l v a l u e . The o p e n i n g sequence o f J i l l t a k e s p l a c e i n a r a i l w a y c a r r i a g e on J o h n ' s j o u r n e y f r o m H u d d l e s f o r d t o O x f o r d . A sense i s c r e a t e d t h a t he I s n o t s i m p l y m o v i n g f rom one p l a c e t o a n o t h e r b u t f r o m one s t a g e o f h i s l i f e I n t o a n o t h e r o n e . The k i n d o f p r o -t e c t i o n o f f e r e d by h i s home and h i s way o f l i f e t h e r e i s removed e n t i r e l y and he has t o cope w i t h new s i t u a t i o n s i n a new w a y . The r a i l w a y compartment f u l l o f p e o p l e seems t o r e p r e s e n t f o r L a r k i n h e r e and e l s e w h e r e , f o r example i n "The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " , a m i c r o c o s m o f l i f e . W i t h i n t h i s m i c r o c o s m J o h n f a i l s c o m p l e t e l y . He has w i t h h i m s a n d w i c h e s p a c k e d u p by h i s m o t h e r , b u t he i s so ashamed o f b e i n g o b s e r v e d e a t i n g them t h a t he t h r o w s them away and l e a v e s h i m s e l f w i t h o u t means o f s u s t e n a n c e u n t i l he a r r i v e s i n O x f o r d . The r e s t o f h i s t r a v e l l i n g companions a r e w i t h o u t t h e s o c i a l embarrassment w h i c h a f f e c t s h i m and t h e y e a t u n c o n c e r n e d l y . They o f f e r h i m f o o d , w h i c h he e v e n t u a l l y t a k e s t h r o u g h a d e s i r e t o become a s o b s c u r e a s p o s s i b l e as s o o n as he c a n do so , b u t t h e i r k i n d n e s s 28 does n o t d i m i n i s h h i s u n e a s i n e s s : i t f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s i t . The w o r k i n g o u t o f t h i s s m a l l i n c i d e n t e s t a b l i s h e s v e r y e a r l y i n t h e n o v e l what i s t o happen t h r o u g h o u t : J o h n c a n n o t u s e a n y t h i n g f r o m h i s H u d d l e s f o r d l i f e a s s o o n a s he has moved away f r o m i t , b u t i n d i s c a r d i n g i t s v a l u e s he i s l e f t w i t h n o t h i n g . He i s t o o immature a n d v u l n e r a b l e t o b e n e f i t f r o m what c o n t a c t s a r e o f f e r e d t o h i m . He wants t o f i n d h i m s e l f p o s s e s s e d i m m e d i a t e l y o f what he r e g a r d s a s " O x f o r d v a l u e s " , t h a t i s t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and a p p a r e n t i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f C h r i s t o p h e r W a r n e r . R e f e r e n c e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e n o v e l i n d i c a t e J o h n ' s e q u a t i n g o f t h e r a i l w a y a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l e x c i t e m e n t o f m o v i n g away f r o m H u d d l e s f o r d and h i s c h i l d h o o d t o a d i f f e r e n t w o r l d where he c a n become someone o t h e r t h a n t h e s o n o f M r . Kemp. When he meets W h i t b r e a d who i s a s c h o l a r f r o m a w o r k i n g -c l a s s b a c k g r o u n d l i k e h i m s e l f , he i s r e m i n d e d o f h i s home and s c h o o l a n d o f t h e r a i l w a y c o n s t a n t l y m a k i n g h i m aware o f a w o r l d o u t s i d e H u d d l e s f o r d : F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s i n c e a r r i v i n g a t t h e C o l l e g e h i s home l i f e and b o y h o o d seemed v i v i d t o h i m : he c o u l d a l m o s t h e a r t h e c l i n k i n g o f r a i l w a y wagons f r o m t h e s i d i n g b e l o w t h e back g a r d e n a n d t h e sound o f e l e c t r i c b e l l s r i n g i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n a l l t h e c l a s s r o o m s o f h i s grammar s c h o o l . 1 1 J i l l , p . U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d a l l page r e f e r e n c e s w i t h i n t h e t e x t i n t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l r e f e r t o J i l l . 29 A t a l a t e r p o i n t i n t h e n o v e l , when he f e e l s t h a t a t l a s t he h a s made some c o n t a c t w i t h J i l l , he measures h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e p r e s e n t by h i s r e a c t i o n t o a p a s s i n g t r a i n : A n d as he w a t c h e d , a n e x p r e s s t r a i n h u r t l e d p a s t t w e n t y y a r d s o f f on t h e s h i n i n g r a i l s , and t h e l o n g s t r e t c h o f c o a c h e s r a c i n g away awakened n o t h i n g l i k e r e g r e t i n h i m , as t h e y once w o u l d . He was g l a d t o see them g o ; g l a d , s i m p l y , t o be where he w a s , a n d t o see them g o . ( p . 194) C r o u c h , J o h n ' s E n g l i s h m a s t e r , s h a r e s w i t h h i m t h e s e n s e o f e x c i t e m e n t and p o t e n t i a l d i s c o v e r y a r o u s e d by t h e i d e a o f t h e r a i l w a y l i n k i n g u p o t h e r w i s e u n c o n n e c t e d p l a c e s . T h i s i s shown most c l e a r l y when he v i s i t s J o h n ' s f a t h e r t o s u g g e s t t h a t J o h n s h o u l d s t a y a t s c h o o l a n d e v e n t u a l l y t r y f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p w h i c h w i l l t a k e h i m away f r o m home t o O x f o r d : He f e l t l i k e a d i p l o m a t on a v i s i t t o some b a r b a r o u s r u l e r , w i t h t h e j o b o f p e r s u a d i n g h i m t o a l l o w a r a i l w a y t o r u n t h r o u g h h i s t e r r i t o r y , ( p . 73) He d e v e l o p s t h i s i d e a l a t e r when he v i s i t s J o h n i n O x f o r d a n d t r i e s t o g i v e h i m a sense o f t h e v a l u e o f h i s l i f e t h e r e : Y o u c a n l o o k a t t h i s p l a c e as a b i g r a i l w a y t e r m i n u s . Thousands o f p e o p l e . T r a i n s s t a r t i n g i n e v e r y d i r e c t i o n . What y o u ' v e g o t t o d e c i d e i s , where a r e y o u g o i n g ? A n d h a v i n g d e c i d e d , g e t i n w i t h y o u r f e l l o w p a s s e n g e r s , ( p . 228) M o s t o f t h e i m p o r t a n t t r a n s i t i o n s i n t h e n o v e l a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r a i l w a y j o u r n e y s . A f t e r J o h n ' s f i r s t j o u r n e y t o O x f o r d , t h e r e i s h i s j o u r n e y back t o H u d d l e s f o r d . A t t h i s 30 p o i n t he f e e l s v e r y c l e a r l y t h a t he i s m o v i n g f r o m one w o r l d o f e x p e r i e n c e t o a n o t h e r . G o i n g b a c k t o H u d d l e s f o r d i s a r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f h i s p a s t and a n a t t e m p t t o a s s e s s i t i n t e r m s o f t h e p r e s e n t and O x f o r d . I n O x f o r d he i s unhappy b u t he f e e l s t h a t i n H u d d l e s f o r d where t h e bombing has t a k e n p l a c e , where p e o p l e have s u f f e r e d a k i n d o f d e s t r u c t i o n i n t h e i r l i v e s w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s s o m e t h i n g o f a p a r a l l e l t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n J o h n f e e l s t h a t he has b e e n u n d e r g o i n g , he w i l l c o n t a c t and e x p e r i e n c e p a i n more r e a l t h a n a n y t h i n g i n O x f o r d : A s t h e t r a i n l e f t O x f o r d J o h n h a d a pang o f r e g r e t and a l s o o f f e a r , b e c a u s e he seemed t o be l e a v i n g a r e g i o n of u n r e a l i t y a n d i n s u b s t a n t i a l p a i n f o r t h e r e a l w o r l d where he c o u l d r e a l l y be h u r t , ( p i 211) B u t i n f a c t he does n o t e n c o u n t e r t h e p a i n he a n t i c i p a t e s , s i n c e h i s p a r e n t s a r e q u i t e s a f e and he makes no r e a l c o n t a c t w i t h p e o p l e . F a r f r o m s e e i n g a more r e a l w o r l d he h a s a sense o f e v e r y t h i n g b e i n g s h r u n k e n , p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s home; I t was s t r a n g e , l i k e l o o k i n g i n t o a d o l l ' s h o u s e , and p u t t i n g h i s hands a g a i n s t t h e window f rames he f e l t a s p r o t e c t i v e a s a c h i l d does f e e l t o w a r d s a d o l l ' s house and i t s t i n y r o o m s , ( p . 215) H i s s e c o n d j o u r n e y away f r o m H u d d l e s f o r d i s t h e n a more c o m p l e t e a n d i r r e v o c a b l e b r e a k w i t h h i s c h i l d h o o d and what i t s t a n d s f o r . w h i l s t i n H u d d l e s f o r d he g a i n s s o m e t h i n g o f t h i s i m p r e s s i o n : The town h a d been so f a m i l i a r and so i n t i m a t e l y wound i n t o h i s boyhood t h a t i t s d e s t r u c t i o n became f a s c l n a t i n g ; . . . T h e wreckage l o o k e d l i k e r u i n s o f a n age o v e r a n d done w i t h . ( p . 215) 31 B u t i t i s on t h e t r a i n t h a t he r e a l i s e s f u l l y t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f h i s r e m o v a l f r o m t h a t w o r l d . He goes o v e r i n h i s m i n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n he has o b s e r v e d : I t no l o n g e r seemed m e a n i n g l e s s : s t r u g g l i n g ai-jake a g a i n , r u b b i n g h i s eyes w i t h c h i l l e d h a n d s , he t h o u g h t i t r e p r e s e n t e d t h e end o f h i s u s e f o r t h e p l a c e . I t meant no more t o h i m now, a n d so i t was d e s t r o y e d : i t seemed s y m b o l i c , a k i n d o f a n n u l l i n g o f h i s c h i l d h o o d . The t h o u g h t e x c i t e d h i m . I t was a s i f he h a d b e e n t o l d : a l l t h e p a s t i s c a n c e l l e d : a l l t h e s u f f e r i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h a t t o w n , a l l y o u r c h i l d h o o d , i s w i p e d o u t . Now t h e r e i s a f r e s h s t a r t f o r y o u : y o u a r e no l o n g e r g o v e r n e d by what has gone b e f o r e , ( p . 219) A l t h o u g h t h e v a l u e s o f t h e p a s t have been n e g a t e d , t h e k i n d o f l a n d s c a p e t h r o u g h w h i c h the . t r a i n i s m o v i n g s u g g e s t s J o h n ' s n e g a t i v e s t a t e o f m i n d : "The t r a i n r a n o n , t h r o u g h f i e l d s l y i n g u n d e r t h e f r o s t a n d d a r k n e s s " ( p . 219). J o h n ' s own t h o u g h t s echo t h i s : A l l t h a t anyone has i s t h e l i f e t h a t keeps h i m g o i n g , and see how e a s i l y t h a t c a n be p a t t e d o u t . See how a p p a l l i n g l y l i t t l e l i f e i s . ( p . 219) One o f t h e p e o p l e I n t h e n o v e l who makes t h e most p o w e r -f u l i m p r e s s i o n on J o h n i s M r s . W a r n e r . B e c a u s e C h r i s t o p h e r i s o t h e r w i s e o c c u p i e d J o h n i s s e n t t o meet h e r when she v i s i t s O x f o r d , so t h a t once a g a i n he f i n d s h i m s e l f i n t h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n w a i t i n g f e a r f u l l y f o r a new e l e m e n t t o e n t e r h i s l i f e : W i t h a s u d d e n i n c r e a s e i n a p p r e h e n s i o n he saw t h e e n g i n e come h i s s i n g up t h e p l a t f o r m , a n d as a few p e o p l e who h a d c o l l e c t e d t o meet t h e t r a i n moved f o r w a r d he b a c k e d b e h i n d a n empty c h o c o l a t e m a c h i n e , ( p p . 88-89) 32 Towards t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , when J o h n i s i l l i n h o s p i t a l , h i s p a r e n t s come u p t o O x f o r d t o see h i m . L i k e J o h n t h e y t a k e t h e t r a i n f r o m H u d d l e s f o r d and l i k e h i m t h e y f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n a new a n d a l i e n w o r l d when t h e y a r r i v e . I t i s a measure o f how f a r J o h n has grown f r o m h i s p a r e n t s i n t h a t he has a t l e a s t a s u p e r f i c i a l c o n t r o l i n h i s O x f o r d w o r l d whereas h i s p a r e n t s a r e l o s t , b e w i l d e r e d and o b v i o u s l y o u t o f t h e i r e l e m e n t . One o f t h e f i n a l i r o n i e s o f t h e book i s t h e d e p a r t u r e o f C h r i s t o p h e r and E l i z a b e t h . I t i s C h r i s t o p h e r ' s w o r l d t h a t J o h n h a s b e e n d e s p e r a t e l y t r y i n g t o e n t e r b u t C h r i s t o p h e r h i m s e l f i s a l r e a d y l e a v i n g a n d j o u r n e y i n g t o London w i t h E l i z a b e t h where t h e y o b v i o u s l y e x p e c t t o e n t e r a new s t a t e o f t h e i r l i v e s . F o r a n E n g l i s h w r i t e r t h e u s e o f t h e r a i l w a y j o u r n e y a n d t h e r a i l w a y c a r r i a g e a s a m e t a p h o r f o r l i f e c a r r i e s w i t h i t c e r t a i n o b v i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n s . T h e r e i s t h e sense o f a g r o u p o f p e o p l e a l l t r a v e l l i n g t o t h e same d e s t i n a t i o n , c o n -f i n e d w i t h i n each o t h e r ' s company b u t m a k i n g c o n t a c t o n l y r a r e l y a n d f o r t h e most p a r t r e t a i n i n g i m p a s s a b l e b a r r i e r s a r o u n d t h e m s e l v e s . The sense o f i s o l a t i o n w i t h i n t h e g r o u p i s e x p l o r e d i n some d e p t h i n t h i s n o v e l , t h o u g h i t i s d e a l t w i t h more f u l l y i n A G i r l I n W i n t e r and i n some o f t h e poems. T h i s theme i n t h e n o v e l i s c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e o p e n i n g pages i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r a i l w a y compartment a n d i t s 33 o c c u p a n t s ; i t i s d e v e l o p e d more f u l l y when J o h n f i r s t e n t e r s h i s room a t O x f o r d and f i n d s i t f u l l o f p e o p l e "but g a i n s no sense o f c o m p a n i o n s h i p f r o m t h e i r p r e s e n c e b u t r a t h e r a n i n c r e a s e d s e n s e o f h i s l o n e l i n e s s : " J o h n s t a r e d a t h e r , n e v e r h a v i n g h e a r d b e f o r e t h i s s e l f - p a r o d y i n g s o u t h e r n c o o , a n d a s e n s e o f h i s a l i e n s u r r o u n d i n g s came o v e r h i m " ( p . 2 8 ) ; The i n c i d e n t w i t h h i s c h i n a , when he s u d d e n l y d i s c o v e r s t h a t a p r i v a t e j o k e a g a i n s t h i m i s b e i n g s h a r e d by a l l t h e o t h e r o c c u p a n t s o f t h e r o o m , i n c r e a s e s t h e d i s t a n c e be tween h i m s e l f a n d t h e m . T h r o u g h o u t t h e n o v e l J o h n ' s a w a r e n e s s o f h i s i s o l a t i o n i s a l w a y s i n c r e a s e d when he i s w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e . Whenever C h r i s t o p h e r and h i s f r i e n d s a s s e m b l e t o d r i n k t h e y t a l k o f s c h o o l o r o t h e r t o p i c s i n w h i c h J o h n i s o b v i o u s l y u n a b l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e . A f t e r a b r i e f f e e l i n g o f c o n t a c t w i t h E l i z a b e t h , J o h n i s made aware o f i t s f r a g i l i t y by o b s e r v i n g E l i z a b e t h ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h C h r i s t o p h e r and r e a l i s i n g h i s p l a c e i n t h a t c o n t e x t : When he l o o k e d a t them b o t h , he f e l t l i k e a w a i t e r i n a n e x p e n s i v e r e s t a u r a n t . T h e i r f r i e n d l i n e s s t o h i m was l i k e t h e t i p s t h e y w o u l d g i v e a w a i t e r , ( p . 110) J o h n makes s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s t o b r e a k o u t o f h i s i s o l a t i o n b u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a t t e m p t s makes f a i l u r e i n -e v i t a b l e . He f e e l s t h a t f r i e n d s h i p i s o b v i o u s l y one way o f b u i l d i n g a d e f e n c e a g a i n s t l o n e l i n e s s and he s e e k s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h someone who a p p e a r s n o t t o u n d e r s t a n d l o n e l i n e s s , t h a t 34 i s C h r i s t o p h e r . When C h r i s t o p h e r r e m a r k s c a s u a l l y on J o h n ' s f i l e , he r u s h e s o u t t o buy one f o r C h r i s t o p h e r t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h i s a p p r o v a l . C h r i s t o p h e r ' s e n s u i n g comments and c o l d n e s s c r e a t e f o r J o h n a g r e a t e r s e n s e o f l o n e l i n e s s t h a n e v e r : J o h n f e l t a sudden c h i l l , as i f a d o o r had swung open a n d r e v e a l e d h i s l o n e l i n e s s s t i l l a w a i t i n g h i m : f o r one moment he f e l t t h e was te d e s e r t t h a t w o u l d r e c e i v e h i m i f C h r i s t o p h e r were n o t t h e r e a s a f r i e n d , ( p . 49) The i r o n y a t t h i s p o i n t i s t h e r e a d e r ' s a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e " d e s e r t " i s a l r e a d y r e c e i v i n g J o h n , s i n c e t h e r e c a n n e v e r be any r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f C h r i s t o p h e r r e s p o n d i n g t o J o h n ' s g e s t u r e s o f f r i e n d s h i p . J o h n makes a s e c o n d s i m i l a r a t t e m p t t o s e c u r e C h r i s -t o p h e r ' s f r i e n d s h i p by l e n d i n g h im money when C h r i s t o p h e r ' s c h o s e n companions r e f u s e t o do s o . C h r i s t o p h e r f a l l s t o r e g a r d t h e l o a n a s s i g n i f i c a n t and i n f a c t f a i l s t o r e t u r n t h e money f o r a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e . Once a g a i n J o h n i s f o r c e d i n t o a n a w a r e n e s s o f t h e f a i l u r e o f h i s a t t e m p t : The s t r e e t s were b u s y as he w a l k e d b a c k t o w a r d s t h e C o l l e g e f o r l u n c h , b u t t h e y a r o u s e d no c o r r e s p o n d i n g e x c i t e m e n t i n h i m , f o r a n u n c o n q u e r a b l e sense o f i s o l a t i o n was s t a r t i n g t o p o s s e s s h i m a s he grew aware t h a t p e o p l e who had come i n t o r e s i d e n c e when he d i d h a d now made t h e i r own ways and had f a l l e n i n t o d e f i n i t e ways o f l i f e . They had r u n u p t h e f ramework on w h i c h t h e i r u n i v e r s i t y c a r e e r s w o u l d be w o v e n . J o h n had n o t done s o . C h r i s t o p h e r was h i s c l o s e s t f r i e n d . A n d t h i s money b u s i n e s s was c r e a t i n g a g a p i n g h o l e o f u n c e r t a i n t y i n h i s m i n d , so t h a t t h e r e was n o t h i n g t o b u i l d on t h e r e , ( p . 86) 35 I n h i s d e a l i n g s w i t h M r s . W a r n e r , J o h n f e e l s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a measure o f s u c c e s s , f o r he f e e l s t h a t she l e s s e n s h i s sense o f i s o l a t i o n by c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h h i m i n s p i t e o f h i s i n a d e q u a c i e s : She was one o f t h o s e r a r e p e o p l e who c o u l d c o n s t r u c t h i s m e a n i n g f r o m t h e few t r u n c a t e d p h r a s e s a n d g e s t u r e s h i s n e r v o u s n e s s p e r m i t t e d h i m t o u t t e r . ( p . 90) When he o v e r h e a r s C h r i s t o p h e r ' s comments t o E l i z a b e t h on M r s . W a r n e r ' s a c c o u n t o f h e r m e e t i n g w i t h h i m , once a g a i n h i s s e n s e o f h a v i n g made c o n t a c t i s d e s t r o y e d , and he r e a l i s e s t h a t h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h C h r i s t o p h e r does n o t e x i s t e x c e p t i n h i s own m i n d : A f t e r a l l , t h e n , he was on h i s own; he h a d f a i l e d , u t t e r l y and i g n o m i n i o u s l y f a i l e d t o weave h i m s e l f i n t o t h e l i v e s o f t h e s e p e o p l e . A s he had f e a r e d , t h e d o o r h a d swung open a g a i n a n d he was a l o n e a g a i n , d o u b l y a l o n e . The d a y s w o u l d be s c r a p p y , b i t s and p i e c e s o f a c t i o n . No o b j e c t s , no c o n t i n u i t y , ( p . 114) S i n c e he f a i l s so c o m p l e t e l y w i t h r e a l p e o p l e , J o h n c r e a t e s f o r h i m s e l f a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a n I m a g i n a r y s i s t e r , J i l l . T h i s e n a b l e s h i m t o d i m i n i s h t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f h i s i s o l a t i o n i n two w a y s . F i r s t , i n h i s l e t t e r s t o h e r he c a n r e c a s t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e p e o p l e a r o u n d h i m so t h a t h i s own p o s i t i o n a p p e a r s v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m what i t i s i n r e a l i t y . When he c e a s e s t o w r i t e l e t t e r s and b e g i n s t h e d i a r y he c r e a t e s f o r J i l l a n i s o l a t i o n w h i c h p a r a l l e l s 36 h i s o w n . B u t h e r i s o l a t i o n r e f l e c t s f a v o u r a b l y on h e r : she i s i s o l a t e d b e c a u s e she i s more s e n s i t i v e and aware t h a n h e r c o m p a n i o n s . W i t h i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n J o h n e x p l o r e s t h e i d e a o f i s o l a t i o n a s s o m e t h i n g d e s i r a b l e and a d m i r a b l e t h r o u g h t h e c h a r a c t e r o f M i n e r v a , a n o l d e r g i r l a t J i l l ' s s c h o o l : he d e s c r i b e s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t e r m s : " f o r a l l h e r l o n e l i n e s s ; she s i m p l y went h e r own w a y , q u i e t l y and p l e a s a n t l y , m a k i n g no demands on a n y o n e " ( p . 1 4 1 ) . The f a c t t h a t h e r i s o l a t i o n i s f r o m c h o i c e i s i n d i c a t e d when J i l l a t t e m p t s t o b r e a k t h r o u g h i t : She saw t h a t M i n e r v a h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e r d e t a c h m e n t , even t h o u g h i t was a d m i r e d , must s t i l l be r e s p e c t e d ; t h a t l o n e -l i n e s s was n o t t o be abandoned a t t h e f i r s t chance o f f r i e n d -s h i p , b u t was a t h i n g t o be c h e r i s h e d i n i t s e l f , ( p . 148) T h i s i d e a c a r r i e s o v e r f r o m J o h n ' s i m a g i n a t i o n i n t o h i s l i f e : when he meets G i l l i a n and d e t e r m i n e s t o p u r s u e h e r he f e e l s t h a t , " I n t h i s q u e s t h i s l o n e l i n e s s w o u l d be a n a s s e t : i t w o u l d be m o b i l i t y and even c h a r m " ( p . 159). B u t J o h n does n o t have t h e q u a l i t i e s he a t t r i b u t e s t o M i n e r v a , a s t h e v e r y f a c t o f h i s d e s i r e t o e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t w i t h G i l l i a n i n d i c a t e s . I n f a c t , he does n o t make any r e a l c o n t a c t w i t h G i l l i a n , and h i s f a i l u r e t o r e a l i s e t h i s makes h i m p a r t i c u l a r l y v u l n e r a b l e when E l i z a b e t h i n t e r v e n e s and e x p l a i n s t h a t G i l l i a n c a n n o t meet h i m a s a r r a n g e d : 37 A l l h i s l i f e he had Imagined p e o p l e were h o s t i l e t o h i m and wanted t o h u r t h i m ; now he knew he had been r i g h t and a l l t h e w o r s t f e a r s o f c h i l d h o o d were r e a l i z e d . ( p . 203) The t o t a l i t y o f J o h n ' s f a i l u r e and t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f h i s i s o l a t i o n i s i n d i c a t e d a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , w h e n , a l l h i s a t t e m p t s a t f r i e n d s h i p h a v i n g f a i l e d , he i s l e f t a l o n e a t O x f o r d i n t h e h o s p i t a l , a f t e r a l l h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s have gone down. J o h n g i v e s no a p p e a r a n c e o f r e a l i s i n g t h a t h i s l o n e l i n e s s i s n o t u n i q u e and t h a t o t h e r s have d e v i s e d ways o f c o m b a t i n g o r i g n o r i n g i t . H i s p o s i t i o n i s s i m p l y a n ext reme example o f t h e e s s e n t i a l l o n e l i n e s s and i s o l a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d by e v e r y o n e . C h r i s t o p h e r and h i s f r i e n d s push t h e i r a w a r e n e s s as deep down u n d e r t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s as p o s s i b l e . They a s s i s t t h i s p r o c e s s by r a r e l y b e i n g a l o n e , p r e f e r l n g a l w a y s a c r o w d o f p e o p l e a r o u n d t h e m . When C h r i s t o p h e r ' s u s u a l d r i n k -i n g companions a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e he w i l l even d r i n k w i t h J o h n r a t h e r t h a n be a l o n e . M o s t o f t h i s g r o u p have a common s c h o o l b a c k g r o u n d and t h e y t e n d t o r e f e r back t o t h i s i n o r d e r t o r e c r e a t e t h e sense o f b e i n g p a r t o f s o m e t h i n g o r d e r e d . B u t t h e p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s a n a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h i s i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t t h e y h a v e l e f t b e h i n d t h e m : I n t h e i n t e r v a l s o f c o m p a r i n g n o t e s and c u s t o m s , t h e y w o u l d s i g h and gaze s a d l y a t t h e f i r e , a s i f t h e y were e x i l e s g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r f a r f r o m t h e i r homes, ( p . 57) 38 I n e v i t a b l y c o n v e r s a t i o n s o f t h i s k i n d e x c l u d e J o h n and some-t i m e s o t h e r s who a r e p r e s e n t . T h i s i s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e g r o u p b e c a u s e t h e f e e l i n g o f b e i n g a g r o u p i s i n c r e a s e d by t h e a w a r e n e s s o f someone o u t s i d e . A t t i m e s , h o w e v e r , when t h e r e i s a b r e a k i n t h e d r i n k i n g a n d r o w d i n e s s , C h r i s t o p h e r i s aware m o m e n t a r i l y o f a l o n e l i n e s s a k i n t o J o h n ' s . I r o n i c a l l y i t i s J o h n ' s f a b r i c a t i o n s a b o u t h i s s i s t e r J i l l t h a t c a u s e C h r i s t o p h e r t o r e f l e c t on h i s own p o s i t i o n : " B u t y o u do l o s e t o u c h w i t h y o u r home i f y o u go t o s c h o o l y o u n g , " he s a i d . " I t ' s a good t h i n g . I t t e a c h e s i n d e p e n d e n c e , t e a c h e s y o u t o s t a n d u p f o r y o u r s e l f , t e a c h e s y o u how t o h a n d l e p e o p l e . " . . . " B u t I r e g r e t i t s o m e t i m e s , y o u k n o w . . . . O n e s o r t o f l o s e s t o u c h . A n d one d o e s n ' t g e t a s e c o n d c h a n c e , e v e r . A n d w e ' r e a p r e t t y r a c k e t y f a m i l y . . . . " ( p . 118) W h i t b r e a d and t h e o t h e r s c h o l a r s a r e c l e a r l y aware o f l o n e l i n e s s as W h i t b r e a d ' s f i r s t c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h J o h n i n d i c a t e s : " N o t v e r y m a t e y , t h e o t h e r s t u d e n t s , a r e t h e y ? " s a i d W h i t b r e a d , h i s knees a p a r t . "Take some g e t t i n g t o k n o w . Of c o u r s e , y o u have t o c h o o s e y o u r f r i e n d s c a r e f u l l y . No good g o i n g a b o u t w i t h m i l l i o n a i r e s . " ( p . 52) One o f W h i t b r e a d ' s d e f e n c e s a g a i n s t h i s a w a r e n e s s o f h i s a l i e n -a t i o n i n a p l a c e l i k e O x f o r d i s t o a c q u i r e a d e t a i l e d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e f a c t s o f h i s e n v i r o n m e n t . J o h n i s r e p e l l e d by t h i s , perhaps b e c a u s e he s e n s e s t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y t h u s e x p o s e d . He e x p r e s s e s h i s r e v u l s i o n by t h i n k i n g o f W h i t b r e a d ' s a c t i v i t y i n 39 p h y s i c a l t e r m s : " W h i t b r e a d ' s e a g e r n e s s was e m b a r r a s s i n g : i t was l i k e w a t c h i n g a man s c o u r i n g h i s p l a t e w i t h a p i e c e o f b r e a d " ( p . 53). F o r t h e most p a r t t h e s c h o l a r s a c c e p t t h e i r l o n e l i n e s s and i n s t e a d o f f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t i t o r h i d i n g f r o m i t t h e y a t t e m p t t o u t i l i s e i t , and i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n manage t o a c h i e v e l i m i t e d c o n t a c t w i t h l i k e - m i n d e d p e o p l e . T h e i r b e h a v i o u r i n t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t o f c o f f e e i n W h i t b r e a d ' s room i n d i c a t e s t h e i r t o t a l a t t i t u d e : None o f them w o u l d e v e r t a k e t h e b e s t a r m c h a i r i n t h e room o r h e l p h i m s e l f t o any f o o d s t u f f s w i t h o u t a s k i n g o r a c c e p t a n i n v i t a t i o n he d i d n o t i n t e n d t o r e t u r n . A l l t h e i r a c t i o n s were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h i s s c r u p u l o u s c o n v e n t i o n , a n d t h e r e , u p i n t h e l i t t l e d i n g y room where W h i t b r e a d was a s s e m b l i n g cups and s a u c e r s a n d m i l k , t h e y c o l l e c t e d l i k e members o f some p e r s e c u t e d s e c t , as i f a l i e n t o t h e l i f e a r o u n d t h e m . T h e r e was no l u x u r y o r was te i n t h e i r company, and y e t J o h n was p r o b a b l y more a t home w i t h them t h a n w i t h anyone e l s e , t h o u g h he d i d n o t v a l u e t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p . He was c a r e f u l n o t t o show t h i s , h o w e v e r , a s t h e one t h i n g t h e y a l l h e a r t i l y d e t e s t e d was anyone " o f t h e i r own c l a s s " " t r y i n g t o g e t above h i m s e l f " , ( p . 124) It i s as t h o u g h t h e y a r e aware o f t h e p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t o f b e i n g i n a s i t u a t i o n l i k e J o h n ' s , and t h e y a t t e m p t t o a v o i d t h i s by t h e d e l i b e r a t e c r e a t i o n o f a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f i s o l a t i o n , w h i c h o f f e r s some i m m u n i t y f r o m t h e t y p e o f d i s t r e s s J o h n e x p e r i e n c e s . The a t t i t u d e o f t h e s c h o l a r s seems t h e one c l o s e s t t o L a r k i n ' s own: i n t h e l a t e r p o e t r y he shows t h a t he f e e l s t h a t i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o be aware o f m a n ' s l o n e l i n e s s a s a n e c e s s a r y e v i l . Once t h i s i s a c c e p t e d t h e n i t i s p o s s i b l e t o 40 b u i l d u p l i m i t e d b u t v a l u a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n w h i c h few i l l u s i o n s a r e c h e r i s h e d . C l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e theme o f l o n e l i n e s s a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n i n g o f Images a r e a s e r i e s o f i n c i d e n t s i m a g i n g t h e gap between v i s i o n and r e a l i t y . T h i s d i s c r e p a n c y u s u a l l y r e s u l t s f rom a n u n w i l l i n g -n e s s t o r e c o g n i s e t h e h a r s h n e s s o f m a n ' s e x i s t e n c e o f w h i c h l o n e l i n e s s i s a p a r t . J u s t a s J o h n i s t h e p r i n c i p a l s u f f e r e r f r o m h i s l o n e l i n e s s so t o o he i s most o f t e n f o r c e d t o a n a w a r e n e s s o f a r e a l i t y u n l i k e what he had a n t i c i p a t e d . H i s f i r s t d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t i s h i s r e a l i s a t i o n t h a t he i s e x p e c t e d t o s h a r e a room w i t h someone, s i n c e , "He had t h o u g h t t h a t once he h a d f o u n d h i s r o o m , he w o u l d a l w a y s have a r e f u g e , a p l a c e t o r e t r e a t t o and hide i n . T h i s was a p p a r e n t l y n o t s o " ( p . 26). S h o r t l y a f t e r J o h n a r r i v e s i n h i s c rowded room he r e a l i s e s t h a t t h e c h i n a b e i n g u s e d i s h i s own. He remembers t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e c h i n a : T h r e e weeks ago h i s mother h a d i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e y s p e n t a n a f t e r n o o n among t h e shops b u y i n g t h e s e t h i n g s : i t h a d been a t o u c h i n g l i t t l e e x p e d i t i o n , m e a n i n g he r e a l i z e d , f a r more t o h e r t h a n t o h i m . ( p . 32) He c o n t r a s t s t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s b u i l t a r o u n d t h e e x p e d i t i o n w i t h t h e p r e s e n t r e a l i t y : M o s t o f t h e t h i n g s t h e y had bought l a y d i r t y and s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d t h e r o o m ; i n f a c t , J o h n wondered t h e y had l a i n u n r e c o g n i s e d f o r so l o n g . The c r a t e (he saw i t now) was b e h i n d C h r i s t o p h e r ' s t r u n k , b r o k e n open c a r e l e s s l y , so t h a t 41 I t w o u l d "be I m p o s s i b l e t o u s e i t a g a i n , as he had i n t e n d e d t o d o i T h e s e , t h e n , were h i s cups and p l a t e s : h i s c o f f e e s t r a i n e r ( c h o k e d w i t h t e a l e a v e s ) ; h i s s h i n i n g k e t t l e b l a c k e n e d by t h e f i r e . H i s b r e a d - k n i f e , h i s s u g a r b a s i n . ( p . J2) On o c c a s i o n s t h e s i t u a t i o n i s r e v e r s e d a n d i t i s t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e p r e s e n t w h i c h , f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , J o h n d i s -t o r t s by means o f h i s i m a g i n a t i o n . When C h r i s t o p h e r t a k e s J o h n f o r a d r i n k t h e s i t u a t i o n i s a n u n e a s y o n e , and because J o h n c a n n o t a c c e p t i t he has t o p r o j e c t i t i n t o t h e f u t u r e , b u i l d i n g f r o m t h e p r e s e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h C h r i s t o p h e r a l o n g l a s t i n g f r i e n d s h i p : He i m a g i n e d h i m s e l f s a y i n g i n t h e f u t u r e : " D ' y o u remember t h a t t i m e we went t o t h e B u l l , o l d b o y . I n o u r f i r s t t e rm? D ' y o u know, t h a t was r e a l l y a n d t r u l y t h e f i r s t t i m e I ' d e v e r s e e n t h e i n s i d e o f a b a r . . . . " ( " O h , come o f f i t , o l d b o y ! " ) " S ' f a c t ! My d e a r f e l l o w , i t ' s a b s o l u t e l y b l o o d y g o s p e l ! H e r e , a f t e r y o u w i t h t h e - w h o o p s l D o n ' t drown i t . . . . " H i s v o i c e w o u l d be r i c h and h u s k e d w i t h t o b a c c o . A l o u d he s a i d : "Thank y o u . " ( p p . 61-62) B u t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n s o f s u c h a f r i e n d s h i p a r e s h a t t e r e d when he o v e r h e a r s C h r i s t o p h e r and E l i z a b e t h d i s c u s s i n g h i m . H i s f e e l i n g s o f h u m i l i a t i o n a r e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s i t u a t i o n w a r r a n t s b e c a u s e o f h i s e a r l i e r h o p e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y he j u s t i f i e s t h e v i o l e n c e o f h i s r e a c t i o n by d i s t o r t i n g I n h i s m i n d t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n w h i c h had u p s e t h i m . The o r i g i n a l c o n v e r s a t i o n i s as f o l l o w s : " Y o u ' v e t r a i n e d h i m w e l l . " C h r i s t o p h e r l a u g h e d and s a i d " Y e s . " " Q u i t e a l i t t l e g e n t . A n d i s t h i s s t i l l h i s c h i n a ? You a r e a h o r r o r . " " T h a t ' s h i s b u t t e r . " He h e a r d E l i z a b e t h e x p l o d e w i t h l a u g h t e r . " W e l l , o f a l l t h e - l I t ' s t o o b a d . He must be a f e e b l e s o r t o f w o r m . " " M o t h e r s a i d he l o o k e d s t u f f e d . " " S t u f f e d ! T h a t ' s . just t h e w o r d ! " ( p . i l l ) T h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n becomes : O h , y e s , o f c o u r s e I u s e h i s c r o c k s . He d a r e n ' t s t o p me. C h r i s , y o u a r e a w f u l ! T h a t ' s h i s b u t t e r y o u r * r e e a t i n g . S p r e a d i t on t h i c k . O h , C h r i s ! M o t h e r t h o u g h t he was a s c a r e d s t u f f e d l i t t l e r a b b i t . He must be a p r e t t y m i s e r a b l e s p e c i m e n . ( p . 112) R e l a t e d t o t h e s e I n c i d e n t s i s J o h n ' s r e c a s t i n g o f e v e n t s i n h i s l e t t e r s t o J i l l . He w i s h e s t o i g n o r e h i s r e a l p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o C h r i s t o p h e r a n d so he d i s t o r t s c o n v e r s a t i o n s w h i c h have t a k e n p l a c e by r e v e r s i n g t h e i r r o l e s as f a r as p o s s i b l e . A good example o f t h i s i s h i s a c c o u n t o f C h r i s t o p h e r ' s r e a c t i o n on l e a r n i n g t h a t J o h n has n o t y e t w r i t t e n a n e s s a y w h i c h he c a n p l a g i a r i z e . I n f a c t , C h r i s t o p h e r i s m e n a c i n g a n d J o h n i s i n t i m i d a t e d i n t o p r o d u c i n g t h e e s s a y . The f o l l o w i n g i s h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e i n c i d e n t : As a s c h o l a r , one has a c e r t a i n s t a n d i n g and c e r t a i n p r i v i l e g e s , b u t a l s o c e r t a i n o b l i g a t i o n s t o w a r d s t h e l e s s g i f t e d members o f t h e community . . Poor C h r i s t o p h e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , w i t h whom I s h a r e t h e s e r o o m s . I s p a t h e t i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t . o n me f o r h i s w e e k l y e s s a y . I d o n ' t know how y o u w r i t e e s s a y s , , b u t I f i n d I t e n d t o p l a n them out i n my head b e f o r e h a n d a l m o s t word f o r w o r d . Y e s t e r d a y i t was a f t e r t e a a n d I s t i l l h a d n ' t made t h e l e a s t s i g n o f p u t t i n g pen t o p a p e r , so he began t o g e t r e s t l e s s . "Look h e r e , what a b o u t t h a t e s s a y ? " " Y e s , y e s , i n a n h o u r o r s o , I h a v e n ' t t h o u g h t 43 out the ending y e t . " "Come o f f I t , damn the ending, I want some s o l i d dope " "My dear C h r i s t o p h e r , you s h a l l have i t " " "by ten o'clock." "Ten! But I s h a l l be drunk by thent " I pointed out tha t that was h i s a f f a i r and not mine. To cut a long s t o r y a t r i f l e s h o r t e r , I drew a l i n e under the l a s t paragraph .lust as ten was booming out from Tom Tower, and s h o r t l y afterwards i n stumbled C h r i s t o p h e r , fuddled as u s u a l , hiccoughing "Where's 'at essay?" I pushed i t across to him, and while pretending to continue reading my essays of Montaigne, watched him c o v e r t l y as he s p e l t I t out l i n e by l i n e . When he had f i n i s h e d the f i r s t page, he p u l l e d out h i s f o u n t a i n pen and then f e l l a s l e e p . (pp. I 3 O-I31) Not only does John give to Christopher the p o s i t i o n of the one i n t i m i d a t e d , he a l s o reverses h i s own a t t i t u d e to things i n Christ o p h e r which have aroused h i s admiration p r e v i o u s l y . I n r e a l i t y he does not f i n d Christopher's d r i n k i n g c h i l d i s h l y amusing but s o p h i s t i c a t e d and a d u l t and he t r i e s to emulate him as the quotation from page f o r t y - f o u r i n d i c a t e s . John's normal method of speaking i s t o t a l l y u n l i k e that used i n the l e t t e r . The tone of the l e t t e r i s f a c t c l o s e r to tha t used by C h r i s t o p h e r . A part of John's innocence which i s destroyed by experience w i t h r e a l i t y Is h i s romantic view of l o v e . His f i r s t shock comes when he dis c o v e r s c o n t r a c e p t i v e s i n Chris t o p h e r ' s drawer; t h i s i s q u i c k l y followed by h i s r e a c t i o n to the easy sexual t a l k of Christopher and h i s f r i e n d s : T h e i r s t o r i e s were l u s t f u l and p l a y f u l l y savage, and John found they had extreme p h y s i c a l e f f e c t on him. He sat crouched on a hard c h a i r , h i s f i s t s clenched on h i s knees, gripped by an unreasoning t e r r o r that s e i z e d him whenever he heard of experiences t h a t would have l e f t him dumb. (p. 57) 44 More immediate r e a l i s a t i o n comes when he f i n d s himself i n p h y s i c a l contact w i t h E l i z a b e t h . While she i s t y i n g h i s bow t i e f o r him on the second occasion, f e e l i n g s are aroused i n him which he t h i n k s are r a r e and precious. He g r a d u a l l y becomes aware that E l i z a b e t h i s so accustomed to h i s response that she i s a n t i c i p a t i n g h i s subsequent a c t i o n s ; as a r e s u l t A h o r r i b l e embarrassment t i n g l e d and shuddered Inside him, that what he had imagined to be h i s most secret f e e l i n g was almost c y n i c a l l y common. I t shocked him deeply. He i n s t i n c t i v e l y moved h i s head uncomfortably, l i k e an animal a t bay. (p. 109) Despite t h i s l i m i t e d awareness, he f a i l s t o recognise the r e l a t i o n s h i p between E l i z a b e t h and Christopher f o r what i t i s . As a r e s u l t h i s shock i s so much greater when Christopher c a s u a l l y r e v e a l s h i s i n t e n t i o n s of e n t i c i n g E l i z a b e t h i n t o bed w i t h him: What shocked him ( f o r he f e l t shocked) was the enormous d i s p a r i t y he had stumbled upon between h i s imagination and what a c t u a l l y happened. When he thought of Christopher i n hi s dressing-gown, legs s t r a d d l i n g , h i s hand s t e a d i l y working the r a z o r and t a l k i n g r e f l e c t i v e l y about what was going to happen, he knew wit h a s i c k e n i n g c e r t a i n t y that he could never s u s t a i n that p o s i t i o n ; that he would, i n f a c t , t u r n and run long before i t came. Even now he had turned and run, run away from that room, although he knew that he would t h i n k of nothing e l s e a l l day, and i n a l l conscience i t had l i t t l e enough to do with him. I f t h i s was what h i s quest f o r J i l l was le a d i n g t o , he would give i t up without a second thought. (p. 170) I t i s f o r t h i s reason that when he f i r s t creates J i l l he puts h i s love f o r her on a non-sexual b a s i s by making her h i s s i s t e r . 45 G r a d u a l l y he f o r g e t s t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p and she assumes a n i d e n t i t y a p a r t f r o m h i s own so t h a t when he e n c o u n t e r s G i l l i a n he i s r e a d y t o a t t e m p t t o c r e a t e a " l o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p " ; t h o u g h one w h i c h h a s i t s o r i g i n s i n f a i r y - t a l e r o m a n c e . S i n c e J o h n i s a l o n e i n h i s r o m a n t i c v i e w o f l o v e , h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s make o f t h e s i t u a t i o n s o m e t h i n g v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m what e x i s t s . When J o h n i s g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o meet G i l l i a n a l o n e , Eddy a n d P a t r i c k l e t t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n s work on t h e c o u r s e e v e n t s w i l l t a k e : J o h n c a u t i o u s l y r e s p o n d e d t o t h e r h y t h m o f t h e i r l a u g h t e r , f o r h i s t r u e f e e l i n g s h a d s h r u n k away and he had s e e n them s a f e l y l o c k e d u p . "Whose room c a n I h a v e , " he l a u g h e d . " Y o u c a n have m i n e , " s a i d E d d y . " W i t h p l e a s u r e , o l d man, a n d h e r e , l i s t e n , h e r e ' s a n i n s i d e t i p — l e t h e r g e t i n f i r s t , t h e r e ' s a sod o f a bump n e a r t h e w a l l . " "Now l e t ' s g e t i t a l l s t r a i g h t , " s a i d P a t r i c k , w a g g i n g h i s r i g h t f o r f i n g e r i n t h e a i r b e f o r e t h e m . "What y o u do i s c a l l f o r h e r " " N o , damn i t , P a t , t h a t ' s no g o o d ; s u r e l y he p i c k s h e r u p a t t h e G r e e n L e a f where she c a n ' t g e t a w a y . What he does i s come a l o n g a n d s a y : ' S o r r y , E l i z a b e t h u n a v o i d a b l y d e t a i n e d b u t h e r e ' s u n w o r t h y s e l f i n h e r p l a c e — ' " " A l l r i g h t , t h e n . Then a t t e a y o u put i n t h e g r o u n d -work i Then a f t e r t h a t s u g g e s t w a l k i n g r o u n d t o see E d d y — - " "Say y o u ' v e l e f t y o u r c i g a r - p i e r c e r on my g r a n d p i a n o , " c a c k l e d E d d y , . s c r a t c h i n g h i m s e l f . " A n d t h e n y o u c a n g e t t o w o r k — s p o r t t h e o a k — p u t t h e b l a c k - o u t u p . " ( p . 187) The r e a l i t y o f t h e m e e t i n g c o u l d n o t d i f f e r more f r o m t h i s . G i l l i a n i s much more s e n s i t i v e t o t h e l e s s r o m a n t i c a s p e c t s o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a man a n d i s v e r y u n e a s y i n J o h n ' s company m a k i n g h e r e s c a p e a s q u i c k l y a s p o s s i b l e and e a s i n g h e r way by p r o m i s i n g t o have t e a w i t h J o h n ; She does n o t k e e p 46 h e r p r o m i s e on w h i c h J o h n had b u i l t g r e a t h o p e s . I n s t e a d o f t h e q u i e t , i n n o c e n t t e a p a r t y f o r two f o r w h i c h he h a d made c a r e f u l and d a i n t y p r e p a r a t i o n s he f i r s t meets a s t e r n r e b u k e f r o m E l i z a b e t h and t h e n sees t h e room t a k e n o v e r by P a t r i c k a n d Eddy a n d t h e i r f r i e n d s who p r o c e e d t o g i v e t h e i r a s s e s s -ment o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d consume g r e e d i l y t h e f o o d J o h n has p r e p a r e d f o r G i l l i a n . J o h n ' s l a s t a t t e m p t t o b u i l d a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G i l l i a n t a k e s p l a c e a t t h e p a r t y . He c a n o n l y f i n d t h e c o u r a g e t o do what he w i s h e s when he has b l u r r e d t h e edge o f r e a l i t y by b e c o m i n g d r u n k . I n t h i s s t a t e he k i s s e s G i l l i a n and s t e p s o v e r t h e l i m i t s he h i m s e l f has s e t t o t h e r e l a t i o n -s h i p i n h i s i m a g i n a t i o n . A n e q u a l l y d r u n k e n c r e w o f C h r i s t o p h e r ' s f r i e n d s a r e u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y o f f e n d e d by J o h n ' s a c t i o n and b u l l y h i m t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t he wakes t o f i n d h i m s e l f i n h o s p i t a l . A t t h i s p o i n t , w h i l e J o h n i s i n a f e v e r , dream a n d r e a l i t y become c o n f u s e d a n d s h i f t i n r e l a t i o n -s h i p t o e a c h o t h e r i n a d i f f e r e n t way f r o m e a r l i e r i n t h e n o v e l . J o h n t r a n s f e r s h i s r e a l a w a r e n e s s o f h i s b r u i s e d l i p s i n t o a dream o f t h e k i s s : The k i s s , t o o , grew r e a l l e r e v e r y h o u r . He c o u l d f e e l t h e q u i e t p r e s s u r e o f h e r l i p s p e r p e t u a l l y , and i n r e s p o n s e she w o u l d f i l l h i s arms a g a i n . The memory was k e e n . A t i n t e r v a l s he w o u l d become aware t h a t i t was h i s b r u i s e d l i p s a n d j a r r e d t e e t h t h a t r e m a i n e d w i t h h i m , and a n o t h e r s t r u g g l e w o u l d e n s u e , f i l l i n g h i m somehow w i t h n a u s e a . The s e n s a t i o n s t u g g e d t h i s way and t h a t . ( p . 240) 47 Somehow, t h r o u g h h i s c o n f u s i o n , J o h n i s e x p e r i e n c i n g a t r u t h ; f o r i n f a c t t h e k i s s i s a c t u a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s b r u i s e d l i p s and h i s n a u s e a . I n h i s l o v e f o r J i l l J o h n has been d e c e i v e d by h i s v i s i o n i n t o s e e i n g l o v e as t o t a l l y r o m a n t i c and removed f r o m t h e k i n d o f r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h e x i s t s be tween C h r i s t o p h e r a n d E l i z a b e t h . B u t t h e c o m p e l l i n g power o f h i s v i s i o n has f o r c e d h i m i n t o a p o s i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o G i l l i a n w h i c h c a u s e s h i m t o r e s p o n d i n s t i n c t i v e l y t o h e r i n a p h y s i c a l manner and t o k i s s h e r . Thus h i s v i s i o n , t h o u g h removed f r o m r e a l i t y , has e n a b l e d h i m t o p e r c e i v e a r e a l i t y . . The s u p p r e s s e d a w a r e -n e s s o f p h y s i c a l d e s i r e has been b r o u g h t t o t h e s u r f a c e , and h i s r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f t h e e v e n i n g w h i c h a r e removed f r o m r e a l i t y a n d a c c u r a c y by h i s f e v e r c a r r y h i m f u r t h e r i n t o a n e x a m i n a t i o n a n d w o r k i n g o u t o f h i s n a t u r a l p h y s i c a l d e s i r e s . I n a s t a t e o f n o r m a l i t y he c o u l d n o t a d m i t t o h i m s e l f any f e e l i n g s o f p h y s i c a l d e s i r e b u t t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e i s b r o u g h t o u t i n t h e d r e a m s : A s h i s t e m p e r a t u r e r o s e , u n t r u t h s t o o k t h e i r p l a c e q u i t e n a t u r a l l y among t h e s e r e c o l l e c t i o n s . One o f t h e e a r l i e s t was t h a t t h e y were l y i n g t o g e t h e r on t h e f l o o r o f some room i n each o t h e r ' s a r m s . He c o u l d f e e l h e r l i p s p r e s s e d a g a i n s t h i s , b u t he c o u l d n o t f e e l t h e r e s t o f h e r . He c o u l d n o t f e e l h e r w i t h h i s body a t a l l . He hugged h e r h a r d e r , r o l l i n g d e s p e r a t e l y a g a i n s t h e r , b u t i t was a l l n o t h i n g , he c o u l d n o t f e e l h e r a t a l l . E v e r y t h i n g was c o n f i n e d t o t h e mouth a n d he w o u l d wake u p w i t h b u r n i n g l i p s . ( p . 241) 48 I n t h e dream w h i c h i n v o l v e s C h r i s t o p h e r , C h r i s t o p h e r ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G i l l i a n i s f a r removed f r o m t h e f a c t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n "but t h e dream does r e v e a l what J o h n h a d n o t k n o w n ; t h a t h i s d e s i r e t o k e e p C h r i s t o p h e r and G i l l i a n a p a r t was one b a s e d on a f e a r t h a t C h r i s t o p h e r c o u l d s u s t a i n a p h y s i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p and t h a t perhaps G i l l i a n c o u l d be d r a w n i n t o one t h u s p r o v i n g h i s v i s i o n o f h e r and t h e i r l o v e t o be f a l s e . T h r o u g h J o h n ' s a t t e m p t t o a s c e r t a i n t h e r e l a t i v e t r u t h o f h i s dream a n d r e a l i t y , L a r k i n seems t o be w o r k i n g o u t some-t h i n g f o r h i m s e l f w h i c h has a w i d e r s i g n i f i c a n c e , s i n c e i t q u e s t i o n s t h e r e l a t i v e t r u t h o f any i m a g i n a t i v e c r e a t i o n a s opposed t o f a c t s . J o h n f e e l s t h a t t h e f a c t s o f h i s r e l a t i o n -s h i p w i t h G i l l i a n do n o t g i v e a n a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e o f t h e t o t a l i t y o f what has happened t o h i m . The l o v e he has c r e a t e d a n d I t s w o r k i n g o u t i n h i s own m i n d u p t o t h e p o i n t o f p h y s i c a l d e s i r e a n d t h e n r e j e c t i o n has b e e n a s e f f e c t i v e a n e x p e r i e n c e a s h i s a c t u a l m e e t i n g s w i t h G i l l i a n . He h a s l e a r n t s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h i m s e l f and t h e n a t u r e o f l o v e as much t h r o u g h h i s i m a g i n a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e as t h r o u g h h i s a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e : he f e l l t o p o n d e r i n g w i t h i n t h e f ramework o f t h e dream how t h e l o v e t h e y had s h a r e d was d e a d . F o r t h e f a c t t h a t i n l i f e he h a d b e e n c h e a t e d o f h e r was n o t t h e w h o l e t r u t h . Somewhere, i n d r e a m s , p e r h a p s , on some o t h e r l e v e l , t h e y had i n t e r l o c k e d a n d he h a d h a d h i s own way a s c o m p l e t e l y a s i n l i f e he h a d been d e n i e d i t . A n d t h i s dream showed t h a t l o v e d i e d , w h e t h e r f u l f i l l e d o r u n f u l f i l l e d , ( p . 242) 49 The f e e l i n g t h a t l o v e i n e v i t a b l y d i e s l e a d s J o h n t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f l i f e a s a w h o l e and t h e f a c t t h a t , no m a t t e r what t h e n a t u r e o f t h e l i f e a n d no m a t t e r what c h o i c e s and d e c i s i o n s a r e made, a n u n c h a n g e a b l e p r o g r e s s i o n f r o m b i r t h t o d e a t h c r e a t e s a f ramework o f i n e v i t a b i l i t y w i t h i n w h i c h man i s p o w e r l e s s : Then i f t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n l o v e f u l f i l l e d a n d l o v e u n f u l f i l l e d , how c o u l d t h e r e be any d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n any o t h e r p a i r o f o p p o s i t e s ? Was he n o t f r e e d , f o r t h e r e s t o f h i s l i f e , f r o m c h o i c e ? F o r what c o u l d i t m a t t e r ? L e t h i m t a k e t h i s c o u r s e , o r t h i s c o u r s e , b u t s t i l l b e h i n d t h e m i n d , on some o t h e r l e v e l , t h e way he h a d r e j e c t e d was b e i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y worked o u t and t h e same c o n c l u s i o n was b e i n g r e a c h e d . What d i d i t m a t t e r w h i c h r o a d he t o o k i f t h e y b o t h l e d t o t h e same p l a c e ? ( p . 243) T h e r e i s i n t h i s s t a t e m e n t a p e r c e p t i v e and a l m o s t c o u r a g e o u s a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e . Y e t a t t h e same t i m e t h e c o n c l u d i n g s t a t e m e n t o f t h i s p a r a g r a p h r e p r e s e n t s a s u r r e n d e r and s e n s e o f h o p e l e s s n e s s : He l o o k e d a t t h e t r e e - t o p s i n t h e w i n d . What c o n t r o l c o u l d he hope t o have o v e r t h e maddened s u r f a c e o f t h i n g s ? ( p . 243) I n a c l o s e l y p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h t h e r e i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t r e e s J o h n i s w a t c h i n g w h i l s t t h e above t h o u g h t s a r e i n h i s m i n d . I t seems t h a t L a r k i n ' s r e a l s t a t e m e n t o f h i s p o s i t i o n i s made t h r o u g h t h i s image r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h J o h n ' s c o n c l u s i o n s . 50 He was w a t c h i n g t h e t r e e s , t h e t o p s o f w h i c h he c o u l d j u s t see t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w . They t o s s e d and t o s s e d , r e c k l e s s l y . He saw them f l i n g ["thi-sU way and t h a t , t h r o w -i n g u p t h e i r heads l i k e i m p a t i e n t h o r s e s , l i k e s e a w a v e s , b e n d i n g and r e c o v e r i n g i n t h e w i n d . They h a d no l e a v e s . E n d l e s s l y , t h i s way and t h a t , t h e y were b u f f e t e d and s t i l l b o r e u p a g a i n t o t h e i r f u l l h e i g h t . They seemed t i r e l e s s . Sometimes t h e y were b e n t so l o w t h a t t h e y p a s s e d o u t o f s i g h t , l e a v i n g t h e s q u a r e of w h i t e s k y f r e e f o r a s e c o n d , b u t t h e n t h e y w o u l d be b a c k a g a i n , c l a s h i n g t h e i r p r o u d b r a n c h e s t o g e t h e r l i k e t h e a n t l e r s o f f u r i o u s s t a g s . ( p . 242) The i n f l u e n c e o f H a r d y i s q u i t e c l e a r h e r e and t h e o v e r a l l p o s i t i o n t h e passage s u g g e s t s i s s i m i l a r t o H a r d y ' s . L a r k i n a p p e a r s t o be a c k n o w l e d g i n g o u r p o w e r l e s s n e s s i n t h e f a c e o f a b a s i c a l l y p r e d e t e r m i n e d p a t t e r n o f l i f e , b u t he a l s o i m p l i e s t h a t j u s t as t h e t r e e s w h i c h c a n o f f e r no a c t u a l r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e w i n d c r e a t e s o m e t h i n g m a g n i f i c e n t i n t h e i r f i g h t , so t o o man c a n n o t r e s i s t b u t c a n c r e a t e s o m e t h i n g t h r o u g h h i s r e s p o n s e t o t h e p a t t e r n . The f a c t t h a t L a r k i n c h o o s e s t o s u g g e s t t h i s t h r o u g h a n image i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n two w a y s : i t i s a f o r e t a s t e o f t h e p o e t r y s i n c e o f t e n t h e whole poem o p e r a t e s i n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r , s t a t i n g n o t h i n g b u t c r e a t i n g a s e n s e o f p o s i t i v e v a l u e s t h r o u g h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween f o r m a n d c o n t e n t ; t h r o u g h i t s v e r y e x i s t e n c e t h i s p a s s a g e i s a n a s s e r t i o n a b o u t c r e a t i v i t y , s i n c e f r o m s o m e t h i n g e s s e n t i a l l y b l e a k a n d h o p e l e s s L a r k i n has c r e a t e d s o m e t h i n g p o s i t i v e and b e a u t i f u l . D r e a m , c r e a t i v i t y a n d v i s i o n a r e d e a l t w i t h as a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l c o n c e p t s . J o h n ' s c r e a t i o n o f t h e J i l l w o r l d b e g i n s 51 as a n e s c a p e f r o m a r e a l b u t d e s t r u c t i v e s i t u a t i o n ; d e s p i t e t h i s a n d t h e f a c t t h a t what he c r e a t e s i s immature a n d n o t v e r y I m p r e s s i v e i t has v e r y p o s i t i v e v a l u e s . T h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i v i t y J o h n i s i n some r e s p e c t s b r o u g h t c l o s e r t o t h e w o r l d he i s t r y i n g t o e s c a p e : h i s s e n s i t i v i t y t o p e o p l e and h i s s u r r o u n d i n g i s d e v e l o p e d a n d he f i n d s b e a u t y i n h i t h e r t o u n s u s p e c t e d p l a c e s , as f o r e x a m p l e , on t h e o c c a s i o n a f t e r w r i t i n g t h e f i r s t l e t t e r f rom J i l l : O u t s i d e i n t h e F e l l o w s ' G a r d e n , t h e t r e e s were h e a v i n g i n t h e w i n d , a l m o s t b a r e o f t h e i r l e a v e s . A n o t h e r u n d e r g r a d u a t e k n e e l e d i n t h e window s e a t t o l o o k o u t ; he h a d a v e r y f i n e l y -made h e a d a n d b l a c k h a i r . A s he s t a r e d f r o m t h e t a l l windows he s l i p p e d a r i n g o f f one f i n g e r and put i t on a n o t h e r . J o h n wondered v a g u e l y who he w a s : h i s f a c e was a g r e e a b l e t o l o o k a t : ( p . 123) A s i m i l a r h e i g h t e n i n g o c c u r s i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r J o h n ' s a c c o u n t o f J i l l t o C h r i s t o p h e r : From n e x t d o o r came t h e sound o f a p i a n o ; t h e r e was a r i c h young man t h e r e who p l a y e d a t a l l h o u r s . J o h n l i s t e n e d . He f e l t h i m s e l f s p u n o u t v e r y f i n e a l o n g t h e s l e n d e r l i n e o f n o t e s . The m u s i c was s l o w , w i t h a l o g i c a l s a d n e s s . ( p . 120) F o r a s h o r t t i m e a t l e a s t he c a n g a i n a b e t t e r p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e w o r l d he l i v e s i n . H i s p r e v i o u s p r e - o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e a r t i f i c i a l day c r e a t e d by a r i g i d t i m e t a b l e d i s a p p e a r s ; he no l o n g e r needs t h e k i n d o f c o n f i d e n c e g a i n e d by c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e same p a t t e r n as e v e r y o n e e l s e . S i m i l a r l y he c e a s e s t o w o r r y a b o u t b e c o m i n g l i k e C h r i s t o p h e r : 52 He was h a r d l y c o n s c i o u s o f t h e c o n t e n t m e n t he f e l t . A l l o f a sudden t h e r e seemed n o t h i n g t o d o , n o t h i n g b u t t h e c e r t a i n f a c t t h a t t h i s day w o u l d open i n t o a n o t h e r e q u a l l y empty d a y , o n l y t h e s o f t p a t t e r i n g o f t h e r a i n on a n c i e n t s t o n e s . The f i r e l i g h t shone on t h e b r a s s a s h t r a y s and on c e r t a i n d a r k p a n e l s . He f e l t he had been v e r y f o o l i s h t o t r o u b l e o v e r -much a b o u t C h r i s t o p h e r W a r n e r ; he c e a s e d t o l o n g t h a t he h i m s e l f c o u l d o r d e r s e r v a n t s a b o u t c o n f i d e n t l y , t h a t he was r i c h , t h a t he h a d a b l u e c h i n , t h a t he sang d i r t y songs i n h i s b a t h i These were v e r y f i n e t h i n g s , b u t t h e y were l o s i n g t h e i r l u s t r e a s i d e a l s . He y a w n e d , ( p . 123) A l t h o u g h t h i s i s a l e s s v i v i d l y r e a l i z e d i m p r e s s i o n o f v a l u e s t h a n t h a t he has l a t e r i n h o s p i t a l , i t t e n d s i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n . I n t h e h o s p i t a l sequence J o h n l e a r n s more a b o u t h i s own n a t u r e : t h i s k n o w l e d g e h a s been made a v a i l a b l e t o h i m t h r o u g h t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d i n h i s c r e a t i o n o f J i l l . I n h i s e v e r y d a y r o u t i n e he a c k n o w l e d g e s h i s l o n e l i n e s s , b u t o n l y a s d e f e c t i n h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . He t r i e s t o overcome i t by b i n d i n g p e o p l e t o h im i n some w a y . I n t h e J i l l sequence he seems c l o s e r t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t l o n e l i n e s s i s a c o n d i t i o n o f l i f e s i n c e he does n o t see J i l l ' s i s o l a t i o n a s t h e r e s u l t o f a d e f e c t i n h e r p e r s o n a l i t y o r o f u n a t t r a c t i v e n e s s . He a l s o seems t o see a p o s i t i v e s i d e t o l o n e l i n e s s w h i c h he has n o t r e c o g n i s e d i n t h e l i v e s o f p e o p l e s u c h as W h i t b r e a d . H i s e v a l u a t i o n o f C h r i s t o p h e r i s d i f f e r e n t i n h i s l e t t e r s f r o m t h a t i n h i s a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i m , a n d t h o u g h t h e d e t a i l s o f J o h n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f C h r i s t o p h e r a r e n o t a c c u r a t e he i s r e c o g n i s i n g t h a t C h r i s t o p h e r i s n o t a h e r o i c f i g u r e o f e x t r a l a r g e d i m e n s i o n s b u t a young man w i t h o b v i o u s weaknesses a n d d e f e c t s ; 53 S t r o n g c o n t r a s t be tween J o h n and C h r i s t o p h e r i s made t h r o u g h o u t t h e n o v e l ; i n t h e t e r m s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n t h i s c o n t r a s t e x i s t s a l s o , f o r C h r i s t o p h e r has a s t r o n g g r a s p on t h e w o r l d o f f a c t s and on t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p r e s e n t . A t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l i t c o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o v i e w C h r i s t o p h e r as t r i u m p h a n t and J o h n a s d e f e a t e d , s i n c e C h r i s t o p h e r h a s a c h i e v e d h i s ends a n d J o h n c l e a r l y has n o t . B u t i n o t h e r t e r m s t h e p o s i t i o n i s r e v e r s e d , f o r C h r i s t o p h e r , a s he l e a v e s O x f o r d , i s v e r y l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t f r o m when he came u p . He has n o t i n c r e a s e d i n a w a r e n e s s o f h i m s e l f o r o f h i s e n v i r o n m e n t ; whereas J o h n ' s a w a r e n e s s o f h i m s e l f and o f l i f e has g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d . I t w o u l d seem t h e n t h a t t h e t o t a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e n o v e l a s f a r a s d r e a m , v i s i o n and c r e a t i v i t y a r e c o n c e r n e d c o u l d be summar i sed i n t h e te rms t h a t W a l l a c e S t e v e n s u s e s : " i t i s by b r e a k i n g away f r o m t h e w o r l d o f f a c t s t h a t we make c o n t a c t w i t h r e a l i t y . " The e x p l o r a t i o n o f a n i d e a o r t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f a s t a t e o f m i n d by means o f a n o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e , r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h a c t i o n , a s i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t r e e s q u o t e d e a r l i e r , i s a d e v i c e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e n o v e l . I t t a k e s two m a i n f o r m s : t h e use o f a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l a n d s c a p e a n d e n v i r o n m e n t t o r e f l e c t a m e n t a l l a n d s c a p e ; and t h e u s e o f p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f p e o p l e t o image t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s . ^ W a l l a c e S t e v e n s , Opus Posthumous ( L o n d o n : F a b e r and F a b e r , 1957), p . 236. 54 The n o v e l opens w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f what J o h n sees f r o m t h e t r a i n w i n d o w : I t was n e a r l y f o u r o ' c l o c k on a T h u r s d a y i n t h e m i d d l e o f O c t o b e r , a n d t h e a i r had begun t o t h i c k e n a s i t a l w a y s does b e f o r e a d u s k i n A u t u m n . The s k y had become s t i f f w i t h opaque c l o u d s . When t h e y were c l e a r 6? t h e g a s o m e t e r s , t h e wagons a n d b l a c k e n e d b r i d g e s o f B a n b u r y , he l o o k e d o u t o v e r t h e f i e l d s , n o t i c i n g t h e c l u m p s o f t r e e s t h a t s p e d b y , whose d y i n g l e a v e s each had a n i n d i v i d u a l c o l o u r , f r o m p a l e s t o c h r e t o n e a r l y p u r p l e , so t h a t each t r e e s t o o d o u t d i s t i n c t l y a s i n s p r i n g . The hedges were s t i l l g r e e n , b u t t h e l e a v e s o f t h e c o n v u l v u l i t h r e a d e d t h r o u g h them h a d t u r n e d s i c k l y y e l l o w , a n d f r o m a d i s t a n c e l o o k e d l i k e l a t e f l o w e r s . L i t t l e arms o f r i v e r s t w i s t e d t h r o u g h t h e meadows, l i n e d w i t h w i l l o w s t h a t l i t t e r e d t h e s u r f a c e w i t h l e a v e s . The w a t e r s were spanned by empty f o o t b r i d g e s , ( p . 21) I m m e d i a t e l y , a c e r t a i n t o n e i s e s t a b l i s h e d w h i c h p e r v a d e s t h e n o v e l ; t h e s e n s e o f t h e d y i n g y e a r w i t h a l l i t s sombre a c c o m p a n i m e n t s r e l i e v e d o n l y by f l a s h e s o f b e a u t y f o r w h i c h t h e s e a s o n i s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e ; t h e sense o f i n c r e a s i n g c o l d a n d b l e a k n e s s w i t h t h e o n s e t o f w i n t e r . A n d , a l t h o u g h J o h n i s t o a l l a p p e a r a n c e s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a new l i f e , i t becomes a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e n o v e l i s much more c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e e n d i n g o f t h e o l d way o f l i f e and t h e l o s s o f i n n o c e n c e . J u s t a s t h e d y i n g l e a v e s i n t h e v e r y p r o c e s s o f d y i n g a c q u i r e b e a u t y , so t o o i n J o h n ' s i n c r e a s i n g a w a r e n e s s i s a c e r t a i n b e a u t y . The image i s worked o u t so t h a t a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l i t i s w i n t e r and by t h i s p o i n t J o h n ' s o l d l i f e i s t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d and t h e r e i s a b l e a k n e s s i n h i s a w a r e n e s s w h i c h t h e s e a s o n r e f l e c t s . 55 B e c a u s e J o h n ' s e m o t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t i s t h e f o c u s o f t h e n o v e l , i t i s h i s mood w h i c h i s most o f t e n d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s o f h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s . A p a r t f r o m a d d i n g t o o u r a w a r e n e s s o f h i s e m o t i o n a l s t a t e , t h i s method a l s o i n c r e a s e s o u r sense o f J o h n ' s v u l n e r a b i l i t y , f o r o f t e n he c l e a r l y sees h i m s e l f a s t h e v i c t i m o f a h o s t i l e w o r l d ; b u t when he meets w i t h k i n d n e s s i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h p e o p l e l i k e C h r i s t o p h e r , t h e n h i s s e n s e o f warmth and s e c u r i t y e x t e n d s i t s e l f i n t o s e e i n g h i s e n v i r o n m e n t as no l o n g e r h o s t i l e . On h i s f i r s t m o r n i n g i n O x f o r d he does n o t e n c o u n t e r t h e p o s i t i v e u n f r i e n d l i n e s s he a n t i c i p a t e s f r o m C h r i s t o p h e r and s o , when he w a l k s t h r o u g h t h e t o w n , h i s f e e l i n g s o f a l i e n a t i o n a r e m o d i f i e d , a s t h o u g h he measures h i s a c c e p t i b i l i t y i n O x f o r d by C h r i s t o p h e r ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s hims he l o o k e d c u r i o u s l y a r o u n d h im a t t h e s h o p s , t h e b r o a d w h i t e pavements and t h e b r i g h t l y - p o l i s h e d k n o c k e r s on p r i v a t e d o o r s . E v e n t h e new r e d b r i c k a i r - r a i d s h e l t e r s l o o k e d a t t r a c t i v e i n t h e s u n , a n d he f o u n d them a s p l e a s a n t as t h e o l d b u i l d i n g s w i t h t h e i r t a l l windows a n d t u r r e t s . S u d d e n l y he f e l t t h a t he was g o i n g t o e n j o y O x f o r d s h i s e a r l y d e p r e s s i o n l i f t e d c l e a n a w a y , and he t h r e a d e d h i s way t h r o u g h t h e town w h i s t l i n g a few n o t e s t o h i m s e l f , ( p p . 44-45) J o h n ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e a i r - r a i d s h e l t e r s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g , s i n c e o n l y t h e p r e v i o u s n i g h t he h a d been w o r r i e d by a s e n s e o f t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n h i s new e n v i r o n m e n t a n d h i s own i n a b i l i t y t o r e c o n c i l e t h e m . I n t h e same way , a f t e r h i s m e e t i n g w i t h M r s ; W a r n e r , who " a f f e c t e d h i m l i k e a n i n v i g o r -a t i n g c l i m a t e " ( p i 9 6 ) , he f e e l s a sympathy between h i m s e l f 56 a n d what I s g o i n g on a r o u n d h i m : The w i n d b l e w a n d a w h o l e w a l l o f i v y danced i n t h e s u n , t h e l e a v e s b l o w i n g b a c k t o show t h e i r w h i t e u n d e r s i d e s . So i n h i m a t h o u s a n d r e s t l e s s n e s s e s y e a r n e d and s h o o k . A t t h e s i g h t o f t h e b l u e - a n d - w h i t e s k y , t h e f l a s h i n g w i n d s c r e e n s o f c a r s , t h e s q u a r e new r e d b r i c k a i r - r a i d s h e l t e r s daubed w i t h w h i t e p a i n t , a v i g o u r f i l l e d h i m a l m o s t e q u a l t o h i s d e s i r e . ( p . 97) When he f e e l s t h a t C h r i s t o p h e r h a s r e j e c t e d h i m , as f o r example when he o v e r h e a r s h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h E l i z a b e t h , he f e e l s a l a t e n t h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d s h i m i n e v e r y t h i n g a r o u n d h i m . He w a l k s t h r o u g h t h e s t r e e t s o f O x f o r d f e e l i n g i s o l a t e d a n d i g n o r e d : The t r a f f i c and p e o p l e i n t h e s t r e e t s r e c e d e d a s he w a l k e d ; a c o l u m n o f s o l d i e r s w h i s t l i n g a m u s i c - h a l l song marched by on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e r o a d w i t h o u t p a y i n g any a t t e n t i o n t o h i m ; a v a n was u n l o a d i n g b a c o n i n t o a g r o c e r ' s a n d he h a d t o w a i t w h i l e a huge h a l f - s p l i t p i g wrapped i n s a c k i n g was c a r r i e d i n . ( p . 112) I n c o n t r a s t , h i s s e n s e o f p u r p o s e a f t e r h i s f i r s t m e e t i n g w i t h G i l l i a n p r o j e c t s i n t o a s i t u a t i o n v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e one above h i s own v i t a l i t y a n d e n e r g y a n d makes h i m p a r t o f t h e w h o l e s c e n e : T h e r e h a d been a s h a r p f r o s t t h e n i g h t b e f o r e a n d l o r r i e s t h a t h a d b e e n o u t a l l n i g h t h a d w h i t e r o o f s t h a t s p a r k l e d i n t h e s u n ; The s k y was r e m o t e a n d b l u e : e v e r y w h e r e a n a t m o s p h e r e o f b r i s k n e s s p r e v a i l e d . J o h n w a t c h e d l a r g e t r a y s o f l o a v e s and buns b e i n g c a r r i e d i n t o a c o n f e c t i o n e r ' s shop f r o m a v a n ; a l r e a d y s h o p p e r s were out a n d s t u d e n t s c y c l e d p a s t w i t h b o o k s t u m b l e d c a r e l e s s l y i n t h e b a s k e t a t t h e i r h a n d l e b a r s , ( p . 160) 57 A n even c l e a r e r example o f t h i s o c c u r s a s a r e s u l t o f h i s r e l i e f t h a t G i l l i a n i s n o t i n v o l v e d w i t h C h r i s t o p h e r and h i s f r i e n d s . The day i t s e l f i s one w h i c h i n a n o t h e r mood w o u l d seem d e p r e s s i n g h u t he endows i t w i t h h i s own f e e l i n g o f e x c i t e m e n t : I t was o n l y h a l f l i g h t when he t o o k h i s t o w e l and went f o r a b a t h , a n d a few s t a r s were s t i l l s h i n i n g among t h e t o w e r s . Smoke f r o m n e w l y - l i t f i r e s p o u r e d f r o m c h i m n e y s and was w h i p p e d a w a y . W i n d , warm and b l u s t e r i n g , t o r e a l o n g u n d e r t h e o v e r c a s t s k y : i n h a l f a n h o u r i t w o u l d be a n o r d i n a r y d u l l m o r n i n g . B u t J o h n d i d n o t see i t l i k e t h a t ; t h i s h a l f -l i g h t , t h i s s t a n d i n g as i t were on a prow c o m i n g o v e r t h e edge o f a new d a y , a l l seemed t o r e p r e s e n t t h e Imminence o f s o m e t h i n g new. A n d what c o u l d t h a t be b u t J i l l ? The wet g r e e n g r a s s i n t h e q u a d r a n g l e , t h e b r o o d i n g o f t h e c l o i s t e r s , t h e t r e e s w i t h t h e i r d r i p p i n g t w i g s , a n d , above a l l , t h e w i n d — t h e s e f e l t l i k e t h e a g e n t s o f some g r e a t f o r c e t h a t was on h i s s i d e . ( p p . 1 8 2 - 3 ) H i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t a b o u t G i l l i a n i s f o l l o w e d i m m e d i a t e l y by t h e news o f t h e bombing o f H u d d l e s f o r d , so t h a t J o h n ' s f e e l i n g o f b e i n g e m o t i o n a l l y d e s t r o y e d i s echoed i n t h e p h y s i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n a l l a r o u n d h i m . F o r t h e most p a r t L a r k i n ' s h a n d l i n g o f c o r r e l a t i v e s i s s k i l f u l a n d t h e r e i s a s e n s e o f what J o h n P r e s s d e s c r i b e s a s t h e v i s u a l a s p e c t s o f t h e images f u s i n g p e r f e c t l y w i t h t h e e m o t i o n a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , o c c a s i o n s when s u c h images f a i l s i n c e t h e image seems t o be t h e r e f o r i t s own s a k e so t h a t t h e r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n f o c u s e s on i t r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e e m o t i o n a n d i t s c o r r e l a t i v e . The u s e o f t h e dog a t t h e end o f t h e 58 n o v e l f a i l s i n t h i s way ; i t i s t o o c o n t r i v e d a n d what i t r e v e a l s a b o u t t h e c o n c l u d i n g s i t u a t i o n o f t h e n o v e l has a l r e a d y been made c l e a r i n more s u b t l e and s u c c e s s f u l w a y s ; T h e r e a r e a l s o a number o f s i m i l e s u s e d w h i c h t e n d t o d i s t r a c t r a t h e r t h a n i l l u m i n a t e s i n c e t h e y u s u a l l y o c c u r n o t i n d i v i d u a l l y b u t i n s e r i e s , so t h a t t h e a c t i o n i s s l o w e d d o w n . Two examples o f t h e u s e t o w h i c h L a r k i n p u t s p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s w i l l s u f f i c e s i n c e , t h o u g h i t i s a d e v i c e u s e d v e r y f r e q u e n t l y , t h e method u s e d a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t a c h e d t o a p p e a r a n c e r e m a i n s t h e same. The most i m p o r t a n t d e s c r i p t i o n i n t h e n o v e l i s t h e f i r s t one o f Johns He was a n u n d e r s i z e d b o y , e i g h t e e n y e a r s o l d , w i t h a p a l e f a c e and s o f t p a l e h a i r b r u s h e d c h i l d i s h l y f r o m l e f t t o r i g h t i L y i n g b a c k a g a i n s t t h e s e a t , he s t r e t c h e d h i s l e g s o u t and pushed h i s hands t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p o c k e t s o f h i s cheap b l u e o v e r c o a t . The l a p e l s o f i t c u r l e d outx^ards a n d c r e a s e s d r a g g e d f r o m t h e b u t t o n s . H i s f a c e was t h i n , a n d perhaps s t r a i n e d ; t h e e x p r e s s i o n r o u n d t h e mouth was r e a d y t o become t a u t , a n d a s m a l l f r o w n l i n g e r e d on h i s f o r e h e a d . H i s w h o l e a p p e a r a n c e l a c k e d l u x u r i a n c e . O n l y h i s s i l k y h a i r , as s o f t a s s e e d i n g t h i s t l e , gave h i m a n a i r o f b e a u t y ; ( p : 21) J o h n ' s a p p e a r a n c e i l l u s t r a t e s c l e a r l y h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . T h e r e i s i n h i s a .ppearance a n d a l s o i n h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , a meagreness aaad d e p r i v e d q u a l i t y . H i s a p p e a r a n c e and b e h a v i o u r b o t h i n d i c a t e h i s b a c k g r o u n d and h i s a w a r e n e s s o f i t . H o w e v e r , he has a r e d e e m i n g f e a t u r e , t h e u n l i k e l y b e a u t y o f h i s h a i r , j u s t a s t h e p o v e r t y o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y i s r e l i e v e d by t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s i m a g i n a t i o n . 59 C h r i s t o p h e r ' s a p p e a r a n c e c o n t r a s t s s t r o n g l y w i t h t h a t o f J o h n i n t h e same way t h a t t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s d i f f e r : The y o u n g man was t a l l e r and s t r o n g e r t h a n J o h n , w i t h d a r k d r y h a i r b r u s h e d b a c k f r o m h i s f o r e h e a d , and a s q u a r e , s t u b b l y j a w . H i s nose was t h i c k and h i s s h o u l d e r s b r o a d ; J o h n f e l t a t w i n g e o f d i s t r u s t . He wore a d a r k g r e y l o u n g e s u i t a n d d a r k b l u e s h i r t and on h i s r i g h t hand was a s q u a r e -f a c e d g o l d r i n g . T h e r e was a swagger i n h i s b e a r i n g , he h e l d h i m s e l f w e l l u p r i g h t . ( p . 2 7 ) C h r i s t o p h e r i s a s o b v i o u s l y a young man as J o h n i s s t i l l a b o y i H i s a g g r e s s i v e n a t u r e i s e x p r e s s e d i n h i s b u i l d a n d i n a c e r t a i n c o a r s e n e s s i n h i s a p p e a r a n c e ; h i s g e n e r a l c o n f i d e n c e shows i n h i s b e a r i n g and h i s s e n s e o f w e l l - b e i n g i n h i s c l o t h e s and t h e t o t a l i t y o f h i s a p p e a r a n c e . The n a t u r e a n d e f f e c t o f t i m e i s a theme o f i m p o r t a n c e i n L a r k i n ' s p o e t r y ; i n t h e two n o v e l s t i m e i s l e s s a theme t h a n a p a r t o f t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e . I t i s as t h o u g h i n t h e l a r g e r medium L a r k i n i s w o r k i n g o u t h i s t h e o r y o f t i m e r a t h e r t h a n a s s u m i n g i t o r p r e s e n t i n g i t i n c r y s t a l l i z e d f o r m . B o t h n o v e l s b e g i n i n m e d l a s r e s a n d i n b o t h t h e r e i s a s e c t i o n w h i c h r e c r e a t e s t h e p a s t t h r o u g h a v i e w p o i n t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e a c t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n t . I n J i l l t h e v i e w p o i n t i s m o s t l y t h a t o f M r . C r o u c h i n t h e r e t r o s p e c t i v e s e c t i o n , so t h a t we have a f a i r l y o b j e c t i v e v i e w o f J o h n ' s b a c k g r o u n d ! I n A G i r l i n W i n t e r t h e v i e w p o i n t i s that o f K a t h e r i n e b u t a y o u n g e r and v e r y d i f f e r e n t K a t h e r i n e so t h a t t h e s e n s e o f a d i f f e r e n t v i e w p o i n t i s c r e a t e d . A f t e r a v i e w 6o o f t h e p a s t t h e r e a d e r i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e p r e s e n t a n d a s s e s s e s i t r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t l y so t h a t t h e p a s t i s d e f i n i t e l y i m p i n g i n g on t h e p r e s e n t : T h e r e a r e t h e n g l i m p s e s o f t h e p a s t t h r o u g h t h e eyes o f t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s . S i n c e t h e i r v i e w o f t h e p a s t i s t i n g e d b y t h e p r e s e n t we see how t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r e s e n t a n d i t s a f f e c t on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s r e c r e a t i n g t h e p a s t . The s i t u a t i o n becomes f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d i n J i l l by J o h n ' s r e f u s a l t o a c c e p t t h e p a s t and h i s c r e a t i o n o f a new p a s t w h i c h a f f e c t s t h e p r e s e n t a n d w h i c h he p r o j e c t s i n t o t h e f u t u r e . A t t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h J o h n i s most i n v o l v e d i n h i s c r e a t i o n o f J i l l , he l i v e s i n two p r e s e n t s , t h e one i n h i s m i n d a n d t h e p h y s i c a l one t o which he g i v e s s c a n t a t t e n t i o n . Y e t a n o t h e r a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e p a s t i s made when J o h n r e t u r n s t o H u d d l e s f o r d t a k i n g w i t h h i m a n a w a r e n e s s o f t h e changes he h a s u n d e r g o n e : The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e n o v e l becomes i n i t s e l f a n image t h r o u g h w h i c h L a r k i n seems t o be e x p l o r i n g t h e i d e a t h a t t h e p a s t i s n e v e r s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i s o v e r , f i n i s h e d and s t a t i c b u t s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i s a l w a y s b e i n g r e c r e a t e d and w h i c h a l w a y s a d h e r e s t o t h e p r e s e n t so t h a t t h e y a r e m u t u a l l y i n t e r a c t i n g . CHAPTER I I I A G I R L IN WINTER A G i r l i n W i n t e r ^ r e p r e s e n t s a s i m i l a r advancement f r o m J i l l i n i t s s t r u c t u r e , t h e m e , and i n f o r m i n g p h i l o s o p h y as The W h l t s u n W e d d i n g s 2 does f r o m The L e s s D e c e i v e d .3 j _ n b o t h c a s e s t h e l a t e r work i s more m a t u r e and a more c o m p l e t e a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e w r i t e r ' s p u r p o s e . I n b o t h he d e m o n s t r a t e s a g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y f o r a b r o a d sympathy f o r a n d a n a w a r e n e s s o f t h e s o c i e t y i n w h i c h he l i v e s . I n f a c t , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f K a t h e r i n e a s p o r t r a y e d i n t h e n o v e l i s c l e a r l y r e f l e c t e d i n t h e g r o w t h o f L a r k i n ' s own a w a r e n e s s as i n d i c a t e d i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s be tween t h e two l a t e r vo lumes o f p o e t r y . A G i r l i n W i n t e r i s c l o s e r t o t h e two v o l u m e s o f p o e t r y t h a n J i l l i s , s i n c e i t i s e v e n more c l e a r l y a p r o s e poem. A l t h o u g h t h e t i m e s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s n o v e l i s more c o m p l e x t h a n t h a t ° f J i l l * t h e a c t i o n i s more c l e a r l y s i m p l i f i e d and d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s i m a g i n g t h e g r o w t h o f K a t h e r i n e ' s a w a r e n e s s , and a l l d e t a i l s o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l s e t t i n g c o n t r i b u t e more o b v i o u s l y * P . L a r k i n , A G i r l i n W i n t e r ( L o n d o n : F a b e r a n d F a b e r , 1964). U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d a l l page r e f e r e n c e w i t h i n t h e t e x t i n t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l r e f e r t o t h i s n o v e l . 2 P . L a r k i n , The W h i t s u n Weddings ( L o n d o n : F a b e r and F a b e r , 1964). 3p. L a r k i n , The L e s s D e c e i v e d ( H e s s l e : The M a r v e l l P r e s s , 1962). 62 and c l o s e l y t o t h i s same e n d . I t i s t h e i n c r e a s e d t i g h t n e s s o f c o n t r o l o v e r a l l t h e e l e m e n t s t o c r e a t e a n o v e l i n w h i c h e v e r y t h i n g u n i t e s t o form t h e image o f t h e g i r l i n w i n t e r t h a t makes t h i s n o v e l even c l o s e r t o p o e t r y t h a n i s J i l l . A s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , b o t h J i l l and A G i r l i n W i n t e r r e p r e s e n t a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e i r s t r u c t u r e s o f L a r k i n ' s t h e o r y o f t i m e . I n J i l l he r e l i e s t o some e x t e n t on two d i f f e r e n t v i e w p o i n t s t o g i v e a s e n s e o f t h e p a s t a s i t r e a l l y w a s , and how i t i s changed i n t h e m i n d o f J o h n i n t h e p r e s e n t . B e c a u s e we see J o h n ' s p a s t t h r o u g h C r o u c h ' s e y e s , we g a i n a n i m p r e s s i o n o f o b j e c t i v i t y . T h i s means t h a t i n some r e s p e c t s L a r k i n evades i s s u e s w h i c h he does d e a l w i t h i n A G i r l i n W i n t e r , where we see b o t h p r e s e n t and p a s t t h r o u g h K a t h e r i n e ' s e y e s . I n J i l l i t becomes a p p a r e n t , a s I have a l r e a d y s a i d , t h a t L a r k i n i s e x p l o r i n g t h e i d e a o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f p a s t and p r e s e n t and t h e c o n t i n u a l r e c r e -a t i o n o f b o t h . B u t , a l t h o u g h he s u g g e s t s t h e f i l t e r i n g p r o c e s s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s a f f e c t i n g and i n t u r n b e i n g a f f e c t e d by p a s t and p r e s e n t , t h r o u g h s u c h i n c i d e n t s as J o h n ' s o v e r h e a r i n g C h r i s t o p h e r and E l i z a b e t h and what he r e c o l l e c t s o f t h i s , he does n o t f u l l y i n t e g r a t e t h i s p r o b l e m w i t h t h a t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f p a s t and p r e s e n t . I n A G i r l i n W i n t e r he does a t t e m p t t o d e a l w i t h t h e whole p r o b l e m by u s i n g K a t h e r i n e as a c o n s t a n t p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e . 63 The K a t h e r i n e we meet i n t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n of t h e book i s a g i r l i n w i n t e r b o t h p h y s i c a l l y and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y ; she i s a l m o s t t o t a l l y d e t a c h e d f r o m h e r s u r r o u n d i n g s and t h e p e o p l e w i t h whom she comes i n t o d a i l y c o n t a c t . The s t r o n g e s t e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e she makes i s i n h e r h a t r e d t o w a r d s M r . A n s t e y . Y e t t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n a r e r e f e r e n c e s b a c k t o t h e summer s p e n t w i t h t h e F e n n e l s . I n r e t r o s p e c t t h i s p a r t o f K a t h e r i n e ' s l i f e , w h i c h had a l s o b e e n s p e n t i n E n g l a n d , has t a k e n on a l l t h e warmth a n d i n v o l v e m e n t w h i c h t h e p r e s e n t l a c k s . I t i s b e c a u s e she has become t o t a l l y aware of h e r detachment and been f r i g h t e n e d by i t , r a t h e r t h a n p l e a s e d , t h a t she a l l o w s t h i s p a r t o f h e r p a s t t o be r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o h e r l i f e . Her l e t t e r t o Jane w h i c h i s h e r f i r s t a t t e m p t t o r e - e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t w i t h t h e F e n n e l s i s a n acknowledgement t o h e r s e l f a b o u t h e r way of l i f e , and what t h e memory o f t h e F e n n e l s has come t o mean i n t h i s c o n t e x t : So where d i d t h e F e n n e l s come i n a l l t h i s ? S i m p l y , t h a t she was l o n e l y ; more c o m p l e x l y , t h a t t h e y s u p p o r t e d h e r f a l l i n g hope t h a t she was wrong t o t h i n k t h a t h e r l i f e had w o r s e n e d so i r r e v o c a b l y . S i n c e w r i t i n g t o J a n e , t h o s e t h r e e n e a r l y -f o r g o t t e n weeks had t a k e n on a new c h a r a c t e r i n h e r memory. I t was t h e o n l y p e r i o d o f h e r l i f e t h a t h a d n o t been s p o i l e d by l a t e r e v e n t s , and she f o u n d t h a t she c o u l d draw u p o n i t h e a r t e n i n g l y , remember ing when she had been h a p p y , and r e a d y t o g i v e and t a k e , I n s t e a d o f u n w i l l i n g t o g i v e , and f i n d i n g n o t h i n g w o r t h t a k i n g . I t was as i f she hoped t h e y w o u l d warm b a c k t o l i f e a p a r t o f h e r t h a t had been f r o z e n , w i t h t h e same s o l i c i t u d e she had t r i e d t o g i v e M i s s G r e e n t h a t m o r n i n g — t h o u g h she f e a r e d i n r e t r o s p e c t t h a t she had done no more t h a n i f she had handed h e r a n e l a b o r a t e b a s k e t o f f r u i t l e f t f o r weeks i n a r e f r i g e r a t o r , a l l f r o s t e d o v e r and t a s t e l e s s . 64 I t was e x t r a v a g a n t , even m e l o d r a m a t i c . B u t she c o u l d h a r d l y have c a r e d more i f h e r l i f e had depended on t h e m . ( p p . 185-6) D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t she has been i n E n g l a n d f o r two y e a r s , she has n o t p r e v i o u s l y c o n t a c t e d t h e F e n n e l s . She had i n s t e a d r e f u s e d t o a d m i t t h a t h e r l i f e i n E n g l a n d had any r e a l i t y ; t o l i n k t h e p r e s e n t w i t h t h e p a s t and t h u s some hope f o r t h e f u t u r e i n E n g l a n d w o u l d be t o g i v e t h e p r e s e n t a s u b s t a n c e she i s u n w i l l i n g t o a l l o w . I n s t e a d , she had a t t e m p t e d t o g o v e r n t i m e and a s s e r t c o n t r o l o v e r a s i t u a t i o n f o r c e d u p o n h e r by e x t e r n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e by a d m i t t i n g o n l y t h e i m m e d i a t e p r e s e n t a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o e x c l u d e t h e p a s t and t h e f u t u r e : And so she had s e t h e r s e l f t o c l i m b o u t o f t h e s l i t h e r i n g p i t i n t o w h i c h she had f a l l e n , w i t h o u t s u c c e s s a t f i r s t , b u t as t i m e went on managing t o r e - e s t a b l i s h h e r s e l f g r a d u a l l y , t o r e g a i n h e r w i l l p o w e r , t o a v o i d t h e t e r r i b l e moments t h a t l e f t h e r s i c k e n e d . She d i d t h i s by s u p p r e s s i n g a s f a r as she c o u l d e v e r y r e f e r e n c e t o h e r f o r m e r l i f e , and t r e a t i n g e v e r y day as c o m p l e t e i n i t s e l f . She a t e , s l e p t and w o r k e d , and r e f u s e d t o compare what she d i d o r a t e , o r where she s l e p t , w i t h any w o r k o r f o o d o r h o u s e h o l d she had known i n t h e p a s t ; E v e r y t h i n g had t o be r e d u c e d t o i t s s i m p l e s t t e r m s . ( p . 181) Y e t e v e n t h e r i g i d i t y o f t h e imposed p a t t e r n had n o t s u c c e e d e d i n m a k i n g t i m e s t a n d s t i l l . K a t h e r i n e ' s c o n t r o l o v e r t i m e does n o t r e a l l y e x i s t , f o r w i t h o u t h e r awareness she has i n f a c t b e e n m o u l d e d by t h e p a t t e r n she h a d f e l t she was s h a p i n g ; she r e c o g n i s e s t h e f u t i l i t y o f what she has b e e n a t t e m p t i n g : 65 The t r u t h was, she had not been f a c i n g the f a c t s . To l i v e from day to day, as she had been doing, shut out the past, but i t shut out the f u t u r e too, and made the present one long temporary hand-to-mouth e x i s t e n c e . (p; 182) With t h i s awareness comes a l s o the r e a l i z a t i o n of the changes which she has undergone which now make her v i s i o n of t a k i n g up the past where she had l e f t o f f completely i m p o s s i b l e f A l l the time she had been behaving as i f e v e r y t h i n g would suddenly snap back to normal, i f she c o u l d only hang on a l i t t l e l o n g e r . Without a d m i t t i n g i t to h e r s e l f , she had been b e l i e v i n g t h a t i n a l i t t l e while the w a l l s would f l y back, and a t a touch she would f i n d h e r s e l f back a t home, or s t u d y i n g i n the u n i v e r s i t y , with her o l d l i f e about her. I t shocked her to r e a l i z e she had been b e l i e v i n g a n y t h i n g so absurd, and i t shocked her to r e a l i z e t h a t i t was absurd. But a t h i r d f a c t shocked her most of a l l : t h a t even i f her o l d l i f e had been w a i t i n g f o r her, she no longer wanted to r e t u r n to i t . (p. 182) Her p e r s p e c t i v e on l i f e changes, and she r e a l i z e s t h a t a c o n t i n u i t y e x i s t s i n her l i f e d e s p i t e the a p p a r e n t l y d i s r u p t i v e elements b r e a k i n g i n on i t ; Whereas John i n J i l l simply reaches a stage of r e c o g n i s i n g t h a t he has broken with the past and become someone d i f f e r e n t , K atherine's awareness i s maturer i n p r o p o r t i o n as circumstances have t r e a t e d her more h a r s h l y . She too r e a l i z e s t h a t she cannot r e t u r n to the past or the person she was b e f o r e the break with her o l d l i f e was made, but she can see a c o n t i n u i t y and the f a c t t h a t the past has played a part i n c r e a t i n g what she i s i n the p r e s e n t : For she knew, now, that i n most l i v e s there had to come a break, when the past dropped away and the m a t u r i t y i t had 66 e n c l o s e d f o r so l o n g s t o o d p a i n f u l l y u p r i g h t . . . . l i f e c e a s e d t o be a c o n f u s e d s t u m b l i n g f r o m one i l l u m i n a t i o n t o a n o t h e r , a s e r i e s o f u n c o n n e c t e d c l e a r i n g s i n a t r o p i c a l f o r e s t , and became a f l a t l a n d s c a p e , wry and r a t h e r s m a l l , w i t h a few u n f o r g e t t a b l e l a n d m a r k s somewhat r e s e m b l i n g a s t r e t c h o f f e n l a n d , where a n o c c a s i o n a l d y k e o r b r o k e n f e n c e shoxis u p f o r m i l e s , and t h e s a i l s o f a m i l l t u r n a l l day l o n g i n t h e s t e a d y w i n d . ( p . I 8 3 ) When K a t h e r i n e has r e a c h e d t h i s s t a g e o f a w a r e n e s s , she makes a v o l u n t a r y r e t u r n t o h e r p a s t . J o h n i s f o r c e d t o do so by e x t e r n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . J o h n i s aware o f l i t t l e more t h a n h i s c o m p l e t e b r e a k f rom t h e p a s t w h i l s t K a t h e r i n e b e g i n s t o b o t h a s s e s s t h e p a s t and t o u s e i t s q u a l i t i e s as a means o f e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r e s e n t . She b e g i n s t o l o o k a t e v e n t s o f h e r e v e r y d a y r o u t i n e , h e r e n v i r o n m e n t and h e r work a t t h e l i b r a r y i n s t e a d o f s i m p l y a c c e p t i n g them p a s s i v e l y . She a t t e m p t s t o measure t h i n g s a s t h e y w o u l d a p p e a r t o t h e F e n n e l s , s e e i n g them as p e o p l e who u n l i k e h e r s e l f , a r e i n v o l v e d w i t h l i f e and p e o p l e . The f i r s t i n s t a n c e o f t h i s o c c u r s as she w a i t s t o t a k e M i s s G r e e n home: What w o u l d t h e F e n n e l s t h i n k o f t h i s , K a t h e r i n e w o n d e r e d . She s t o o d w a i t i n g i n t h e e n t r a n c e - h a l l o f t h e l i b r a r y , t h r e e m i n u t e s l a t e r , as she had b e e n b i d d e n . T h i s was a d i m , u n h e a t e d p l a c e , w i t h d o u b l e s w i n g - d o o r s l e a d i n g o u t i n t o t h e s t r e e t : two s e t s o f g l a s s d o o r s l a y on e i t h e r s i d e , t o t h e L e n d i n g L i b r a r y a n d t o t h e R e a d i n g r o o m . The o n l y p i e c e o f f u r n i t u r e was a l a r g e d o u b l e - s i d e d s t a n d , p a i n t e d d u c k - e g g g r e e n , f o r O f f i c i a l War P h o t o g r a p h s . T h i s was now c o v e r e d w i t h p i c t u r e s o f d e s t r o y e r s , a e r o p l a n e s , and t a n k s i n t h e d e s e r t : somet imes u r c h i n s c r e p t i n and s t a r e d a t them, o r p r i s e d o u t t h e d r a w i n g - p i n s t o s t e a l . H i g h u p on t h e w a l l s , i n t h e shadow f r o m t h e b l a c k e d - o v e r w i n d o w s , hung w o r t h l e s s p a i n t i n g s by l o c a l a r t i s t s . 67 What w o u l d t h e y i m a g i n e f r o m h e r l e t t e r ? To them t h e p h r a s e ' w o r k i n g i n a l i b r a r y * w o u l d c a l l up a p i c t u r e o f c a l f - b o u n d a i s l e s , w i t h h e r h o l d i n g h u s h e d c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h p r o f e s s o r s , o r d r o w s i n g a t a mahogany d e s k : t h e y w o u l d be u n d e r t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e work i n v o l v e d some f o r m o f s t u d y i n g , u n -aware t h a t l i b r a r y a s s i s t a n t s a r e f o r c e d t o do e v e r y t h i n g w i t h books e x c e p t r e a d t h e m . They c e r t a i n l y w o u l d n o t v i s u a l i z e t h e d a i l y r o u n d o f s t r i n g b a g s , t r e m b l i n g o l d men, t ramps r e a d i n g n e w s p a p e r s t h r o u g h m a g n i f y i n g g l a s s e s , s o l d i e r s a s k i n g t o c o n s u l t a m e d i c a l d i c t i o n a r y . ( p p . 21 -22 ) I n h e r a t t e m p t t o a p p l y t h e i r s t a n d a r d s t o h e r l i f e she b e g i n s t o r e c o n s i d e r e x a c t l y what she knows o f them and a t t e m p t s t o b u i l d u p a m e n t a l image of t h e m . She c a n n o t r e c a l l d e t a i l s b u t h e r i n c r e a s e d s e n s i t i v i t y t o h e r s u r r o u n d i n g s c r e a t e d by h e r new c o n t a c t w i t h them g i v e s h e r a s e n s e o f p e o p l e more a l i v e t h a n she has f e l t s i n c e she came t o E n g l a n d : she becomes aware o f t h i s as she l o o k s o u t f r o m t h e bus a t t h e S a t u r d a y crowds i n t h e s t r e e t s : T h i s k i n d o f s c e n e — t h o u g h i t r e m i n d e d h e r o f t h e m — w o u l d mean n o t h i n g t o t h e F e n n e l s a t a l l . They o n l y n o t i c e d t h i n g s t h a t a r t i s t s had b e e n b r i n g i n g u n d e r t h e i r noses f o r c e n t u r i e s , s u c h a s s u n s e t s and l a n d s c a p e s . Or was t h a t u n j u s t ? I t was a l l v e r y w e l l s a y i n g t h e F e n n e l s w o u l d n o t i c e t h i s o r t h a t , b u t h e r memories o f them were n o t a t a l l c l e a r . . . . She l o o k e d f r o m t h e u n e v e n l y - t r a v e l l i n g b u s , and saw a c h e a p d r e s s s h o p , where a b a r e - a n k l e d g i r l was a r r a n g i n g a copy o f a s t y l i s h m o d e l ; t h e n a l i n e n - d r a p e r ' s , w i t h a n o l d c e r e m o n i a l f r o n t a g e ; a m i l k - b a r , p e r m a n e n t l y b l a c k e d - o u t , w i t h t h e d o o r a j a r and n o - o n e on t h e t a l l s t o o l s ; a pawn-shop window crowded w i t h o l d c o i n s , s h i r t s , a t h e o d o l i t e , b e d - p a n s and a h a r p ; a p u b l i c -h o u s e d o o r w i t h a b r i g h t b r a s s r a i l , j u s t o p e n i n g ; a s u d d e n gap o f h i g h , p a p e r e d w a l l s and a heap o f b r i c k s , f u r r e d w i t h f r o s t , where a house had been d e s t r o y e d . T h e r e was n o t h i n g i n a l l t h i s t o r e m i n d h e r o f t h e m , y e t i t d i d . ( p p . 29-30) The v e r y d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n what K a t h e r i n e i s now n o t i c i n g i n s u c h d e t a i l and t h e k i n d o f e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h t h e F e n n e l s 68 l i v e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e t h e y have on h e r i s n o t s i m p l y t o r e m i n d h e r o f t h e i r p r e s e n c e b u t t o r e c r e a t e i n h e r a c a p a c i t y f o r b e i n g aware of and i n t e r e s t e d i n h e r s u r r o u n d -i n g s however a l i e n , as she had b e e n d u r i n g t h e summer s p e n t w i t h t h e m . The warmth w i t h w h i c h she a s s o c i a t e s t h e p a s t becomes p a r t o f t h e p r e s e n t so t h a t t h e c o l d q u a l i t y o f h e r de tachment I s changed and a f f e c t s h e r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s M i s s G r e e n : K a t h e r i n e , who e v e r s i n c e she had g o t u p t h a t m o r n i n g had b e e n t h i n k i n g o f t h e F e n n e l s and h e r s e l f w i t h i n c r e a s i n g e x c i t e m e n t , was s u d d e n l y s t a r t l e d t o sympathy f o r h e r . . i ; I t was so u n u s u a l t h a t she knew i t t o be l i n k e d w i t h t h e t h a n k f u l n e s s she h a d b e e n f e e l i n g f o r t h e l a s t few d a y s . ( P P . 3^-35) She b e g i n s t o a t t e m p t t o communicate and once s t a r t e d i s so e a g e r t o s u c c e e d t h a t h e r c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e d e n t i s t becomes a s i g n i f i c a n t t r i a l — " s h e wanted d e s p e r a t e l y t o move h i m , t o make some c o n t a c t . " ( p . 46) I n t h e same w a y , u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c -a l l y o f t h e p e r s o n she has become i n h e r d e t a c h m e n t , she f i n d s h e r s e l f i n v o l v e d w i t h V e r o n i c a P a r b u r y ' s t r o u b l e s and v i e w i n g M r . A n s t e y as a p e r s o n n o t a m o n s t e r f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e I n h e r a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h h i m : F o r h e r c o n c e p t i o n o f h i m as a h o s t i l e c a r t o o n she had t o s u b s t i t u t e a p e r s o n who h a d and c o u l d evoke f e e l i n g s , who w o u l d u n d e r t a k e t h e s u p p o r t o f a n o l d woman, a n d on whose a c c o u n t she had s e e n a n o t h e r c r y i n g . . . . w h e n she n e x t saw h i s mean f a c e l o o k i n g u p a t h e r , she w o u l d — i f she were h o n e s t — b e f o r c e d t o j u g g l e w i t h r i g h t s a n d w r o n g s , i n s t e a d o f p l a i n l y w i s h i n g h i m d e a d . ( p p . 204-5) 69 D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e awareness o f t h e p a s t i s what g o v e r n s t h e change i n K a t h e r i n e ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s e v e r y t h i n g a r o u n d h e r , i t i s l e s s h e r p r e c i s e memory o f e v e n t s t h a t i s e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h a t a p a r t o f h e r w h i c h had been d e v e l o p -ed a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e o f h e r l i f e comes a l i v e a g a i n once she r e c o g n i s e s t h a t i t h a d once e x i s t e d . What she r e c o l l e c t s o f e v e n t s d u r i n g t h e summer s p e n t w i t h t h e F e n n e l s i s i n f a c t i n a c c u r a t e and i s so t o some e x t e n t because o f t h e changes w h i c h have t a k e n p l a c e i n h e r . She remembers t h e F e n n e l s as b e i n g t y p i c a l l y E n g l i s h as she i n d i c a t e s when d e b a t i n g w i t h h e r s e l f t h e wisdom o f h a v i n g w r i t t e n t o thems A n d i t m i g h t even be t h a t t h e y w o u l d d i s l i k e d e a l i n g w i t h h e r b e c a u s e o f h e r n a t i o n a l i t y , f o r t h e E n g l i s h , she f o u n d — a n d t h e F e n n e l s were n o t h i n g i f n o t E n g l i s h — w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n t i m e o f war by a n t a g o n i s m t o e v e r y f o r e i g n c o u n t r y , f r i e n d l y o r u n f r i e n d l y , as a s i m p l e m a t t e r o f i n s t i n c t . ( p . 2 2 ) A n d y e t we l e a r n i n Book Two t h a t t h i s I s n o t a t a l l t h e sense K a t h e r i n e h a d had o f t h e F e n n e l s , s i n c e she had become d i s t i n c t l y aware w h i l e s t a y i n g w i t h them o f how much t h e y had c e a s e d t o make h e r f e e l a f o r e i g n e r . F o r whenever she had come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r E n g l i s h p e o p l e d u r i n g h e r v i s i t t h e y h a d made h e r v e r y much aware o f t h e f a c t t h a t she was n o t E n g l i s h . The woman i n t h e P o s t O f f i c e makes h e r f e e l l i k e "some r a r e a n i m a l i n c a p t i v i t y " ( p . 133)» and J a c k S t o r m a l o n g c r e a t e s awkward moments by f a l l i n g t o make h e r u n d e r s t a n d h i m and by t r e a t i n g h e r a s a d i s t i n c t o u t s i d e r : 70 he n e v e r s a i d a n y t h i n g t o K a t h e r i n e . When t h e y b r o u g h t h e r i n t o t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n he f o r c e d h i m s e l f t o t a k e n o t i c e o f h e r , b l i n k i n g h i s c o l d b l u e eyes once o r t w i c e . I t was n o t q u i t e as i f t h e y had i n t r o d u c e d t h e m a i d i n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n , b u t a l l t h e same he seemed d i s c o n c e r t e d . ( p . 160) A t t h e gymkhana, where t h e crox«xd i s as t y p i c a l l y E n g l i s h a s p o s s i b l e , J a n e i s as much a n o b s e r v e r and as d e t a c h e d as K a t h e r i n e h e r s e l f . What c a u s e s K a t h e r i n e t o t h i n k o f t h e F e n n e l s i n t h i s way i s h e r h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d s e n s i t i v i t y t o h e r f o r e i g n n e s s c r e a t e d by t h e . s i t u a t i o n w h i c h e x i s t s i n t h e p r e s e n t . S i m i l a r l y , b e c a u s e o f h e r g e n e r a l de tachment and l a c k o f c o n t a c t w i t h p e o p l e , when she r e c o l l e c t s R o b i n she does n o t remember w i t h any c o n v i c t i o n h e r b r i e f b u t p o w e r f u l f e e l i n g s o f l o v e f o r h i m n o r h i s a t t e m p t t o k i s s h e r : T h e r e h a d b e e n R o b i n , o f c o u r s e ; he had p u z z l e d h e r a t f i r s t , b e c a u s e he was so v e r y E n g l i s h — h o w E n g l i s h she n e v e r r e a l i z e d t i l l she met more E n g l i s h p e o p l e — b u t once she had g o t u s e d t o h i m he had been r a t h e r d u l l . She d i d n o t remember e v e r h a v i n g b e e n a t t r a c t e d by h i m . . . . Then a f t e r w a r d s she had t o l d h e r f r i e n d s t h a t R o b i n was p a s s i o n a t e l y , s i m p l y m a d l y and p a s s i o n a t e l y , i n l o v e w i t h h e r . One had h a d t o say s o m e t h i n g . H a d n ' t he k i s s e d h e r once? Of had she made t h a t u p a f t e r w a r d s ? ( p . 180) I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i t i s when K a t h e r i n e has made c o n t a c t w i t h t h e F e n n e l s t h a t she b e g i n s t o have a g a i n a sense o f a c o n t i n u i t y i n l i f e , f o r h e r s e n s e o f d i s r u p t e d t i m e c o n -t r a s t s w i t h h e r i d e a s o f t i m e and t h o s e i m p l i e d o f R o b i n i n t h e summer i n t e r l u d e . T h r o u g h o u t t h e m i d d l e s e c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l t h e s t r e s s i s on t h e sense o f h i s t o r y and' .a m e a n i n g f u l 71 t i m e c o n t i n u u m . K a t h e r i n e i s c o n s t a n t l y r e m i n d e d o f t h e p a s t a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e p r e s e n t because she i s l i v i n g i n a p l a c e o f o b v i o u s a n t i q u i t y where p e o p l e and t h i n g s have changed o n l y g r a d u a l l y o r n o t a t a l l . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e gymkhana and t h e p e o p l e a t t e n d i n g s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s e v e n t i s one w h i c h marks t h e p a s s i n g of e v e r y y e a r a n d a t t h e same t i m e e s t a b l i s h e s how l i t t l e t h i n g s have c h a n g e d . The d e s c r i p -t i o n o f t h e c h i l d r e n c r y s t a l l i z e s t h i s i m p r e s s i o n : F i n a l l y , t h e r e were t h e v i l l a g e c h i l d r e n , t h e e l d e r ones m i n d i n g t h e y o u n g e r , busy w i t h a n y t h i n g b u t what was g o i n g on i n t h e r o p e d - o f f a r e n a . L i t t l e ones s t r a y e d a b o u t a l m o s t u n d e r t h e f e e t o f t h e h o r s e s . S m a l l g r o u p s o f b u l l e t - h e a d e d b o y s , who a h u n d r e d y e a r s ago w o u l d have been s c a r i n g crows f o r a few pence a week, l i f t e d t h e i r b o t t l e s t o t h e s u n t o see who c o u l d d r i n k t h e most w i t h o u t s t o p p i n g : ( p . 112) The v i s i t t o O x f o r d i s made on R o b i n ' s s u g g e s t i o n and i t becomes c l e a r t h a t he e n j o y s t h e sense o f v i s i b l e h i s t o r y where a f e e l i n g o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p a s t i s easy t o a c h i e v e . I t i s t h e c o n t i n u i t y w h i c h i m p r e s s e s h i m , w h i l s t K a t h e r i n e i s more i m p r e s s e d by t h e d i s p a r i t i e s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t i n u u m : B u t , as he c o n t i n u e d t o r e c i t e t h e l i t a n y o f m o n a s t e r i e s , k i n g s , n o b l e m e n and p r e l a t e s , she r e a l i z e d t h a t e v e r y c e n t u r y h a d l e f t a c c r e t i o n s , and t h o u g h she d i d n o t t r o u b l e t o f o l l o w h i s d e t a i l s , she was i m p r e s s e d by t h e u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e p l a c e , where s u c h v a r i e t y was c o n t r o l l e d w i t h i n a s i n g l e a t m o s p h e r e . ( p . 139) R o b i n seems t o e n j o y t h e f a c t t h a t man has a s s e r t e d some k i n d o f r e s i s t a n c e t o h i s m o r t a l i t y by p e r p e t u a t i n g h i m s e l f i n h i s b u i l d i n g s ; w h i l e K a t h e r i n e sees even O x f o r d i n s u c h a l a r g e 72 p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t i t t o o seems t e m p o r a l , b e i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m man o n l y i n d e g r e e : she l e a n e d b a c k a n d t h o u g h t t h a t as f a r as age was c o n c e r n e d , s h e e r age t h a t was a l m o s t t i m e l e s s n e s s , t h e sound o f t h e t r e e s was more i m p r e s s i v e . The s u r r o u n d i n g t r e e - t o p s s e t t l i n g and u n s e t t l i n g w i t h a n e n d l e s s s i f t i n g o f l e a v e s r e m i n d e d h e r as she l a y w i t h c l o s e d eyes o f t h e u n c e a s i n g wash o f waves r o u n d t h e s h i n g l e o f a n i s l a n d . They f i l l e d t h e a i r w i t h w h i s p e r i n g o f e t e r n i t y , o f as n e a r e t e r n i t y as made no m a t t e r , m a k i n g t h i s p l a c e , famous as i t w a s , l i k e a l l o t h e r p l a c e s . L i k e a l l o t h e r p l a c e s , i t was b o t h t e m p o r a l and e t e r n a l , and she f o u n d t h a t d e g r e e s o f t e m p o r a l i t y d i d n o t i n t e r e s t h e r — w h i l e i n e t e r n i t y , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e were no s u c h m e a s u r e m e n t s . ( p . 140) The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e a t t i t u d e s o f K a t h e r i n e a n d R o b i n i s shown a g a i n t h r o u g h K a t h e r i n e ' s i n t e r e s t i n t h e J a c o b e a n m e m o r i a l . P a r t o f t h e f a s c i n a t i o n i t h o l d s f o r h e r i s t h e f a c t t h a t i t has i n some way gone beyond t i m e and man and become a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t i m e l e s s n e s s o f t h e e l e m e n t s . She does n o t t e l l R o b i n o f h e r f e e l i n g s s i n c e she r e c o g n i s e s t h a t he w o u l d be u n e a s y a t t h e t i m e l e s s n e s s a n d a t t e m p t t o c o n t r o l i t by naming t h e o c c u p a n t o f t h e g r a v e . I t i s n o t o n l y a sense of t h e p a s t w h i c h c r e a t e s a n a w a r e n e s s o f t h e t i m e c o n t i n u u m i n t h e m i d d l e s e c t i o n o f t h e b o o k , b u t a l s o K a t h e r i n e ' s a w a r e n e s s o f t h e f u t u r e . I n t h i s p a r t o f t h e book she s e v e r a l t i m e s d e t a c h e s h e r s e l f f r o m t h e p r e s e n t a n d a t t e m p t s t o see how i t w i l l l o o k when she has r e a l l y become d i s t a n t f r o m i t . She seems f a s c i n a t e d by t h e d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n what w i l l seem t o have e x i s t e d and h e r sense o f s o m e t h i n g m a k i n g a n i m p r e s s i o n on h e r beyond t h e a c t u a l sequence of events which w i l l be r e c o l l e c t e d . D e s p i t e her own a c t i v i t i e s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n she r e s e n t s the c o n v e r s a t i o n between Robin, Jane and Jack about the l e n g t h of Jacks s t a y , s i n c e they are d i s c u s s i n g a time when Ka t h e r i n e w i l l no longer be with them. She f e e l s t h a t a f u t u r e which does not c o n t a i n her i s being shaped, and s i n c e they have no awareness of her immediate f u t u r e i t i s as though they are denying i t s e x i s t -ence and d i s t u r b i n g the sense of c o n t i n u i t y by i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the present i s r a p i d l y s p l i t t i n g i n t o two f u t u r e s which are u n r e l a t e d : T h i s sense of s e p a r a t i o n i s added t o , and something of the f u t u r e gap between them suggested, when Robin t a l k s t o K a t h e r i n e about the Thames. In t h i s case Robin's sense of h i s t o r y suggests d i f f u s i o n r a t h e r than c o n t i n u i t y : " I f we'd l i v e d i n p r e h i s t o r i c times, b e f o r e England was an i s l a n d , I c o u l d n e a r l y have taken you home. The Thames used to f l o w i n t o the Rhine." (p. 172) The i m p o s s i b i l i t y of e n t i r e l y s u b t r a c t i n g the present moment from the f l u x , which Ka t h e r i n e becomes f u l l y aware of l a t e r , i s f i r s t i n d i c a t e d w h i l s t she i s with the F e n n e l s . On her l a s t evening she reviews the l a s t t h r e e weeks and regards them as something f i n i s h e d : I t ' s come to an end, she thought. No matter what she thought might happen, or what she had done that she r e g r e t t e d , i t was a l l now p a r t of the p a s t . Tomorrow she would undertake the long journey back to her normal l i f e , and t h i s i s o l a t e d e x c u r s i o n to England would remain i n her mind as something i r r e l e v a n t and b e a u t i f u l . For b e t t e r or worse, i t was over; 74 i t had b e e n d u l l , p e r h a p s ; R o b i n had b e e n l e s s e x c i t i n g t h a n she had t h o u g h t he w o u l d b e , b u t t h a t m i g h t be f o r t h e b e s t : The p a r e n t s had b e e n t a c t f u l a n d q u i t e u n i n t e r e s t e d i n h e r , w h i c h h a d b e e n a good t h i n g . The h o u s e , so c o m f o r t a b l e a n d u n p r e t e n t i o u s , w o u l d s t a n d f o r many y e a r s y e t among t h e t r e e s , a n d she w o u l d n o t m i s s i t : As f o r what she w o u l d t e l l h e r f r i e n d s , she w o u l d d i s t o r t h e r v i s i t i n t o s o m e t h i n g a m u s i n g . T h e r e was n o t h i n g s a c r e d a b o u t i t . Y e t f o r a l l t h a t as t h e y f l o a t e d t h e r e she x\ranted t o add n o t h i n g m o r e , n o t a word o r a l o o k : I t was f i n i s h e d . ( p . 173) Y e t seconds l a t e r R o b i n k i s s e s h e r a n d h e r sense o f c o m p l e t i o n d i s a p p e a r s and y e t a n o t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e a p p e a r s and has t o be a d d e d t o what she had c o n s i d e r e d f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d . The i n c i d e n t i n w h i c h t h e p h o t o i s t a k e n makes a s i m i l a r p o i n t . The F e n n e l s i n t e n d t o t a k e two p h o t o s , a g r o u p and one o f K a t h e r i n e a l o n e : The f i r s t p h o t o i s t a k e n : A n d so t h e image o f them s t a n d i n g a n d s i t t i n g i n r e l a x e d . a t t i t u d e s i n t h e e v e n i n g s u n was p r e s s e d o n t o t h e n e g a t i v e f o r a l l e t e r n i t y : ( p . 162) S i n c e t h e r e p r o v e s t o be no more f i l m I n t h e c a m e r a , t h i s one p h o t o s e r v e s as t h e image t o be c a r r i e d i n t o t h e f u t u r e . B u t b e c a u s e i t i s s t a t i c and r e p r e s e n t s one moment i n i s o l a t i o n i t i s e n t i r e l y f a l s e : K a t h e r i n e i s n o t as much a p a r t o f t h e g r o u p as she a p p e a r s t o b e , and a p h o t o o f h e r a l o n e w o u l d be more a c c u r a t e ; t h e g r o u p w h i c h i s d e p i c t e d as r e l a x e d , i n r e a l i t y r e p r e s e n t s a c o n t i n u a l l y s h i f t i n g a n d c o m p l e x s e t o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n t h e T h i r d B o o k , when R o b i n does a c t u a l l y a r r i v e a t K a t h e r i n e ' s r o o m s , he f a l l s t o b r i n g t h e p a s t i n t o t h e p r e s e n t 75 a s K a t h e r i n e h a d hoped and a n t i c i p a t e d . What she has made i n s u f f i c i e n t a l l o w a n c e f o r i s t h a t t h e R o b i n she remembers i s , l i k e t h e p h o t o , a f a l s e i m a g e , s i n c e t h a t v e r s i o n o f R o b i n no l o n g e r e x i s t s • He t o o i s d i s a p p o i n t e d i n t h e m e e t i n g a s t h o u g h he h a d hoped t h a t by c o n t a c t i n g someone a t once c o n n e c t e d w i t h and d i s s o c i a t e d f r o m h i s p a s t a new c o n t i n u i t y c o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d . The o l d c o n t i n u i t y i s b r o k e n , h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s p a r e n t s a n d w i t h h i s s i s t e r has c e a s e d t o be m e a n i n g -f u l , so t h a t h i s c h i l d h o o d seems t o be s e v e r e d f r o m t h e p r e s e n t a n d t h e p a t t e r n he had c r e a t e d f o r h i s f u t u r e i s d e s t r o y e d by t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n o f t h e war and t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i t b r i n g s w i t h i t i K a t h e r i n e * s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t g r a d u a l l y d i m i n i s h e s a n d as she sees more c l e a r l y a n d a c c e p t s t h e s i t u a t i o n she g a i n s a k i n d o f s t r e n g t h and e x h i l a r a t i o n f r o m h e r sense o f a w a r e n e s si R o b i n , who has a l w a y s s e e n c o n t i n u i t y i n a more r i g i d and l i m i t e d w a y , i s l e s s a b l e t o a c c e p t t h e d i s r u p t i o n s a s p a r t o f a p a t t e r n , and he has a sense o f chaos a n d d i s l o c a t i o n a g a i n s t w h i c h he f i g h t s by l a y i n g s t r e s s on t h e p r e s e n t : U n l i k e K a t h e r i n e he does n o t do t h i s by s e v e r i n g c o n n e c t i o n s a n d s u p p r e s s i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s o f a m e a n i n g f u l e x i s t e n c e , b u t by t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t s w h i c h have meaning i n t h e p r e s e n t , however t e m p o r a r y . The l a s t few p a r a g r a p h s o f t h e n o v e l e s t a b l i s h t h e d i f f e r e n c e c l e a r l y and p r o b a b l y p r e s e n t L a r k i n c s own v i e w s t h r o u g h K a t h e r i n e . A s t h e n i g h t wears on a n d K a t h e r i n e ' s w a t c h t i c k s as a c o n s t a n t r e m i n d e r , R o b i n p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t t h e a w a r e n e s s i n s i s t e d on by t h e t i c k i n g o f 76 t h e vra.tch, and a t t h e same t i m e t a l k s a l m o s t d e s p e r a t e l y , t r y i n g b o t h t o see s o m e t h i n g m e a n i n g f u l i n h i s l i f e and t o make c o n t a c t w i t h K a t h e r i n e . K a t h e r i n e a c c e p t s t h e w a t c h as she a c c e p t s t h e i n e v i t a b l e p r o g r e s s o f t i m e and i n h e r a c c e p t a n c e f i n d s some k i n d o f t r a n q u i l l i t y w h i c h c o n t r a s t s w i t h R o b i n ' s r e s t l e s s n e s s . H e r s t a t e o f m i n d a n d L a r k i n ' s own a t t i t u d e seems t o be c r y s t a l l i z e d i n t h e f i n a l image o f t h e n o v e l : T h e r e was t h e snow, a n d h e r w a t c h t i c k i n g . So many s n o w f l a k e s , so many s e c o n d s . A s t i m e p a s s e d t h e y seemed t o m i n g l e i n t h e i r m i n d s , h e a p i n g u p i n t o a v a s t shape t h a t m i g h t be a b u r i a l mound, o r t h e c l i f f o f a n i c e b e r g whose summit i s o u t o f s i g h t : I n t o i t s shadow dreams c r o w d e d , f u l l o f c o n c e p t i o n s and s t i r r i n g s o f c o l d , as i f i c e f l o e s were m o v i n g down a l i g h t l e s s c h a n n e l o f w a t e r . They were g o i n g i n o r d e r l y s l o w p r o c e s s i o n , m o v i n g f r o m d a r k n e s s f u r t h e r i n t o d a r k n e s s , a l l o w i n g no s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e i r o r d e r s h o u l d be b r o k e n , o r t h a t one d a y , however many y e a r s d i s t a n t , t h e d a r k n e s s w o u l d b e g i n t o g i v e p l a c e t o l i g h t . Y e t t h e i r passage was n o t s a d d e n i n g . U n s a t i s f i e d dreams r o s e and f e l l a b o u t t h e m , c r y i n g o u t a g a i n s t t h e i r i m p l a c a b i l i t y , b u t i n t h e end g l a d t h a t s u c h o r d e r , s u c h d e s t i n y , e x i s t e d . A g a i n s t t h i s k n o w l e d g e , t h e h e a r t , t h e w i l l , and a l l t h a t made f o r p r o t e s t , c o u l d a t l a s t s l e e p , ( p : 248) The j u x t a p o s i n g o f t h e snow and t h e w a t c h i s a d r a w i n g t o g e t h e r o f t h e images w h i c h o p e r a t e t h r o u g h o u t t h e n o v e l . The w h o l e day i n w h i c h t h e e v e n t s t a k e p l a c e i s one o f t e n s i o n . The c o l d and t h e f r o s t have seemed a p r e l u d e t o snow w h i c h has n o t come: A s t h e snow f a l l s t h e t e n s i o n i s b r o k e n and t h e c o l d becomes l e s s i n t e n s e . I n t h e same way , K a t h e r i n e has b e e n m o v i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e d a y , w h i c h i s a l s o h e r l i f e i n m i c r o c o s m , t o w a r d s a n a c c e p t a n c e o f a n o r d e r and d e s t i n y w h i c h she c a n n o t 77 r e s i s t ; a n o r d e r w h i c h i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s i g n a l s o f t h e p a s s i n g h o u r s f r o m c l o c k s , watches a n d t i m e t a b l e s . The t i m e s t r u c t u r e o f A G i r l I n W i n t e r has much i n common w i t h t h a t o f V i r g i n i a W o o l f ' s M r s I D a l l o w a y . I n b o t h t h e r e i s a d e s i r e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t any one moment c o n t a i n s a n d i m p l i e s a l l o t h e r moments ; t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a n have t h e i l l u s i o n o f t h e s p e e d i n g u p and s l o w i n g o f t i m e c o n t r o l l e d by h i m s e l f , w h i l s t c o n s t a n t l y c l o c k s and watches mark a s t e a d y a n d i n e x o r a b l e movement t o w a r d s t h e end o f t h e day a n d by i m p l i c a t i o n t h e end o f l i f e . The e v e n t s o f A G i r l i n W i n t e r a r e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n one day o f K a t h e r i n e ' s l i f e , b u t i n t h a t day t h e w h o l e p a t t e r n o f h e r l i f e i s e x p l o r e d . A s I n M r s . D a l l o w a y , t h e u s e o f f l a s h b a c k i s a l w a y s k e p t i n c o n t r o l by t h e w r i t e r ' s s t r e s s on t h e movement o f t i m e i n t h e p r e s e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e ' t h i r d book o f t h e n o v e l , w h i l s t K a t h e r i n e a s s e s s e s h e r i m m e d i a t e p a s t and t h e summer s p e n t w i t h t h e F e n n e l s , b o t h she a n d t h e r e a d e r a r e v e r y much aware o f t h e p a s s i n g o f t h e h o u r s f r o m noon as she c o n s t a n t l y r e f e r s t o h e r w a t c h a n d a t t e m p t s t o keep t o t h e l i b r a r y t i m e t a b l e . T h i s emphas is on t h e p h y s i c a l t i m e s e r v e s t o emphas ise t h e s h i f t i n g s p e e d o f m e n t a l t i m e . T h i s i s shown most c l e a r l y a f t e r K a t h e r i n e has r e c e i v e d news o f t h e c a n c e l l i n g o f R o b i n ' s v i s i t . Time i s s u d d e n l y s u s p e n d e d and she becomes aware o f t h e way i n w h i c h t h e pace o f t h e day has echoed h e r own e x c i t e -ment a b o u t t h e v i s i t : 78 He had b e e n t h e power t h a t had s e t t h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y day m o v i n g , t h a t i n c r e a s e d i t s speed u n t i l she and a few o t h e r chance t h i n g s and p e o p l e were drawn u p i n a k i n d o f w h i r l i n g t o w e r o f a i r , t h e i r f a c e s m e e t i n g , t h e i r hands t o u c h i n g , s e e m i n g l y t h e o n l y t h i n g s l e f t i n t h e w o r l d . A n d now, l i k e t h e s w i t c h i n g - o f f o f a c u r r e n t , he s a i d he was n o t c o m i n g , and t h e y were a l l l e f t t h e r e , s p i n n i n g i n t h e e m p t i n e s s , t i l l t h e i m p e t u s s h o u l d be e x h a u s t e d and t h e y were t u m b l e d b a c k on t h e f l o o r . ( p p . 212-213) W i t h t h e s u d d e n d e c r e a s e i n s p e e d t h e sense o f each moment l i n k i n g w i t h t h e n e x t u n t i l o n l y t h e movement i s a p p a r e n t i s l o s t , a n d K a t h e r i n e once a g a i n f i n d s h e r s e l f aware o f t h e s l o w n e s s o f t i m e a n d t h e m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s o f b o t h t h e moment a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e r e s t o f h e r l i f e . She b e g i n s t o t h i n k o f h e r e x i s t e n c e i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t e r m s : B u t d i d she r e a l l y c a r e what she d i d i n E n g l a n d ? T h e r e w o u l d be o t h e r t h i n g s f o r h e r t o d o , and w h a t e v e r i t was she w o u l d do i t u n w i l l i n g l y , o b s t i n a t e l y , as i f she were w o r k i n g i n a f i e l d ; what she d i d w o u l d be e m p t i e d away l i k e a p a i n -f u l l y - f i l l e d b a s k e t , and h e r t i m e w o u l d be s p i l l e d away w i t h i t . T h e r e w o u l d be s l e e p , s i m p l y t o f r e s h e n h e r a g a i n f o r w o r k ; t h e r e w o u l d be o t h e r M i s s G r e e n s , M i s s P a r b u r y s , M r i A n s t e y s ; a l l t h i s was i n e s c a p a b l e , and i t d i d n o t m a t t e r i f she a c c e p t e d i t o r n o t : I t a c c e p t e d h e r : ( p . 216) A s i n J i l l , t h e t i m e theme i s r e l a t e d t o t h e u s e o f t h e j o u r n e y i m a g e , s i n c e movements i n t i m e a n d p r o g r e s s o f e m o t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a r e o f t e n d e p i c t e d by means o f a p h y s i c a l j o u r n e y o f some k i n d . Once a g a i n a n d f o r t h e same r e a s o n s t h e p a r t i c u l a r image o f t h e r a i l w a y j o u r n e y and t h e t r a v e l l e r s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e r a i l w a y c a r r i a g e i s e x p l o r e d , b u t i n t h e u s e o f t h i s image and o f t h e o t h e r images t h e r e i s some d i f f e r e n c e . 79 I n J i l l J o h n i s o n l y h a l f aware o f t h e l i n k be tween h i s j o u r n e y s b a c k and f o r t h b e t w e e n H u d d l e s f o r d a n d O x f o r d and h i s i n c r e a s i n g a w a r e n e s s and m a t u r i t y ; f o r K a t h e r i n e t h e l i n k becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y e x p l i c i t ; H e r two m a j o r j o u r n e y s , b o t h t o E n g l a n d , have b e e n r e l a t e d so o b v i o u s l y t o i m p o r t a n t changes i n h e r o u t l o o k t h a t f o r h e r t h e n a t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n o f h e r s e n s e o f any e m o t i o n a l change t a k i n g p l a c e i s i n t e r m s o f a j o u r n e y i I n t h e m i d d l e s e c t i o n o f t h e book i n w h i c h t h e summer s p e n t w i t h the F e n n e l s i s d e s c r i b e d , K a t h e r i n e u s e s t h e t r a v e l image o n l y r a r e l y and p e r h a p s i n h a l f r e a l i s e d r e s p o n s e t o J a n e ' s comment on h e r s e l f a n d R o b i n s h o r t l y a f t e r K a t h e r i n e ' s a r r i v a l s " A n d we were t i r e d a f t e r o u r l a c k o f j o u r n e y s " ( p i 92). T h i s comment i s d e v e l o p e d i n J a n e ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t r a v e l g e n e r a l l y , she has a s t r o n g d e s i r e t o g e t o u t s i d e t h e n a r r o w l i m i t s o f h e r s e l f a n d , t h r o u g h l i v i n g i n a d i f f e r e n t w o r l d , c o n t a c t i n g d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e , t o a d d s o m e t h i n g t o h e r a w a r e n e s s b o t h o f h e r s e l f and o t h e r p e o p l e . She c o n t r a s t s h e r a t t i t u d e w i t h R o b i n ' s s " I l i k e t o know a b o u t p l a c e s . . . . A l l y o u c a r e a b o u t i s t h e b i r t h r a t e and t h e s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g . I want t o know what I s h o u l d f e e l l i k e i f I l i v e d t h e r e . " ( p . 96) S o m e t h i n g o f h e r d e s i r e t o g a i n a t l e a s t a p a r t o f t h i s t h r o u g h c o n t a c t w i t h K a t h e r i n e communicates i t s e l f t o K a t h e r i n e so t h a t she t h i n k s o f t h e t i m e t h e t h r e e o f them have s p e n t t o g e t h e r "as i f t h e t h r e e o f them had been w a n d e r i n g i n a 8 0 g r e e n m a z e , g e t t i n g no n e a r e r t h e c e n t r e " ( p . 115)* Towards t h e v e r y end o f t h e t h r e e weeks h o l i d a y K a t h e r i n e ' s f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e e f f e c t o f R o b i n a n d t h e h o l i d a y on h e r l i f e c r y s t a l l i z e s a s she watches R o b i n m a n o e u v e r i n g t h e b o a t down t h e r i v e r : T h e r e was s o m e t h i n g f o r m a l a b o u t h i m , as i f h e r were a f i g u r e i n a l l e g o r y , c a r r y i n g h e r a s t a g e f u r t h e r on some u n d e f i n e d j o u r n e y . ( p i 172) D u r i n g t h e w i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e b o o k , when t h e j o u r n e y image r e c u r s i n K a t h e r i n e ' s m i n d , i t i s once a g a i n i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h R o b i n , f o r i t i s h e r renewed a w a r e n e s s o f h im a n d h i s f a m i l y t h a t c a u s e s h e r t o f e e l , as she a c c o m p a n i e s M i s s G r e e n home: " E v e n g e t t i n g on t h e bus gave a momentary f l i c k e r o f p l e a s u r e , as i f she were e n t e r i n g on a f r e s h s t a g e o f some i m p o r t a n t j o u r n e y " ( p . 29). The i m p o r t a n t j o u r n e y p r o v e s t o be h e r new a b i l i t y t o r e s p o n d t o someone l i k e M i s s G r e e n a n d h e r r e s p o n s e a l s o t a k e s t h e f o r m o f w a n t i n g t o h e l p M i s s G r e e n t o g e t somewhere : T h i s was what she had n o t had f o r a g e s , a p e r s o n dependent on h e r : t h e r e were s t r e e t s a r o u n d t h a t she must h e l p h e r t o c r o s s , b u s e s she must h e l p h e r on and a f t e r w a r d s buy t h e t i c k e t s , f o r t h e p a i n t h e g i r l was s u f f e r i n g had h a l f - o b l i t e r a t e d h e r n o t i c e o f t h e w o r l d . I n t h e d u l l s u b u r b was h e r home, and she must h e l p h e r t o r e a c h i t s a f e l y , a n d hand h e r o v e r t o whoever w o u l d t a k e c a r e o f h e r n e x t . ( p ; 35) The l e t t e r f r o m R o b i n m a i n t a i n s and e v e n i n c r e a s e s what she has begun t o f e e l , f o r she sees h e r m e e t i n g w i t h R o b i n a s 81 a new s t a g e o f a s s e s s m e n t _ i n h e r l i f e and p e r h a p s a p o i n t f r o m w h i c h h e r l i f e w i l l t a k e a new d i r e c t i o n . I t i s b e c a u s e o f t h i s t h a t she s e t s o f f t o h e r m e e t i n g w i t h M i s s P a r b u r y , w h i c h w i l l i n i t s t u r n p r o v i d e h e r w i t h a w i d e r r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e a r o u n d h e r , w i t h h e r e a r l i e r f e e l i n g o f a n u n d e f i n e d b u t n e c e s s a r y j o u r n e y : I t seemed q u i t e n a t u r a l t o h e r t o s e t o f f on t h i s e r r a n d a s she made h e r way t o w a r d s t h e Bank S t r e e t b u s - s t o p once m o r e i T h i s day was a l r e a d y so u n l i k e o t h e r days t h a t i t was b e g i n n i n g t o r e s e m b l e a n o d y s s e y i n a d r e a m : t o f i n d h e r s e l f i n s t r a n g e p l a c e s , l o o k i n g f o r s t r a n g e p e o p l e , f o l l o x t f i n g o u t t h i n t h r e a d s o f c o i n c i d e n c e ; ( p p . 179-180) I n r e t r o s p e c t , a f t e r t h e t e l e g r a m c a n c e l l i n g R o b i n ' s v i s i t , t h e w h o l e day seems l i k e a j o u r n e y t o w a r d s a d i s c o v e r y : she f e l t t i r e d , as i f t h a t day she had made a j o u r n e y . ; : . She knew she had made some d i s c o v e r y a b o u t h e r s e l f , b u t j u s t a t t h e moment she had f o r g o t t e n what i t w a s , and i n c l i n e d t o t h i n k she h a d b e e n f a n c y i n g i t . ( p . 225) She has n o t i n f a c t y e t made t h e d i s c o v e r y a b o u t h e r s e l f ; she has s i m p l y p r e p a r e d h e r s e l f t h r o u g h t h e d a y ' s e v e n t s f o r t h e r e c o g n i t i o n w h i c h f o l l o w s h e r m e e t i n g w i t h R o b i n : t h a t t h e k i n d o f c o n t a c t she has been h o p i n g f o r f r o m t h e m e e t i n g w i t h R o b i n may n o t be p o s s i b l e , a t l e a s t f o r h e r , b u t t h a t i n r e a l i z i n g t h i s she l e a r n s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n h e r demands a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s f r o m t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e d i m i n i s h e d and she i s l e f t f r e e t o r e s p o n d i n a l i m i t e d b u t p o s i t i v e w a y . I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t h e 82 image o f t h e r a i l w a y c a r r i a g e o c c u r s : What a b s t r a c t k i n d l i n e s s she c o u l d command was a t h i s s e r v i c e , b u t i t was no more t h a n she m i g h t show t o a f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r i n a r a i l w a y - c a r r i a g e o r on b o a r d a s t e a m e r . I n d e e d , t h a t was t h e s t r o n g e s t bond she f e l t b e t w e e n t h e m , t h a t t h e y were j o u r n e y i n g t o g e t h e r , w i t h t h e snow, t h e d i s c o m f o r t , t h e f o o d t h e y s h a r e d , t h e beds t h a t were n o t warm e n o u g h . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n she need know n o t h i n g more a b o u t h i m : t h e r e was a f i r e , t h a t he p a i d t o k e e p b u r n i n g ; she had h o t c o f f e e she c o u l d g i v e h i m ; t h e r e was so much l a c o n i c m u t u a l h e l p , w h i l e o u t s i d e l a y t h e p l a i n s , t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e moon, t h e c o m p l e t e e n m i t y o f d a r k n e s s . ( p i 237) The j o u r n e y o f c o u r s e has one d e s t i n a t i o n , a s t h e l a s t two p a r a g r a p h s d e s c r i b i n g t h e i c e f l o e s i n d i c a t e . The j o u r n e y image i s a l s o w o r k e d out i n t e r m s o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l . A s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h e most i m p o r t a n t j o u r n e y s a r e K a t h e r i n e ' s two j o u r n e y s t o E n g l a n d be tween w h i c h t h e r e i s a. s t r o n g c o n t r a s t . The f i r s t i s t y p i f i e d by t h e w e a t h e r i n w h i c h i t t a k e s p l a c e , c a l m , c l e a r a n d warm. K a t h e r i n e i s b r o u g h t t o g r e a t e r a w a r e n e s s a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s j o u r n e y , b u t t h e p r e m i s e s on w h i c h h e r l i f e i s b a s e d a r e n o t a f f e c t e d . The s e c o n d t i m e on w h i c h she j o u r n e y s t o E n g l a n d , t h e w i n t e r and t h e war r e f l e c t t h e u p h e a v a l , t h e l a c k o f warmth and t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h i n g s K a t h e r i n e h a d t h o u g h t b a s i c t o h e r p e r s o n a l i t y : She k n e w — f o r s u c h a b r e a k b r i n g s k n o w l e d g e , b u t no a d d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h — t h a t h e r o l d way o f l i v i n g was f i n i s h e d . I n t h e p a s t she t h o u g h t she h a d f o u n d h a p p i n e s s t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r p l a y o f h e r s e l f a n d o t h e r p e o p l e . The most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g h a d been t o p l e a s e t h e m , t o l o v e t h e m , t o l e a r n them so f u l l y t h a t t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s were as d i s t i n c t as t h e t a s t e o f d i f f e r e n t f r u i t s . Now t h i s b r o u g h t h a p p i n e s s no l o n g e r : she no l o n g e r f e l t t h a t 83 she was e x a l t e d o r made more w o r t h y i f she c o u l d s p i n h e r f r i e n d s h i p s t o i n c r e d i b l e s u b t l e t y and f i n e n e s s ; I t was s o m e t h i n g she had t i r e d o f d o i n g . A n d what had r e p l a c e d i t ? H e r e she was a t a l o s s ; She was n o t s u r e i f a n y t h i n g h a d r e p l a c e d i t . She was n o t s u r e i f a n y t h i n g w o u l d r e p l a c e i t : ( p p . 183-4) A g a i n L a r k i n i s a s s e r t i n g t h a t t h o u g h d e v e l o p m e n t i n a w a r e n e s s i s n e c e s s a r y , i t does n o t b r i n g h a p p i n e s s o r e n a b l e a n o p t i -m i s t i c v i e w o f l i f e , s i n c e a w a r e n e s s c a n o n l y r e v e a l m a n ' s l o n e l i n e s s a n d u l t i m a t e h e l p l e s s n e s s . T h e r e a r e many m i n o r j o u r n e y s f o r K a t h e r i n e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e m a j o r o n e s . W h i l s t she i s i n O x f o r d s h i r e t h e r e a r e t h e t r i p s down t h e r i v e r . On one o f w h i c h K a t h e r i n e becomes aware o f h e r l o v e f o r R o b i n , on a n o t h e r she r e c o g n i s e s t h a t h e r a w a r e n e s s o f J ane i s f a r f r o m b e i n g c o m p l e t e , and on a t h i r d t h e n e a t scheme o f t h e h o l i d a y she has f o r m e d i n h e r h e a d i s d i s r u p t e d when R o b i n k i s s e s h e r . The v a r i o u s w a l k s t h r o u g h t h e v i l l a g e and f r o m t h e gymkhana a l l mark some p r o g r e s s i n d e v e l o p m e n t ; The j o u r n e y made t o O x f o r d w i t h R o b i n e n a b l e s h e r t o see c l e a r l y t h a t t h e image she has b u i l t up a r o u n d R o b i n i s e n t i r e l y e r r o n e o u s a n d l e a d s h e r t o a g r e a t e r a w a r e n e s s o f J a n e and t h e r e a s o n s u n d e r l y i n g t h e i n v i t a t i o n t o v i s i t t h e F e n n e l s ; I n t h e w i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e book she makes t h r e e bus j o u r n e y s . On t h e f i r s t h e r d e s i r e t o be more o u t g o i n g a n d t o make c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r s m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f . The s e c o n d l e a d s h e r t o a d m i t t h a t p e o p l e a r e n o t c a r i c a t u r e s , t h a t e v e n someone l i k e M r i A n s t e y has f e e l i n g s a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s she had c h o s e n 84 t o i g n o r e i The t h i r d j o u r n e y home f r o m work i s t h e one w h i c h l e a d s t o h e r m e e t i n g w i t h R o b i n and h e r r e c o g n i t i o n o f h e r l i m i t a t i o n s a n d t h o s e o f l i f e . To some e x t e n t R o b i n u n d e r g o e s t h e same p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s a w a r e n e s s , t h o u g h he i s a l w a y s l e s s aware t h a n K a t h e r i n e : The j o u r n e y t o O x f o r d w i t h K a t h e r i n e seems t o b r i n g h i m t o a v e r y s t a r t l e d a w a r e n e s s o f h i m s e l f w i t h w h i c h he c a n n o t d e a l s a t i s -f a c t o r i l y . K a t h e r i n e has r e a c h e d t h e same a w a r e n e s s e a r l i e r and u n d e r s t o o d b e t t e r what was h a p p e n i n g and how t o r e a c t ; T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s most c l e a r l y a p p a r e n t i n t h e i r w i n t e r m e e t i n g . R o b i n i s a b o u t t o make a j o u r n e y t o a n unknown d e s t i n a t i o n a n d he i s i n v o l v e d w i t h a s i m i l a r b r e a k f r o m e v e r y -t h i n g w h i c h i s f a m i l i a r t o h i m j u s t a s K a t h e r i n e had been on coming t o E n g l a n d i n w a r t i m e : H i s r e a c t i o n t o h i s s i t u a t i o n i s t h e o p p o s i t e o f h e r s ; he does n o t l o o k f o r s t r e n g t h i n i s o l a t i o n b u t t r i e s d e s p a r a t e l y t o e s t a b l i s h r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o s h o r e u p h i s s e n s e o f what l i f e s h o u l d b e ; a n d y e t t h e p r o s p e c t s a h e a d of h i m have f o r c e d h i m t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e v a l u e s i i h i c h a r e n o r m a l l y r e g a r d e d a s most i m p o r t a n t l o s e t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n s u c h a s i t u a t i o n . He l i e s awake t r y i n g t o work out f o r h i m s e l f what v a l u e s a r e l e f t t o h i m : " O n e ' s g o t t o have some s o r t o f a i m i n l i f e , o r y o u m i g h t as w e l l be d e a d : L i s t e n w h o ' s t a l k i n g . My c h a n c e s a r e n ' t w o r t h m u c h : B u t t a k e t h e s e b l o k e s who a r e g e t t i n g m a r r i e d , t h e r e was one o n l y l a s t week; I t h i n k i t ' s s i l l y o f t h e m , d o w n r i g h t s i l l y : W h a t ' s t h e p o i n t o f i t ? You l e a v e t h e g i r l , a n d g e t y o u r s e l f w i p e d o u t . . . I d o n ' t o n l y mean i t f r o m a p r a c t i c a l 85 p o i n t o f v i e w — . . 1 . I mean w h o ' s g o t a n y t h i n g t o o f f e r anyone t h e s e d a y s ? B a d l y p u t . I s a y , I ' m s o r r y t o b u r b l e l i k e t h i s i B u t i t ' s n o t w o r t h w h i l e . O b v i o u s l y i t ' s t h e o n l y w o r t h -w h i l e t h i n g , a c a r e e r a n d g e t t i n g a f a m i l y , i n c r e a s i n g a n d m u l t i p l y i n g , w h a t e v e r t h a t m e a n s . But when y o u d o n ' t f e e l i t — I mean, i f I a s k e d y o u , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o m a r r y me, y o u ' d r e f u s e , w o u l d n ' t y o u . . i w o u l d n ' t y o u ? " " I s u p p o s e s o . " " W e l l , t h e r e y o u a r e , t h e n . " ( p . 247) D e s p i t e t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t s o m e t h i n g has happened t o a l l t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s , R o b i n r e t a i n s a r e l u c t a n c e t o l e t them go a l t o g e t h e r a n d f o l l o w s u p t h e s e s p e c u l a t i o n s w i t h a h a l f s u p p r e s s e d d e s i r e t o make K a t h e r i n e m a r r y h i m and t h u s a s s e r t a v a l u e he i s a c c u s t o m e d t o i D e s c r i p t i o n o f p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t i s u s e d a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f a m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n , j u s t as i t i s i n J i l l , b u t i n A G i r l i n W i n t e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l d e s c r i p t i o n s f i t more c l o s e l y i n t o one o v e r a l l p a t t e r n and a r e more t i g h t l y i n t e g r a t e d w i t h t h e c e n t r a l theme, w h i c h i s a g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s o f m a n ' s e s s e n t i a l i s o l a t i o n . Much o f t h e a c t i o n o f J i l l t a k e s p l a c e i n autumn a n d , t h o u g h t h e s e a s o n i s m e l a n c h o l y , i t has moments o f b e a u t y w h i c h l i n k i t w i t h e a r l i e r s e a s o n s . I n A G i r l i n W i n t e r s h a r p c o n t r a s t i s made be tween t h e summer o f t h e p a s t a n d t h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g w i n t e r c o l d n e s s o f t h e p r e s e n t . T h i s movement f r o m t h e autumn o f J i l l t o t h e w i n t e r o f A G i r l i n W i n t e r i s echoed i n t h e themes as I s h a l l i n d i c a t e l a t e r . The o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s o f A G i r l i n W i n t e r p e r f o r m t h e same f u n c t i o n as t h o s e o f J i l l i n s e t t i n g t h e t o n e w h i c h i s t o 86 d o m i n a t e t h e n o v e l . The f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h e book c o n s i s t s e n t i r e l y o f a g e n e r a l i s e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f w i n t e r , w i t h snow a n d f r o s t . The emphas is l i e s on t h e p a r a l y z i n g q u a l i t i e s o f w i n t e r : V i l l a g e s were c u t o f f u n t i l gangs o f men c o u l d c l e a r a p a s s a g e on t h e r o a d s ; t h e l a b o u r e r s c o u l d n o t go out t o w o r k , a n d on t h e a e r o d r o m e s n e a r t h e s e v i l l a g e s a l l f l y i n g r e m a i n e d c a n c e l l e d : 1 1 1 P e o p l e were u n w i l l i n g t o g e t u p . To l o o k a t t h e snow t o o l o n g had a h y p n o t i c e f f e c t , d r a w i n g away a l l power o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and t h e c o l d seemed t o cramp t h e b o n e s , m a k i n g work h a r d e r and u n p l e a s a n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e c a n d l e s had t o be l i t , and t h e i c e i n t h e j u g s smashed , and t h e m i l k u n f r o z e n ; t h e men had t o be g i v e n t h e i r b r e a k f a s t s a n d g o t o f f t o work i n t h e y a r d s . L i f e had t o be c a r r i e d o n , i n no m a t t e r what c i r c u m s c r i b e d w a y . ( p . 11) B u t t h i s i s o f f s e t by two t h i n g s ; t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e i s t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e l i g h t e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e snow: I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e snow t h e s k y l o o k e d brown 1 . I n d e e d , w i t h o u t t h e snow t h e m o r n i n g w o u l d have r e s e m b l e d a J a n u a r y n i g h t f a l l , f o r what l i g h t t h e r e was seemed t o r i s e u p f r o m i t . ( p i 11) The s e c o n d t h i n g t h e snow b r i n g s w i t h i t i s t h e a w a r e n e s s o f t h e r a i l w a y , f o r t h i s s t i l l a f f o r d s a means o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n s p i t e o f t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e w e a t h e r : B u t t h r o u g h t h e c u t t i n g s and a l o n g embankments r a n t h e r a i l w a y l i n e s , and a l t h o u g h t h e y were empty t h e y l e d on n o r t h -wards a n d s o u t h w a r d s t i l l t h e y began t o j o i n , p a s s i n g f a c t o r i e s t h a t had w o r k e d a l l n i g h t , a n d t h e b a c k s o f h o u s e s where l i g h t showed r o u n d t h e c u r t a i n s , r e a c h i n g t h e c i t i e s where t h e snow was d i s r e g a r d e d , a n d w h i c h t h e f r o s t c o u l d ' o n l y b e s i e g e f o r a few d a y s , b i t t e r l y : ( p p . 11-12) 87 T h r o u g h t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n L a r k i n s u g g e s t s K a t h e r i n e ' s s t a t e o f m i n d w h i l s t i n E n g l a n d i n w a r t i m e , where t h e e n f o r c e d l o n e l i -n e s s a n d i s o l a t i o n c a u s e h e r t o r e t r e a t i n t o a s t a t e o f numbness a n d I n c r e a s e h e r i s o l a t i o n . H e r g r a d u a l a w a r e n e s s o f s t r e n g t h i n i s o l a t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d by t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l i g h t a f f o r d e d by t h e snow and h e r f i n a l sense o f what k i n d o f c o n t a c t s a r e p o s s i b l e i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r a i l w a y ^ A s i m i l a r p r o g r e s s i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d by v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e w e a t h e r i n t h e summer s e q u e n c e . When K a t h e r i n e a r r i v e s i n E n g l a n d t h e day i s h o t , u n b l e m i s h e d , i n a s t a t e o f p e r f e c t i o n t h a t s u g g e s t s a n i n e v i t a b l e f u t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n : The m o r n i n g when she came t o E n g l a n d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e had b e e n s t i l l a n d h o t ; n o t a n a c c i d e n t a l f i n e d a y , b u t one o f a s e r i e s t h a t h a d a l r e a d y l a s t e d a week; E a c h h a d seemed more f l a w l e s s t h a n t h e one b e f o r e i t , as i f i n t h e i r s l o w g a t h e r i n g o f d e p t h a n d p l a c i d i t y t h e y were p r o g r e s s i n g t o w a r d s p e r f e c t i o n . The s k y was deep b l u e as i f made r i c h e r by t h e e n d l e s s r e c e s s i o n o f p a s t summers: t h e sea s m o o t h , a n d when a wave l i f t e d t h e s u n shone t h r o u g h i t as t h r o u g h a t r a n s p a r e n t g r e e n w i n d o w ! ( p : 67) A t t h i s s t a g e i n h e r l i f e K a t h e r i n e h a s e x p e r i e n c e d no d i s a p p o i n t m e n t o r d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t and she h a s e n c o u n t e r e d n o t h i n g t o make h e r q u e s t i o n h e r s e l f o r h e r way o f l i f e : She i s l i k e t h e day i n t h a t she has r e a c h e d a p o i n t o f m a t u r i t y a n d h a p p i n e s s a t w h i c h she must e i t h e r r e m a i n o r t h r o u g h g r e a t e r a w a r e n e s s and m a t u r i t y become saddened a n d l e s s h o p e -f u l ; T h i s p o i n t i s made more e x p l i c i t l a t e r i n t h e n o v e l 88 when K a t h e r i n e t h i n k s o f g i r l s she had known a t s c h o o l who do n o t a p p e a r t o have e x p e r i e n c e d t h e s o r t o f b r e a k t h a t she has made w h i l s t i n E n g l a n d a l o n e : g i r l s she had known had s l i p p e d c o s i l y f r o m c h i l d h o o d t o m a r r i a g e , and t h e i r l i v e s w o u l d be one l o n g u n i n t e l l i g e n t summer; ( p i I83) A s t h e v i s i t t o t h e F e n n e l s draws t o a c l o s e and K a t h e r i n e f i n d s h e r s e l f w i t h a more c o m p l e x and p e r h a p s l e s s c e r t a i n v i e w o f l i f e , so t o o t h e summer b e g i n s t o merge i n t o a u t u m n : The w e a t h e r , a f t e r t h e d a s h o f r a i n , s t a b i l i z e d i n p l e a s a n t warm s u n s h i n e , a n d i n t h e e v e n i n g s t h e r e was o c c a s i o n a l l y a c h i l l i n t h e b l u e s h a d o w s , a n I n f i n i t e s i m a l h i n t o f a u t u m n a l f r o s t , s a d d e n i n g i n any c i r c u m s t a n c e s . ( p i 163) I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e c l a r i t y o f t h e c o l o u r s and t h e s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n shadow and l i g h t w h i c h K a t h e r i n e e x p e r i e n c e s on h e r a r r i v a l , t h e c o l o u r s become more s u b t l e and t h e easy d i s t i n c t i o n s l e s s p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e a p p r o a c h o f a u t u m n ; I n t h e same way K a t h e r i n e * s easy j u d g e m e n t s , e v a l u -a t i o n s , a n d d e c i s i v e e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s have d e v e l o p e d i n t o s o m e t h i n g more c o m p l e x and l e s s d e f i n a b l e b u t a t t h a t moment n o t u n p l e a s a n t : W h i l s t she i s o u t on t h e w a t e r w i t h R o b i n she i d e n t i f i e s h e r e m o t i o n a l s t a t e w i t h h e r e n v i r o n m e n t : The w a t e r was t h e c o l o u r o f p e w t e r , f o r t h e a f t e r g l o w had f a d e d r a p i d l y and l e f t a q u a l i t y o f l i g h t t h a t r e s e m b l e d e a r l y dawni I t had drawn o f f t h e b r i g h t n e s s f r o m t h e meadows a n d s t u b b l e f i e l d s , t h a t vrere now t a r n i s h e d s i l v e r and p a l e y e l l o w , and t h e shadows were s l o w l y m i x i n g w i t h t h e m i s t . I n t h i s way 89 t h e edges o f h e r e m o t i o n s h a d b l u r r e d , and t h e y now o v e r l a i d each o t h e r l i k e t w i n p l a n e s o f w a t e r r u n n i n g o v e r wet s a n d , t h e l a s t e x p e n d i t u r e o f s u c c e e d i n g w a v e s . T h e r e was no l o n g e r any d i s c o r d i n t h e m ; she f e l t a t p e a c e . ( p . 172) T h r o u g h o u t t h e r e s t o f t h e n o v e l K a t h e r i n e i d e n t i f i e s w i t h h e r e n v i r o n m e n t ; She sees i n t h e b l e a k n e s s o f w i n t e r a l l r o u n d h e r , h e r own e m o t i o n a l c o l d n e s s a n d i s o l a t i o n : The q u a l i t y of t h e w i n t e r scene seems t o t y p i f y what l i f e has come t o a p p e a r t o h e r : F o r t h e w o r l d seemed t o have moved o f f a l i t t l e , a n d t o have l o s t i t s i m m e d i a c y , a s a b r i g h t p a t t e r n w i l l f a d e i n many w a s h i n g s . I t was l i k e a p a i n t i n g o f a w i n t e r l a n d s c a p e i n n e u t r a l c o l o u r s , o r a n o c t u r n e i n many g r e y s o f t h e r i v e r s i d e , y e t n o t so b e a u t i f u l a s e i t h e r : ( p : 184) She t h i n k s o f h e r s e l f a s t h e a g e n t w h i c h has r o b b e d l i f e o f i t s c o l o u r a s i f she were c o l o u r b l i n d and t h u s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e monotones t h r o u g h h e r own f a u l t y v i s i o n ; She f e e l s t h a t i t i s h e r own e m o t i o n a l c o l d n e s s w h i c h has made l i f e seem t o l a c k warmth a n d v a r i e t y , j u s t as t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n -ment does n o t o f i t s e l f l o s e c o l o u r but t h e snow o v e r l a y s t h e c o l o u r s and p r o d u c e s t h e monotone e f f e c t s : E l s e w h e r e images o f t h e c o l d a r e u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e s t a t e o f e m o t i o n a l s u s p e n s i o n she f i n d s h e r s e l f i n : she d e s c r i b e s t h e e f f e c t on h e r o f h e r d e s o l a t i o n when she h a d l e f t L o n d o n as " a f f e c t i n g h e r no more t h a n t h e d i s c o m f o r t s a y , o f a h a r d f r o s t " ( p i 1 8 2 ) . She t h i n k s o f t h e m e e t i n g ; w i t h t h e F e n n e l s as h a v i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l i t y t o "warm b a c k t o l i f e p a r t 90 o f h e r t h a t had been f r o z e n " ( p . 185) * A s she l o o k s b a c k on h e r a t t e m p t s t o h e l p M i s s G r e e n she t h i n k s " she h a d done no more t h a n i f she h a d handed h e r a n e l a b o r a t e b a s k e t o f f r u i t l e f t f o r weeks i n a r e f r i g e r a t o r , a l l f r o s t e d o v e r a n d t a s t e l e s s " ( p i 185)» R o b i n , t o o , i n s t i n c t i v e l y u s e s a n image o f c o l d t o d e s c r i b e h e r r e c e p t i o n o f h i m ; he t e l l s h e r t h a t she i s " a b o u t a s f r i e n d l y a s a b l a s t e d b l o c k o f i c e " ( p . 238). A t t i m e s , h o w e v e r , t h e same w i n t e r e n v i r o n m e n t t a k e s on a d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t . When K a t h e r i n e has a s e n s e o f p u r p o s e a n d e x c i t e m e n t she l o o k s a t t h e w i n t e r s cene w i t h p l e a s u r e : she f e l t t h a t even t h e c o l d was d e l i g h t f u l . M i s s B r o o k s w o u l d see i t i n t e r m s o f t h e d e a d e n i n g snow t h a t was l i t t e r e d e v e r y -w h e r e , b u t t o K a t h e r i n e t h e f r o s t made e v e r y t h i n g s t a n d a l o n e a n d s p a r k l e i ( p i 29) The numbing q u a l i t y o f t h e c o l d i s s e e n t o be d e s i r a b l e when M i s s G r e e n i s i n p a i n a n d g a i n s t e m p o r a r y r e l i e f f r o m t h e c o l d n e s s o f t h e w a t e r K a t h e r i n e p e r s u a d e s h e r t o d r i n k ; A f t e r t h e a r r i v a l o f R o b i n , t h e w i n t e r and the c o l d and a l l t h e y r e p r e s e n t a r e s e e n a s a c h a l l e n g e r a t h e r t h a n a s a s i g n o f i n e v i t a b l e d e f e a t , as K a t h e r i n e i n d i c a t e s when she t h i n k s o f h e r s e l f a n d R o b i n b e i n g f e l l o w t r a v e l l e r s p r o v i d i n g m u t u a l a s s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e c o l d ; when she d e c i d e s t o l e t R o b i n s t a y t h e n i g h t i t i s b e c a u s e , " r e f u s a l w o u l d be d u l l i n g , a n a s s e n t t o a l l t h e w i l d e r n e s s t h a t s u r r o u n d e d t h e m " ( p . 2^3): The f i n a l image o f t h e i c e f l o e s , t h o u g h a u s t e r e , has a k i n d 91 o f b e a u t y a n d t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f snow i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d snow I n t h e t o w n does s u g g e s t t h a t c o l d n e s s and i s o l a t i o n i n c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s c a n a c q u i r e b e a u t y : A n d m e a n w h i l e , t h e w i n t e r r e m a i n e d . I t was n o t r o m a n t i c o r p i c t u r e s q u e : t h e snow, t h a t was g r a c e f u l i n t h e c o u n t r y , was days o l d i n t h e t o w n : i t had been t r o d d e n t o a brown powder a n d s h o v e l l e d i n t o t h e g u t t e r s , ( p . 177) The a t t e m p t t o c r e a t e a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e b e a u t y o f t h e w i n t e r a n d i t s a t r o p h y i n g e f f e c t s images t h e same a t t e m p t i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e theme o f l o n e l i n e s s and i s o l a t i o n . But t h e same t h i n g happens i n t h i s n o v e l as i n J i l l ; d e s p i t e s u g g e s t i o n s t h a t l o n e l i n e s s i s s e e n as s o m e t h i n g t o be d e s i r e d a n d c h e r i s h e d , t h e c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t o f t h e n o v e l i m p l i e s t h a t l o n e l i n e s s i s a n I n e v i t a b l e p a r t o f m a n ' s c o n d i t i o n , r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s i s e s s e n t i a l ; b u t r e c o g n i t i o n i n v o l v e s a n a w a r e n e s s o f and a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e b l e a k n e s s o f l i f e . K a t h e r i n e s u g g e s t s t h i s when she r e a l i z e s t h a t a c c e p t a n c e o f h e r l o n e l y e x i s t e n c e i n E n g l a n d has b r o u g h t k n o w l e d g e " b u t no a d d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h " ( p . I 8 3 ) . I n t h e c o n c l u d i n g p a r a g r a p h s a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e " o r d e r l y , s l o w p r o -c e s s i o n , m o v i n g f rom d a r k n e s s f u r t h e r i n t o d a r k n e s s , " i s g a i n e d a t t h e c o s t o f t h e d e a d e n i n g o f t h e h e a r t a n d w i l l : " A g a i n s t t h i s k n o w l e d g e , t h e h e a r t , t h e w i l l , and a l l t h a t made f o r p r o t e s t , c o u l d a t l a s t s l e e p " ( p . 2 4 8 ) . The w i n t e r image i s t h e m a j o r means o f f o c u s i n g on t h e n o v e l ' s theme b u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s a l s o 92 v e r y I m p o r t a n t . I n h e r v e r y p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e K a t h e r i n e s u g g e s t s h e r i s o l a t i o n . E v e n i n t h e summer s e c t i o n o f t h e b o o k , when K a t h e r i n e i s s t i l l n o t t o t a l l y aware o f t h e i n -e v i t a b i l i t y o f i s o l a t i o n , she i s s e t a p a r t by h e r a p p e a r a n c e : I n h e r d a r k brown s k i r t , w h i t e s h i r t and d a r k brown t i e p i n n e d w i t h a s m a l l O l y m p i c b a d g e , and w i t h h e r h a i r n e w l y b r u s h e d and d r a w n b a c k , she l o o k e d s e v e r e and f o r e i g n . ( p . 82) By t h e t i m e she has come t o work i n t h e l i b r a r y , t h e e m o t i o n a l a n d m e n t a l b a r r i e r she has b u i l t a r o u n d h e r s e l f has f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n i n h e r f a c e : T h e r e was l i t t l e e x p r e s s i o n on h e r f a c e as she c l o s e d t h e d o o r b e h i n d h e r . I n d e e d , t h e r e r a r e l y w a s : h e r p a l e , s h i e l d -shaped f a c e , d a r k eyes and e y e b r o w s , and h i g h c h e e k b o n e s , were n o t m o b i l e o r e l o q u e n t . N o r , more c u r i o u s l y , was h e r m o u t h , w h i c h was t o o w i d e and t o o f u l l - l i p p e d f o r b e a u t y . Y e t b e c a u s e i t was a l e r t and s e n s i t i v e i t s h o u l d have been most e x p r e s s i v e . A l m o s t she l o o k e d as i f h e r l i p s were b r u i s e d and she had t o k e e p them u n f a m i l i a r l y c l o s e d . Y e t a t o t h e r t i m e s a f a i n t l o o k o f amusement s t o l e i n t o h e r f a c e , as i f w i t h p l e a s u r e a t t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s w i t h w h i c h she c o u l d c o v e r h e r t h o u g h t s . A n d when she spoke i t was w i t h a f o r e i g n a c c e n t . ( p p . 15-16) K a t h e r i n e ' s f o r e l g n n e s s i s u s e d i n t h e same way as J o h n ' s w o r k i n g - c l a s s o r i g i n s ; i t e n a b l e s t h e w r i t e r t o examine m a n ' s i s o l a t i o n i n a somewhat e x a g g e r a t e d f o r m w h i c h i n i t s e l f becomes a n image f o r m a n ' s c o n d i t i o n . When K a t h e r i n e i s i n E n g l a n d b e f o r e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e w a r , t h e p r i n c i p a l r e s u l t o f b e i n g f o r e i g n i s t h a t h e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h o t h e r s and t h e r e f o r e h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f them i s o n l y p a r t i a l . T h i s i s shown most c l e a r l y i n t h e p r o g r e s s o f h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h 93 Jane and R o b i n . From t h e o u t s e t she does n o t u n d e r s t a n d e i t h e r o f t h e m , b u t she c r e a t e s a m e n t a l image o f each and b a s e s h e r s u b s e q u e n t a c t i o n s and r e s p o n s e s on t h e m . She f a i l s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t a t t h e o u t s e t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h R o b i n i s m e g a t i v e a n d t h a t when he seems t o be b e i n g p o s i t i v e t o w a r d s h e r he i s i n f a c t w o r k i n g much more i n te rms o f h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h J a n e . When he s u g g e s t s t h a t K a t h e r i n e ' s l a n g u a g e s h o u l d be u s e d f o r a t l e a s t p a r t o f t h e day he seems t o be l e s s c o n c e r n e d t o e s t a b l i s h a n i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h K a t h e r i n e t h a n t o e x c l u d e J a n e and i r r i t a t e h e r . The t r i p t o O x f o r d i s p l a n n e d on a s i m i l a r b a s i s , b u t K a t h e r i n e , n o t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h i s , assumes a new i n t i m a c y w i t h R o b i n w h i c h does n o t e x i s t , a n d t h e r e f o r e b r i n g s i n t o t h e open R o b i n ' s e s s e n t i a l s e p a r a t i o n f r o m h e r : She l e a n e d o v e r and s t r o k e d a l o c k o f h i s h a i r i n t o p l a c e , a t w h i c h h i s e y e s , i n t h e ' s h a d o w o f h e r a r m , opened w i d e . "Wake u p , " she s a i d . " I w a s n ' t a s l e e p . " He s a t u p q u i c k l y as i f i t had begun t o r a i n . F o r a moment t h e y s a t s i d e by s i d e , t h e n he s c r a m b l e d t o h i s f e e t . " I f y o u ' v e r e s t e d , we m i g h t p e r h a p s be g e t t i n g o n . " K a t h e r i n e r e a l i z e d a t o n c e — t h o u g h t o o l a t e — t h a t she had made a n a d v a n c e he w o u l d n o t r e c e i v e , and she s c r a m b l e d u p b l u s h i n g — b l u s h i n g and b e w i l d e r e d . He had behaved a l m o s t as i f she h a d s c a r e d h i m , and i t had s h a k e n t h e whole day o f f i t s c o u r s e . ( p p . 140-141) T h i s i n c i d e n t marks t h e b e g i n n i n g o f K a t h e r i n e ' s a t t e m p t s t o w i t h d r a w a n d i s o l a t e h e r s e l f i n s i t u a t i o n s w i t h w h i c h she f e e l s u n a b l e t o d e a l . When t h e y r e t u r n t o t h e F e n n e l s ' h o u s e , K a t h e r i n e d e c i d e s t o a p o l o g i s e t o J a n e , n o t because she w i s h e s 94 t o e s t a b l i s h a more i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h e r , b u t f r o m a d e s i r e t o e x t r i c a t e h e r s e l f f r o m any s e n s e o f i n v o l v e m e n t : Now she was a c t u a l l y h e r e , she f e l t l e s s e a g e r t o a p o l o g i s e ; t h e d e s i r e had come i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e f r o m a l o n g i n g t o s e t e v e r y t h i n g r i g h t , so t h a t she c o u l d e x t r i c a t e h e r s e l f , a s one m i g h t pay a b i l l b e f o r e l e a v i n g a h o t e l . B u t i t m i g h t l e a d t o n o t h i n g o f t h e s o r t . . . . More l i k e l y i t w o u l d p r e c i p i t a t e more e n t a n g l e m e n t s , more c o m m i t m e n t s , c l u m s y and u n s a t i s f y i n g b e c a u s e she c o u l d n o t f a t h o m what t h e s e E n g l i s h p e o p l e m e a n t , ( p . 143) I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t she r e a l i z e s t h a t she has t r e a t e d Jane i n much t h e same way t h a t R o b i n has t r e a t e d h e r and she has f a i l e d t o r e s p o n d t o t h e demand b e i n g made on h e r by J a n e . The r e a l n a t u r e o f h e r p o s i t i o n i n t h e F e n n e l s ' h o u s e h o l d t h e n becomes c l e a r t o h e r ; she has been w r i t i n g t o R o b i n b u t c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h J a n e ; she has a c c e p t e d R o b i n ' s i n v i t a t i o n when i t was u r g e d by J a n e ; and she has t r i e d t o b u i l d u p a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h R o b i n w h i l e Jane has been d e s p e r a t e l y t r y i n g t o b r e a k f r o m h e r own i s o l a t i o n i n t o K a t h e r i n e ' s w o r l d . The r e s u l t o f t h i s m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s K a t h e r i n e ' s sense o f f a i l u r e i n a c h i e v i n g any k i n d o f m e a n i n g f u l c o n t a c t and she f e e l s , " s h e w o u l d pass t h r o u g h t h i s house and l e a v e no t r a c e b e h i n d , as a l l t h e o t h e r s who had s l e p t i n t h i s g u e s t room had d o n e " ( p . 165). No r e a l c o n t a c t be tween R o b i n and K a t h e r i n e i s made d u r i n g h e r s t a y s i n c e i t i s o n l y when K a t h e r i n e has s u c c e e d e d i n m a s t e r i n g h e r f e e l i n g s t o w a r d s h i m t h a t R o b i n b r e a k s t h r o u g h h i s i n d i f f e r e n c e and k i s s e s h e r . 95 During the war p e r i o d i n England, K a t h e r i n e f e e l s the e f f e c t s of being f o r e i g n much more s t r o n g l y . The problem of communication s t i l l e x i s t s and she f e e l s t h a t she may perhaps misjudge someone l i k e Mr. Anstey because of her u n f a m i l i a r i t y with nuances of I n f l e c t i o n and language. More s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e from her awareness, and that of the other people around her, of the f a c t t h a t i n wartime people of one n a t i o n tend t o become c l o s e r k n i t and make any f o r e i g n e r f e e l , even more i s o l a t e d and a l i e n than normal. The response of a n a t i o n i s a l a r g e s c a l e working out of the s o r t of behaviour t h a t John experiences i n r e l a t i o n to C h r i s t o p h e r . The group suppresses i t s own f e a r s and gains a sense of s e c u r i t y and s t r e n g t h from the presence of one who i s excluded. Mr. Anstey i s i n some r e s p e c t s a v e r s i o n of C h r i s t o p h e r ; h i s p o s i t i o n i n the l i b r a r y i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g and he l a c k s s o c i a l c o n f i d e n c e ; t o compensate f o r t h i s and make h i s p o s i t i o n seem more secure he uses K a t h e r i n e t o assure h i m s e l f t h a t he belongs and she does not. His p r i n c i p a l weapon a g a i n s t her i s the f a c t that she i s a f o r e i g n e r and t h e r e f o r e cut o f f from the background and i n s t i n c t s common to those who are E n g l i s h . In almost every c o n v e r s a t i o n with Katherine he makes some a l l u s i o n such as the one which followss "There a r e two mistakes t h e r e , Miss L i n d , do you f o l l o w me?.... And n e i t h e r of them, i f I may say so, should have been made by anyone with an ounce of what we E n g l i s h c a l l savvy or gumption or...nous." (p. 17) 96 H i s a t t i t u d e i s t a k e n up by M i s s F e a t h e r so t h a t when M r . A n s t e y s a y s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o someone t o accompany M i s s G r e e n home, " ' S e n d s o m e o n e — h a , h a ! — y o u ' d be g l a d t o g e t r i d o f f o r a n h o u r o r t w o . ' " M i s s F e a t h e r r e s p o n d s by s a y i n g t o K a t h e r i n e , " ' P e r h a p s y o u w o u l d n ' t m i n d g o i n g , M i s s L l n d ' " ( p . 2 1 ) . K a t h e r i n e r e g a r d s s u c h i n c i d e n t s as s i m p l y a n e x t e n s i o n o f h e r t o t a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e l i b r a r y : She had been a p p o i n t e d t e m p o r a r y a s s i s t a n t , w h i c h marked h e r o f f f r o m t h e permanent s t a f f : she was n e i t h e r a j u n i o r a y e a r o r so o u t o f s c h o o l who was l e a r n i n g t h e p r o f e s s i o n , n o r a s e n i o r p r e p a r i n g t o t a k e t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e o r f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n . . . . T h e r e f o r e any odd j o b t h a t was r e a l l y n o b o d y ' s d u t y f e l l t o h e r . . . . I t annoyed h e r , n o t b e c a u s e she gave two p i n s f o r l i b r a r y p r a c t i c e , b u t b e c a u s e i t s t r e s s e d what was a l r e a d y s u f f i c i e n t l y m a r k e d : t h a t she was f o r e i g n a n d had no p r o p e r s t a t u s t h e r e . ( p . 25) A s she l e a v e s t h e l i b r a r y a n d pauses t o g i v e a s s i s t a n c e t o a s m a l l boy he " s h r a n k f r o m h e r f o r e i g n v o i c e , " and a t t h e bus s t o p " M i s s G r e e n s t o o d a l i t t l e away f r o m h e r , as i f d i s -c l a i m i n g any r e l a t i o n s h i p " (;p. 2 8 ) . The d e n t i s t t o o , i s o l a t e d by h i s own d e a f n e s s , t a k e s n o t e t h a t K a t h e r i n e i s n o t E n g l i s h and u s e s t h i s t o p i e r c e h e r c o n f i d e n c e and e s t a b l i s h h i s own; he r e f u s e s t o g i v e M i s s G r e e n gas w i t h o u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e n u r s e , a n s w e r i n g K a t h e r i n e ' s o b j e c t i o n s w i t h " ' I t ' s t h e l a w — t h e l a w o f t h i s c o u n t r y ' " ( p . 46). When K a t h e r i n e a r r i v e s i n E n g l a n d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e she i s v e r y much a f r a i d t h a t a s a f o r e i g n e r she w i l l f e e l h o p e l e s s l y l o s t , b u t a p a r t f r o m odd moments , s u c h as f i n d i n g 97 h e r d r a w e r s l i n e d w i t h " f o r e i g n n e w s p a p e r s " , i s w e l l c u s h i o n e d by t h e F e n n e l s a g a i n s t t h e t o t a l l o n e l i n e s s and d i s o r i e n t a t i o n she i s t o meet on h e r s e c o n d a r r i v a l . The s e c o n d a r r i v a l i n f a c t i s t h e w o r k i n g o u t o f t h e f e a r s K a t h e r i n e had had p r e v i o u s l y : The f i r s t f ew weeks had been a n i g h t m a r e . . . . N e v e r i n h e r l i f e had she e x p e r i e n c e d s u c h b o t t o m l e s s d e s p a i r and l o n e l i n e s s : t h e r e was n o t h i n g f a m i l i a r , n o t h i n g o f h e r own c h o o s i n g , n o t h i n g t h a t she c o u l d t u r n t o and g r a s p i n t h e f a c e o f e v e r y -t h i n g e l s e . I t was as i f t h e w o r l d had been t u r n e d r o u n d , l i k e i n n u m e r a b l e b i t s o f r e v e r s i b l e s c e n e r y . ( p . 181) I t i s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h a t she comes t o r e g a r d h e r i s o l a t i o n as n o t s i m p l y t h e r e s u l t o f b e i n g a f o r e i g n e r i n w i n t e r i n E n g l a n d , b u t a s s o m e t h i n g b a s i c i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y she has become. She c a n no l o n g e r r e l y on c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e t o p r o v i d e h e r w i t h h a p p i n e s s s i n c e she i s i r r e v o c a b l y a l o n e : H e n c e f o r w a r d , i f she needed c o m f o r t , she w o u l d have t o c o m f o r t h e r s e l f ; i f she were t o be h a p p y , t h e h a p p i n e s s w o u l d have t o b u r n f r o m h e r own n a t u r e . I n s h o r t , s i n c e p e o p l e seemed n o t t o a f f e c t h e r , t h e y c o u l d n o t h e l p h e r , and i f she was t o go on l i v i n g she w o u l d have t o g e t t h e s t r e n g t h f o r i t s o l e l y o u t o f h e r s e l f . ( p . 184) Once she has a c c e p t e d t h i s i t i s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t she w i l l make h e r i s o l a t i o n even more e x t e n s i v e s i n c e she w i l l make no demands on o t h e r s and e x p e c t n o t h i n g t o be a s k e d o f h e r . She i s , t h e r e f o r e , s u r p r i s e d when she meets V e r o n i c a P a r b u r y , who i s i n h e r own way i s o l a t e d , d e s p i t e t h e p r e s e n c e of h e r mother and t h e a t t a c h m e n t w i t h M r . A n s t e y ; b u t she does n o t r e g a r d 98 h e r s e l f as e n t i t l e d t o r e f u s e t h e demands made on h e r by o t h e r s . D e s p i t e K a t h e r i n e ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t , " i f someone i s e n t i r e l y d e p e n d e n t on y o u , t h e r e ' s s o m e t h i n g wrong somewhere. I t s h o u l d n ' t be a s k e d o r g i v e n " ( p . 1 9 8 ) , M i s s P a r b u r y ' s a t t i t u d e makes a n i m p r e s s i o n t h a t she c a n n o t e n t i r e l y n e g a t e : H a v i n g t r i e d f o r so l o n g t o l i v e f o r h e r s e l f a l o n e , h a v i n g c o n c l u d e d t h a t n o t e v e n t h e maximum s e l f i s h n e s s w o u l d s e c u r e t h e h a p p i n e s s she f e l t h e r s e l f e n t i t l e d t o , i t was d i s t u r b i n g t o meet one who v a l u e d t h e s e t h i n g s so l i g h t l y , ( p . 205) A s a r e s u l t she l o o k s b a c k on h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h M i s s P a r b u r y r e a l i z i n g t h a t a l l h e r p r e v i o u s a t t i t u d e s have b e e n b a s e d on t h e p r e m i s e t h a t "one s h o u l d t r y t o a c c e p t any m i s -f o r t u n e w i t h e q u a n i m i t y " ( p . 205), b u t t h a t M i s s P a r b u r y has a d i f f e r e n t b a s i s f o r h e r l i f e , one s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e g i r l i n t h e c o n v e n t whom K a t h e r i n e h a d known e a r l i e r . I t seems t o K a t h e r i n e t h a t t h i s i s a v i e w p o i n t t h a t f l u n g away a t t h e s t a r t a l l c o n c e p t i o n o f f o r t u n e and m i s f o r t u n e , t h i s she f o u n d h e r s e l f r e l u c t a n t l y r e s p e c t i n g , a n d she c o u l d r e c o g n i z e h e r p r e s e n t r e s p e c t by h e r k n o w l e d g e t h a t she w o u l d p r o b a b l y t e l l n o - o n e o f what she had l e a r n e d t h a t d a y . ( p . 205) D e s p i t e h e r i n t e n t i o n o f f o r g e t t i n g what she has l e a r n e d f r o m t h e i n c i d e n t , h e r n e w l y a c q u i r e d k n o w l e d g e does i n f o r m h e r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s R o b i n . Prom t o t a l boredom and d i s m a y a t t h e demands b e i n g made on h e r by h i m , she moves t o a p o s i t i o n w h e r e , w i t h o u t d e n y i n g h e r i s o l a t i o n , she i s a b l e t o a c c e p t 9 9 t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p as one o f " m u t u a l h e l p " i n t h e f a c e o f t h e t o t a l chaos s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m . K a t h e r i n e ' s f i n a l p o s i t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e s c h o l a r s I n J i l l , h u t i t i s more p o s i t i v e i n t h a t she has r e a c h e d t h e p o s i t i o n l e s s f r o m f e a r o f b e i n g v u l n e r a b l e , t h a n f r o m a g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g a w a r e -n e s s t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e t h a t o n l y p o s i t i v e a c c e p t a n c e o f l o n e l i n e s s a n d o f o t h e r p e o p l e ' s needs c a n p r o v i d e h e r w i t h a b a s i s f o r h e r l i f e w h i c h i s a t a l l m e a n i n g f u l . The t o t a l i t y o f L a r k i n ' s b e l i e f i n m a n ' s e s s e n t i a l l o n e l i n e s s i s shown i n t h e n o v e l by t h e f a c t t h a t he d e p i c t s no c o m p l e t e l y s u c c e s s f u l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n M r . A n s t e y , M i s s P a r b u r y and h e r mother i s a l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g and more p a t h e t i c v e r s i o n o f t h e e a r l y r e l a t i o n s h i b e t w e e n K a t h e r i n e , Jane and R o b i n . M r . A n s t e y , l i k e J a n e , i s m a k i n g demands w h i c h c a n n o t be f u l f i l l e d because M i s s P a r b u r y a n d K a t h e r i n e a r e each i n v o l v e d w i t h a t h i r d p e r s o n who a p p e a r i n s e n s i b l e t o t h e f e e l i n g d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s h i m . Jane e v e n t -u a l l y t r i e s t o a c h i e v e a m e a n i n g f u l r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r h e r s e l f i n h e r m a r r i a g e t o J a c k S t o r m a l o n g , b u t a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e n o v e l we l e a r n t h a t t h e m a r r i a g e does n o t seem e n t i r e l y s u c c e s s f u l a n d t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h e war she and h e r h u s b a n d a r e s e p a r a t e d . When K a t h e r i n e f i r s t meets R o b i n she i s v e r y much aware o f h i s i s o l a t i o n , b u t i t seems t o be s o m e t h i n g he has c h o s e n . The photo she has o f h i m g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t he has 100 a v o i d e d m a k i n g h i m s e l f known t h r o u g h h i s a p p e a r a n c e : "The e x p r e s s i o n on h i s f a c e was e v a s i v e i n t h e sense o f n o t b e i n g f u l l y c a p t u r e d by t h e c a m e r a " ( p . 72). On t h e j o u r n e y t o L o n d o n t h i s i m p r e s s i o n i s s t r e n g t h e n e d as she o b s e r v e s R o b i n ' s e x p r e s s i o n : I t was i m p o s s i b l e t o i m a g i n e what he was t h i n k i n g : he seemed p e r f e c t l y a d j u s t e d t o a l l h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s — i n c l u d i n g h e r — a n d a b l e t o w i t h d r a w h i s r e a l p e r s o n a l i t y e l s e w h e r e . . . . The e x p r e s s i o n on h i s f a c e was c o o l , as i f t r a v e l l i n g a l o n e , ( p . 77) T h i s d e t a c h m e n t , a l m o s t p l e a s u r e i n b e i n g w i t h d r a w n , h a s d i s a p p e a r e d e n t i r e l y when R o b i n v i s i t s K a t h e r i n e . H i s i s o l a t i o n i s no l o n g e r assumed a n d e n j o y e d b u t v e r y r e a l and f r i g h t e n i n g t o h i m . The c o n t r a s t i n h i s b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s K a t h e r i n e i n d i c a t e s t h i s c l e a r l y , a s he I m m e d i a t e l y a t t e m p t s t o make h e r be o u t g o i n g t o w a r d s h i m and g i v e h i m t h e warmth and a f f e c t i o n he c r a v e s . H i s demeanour c o n v i n c e s K a t h e r i n e t h a t t h i s i s t h e k i n d o f demand he i s c o n s t a n t l y m a k i n g i n a n a t t e m p t t o r e n d e r u n r e a l t h e f e e l i n g s o f u t t e r m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s he I s e x p e r i e n c i n g . J a n e i s l i k e R o b i n i n t h a t she t o o has a b a r r i e r w h i c h s e t s h e r a p a r t and p r e v e n t s anyone f r o m k n o w i n g h e r : b u t h e r r e s e r v e and i s o l a t i o n come f r o m a n i n a d e q u a c y i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f w h i c h she i s f u l l y a w a r e . A l l h e r e a r l y c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h K a t h e r i n e a r e a s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s and when t h e q u e s t i o n i n g i s t u r n e d on h e r she i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h d r a w s . I t i s o n l y when c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n t e r v e n e t h a t she f i n d s h e r s e l f a b l e t o make 101 any k i n d o f c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r s . Her f i r s t r e a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h K a t h e r i n e o n l y comes a b o u t when K a t h e r i n e s p i l l s h e r c u p o f t e a o v e r t h e bed and i n t h e r e s u l t i n g c o n f u s i o n t h e h a b i t -u a l l y assumed masks a r e d r o p p e d . A f t e r h e r e x c l u s i o n f r o m c o n v e r s a t i o n by R o b i n and K a t h e r i n e t h e r e s u l t i n g a n t a g o n i s m t o w a r d s K a t h e r i n e overcomes h e r n a t u r a l r e s e r v e and she t e l l s K a t h e r i n e s o m e t h i n g o f what h e r l i f e i s . H e r d e s i r e t o b r e a k f r o m h e r i s o l a t i o n i s o n l y p a r t i a l . She wants t h e k i n d o f c o n t a c t t h a t a l e t t e r g i v e s , a s e n s e o f k n o w i n g someone and b e i n g known by them b u t w i t h no a b s o l u t e commitment on e i t h e r s i d e ; she t r i e s t o e x p r e s s t h i s t o K a t h e r i n e who does n o t f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d : " D o n ' t y o u see what I mean?—how w o n d e r f u l i t w o u l d be t o be a b l e t o t e l l them e v e r y t h i n g , and be c e r t a i n t h a t t h e y ' d n e v e r — I mean , t h a t t h e y ' d be so r e m o t e and away f r o m i t a l l . " ( p . 148) H e r e a n d e l s e w h e r e i n t h e n o v e l t h e l e t t e r seems t o be L a r k i n ' s image f o r t h e k i n d o f l i m i t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h i c h c a n be made be tween p e o p l e . B u t t h e p a r t i a l n a t u r e o f what c a n be a c h i e v e d i s shown c l e a r l y i n t h e r e s u l t s o f K a t h e r i n e ' s l e t t e r s t o R o b i n : When she had w r i t t e n h e r l e t t e r s she had b a r e l y known t h a t J a n e e x i s t e d , and now she was a s k e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e n e t s she h a d c o n t r i v e d so c u n n i n g l y t o c a p t u r e R o b i n had s u c c e e d e d down t o t h e l a s t s y l l a b l e i n s n a r i n g J a n e . ( p . 150) 102 R o b i n ' s p l e a t o K a t h e r i n e t o w r i t e t o h i m w h i l s t he i s i n t h e army i s a c l u t c h i n g t o t h e l a s t p o s s i b i l i t y o f f e e l i n g c l o s e t o someone. He i s p u t t i n g t h e same k i n d o f hope i n t h e s e l e t t e r s as K a t h e r i n e had put i n t o h e r l e t t e r t o t h e F e n n e l s when she a t t e m p t e d t o r e - e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t w i t h t h e m . The w i n t e r i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t image o f i s o l a t i o n a s I have a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , b u t i s a w i n t e r made b l e a k e r and d a r k e r by w a r . A s i n J i l l t h e war i s a c o n s t a n t b a c k g r o u n d a n d r e m i n d e r t h a t i t i s n o t o n l y on t h e p e r s o n a l l e v e l t h a t c o n f u s i o n a n d l a c k o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n e x i s t s b u t a l s o on a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . The l i v e s o f K a t h e r i n e , R o b i n and Jane have a l l b e e n i r r e v e r s i b l y d i s r u p t e d by t h e war and i n each c a s e t h e i r i s o l a t i o n I n c r e a s e d by i t . The c i t y b l a c k e d out b e c a u s e o f t h e war and g r i p p e d by c o l d images t h e a c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l . T h e r e were a few p e o p l e h u d d l e d i n d o o r w a y s , o r w a l k i n g f rom c i n e m a s , b u t t h e w i d e c e n t r a l s t r e e t s were d e s e r t e d o f t r a f f i c , a n d t h e b u i l d i n g s were g r e a t s i l e n t l o c k e d s h e l l s . H e r e and t h e r e s o l d i e r s were s h o u t i n g . A t t h i s t i m e a l l t h e town had d r a w n w i t h i n i t s e l f . The d o o r s and windows were s h u t and c u r t a i n s had been a r r a n g e d a c r o s s t h e m , t o k e e p t h e l i g h t and warmth i n d o o r s . O u t s i d e t h e r e was n o n e . T h e r e was no moon t o show how t h e f r o s t e n c r u s t e d e v e r y t h i n g : t h e d a r k s o a r e d u p l i k e a c a t h e d r a l , a b l i n d n e s s ; i t c o v e r e d t h e town and t h e f r o z e n a l l o t m e n t s when t h e h o u s e s began t o s c a t t e r i n t o f i e l d s , t h e n t h e b r i t t l e g r a s s , a n d t h e w o o d s . C o n v o y s o f l o r r i e s c o u l d g e t a l o n g t h e m a i n r o a d s w i t h c h a i n s o n , b u t t h e r e was no o t h e r t r a f f i c . She t h o u g h t o f t h e d a r k n e s s c o v e r i n g n o t o n l y t h e s e m i l e s o f s t r e e t s a r o u n d h e r , b u t a l s o o f t h e s h o r e s , t h e b e a c h e s , and t h e a c r e s o f t o s s i n g sea t h a t she h a d c r o s s e d , w h i c h d i v i d e d h e r f rom h e r p r o p e r home. A t l e a s t h e r b i r t h -p l a c e and t h e s t r e e t s she w a l k e d i n were s h a r i n g t h e same n i g h t , however many u n f r u i t f u l m i l e s were be tween t h e m . A n d t h e r e t o o p e o p l e w o u l d k e e p i n d o o r s , and n o t t h i n k o f much beyond t h e f i r e s t h a t warmed t h e m , f o r t h e same w i n t e r l a y s t i f f l y a c r o s s t h e w h o l e c o n t i n e n t . ( p . 224) CHAPTER IV THE DEVELOPMENT OP THE TREATMENT OP THE THEME OF LOVE IN LARKIN'S POETRY Like h i s novels , P h i l i p L a r k i n ' s poetry focuses on the u n i v e r s a l themes of love , death and i t s r e l a t i o n to l i f e , time, and Nature as i t r e f l e c t s or impinges upon man and his v a l u e s . These concerns are established i n h i s f i r s t volume of poetry (his f i r s t published work), The North S h i p ; but as I have already suggested i n the d i s c u s s i o n of the novels , h i s a t t i t u d e towards these themes i s one which develops and matures, so that there i s a s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between the a t t i tudes informing the f i r s t volume of poetry and those of The Less Deceived and The Whitsun Weddings, with the novels forming a bridge between the two. The gradual development f i n d s expression not only In the poet 's changing a t t i tudes and broader v i s i o n but a l s o i n the nature of the images, s i t u a t i o n s , emphasis and verse forms he chooses. The sense of an i n d i v i d u a l expressing himself In his own terms, which permeates The Less Deceived and The Whitsun Weddings, is almost t o t a l l y absent from The North S h i p . In t h i s volume L a r k i n has c l e a r l y not discovered h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y and he r e l i e s heavi ly on h i s l i t e r a r y rather than his a c t u a l experience, both for h is technique and Ideology. Whereas the novels obviously make use of L a r k i n ' s own experiences, they could not be described as autobiographical novels , because of 104 the degree of d i s t a n c i n g and o b j e c t i v i t y i n them. I n The North Ship he focuses c l o s e l y on himself but presents him-s e l f i n terms of l i t e r a r y conventions r a t h e r than e x p l o r i n g the s i g n i f i c a n c e of h i s response to a c t u a l experiences. The m a j o r i t y of the poems i n The North Ship focus on the theme of l o v e . In most cases the love poem takes the form of an expression of the poet's i n a b i l i t y to l o v e , or h i s doubts about the r e a l value;of l o v e . His a t t i t u d e towards love i s a part of h i s t o t a l a t t i t u d e to l i f e ; he has a sense of detachment and an i n a b i l i t y to f i n d anything which w i l l make l i f e meaningful f o r him. He sees love as one of the means by which others seek to give l i f e s i g n i f i c a n c e but f i n d s that he i s unable to do t h i s . Lacking the enrichment he f e e l s others may have, he i d e n t i f i e s h i m s e l f , i n a s e r i e s of poems d e a l i n g w i t h h i s l o v e l e s s s t a t e , with the c o l d of winter or e a r l y s p r i n g and w i t h the c o l d l i g h t of e a r l y morning, a l l images which negate a f u l l n e s s and richn e s s i n l i f e . The poem "Dawn" i s an e x p l i c i t a s s o c i a t i o n of h i s emotions w i t h images such as those mentioned above: To wake, and hear a cock Out of the dis t a n c e c r y i n g , To p u l l the c u r t a i n s back And see the clouds f l y i n g — How strange i t i s 1 For the heart to be l o v e l e s s , and as c o l d as these. The t i t l e of the poem i s at once a statement of p h y s i c a l time xThe North Ship, p. 15. (Future references to t h i s work w i l l be made w i t h i n the t e x t u s i n g the a b b r e v i a t i o n NS.) 105 a n d a l s o o f t h e e m o t i o n a l s t a t e o f t h e p o e t , he i s i n a p r o c e s s o f a w a k e n i n g t o a new awareness o f h i s l o v e l e s s c o n d i t i o n a n d what i t i m p l i e s . The c o c k and t h e c l o u d s r e f l e c t h i s mood i n t h e i r r e s t l e s s n e s s a n d a l s o i n t h e i r d e t a c h m e n t f r o m t h e i m m e d i a t e s i t u a t i o n . I n poem " X " he d e s c r i b e s h i s r e a c t i o n t o t h e e n d i n g o f a l o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p i n s i m i l a r t e r m s t o t h o s e o f " D a w n " , b u t t h e b a s i c image h e r e i s o f n i g h t and d e a t h , s i n c e t h e poem d e s c r i b e s t h e a w a r e n e s s o f a l o v e l e s s s t a t e w h i c h f o l l o w s a f t e r a n awareness o f l o v e , and p r e s u m a b l y a f t e r a sense o f l i f e b e i n g r i c h e r : T h e r e was no l a m b i n g - n i g h t , No g a l e - d r i v e n b i r d Nor f r o s t - e n c i r c l e d r o o t A s c o l d as my h e a r t . ( N S . p . 22) B u t i n a n o t h e r poem c l o s e l y r e l a t e d i n theme t o " X " , t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f l o v e ' s f a d i n g i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m o r n i n g : M o r n i n g has s p r e a d a g a i n T h r o u g h e v e r y s t r e e t , A n d we a r e s t r a n g e a g a i n . ( N S . p . 38) The r a t h e r a r b i t r a r y u s e o f images w i t h i n t h i s s e r i e s o f poems i n d i c a t e s t h e l a c k o f a s s u r a n c e a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e images f o r p a r t i c u l a r i d e a s ; t h i s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e o v e r a l l i m p r e s s i o n t h e vo lume g i v e s o f a poet who has n o t c l e a r l y d e f i n e d t h e p r e c i s e n a t u r e o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e s . I n a l l t h e s e poems L a r k i n seems t o be a d o p t i n g a t r a d i t i o n a l r o m a n t i c a t t i t u d e t h a t l o v e i s t h e e m o t i o n w h i c h 106 b r i n g s man a l i v e and t h a t t o be w i t h o u t l o v e i s t o be numb and c o l d . T h i s a t t i t u d e c a n be s e e n i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m i n a number o f poems w h i c h a r e c l o s e t o t h e c o u r t l y l o v e t r a d i t i o n . The o b j e c t o f l o v e I s r a r e l y d e s c r i b e d so t h a t t h e f o c u s o f t h e poems i s on t h e e m o t i o n f o r i t s own s a k e r a t h e r t h a n o n a p a r t i c u l a r l o v e i n a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . The l o v e w h i c h t h e poet d e s c r i b e s becomes a n I n t e l l e c t u a l r e s p o n s e r a t h e r t h a n a p h y s i c a l o r p u r e l y e m o t i o n a l o n e . The f a c t t h a t two o f t h e poems a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d d e a l w i t h a l o v e w h i c h has b e e n r e a l i z e d i m a g i n a t i v e l y r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e e m p h a s i s e s t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l q u a l i t y . I t i s as t h o u g h t h e p o e t i s a t t e m p t i n g t o a n t i c i p a t e t h e I m p o s s i b i l i t y o f f i n d i n g a f u l l y m e a n i n g f u l l o v e t h r o u g h h i s i m a g i n a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n c o m m i t t i n g h i m s e l f t o a n a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p and f a c i n g t h e p a i n o f d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . I n J i l l he t a k e s u p t h i s theme, b u t he d e t a c h e s t h e r o m a n t i c i s m f r o m h i m s e l f and r e p r e s e n t s i t a s a s t a g e t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e Immature and i n n o c e n t J o h n must pass b e f o r e r e a c h i n g a w a r e n e s s . I n t h i s way he g i v e s a n i r o n i c p e r s p e c t i v e t o r o m a n t i c l o v e w h i c h i s n o t p r e s e n t i n poems w i t h i n t h i s f i r s t v o l u m e . The v i s i o n o f l o v e ' s i n a d e q u a c i e s w h i c h he a t t r i b u t e s t o J o h n i s one w h i c h a r i s e s o u t o f p a i n a n d e x p e r i e n c e r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g a n e s c a p e f r o m t h e p r o c e s s o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e a s i n t h e poems. S e v e r a l o f t h e poems i n t h i s v o l u m e d e a l w i t h t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f l o v e t o s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m o f l i f e ' s s e e m i n g l a c k 107 of meaning. By I m p l i c a t i o n i n poem "XVI" love i s equated wi t h the other means to which man r e s o r t s to f i l l i n time and avoid awareness of emptiness and l o n e l i n e s s : The b o t t l e i s drunk out by one; At two.,5 the book i s shut; At three the l o v e r s l i e a p a r t , Love and i t s commerce done. (NS. p. 28) But even i n t h i s poem there i s a romanticism i n the nature of the gesture of debasing love to the l e v e l of "commerce", without i n any way j u s t i f y i n g the statement or r e a l i z i n g the process of d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . The statement i s too general and a b s t r a c t to have the Impact of a d e e p l y - f e l t c o n v i c t i o n . The d i s t i n c t l y deadening q u a l i t i e s of love are suggested i n poem "XXII" where f a c i n g up to the harshness of a s o l i t a r y b leak journey "To t r i c k t h i s hour when l o v e r s re-embrace" (NS. p. 35)» Is seen as p r e f e r a b l e to the acceptance of l o v e , s e c u r i t y , and involvement which c a r r y with them diminished awareness: the t r a v e l l e r pursues h i s journey, "lest/Love s i n k a grave round the s t i l l - s l e e p i n g head" (NS. p. 35). The l a s t poem i n the volume seems to echo t h i s statement, f o r there love i s seen as i n i m i c a l to the c r e a t i v e process, which needs the awareness found i n i s o l a t i o n and i n s e c u r i t y , which love attempts to d i s g u i s e . The awareness experienced by one not Involved i n and th e r e f o r e not deceived by love i s a l s o expressed i n "Ugly S i s t e r " , where love i s shown as being 1 0 8 p a r t o f t h e w o r l d o f I n v o l v e m e n t ; e scape f r o m t h i s w o r l d makes i t p o s s i b l e t o " a t t e n d t o t h e t r e e s and t h e i r g r a c i o u s s i l e n c e / To w i n d s t h a t m o v e " ( N S . p . 31). The n a t u r a l w o r l d i s s e e n as d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e w o r l d o f l o v e i n t h i s poem and t h e c o n -t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e l i n e s q u o t e d above and " t h e v i o l i n , c o r n e t and d r u m " w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s L o v e ' s w o r l d i n t h e poem, i n d i c a t e s a t e n d e n c y on L a r k i n ' s p a r t t o p r e s e n t l o n e l i n e s s and a n a w a r e -n e s s o f n a t u r e a s more p o w e r f u l and s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n l o v e . T h i s i s t h e f i n a l i m p l i c a t i o n of poem " X I I I " , i n w h i c h t h e r e p e a t e d l i n e , " I t i s n o t l o v e y o u w i l l f i n d " ( N S . p . 25) seems a t f i r s t t o be a n a s s e r t i o n o f a l a c k i n N a t u r e ; b u t t h e l a s t s t a n z a r e v e r s e s t h i s I m p r e s s i o n s i n c e l o v e i s p r e -s e n t e d as o f f s e t by d e a t h : I t i s n o t l o v e y o u w i l l f i n d : You have no l i m b s C r y i n g f o r s t i l l n e s s , y o u h a v e no m i n d T r e m b l i n g w i t h s e r a p h i m , You have no d e a t h t o come. ( N S . p . 25) The most e f f e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t o f l o v e o f a g e n e r a l n a t u r e I s i n poem " X X " , w h i c h i s one o f t h e few n a r r a t i v e poems i n t h e v o l u m e . I t i n d i c a t e s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l a t e r p o e t r y b o t h i n b e i n g a d r a m a t i c n a r r a t i v e and i n t h e a m b i v a l e n c e o f L a r k i n ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s l o v e ; he i n d i c a t e s h i s c o m p l e t e , a w a r e n e s s o f h i s a m b i v a l e n c e t h r o u g h t o n e and t e n s i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h d i r e c t s t a t e m e n t . 109 The f i r s t s t a n z a e s t a b l i s h e s t h e t o n e o f t h e poem. The p o e t ' s p o s i t i o n as a n o b s e r v e r r a t h e r t h a n a p a r t i c i p a n t i s e m p h a s i s e d i n t h e f i r s t l i n e by t h e p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e r e f e r e n c e t o h i m s e l f ; " I see a g i r l d r a g g e d by t h e w r i s t s " , w h i c h i s t a k e n u p and d e v e l o p e d I n t h e l a s t two l i n e s o f t h e s t a n z a : A s s i m p l e as t h e t h i n g s I s e e , B e i n g no m o r e , no l e s s , t h a n two weak e y e s . ' ( N S . p . 32) The s t a t e m e n t o f t h e f i r s t s t a n z a i s t h e p o e t ' s a w a r e n e s s o f h i s d e t a c h e d p o s i t i o n as a n o b s e r v e r and h i s a c c e p t a n c e o f t h i s : I see a g i r l d r a g g e d by t h e w r i s t s A c r o s s a d a z z l i n g f i e l d o f snow, A n d t h e r e i s n o t h i n g i n me t h a t r e s i s t s . ( N S . p . 32) H o w e v e r , t h e sound emphas is o f t h e s t a n z a i s c a r r i e d by t h e n e x t two l i n e s , and t h i s , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f " O n c e " , as i f t o g i v e h i m s e l f r e a s s u r a n c e o f t h e t r u t h o f what he i s s a y i n g , n e g a t e s t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e s t a n z a : Once i t w o u l d n o t be s o ; Once I s h o u l d choke w i t h p o w e r l e s s j e a l o u s i e s . ( N S . p . 32) The u s e o f t h e word " seem" i n t h e n e x t l i n e , " B u t now I seem d e v o i d o f s u b t l e t y 1 / a l s o u n d e r m i n e s t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t he i s now a b l e t o assume t o t a l d e t a c h m e n t . The snow i m a g e , w h i c h 110 i s u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e poem, i s n o t u s e d as t h e s i m p l e e x t e r n a l image o f t h e p o e t ' s e m o t i o n a l c o l d n e s s as i t i s i n o t h e r poems i n t h e v o l u m e : I n t h i s poem i t h a s s o m e t h i n g o f t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e image i n A G i r l I n W i n t e r , f o r , t h o u g h i t does e x p r e s s t h e p o e t ' s c o l d n e s s on one l e v e l , i t i s a l s o i n d i c a t i v e o f a c e r t a i n k i n d o f b e a u t y t o be f o u n d i n t h e a w a r e n e s s a n d a c c e p t a n c e o f i s o l a t i o n . The u s e o f t h e words " d a z z l i n g 1 * and " b l i n d i n g l i g h t " w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o i t a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t p e r h a p s t h e poet i s a l l o w i n g t h e snow t o o p e r a t e as a n image f o r h i s i s o l a t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e b e a u t y i n v o l v e d , b u t t h a t i n f a c t a d e g r e e o f s e l f - d e c e p t i o n i s a t w o r k . T h i s i d e a i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e s e c o n d s t a n z a , a s i n t h e f i r s t , t h e d e c i s i v e s t a t e m e n t , " A n d s t i l l I have no r e g r e t " i s u n d e r c u t by t h e o b v i o u s i n v o l v e m e n t e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h sound i n , " A s she laughsr ; a n d s t r u g g l e s , and p r e t e n d s t o f i g h t , " and t h e r e g r e t e m p h a s i s e d by t h e r e p e a t e d n e g a t i v e w h i c h sounds i n N o t h i n g so w i l d , n o t h i n g so g l a d as she R e a r s u p i n me, A n d w o u l d n o t , t h o u g h I w a t c h e d a n h o u r y e t . ( N S . p . 32) What f o l l o w s I s a n o b v i o u s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h he i s n o t t o t a l l y a b l e t o a c c e p t ; s u c h r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o c c u r s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e l a t e r poems. The s l i g h t l y pompous, o v e r s t a t i n g o f t h e c a s e u n d e r c u t s what i s b e i n g s a i d I l l so that the tensions w i t h i n the poet are revealed : So I walk on. Perhaps what I desired —That long and s i c k l y hope, someday to be As she is—gave a' f l i c k e r and expired ; For the f i r s t time I'm content to see What poor mortar and b r i c k s I have to b u i l d w i t h , knowing that I can Never i n seventy years be more a man Than now—a sack of meal upon two s t i c k s . (NS. p . 32 ) The use of the r e p e t i t i o n of the f i r s t l i n e of t h i s stanza at the beginning of the necct stanza underl ines the e f f e c t of a man t r y i n g to persuade himself I n t e l l e c t u a l l y of h i s detach-ment and w i l l i n g n e s s to accept what e x i s t s , despite h i s emotional res is tance to i t . The "two o l d ragged men/Clearing the d r i f t s with shovels and a spade" are i n strong contrast to the g i r l . They are o l d and u n a t t r a c t i v e , and, rather than playing and f i g h t i n g y o u t h f u l l y i n the snow r e f l e c t i n g - i t s beauty, they are s h o v e l l i n g i t away i n c a r t s . The monotonous q u a l i t y of t h e i r work and t h e i r apparent r e s i g n a t i o n to being "a sack of meal upon two sticks." makes them seem a s u i t a b l e object f o r L a r k i n to empathize with without l o s i n g his sense of lovelessness and detachment. In them he sees a model for the way h i s l i f e must be l i v e d . But they are not the safe release f o r emotion he judges them to be, since the emotion once acknow-ledged quickly overtakes his r a t i o n a l i z i n g and makes him aware of h i s r e a l d e s i r e s : 112 Damn a l l explanatory rhymes! To be that g i r l ! — b u t t h a t ' s impossible . (NS. p . 33) The slow monotony and d i f f i c u l t y of the next l i n e s as he describes h i s determination to supress h i s desires for a l i f e based on love and involvement Indicates the unnatural e f f o r t involved for him: For me the t a s k ' s to learn the many times When I must stoop, and throw a s h o v e l f u l : I must repeat u n t i l I l i v e the fact That everything 's remade With shovel and spade. (NS. p . 33) The l a s t stanza weakens the poem and l i n k s i t with the other poems i n the volume, s i n c e , instead of r e s o l v i n g the c o n f l i c t or acknowledging the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of r e s o l u t i o n w i t h i n the terms establ ished i n the poem, that i s the use of s i t u a t i o n and response as an image, i t moves into the world of fantasy and the image of the u n i c o r n , which does not r e -l a t e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y to the res t of the poem, i s used as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n for the poet 's choice of a way of l i f e . Because t h i s image i s so much out of context , i t seems l i k e an evasion of the r e a l issues of the poem. Though J i l l and A G i r l In Winter conclude s i m i l a r l y with an image rather than statement or a c t i o n presenting the r e s o l u t i o n , i n the novels the image a r i s e s n a t u r a l l y from a l l that has preceeded, and i n both cases there i s an honesty i n acknowledging that whatever r e s o l u t i o n i s found i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y and p a r t i a l . 113 The l o v e poems I n The L e s s D e c e i v e d a r e l e s s e a s i l y -g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r t h a n t h o s e i n The N o r t h S h i p ; t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l poems i n t h e vo lumes i s r e f l e c t e d a l s o i n t h e t o t a l i t y o f each b o o k . The poems I n The L e s s D e c e i v e d a r e d r a m a t i c i n t h a t t h e y p r e s e n t t h e w o r k i n g o u t o f a t t i t u d e s r a t h e r t h a n p r e s e n t i n g t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f a n i d e a . They s h a r e a n h o n e s t y i n t h a t t h e y u s u a l l y end w i t h a q u e s t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a s t a t e m e n t . The s e n s e o f t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f s o l v i n g c o m p l e t e l y any o f t h e p r o b l e m s l i f e poses i s c a r r i e d t h r o u g h i n t h e t o t a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e b o o k . The l o v e poems f o r e x a m p l e , a r e so v a r i e d b e c a u s e t h e w r i t e r i s a t t e m p t i n g t o v i e w l o v e f r o m many a n g l e s so t h a t , a l t h o u g h no one a n g l e i s s a t i s f a c t o r y , s o m e t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g a t o t a l v i e w o f l o v e c a n be g a i n e d when a l l t h e v i e w p o i n t s a r e p u t t o g e t h e r and o p e r a t e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ; Of n e c e s s i t y t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n a p p r o a c h a l s o c a u s e s a s h i f t f r o m t h e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e f o c u s on t h e poet h i m s e l f i n The N o r t h S h i p t o a more w i d e r a n g i n g sympathy w i t h a v a r i e t y o f personam i n The L e s s D e c e i v e d . One o f t h e many s i g n i f i c a n c e s o f t h e t i t l e o f t h e v o l u m e i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h i s s h i f t : t h e i n c r e a s e d a w a r e n e s s o f t h e p o e t shows i t s e l f i n h i s r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s w h i c h l o v e poses f o r h i m a r e n o t e x c l u s i v e t o h i m b u t p a r t o f t h e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y q u a l i t y o f l i f e as a w h o l e w h i c h f a c e s man i n g e n e r a l . I n s t e a d o f m o u r n i n g h i s own f a i l u r e s he sees t h a t he s h a r e s c e r t a i n b a s i c i n -a d e q u a c i e s w i t h a l l men: t h a t t o v i e w t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a 114 perfect love i s to be deceived. The poet recognises , however, that he, just as other men, i s only less deceived; that a c e r t a i n amount of w i l f u l deception remains i n order to make man capable of coping with what l i f e presents . T o t a l aware-ness f o r man can only be h i s awareness of h i s attempts at s e l f - d e c e p t i o n . Perhaps the most e f f e c t i v e way of demonstrating the d i f f e r e n c e s between the two volumes i s to compare i n d i v i d u a l poems with s i m i l a r s t a r t i n g p o i n t s . The p o s i t i o n of observer which L a r k i n assigns to himself i n poem "XX" i n The North Ship i s re-examined and developed i n "Reasons for Attendance" In The Less Deceived. The development and increased com-p l e x i t y l i e s i n the fac t that , instead of simply s t a t i n g h i s detachment and attempting to accept i t , i n "Reasons for Attendance" he r a t i o n a l i z e s and j u s t i f i e s h i s p o s i t i o n through h i s a l l e g i a n c e to ar t and h i s des i re to r e t a i n h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y . "The trumpet's v o i c e , loud and a u t h o r i t a t i v e " 2 i s the i n i t i a l common f o c a l point of the poet and the young dancers; but h i s t o t a l separation from them i s indicated i n h i s p o s i t i o n as one looking i n from outside through "the l i g h t e d g l a s s . " The music appeals to h i s i n t e l l e c t whils t the dancers are responding i n an emotional and p h y s i c a l way: ^The Less Deceived, p. 18. (Future references to t h i s work w i l l be made w i t h i n the text using the abbreviat ion L D . ) i 115 S h i f t i n g i n t e n t l y , face to f lushed f a c e , Solemnly on the peat of happiness. (LD_. p . 18) Almost against h i s w i l l the poet 's imagination responds to the s i t u a t i o n and he becomes momentarily s u f f i c i e n t l y Involved to question his detachments —Or so I fancy, sensing the smoke and sweat, The wonderful f e e l of g i r l s . Why be out here? (LD. p . 18) At t h i s point he brings h i s reason into play and attempts to r a t i o n a l i z e the p o s i t i o n he maintains . The tone of the poem changes and becomes rather g l i b as he overstates the value of h i s detachment and attempts to deny the v a l i d i t y of the view-point of the dancers by reducing t h e i r response to "sex" and t h e i r dancing to "they maul to and f r o . " He states that i n contrast to them he i s drawn by something t o t a l l y non-p h y s i c a l : What c a l l s me Is that l i f t e d , rough-tongued b e l l (Art , i f you l i k e ) whose i n d i v i d u a l sound I n s i s t s I too am i n d i v i d u a l . (LD. p. 18) I t i s more or less at t h i s point that poem "XX" concludes, but i n "Reasons f o r Attendance" the whole statement of the poem i s questioned by the l a s t s tanza: Therefore I stay outs ide , B e l i e v i n g t h i s ; and they maul to and f r o , B e l i e v i n g that ; and both are s a t i s f i e d , I f no one has misjudged h i m s e l f . Or l i e d . (LD. p. 18) 116 H e r e t h e p o e t does n o t s i m p l y i n d i c a t e h i s d o u b t s a b o u t t h e r e a l m o t i v e s f o r h i s p o s i t i o n , b u t he q u e s t i o n s t h e w h o l e i d e a o f c h o o s i n g a s t a n c e . A s t h e t i t l e o f t h e poem s u g g e s t s he seems t o f e e l t h a t man does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c h o o s e t o be d e t a c h e d o r i n v o l v e d b u t t h a t once a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n i s r e a l i z e d we s t a r t t o r a t i o n a l i z e i t and p r e s e n t i t a s a good c h o i c e . The w h o l e p r o c e s s o f t h e poem p r e s e n t s i n m i n i a t u r e t h i s r e c u r r i n g s i t u a t i o n , s i n c e i t s t a r t s w i t h a s i t u a t i o n ; t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s a r e r e a l i z e d a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n a n d d e n i g r a t i o n o f t h e o p p o s i t e v i e w p o i n t b e g i n s . The poem does n o t end w i t h a n a t t e m p t a t r e s o l u t i o n — i t s i m p l y a r r i v e s a t a p o i n t o f c o m p l e t e a w a r e n e s s . I n poem " X X W t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e poem i s t h e p o e t , and t h e r e i s l i t t l e t o s u g g e s t u n i v e r s a l i t y i n h i s p o s i t i o n . I n " R e a s o n s f o r A t t e n d a n c e " L a r k i n c l e a r l y sees h i m s e l f i n a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e as r e p r e s e n t i n g one a s p e c t o f a u n i v e r s a l s i t u a t i o n . S i n c e he sees h i m s e l f a s one o f many he assumes a n i r o n i c a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s h i m s e l f w h i c h i s a b s e n t f r o m poem " X X " . He does n o t move o u t s i d e t h e t e r m s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n he e s t a b l i s h e s as he does i n poem " X X " , b u t p r e s e n t s h o n e s t l y t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f e v e r f e e l i n g t h e s e c u r i t y o f a n i n v u l n e r a b l e v i e w p o i n t . H i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s l o v e i s a l s o more h o n e s t and a l s o a m b i v a l e n t . He a t once r e s p o n d s t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l o v e i n p h y s i c a l t e rms b u t b e c a u s e t h i s i s s o m e t h i n g he does n o t have he a t t e m p t s t o be 117 o b j e c t i v e a n d a n t1 - r o m a n t i c a b o u t i t . A poem w h i c h , l i k e "Reasons f o r A t t e n d a n c e " , w o r k s s u c c e s s f u l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y w i t h a f o c u s o n one c e n t r a l image i s "No R o a d " . I t has c e r t a i n r e s e m b l a n c e s t o poem " X X I V " i n The N o r t h S h i p i n t h a t b o t h d e a l w i t h a d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n t o c o n c l u d e a l o v e a f f a i r . B o t h a r e b a s e d o n t h e j o u r n e y image and b o t h i m p l y t h a t p a r t i n g i s b a s e d as much o n r e a s o n a s e m o t i o n . H e r e t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s e n d , f o r , t h o u g h t h e e a r l i e r poem has t h e j o u r n e y image a s a c e n t r a l o n e , t h e r e a r e a l s o o t h e r Images w h i c h d e t r a c t f r o m t h i s r a t h e r t h a n a d d t o i t ; f o r examples "we a r e h u s k s , t h a t s e e / The g r a i n g o i n g f o r w a r d t o a d i f f e r e n t u s e " ( N S . p . 37). T h i s l a c k o f economy, w h i c h d i m i n i s h e s t h e e f f e c t o f t h e f o c u s , i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e a b s t r a c t l a n g u a g e and i n a r h e t o r i c a l n o t e i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s u b j e c t . The poem ends w i t h a n o t e o f c e r t a i n t y and e v e n c o m p l a c e n c y t h a t t h e r i g h t d e c i s i o n has b e e n made; "No R o a d " d e s c r i b e s a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e d e c i s i o n t o p a r t has a l r e a d y b e e n made and a c t i o n t a k e n ; b u t e v e n a t t h i s p o i n t t h e poet q u e s t i o n s t h e d e c i s i o n a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r q u e s t i o n s what t h e s i t u a t i o n r e v e a l s a b o u t h i m s e l f . The u s e o f t h e r o a d as t h e c e n t r a l image c r e a t e s t h e s e n s e t h a t , a l t h o u g h c o m m u n i c a t i o n I n t h e f o r m o f l o v e b e t w e e n two p e o p l e i s p o s s i b l e , i t i s a c o m m u n i c a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a m e r g i n g , and t h a t w i t h i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p each r e t a i n s - a s e p a r a t e i d e n t i t y ; 118 The p a r t i n g i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s n o t t h e d r a m a t i c one o f poem " X X I V " , h u t s i m p l y a l e t t i n g o f t h e r o a d f a l l i n t o d i s u s e — m o r e a n o p t i n g o u t r a t h e r t h a n a d e l i b e r a t e b r e a k . B u t , t h e p o e t s u g g e s t s , once c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n two p e o p l e has b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e g r o u n d s f o r t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p c o n t i n u e t o e x i s t f o r some t i m e , so t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n t o p a r t c a n n o t be a f i n a l one b u t one t h a t must be r e a f f i r m e d . The i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f t h e e v e n t u a l f i n a l s e p a r a t i o n i s e m p h a s i s e d by t h e u s e o f r h y m e : " A l i t t l e l o n g e r , / A n d t i m e w i l l be t h e s t r o n g e r " ( L D . p . 2 6 ) . The m o r n i n g image i n t h e l a s t s t a n z a e s t a b l i s h e s t h e p o e t ' s a m b i v a l e n c e : he f e e l s t h e s i t u a t i o n t o be n e g a t i v e and i n some ways he r e g r e t s i t , b u t he o b v i o u s l y f e e l s t h a t h i s awareness h a s been i n c r e a s e d by h i s renewed i s o l a t i o n : . "To w a t c h t h a t w o r l d come u p l i k e a c o l d s u n , / R e w a r d i n g o t h e r s , i s my l i b e r t y " ( L D . p . 2 6 ) . A t t h e same t i m e he f e e l s t h a t h i s need f o r s u c h a s i t u a t i o n o f i s o l a t i o n d i m i n i s h e s h i m i n some w a y : " N o t t o p r e v e n t i t i s my w i l l ' s f u l f i l m e n t , / W l l l i n g i t , my a i l m e n t " ( L D . p . 2 6 ) . The w h o l e poem e v e n t h r o u g h t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c e n t r a l i m a g e , e x p r e s s e s a m e l a n c h o l y t e n d e r n e s s and sense o f l o v e ' s v a l u e , w h i c h t h e downward t o n e o f t h e l a s t l i n e , q u o t e d a b o v e , e m p h a s i s e s . T h e r e i s a s e l f - a w a r e n e s s i n t h e poem and a r e f u s a l on t h e p o e t ' s p a r t t o o v e r d r a m a t i z e h i m s e l f o r t h e s i t u a t i o n . I n poem " X X I V " t h e r e i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s r a t h e r t h a n s e l f - a w a r e n e s s a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e f o r m o f t h e poem s u g g e s t s 119 an attempt at the c o n t r o l l e d tone of "No Road", t h i s i s not always maintained, for the l i n e s , now at l a s t Never has sun more b o l d l y paced the sky, Never were hearts more eager to be f r e e , To kick down worlds, lash f o r e s t s , (NS. p . 37) a t t r i b u t e a largeness and v i t a l i t y to the characters and s i t u a t i o n which i s not merited and which contrast with the sobriety of the f i n a l and most successful image: But i t i s bet ter that our l i v e s unloose, As two t a l l s h i p s , wind-mastered, wet with l i g h t , Break from an estuary with t h e i r courses se t , And waving par t , and waving drop from s i g h t . (NS. p . 3?) The poet of poem "XXIV" s t i l l has hope for the f u t u r e ; par t ing simply means s e t t i n g out i n further exploratory t r i p s , f reer a l o n e . "No Road" expresses a sense of f a i l u r e , s i n c e , though t h i s i s just one r e l a t i o n s h i p which he has chosen not to maintain , i t represents an o v e r a l l f a i l u r e to achieve s a t i s -f a c t o r y communication with anyone. I t i s an a s s e r t i o n of h i s i s o l a t i o n but an expression of t h i s s i g n i f y i n g a f a i l u r e w i t h i n man. L i k e "Reasons for Attendance" i t makes i m p l i -cations beyond the very s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n descr ibed . The counterpart of poems " I V " and "X" i n The North Ship i s "Places , Loved Ones", f o r a l l deal with the f e e l i n g of i s o l a t i o n and of being unable to l o v e . In the ear ly poems 120 L a r k i n i s c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h how t h i s s i t u a t i o n a f f e c t s h i m s e l f and t h e r e i s a n i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t h i s p o s i t i o n i s u n i q u e i I n " P l a c e s , L o v e d Ones" he p u t s h i s p o s i t i o n i n t o a b r o a d p e r s p e c t i v e . He a d m i t s f r e e l y h i s r o o t l e s s n e s s b o t h i n t e r m s o f p l a c e s and p e o p l e : Noy. I have n e v e r f o u n d The p l a c e where I c o u l d say T h i s i s my p r o p e r g r o u n d , H e r e I s h a l l s t a y ; Nor met t h a t s p e c i a l one Who has a n i n s t a n t c l a i m On e v e r y t h i n g I own Down t o my name. (LD> p . 16) B u t any s u g g e s t i o n o f s e l f - p i t y w h i c h s u c h a n a d m i s s i o n m i g h t i m p l y i s u n d e r c u t by t h e s l i g h t l y m o c k i n g t o n e he a d o p t s t o w a r d s t h o s e who have s u c c e e d e d where he a p p e a r s t o have f a i l e d ; I n t h e c l a i m t o have f o u n d a p l a c e t h e r e i s a f i n a l i t y and a s s e r t i v e n e s s w h i c h e x p r e s s e s a d e s i r e r a t h e r t h a n a c o n -v i c t i o n t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t s h a l l be t r u e ; j u s t as " i n s t a n t c l a i m " a n d " e v e r y t h i n g I own/Down t o my name" s u g g e s t s a n i n d e c e n t h a s t e and a d e s i r e f o r t o t a l m e r g i n g l e s t any c o n t r a r y a r g u m e n t s s h o u l d i n t e r v e n e . T h i s n o t e o f m o c k i n g c r i t i c i s m c o n t i n u e s i n t h e s e c o n d s t a n z a where t h e p o e t s u g g e s t s t h a t i t i s a d e s i r e t o a v o i d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e f a i l u r e o f o n e ' s l i f e t h a t c a u s e s t h e h a s t e t o e s t a b l i s h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y e l s e w h e r e : 121 You a s k them t o b e a r You o f f I r r e v o c a b l y , So t h a t i t ' s n o t y o u r f a u l t S h o u l d t h e town t u r n d r e a r y , The g i r l a d o l t . ( L D . p . 16) U n t i l t h i s p o i n t i n t h e poem t h e r o o t l e s s one h a s , by i m p l i c a t i o n , a c c e p t e d f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e way h i s l i f e e v o l v e s , b u t i n t h e l a s t s t a n z a t h i s i l l u s i o n i s d e s t r o y -e d , s i n c e he I n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f t h i s i s o l a t i o n c a n be b lamed f o r f a i l u r e i n e x a c t l y t h e same w a y i Y e t , h a v i n g m i s s e d t h e m , y o u ' r e B o u n d , none t h e l e s s , t o a c t A s i f what y o u s e t t l e d f o r Mashed y o u , i n f a c t . ( L D . p i 16) The p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e o t h e r way o f l i f e i s p r e s e r v e d as a n i l l u s i o n t h a t p e r h a p s t h i n g s c o u l d have worked o u t b e t t e r i n d i f f e r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s : A n d w i s e r t o k e e p away Prom t h i n k i n g y o u s t i l l m i g h t t r a c e U n c a l l e d - f o r t o t h i s day Y o u r p e r s o n , y o u r p l a c e . (LJD. p . 16) The f i n a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e poem seems t o be t h a t man i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s c o n d i t i o n a n d f a i l u r e i n h i s way o f l i f e b u t t h a t t h e i d e a o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c o m p l e t e l y s u c c e s s f u l l i f e i s a n i l l u s i o n and t h a t u l t i m a t e l y t h e man who a p p e a r s t o have f o u n d l o v e and h i s " p r o p e r g r o u n d " i s as i s o l a t e d a n d r o o t l e s s t h r o u g h t h e f a c t o f b e i n g a man a s he who a p p e a r s t o h a v e c h o s e n t h i s c o n d i t i o n . 122 The b r o a d e n i n g awareness a n d a r e a o f sympathy o f " P l a c e s , L o v e d O n e s " t a k e s a n o t h e r f o r m i n " W e d d i n g - W i n d " , s i n c e t h i s i s p r e s e n t e d f r o m a woman's p o i n t o f v i e w ; The s u c c e s s f u l e s t a b l i s h i n g o f t h i s v i e w p o i n t must owe s o m e t h i n g t o A G i r l I n W i n t e r where L a r k i n w o r k s e n t i r e l y t h r o u g h K a t h e r i n e ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s . The p r o b l e m s p o s e d by d o i n g t h i s i n t h e n o v e l a r e f e w e r s i n c e K a t h e r i n e i s s t i l l a g i r l and L a r k i n seems t o see t h e f e m a l e p s y c h o l o g y as b e c o m i n g f u l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m t h e m a l e a t t h e p o i n t o f m a r r i a g e when t h e two a r e b r o u g h t i n t o c o n j u n c t i o n . T h e r e i s h i n t o f t h i s i n poem " X X I I " where t h e "One man r e s t l e s s l y w a i t i n g a t r a i n " i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e w i n d w h i c h " r u n s w i l d / B e a t i n g each s h u t t e r e d h o u s e " ; whereas woman and c h i l d a r e i n " t h e d a r k s i l k o f d r e a m s , / A s h e l l o f s l e e p " ( N S . p . 35). The w i n d image i s t a k e n u p i n J i l l and I t i s a t t h e p o i n t o f r e a c h i n g some k i n d o f s e x u a l a w a r e n e s s t h a t J o h n most c o m p l e t e l y i d e n t i f i e s w i t h t h e w i n d . I n " W e d d i n g - W i n d " t h e b r i d e g r o o m i s a s s o c -i a t e d w i t h t h e w i n d as t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e t i t l e s u g g e s t s ; t h e f i r s t two l i n e s o f t h e poem t a k e u p t h e i m p l i c a t i o n : "The w i n d b l e w a l l my w e d d i n g - d a y , / A n d my w e d d i n g - n i g h t was t h e n i g h t o f t h e h i g h w i n d " (LD_. p . 15). The a s s o c i a t i o n i s c o n -t i n u e d i n t h a t i t i s t h e man who g e t s u p d u r i n g t h e n i g h t t o see t o t h e s t a b l e - d o o r s and t h e h o r s e s made r e s t l e s s by t h e w i n d , w h i l e t h e woman r e m a i n s a n d i s p a s s i v e i n t h e a b s e n c e o f h e r h u s b a n d : 123 A n d a s t a b l e d o o r was b a n g i n g , a g a i n a n d a g a i n , T h a t he must go and s h u t i t , l e a v i n g me S t u p i d i n c a n d l e l i g h t , h e a r i n g r a i n , S e e i n g my f a c e i n t h e t w i s t e d c a n d l e s t i c k , Y e t s e e i n g n o t h i n g . ( L D . p . 15) The b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e c o n d s t a n z a , t h o u g h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , i s o b v i o u s l y a l s o a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e h u s b a n d ' s e f f e c t o n t h e w i f e : "Now i n t h e d a y / A l l ' s r a v e l l e d u n d e r t h e s u n by t h e w i n d ' s b l o w i n g " ( L D . p . 15). The image i s d e v e l o p e d a s she makes a n e x p l i c i t c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e e f f e c t o f t h e w i n d on t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s and h e r new e m o t i o n a l s t a t e s A l l I s t h e w i n d H u n t i n g t h r o u g h c l o u d s and f o r e s t s , t h r a s h i n g My a p r o n and t h e h a n g i n g c l o t h s o n t h e l i n e . C a n i t be b o r n e , t h i s b o d y i n g - f o r t h by w i n d Of j o y my a c t i o n s t u r n o n , l i k e a t h r e a d C a r r y i n g b e a d s ? ( L D . p . 15) She wonders w h e t h e r h e r n a t u r a l p a s s i v i t y a n d r e f l e c t i v e n e s s , e v e n a t t h i s p o i n t she s t a n d s a n d s t a r e s , c a n be r e t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e p a r t n e r s h i p , " S h a l l I be l e t t o s l e e p / N o w t h i s p e r p e t u a l m o r n i n g s h a r e s my b e d ? " ( L D . p . 15)• The poem i s L a r k i n ' s most p o s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e power o f l o v e i n t h i s v o l u m e , b u t i t i s q u a l i f i e d by a c e r t a i n amount o f i r o n y . D e s p i t e t h e woman's e x h i l a r a t i o n and h e r l o v e a s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e man and t h e woman i s e s t a b l i s h e d o f w h i c h she t a k e s no a c c o u n t . I n b o t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w e d d i n g - n i g h t and t h e f o l l o w i n g day t h e woman i s a l o n e ; 124 t h e man i s c l e a r l y I n v o l v e d I n h i s work and s u r r o u n d i n g s i n a way w h i c h she i s n o t . The c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e h u s b a n d w i t h t h e w i n d c a r r i e s w i t h i t i r o n y s i n c e t h e w i n d i s shown as n o t s i m p l y e x h i l a r a t i n g and f o r c e f u l b u t a l s o d e s t r u c t i v e — i t i s t h e c a u s e o f t h e f l o o d s — a n d t h e e x h i l a r a t i o n i t s e l f i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y g o o d , s i n c e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e w i n d on t h e h o r s e s i s t o make them r e s t l e s s . H e r q u e s t i o n i n g o f t h e e f f e c t on h e r s e l f o f t h e a l l i a n c e w i t h h e r h u s b a n d s u g g e s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f h e r e v e n t u a l d e s t r u c t i o n ; a n d t h e f i n a l i r o n y o f t h e poem l i e s i n h e r l a s t q u e s t i o n : C a n e v e n d e a t h d r y u p These new d e l i g h t e d l a k e s , c o n c l u d e Our k n e e l i n g a s c a t t l e by a l l - g e n e r o u s w a t e r s ? ( L D . p . 15) H e r q u e s t i o n i s i n t e n d e d a s a n a s s e r t i o n o f t h e power o f t h e i r l o v e ; t h e m e n t i o n o f d e a t h c l e a r l y p r o s c r i b e s i t s l i m i t s . The s e x u a l a s p e c t o f l o v e i s n e v e r d e a l t w i t h d i r e c t l y i n any o f t h e poems. I n " W e d d i n g - W i n d " t h e r e i s a n o b l i q u e r e f e r e n c e t o i t t h r o u g h t h e sound q u a l i t y o f t h e l i n e " A n d a s t a b l e d o o r was b a n g i n g , a g a i n a n d a g a i n , " a n d even h e r e t h e r e i s sense o f s o m e t h i n g d e s t r u c t i v e . The o n l y o t h e r poem w h i c h makes r e f e r e n c e t o s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e , a g a i n d e a l s w i t h i t s v i o l e n t a s p e c t ; " D e c e p t i o n s " d e a l s w i t h a r a p e . T h i s poem i s o n l y i n d i r e c t l y a l o v e poem b u t I i n c l u d e i t i n t h i s s e c t i o n f o r two r e a s o n s : i t i n d i c a t e s L a r k i n ' s b r o a d e n i n g sympathy 125 f o r and a w a r e n e s s o f o t h e r s and t h i s i n i t s e l f i s a k i n d o f l o v e ; s e c o n d l y b e c a u s e L a r k i n c h o o s e s t o d e a l w i t h p h y s i c a l l o v e i n t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t o f r a p e . I n none o f h i s poems does he s u g g e s t t h a t a s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p has any o f t h e v a l u e s n o r m a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o i t . Once a g a i n t h e f e m a l e i s a s s i g n e d a p a s s i v e r o l e b u t i t I s a d e g r a d e d v e r s i o n o f t h a t i n " W e d d i n g - W i n d " s i n c e i t i s t o t a l l a c k o f r e s i s t a n c e b r o u g h t a b o u t by d r u g s . The m a l e i s t h e a g g r e s s o r , b u t i t i s a n a g g r e s s i o n on a p e t t y s c a l e s he subdues r e s i s t a n c e i n a d v a n c e and h i s d e s i r e seems b a s e d on d e s p e r a t i o n more t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e : H i s p r o g r e s s u p t h e s t a i r s i s a v e r s i o n o f t h e j o u r n e y theme and h i s u l t i m a t e a w a r e n e s s i s a s t r i p p i n g away o f t h e d e c e p t i o n , l e a v i n g n o t h i n g . The m a n ' s a t t e m p t t o g a i n s e x u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n becomes a n Image f o r m a n ' s hope o f f i n d i n g p l e a s u r e a n d h a p p i n e s s i n l i f e ; t h e i n e v i t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n , as s u g g e s t e d i n " N e x t P l e a s e " a l s o , i s "To b u r s t i n t o f u l -f i l m e n t ' s d e s o l a t e a t t i c " ( L D . p . 3 7 ) . A n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e f a i l u r e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s o c c u r s i n The N o r t h S h i p , b u t i n t h e poems t h e r e L a r k i n i s d e a l i n g w i t h s p e c i f i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s and b e w a i l i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f b e c o m i n g a d i s c a r d e d l o v e r . " L a t e s t F a c e " i s a much more a g g r e s s i v e a n d r e a l i s t i c v e r s i o n o f t h i s theme. He a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e p o w e r f u l a t t r a c t i o n o f p h y s i c a l b e a u t y b u t a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e i s a p o t e n t i a l s t e r i l i t y i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p begun on t h i s b a s i s : 126 A d m i r e r and a d m i r e d embrace On a u s e l e s s l e v e l , where I c o n t a i n y o u r c u r r e n t g r a c e , You my j u d g e m e n t . (LD_. p . 41) H o w e v e r , d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e y o n d t h i s p o i n t t o d i s c o v e r w h e t h e r a n y t h i n g e x i s t s b e h i n d t h e m a s k s : w i l l The s t a t u e o f y o u r b e a u t y w a l k ? M u s t I wade b e h i n d i t , t i l l S o m e t h i n g ' s f o u n d — o r i s n o t f o u n d — ( L D . p . 4 1 ) , c r e a t e s t h e k i n d o f i n v o l v e m e n t w h i c h t h e i n c r e a s e d a w a r e n e s s may make u n d e s i r a b l e . D e n i a l o f t h e b a s i c a t t r a c t i o n c h a l l e n g e s b e a u t y ' s power a n d i s p e r h a p s a l s o d e s t r u c t i v e : c a n D e n i a l o f y o u d u c k and r u n , S t a y o u t o f s i g h t a n d d o u b l e r o u n d , L e a p f r o m t h e s u n w i t h mask and b r a n d A n d m u r d e r and n o t u n d e r s t a n d ? ( L D . p i 41) A s i n " P l a c e s , L o v e d O n e s " t h e s i t u a t i o n i n f a c t a f f o r d s no r e a l c h o i c e , s i n c e t h e s t r o n g p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e s t r u c t i o n o f some k i n d a c c o m p a n i e s e i t h e r c h o i c e . The e n e r g y of t h e l a s t l i n e s does s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p o e t ' s i m p u l s e i s t o d e s t r o y b e f o r e b e i n g d e s t r o y e d . The W h i t s u n Weddings i s l e s s m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m The L e s s D e c e i v e d t h a n t h e l a t t e r i s f r o m The N o r t h S h i p . T h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s e d m a t u r i t y w h i c h t a k e s t h e f o r m o f a n e v e n w i d e r r a n g e o f s y m p a t h y , a g r e a t e r i r o n i c s e l f - a w a r e n e s s , a n d a n i n c r e a s e d c o m p a s s i o n f o r man i n h i s a t t e m p t s t o 127 p r e s e r v e a n i l l u s i o n o f c e r t a i n v a l u e s i n l i f e . The poems w h i c h d e a l w i t h t h e l a c k o f l o v e o r w i t h t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f l o v e f o c u s o n t h e m i s e r y c a u s e d by t h e gap b e t w e e n o u r e x p e c t a t i o n s and t h e i r f u l f i l m e n t ; t h i s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i s t h e l a r g e s t g r o u p o f t h e l o v e poems i n t h i s v o l u m e , " L o v e Songs i n A g e " d e a l s w i t h t h e need t o m a i n t a i n t h e i l l u s i o n o f l o v e ' s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . The songs a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e i d e a o f l o v e . They a r e c o n s t a n t l y p r e s e n t , a h o u s e h o l d o b j e c t t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d , b u t t h e y a r e n e v e r e x a m i n e d : t h e y r e p r e s e n t a c o n s t a n t p r o m i s e o f what l o v e c a n do i f a n d when i t i s c a l l e d u p o n : She k e p t h e r s o n g s , t h e y t o o k so l i t t l e s p a c e , The c o v e r s p l e a s e d h e r ; One b l e a c h e d f r o m l y i n g i n a sunny p l a c e , One m a r k e d I n c i r c l e s by a v a s e o f w a t e r , One mended, when a t i d y f i t had s i e z e d h e r , A n d c o l o u r e d , by h e r d a u g h t e r —3 When t h e moment o f w i d o w h o o d , and by i m p l i c a t i o n l o n e l i n e s s a r r i v e s , t h e n t h e songs a r e opened t h a t t h e i r p o t e n t i a l i t y may be e x p l o i t e d . They b r i n g b a c k t h e memory o f y o u t h and t h e s e n s e t h e n o f l i f e ' s r i c h p o t e n t i a l : A n d t h e u n f a i l i n g sense o f b e i n g y o u n g S p r e a d o u t l i k e a s p r i n g - w o i k e n t r e e , w h e r e i n T h a t h i d d e n f r e s h n e s s s u n g , T h a t c e r t a i n t y o f t i m e l a i d u p i n s t o r e A s when she p l a y e d them f i r s t . (WW. p . 12) 3The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s , p ; 12. A l l f u t u r e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s volume w i l l be i n c l u d e d i n t h e t e x t w i t h t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n , WWi 128 The p o t e n t i a l i n c l u d e d t h e i d e a o f l o v e s I t s b r i g h t i n c i p i e n c e s a i l i n g a b o v e , S t i l l p r o m i s i n g t o s o l v e , a n d s a t i s f y , A n d s e t u n c h a n g e a b l y i n o r d e r . (WW. p . 12) B u t , w i t h t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e memory i n t h e l i g h t o f s u b s e q u e n t e x p e r i e n c e , l o v e ' s power i s s e e n f o r t h e i l l u s i o n i t i s , a n d the a d m i s s i o n o f t h i s means t h e d e n i a l o f a l l f u t u r e hope o f l o v e as a remedy f o r t h e chaos a n d i n a d e q u a c i e s o f l i f e s So To p i l e them b a c k , t o c r y , Was h a r d , w i t h o u t l a m e l y a d m i t t i n g how I t had n o t done so t h e n , and c o u l d n o t now. (WW. p . 12) I n t h i s poem and i n " F a i t h H e a l i n g " L a r k i n i s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s p l a c e d on l o v e a r e d e s t r u c t i v e , s i n c e t h e i l l u s i o n c a n n o t a l w a y s be m a i n t a i n e d a n d t h e a c c e p t -a n c e o f l i f e w i t h o u t t h e i l l u s i o n t h e n becomes much h a r d e r . The f o c u s o f " F a i t h H e a l i n g " , t o o , i s o l d e r women who a r e l o n e l y , b u t t h e i r o n y i s d i r e c t e d l e s s a g a i n s t them t h a n a g a i n s t t h o s e whose p r o f e s s i o n i s t h e c r e a t i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g o f i l l u s i o n s , u s i n g t h e f a c t o f l o n e l i n e s s t o a s s i s t t h e m . The d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e i l l u s i o n t h e s e p e o p l e a t t e m p t t o c r e a t e and t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e i r m o t i v e s and a t t i t u d e s i s b r o u g h t o u t i n t h e f i r s t s t a n z a , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n "warm s p r i n g r a i n o f l o v i n g c a r e " a n d " E a c h d w e l l s 129 some t w e n t y s e c o n d s " : S t e w a r d s t i r e l e s s l y P e r s u a d e them onwards t o h i s v o i c e and h a n d s , W i t h i n whose warm s p r i n g r a i n o f l o v i n g c a r e E a c h d w e l l s some t w e n t y s e c o n d s . Now, d e a r c h i l d , W h a t ' s w r o n g , t h e deep A m e r i c a n v o i c e demands, A n d , s c a r c e l y p a u s i n g , goes i n t o a p r a y e r D i r e c t i n g God a b o u t t h i s e y e , t h a t k n e e . (WW. p . 15) The e x c e s s i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e h e a l e r s t a k e u p o n t h e m -s e l v e s i n what t h e y p r o m i s e i s shown i n t h e i r " D i r e c t i n g G o d " . The p r o m i s e d l o v e and u n d e r s t a n d i n g l o o s e s a p e n t - u p f l o o d o f e m o t i o n , u g l y I n i t s e x c e s s and t h e d e p t h o f l o n e l i n e s s i t b e t r a y s : and s u c h j o y a r r i v e s T h e i r t h i c k t o n g u e s b l o r t , t h e i r eyes squeeze g r i e f , a c rowd Of huge u n h e a r d a n s w e r s jam and r e j o i c e — . (WW. p . 15) L i k e t h e widow o f " L o v e Songs i n A g e " t h e y have m a i n t a i n e d a n i l l u s i o n t h a t had t h e y been l o v e d t h e i r l i v e s w o u l d have b e e n d i f f e r e n t . The i l l u s i o n i s s h a t t e r e d when t h e y a r e g i v e n a l l t h a t t h e f a i t h h e a l e r has t o o f f e r and t h e y f i n d t h a t t h e y have n o t h i n g b u t " A n immense s l a c k e n i n g a c h e " . The i l l u s i o n i s d e s t r o y e d and t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f l o n e l i n e s s and i s o l a t i o n has gone l e a v i n g o n l y a t o t a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y . The i m a g e r y o f t h e poem s u g g e s t s t h a t L a r k i n i s n o t s i m p l y a p p l y i n g h i s i d e a s a b o u t l o v e t o t h i s s p e c i f i c o c c a s i o n o f t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f t h e f a i t h h e a l e r and t h e women, b u t 130 s u g g e s t i n g t h a t l i f e a s a w h o l e o p e r a t e s on t h i s b a s i s . The f a i t h h e a l e r i s L a r k i n ' s v e r s i o n o f o u r v i s i o n o f G o d , and t h e women's b e l i e f I n h i m a n d t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n o f r e c e i v i n g l o v e a t h i s hands i s m a n ' s b e l i e f i n a C h r i s t i a n God and t h e I d e a o f a n a l l e m b r a c i n g h e a v e n l y l o v e . S u c h a b e l i e f , L a r k i n seems t o s u g g e s t , i s d e s t r u c t i v e s i n c e i t t u r n s o u r eyes away f r o m t h e p r e s e n t and t h e l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s w h i c h a r e open t o u s . He s u g g e s t s a s he does i n A G i r l I n W i n t e r t h a t , t h o u g h we c a n n o t e x p e c t t o r e c e i v e u n d i v i d e d l o v e , we a r e c a p a b l e o f o f f e r i n g t o o t h e r s a l i m i t e d f o r m o f l o v e i I n e v e r y o n e t h e r e s l e e p s A s e n s e o f l i f e l i v e d a c c o r d i n g t o l o v e . To some i t means t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h e y c o u l d make By l o v i n g o t h e r s , b u t a c r o s s most i t sweeps As a l l t h e y m i g h t have done had t h e y b e e n l o v e d . T h a t n o t h i n g c u r e s . (WW. p . 15) E v e n t h e c a p a c i t y t o g i v e l o v e has i n h e r e n t d a n g e r s . "Home i s so S a d " i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p a t h o s o f a l i f e d e d i c a t e d t o o t h e r s , s i n c e t h e g i v i n g becomes i n s u c h a c a s e a k i n d o f dependence a n d s t i f l e s t h e r e c e i v e r ; t h e o b j e c t o f l o v e becomes t o o much t h e r e a s o n f o r e x i s t e n c e , so t h a t w i t h i t s r e m o v a l t h e r e i s no p u r p o s e l e f t , no s t r e n g t h , o n l y a n u n -w a n t e d and burdensome l o v e . I n a r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h seems t o a f f o r d t h e f e w e s t b a r r i e r s and t h e g r e a t e s t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n , " T a l k i n g i n bed ought t o be e a s i e s t , / L y i n g t o g e t h e r t h e r e goes b a c k so f a r " , a n a w a r e n e s s and h o n e s t y 131 a r e c r e a t e d w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s p r e v e n t a s e n s e o f t o t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Two p e o p l e who a r e h o n e s t and aware c a n n o t f o c u s t o t a l l y on t h e m s e l v e s : t h e i r awareness w i l l e x t e n d t o t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t and t h e i r p o s i t i o n w i t h i n i t : O u t s i d e , t h e w i n d ' s I n c o m p l e t e u n r e s t B u i l d s and d i s p e r s e s c l o u d s a b o u t t h e s k y , A n d d a r k towns h e a p u p on t h e h o r i z o n . None o f t h i s c a r e s f o r u s . (WW. p . 29 ) So t h a t t h e i r h o n e s t y t a k e s them t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f s i l e n c e , s i n c e w i t h i n t h e s i t u a t i o n I t becomes s t i l l more d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d Words a t once t r u e a n d k i n d , Or n o t u n t r u e and n o t u n k i n d . (WW. p . 29 ) B r o u g h t t o a s i m i l a r k i n d o f a w a r e n e s s t h r o u g h i m p e n d i n g d e a t h , a g a i n l o v e seems t o s o l v e n o t h i n g , f o r a t s u c h a moment t h e i n d i v i d u a l f i n d s h i m s e l f t o t a l l y a l o n e : F a r From t h e exchange o f l o v e t o l i e U n r e a c h a b l e w i t h i n a room The t r a f f i c p a r t s t o l e t go by B r i n g s c l o s e r what i s l e f t t o come, A n d d u l l s t o d i s t a n c e a l l we a r e . (WW. p . 33) L a r k i n seems t o f e e l t h a t what most p e o p l e d e f i n e a s l o v e i s b a s i c a l l y s e l f i s h n e s s and a n a l m o s t i n s t i n c t i v e d e s i r e t o escape f r o m t h e i n e v i t a b l e i s o l a t i o n . He s u g g e s t s t h i s b r i e f l y i n " F a i t h H e a l i n g " and d e a l s w i t h t h e p o i n t a t some l e n g t h i n " S e l f ' s t h e M a n " and " D o c k e r y and S o n " . The f o r m e r 132 poem i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o " P l a c e s , L o v e d O n e s " , f o r i t c o n t r a s t s t h e s t a t e o f t h e m a r r i e d s e t t l e d man and t h a t o f t h e i s o l a t e d man, e v e n t u a l l y s h o w i n g t h a t t h e c o n t r a s t I s f a l s e , s i n c e t h e b a s i c m o t i v a t i o n f o r c h o i c e o f s t a t e i s s e l f i s h n e s s . The man w i t h o u t t i e s , whom L a r k i n f e e l s he r e p r e s e n t s , i s w i t h o u t them b e c a u s e he does n o t w i s h t o meet t h e demands t h a t m a r r i a g e o r any c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l make on h i m . Though t h e m a r r i e d man o r woman seems a t f i r s t s i g h t t o be p r e p a r e d t o meet t h e s e demands, what e a c h i n f a c t r e q u i r e s i s t h a t someone e l s e s h a l l f u l f i l t h e demands , so t h a t each p a r t n e r becomes engaged i n t a k i n g r a t h e r t h a n g i v i n g : He m a r r i e d a woman t o s t o p h e r g e t t i n g away Now s h e ' s t h e r e a l l d a y , A n d t h e money he g e t s f o r w a s t i n g h i s l i f e on work She t a k e s as h e r p e r k To pay f o r t h e k i d d l e s ' c l o b b e r and t h e d r i e r A n d t h e e l e c t r i c f i r e . (WW. p . 24) The two s t a t e s a p p e a r w i t h i n h i m s e l f i n " W i l d O a t s " , s i n c e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p d e s c r i b e d t h e r e seems t o be a c o n s o l a t i o n f o r l o n e l i n e s s r a t h e r t h a n a n y t h i n g . e l s e . The p o i n t i s e m p h a s i s e d s i n c e t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s d e s c r i b e d i n m a t e r i a l t e r m s r a t h e r t h a n e m o t i o n a l o n e s : A n d i n s e v e n y e a r s a f t e r t h a t Wrote o v e r f o u r h u n d r e d l e t t e r s , Gave a t e n - g u i n e a r i n g I g o t b a c k i n t h e e n d . (WW. p . 41) 133 The e x t r a v a g a n c e o f t h e f o u r h u n d r e d l e t t e r s s u g g e s t s a n a l m o s t f r e n z i e d a t t e m p t t o c o m m u n i c a t e . The r e l a t i o n s h i p ends b e c a u s e o f i l l u s i o n on b o t h p a r t s . The g i r l o b v i o u s l y f e e l s t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f a l l - i n v o l v i n g l o v e i s p o s s i b l e , t h o u g h n o t w i t h h i m : P a r t i n g , a f t e r a b o u t f i v e R e h e a r s a l s , was a n agreement T h a t I was t o o s e l f i s h , w i t h d r a w n , A n d e a s i l y b o r e d t o l o v e . (WW. p . 41) H i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s o b v i o u s l y r e l a t e d t o h i s awareness o f "bosomy E n g l i s h r o s e " who r e p r e s e n t s some-one beyond h i s r e a c h , a n u n r e a l s t a n d a r d a g a i n s t w h i c h h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s b e e n m e a s u r e d : I n my w a l l e t a r e s t i l l two snaps Of bosomy r o s e w i t h f u r g l o v e s o n . U n l u c k y c h a r m s , p e r h a p s . (WW. p . 41) The e s s e n t i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e q u a l i t y o f h i s v i s i o n o f h e r i s p e r h a p s s u g g e s t e d i n t h e p r e d a t o r y image i n t h e f u r g l o v e s . The f i n a l poem i n t h e volume i s " A n A r u n d e l Tomb" a n d t h i s p r e s e n t s L a r k i n * s most c o m p l e t e comment on l o v e and i t s p l a c e i n l i f e . He m a i n t a i n s h i s i r o n i c a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s b o t h l o v e a n d t h e v a l u e s o t h e r s a t t r i b u t e t o i t b y c h o o s i n g t o make h i s c o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s a b o u t a l o v e d e p i c t e d i n s t o n e a b o v e t h e tomb o f a dead c o u p l e . I m m e d i a t e l y l o v e i s put i n t o t h e c o n t e x t o f d e a t h and i t s l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e f a c e o f t h i s 134 c l e a r l y d e f i n e d . I t i s a l m o s t d e s p i t e h i m s e l f t h a t he r e s p o n d s t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e k n i g h t and h i s l a d y a r e h o l d i n g h a n d s , "One s e e s , w i t h a s h a r p t e n d e r s h o c k , / H i s hand w i t h -d r a w n , h o l d i n g h e r h a n d " (WW. p . 45 ) . He n e g a t e s t h i s • v u l n e r a b i l i t y i n h i m s e l f i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h t h e a m b i g u i t y o f " l i e " i n t h e n e x t l i n e : "They w o u l d n o t t h i n k t o l i e so l o n g " (WW. p . 45)• He s u g g e s t s t h a t what began as a w h i m s i c a l i d e a has b e e n t r a n s l a t e d by t i m e i n t o a s t a t e m e n t w h i c h was n o t i n t e n d e d : S u c h f a i t h f u l n e s s i n e f f i g y Was j u s t a d e t a i l f r i e n d s w o u l d s e e : A s c u l p t o r ' s sweet c o m m i s s i o n e d g r a c e Thrown o f f i n h e l p i n g t o p r o l o n g The L a t i n names a r o u n d t h e b a s e . (WW. p . 45) The e s s e n t i a l l y u n r e a l i s t i c n a t u r e o f t h e s t a t e m e n t t h e y a p p e a r t o make i s s u g g e s t e d i n , " R i g i d l y t h e y / P e r s i s t e d , l i n k e d t h r o u g h l e n g t h s a n d b r e a d t h s / O f t i m e " (WW. p . 45) . L a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s , l a c k i n g t h e s e n s e o f o r d e r e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e K n i g h t ' s way o f l i f e , seek a n o t h e r k i n d o f o r d e r i n l o v e a n d t a k e them as a s y m b o l o f i t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s . They v i s i t t h e t o m b , " t o p r o v e / O u r a l m o s t - i n s t i n c t a l m o s t t r u e : / What w i l l s u r v i v e o f us i s l o v e " (WW. p . 46) . I t i s , h o w e v e r , "Our a l m o s t - i n s t i n c t " ; t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t p r o o f h a s t o be s o u g h t and i s f o u n d o n l y a t t h e tomb o f d e a d l o v e r s whose r e l a t i o n s h i p i s t o t a l l y s t a t i c , q u e s t i o n s t h e i n s t i n c t and t u r n s i t i n t o n e e d . The p r o o f , s u c h as i t i s , i s "amost true" rather than true, because i t i s not the actual love or i t s effects which have survived, but "faithfulness i n e f f i g y " and "stone f i d e l i t y " . What does i n fact survive i s man's In s t i n c t i v e need to prove the Importance of love, since t h i s i s what l i n k s the knight and lady with the "endlessly a l t e r e d people" passing by the tomb.. CHAPTER V THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TREATMENT OF A L L OTHER MAJOR THEMES I N LARKIN»S POETRY The c e n t r a l i s s u e i n a l l L a r k i n ' s poems i s a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e r e a l i t i e s o f m a n ' s c o n d i t i o n . He i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e l i m i t a t i o n s w h i c h e x i s t i n l i f e ; t h e m a j o r l i m i t a t i o n b e i n g t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f d e a t h ; He sees man a s a c r e a t u r e who c o n s t a n t l y a v o i d s f a c i n g u p t o h i s s t a t e t h r o u g h h a v i n g a number o f e a s i l y r e c o g n i s a b l e modes o f e s c a p e . The p r o b l e m w h i c h emerges g r a d u a l l y a s t h e p o e t r y m a t u r e s i s n o t t h a t o f s t a t i n g what he b e l i e v e s b u t t h a t o f f i n d i n g a n d d e p i c t i n g any k i n d o f m e a n i n g f u l e x i s t e n c e once t h e m e a n i n g l e s s q u a l i t y o f l i f e has b e e n a c c e p t e d . The l o v e poems f i t i n t o t h i s p a t t e r n , b u t , s i n c e L a r k i n sees l o v e a s t h e m a j o r i l l u s o r y e s c a p e , t h e g r o u p I s l a r g e enough t o be c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y . A l l o t h e r themes c a n be c o n s i d e r e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e o v e r a l l t h e m e . The N o r t h S h i p poems w h i c h q u e s t i o n l i f e a r e l i k e t h e l o v e poems i n t h e vo lume I n t h e i r q u a l i t y o f a b s t r a c t i o n ; They r e l y v e r y h e a v i l y on c e r t a i n images w o r k i n g w i t h a c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t a n d do n o t have t h e economy o f t h e l a t e r poems i n w h i c h t h e s i t u a t i o n i s i t s e l f a n i m a g e . I n t h e s e e a r l y poems t h e i d e a e x p r e s s e d i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e poem, n o t t h e r e s o l v i n g o f o r p r e s e n t i n g o f a c o n f l i c t o r v i e w p o i n t . The w r i t e r i s s t a t i n g h i s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t l i f e 137 r a t h e r t h a n a c t i v e l y f o r m u l a t i n g them t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e poem. I n J i l l and A G i r l i n W i n t e r a n i d e a w h i c h emerges c l e a r l y t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f t h e s e a s o n Imagery i s t h a t o f t h e c y c l i c q u a l i t y o f n a t u r e i n w h i c h man p a r t i c i p a t e s and y e t i s s e p a r a t e f r o m . The p r o g r e s s o f t h e y e a r f r o m s p r i n g t o w i n t e r i s m i r r o r e d i n m a n ' s p r o g r e s s f r o m b i r t h t o d e a t h ; b u t , w h i l s t t h e w i n t e r o f t h e y e a r s u g g e s t s t h e oncoming s p r i n g and so a l w a y s c o n t a i n s a n e lement o f h o p e , L a r k i n sees m a n ' s w i n t e r as h i s f i n a l s e a s o n . He i s f o c u s e d so c l o s e l y on t h e i n d i v i d u a l and on l i f e i t s e l f t h a t he does n o t e v e r p r e s e n t t h e t r a g e d y o r p a t h o s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l man a s redeemed by t h e c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e o f man i n f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s o r by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f some k i n d o f l i f e a f t e r d e a t h . The i d e a f i r s t t a k e s shape : i n t h e f i r s t poem i n The N o r t h S h i p , t h o u g h i t i s n o t a s c l e a r l y and f i n a l l y e x p r e s s e d a s i n t h e n o v e l s . The poem d e a l s w i t h t h e o n s e t o f s p r i n g , d e s c r i b i n g t h e a w a k e n i n g o f new l i f e i n n a t u r e and i n man a s a l m o s t f r e n z i e d i n a c t i v i t y . The f i r s t s t a n z a i n p a r t i c u l a r h a s a s u c c e s s i o n o f f o r c e f u l v e r b s c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e I m p e r a t i v e " R e j o l c e l " E a c h s t a n z a i s , h o w e v e r , u n d e r c u t by t h e r e p e a t e d l i n e , "A drum t a p s : a w i n t r y d r u m . " T h i s e m p h a s i s e s t h e f a c t t h a t s p r i n g w i l l be f o l l o w e d by w i n t e r a n d , s i n c e t h e word " d r u m " w i t h i t s f u n e r e a l c o n n o t a t i o n s i s r e p e a t e d , t h e r e i s f u r t h e r emphas i s on m a n ' s a p p r o a c h i n g 138 d e a t h . I n s u b s e q u e n t s t a n z a s t h e I d e a o f d e a t h I s k e p t t o t h e f o r e ; i n s t a n z a two t h e words " r e s u r r e c t e d " and " d e a d " c a r r y s u f f i c i e n t emphas is t o n e g a t e t h e p o s i t i v e q u a l i t i e s t h e s t a n z a seems t o a s s e r t . S i m i l a r l y t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e i n t h e p loughman and t h e l o v e r s i s u n d e r c u t by t h e p e r s p e c t i v e i n w h i c h t h e y a r e puts What ploughman h a l t s h i s p a i r To k i c k a b r o k e n p l a t e Or c o i n t u r n e d u p by t h e s h a r e ? What l o v e r s w o r r y much T h a t a g h o s t b i d s them t o u c h ? ( N S . p . 11) E v e n i n t h e l a s t and most a s s e r t i v e s t a n z a , t h e p o s i t i v e e f f o r t r e q u i r e d t o " C a s t o f f r e m e m b e r i n g s " s u g g e s t s t h e f o r c e o f d e a t h , a s does t h e i r o n y i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s t a n z a i n w h i c h s p r i n g i s s e e n i n j u x t a p o s i t i o n t o d e a t h and t h e c o n c l u d i n g n o t e o f t h e f r e n z y i s t h e r e p e a t e d r e m i n d e r o f d e a t h s L e t i t a l l come a b o u t T i l l c e n t u r i e s o f s p r i n g s A n d a l l . t h e i r b u r i e d men S t a n d on e a r t h a g a i n . A drum t a p s s a w i n t r y d r u m . ( N S . p . 12) Poem " X V I I " d e v e l o p s t h e i d e a o f t h e above poem o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n man and n a t u r e f o r w h i c h m a n ' s m o r t a l i t y i s l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e . The p o e t b e g i n s by a s s o c i a t i n g man a n d n a t u r e f o r he f e e l s t h a t t o c a p t u r e t h e m e l a n c h o l y o f t h e 139 " s a d w i n d " he must come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h a t p a r t o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n w h i c h i s i t s c o u n t e r p a r t , " F o r t h i s I must v i s i t t h e d e a d " ( N S . p . 29). He i m a g i n e s what he w i l l f i n d i n s u c h a v i s i t a n d r e v e a l s a n e x p e c t a t i o n o f f i n d i n g n a t u r e i n harmony w i t h t h e t r a g e d y o f m a n : H e a d s t o n e and wet c r o s s , P a t h s where t h e m o u r n e r s t r e a d , A s o l i t a r y b i r d , These c a l l u p t h e shade o f l o s s . ( N S . p . 29) H i s v i s i o n i s d e s t r o y e d by t h e r e a l i t y he f i n d s t h a t m a n ' s d e a t h does n o t i n s p i r e m e l a n c h o l y i n n a t u r e ; i n f a c t n a t u r e i n c o n t r a s t a s s e r t s h e r l a c k o f m o r t a l i t y : i n t h e f a c e o f " e a c h s o d d e n g r a v e " , t h e s t o n e s " s h i n e l i k e g o l d " and t h e m o r n i n g a s a w h o l e c r e a t e s t h e image Of more and e v e r m o r e , As some v a s t s e v e n - p i l e d w a v e , M a n e - f l i n g i n g , m a n i f o l d , S t r e a m s a t a n e n d l e s s s h o r e . ( N S . p . 29) I t i s t h r o u g h t h e d i s c r e p a n c y be tween man and n a t u r e t h a t L a r k i n on o c c a s i o n s c h o o s e s t o e x p r e s s what he c o n s i d e r s t h e d i s a p p o i n t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s o f l i f e . The image o f t h e moon, u s e d i n a manner w h i c h i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f Y e a t s , i s s e e n i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e a r t h . T h r o u g h t h e c o n t r a s t o f t h e " d e f i n i t e a n d b r i g h t " moon w h i c h i s so p e r f e c t a s t o h u r t t h e e y e s , a n d t h e e a r t h f r o m w h i c h " A l l q u i e t n e s s and c e r t i t u d e o f w o r t h a r e g o n e " ( N S . p . 1 4 ) , he i n d i c a t e s h i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h 140 t h e f l a w e d q u a l i t y o f l i f e . The s t a t e m e n t i s made o b l i q u e l y t h r o u g h a n i n t e l l e c t u a l r a t h e r t h a n p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n a way w h i c h i s n o t f o u n d a t a l l I n t h e l a t e r poems. S i m i l a r l y i n t h e poem " W i n t e r " i t i s t h r o u g h h i s i m a g i n a t i v e r e s p o n s e t o t h e scene b e f o r e h i m t h a t h i s i d e a s a r e i n d i c a t e d r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h h i s s u d d e n awareness of some s i g n i f i c a n c e i n a n o r m a l e v e r y d a y s i t u a t i o n . I t i s t h e swan w h i c h c a l l s u p t h e image o f w i n t e r : F o r t h e l i n e o f a swan D i a g o n a l on w a t e r I s t h e c o l d o f w i n t e r ( N S . p . 1 9 ) , and t h e h o r s e w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h e human w i n t e r : A n d each h o r s e l i k e a p a s s i o n L o n g s i n c e d e f e a t e d L o w e r s i t s h e a d . ( N S . p . 19) N e i t h e r o f t h e images i s i n I t s e l f p a r t i c u l a r l y e v o c a t i v e . H i s a w a r e n e s s o f w i n t e r becomes a n a w a r e n e s s o f d e a t h and t h e e a r l i e r image o f t h e " w a s t e o f t h i s t l e s " i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o human t e r m s : A n d s h r i v e l l e d men s t a n d C r o w d i n g l i k e t h i s t l e s To one f r u i t l e s s p l a c e . ( N S . p . 19) I n t h i s way t h e d e s o l a t i o n o f w i n t e r becomes a n image f o r m a n ' s c o n d i t i o n . H o w e v e r , u n l i k e any o f t h e l a t e r poems, o r I n d e e d t h e n o v e l s , t h e poem ends on a n upward n o t e w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n 141 o f g l o r y I n m a n ' s I n d o m i t a b l e s p i r i t and i n h i s a b i l i t y t o be e x t e n d e d t h r o u g h t h e g e n e r a t i o n s t o f o l l o w : Y e t s t i l l t h e m i r a c l e s Exhume i n each f a c e S t r o n g s i l k e n s e e d , T h a t t o t h e s t a t i c G o l d w i n t e r s u n t h r o w s b a c k E n d l e s s a n d c l o u d l e s s p r i d e . ( N S . p p . 19-20) Among t h e o t h e r poems b a s e d on t h i s theme two a r e w o r t h c o n s i d e r i n g i n some d e t a i l , s i n c e t h e y a r e b e t t e r poems t h a n most i n t h e volume and t h e q u a l i t i e s w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h them f r o m t h e r e s t a r e t h o s e w h i c h a r e t o r e c u r i n t h e l a t e r p o e t r y . Poem " X I I " has a c l e a r n e s s o f f o c u s and a n economy a n d c o n s i s t e n c y o f Imagery s p r i n g i n g f r o m t h i s w h i c h t h e poems m e n t i o n e d so f a r l a c k . The c e n t r a l image o f t h i s poem i s one w h i c h d o m i n a t e s t h e l a t e r w o r k : t h e r a i l w a y c a r r i a g e c o n v e y i n g a g r o u p o f i s o l a t e d p e o p l e t o one d e s t i n a t i o n . The poet f o c u s e s on a P o l i s h a l r g l r l w i t h i n t h i s c o n t e x t i n much t h e same way a s he f o c u s e s o n K a t h e r i n e i n A G i r l I n W i n t e r . The o b s e r v e r ' s sense o f t h e g i r l i s b a s e d e n t i r e l y on h i s v i s u a l a w a r e n e s s o f h e r , s i n c e she s p e a k s a l a n g u a g e w h i c h he does n o t u n d e r s t a n d . The poem i n d i c a t e s h i s v i e w p o i n t I n t h e p r o -f u s i o n o f p h y s i c a l d e t a i l s : The s w i n g i n g and n a r r o w i n g s u n L i g h t s h e r e y e l a s h e s , shapes H e r s h a r p v i v a c i t y o f b o n e . H a i r , w i l d and c o n t r o l l e d , r u n s b a c k : A n d g e s t u r e s l i k e t h e s e E n g l i s h oaks F l a s h p a s t t h e windows o f h e r f o r e i g n t a l k . ( N S . p . 24) 142 The c l o s e n e s s o f h i s o b s e r v a t i o n I n d i c a t e s h i s i n t e r e s t i n h e r ; b u t I t i s a s t r a n g e a n d p a r t i a l i n t e r e s t ; " a l l h u m a n i t y o f i n t e r e s t / B e f o r e h e r a n g l e d b e a u t y f a l l s " ( N S . p . 2 4 ) . T h e r e i s a c o m p l e t e l a c k o f r e a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n them b e c a u s e o f t h e i n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y o f what she i s s a y i n g . What she s a y s becomes s i m p l y " a v o i c e / w a t e r i n g a s t o n y p l a c e " ( N S . p . 2 4 ) . The u s e of t h e r a i l w a y image s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n has w i d e r i m p l i c a t i o n s . The i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e sounds w h i c h t h e g i r l makes a r e compared t o t h e t r a i n b e a t , so t h a t t h e i d e a o f s i g n i f i c a n c e n o t u n d e r s t o o d a t t a c h e s i t s e l f t o t h e j o u r n e y and so t o l i f e . S i m i l a r l y t h e g i r l ' s f a i l u r e t o communicate on t h i s o c c a s i o n becomes a n Image f o r any p e r s o n ' s I s o l a t i o n . The u s e o f t h e words " s w i n g i n g a n d n a r r o w i n g s u n " s u g g e s t a w i d e r t i m e c o n t e x t w h i c h i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a g e i n g c a r r i e d i n " s h a p e s / H e r s h a r p v i v a c i t y o f b o n e . " The image i s f u r t h e r e x t e n d e d w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n s o f a c c r u i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n The t r a i n r u n s o n t h r o u g h w i l d e r n e s s Of c i t i e s . S t i l l t h e hammered m i l e s D i v e r s i f y b e h i n d h e r f a c e . ( N S . p . 24) The j o u r n e y as a n Image f o r l i f e i s c e n t r a l t o poem " X I V " , " N u r s e r y T a l e " , i n w h i c h d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t a b o u t one a s p e c t o f l i f e i n poem " X I I " i s e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e t h e w h o l e o f l i f e . The poem s u g g e s t s n o t o n l y t h a t l i f e i s a d i s -a p p o i n t m e n t b u t t h a t t h i s i s c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g r e a l i z e d a f r e s h , 143 e a c h d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t c a r r y i n g t h e poet one s t e p n e a r e r t o t h e f i n a l d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t o f d e a t h : So e v e r y j o u r n e y t h a t I make L e a d s me, as i n t h e s t o r y he was l e d , To some new ambush, t o some f r e s h m i s t a k e : So e v e r y j o u r n e y I b e g i n f o r e t e l l s A w e a r i n e s s o f d a y b r e a k , s p r e a d W i t h c a r r i o n k i s s e s , c a r r i o n f a r e w e l l s . ( N S . p . 26) The a w a r e n e s s o f t h i s a s p e c t o f l i f e i s b r o u g h t a b o u t by h i s i m a g i n a t i v e sympathy w i t h t h e n u r s e r y t a l e w h i c h g i v e s t h e poem i t s t i t l e . I n d i r e c t l y t h e poem b e g i n s t o b u i l d u p t h e i d e a t h a t i s d e v e l o p e d i n J i l l , t h a t a w a r e n e s s o f r e a l i t y may come t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e as much as t h r o u g h c o n c r e t e e x p e r i e n c e . I n h i s r e c r e a t i n g o f t h e t a l e o f t h e h o r s e m a n , he p e r c e i v e s a p a t t e r n on w h i c h most l i v e s a r e b a s e d : t h e a p p r o a c h t o w a r d s each new e x p e r i e n c e w i t h some h o p e f u l i l l u s i o n w h i c h i s d e s t r o y e d by t h e r e a l i t y w h i c h p r e s e n t s i t s e l f i n t h e p l a c e o f t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s , u n t i l we r e a l i z e t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s l e a d i n g t o one i n e v i t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n : f o r t h o u g h H i s p l a c e was s e t , t h e r e was no more T h a n one u n p o l i s h e d p e w t e r d i s h , t h a t b o r e The b a t t e r e d c a r c a s e o f a c a r r i o n c r o w . ( N S . p . 26) The t i t l e o f t h e poem s u g g e s t s a f u r t h e r l i n k w i t h t h e n o v e l s , s i n c e i t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t i s one w h i c h b e g i n s v e r y e a r l y and i s common t o a l l m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e . 144 Poem M X X I " , w h i c h a l s o e x p l o r e s t h e i d e a o f i m a g i n a t i v e p e r c e p t i o n i s i n some ways e v e n c l o s e r t o J i l l ; i n t h i s poem t h e dream o r v i s i o n i s a d i r e c t p r o d u c t o f t h e p o e t ' s own m i n d . L i k e J o h n he l i v e s t h r o u g h a n e x p e r i e n c e i n h i s i m a g i n a t i o n b e f o r e he does so i n r e a l i t y , so t h a t h i s a w a r e -n e s s o f a l l e x p e r i e n c e s d e v e l o p i n g t o w a r d s t h e dream s i t u a t i o n w i l l be enhanced by h i s k n o w l e d g e of t h e p o s s i b l e c o n c l u s i o n . W i t h i n t h e dream t h e poet sees l i f e as a p r e c a r i o u s o p p o s i t i o n t o d e a t h . I t i s a b l i n d i g n o r i n g o f t h e f o r c e s o f d e s t r u c t i o n s u r r o u n d i n g i t : A n d t h e w i n d c l i m b e d u p t h e c a v e s To t e a r a t a d a r k - f a c e d g a r d e n Whose b l a c k f l o w e r s were d e a d , A n d b r o k e r o u n d a house we s l e p t i n , A d r a w n b l i n d and a b e d . ( N S . p . 34) When t h e i g n o r a n c e i s b r o k e n , t h e r e a l i t y o f e x i s t e n c e must be f a c e d : I was s l e e p i n g , a n d y o u woke me To w a l k on t h e c h i l l e d s h o r e Of a n i g h t w i t h no memory. ( N S , p . 34) a n d t o t a l i s o l a t i o n and e m p t i n e s s become a p p a r e n t : T i l l y o u r v o i c e f o r s o o k my e a r T i l l y o u r two hands w i t h d r e w A n d I was empty o f t e a r s , On t h e edge o f a b r i c k e d and s t r e e t e d s e a A n d a c o l d h i l l o f s t a r s . ( N S . p . 34) I t i s t o e s c a p e t h i s k i n d o f awareness t h a t man has d e v i s e d f o r h i m s e l f v a r i o u s means o f d i s g u i s i n g h i s l o n e l i n e s s 145 a n d h i s k n o w l e d g e o f d e a t h ' s a p p r o a c h . Two of t h e poems i n The N o r t h S h i p w h i c h d e a l w i t h s e l f - d e c e p t i o n f o c u s on t h e n i g h t as t h e t i m e when i t becomes most d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n t h e d e c e p t i o n , s i n c e i t i s t h e n t h a t we f i n d o u r s e l v e s a l o n e ; a n d i n our i s o l a t i o n a t t h i s t i m e p e r c e i v e o u r b a s i c l o n e l i n e s s . N i g h t , t o o , i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e a t h , so t h a t t h e f r e n z i e d a t t e m p t s d u r i n g t h e day t o a v o i d f a c i n g n i g h t become images o f t h e way i n w h i c h l i f e i s l i v e d . I n poem " V I " and " X V I " t h e r e i s a n a w a r e n e s s o f t i m e w h i c h e m p h a s i s e s t h e a p p r o a c h o f t h e i n e v i t a b l e h o u r s o f I s o l a t i o n . Poem " V I " e x p r e s s e s a much g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f u r g e n c y i n t h e a t t e m p t t o p r o l o n g t h e d a y t i m e a c t i v i t i e s and t o a v o i d b e i n g a l o n e . The v e r b s c a r r y t h i s s e n s e o f u r g e n c y I n t h e e n e r g y t h e y e x p r e s s , and t h i s i s p i c k e d u p I n t h e Images o f l i g h t and d a r k , " K i c k u p t h e f i r e , and l e t t h e f l a m e s b r e a k l o o s e / T o d r i v e t h e shadows b a c k " ( N S . p . 1 7 ) . I n poem " X V I " t h e r e I s a g r e a t e r sense o f a n e s t a b l i s h e d , a l m o s t m o n o t o n o u s , r o u t i n e t o w h i c h t h e p o e t i s r e s i g n e d : The b o t t l e i s d r u n k o u t by o n e ; A t t w o , t h e book i s s h u t ; A t t h r e e , t h e l o v e r s l i e a p a r t , L ove and i t s commerce d o n e . ( N S . p . 28) Y e t i n b o t h poems t h e moment o f b e i n g a l o n e i s made more d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e o f t h e a t t e m p t s t o d e l a y i t . I n poem " V I " much o f t h e m e a n i n g i s c a r r i e d by t h e change i n pace a n d s o u n d ; i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e n e r g y o f t h e e a r l i e r l i n e s we h a v e : 146 Who c a n c o n f r o n t The i n s t a n t a n e o u s g r i e f o f b e i n g a l o n e ? Or w a t c h t h e s a d i n c r e a s e A c r o s s t h e m i n d o f t h i s p r o l i f i c p l a n t , Dumb i d l e n e s s ? ( N S . p . 17) Poem " X V I " d e v e l o p s r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t l y , s i n c e t h e p o e t r e g r e t s h i s i n a b i l i t y t o e n j o y t h e f i n a l e scape o f t h e d a y , s l e e p and f o r g e t f u l n e s s : A n d I am s i c k f o r want o f s l e e p ; So s i c k , t h a t I c a n h a l f - b e l i e v e The s o u n d l e s s r i v e r p o u r i n g f r o m t h e cave I s n e i t h e r s t r o n g n o r d e e p ; O n l y a n image f a n c i e d I n c o n c e i t . ( N S . p . 28) The s e r i e s o f poems w h i c h g i v e t h e volume i t s t i t l e c o n -t a i n a l l t h e themes a n d most o f t h e images w h i c h o c c u r e l s e w h e r e i n t h e v o l u m e . A l t h o u g h t h i s s e r i e s i s d i f f e r e n t i n k i n d f r o m a n y t h i n g e l s e t h a t L a r k i n has w r i t t e n , i t i s n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y o r i g i n a l poem a n d l i k e t h e o t h e r s i n The N o r t h S h i p I t l a c k s t h e immediacy o f t h e l a t e r poems. I n s t y l e i t has much i n common w i t h C o l e r i d g e ' s " A n c i e n t M a r i n e r " , b u t i s u n l i k e i t i n t h a t i t does n o t work w i t h Images o f s u c h a r c h e t y p a l s i g n i f i c a n c e and a s s o c i a t i o n , a n d i t does n o t have t h e same s e n s e o f I n e v i t a b i l i t y . The j o u r n e y image i s t h e b a s i s o f t h e poem i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e i d e a o f t h e n o r t h , c o l d n e s s a n d I s o l a t i o n , a l l a s s i s t -i n g t o w a r d s a more c o m p l e t e a w a r e n e s s . The " L e g e n d " e s t a b l i s h e s t h e g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e j o u r n e y n o r t h i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e j o u r n e y s made e a s t and w e s t : 147 B u t t h e t h i r d went w i d e and f a r I n t o a n u n f o r g i v i n g s e a U n d e r a f i r e - s p i l l i n g s t a r , A n d i t was r i g g e d f o r a l o n g j o u r n e y . ( N S . p . 44) The r e m a i n i n g poems i n t h e sequence each mark a s t a g e i n t h e j o u r n e y n o r t h w a r d s . "65° N o r t h " i s a poem w h i c h t r a c e s t h e g r a d u a l m e r g i n g o f v i s i o n a n d r e a l i t y . I n t h e dream t h e w o r l d o f e m p t i n e s s i s p e r c e i v e d : My s l e e p i s made c o l d By a r e c u r r e n t dream Where a l l t h i n g s seem S i c k e n i n g l y t o p o i s e On e m p t i n e s s , on s t a r s D r i f t i n g u n d e r t h e w o r l d . ( N S . p . 45) A s t h e s h i p goes n o r t h w a r d , t h e dream i s p a r t l y r e a l i z e d and so i n d i c a t e s i t s u l t i m a t e , c o m p l e t e r e a l i z a t i o n : L i g h t s t r i k e s f r o m t h e i c e : L i k e one n e a r d e a t h S a v o u r s t h e s e r e n e b r e a t h , I grow a f r a i d , Now t h e b a r g a i n i s made, T h a t dream draws c l o s e . ( N S . p . 45) "70° N o r t h " and ' ^ ^ N o r t h " work t o g e t h e r t o make t h e same b a l a n c e b e t w e e n v i s i o n and r e a l i t y as i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s poem. " F o r t u n e T e l l i n g " i n d i c a t e s a l o n g j o u r n e y a n d t h e m e e t i n g w i t h a d a r k g i r l who seems t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e a t h . I n "75 ° N o r t h " , w i t h i n t h e b l i z z a r d , each p e r s o n o n b o a r d s h i p sees d i f f e r e n t i m a g e s ; t h e poet r e c o g n i s e s h i s a p p r o a c h i n g f a t e i n t h e f o r m o f t h e g i r l : 148 And beyond a l l doubt I know A g i r l Is standing there Who w i l l take no lo v e r s T i l l she winds me i n her h a i r . (NS. p. 46) The word "wind" picks up "winding-sheet" i n the previous stanza and makes the a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h death more e x p l i c i t . The l a s t poem i n the sequence, "Above 80 North", i s d i s a p p o i n t i n g i n the way that the c o n c l u s i o n of poem "XX" i s . The v i s i o n becomes the t o t a l experience and the idea of death as a woman i s again suggested. But the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the v i s i o n i s not c l e a r and the expected r e s o l u t i o n of the experience of the e a r l i e r poems i n the sequence does not occur. The c l e a r impression given by The Less Deceived that the poet has l e a r n t to express hi m s e l f in his own terms i s r e f l e c t e d i n a s e r i e s of poems which are s e l f - e x p l o r a t o r y . Although the volume has a much broader range of sympathy and a wider perspe c t i v e on u n i v e r s a l problems, as the number of poems making some ki n d of s o c i a l comment i n d i c a t e s , i n a sense t h i s i s only p o s s i b l e once L a r k i n has e s t a b l i s h e d h i s own i d e n t i t y and i s aware of how h i s v i s i o n of l i f e i s a f f e c t e d by i t . The s e l f that L a r k i n presents i n The Less Deceived i s almost i d e n t i c a l with Katherine at the c o n c l u s i o n of A G i r l i n Winter. The l a s t paragraph of the novel summarises the statements made i n La r k i n ' s poems of se l f - e x a m i n a t i o n : 149 Yet t h e i r passage was not saddening. U n s a t i s f i e d dreams rose and f e l l about them, c r y i n g out against t h e i r i m p l a c a b i l i t y , but i n the end g l a d that such order, such d e s t i n y , e x i s t e d . Against t h i s knowledge, the h e a r t , the w i l l , and a l l that made f o r p r o t e s t , could a t l a s t s l e e p . (AGW. p. 248) L a r k i n f e e l s that he has reached a point of awareness when h i s i l l u s i o n s are apparent as such to him. In "Toads" and "Poetry of Departure" he i n d i c a t e s ways of l i f e which appeal to him as being more s a t i s f y i n g than h i s own. His d e s i r e to escape work i s the s t a r t i n g point of "Toads" and he t h i n k s l o n g i n g l y of those who do so: Lots of f o l k l i v e on t h e i r w i t s : L e c t u r e r s , l i s p e r s , L o s e l s , l o b l o l l y - m e n , l o u t s — They don't end as paupers; Lots of f o l k l i v e up lanes With f i r e s i n a bucket, Eat w i n d f a l l s and t i n n e d s a r d i n e s — They seem to l i k e i t . T h e i r nippers have got bare f e e t , Their unspeakable wives Are skinny as whippets—and yet No one a c t u a l l y s t a r v e s . (LD. p. 32) And yet even while he expresses h i s envy, there i s a r e l u c t a n t awareness i n him of the unromantic and unappealing aspects of such s i t u a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d i n the s l i g h t l y q u a l i f y i n g , s l i g h t l y u n d e r c u t t i n g q u a l i t y of the l a s t l i n e s of each stanza. In "Poetry of Departures" he shows himself to be e x c i t e d by hear l n g , "He chucked up everything/And .just c l e a r e d o f f " (LP. p. 34); But again i n the i m p l i e d comparison between the 150 e f f e c t t h i s has on h i m and a c e r t a i n t y p e o f I m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e , he s u g g e s t s h i s a w a r e n e s s o f t h e l a c k o f r e a l i t y s u c h s i t u a t i o n s h o l d f o r h i m : So t o h e a r i t s a i d He w a l k e d o u t on t h e whole c rowd L e a v e s me f l u s h e d and s t i r r e d , L i k e Then she u n d i d h e r d r e s s Or Take t h a t y o u has t a r d . f D D . p . 3*0 I n b o t h poems he c o n c l u d e s by d e m o n s t r a t i n g h i s a w a r e n e s s t h a t s u c h e s c a p e s a r e n o t f o r h i m b e c a u s e he i s t o o aware o f them as e s c a p e s r a t h e r t h a n s o l u t i o n s . " T o a d s " u s e s t h e same image f o r t h i s a w a r e n e s s as does A G i r l i n W i n t e r : F o r s o m e t h i n g s u f f i c i e n t l y t o a d - l i k e S q u a t s i n me, t o o ; I t s h u n k e r s a r e h e a v y as h a r d l u c k , A n d c o l d as snow. ( I D . p . J2) The f i n a l s t a n z a a l s o e x p r e s s e s a s i m i l a r a c c e p t a n c e o f what t h i s a w a r e n e s s i n v o l v e s i n t h e way o f d i m i n i s h e d e x p e c t a t i o n s : I d o n ' t s a y , one b o d i e s t h e o t h e r O n e ' s s p i r i t u a l t r u t h ; B u t I do say i t ' s h a r d t o l o s e e i t h e r , When y o u have b o t h . ( L D . p . 33) " P o e t r y o f D e p a r t u r e s " c o n c l u d e s w i t h a n i d e a s i m i l a r t o one e x p r e s s e d a t t h e end o f J i l l a n d i n " P l a c e s , L o v e d O n e s " and "Reasons f o r A t t e n d a n c e " . L a r k i n t e n d s t o a c c e p t t h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h he f i n d s h i m s e l f , t o some e x t e n t because he b e l i e v e s 151 h i s n a t u r e has c r e a t e d t h e s i t u a t i o n , so t h a t a d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n d e t e r m i n e s h i s l i f e t o w h i c h he w i l l e v e n t u a l l y r e t u r n d e s p i t e any a t t e m p t t o "break f r o m i t : B u t I ' d go t o d a y Y e s , swagger t h e n u t - s t r e w n r o a d s , C r o u c h i n t h e f o ' c ' s l e S t u b b l y w i t h g o o d n e s s , i f I t w e r e n ' t so a r t i f i c i a l , S u c h a d e l i b e r a t e s t e p b a c k w a r d s To c r e a t e a n o b j e c t : B o o k s ; c h i n a ; a l i f e R e p r e h e n s i b l y p e r f e c t . ( L D . p . Jk) The image o f c o l d f o r a w a r e n e s s o c c u r s i n " I Remember, 1 Remember" : " C o m i n g u p E n g l a n d by a d i f f e r e n t l i n e / F o r o n c e , e a r l y i n t h e c o l d new y e a r " ( L D . p . 3 8 ) . I n t h i s poem, as t h e t i t l e s u g g e s t s , L a r k i n b a l a n c e s t h e k i n d o f r o m a n t i c i s e d v i e w b a c k on h i s l i f e w h i c h I t w o u l d be t e m p t i n g t o f a b r i c a t e , w i t h t h e a c t u a l i t i e s o f what he remembers . H i s c h i l d h o o d and a d o l e s c e n c e i s d e s c r i b e d e n t i r e l y i n n e g a t i v e t e r m s : By now I ' v e g o t t h e w h o l e p l a c e c l e a r l y c h a r t e d . Our g a r d e n , f i r s t : where I d i d n o t i n v e n t B l i n d i n g t h e o l o g i e s o f f l o w e r s and f r u i t s , A n d w a s n ' t s p o k e n t o by a n o l d h a t . A n d h e r e we have t h a t s p l e n d i d f a m i l y I n e v e r r a n t o when I g o t d e p r e s s e d , The boys a l l b i c e p s and t h e g i r l s a l l c h e s t , T h e i r comic F o r d , t h e i r f a r m where I c o u l d be " R e a l l y m y s e l f " . I ' l l show y o u , come t o t h a t , The b r a c k e n where I n e v e r t r e m b l i n g s a t , 152 D e t e r m i n e d t o go t h r o u g h w i t h i t ; where she Lay b a c k , and " a l l became a b u r n i n g m i s t " . A n d i n t h o s e o f f i c e s , my d o g g e r e l Was n o t s e t u p i n b l u n t t e n - p o i n t , n o r r e a d By a d i s t i n g u i s h e d c o u s i n o f t h e m a y o r , Who d i d n ' t c a l l a n d t e l l my f a t h e r T h e r e B e f o r e u s , had we t h e g i f t t o see a h e a d — • ( L D . p p . 3«-9) The t e m p t a t i o n w o u l d be t o do as t h e f r i e n d s u g g e s t s he seems t o w i s h , " Y o u l o o k as i f y o u w i s h e d t h e p l a c e i n H e l l , " ( L D . p . 39). B u t once a g a i n comes t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e l i m i t a t i o n he r e d i s c o v e r s a r e t h o s e of h i s own p e r s o n a l i t y and t h a t whenever o r w h e r e v e r he had been b o r n a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n w o u l d have emerged : "Oh w e l l , I suppose i t ' s n o t t h e p l a c e ' s f a u l t , " I s a i d . " N o t h i n g , l i k e s o m e t h i n g , happens a n y w h e r e . " ( L D . p . 39) The d i s a p p o i n t m e n t he e x p e r i e n c e s t e m p o r a r i l y i s c a u s e d by t h e i l l u s i o n f o s t e r e d by g e n e r a l o p i n i o n t h a t c h i l d h o o d i s n e c e s s a r i l y e x c i t i n g and m e m o r a b l e . The t o n e o f c o m p l e t e r e s i g n a t i o n a t t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f what l i f e r e a l l y has t o o f f e r echoes t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f " T o a d s " a n d " P o e t r y o f D e p a r t u r e s " a n d " S k i n " . I n t h e l a s t m e n t i o n e d poem t h e r e i s , t o o , t h e s e n s e o f a l i f e w h i c h as a r e s u l t o f L a r k i n ' s own p e r s o n a l i t y has been more empty t h a n m o s t : A n d p a r d o n me, t h a t I C o u l d f i n d , when y o u were new, No b r a s h f e s t i v i t y To wear y o u a t , s u c h as C l o t h e s a r e e n t i t l e d t o T i l l t h e f a s h i o n c h a n g e s . ( L D . p . kj) 153 " I f My D a r l i n g " i s a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f L a r k i n * s p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t i n t h e o t h e r poems. I n s t e a d o f u s i n g h i s r e s p o n s e t o a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n a s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f h i s t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y , he t r i e s t o show what goes on i n h i s h e a d . He makes u s e o f t h e A l i c e T h r o u g h t h e L o o k i n g G l a s s s i t u a t i o n , a t t h e same t i m e u s i n g t h e i d e a o f t h e eyes b e i n g t h e windows o f t h e s o u l . I f h i s d a r l i n g were t o go b e y o n d t h e image o f h e r s e l f r e f l e c t e d i n h i s eyes t h e n she w o u l d d i s c o v e r what he r e a l l y i s . T y p i c a l l y he b e g i n s t h e d e s c r i p -t i o n n e g a t i v e l y , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t she w o u l d n o t f i n d i n h i m a s e c u r e n o r m a l i t y w i t h e v i d e n c e o f o r d e r and a r o u t i n e c a p a b l e o f c o n t i n u a t i o n : She w o u l d f i n d no t a b l e s a n d c h a i r s , No mahogany c l a w - f o o t e d s i d e b o a r d s , No u n d i s t u r b e d embers ; The t a n t a l u s w o u l d n o t be f i l l e d , n o r t h e f e n d e r - s e a t c o s y , Nor t h e s h e l v e s s t u f f e d w i t h s m a l l - p r i n t e d b o o k s f o r t h e S a b b a t h , Nor t h e b u t l e r b i b u l o u s , t h e housemaids l a z y . ( L D . p . 42) She w o u l d f i n d , i n s t e a d o f a n e n v i r o n m e n t f a m i l i a r a n d easy t o a c c e p t a l a n d s c a p e c h a n g e a b l e and s l i g h t l y d i s g u s t i n g : She w o u l d f i n d h e r s e l f l o o p e d w i t h t h e c r e e p o f v a r y i n g l i g h t , M o n k e y - b r o w n , f i s h - g r e y , a s t r i n g o f i n f e c t e d c i r c l e s L o i t e r i n g l i k e b u l l i e s , a b o u t t o c o a g u l a t e . ( L D . p . 42) I n s t e a d o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f a n o r d e r p o s s i b l e t o be c o n t i n u e d i n d e f i n i t e l y she w o u l d " r e m a r k / T h e unwholesome f l o o r , as i t 154 m i g h t be t h e s k i n o f a g r a v e " ( L D . p . 4 2 ) . H i s sense o f t h e way i n w h i c h d e a t h r o b s l i f e o f i t s b e a u t y and m e a n i n g f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e " a d h e s i v e s e n s e o f b e t r a y a l , / A G r e c i a n s t a t u e k i c k e d i n t h e p r i v a t e s , . m o n e y , / A s w i l l - t u b o f f i n e r f e e l i n g s " (LJD. p . 42). She w o u l d be made f u l l y aware o f t h e e f f e c t s o f h i s a t t e m p t s t o be f r e e o f i l l u s i o n , b a l a n c e d by c o n s t a n t r a t i o n a l i z i n g l e a d i n g t o c o n t i n u a l e q u i v o c a t i o n : S h e ' d be s t o p p i n g h e r e a r s a g a i n s t t h e c o n s t a n t r e c i t a l I n t o n e d by r e a l i t y , l a r d e d w i t h t e c h n i c a l t e r m s , E a c h one d o u b l e - y o k e d w i t h m e a n i n g and m e a n i n g ' s r e b u t t a l . ( L D . p . 42) To be s u c h a p e r s o n means a c c e p t i n g t h e m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s o f l i f e , and t o f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d t h i s p o s i t i o n w o u l d I n v o l v e g i v i n g u p a l l t h e i l l u s i o n s t h a t make l i f e seem w o r t h w h i l e : F o r t h e s k i r l o f t h a t b u l l e t i n u n p i c k s t h e w o r l d l i k e a k n o t , A n d t o h e a r how t h e p a s t i s p a s t and t h e f u t u r e n e u t e r M i g h t k n o c k my d a r l i n g o f f h e r u n p r l c e a b l e p i v o t . ( L D . p . 42) T h i s g r o u p o f poems r e p r e s e n t s L a r k i n ' s a t t e m p t t o v i e w h i m s e l f i n a c t i o n r e s p o n d i n g t o s i t u a t i o n s and o t h e r p e o p l e ' s v i e w o f l i f e ; a n d a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e s h i s m e n t a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l make-up a n d h i s p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e , a l l w i t h o u t i l l u s i o n o r s e l f -d e c e p t i o n ; When K a t h e r i n e i n A G i r l I n W i n t e r r e a c h e s a s t a t e o f a w a r e n e s s , she b e g i n s t o see more c l e a r l y t h e m o t i v a t i o n s o f 155 the l i v e s of others and she begins to view with compassion what she would have once despised . In p a r t i c u l a r she becomes aware of Robin 's f r a n t i c attempts to f i n d meaning i n l i f e , h i s need to e s t a b l i s h some order w i t h i n the chaos and h i s reluctance to accept the movement of time towards impending death; S i m i l a r l y L a r k i n i n The Less Deceived i s less s e l f -absorbed and more aware of man w i t h i n the context of h i s everyday l i f e searching for v a l u e s . There are poems i n t h i s volume of a kind which are not present i n The North S h l p i These are poems which t r y to view l i f e objectively—rfiot simply point ing out i t s inadequacies as i n The North Ship—but attempting to be p o s i t i v e about what l i f e has to o f f e r once i t s l i m i t a t i o n s are accepted. "Born Yesterday" i s represent-a t i v e of t h i s ' group; I t indicates what i s normally seen as necessary f o r a happy l i f e through the expectations and hopes centred on a new-born g i r l : the usual s t u f f About being b e a u t i f u l , Of running o f f a spring Of innocence and l o v e — They w i l l a l l wish you t h a t . (LD.. p . 24) L a r k i n expresses h i s scepticism about such hopes, "And should i t prove p o s s i b l e , / W e l l you ' re a lucky g i r l " ( ID. p . 24) ; What he f e e l s i s that the basis for any kind of happiness i s the lack of expectations which a r i s e from any unusual ta lent or extreme beauty. If she can regard h e r s e l f as ordinary , then she w i l l not be d i s t r a c t e d by hopes f o r the future from 156 e x t r a c t i n g t h e maximum f r o m what a c t u a l l y e x i s t s . The p a r a d o x w h i c h h i s w i s h c o n t a i n s i s t h e r a r e t y o f " t h e o r d i n a r y p e r s o n " w i t h t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r h a p p i n e s s : May y o u be o r d i n a r y ; H a v e , l i k e o t h e r women, A n a v e r a g e o f t a l e n t s : Not u g l y , n o t g o o d - l o o k i n g , N o t h i n g u n c u s t o m a r y To p u l l y o u o f f y o u r b a l a n c e , T h a t , u n w o r k a b l e I t s e l f , S t o p s a l l t h e r e s t f r o m w o r k i n g . I n f a c t , may y o u be d u l l — I f t h a t i s what a s k i l l e d , V i g i l a n t , f l e x i b l e , U n e m p h a s i s e d , e n t h r a l l e d C a t c h i n g o f h a p p i n e s s i s c a l l e d . ( L D . p . 24) " A t G r a s s " e x p r e s s e s a s i m i l a r v i e w p o i n t , f o r i t i s t h e h o r s e s i n t h e i r a n o n y m i t y , w i t h a l l t h e i r fame a n d e x c i t e m e n t b e h i n d them who f i n d some peace i n l i f e . They t o o have r e a c h e d t h e p o i n t o f o r d i n a r i n e s s i n w h i c h h a p p i n e s s o f a s o r t c a n be f o u n d d e s p i t e t h e a p p r o a c h o f d e a t h : Do memories p l a g u e t h e i r e a r s l i k e f l i e s ? They shake t h e i r h e a d s . Dusk b r i m s t h e s h a d o w s . Summer by summer a l l s t o l e a w a y , The s t a r t i n g - g a t e s , t h e crowds and c r i e s — A l l b u t t h e u n m o l e s t i n g meadows. A l m a n a c k e d , t h e i r names l i v e ; t h e y Have s l i p p e d t h e i r names, a n d s t a n d a t e a s e , Or g a l l o p f o r what must he j o y , A n d n o t a f l e l d g l a s s sees them home, Or c u r i o u s s t o p - w a t c h p r o p h e s i e s : O n l y t h e g r o o m , a n d t h e g r o o m ' s b o y , W i t h b r i d l e ; i n t h e e v e n i n g come. (Ljp.. p . 45) " W i r e s " a p p r o a c h e s t h e same p r o b l e m t h r o u g h t h e image o f t h e y o u n g and o l d c a t t l e . L a r k i n r e p r e s e n t s y o u t h as a s t a t e o f 157 e x p e c t a n c y w h i c h c a n o n l y l e a d t o p a i n f u l d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t : Young s t e e r s a r e a l w a y s s c e n t i n g p u r e r w a t e r Not h e r e b u t a n y w h e r e . Beyond t h e w i r e s L e a d s them t o b l u n d e r u p a g a i n s t t h e w i r e s Whose m u s c l e - s h r e d d i n g v i o l e n c e g i v e s no q u a r t e r . ( L D . p . 27) I t i s t h r o u g h t h e p a i n o f r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t m a t u r i t y comes . B u t m a t u r i t y r e p r e s e n t s a l i m i t a t i o n s i n c e i t means t h e r e c o g n i s i n g o f l i m i t s , a n a v o i d a n c e o f p a i n t h r o u g h d e l i b e r a t e n a r r o w i n g o f e x p e c t a t i o n : "Young s t e e r s become o l d c a t t l e f r o m t h a t d a y , / E l e c t r i c l i m i t s t o t h e i r w i d e s t s e n s e s " ( L D . p . 27). The f i r s t l i n e o f t h e poem i n d i c a t e s how i n -e v i t a b l e L a r k i n f e e l s t h i s sense o f l i m i t a t i o n i s : "The w i d e s t p r a i r i e s have e l e c t r i c f e n c e s " ( L D . p . 27). " W i r e s " o b v i o u s l y r e p r e s e n t s a more v i o l e n t s t a t e m e n t o f t h a t i n t h e l a s t p a r a g r a p h o f A G i r l i n W i n t e r . I t seems t h a t L a r k i n i s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t r e a c h i n g a s t a t e of a w a r e n e s s c a n be more p o s i t i v e l y d e s t r u c t i v e a n d p a i n f u l t h a n he h a d p r e v i o u s l y i n d i c a t e d , s i n c e he i s more aware h i m s e l f o f o t h e r p e o p l e l e s s a b l e t o a c c e p t what he sees as i n e v i t a b l e . V i o l e n c e o f t h e same k i n d o c c u r s i n " M y x o m a t o s i s " . T h e r e i s no v i o l e n c e a t a l l i n The N o r t h S h i p and t h e r e a s o n f o r i t s a p p e a r a n c e i n t h i s volume i s p e r h a p s e x p l a i n e d w i t h i n t h e poem i t s e l f . The s l o w l y d y i n g r a b b i t , "Caught i n t h e c e n t r e o f a s o u n d l e s s f i e l d / W h i l e h o t i n e x p l i c a b l e h o u r s go b y " ( L P . p . 31)» seems, l i k e K a t h e r i n e , t o hope t h a t a s t a t e o f 158 s t i l l n e s s a n d w a i t i n g w i l l be r e w a r d e d by a r e t u r n t o t h e p a s t b e f o r e t h e p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e s : " Y o u may have t h o u g h t t h i n g s w o u l d come r i g h t a g a i n / I f y o u c o u l d only k e e p q u i t e s t i l l and w a i t " ( L D . p . 31). L a r k i n ' s s h a r p r e p l y t o t h e r a b b i t i s a n a s s e r t i o n o f d e a t h . He k i l l s t h e r a b b i t b u t a t t h e same t i m e d e s t r o y s t h e i l l u s o r y hope o f a r e t u r n t o n o r m a l i t y w h i c h w o u l d have u l t i m a t e l y c a u s e d more p a i n and s u f f e r i n g : " I ' m g l a d I c a n ' t e x p l a i n / J u s t i n what jaws y o u were t o s u p p u r a t e " ( L D . p . 31)• The c l e a r a s s e r t i o n o f t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f d e a t h and what t h i s means i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f The L e s s D e c e i v e d . I n The N o r t h S h i p L a r k i n r e v e a l s t h a t d e c e p t i o n s and i l l u s i o n s e x i s t b u t he does n o t h i m s e l f t a k e any a c t i o n t o d e s t r o y t h e m , as he does v e r y p o s i t i v e l y i n t h i s v o l u m e . He does so i n s e v e r a l w a y s : he makes c l e a r t h a t man f i n d s i t d i f f i c u l t t o f a c e u p t o t h e f a c t o f d e a t h b u t he a s s e r t s t h a t r e f u s i n g t o do so i s d e s t r u c t i v e ; he comments on t h e n a t u r e o f d e a t h a s he sees i t and t h e i n f l u e n c e he f e e l s i t has on l i f e . " D r y - P o I n t " i s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f m a n ' s i n a b i l i t y t o a c c e p t d e a t h as I t i s . I n some ways t h i s i s one o f t h e most a b s t r a c t poems i n t h e volume b u t t h i s i n I t s e l f g i v e s i t a c o n c r e t e n e s s , s i n c e i t r e p r e s e n t s t h r o u g h t h e q u a l i t y o f i t s a b s t r a c t i o n s m a n ' s t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s c o n c e r n i n g d e a t h . Because t h e r e i s i n us a n i n a b i l i t y t o see d e a t h i n r e a l , p h y s i c a l t e r m s , we t e n d t o i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e i n t h e manner o f t h e poem. 159 The poem i s a l s o c o n c r e t e i n i t s r e f l e c t i o n , i n i t s movement, o f t h e p r o c e s s o f i l l u s i o n , d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , r e c r e a t i o n o f a new k i n d o f i l l u s i o n , a p r o c e s s i n w h i c h most o f u s p a r t i c i p a t e . The f i r s t s t a n z a a s s e r t s o u r b a s i c a w a r e n e s s o f d e a t h w h i c h we a t t e m p t t o s u p p r e s s t h r o u g h i l l u s i o n . L i f e i s t h e n a c o n s t a n t s t r u g g l e f o r supremacy be tween t h e a w a r e n e s s and t h e i l l u s i o n u n t i l d e a t h i s t o o c l o s e t o be l o n g e r a v o i d e d } E n d l e s s l y , t i m e - h o n o u r e d i r r i t a n t , A b u b b l e i s r e s t i v e l y f o r m i n g a t y o u r t i p . B u r s t i t a s f a s t a s we c a n — I t w i l l grow a g a i n , u n t i l we b e g i n d y i n g . S i l e n t l y i t i n f l a t e s , t i l l w e ' r e e n c l o s e d A n d f o r c e d t o s t a r t t h e s t r u g g l e t o g e t o u t s B e s t i a l , I n t e n t , r e a l . The wet s p a r k comes , t h e b r i g h t b l o w n w a l l s c o l l a p s e : ( L D . p . 1 9 ) 1 The s t e r i l i t y w h i c h t h e n f a c e s u s i n o u r new a w a r e n e s s , L a r k i n d e p i c t s i n t e r m s o f l a n d s c a p e s B u t what s a d s c a p e s we c a n n o t t u r n f r o m t h e n : What a s h e n h i l l s ! what s a l t e d , s h r u n k e n l a k e s ! How l e a d e n t h e r i n g l o o k s , B i r m i n g h a m magic a l l d i s c r e d i t e d . ( L D . p . 19) B u t because we a r e r e l u c t a n t t o a c c e p t s u c h a n u t t e r n e g a t i o n o f l i f e , t h e r e i s a t e m p t a t i o n t o c r e a t e a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f cafv. S h o p e n h a u e r ' s comment when d i s c u s s i n g t h e f a c t t h a t , a l t h o u g h d e a t h must c o n q u e r , we p u r s u e Our f u t i l e p u r p o s e s , "as we b l o w o u t a s o a p - b u b b l e a s l o n g a n d a s l a r g e a s p o s s i b l e , a l t h o u g h we know p e r f e c t l y w e l l t h a t , i t w i l l b u r s t . " Quoted by B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l , H i s t o r y o f W e s t e r n P h i l o s o p h y ( L o n d o n : A l l e n a n d U n w i n , 1946), p . 784. i6o i l l u s i o n — t h a t o f some l i f e t o be e x p e r i e n c e d a f t e r d e a t h , w h i c h b e i n g e x p e r i e n c e d a f t e r d e a t h i s b e y o n d i t s powers o f d e s t r u c t i o n a n d n e g a t i o n . T h a t t h i s i s a n i l l u s i o n L a r k i n i n d i c a t e s by t h e u s e o f " d r e a m " i n t h e l a s t l i n e : A n d how remote t h a t b a r e a n d s u n s c r u b b e d r o o m , I n t e n s e l y f a r , t h a t p a d l o c k e d cube o f l i g h t We n e i t h e r d e f i n e n o r p r o v e , Where y o u , we d r e a m , o b t a i n no r i g h t o f e n t r y . ( L D . p . 19) L a r k i n seems t o f e e l t h a t t h e r e a r e s p e c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c i n g h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a n d f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e s o c i e t y i n w h i c h we l i v e o f f e r s l e s s a n d l e s s i n t e r m s o f a s t r u c t u r e d o r d e r a n d a s e n s e o f t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s . I n " A n A r u n d e l Tomb" t h i s i s p r e s e n t e d as one r e a s o n f o r t h e d e s i r e t o see a permanence i n l o v e ; i n a n o t h e r poem l o c a t e d i n a c h u r c h , " C h u r c h G o i n g " , t h e w i d e r i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e e x p l o r e d ! The a m b i g u i t y o f t h e t i t l e s u g g e s t s t h e two themes w h i c h d o m i n a t e t h e poem: t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e c h u r c h a n d a l l t h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s , a n d m a n ' s t e n d e n c y t o c o n t i n u e t o seek o u t s u c h p l a c e s i n s e a r c h o f s o m e t h i n g w h i c h seems t o be m i s s i n g f r o m l i f e i One p a r t o f L a r k i n c a n a f f o r d t o mock t h e c h u r c h b u i l d i n g : A n o t h e r c h u r c h : m a t t i n g , s e a t s , and s t o n e , A n d l i t t l e b o o k s ; s p r a w l i n g s o f f l o w e r s , c u t F o r S u n d a y , b r o w n i s h now; some b r a s s a n d s t u f f Up a t t h e h o l y e n d ; t h e s m a l l n e a t o r g a n i ( L D . p . 28) 161 B u t t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c a n n o t be d e s t r o y e d by h i s m o c k e r y a n d w h i c h f o r c e s h i m t o a c k n o w l e d g e i t s powers A n d a t e n s e , m u s t y , u n i g n o r a b l e s i l e n c e , Brewed God knows how l o n g . H a t l e s s , I t a k e o f f My c y c l e - c l i p s i n awkward r e v e r e n c e . ( L D . p . 28) H i s d e s i r e f o r amused de tachment and a r e l u c t a n t a w a r e n e s s o f a n i n e x p l i c a b l e i n v o l v e m e n t c r e a t e i n h i m and t h e poem a t e n s i o n w h i c h r e f l e c t s t h e l a r g e r p r o b l e m . F o r , a l t h o u g h he w i s h e s t o deny t h a t t h e c h u r c h i s a n y t h i n g more t h a n a b u i l d i n g , i t a s s e r t s , i t s p r e s e n c e as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f s o m e t h i n g m o r e . D e s p i t e h i s a s s e r t i o n s B u t s u p e r s t i t i o n , l i k e b e l i e f , must d i e , A n d what r e m a i n s when d i s b e l i e f h a s gone? G r a s s , weedy pavement , b r a m b l e s , b u t t r e s s , s k y , A shape l e s s r e c o g n i s a b l e each week, A p u r p o s e more o b s c u r e , ( L D . p p . 28 -29) he f e e l s t h a t as l o n g as t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o t a k e t h e p l a c e o f t h e c h u r c h i t w i l l r e m a i n a n I r r e s i s t a b l e a t t r a c t i o n t o some s b e c a u s e i t h e l d u n s p l i t So l o n g a n d e q u a b l y what s i n c e i s f o u n d O n l y i n s e p a r a t i o n — m a r r i a g e , and b i r t h , A n d d e a t h , a n d t h o u g h t s o f t h e s e — f o r w h i c h was b u i l t T h i s s p e c i a l s h e l l . ( L D . p . 29) A g a i n t h e l a s t two p a r a g r a p h s o f A G i r l I n W i n t e r seem t o p r o v i d e t h e b a s i c p a t t e r n o f L a r k i n ' s c o n c l u s i o n , f o r what 162 he i s s a y i n g i s t h a t man must f i n d some k i n d o f o r d e r i n l i f e . When a l l e l s e f a l l s t h e r e i s a c o m f o r t t o be g a i n e d f r o m t h e a w a r e n e s s o f one p e r c e p t i b l e o r d e r : t h e i n e v i t a b l e p r o g r e s s i o n o f l i f e t o w a r d s d e a t h . W i t h i n t h e o l d s y s t e m , t h e c h u r c h c r e a t e d a n a w a r e n e s s t h a t a l l t e n d s t o w a r d s d e a t h a n d , i f o n l y f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t t h e c h u r c h g r o u n d s t i l l has v i s i b l e r e m i n d e r s o f m o r t a l i t y , i t w i l l a s s i s t i n c r e a t i n g a p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e o n l y r e m a i n i n g i n d e s t r u c t i b l e o r d e r i n l i f e : A s e r i o u s house on s e r i o u s e a r t h i t i s , I n whose b l e n t a i r a l l o u r c o m p u l s i o n s m e e t , A r e r e c o g n i s e d and r o b e d a s d e s t i n i e s . A n d t h a t much n e v e r c a n be o b s o l e t e , S i n c e someone w i l l f o r e v e r be s u r p r i s i n g A h u n g e r i n h i m s e l f t o be more s e r i o u s , A n d g r a v l t a t i n g ^ w i t h i t t o t h i s g r o u n d , W h i c h , he once h e a r d , was p r o p e r t o grow w i s e i n , I f o n l y t h a t so many d e a d l i e r o u n d . ( L D . p . 29) A l t h o u g h L a r k i n i n s i s t s so f i r m l y t h a t c o n s t a n t a w a r e -n e s s o f d e a t h and l i f e ' s l i m i t a t i o n s i s n e c e s s a r y — a n d e v e n i n a poem s u c h a s " W a n t s " e x p r e s s e s a d e s i r e t o be f r e e o f t h e a r t i f i c i a l ways o f m a k i n g l i f e s i g n i f i c a n t t o t h e e x t e n t o f s u g g e s t i n g a p o s i t i v e d e a t h w i s h i n h i m s e l f , " B e n e a t h i t a l l , d e s i r e o f o b l i v i o n r u n s " (LD_. p . 2 2 ) — h e has no i l l u s i o n s a b o u t what d e a t h i n v o l v e s . He does n o t welcome d e a t h u n -r e s e r v e d l y b u t e x p r e s s e s some f e a r and r e v u l s i o n f o r what i t means t o h i m . " A r r i v a l s , D e p a r t u r e s " , as t h e t i t l e s u g g e s t s , i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e j o u r n e y theme and once a g a i n t h e j o u r n e y i s a n image o f l i f e . On t h e n a r r a t i v e l e v e l t h e poem d e s c r i b e s 163 t h e c o n s t a n t comings a n d g o i n g s o f w h i c h p e o p l e l i v i n g a p o r t c a n n o t f a l l t o be a w a r e . T h i s a w a r e n e s s c r e a t e s a s e n s e o f t h e f l u c t u a t i n g , a r b i t r a r y q u a l i t y o f l i f e . E a c h new a r r i v a l s u g g e s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a new b e g i n n i n g , t h o u g h t h i s i s i l l u s o r y s i n c e we a l w a y s make t h e same c h o i c e s : A n d we , b a r e l y r e c a l l e d f r o m s l e e p t h e r e , sense A r r i v a l s l o w i n g i n t h e d o l e f u l d i s t a n c e — H o r n y d i l e m m a s at . t h e g a t e once m o r e . Come and c h o o s e w r o n g , t h e y c r y , come and choose w r o n g ; A n d so we r i s e . ( L P . p . 44) W i t h each d e p a r t u r e we a r e r e m i n d e d o f t h e i n e v i t a b l e b u t u n d e t e r m i n e d t i m e o f o u r own d e p a r t u r e a n d what i t i n v o l v e s : A t n i g h t a g a i n t h e y s o u n d , C a l l i n g t h e t r a v e l l e r now, t h e o u t w a r d b o u n d : 0 n o t f o r l o n g , t h e y c r y , 0 n o t f o r l o n g — A n d we a r e nudged f r o m c o m f o r t , n e v e r k n o w i n g How s a f e l y we may d i s r e g a r d t h e i r b l o w i n g , Or i f , t h i s n i g h t , h a p p i n e s s t o o i s g o i n g . ( L D . p . 44) The poem has a s a d and u n e a s y t o n e ; i t s u g g e s t s t h e p e r p e t u a l d i s e a s e b r o u g h t a b o u t by t h e c o n s t a n t awareness o f d e a t h and t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f l i f e b u t s u g g e s t s t h a t we a r e n e v e r t o t a l l y p r e p a r e d f o r t h e e n d . The d i s c o m f o r t and r e s t l e s s n e s s i n t h e poem s p r i n g s from t h e q u a l i t y t h a t d e a t h imposes on l i f e . I n " G o i n g " t h e f o c u s i s on d e a t h I t s e l f . W h i l s t L a r k i n a s s e r t s c o n s t a n t l y t h a t we must be aware o f d e a t h , i n t h i s poem he s u g g e s t s t h a t d e a t h i t s e l f i s s t i l l a n u n r e s o l v e d p r o b l e m . 164 We c a n o n l y c o n c e i v e o f i t i n t e r m s o f what we know and so d e a t h seems t h e r e v e r s e o f l i f e and what we a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h . The c o m i n g o f d e a t h i s l i k e t h e o n s e t o f e v e n i n g , b u t i t i s "one n e v e r s e e n b e f o r e / T h a t l i g h t s no l a m p s " ( L D . p . 2 1 ) . The r e s o l u t i o n o f chaos i t seems t o o f f e r when d i s t a n t , " S i l k e n i t seems a t a d i s t a n c e " ( L D . p . 2 1 ) , i s i l l u s o r y ; "When i t i s d r a w n u p o v e r knees and b r e a s t / I t b r i n g s no com-f o r t " ( L D . p . 2 1 ) . I n e n d i n g t h e chaos o f l i f e i t b r i n g s w i t h i t a new chaos t h r o u g h i t s u n f a m i l i a r i t y : Where has t h e t r e e g o n e , t h a t l o c k e d E a r t h t o t h e s k y ? What i s u n d e r my h a n d s , T h a t I c a n n o t f e e l ? What l o a d s my hands down? ( L D . p . 21) The d e s c r i p t i o n h e r e o f t h e s e n s e s f i n d i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h o u t any p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e i s v e r y r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e c h o r u s * s p e e c h e s t o w a r d s t h e end o f M u r d e r i n t h e C a t h e d r a l . The s i m i l a r i t y l i e s i n t h e w r i t e r s ' s e n s e t h a t t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g unknown and h o r r i f y i n g c a n o n l y be r e a c h e d t h r o u g h t h e n o r m a l s e n s o r y o r g a n s . T h i s c r e a t e s a p h y s i c a l h o r r o r b e c a u s e o f t h e i n a b i l i t y o f t h e b r a i n t o t r a n s l a t e t h e sense i m p r e s s i o n t o t h e n o r m a l r e s p o n s e s . The n e g a t i v e and s t e r i l e q u a l i t i e s a t t r i b u t e d t o d e a t h h e r e a r e s t a t e d e x p l i c i t l y i n " T r i p l e T i m e " and " N e x t P l e a s e " . I n " T r i p l e T i m e " t h e p r e s e n t i s d e s c r i b e d i n n e g a t i v e te rms and i n our r e j e c t i o n o f t h i s . we i m p l y t h a t t h e f u t u r e t o o i s n o t t o be l o o k e d t o w i t h g r e a t 165 e x p e c t a n c y s i n c e t h e p r e s e n t i s " t h e f u t u r e f u r t h e s t c h i l d h o o d saw" ( L D . p . 35)- F o r t h e same r e a s o n o u r v i e w o f t h e p a s t s h o u l d be m o d i f i e d , f o r what we d i s r e g a r d as u n i m p o r t a n t i n t h e p r e s e n t w i l l become " A v a l l e y c r o p p e d by f a t n e g l e c t e d c h a n c e s / T h a t we i n s e n s a t e l y f o r b o r e t o f l e e c e " ( L D . p . 35). Because o f o u r I n a b i l i t y t o see t h e p r e s e n t c l e a r s i g h t e d l y , we s h a l l a l w a y s make t h e wrong c h o i c e s as i s shown i n " A r r i v a l s , D e p a r t u r e s " . I t i s t h e wrong c h o i c e s we s h a l l b lame when we r e a c h t h e s t e r i l i t y o f o u r w i n t e r : "On t h i s we blame o u r l a s t / T h r e a d b a r e p e r s p e c t i v e s , s e a s o n a l d e c r e a s e " ( L D . p . 35). I n " N e x t P l e a s e " L a r k i n u s e s t h e image o f t h e p e r s o n on l a n d l o o k i n g o u t t o s e a a t what a p p r o a c h e s , p a y i n g no a t t e n t i o n t o what goes o n where he i s o r i n t h e p r e s e n t t i m e b u t f o c u s i n g a l l a t t e n t i o n on t h e " t i n y , c l e a r , / S p a r k l i n g armada o f p r o m i s e s " ( L D . p . 20). D i s t a n c e l e n d s g l a m o u r as does t i m e , f o r , when what we h a v e hoped f o r a r r i v e s , we f i n d t h a t we have b e e n d e c e i v e d . The " t i n y , c l e a r , / S p a r k l i n g armada o f p r o m i s e s " t u r n s o u t t o be c r u d e , v u l g a r , u n e n t i c i n g and t o t a l l y u n l i k e i t s p r o m i s e ; i t i s L e a n i n g w i t h b r a s s w o r k p r i n k e d , E a c h r o p e d i s t i n c t , F l a g g e d , a n d t h e f i g u r e h e a d w i t h g o l d e n t i t s A r c h i n g o u r w a y . ( L D . p . 20) E v e n t h i s p a r o d y o f o u r e x p e c t a t i o n s " n e v e r a n c h o r s " f o r " i t ' s / No s o o n e r p r e s e n t t h a n i t t u r n s t o p a s t " ( L D . p . 20). Hope f o r 166 anything from l i f e i s mistaken for what w i l l eventually anchor f o r each one i s "a b l a c k - / S a i l e d u n f a m i l i a r " (LD. pi 20), f o r which we have not been l o o k i n g i Instead of unloading " a l l good Into our l i v e s " , t h i s ship i s "Towing at her back/A huge and b i r d l e s s s i l e n c e . In her wake/No waters breed or break" (LD. p . 20). The poem concludes with an image of t o t a l s t e r i l i t y ; i t i s one of the few d i r e c t statements that L a r k i n makes. He i s c e r t a i n of only two t h i n g s : that f o r each of us the end i s death and that death Is t o t a l a n n i h i l a t i o n . John Holloway's review of The whitsun Weddings i n the Spectator 2 captures the d i f f e r e n c e between The Less Deceived and The whitsun Weddings through i t s t i t l e , " S t i l l Less Deceived" , s ince the ideas which are es tabl ished i n the e a r l i e r volume of poetry are developed s t i l l fur ther i n the l a s t volumei Within the review the c r i t i c says, "There i s no new theory, only new poems," whereas i t seems to me that the process of maturing which L a r k i n undergoes i n the time between the p u b l i c a t i o n of the two volumes does r e s u l t i n some modif ica t ions and a new emphasis i n h i s theory. The poems group themselves i n a s i m i l a r manner to those i n The Less Deceived except that there are many more poems i n t h i s volume which could be described as s o c i a l poems. I suggested e a r l i e r that the s o c i a l poems In The Less Deceived were possible because of Larkin*s increased self -awareness : the increased i. 2 John Holloway, " S t i l l Less Deceived , " The Spectator , February 28, 1964, 288. 167 number o f s o c i a l poems i n The W h i t s u n Weddings i s a c c o m p a n i e d by poems o f s e l f - e x a m i n a t i o n w h i c h a r e much more p o s i t i v e t h a n t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e e a r l i e r v o l u m e . L a r k i n p o i n t s t o h i s own d e v e l o p m e n t by p r o d u c i n g a s e q u e l t o " T o a d s " e n t i t l e d "Toads R e v i s i t e d " . I n t h i s poem he examines p r a g -m a t i c a l l y what i t i s l i k e t o be w i t h o u t t h e " t o a d w o r k " and f i n d s t h a t t h o s e who a r e e n j o y i n g s u c h l e i s u r e a r e n o t t h o s e he had i m a g i n e d i n t h e e a r l i e r poem b u t i n s t e a d P a l s i e d o l d s t e p - t a k e r s , H a r e - e y e s c l e r k s w i t h t h e j i t t e r s , W a x e d - f l e s h e d o u t p a t i e n t s S t i l l vague f r o m a c c i d e n t s , A n d c h a r a c t e r s i n l o n g c o a t s Deep i n t h e l i t t e r - b a s k e t s — . (WW. p . 18) H i s own v a l u e judgement o f s u c h p e o p l e has changed t o o , f o r now he t h i n k s of them as " d o d g i n g t h e t o a d w o r k / B y b e i n g s t u p i d o r weak" (WW. p . 1 8 ) . He no l o n g e r e n v i e s them b u t t h i n k s what e m p t i n e s s s u c h e n f o r c e d l e i s u r e e x p o s e s , "Nowhere t o go b u t i n d o o r s , / N o f r i e n d s b u t empty c h a i r s — " (WW. p . 1 8 ) . F o r t h i s r e a s o n he v a l u e s h i s own w o r k - o r d e r e d l i f e . H i s i r o n i c t o n e , as he d e s c r i b e s t h e I m p o r t a n c e t o h i m o f w o r k , shows h i s a w a r e n e s s t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e work i t s e l f i s no more m e a n i n g f u l t h a n t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i d l e r s he has d e s c r i b e d , h e , l i k e most men, needs a sense o f o r d e r and a sense o f f u l -f i l l i n g some f u n c t i o n , b o t h o f w h i c h work g i v e s . The f i n a l l i n e s o f t h e poem, " G i v e me y o u r a r m , o l d t o a d ; / H e l p me down 168 C e m e t r y R o a d " (WW. p . 19), I n d i c a t e t h a t he has n o t l o s t s i g h t o f t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e end o f l i f e , b u t t h a t he has c h o s e n a way o f m a k i n g p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s t h a t end seem l e s s t e r r i b l e and m e a n i n g l e s s . The changed a t t i t u d e w h i c h d o m i n a t e s t h e poem i s p r i m a r i l y t o w a r d s h i m s e l f . He i s no l o n g e r m a k i n g s u c h s t r i n g e n t demands u p o n h i m s e l f , condemning h i m s e l f f o r f a i l u r e o r f e e l i n g t h e need t o r a t i o n a l i z e h i s p o s i t i o n . He i s a c k n o w l e d g i n g a need i n h i m s e l f and m e e t i n g t h a t need w i t h o u t s e l f - r e c r i m i n a t i o n , w h i l s t l o s i n g none o f t h e c l a r i t y o f h i s a w a r e n e s s o f t h i n g s e x t e r n a l t o man. H i s f e e l i n g t h a t he i s l e s s i s o l a t e d i n h i s f a i l u r e s t h a n he has p r e v i o u s l y s u g g e s t e d i s shown i n two poems i n w h i c h he examines h i m s e l f i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r s . I n e a c h poem a n o t h e r man i s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f h i s e x p l o r a t i o n . I n " M r . B l e a n e y " we l e a r n a l l t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f - M r . B l e a n e y * s l i f e , f o r m i n g a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f a n e x i s t e n c e n a r r o w and d e p r i v e d . H i s room w i t h o u t any c o m f o r t s s u g g e s t s someone who I s e s s e n t i a l l y h o m e l e s s and images h i s l i f e : F l o w e r e d c u r t a i n s , t h i n and f r a y e d , F a l l t o w i t h i n f i v e i n c h e s o f t h e s i l l , Whose window shows a s t r i p of b u i l d i n g l a n d , T u s s o c k y , l i t t e r e d . " M r . B l e a n e y t o o k My b i t o f g a r d e n p r o p e r l y i n h a n d . " B e d , u p r i g h t c h a i r , s i x t y - w a t t b u l b , no hook B e h i n d t h e d o o r , no room f o r books o r b a g s — . (WW. p . 10) 169 The Image i s d e v e l o p e d f u r t h e r by t h e e l a b o r a t e l y o r d e r e d r o u t i n e d e s i g n e d t o s h u t o u t awareness o f e s s e n t i a l i s o l a t i o n and a l i e n a t i o n . The p o e t t a k e s h i s room and becomes f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l d e t a i l s o f M r . B l e a n e y * s l i f e . T a k i n g t h e room seems t o h i m l i k e a n i n d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n h i s own way o f l i f e and t h a t o f M r . B l e a n e y . He examines h i m s e l f r e s p o n d -i n g t o t h e s i t u a t i o n : B u t i f he s t o o d and w a t c h e d t h e f r i g i d w i n d T o u s l i n g t h e c l o u d s , l a y on t h e f u s t y bed T e l l i n g h i m s e l f t h a t t h i s was home, and g r i n n e d , A n d s h i v e r e d . (WW. p . 10) He r e a l i z e s t h a t h i s f e a r i s t h a t t h e c o m f o r t l e s s room i n t o t a l l y u n b e a u t i f u l s u r r o u n d i n g s Images h i s way o f l i f e j u s t as much a s he f e e l s i t must r e f l e c t M r . B l e a n e y ' s ; he has a " d r e a d / T h a t how we l i v e measures our own n a t u r e " (WW. p . 10). He does n o t know w h e t h e r M r . B l e a n e y s h a r e d t h i s f e a r and he does n o t know h i m s e l f how v a l i d a f e a r i t i s . I n " D o c k e r y and S o n " t h e same p r o b l e m s and q u e s t i o n s a b o u t what a way o f l i f e i n d i c a t e s a r e r a i s e d , t h i s t i m e f r o m a sense o f c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n h i m s e l f and h i s c o n t e m p o r a r y . R e v i s i t i n g h i s o l d c o l l e g e he f i n d s h i m s e l f t o t a l l y d i v o r c e d f r o m h i s y o u t h , " I t r y t h e d o o r o f where I u s e d t o l i v e : / L o c k e d " (WW. p . 37)• D o c k e r y , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a i n t a i n s a l i n k b e t w e e n p a s t and p r e s e n t t h r o u g h h i s s o n ' s p r e s e n c e i n t h e c o l l e g e . The u n -e x p e c t e d d i f f e r e n c e l e a d s t o a n a w a r e n e s s on L a r k i n ' s p a r t t h a t what we know of anyone o u t s i d e o u r s e l v e s i s v e r y l i t t l e 170 and t h a t e v e n our s e l f - a w a r e n e s s i s l i m i t e d . The image o f t h e r a i l w a y l i n e s c r y s t a l i z e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e : " t h e r a n g e d / J o i n i n g and p a r t i n g l i n e s r e f l e c t a s t r o n g / U n h i n d e r e d moon" (WW. p . 37)» L i v e s w h i c h seem t o r u n p a r a l l e l a t t h e o u t s e t g r a d u a l l y d i v e r g e a n d p r o c e e d t o d i f f e r e n t d e s t i n a t i o n s . E a c h d e s t i n a t i o n i s , h o w e v e r , u l t i m a t e l y t h e same and t h e c o n d i t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e j o u r n e y a r e a l s o common: L i f e I s f i r s t b o r e d o m , t h e n f e a r . Whether o r n o t we u s e i t , i t g o e s , A n d l e a v e s what s o m e t h i n g h i d d e n f r o m us c h o s e , A n d a g e , and t h e n t h e o n l y end o f a g e . (WW. p . 38) I t i s t h e " s o m e t h i n g h i d d e n f r o m u s " w h i c h c a u s e s t h e seeming d i f f e r e n c e s i n ways o f l i f e , " i n n a t e a s s u m p t i o n s " w h i c h have l i t t l e r e l a t i o n t o "what/We t h i n k t r u e s t , o r most want t o d o " (WW. p . 38). I t i s n o t u n t i l a way o f l i f e has e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f a n d h a r d e n e d " i n t o a l l w e ' v e g o t " , t h a t we a r e f u l l y aware t h a t a c h o i c e has been made. The p o i n t t h a t L a r k i n i s m a k i n g i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e one made i n " P l a c e s , L o v e d O n e s " , b u t h i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s what he i s s a y i n g i s d i f f e r e n t . He i s no l o n g e r m o c k i n g m a n ' s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f h i s l i f e ' s f a i l u r e s , b u t he i s e x p r e s s i n g c o m p a s s i o n f o r t h e f a c t t h a t man i s w i t h o u t any c l e a r c h o i c e s and t h a t a way o f l i f e s u b -merges d e s i r e s and b e l i e f s and h u r r i e s us t o w a r d s d e a t h . He i s l e s s c o n c e r n e d t o j u s t i f y h i s own i s o l a t i o n t h a n t o see how i t f i t s i n t o a n o v e r a l l p a t t e r n a n d l i n k s h i m w i t h o t h e r s . The poem c o u l d be s e e n as a w o r k i n g o u t o f t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f 171 Katherine i n A G i r l i n Winter when she describes her r e l a t i o n -s h i p with Robin as based on being h i s f e l l o w t r a v e l l e r able to give and r e c e i v e l i m i t e d a s s i s t a n c e . In the poem L a r k i n i s c l e a r l y r e c o g n i s i n g h i s I s o l a t i o n but a l s o that of others, and he i s very much aware of t h e i r mutual journey. His attempt to understand Dockery and see what he has i n common with him i s the counterpart to Katherine's d e s i r e to give some a s s i s t -ance to Robin. The w i l l i n g n e s s to accept l i f e ' s l i m i t a t i o n s and to t r y to make something w i t h i n them ra t h e r than to simply p r o t e s t a g a i n s t them i s expressed i n a l l the poems of s e l f -examination and i n ?The Importance of Elsewhere". The two p o s i t i o n s described w i t h i n the poem are to some extent p a r a l l e l to the r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s h e l d by L a r k i n i n the l a s t two volumes of poetry. In The Less Deceived he i s concerned to point to h i s d i f f e r e n c e s , to h i s sense of being an out-s i d e r , as, f o r example, i n "Reasons f o r Attendance", and to r a t i o n a l i z e h i s p o s i t i o n by p o i n t i n g to h i s greater awareness of the u l t i m a t e meaninglessness of l i f e . His p o s i t i o n i n I r e l a n d i s that of someone who i s an o u t s i d e r , but whose values cannot be too c l o s e l y challenged because of h i s forelgnness. He appears to be d i f f e r e n t from accident of circumstances r a t h e r than perverse choice: Lonely i n I r e l a n d , since i t was not home, Strangeness made sense. The s a l t r e b u f f of speech, I n s i s t i n g so on d i f f e r e n c e , made me welcome: Once that was recognised, we were i n touch. 172 T h e i r d r a u g h t y s t r e e t s , e n d - o n t o h i l l s , t h e f a i n t A r c h a i c s m e l l o f d o c k l a n d , l i k e a s t a b l e , The h e r r i n g - h a w k e r ' s c r y , d w i n d l i n g , went To p r o v e me s e p a r a t e , n o t u n w o r k a b l e . (WW. p . Jh) H i s p o s i t i o n i n E n g l a n d i s much more d i f f i c u l t s i n c e he i s n o t f o r e i g n and has no a c c e p t a b l e r e a s o n f o r s e e m i n g a l i e n : L i v i n g i n E n g l a n d has no s u c h e x c u s e : These a r e my customs a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t s I t w o u l d be much more s e r i o u s t o r e f u s e . H e r e no e l s e w h e r e u n d e r w r i t e s my e x i s t e n c e . (WW. p . 3^) S i m i l a r l y h a v i n g a s s e r t e d t h a t l i f e i s a l l we have and t h a t d e a t h i s a n n i h i l a t i o n , he has no j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r n o t t r y i n g t o make s o m e t h i n g p o s i t i v e o f l i f e . I n t h i s volume o f p o e t r y L a r k i n i s b e i n g p o s i t i v e : he i s a s s e r t i n g h i s s i m i l a r i t i e s t o o t h e r s r a t h e r t h a n h i s d i f f e r e n c e s f rom them and t h e i n c r e a s e d number o f s o c i a l poems s u g g e s t s a c o n c e r n w i t h l i f e s t r o n g enough t o b e l i e v e i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i m p r o v e -ment . I n b o t h " C h u r c h G o i n g " and " A n A r u n d e l Tomb" L a r k i n e x p r e s s e s a b e l i e f i n t h e v a l u e o f t r a d i t i o n and s t a b i l i t y g i v e n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t o t h e s o c i e t y as a w h o l e by a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . I n t h e s e two poems he i n d i c a t e s t h a t he t h i n k s t h e f o r c e s f o r o r d e r a r e b e i n g o r have been d e s t r o y e d . "MCMXIV" marks t h e moment o f t h e change f r o m t h e o l d l i f e t o t h e new, s h o w i n g t h a t what i s most t o be r e g r e t t e d i s t h e l o s s o f I n n o c e n c e . He d e s c r i b e s t h e men 173 queuing up to volunteer to f i g h t , and r e v e a l s those q u a l i t i e s i n them which he no longer sees around him. They seem to belong to t h e i r environment; t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s are e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n a c l e a r r o u t i n e ; they stand w a i t i n g f o r enlistment As i f they were s t r e t c h e d outside The Oval or V i l l a Park, Gr i n n i n g as i f i t were a l l An August Bank Holiday l a r k . (WW. p. 28) They have a d i g n i t y which he suggests by the use of "crowns" and " a r c h a i c " , "The crowns of h a t s , the sun/On moustached ar c h a i c f a c e s " (WW. p. 28). The r e g a l imagery i s picked up l a t e r i n the poem when he speaks of the coinage and of the c h i l d r e n : The f a r t h i n g s and sovereigns, And dark-clothed c h i l d r e n at play C a l l e d a f t e r kings and queens. (WW. p. 28) He suggests through t h i s the s t r u c t u r e d q u a l i t y of s o c i e t y when the f a c t of a monarch was meaningful and gave to every-one e l s e a sense of t h e i r own p o s i t i o n . The mention of the servants emphasises t h i s p o i n t : "The d i f f e r e n t l y - d r e s s e d servants/With t i n y rooms i n huge houses" (WW. p. 28). The sense of an unbroken t r a d i t i o n i s suggested by "the bleached/ E s t a b l i s h e d names on the s u n b l l n d s " , and The place-names a l l hazed over With f l o w e r i n g grasses, and f i e l d s Shadowing Domesday l i n e s Under wheat's r e s t l e s s s i l e n c e . (WW. p. 28) 174 The i d e a o f I n n o c e n c e i s s u g g e s t e d . i n t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r and I n t h e sense o f s u n s h i n e , l e i s u r e and w a r m t h . The l a s t s t a n z a i n d i c a t e s t h e suddenness and t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h e b r e a k f r o m t h i s i n n o c e n c e : N e v e r s u c h i n n o c e n c e , N e v e r b e f o r e o r s i n c e , A s changed I t s e l f t o p a s t W i t h o u t a w o r d — . (WW. p . 28) He s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e l o s s o f i n n o c e n c e i s c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h e e x p u l s i o n f r o m E d e n : " t h e m e n / L e a v i n g t h e i r g a r d e n s t i d y " , b u t t h a t i t i s a f a l l i n some r e s p e c t s more t e r r i b l e because i t was u n n e c e s s a r y on t h i s o c c a s i o n : t h e r e was no e d i c t o f God s i n c e i t t o o k p l a c e " W i t h o u t a w o r d " . " E s s e n t i a l B e a u t y " d e s c r i b e s t h e w o r l d a f t e r t h e l o s s o f i n n o c e n c e . What marks t h i s w o r l d most c l e a r l y i s i t s l a c k o f s i m p l i c i t y and t h e b e w i l d e r m e n t a b o u t i d e n t i t y and a b o u t what l i f e r e a l l y i s . M a t e r i a l i s m i s t h e d o m i n a t i n g v a l u e as t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s d o m i n a t i n g l i f e i n d i c a t e : I n f r a m e s as l a r g e 'as rooms that face a l l ways A n d b l o c k t h e end o f s t r e e t s w i t h g i a n t l o a v e s , S c r e e n g r a v e s w i t h c u s t a r d , c o v e r s lums w i t h p r a i s e Of m o t o r - o i l and c u t s o f s a l m o n , s h i n e P e r p e t u a l l y t h e s e s h a r p l y - p i c t u r e d g r o v e s Of how l i f e s h o u l d b e . (WW. p . 42) They s u g g e s t what seems t o be t h e i d e a l way o f l i f e b u t i n f a c t t h e y r e p r e s e n t s o m e t h i n g u t t e r l y f a l s e ; t h e y a r e n o t i d e a l b e a u t y i n t h e P l a t o n i c s e n s e , t h a t i s t h e p o t e n t i a l 175 p e r f e c t i o n o f what we o b s e r v e , s i n c e t h e y have no r e l a t i o n -s h i p w i t h r e a l i t y : t h e y " r e f l e c t none o f t h e r a i n e d - o n s t r e e t s and s q u a r e s " (WW. p . 4 2 ) , and c o n s e q u e n t l y c a n t e a c h us n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e w o r l d we l i v e i n . They ape p l a t o n i c b e a u t y i n some r e s p e c t s : t h e y r i s e S e r e n e l y t o p r o c l a i m p u r e c r u s t , p u r e f o a m , Pure c o l d n e s s t o o u r l i v e I m p e r f e c t eyes T h a t s t a r e beyond t h i s w o r l d , where n o t h i n g ' s made A s new o r washed q u i t e c l e a n , s e e k i n g t h e home A l l s u c h i n h a b i t . (WW. p . 42) P e r c e p t i o n o f them does n o t l e a d t o wisdom b u t r a t h e r t o b e w i l d e r m e n t , i l l u s i o n and a s p i r a t i o n t o w a r d s s o m e t h i n g l a c k i n g r e a l v a l u e : T h e r e , d a r k r a f t e r e d pubs A r e f i l l e d w i t h w h i t e - c l o t h e d ones f r o m t e n n i s c l u b s , A n d t h e boy p u k i n g h i s h e a r t o u t i n t h e G e n t s J u s t m i s s e d t h e m , as t h e p e n s i o n e r p a i d A h a l f p e n n y more f o r Granny G r a v e c l o t h e s ' Tea To t a s t e o l d a g e . (WW. p . 42) T h e r e i s a n a n g e r i n t h i s poem w h i c h t h e i r o n y a t once r e s t r a i n s and r e v e a l s . L i n e s s u c h as " S c r e e n g r a v e s w i t h c u s t a r d , c o v e r s l u m s w i t h p r a i s e / O f m o t o r o i l and c u t s o f s a l m o n " , i n d i c a t e t h e h o r r o r t o w h i c h t h e s i t u a t i o n g i v e s r i s e . We a r e l i v i n g a w o r l d w h i c h i s n o t s i m p l y l a c k i n g i n t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s b u t w h i c h d e c e i v e s I t s e l f a b o u t t h e l a c k by s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r them t h e v a l u e s o f t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t w o r l d . T h e r e i s a s t r o n g c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e w o r l d d e p i c t e d 176 In t h i s poem and that In "MCMXIV". D e s c r i p t i o n of the natura l world i s e n t i r e l y missing i n " E s s e n t i a l Beauty", since the advertisements "Dominate outdoors" . The " ra ined-on s treets and squares" contrast with the suggestion of summer i n "MCMXIV" and instead of men and c h i l d r e n there are "pensioners" , "dying smokers", and "the boy puking h i s heart out i n the G e n t s " . "Sunny Prestatyn" i s a less angry poem but i t echoes the ideas of " E s s e n t i a l Beauty". Again an advertisement i s used as a standard for our ideas of beauty. The g i r l who i s supposed to represent every man's i d e a l i s Kneeling up on the sand In tautened white s a t i n . Behind her , a hunk of coast , a Hotel with palms Seemed to expand from her thighs and Spread b r e a s t - l i f t i n g arms. (WW. p . 35) Her obvious sexual charms i n v i t e the response they get : A couple of weeks, and her face Was snaggle-toothed and boss-eyed; Huge t i t s and a f i s s u r e d crotch Were scored w e l l i n , and the space Between her legs held scrawls That set her f a i r l y a s t r i d e A tuberous cock and b a l l s Autographed T i t c h Thomas, while Someone had used a k h i f e Or something to stab r i g h t through The moustached l i p s of her s m i l e . (WW. p. 35) 177 The irony of the next l i n e , "She was too good for t h i s l i f e " , seems to suggest that i n part L a r k i n approves of the d e s t r u c t -ive response to the poster . The des t ruc t ion i s more of a r e c o g n i t i o n of the Irrelevance of such an advertisement; i t i s an attempt to make the poster f i t l i f e rather than an attempt to make l i f e f i t the poster as i n " E s s e n t i a l Beauty". The poem concludes with a fur ther i r o n y ; the poster which does seem acceptable , since i t i s not m u t i l a t e d , i s one which says, "Fight Cancer" . Associated with these poems, because of a concern with i l l u s i o n , are "Natura l ly the Foundation w i l l Bear your Expenses" and "A Study,of Reading H a b i t s " . The former again indicates a way of l i f e which d e l i b e r a t e l y obscures i t s r e a l i s s u e s . The speaker of the poem is not only Hurrying to catch my Comet One dark November day, Which soon would snatch me from i t To the sunshine of Bombay, (WW. p . 13) he i s a lso seeking to escape what the "dark November day" represents i n a world of i l l u s i o n and s u p e r f i c i a l va lues . He scorns the r i t u a l of Remembrance Day as c h i l d i s h : Yet not t i l l I was airborne Did I r e c a l l the date— That day when Queen and M i n i s t e r And Band of Guards and a l l S t i l l act t h e i r so lemn-s inis ter Wreath-rubbish i n W h i t e h a l l . I t used to make me throw up, These mawkish nursery games: 0 when w i l l England grow up? (WW. p . 13) 178 He shows no r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i m m a t u r i t y o f h i s own p o s i t i o n , f o c u s e d a s he i s e n t i r e l y on h i m s e l f and I m a g i n i n g t h a t t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d has t h e same f o c u s , and a t t e m p t i n g t o e s c a p e t h e f a c t s o f t i m e a n d d e a t h . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t a t e o f d e c e p t i o n w h i c h t h e p e r s o n a o f t h i s poem d i s p l a y s , t h e s p e a k e r i n " A S t u d y o f R e a d i n g H a b i t s " i n d i c a t e s h i s s e n s e o f t o t a l d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . A f t e r a l i f e s p e n t v i c a r i o u s l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e f i c t i o n a l , v i c t o r i o u s h e r o e s , he r e c o g n i s e s h i s i d e n t i t y w i t h t h e o p p o s i t e number : t h e dude Who l e t s t h e g i r l down b e f o r e The h e r o a r r i v e s , t h e c h a p Who's y e l l o w and k e e p s t h e s t o r e , Seem f a r t o o f a m i l i a r . (WW. p . 31) He condemns t h e i l l u s i o n b e c a u s e o f i t s f a i l u r e , unaware t h a t i n d o i n g so he i s a l s o condemning l i f e . H i s comment " G e t s t e w e d : / B o o k s a r e a l o a d o f c r a p " , I s a comment on t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s own l i f e . " H e r e " , "The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " , a n d " F a i t h H e a l i n g " f o r m a g r o u p w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l poems: t h e y r e p r e s e n t L a r k i n ' s a t t e m p t t o o b s e r v e w i t h o u t t h e t o t a l de tachment o f some o f h i s e a r l i e r poems. " F a i t h H e a l i n g " as I have a l r e a d y i n d i -c a t e d , e x p r e s s e s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h o s e who f e e l l o v e l e s s a n d r e s p o n d e x t r a v a g a n t l y a n d w i t h o u t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t o a warmth w h i c h p r o v e s t o be f a l s e . L a r k i n ' s own p o s i t i o n i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e one he d e s c r i b e s , b u t h i s c r i t i c i s m 179 i s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t a way o f l i f e w h i c h makes s u c h m i s e r y p o s s i b l e r a t h e r t h a n a g a i n s t t h e i n d i v i d u a l woman, t o w a r d s whom he f e e l s c o m p a s s i o n . " H e r e " and "The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " a r e r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a n a t t e m p t n o t t o c r i t i c i z e o r change o t h e r s , b u t t o see them a s t h e y a r e a n d y e t a c c e p t t h e m . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e s i d e n t s o f H u l l i s n o t f l a t t e r i n g , r e s i d e n t s f r o m raw e s t a t e s , b r o u g h t down The dead s t r a i g h t m i l e s by s t e a l i n g f l a t - f a c e d t r o l l e y s , Push t h r o u g h p l a t e - g l a s s s w i n g d o o r s t o t h e i r d e s i r e s — Cheap s u i t s , r e d k i t c h e n - w a r e , s h a r p s h o e s , i c e d l o l l i e s , E l e c t r i c m i x t u r e s , t o a s t e r s , w a s h e r s , d r i e r s — . (WW. p . 9 ) Y e t , d e s p i t e h i s d i s t a s t e f o r t h e i r d e s i r e s , he does d e p i c t them a s h a v i n g a s t r e n g t h and c o n s i s t e n c y w h i c h r i s e s p a r t l y f r o m t h e i s o l a t e d c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e : A c u t - p r i c e c r o w d , u r b a n y e t s i m p l e , d w e l l i n g Where o n l y s a l e s m e n a n d r e l a t i o n s come W i t h i n a t e r m i n a t e and f i s h y - s m e l l i n g P a s t o r a l o f s h i p s u p s t r e e t s . (WW. p . 9 ) S i n c e t h e poem as a w h o l e seems t o be a n image f o r l i f e — i t i s t h e j o u r n e y theme e n d i n g a t t h e s e a , " H e r e i s u n f e n c e d e x i s t e n c e : / F a c i n g t h e s u n , u n t a l k a t i v e , o u t o f r e a c h (WW. p . 9 ) — a n d t h e t o n e o f t h e poem i s one o f a c c e p t a n c e o f what e x i s t s , t h e a c c e p t a n c e embraces a l s o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p e o p l e w i t h whom L a r k i n f e e l s l i t t l e i n common beyond m o r t a l i t y . "The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " i s t h e t i t l e poem o f t h e volume and c r y s t a l l i z e s 180 most o f I t s a s p e c t s . The s e t t i n g , W h i t s u n t i d e , s u g g e s t s t h e f e e l i n g o f a n a l m o s t v i s i o n a r y p e r c e p t i o n s e n d i n g l i f e o f f i n a n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n , w h i c h i s t h e e x p e r i e n c e L a r k i n e x p r e s s e s t h r o u g h t h e poem. The c o - o r d i n a t i n g image i s t h e same as t h a t o f " H e r e " , t h e r a i l w a y j o u r n e y , t h o u g h on t h i s o c c a s i o n , p e r h a p s s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i t i s a j o u r n e y away f r o m t h e i s o l a t i o n o f H u l l t o L o n d o n . A c o n t r a s t i s made t h r o u g h o u t be tween t h e c i t y a n d t h e c o u n t r y , w i t h g l i m p s e s o f l i f e i n each e n v i r o n -m e n t : t h e "wide f a r m s " and " s h o r t s h a d o w e d c a t t l e " c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e " t o w n , new and n o n d e s c r i p t " , w i t h i t s " a c r e s o f d i s m a n t l e d c a r s " . The " t a l l h e a t " o f t h e j o u r n e y c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e shade o f t h e s t a t i o n s , a n d a t f i r s t L a r k l n ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f p e o p l e i s d i m i s h e d i n p r o p o r t i o n as " t h e s u n d e s t r o y s / T h e i n t e r e s t o f w h a t ' s h a p p e n i n g i n t h e s h a d e " (WW. p . 2 1 ) . T h e r e i s a s t r o n g c o n t r a s t be tween t h e f a t h e r ' s v i e w o f t h e w e d d i n g s , " f a t h e r s h a d n e v e r k n o w n / S u c c e s s so huge and w h o l l y f a r c i c a l " (WW. p . 2 2 ) , and t h o s e o f t h e women, "The women s h a r e d / T h e s e c r e t l i k e a happy f u n e r a l " (WW. p . 2 2 ) . The d i s c r e p a n c y h e r e i s echoed i n t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t h e r e l i g i o u s i m a g e r y e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e w h i t s u n s e t t i n g and by t h e w e d d i n g s w h i c h t h e g i r l s r e g a r d a s " a r e l i g i o u s w o u n d i n g " , w i t h t h e p o p u l a r c o n c e p t o f W h i t s u n t i d e as a n o c c a s i o n f o r t h e d i s p l a y o f new c l o t h e s r a t h e r t h a n p e r c e p t i o n s and t h e u n c l e s ' c o n c e p t o f t h e w e d d i n g a s a t i m e t o s h o u t " s m u t " . The t r a i n i s t h e l i n k 181 between a l l these discordant elements: Free at l a s t , And loaded with the sum of a l l they saw, We h u r r i e d towards London, s h u f f l i n g gouts of steam. (WW. p . 22) Despite the ignorance of those who p a r t i c i p a t e i n what for L a r k i n becomes a s i g n i f i c a n t journey—"and none/Thought of the others they would never meet/Or how t h e i r l i v e s would a l l contain t h i s hour" (WW. p . 2 3 ) — i t aquires a potency for him because i t combines so many disparate elements. The con-c l u s i o n of the penultimate stanza indicates the change i n v i s i o n which t h i s e f f e c t s , for the contrasts are now less important than the common elements; he describes London i n terms of the country: "I thought of London spread out i n the s u n , / I t s p o s t a l d i s t r i c t s packed l i k e squares of wheat" (WW. p . 23). The image of - the l a s t stanza reveals h i s sense of a new v i s i o n and through i t a p o t e n t i a l i t y newly created f o r seeing and accepting a sense of order i n what had always seemed meaningless chaos: and i t was nearly done, t h i s f r a i l T r a v e l l i n g coincidence ; and what i t held Stood ready to be loosed with a l l the power That being changed can g i v e . We slowed a g a i n , And as the tightened brakes took h o l d , there swelled A sense of f a l l i n g , l i k e an arrow shower Sent out of s i g h t , somewhere becoming r a i n . (WW. p . 23) 182 L i k e " H e r e " , t h e t o t a l i m p r e s s i o n t h e poem c r e a t e s i s a n a w a r e n e s s o f d i s c o r d a n t e l e m e n t s i n l i f e and o f a s p e c t s and p e o p l e w h i c h a r e u g l y and d i s p l e a s i n g ; b u t s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e r e v u l s i o n and b i t t e r n e s s c r e a t e d by t h e s e i s a d e s i r e t o a c c e p t what e x i s t s , and t o f i n d m e a n i n g , n o t i n a n i l l u s i o n o f a l i f e b e t t e r t h a n what e x i s t s , b u t i n t h e f a c t t h a t e v e r y o n e i s i n t h e same p o s i t i o n ; a n d , s i n c e l i f e i s a l l we h a v e , i t i s b e t t e r t o t r y t o c r e a t e f r o m t h i s common b a s i s t h a n t o r e f u s e any commitment . B o t h " H e r e " and "The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " make a n o b l i q u e comment on d e a t h : b o t h make u s e of images w h i c h L a r k i n has l e d us t o e x p e c t t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e a t h . The j o u r n e y image i s a l w a y s u s e d as a metaphor f o r l i f e and i n c r e a s i n g m a t u r i t y ; t h e d e s t i n a t i o n i s a l w a y s a s t a g e n e a r e r t o d e a t h . I n " H e r e " t h e s e a image r e i n f o r c e s t h e sense o f t h e c o n -c l u s i o n o f t h e j o u r n e y b e i n g d e a t h , s i n c e once a g a i n i t i s a n image w i t h a c c u m u l a t e d a s s o c i a t i o n s . Y e t n e i t h e r o f t h e poems f o c u s e s on d e a t h , b u t r a t h e r on l i f e and what c a n be made o f i t . I n " H e r e " t h e p o s i t i v e emphas is on l i f e i s t o some e x t e n t c r e a t e d t h r o u g h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e e n v i r o n -ment i n w h i c h t h e j o u r n e y t a k e s p l a c e . L a r k i n r a r e l y f o c u s e s on p h y s i c a l s u r r o u n d i n g s i n h i s p o e t r y as o b j e c t s o f b e a u t y , b u t i n " H e r e " t h e r e a r e l i n e s w h i c h r e c r e a t e a n i m p r e s s i o n o f I m m e d i a t e l y p e r c e i v e d b e a u t y : " A n d t h e w i d e n i n g r i v e r ' s 183 s l o w p r e s e n c e , / T h e p i l e d g o l d c l o u d s , t h e s h i n i n g g u l l -marked mud" (WW. p . 9). I t i s a b e a u t y i n a s e t t i n g n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e d f o r b e a u t y . S i m i l a r l y i n t h e l a s t s t a n z a he c o n v e y s h i s i m p r e s s i o n t h a t s i l e n c e and i s o l a t i o n c a n be c r e a t i v e and f r u i t f u l t h r o u g h h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y -s i d e j u s t b e f o r e t h e end o f l a n d : " H e r e s i l e n c e s t a n d s L i k e h e a t . H e r e l e a v e s u n n o t i c e d t h i c k e n , H i d d e n weeds f l o w e r , n e g l e c t e d w a t e r s q u i c k e n , L u m i n o u s l y - p e o p l e d a i r a s c e n d s ; A n d p a s t t h e p o p p i e s b l u i s h n e u t r a l d i s t a n c e Ends t h e l a n d s u d d e n l y beyond a b e a c h Of shapes and s h i n g l e . (WW. p . 9) I n "The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " t h e emphas is on l i f e comes f r o m t h e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f what L a r k i n s e e s . What he d e s c r i b e s i s open t o t h e k i n d o f I r o n i c t r e a t m e n t he u s e s e l s e w h e r e , b u t o n t h i s o c c a s i o n he i s m o t i v a t e d by a d e s i r e t o u n d e r -s t a n d r a t h e r t h a n t o d e s t r o y . The a s s e r t i o n o f l i f e comes a l s o f r o m t h e j o u r n e y ' s end n o t b e i n g s i m p l y a c o n c l u s i o n b u t a l s o a b e g i n n i n g . The " f r e s h c o u p l e s " a r e r e a d y t o embark o n a new l i f e i n changed c i r c u m s t a n c e s and t h e poet h i m s e l f has a sense o f some new d i r e c t i o n . H o w e v e r , t r a c e s o f t h e v i o l e n c e o f a poem l i k e " M y x o m a t o s i s " r e m a i n i n "Take One Home F o r t h e K i d d i e s " . The a n g e r h e r e i s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e a r b i t r a r y c r u e l t y o f l i f e . The a n i m a l s i n t h e pe t shop c r y s t a l l i z e t h i s v i e w s i n c e , 184 On s h a l l o w s t r a w , i n s h a d e l e s s g l a s s , H u d d l e d by empty h o w l s , t h e y s l e e p : No d a r k , no dam, no e a r t h , no g r a s s — . (WW. p . 26) B u t t h o u g h t h e y have no c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r e x i s t e n c e and seem l i k e " f l i e s t o wanton b o y s " i n t h e i r p a s s i v e s u f f e r i n g , L a r k i n does n o t seem t o t h i n k t h a t t h e i r p o s i t i o n need n e c e s s a r i l y m i r r o r o u r o w n . He s u g g e s t s t h a t p e r h a p s I t i s o u r own l a c k o f r e s p e c t f o r l i f e t h a t b e a r s some o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o u r c o n d i t i o n : L i v i n g t o y s a r e s o m e t h i n g n o v e l , B u t i t s o o n wears o f f somehow. F e t c h t h e s h o e b o x , f e t c h t h e s h o v e l — Mam, w e ' r e p l a y i n g f u n e r a l s now. (WW. p . 26) A s i m i l a r p o i n t i s made, t h o u g h much l e s s a n g r i l y , i n " D a y s " , where L a r k i n s u g g e s t s t h a t a l l t h a t we h a v e i s l i f e and any s h i f t i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n f r o m i t i s s i m p l y a move t o w a r d s d e a t h . " I g n o r a n c e " e x p r e s s e s t h e b a s i c a m b i g u i t y o f our l i v e s . We know o n l y one c e r t a i n t h i n g a n d t h a t i s t h a t we s h a l l d i e ; b u t o f e v e r y t h i n g e l s e , I n c l u d i n g why we must d i e , we a r e i g n o r a n t . We a r e p r o v i d e d w i t h c e r t a i n i n s t i n c t s and a b i l i t i e s , " o u r f l e s h / S u r r o u n d s u s w i t h i t s own d e c i s i o n s " (WW. p . 39 ) , and y e t we have no i n t e l l e c t u a l a p p r e h e n s i o n o f what we a r e o r what we s h a l l become: Y e s , i t i s s t r a n g e , E v e n t o wear s u c h k n o w l e d g e — f o r o u r f l e s h S u r r o u n d s u s w i t h i t s own d e c i s i o n s — 185 And yet spend a l l our l i f e on imprecis ions , That when we s tar t to die Have no idea why. (WW. p . 39) The poem i s not angry but quest ioning, and compassionate for man's l i m i t a t i o n s . "Ambulances" i s a confrontat ion with the nearest th ing we know to death. Sudden serious i l l n e s s puts man into the p o s i t i o n of having to accept the nearness of h i s death and a l l those who become aware of him are a lso faced with the fac t of sometime f a c i n g a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n . There i s an a i r of mystery which surrounds one about to d i e . The ambulances are "Closed l i k e confess ionals " (WW. p . 33): our c u r i o s i t y to know what the confrontat ion means i s not s a t i s f i e d , since "they thread/Loud noons of c i t i e s , g i v i n g back/None of the glances they absorb" (WW. p . 33). Our normal everyday l i v e s are suddenly given a new perspective as we "see/A w i l d white face that overtops/Red s t re tcher blankets momently/As i t i s c a r r i e d i n and stowed" (WW. p . 33). We are made to r e a l i z e the u n i v e r s a l i t y of what i s Implied: And sense the s o l v i n g emptiness That l i e s just under a l l we do, And for a second get i t whole, So permanent and blank and t r u e . (WW. p. 33) L a r k i n does not mock at the t r i v i a l i t y of our l i v e s i n contrast with death but instead seems to have a sense of the 186 u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i f e : F o r b o r n e away i n deadened a i r May go t h e s u d d e n s h u t o f l o s s Bound s o m e t h i n g n e a r l y a t a n e n d , A n d what c o h e r e d i n i t a c r o s s The y e a r s , t h e u n i q u e random b l e n d Of f a m i l i e s and f a s h i o n , t h e r e A t l a s t b e g i n t o l o o s e n . (WW. p . 33) New t o t h i s v o l u m e , t o o , i s t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s s e n s e t h a t i n e a c h p e r s o n t h e r e i s a n a w a r e n e s s o f d e a t h w h i c h i n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s comes t o t h e s u r f a c e a n d " B r i n g s c l o s e r what i s l e f t t o c o m e , / A n d d u l l s t o d i s t a n c e a l l we a r e " (WW. p . 33). The poem i s l i k e d e a t h poems i n The L e s s D e c e i v e d i n t h a t i t a t t e m p t s t o c r e a t e a w a r e n e s s , b u t L a r k i n ' s v i e w o f p e o p l e seems d i f f e r e n t and has a f f e c t e d h i s m e t h o d . He does n o t f e e l t h e need t o u s e v i o l e n c e o r i r o n y b u t r e c o g n i s e s t h a t t h e r e i s a c a p a c i t y f o r r e s p o n s e and a w a r e n e s s i n man w h i c h c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s make a p p a r e n t . I t i s by r e c r e a t i n g s u c h a s i t u a t i o n t h a t he r e c r e a t e s t h e awareness and makes a r t i c u l a t e e m o t i o n s n o t n o r m a l l y e x p r e s s e d . He does n o t p r e s e n t h i m s e l f as any more o f a n o u t s i d e r o r any more i s o l a t e d t h a n e v e r y o n e e l s e . The poem i s t y p i c a l o f t h e vo lume i n i t s s e n s e o f t h e poet f a c i n g m a n ' s common l o t a n d g a i n i n g s o m e t h i n g f r o m t h e a b i l i t y t o s h a r e w i t h o t h e r s and see h i m s e l f i n c o n t e x t . CHAPTER V I CONCLUSION: L A R K I N ' S DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNIQUE FROM THE NORTH S H I P THROUGH THE NOVELS TO THE LESS DECEIVED AND THE WHITSUN WEDDINGS I n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e s e c o n d e d i t i o n o f The N o r t h S h i p , L a r k i n comments on t h e l a c k o f c o h e r e n c e i n t h e volume a s a w h o l e : L o o k i n g b a c k , I f i n d i n t h e poems n o t one abandoned s e l f b u t s e v e r a l — t h e e x - s c h o o l b o y , f o r whom A u d e n was t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e t o " o l d - f a s h i o n e d " p o e t r y ; t h e u n d e r g r a d u a t e , whose work a f r i e n d a f f a b l y c h a r a c t e r i s e d as " D y l a n Thomas, b u t y o u ' v e g o t a s e n t i m e n t a l i t y t h a t ' s a l l your o w n " ; and t h e i m m e d i a t e p o s t - O x f o r d s e l f , i s o l a t e d i n S h r o p s h i r e w i t h a c o m p l e t e Y e a t s s t o l e n f r o m t h e l o c a l g i r l s ' s c h o o l . T h i s s e a r c h f o r a s t y l e was m e r e l y one a s p e c t o f a g e n e r a l i m m a t u r i t y . ( N S . p . 8) I t i s t h e i m m a t u r i t y and t h e u n s u c c e s s f u l s e a r c h f o r a s t y l e w h i c h marks t h i s volume o f f so d e c i s i v e l y f r o m t h e r e s t o f L a r k i n ' s w o r k . T h e r e i s no c o n s i s t e n c y i n mood o r p o i n t o f v i e w , no one poem p r o v i d i n g a f o c u s f o r t h e c e n t r a l I s s u e s o f t h e volume as t h e r e i s i n The L e s s D e c e i v e d and The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s . The f a c t t h a t most o f t h e poems a r e u n t i t l e d i n d i c a t e s a l a c k o f a s s u r a n c e a b o u t t h e c e n t r a l c o n c e r n o f i n d i v i d u a l poems, and i s a l s o i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e l a c k o f economy i n t h e v o l u m e : i n t h e l a t e vo lumes t h e t i t l e s o f i n d i -v i d u a l poems n o t o n l y c r y s t a l l i z e t h e c o n c e r n s o f t h e poem b u t o f t e n p r o v i d e a n added i r o n i c comment. F o r example t h e t i t l e s " C h u r c h G o i n g " and " W e d d i n g - W i n d " a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y ambiguous 188 and r e f l e c t t h e d u a l i t y and a m b i v a l e n c e on w h i c h t h e poems a r e b u i l t . "Reasons f o r A t t e n d a n c e " i s a t once c o m p l e t e l y d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e poem i t heads and a l s o p r o v i d e s a n i r o n i c comment on t h e r a t i o n a l i z i n g e l e m e n t w i t h i n t h e poem. I n The L e s s D e c e i v e d and The w h i t s u n Weddings e v e r y e l e m e n t o f a poem i s c o n t r o l l e d t o w a r d s a s i g n i f i c a n t e n d , whereas i n The N o r t h S h i p t h e r e i s n o t same c l o s e r e l a t i o n -s h i p b e t w e e n m e a n i n g and f o r m , so t h a t o f t e n a n o b v i o u s p o e t i c d e v i c e i s u s e d b u t o p e r a t e s t o w a r d s d i s p e r s i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e poem r a t h e r t h a n c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t . I n poem " V I I " t h e p o e t u s e s sound v e r y s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y ! The h o r n s o f t h e m o r n i n g A r e b l o w i n g , a r e s h i n i n g , The meadows a r e b r i g h t W i t h t h e c o l d e s t dew; The dawn r e a s s e m b l e s . L i k e t h e c l a s h o f g o l d c y m b a l s The s k y s p r e a d s i t s v a n s o u t The s u n hangs i n v i e w . ( N S . p . 18) The o n o m a t o p a e i c q u a l i t y o f words s u c h as " s h i n i n g " , " b l o w i n g " , " c l a s h " , and " c y m b a l s " i s d e l i g h t e d i n f o r i t s own sake and f o r t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n made t o w a r d s t h e g e n e r a l l y r o u s i n g q u a l i t y o f t h e s t a n z a w h i c h i s c r e a t e d by t h e war i m a g e r y and by t h e r h y t h m . B u t t h e w h o l e c o n c e p t o f m o r n i n g w h i c h t h e s t a n z a c r e a t e s seems r a t h e r a n i n t e r e s t i n g c o n c e i t t h a n a p o w e r f u l r e c r e a t i o n o f what t h e dawn a c t u a l l y i s and how i t a f f e c t s t h e o b s e r v e r . The image i s t h e r e f o r i t s own sake 189 r a t h e r t h a n b e c a u s e I t c a r r i e s t h e m e a n i n g , and t h e sounds a r e s i m p l y a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e i m a g e . The s e c o n d s t a n z a f u r t h e r u n d e r c u t s t h e s i n c e r i t y o f t h e image o f t h e f i r s t s t a n z a , f o r i t c o n c l u d e s , F o r n e v e r so b r i l l i a n t , N e i t h e r so s i l e n t Nor so u n e a r t h l y , has E a r t h grown b e f o r e . ( N S . p . 18) We have t o t a k e t h i s e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e m o r n i n g on t r u s t , s i n c e t h i s i s n o t a t a l l t h e sense o f t h e m o r n i n g w h i c h t h e f i r s t s t a n z a c r e a t e s . The q u a l i t i e s o f b r i l l i a n c e a r e t h e r e b u t n o t h i n g t o s u g g e s t t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g s i l e n c e ; and f a r f r o m s u g g e s t i n g t h e u n e a r t h l y q u a l i t i e s o f t h e e a r t h , t h e f i r s t s t a n z a w o r k s i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n t h r o u g h i t s u s e o f f a m i l i a r b a t t l e i m a g e r y . I n t h e poem " W i n t e r " t h e swans and t h e h o r s e s a r e u s e d a s q u i t e a r b i t r a r y s y m b o l s , s i n c e n o t h i n g i n t h e r e s t o f t h e poem s u p p o r t s t h e f u n c t i o n t h e y a r e g i v e n i n t h e l i n e s , F o r t h e l i n e o f a swan D i a g o n a l on w a t e r I s t h e c o l d o f w i n t e r , A n d each h o r s e l i k e a p a s s i o n L o n g s i n c e d e f e a t e d Lowers i t s h e a d . ( N S . p . 19) S i m i l a r l y i n t h e poem "Dawn" t h e c o c k and t h e c l o u d s a r e u s e d as Images o f l o v e l e s s n e s s and c o l d , b u t t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e a s s u c h e x i s t s o n l y i n t h e poem. They do n o t have c o n n o t a t i o n s 190 w h i c h b r i n g f u r t h e r m e a n i n g i n t o t h e poem. J i l l was p u b l i s h e d i n 1946, j u s t a y e a r a f t e r The N o r t h S h i p , b u t many o f t h e f a u l t s o f t h e p o e t r y a r e l e s s o b v i o u s i n t h e n o v e l . T h e r e I s o f c o u r s e l e s s t e m p t a t i o n i n a n o v e l t o f o c u s c l o s e l y on t h e sound p a t t e r n s , so t h a t t h i s p r o b l e m does n o t a r i s e ; b u t t h e p r o b l e m o f s i g n i f i c a n t images i s r e l e v a n t . The c e n t r a l images o f t h e n o v e l , . t h e a u t u m n , t h e w i n d , t h e j o u r n e y t h e m e , o p e r a t e c o n s i s t e n t l y . They f o r m a n a t u r a l p a r t o f t h e n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e , p a r t o f t h e n o v e l s as " a p i e c e o f v i r t u a l h i s t o r y " ! , and y e t t h e y have a c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t w h i c h i l l u m i n a t e s t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s o f t h e n o v e l . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , o t h e r images l e s s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s r a i s e d by t h e n o v e l w h i c h a r e l e s s s k i l f u l l y h a n d l e d . The s y m b o l i s m o f t h e dog b a r k i n g a t E l i z a b e t h i n t h e l a s t c h a p t e r has a l r e a d y been m e n t i o n e d b u t i t s o b v i o u s n e s s as a s y m b o l c a u s e s i t s f a i l u r e i n much t h e same way; as d e l i g h t i n sound f o r i t s own sake d e s t r o y s t h e t o n e o f poem " V I I " . The d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e swan w h i c h J o h n sees on t h e c a n a l seems t o have some s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n , s i n c e r e f e r e n c e s t o i t o c c u r t w i c e i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o J o h n ' s e m o t i o n s a b o u t J i l l . I t seems t o be s y m b o l i c o f s o m e t h i n g b e a u t i f u l i n e s s e n t i a l l y d r a b s u r r o u n d i n g s , b u t i t i s r a t h e r v a g u e l y d i r e c t e d . I f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o c c u r e d o n l y once i t w o u l d be ^-Susanne K . L a n g e r , F e e l i n g and Form (New Y o r k * S c r l b n e r , 1953), P . 252. 191 a c c e p t e d s i m p l y on t h e n a r r a t i v e l e v e l b u t i t s r e p e t i t i o n g i v e s i t a n e m p h a s i s , t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f w h i c h i s n o t f u l l y a p p a r e n t . A G i r l i n W i n t e r , p u b l i s h e d i n 19^7 , i s e v e n more t i g h t l y c o n t r o l l e d t h a n J i l l i n terms o f s i g n i f i c a n t images c o m p l e t e l y a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e n a r r a t i v e . E v e n t h e names o f some o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e s y m b o l i c , t h o u g h n e v e r o b t r u s i v e l y s o . K a t h e r i n e i s surnamed " L i n d " , a n d t h e s h i e l d image i s p i c k e d u p i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f h e r f a c e and i n h e r g e n e r a l w i t h d r a w n b e h a v i o u r . M r . A n s t e y ' s name s u g g e s t s t h e n a s t i n e s s w h i c h K a t h e r i n e f i n d s i n h i m ; Jane a p p e a r s on t h e s u r f a c e t o be t h e p l a i n and s i m p l e g i r l h e r name s u g g e s t s ; R o b i n has t h e c h e e r f u l , u n a b a s h e d q u a l i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b i r d ; M i s s G r e e n i s i m m a t u r e , i n e x -p e r i e n c e d , j e a l o u s o f K a t h e r i n e and s i c k ; M i s s F e a t h e r i s s u p e r f i c i a l , h e r o p i n i o n s and a c t i o n s b e i n g d i r e c t e d by t h o s e o f h e r s u p e r i o r s . The images w h i c h do n o t work a r e n o t e s s e n t i a l t o t h e theme o r p l o t o f t h e n o v e l . The t e n n i s game, f o r e x a m p l e , f i t s i n t o t h e n a r r a t i v e b u t t h e way i t i s u s e d t o r e v e a l a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f J a n e , K a t h e r i n e and R o b i n i s r a t h e r t o o n e a t and c o n s e q u e n t l y n o t v e r y c o n v i n c i n g . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e c o r d w h i c h Jane p l a y s and t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s i t has i s d e v e l o p e d t o o f a r . The d e v e l o p m e n t g i v e s i t a n i m p o r t a n c e i t does n o t have o n t h e n a r r a t i v e l e v e l so t h a t i t 192 becomes a n i n t e r e s t i n g image t h e w r i t e r i s e x p l o r i n g r a t h e r t h a n a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e a c t i o n : The r e c o r d was o l d - f a s h i o n e d , and i t had a t i n n y q u a l i t y o n l y p a r t l y due t o t h e n e e d l e . The t u n e i t p l a y e d had been p o p u l a r f o r p e r h a p s a week o r t w o , o r p e r h a p s f o r e v e n as l o n g as a m u s i c a l comedy had r u n i n L o n d o n , b u t was now q u i t e f o r g o t t e n . The o r c h e s t r a t h a t p l a y e d i t d i d so i n what had b e e n t h e f a s h i o n o f t h e moment, w i t h l i t t l e empty t r i c k s o f s y n c o p a t i o n t h a t r e c a l l e d t h e outmoded d r e s s e s o f t h e g i r l s t h a t h a d d a n c e d t o i t . I t was s t r a n g e t o t h i n k i t had once sounded m o d e r n . Now i t was l i k e a n a w n i n g p r o p p e d i n t h e s u n , n e a r l y w h i t e , t h a t y e a r s ago had been s t r i p e d b r i g h t r e d and y e l l o w . (AGW. p p . 118-9) S i m i l a r l y L a r k i n o c c a s i o n a l l y d e s c r i b e s a n a c t i o n o r t h o u g h t i n m e t a p h o r i c a l t e r m s w h i c h do n o t b l e n d w e l l w i t h t h e g e n e r a l n a r r a t i v e ; t h e y a r e t o o o b v i o u s l y p o e t i c . A n example i s h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f K a t h e r i n e * s t h o u g h t s p r i o r t o s l e e p i n g on h e r f i r s t n i g h t a t t h e F e n n e l s ' : F i n a l l y , h e r m i n d gave one l a s t f l i c k e r o f s u r p r i s e , a s a s a i l g leams f o r a moment b e f o r e g o i n g o v e r t h e h o r i z o n . (AGW. p . 91) The L e s s D e c e i v e d was n o t p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 1955 a n d The W h i t s u n Weddings i n 1964. The poems i n t h e s e v o l u m e s a r e much more c l o s e l y w r o u g h t ; t h e o b v i o u s f a u l t s i n economy a n d r e l e v a n c e w h i c h c a n be shown i n t h e e a r l y works a r e e n t i r e l y a b s e n t f r o m t h e m . They c a n be examined i n t e r m s o f t h e p o s i t i v e a d v a n c e s i n t e c h n i q u e t h a t t h e y show. None o f t h e s e poems has t h e d e l i g h t i n sound r e g a r d l e s s o f s t r u c t u r e : whenever sounds a r e e m p h a s i s e d i t i s b e c a u s e t h e y c o n t r i b u t e 193 s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e t o t a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e poem. The poem " W i r e s " i s a v e r y c l e a r example o f t h i s , as a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s w i l l i n d i c a t e . I n t h e f i r s t l i n e t h e v o w e l s i n t h e words " w i d e s t " and " p r a i r i e s " i n c o n j u n c t i o n c r e a t e a sense o f u n l i m i t e d space h u t t h e words w h i c h c o n c l u d e t h e l i n e , " e l e c t r i c f e n c e s " , n e g a t e t h a t s e n s e i n t h e s h o r t s h a r p n e s s o f t h e i r v o w e l s o u n d s . I n t h e s e c o n d l i n e no word I n v i t e s b e i n g d w e l t u p o n so t h a t t h e s e n s e i s o f a c o n s i s t e n t and b a l a n c e d p r o g r e s s i o n o f s o u n d s , w h i c h echoes t h e commonsense a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e o l d c a t t l e . I n c o n t r a s t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e t h i r d l i n e w i t h I t s i n s i s t e n c e on l o n g v o w e l s b e i n g p u l l e d b a c k by c o n s o n a n t sounds s u g g e s t s t h e l o n g i n g s o f t h e " y o u n g s t e e r s " . The change i n t h e poem's d i r e c t i o n i s e m p h a s i s e d by t h e p u n c t u a t i o n o f t h e f o u r t h l i n e . The end' .of t h i s l i n e c o n t i n u e s s y n t a c t i c a l l y u n t i l t h e end o f t h e s e c o n d l i n e o f t h e s e c o n d s t a n z a . The e f f e c t o f t h e sound i n t h e s e l i n e s i s a t once o f e x t e n d e d movement—the s t e e r s m o v i n g o u t beyond where t h e y n o r m a l l y a r e — a n d y e t t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e word " w i r e s " i n d i c a t e s t h e i n e v i t a b l e t e r m i n a l q u a l i t y t h e y h a v e . " M u s c l e - s h r e d d i n g v i o l e n c e " , t h r o u g h t h e h a r s h n e s s a n d d i s -c o r d a n t q u a l i t y o f t h e s o u n d s , I n d i c a t e s t h e i n t e n s i t y and t h e s u r p r i s e o f p a i n . The t h i r d l i n e o f t h i s s t a n z a c o n t r a s t s i n sound w i t h t h e s e c o n d l i n e , b e i n g smooth and b a l a n c e d , i n t h e same way t h a t t h e s e c o n d and t h i r d l i n e s o f t h e f i r s t s t a n z a c o n t r a s t . The f i n a l l i n e g i v e s emphas is t o t h e word " e l e c t r i c " 194 w h i c h o c c u r s a l s o i n t h e f i r s t l i n e . The s h a r p a b r u p t n e s s o f t h e v o w e l sounds i s i n c r e a s e d s i n c e t h e word f o l l o w i n g i s n o t " f e n c e s " b u t " l i m i t s " . " W i d e s t " o c c u r s a g a i n w i t h i t s e c h o i n g o f t h e f i r s t l i n e and t h e sense o f s p a c e e x p r e s s e d t h e r e , b u t i t s e f f e c t i n t h i s c o n t e x t i s changed s i n c e i t i s f o l l o w e d by t h e s h o r t v o w e l sounds o f " s e n s e s " . A s a r e s u l t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e poem c a n n o t be l o c a t e d s i m p l y i n t h e i d e a o r e v e n t h e images b u t i n t h e t o t a l e f f e c t o f b o t h o f t h e s e , combined w i t h t h e w o r k i n g out o f t h e sound p a t t e r n s . Poem " X X " i n The N o r t h S h i p i s t h e o n l y poem i n t h a t vo lume t o make u s e o f s o u n d i n a way w h i c h i s v e r y common t o t h e l a t e r poems. The sound i s u s e d i n t h i s poem t o d e l i b e r a t e -l y u n d e r c u t t h e s t a t e m e n t t h e words make . I n poems s u c h as "Reasons f o r A t t e n d a n c e " and " N a t u r a l l y t h e F o u n d a t i o n w i l l B e a r Y o u r E x p e n s e s " t h i s d e v i c e i s u s e d f o r i r o n i c p u r p o s e s . I n t h e s e poems t h e t o t a l m e a n i n g o f t h e poem c a n n o t be f o u n d i n t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f s t a t e m e n t s o r images b u t c a n o n l y be r e a c h e d t h r o u g h a n awareness o f t h e way i n w h i c h t h e r h y t h m c r e a t e s a t e n s i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e way i n w h i c h i t c o n t r a s t s w i t h what i s b e i n g s a i d ; t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e s e poems l i e s a s much i n t h a t t e n s i o n as a n y w h e r e . The images w h i c h L a r k i n u s e s i n h i s l a t e r poems a r e n e v e r as c o n t r i v e d and l i m i t e d as t h e ones m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r . They a r e u s u a l l y d r a w n d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e s i t u a t i o n i t s e l f and b e c a u s e o f t h i s t h e y a r e n o t a t a l l s t a r t l i n g . T h i s was r e g a r d e d 195 by some o f t h e Movement c r i t i c s a s b e i n g a f a u l t common t o t h e Movement p o e t s . I n f a c t I t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e v i e w o f l i f e and p o e t r y h e l d by t h e s e p o e t s . L a r k i n , l i k e t h e o t h e r s , u s e s t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s , commonplace s i t u a t i o n s and images w h i c h a r e n o t e x c i t i n g i n t h e m s e l v e s b e c a u s e he i s c o n c e r n e d t o p r o d u c e p o e t r y w h i c h i s c a r e f u l l y and t i g h t l y made, so t h a t any s u r p r i s e o r s h o c k comes , n o t f r o m how t h e poem i s made, b u t f r o m t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f what t h e poem i s s a y i n g i n c o n t r a s t w i t h i t s f o r m . On o c c a s i o n t h e images go beyond t h i s f u n c t i o n and draw t o g e t h e r i d e a s o r images w h i c h have o c c u r e d e a r l i e r i n a poem. F o r e x a m p l e , i n "The w h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f L o n d o n , " s p r e a d o u t i n t h e s u n , / I t s p o s t a l d i s t r i c t s p a c k e d l i k e s q u a r e s o f w h e a t " (WW. p . 23), t h e s i m i l e does more t h a n c r e a t e a v i s u a l a e r i a l p i c t u r e o f L o n d o n , i t a l s o r e f e r s b a c k t o t h e t o w n a n d c o u n t r y images a n d draws t o g e t h e r t h e t o t a l m e a n i n g o f t h e poem i n i t s c r e a t i o n o f harmony b e t w e e n a p p a r e n t i n c o m p a t l b l e s . A d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e o f t h e l a s t two v o l u m e s , w h i c h i s r a r e l y f o u n d i n The N o r t h S h i p i s t h e u s e o f s i t u a t i o n I t s e l f a s a n Image. " A t G r a s s " i s a good example s i n c e i n t h i s poem, a s i n " W i n t e r " , h o r s e s a r e t h e means by w h i c h L a r k i n e x p l o r e s a n i d e a . I n t h e poem " W i n t e r " he makes e x p l i c i t h i s v i e w o f t h e h o r s e s as s y m b o l s : A n d e a c h h o r s e l i k e a p a s s i o n L o n g s i n c e d e f e a t e d Lowers i t s h e a d . ( N S . p . 19) 196 I n " A t G r a s s " t h e h o r s e s a r e n o t symbols o f any p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p t ; I t i s t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e i r l i v e s o b s e r v e d a t a p o i n t when a p a t t e r n i s p e r c e p t i b l e t h a t forms a n image f o r L a r k i n ' s v i s i o n o f l i f e . He does n o t need t o go beyond t h e s i t u a t i o n he d e s c r i b e s w i t h p r e c i s i o n , s i n c e i t i s t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f o b s e r v a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e r e a d e r i s made t o p a r t i c i p a t e , t h a t i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n become a p p a r e n t . T h i s i s t r u e t o o o f "The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " ; i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o make t h e t r a i n j o u r n e y i n t o a s y m b o l o f a p r o c e s s o f d i s c o v e r y s i n c e i t i s e x a c t l y t h a t . The l a n g u a g e o f The N o r t h S h i p i s d i s t i n c t l y p o e t i c a l a n d i t i s matched by a n a r t i f i c i a l and sometimes s t r a i n e d s y n t a x and a r h e t o r i c a l t o n e . T h r o u g h t h e s e d e v i c e s t h e p o e t seems t o be m a k i n g p o e t r y i n t o s o m e t h i n g e s o t e r i c and b o r d e r -i n g o n t h e m y s t e r i o u s and v a g u e . L a r k i n m e n t i o n s i n t h a t s e c t i o n o f t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e volume w h i c h I have q u o t e d e a r l i e r t h a t he was i n f l u e n c e d by one a s p e c t o f Y e a t s ' work a n d t h a t o f D y l a n Thomas w h i l s t he was w r i t i n g The N o r t h S h i p . I n t h e vo lume t h e r e i s no use o f d i a l o g u e a n d no c o l l o q i a l i s m . I n J i l l a n d A G i r l I n W i n t e r t h e v e r y f o r m demands a g r e a t e r u s e o f n o r m a l v o c a b u l a r y and s p e e c h p a t t e r n s . F o r t h e most p a r t t h e d i a l o g u e I s v e r y w e l l h a n d l e d and c o n v i n c i n g . D e s p i t e t h e t e m p t a t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n t h e s i t u a t i o n i n J i l l t o l a p s e i n t o v o c a b u l a r y common o n l y t o t h e u n d e r g r a d u a t e d u r i n g t h e war p e r i o d , t h e r e i s no sense now t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e i s d a t e d . 197 L a r k i n has overcome t h e d a n g e r s o f w r i t i n g what m i g h t u l t i m a t e l y become a p i e c e o f s o c i a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n i n a way t h a t A m i s a n d W a i n have n o t . F o r t h o u g h t h e d i a l o g u e i s n a t u r a l a n d a p p r o p r i a t e i t i s n o t a g g r e s s i v e l y o f i t s t i m e i n t h e way t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e d i a l o g u e i s i n t h e work o f t h e o t h e r two w r i t e r s . I n A G i r l I n W i n t e r t h e r e i s l e s s d i a l o g u e a n d i t i s somet imes l e s s w e l l h a n d l e d . The w r i t e r makes l i t t l e a t t e m p t t o c r e a t e a sense o f K a t h e r i n e ' s f o r e i g n -n e s s t h r o u g h h e r s p e e c h , f o r t h e f o r m a l i t y w h i c h i n f o r m s h e r s p e e c h I s common t o t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s a l s o . T h e r e i s p e r h a p s some j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s , s i n c e we v i e w t h e a c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l f r o m K a t h e r i n e ' s p o i n t o f v i e w and h e r f o r e i g n -n e s s o f s p e e c h i s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h o t h e r s w o u l d be aware o f more t h a n she i s . The d i c t i o n o f t h e l a s t two books i s n o t p o e t i c a n d o n o c c a s i o n s i t i s d e l i b e r a t e l y c o l l o q u i a l . The s y n t a x t o o i s n a t u r a l d e s p i t e t h e t i g h t n e s s o f t h e v e r s e s t r u c t u r e . I n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o New L i n e s I I , C o n q u e s t q u o t e s W o r d s w o r t h as c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e k i n d o f p o e t i c t h e o r y t h e Movement p o e t s a d h e r e d t o . The q u o t a t i o n i s a v e r y a p t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f L a f k i n ' s l a n g u a g e i n h i s l a s t two v o l u m e s o f p o e t r y : Not o n l y t h e l a n g u a g e o f a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f e v e r y good poem, e v e n o f t h e most e l e v a t e d c h a r a c t e r , must n e c e s s a r i l y , e x c e p t w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m e t r e , i n no r e s p e c t d i f f e r f r o m t h a t o f good p r o s e , b u t l i k e w i s e t h a t some o f t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g p a r t s o f t h e b e s t poems w i l l be f o u n d t o be s t r i c t l y t h e l a n g u a g e o f p r o s e when p r o s e i s w e l l w r i t t e n . 2 2 N e w L l n e s - I I . p . x x i i . 198 Where o b v i o u s c o l l o q u l a l i s m s a r e u s e d , t h e y have a d e f i n i t e p u r p o s e b e y o n d t h e s i m p l e d e s i r e t o a p p e a l t o a p o p u l a r a u d i e n c e . I n " N e x t P l e a s e " t h e word " t i t s " i s u s e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e p o v e r t y o f o u r e x p e c t a t i o n s and t h e i r f u l f i l -m e n t . I n s t e a d o f a n i d e a l i s e d s y m b o l o f l o v e a n d f e r t i l i t y t h e " f i g u r e h e a d w i t h g o l d e n t i t s " a d o r n s t h e s h i p w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s o u r d e s i r e s . The r e s t o f t h e poem h a s a v e r y n e u t r a l d i c t i o n so t h a t t h e word g a i n s a n emphas is w h i c h f o r c e s o u r a w a r e n e s s o f t h e c h e a p n e s s of what we l o o k t o . I n "Sunny P r e s t a t y n " t h e d e l i b e r a t e l y v u l g a r l a n g u a g e r e c r e a -a t e s t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e p o s t e r a n d t h e l i v e s o f t h o s e who o b s e r v e i t a n d a l s o p o i n t s t o t h e e s s e n t i a l p o v e r t y o f i m a g i n a t i o n w h i c h prompts s u c h p o s t e r s . I n " L i n e s o n a Young L a d y ' s P h o t o g r a p h A l b u m " t h e m e n t i o n o f t h e " d i s q u i e t i n g c h a p s " s e r v e s t o p l a c e t h e w r i t e r i n s l i g h t l y I r o n i c c o n t e x t s i n c e h i s u s e o f s l a n g i s d e s i g n e d t o put h i m s e l f on t h e g i r l ' s l e v e l ; i n s t e a d i t i n c r e a s e s t h e d i s t a n c e by d a t i n g h i m . T h e r e i s i r o n i c i n t e n t i o n a l s o i n " I remember, I remember" w h e r e , t h r o u g h t h e c o l l o q u i a l i s m , t h e p o e t r e c r e a t e s t h e h e a r t y q u a l i t y o f t h e y o u t h he d i d n o t e x p e r i e n c e , and a l s o , t h r o u g h t h e l a n g u a g e , i n d i c a t e s t h e e p h e m e r a l q u a l i t y o f s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s ; I n " P o e t r y o f D e p a r t u r e s " , t h e c o l l o q u i a l e x -p r e s s i o n s c o n v e y t h e s i m p l i c i t y , e v e n n a i v e t y , o f r e s p o n s e i n t h o s e who a d m i r e t h e one who " c h u c k e d u p e v e r y t h i n g / A n d j u s t c l e a r e d o f f ( L D . p . 34). I n The W h i t s u n Weddings t h e 199 c o l l o q u i a l i s m s a r e f e w e r "but t h e y f u l f i l much t h e same f u n c t i o n s . The c o n c l u s i o n o f " A S t u d y o f R e a d i n g H a b i t s " , " G e t s t e w e d . Books a r e a l o a d o f c r a p " (WW. p . 31), c o n v e y s i n h i s own t e r m s t h e u t t e r f r u s t r a t i o n o f t h e p e r s o n a o f t h e poem who has f o u n d t h a t i l l u s i o n has f a i l e d h i m , and i d e n t i f i e s h i m c l o s e l y w i t h t h e k i n d o f l i t e r a t u r e he i s r e j e c t i n g . The c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e s e l i n e s and t h e t i t l e r e v e a l s t h e d i s -c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e way i n w h i c h we w o u l d l i k e t o r e g a r d r e a d i n g and l i t e r a t u r e a s p r i m a r i l y a n I n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y , w h i l s t , i n f a c t , i t i s e q u a l l y a n e m o t i o n a l and e v e n e s c a p i s t o n e . F o r t h e most p a r t t h e poems i n The N o r t h S h i p a r e s h o r t a n d e p i g r a m m a t i c ; o n l y t h r e e poems a r e l o n g e r a n d n a r r a t i v e i n f o r m . What i s b e i n g s a i d i n most o f t h e o t h e r poems i s t o o s l i g h t t o w a r r a n t e x p a n s i o n . The n o v e l s o b v i o u s l y p r o v i d e d L a r k i n w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e l o n g e r n a r r a t i v e f o r m and most o f t h e poems i n t h e l a s t two volumes a r e n a r r a t i v e and d e s c r i p t i v e r a t h e r t h a n e p i g r a m m a t i c . Two poems d e a l i n g w i t h s i m i l a r themes i l l u s t r a t e t h i s , poem " X X V I " , w h i c h i s s h o r t enough t o q u o t e i n f u l l , and " T r i p l e T i m e " i n The L e s s D e c e i v e d . T h i s i s t h e f i r s t t h i n g I have u n d e r s t o o d : Time i s t h e echo o f a n axe W i t h i n a w o o d . ( N S . p . 3 9 ) 200 I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e p i g r a m m a t i c a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h i s poem, " T r i p l e T i m e " r e c r e a t e s L a r k i n ' s t h e o r y o f t i m e t h r o u g h a c o n c r e t e image w h i c h a l l o w s t h e r e a d e r t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e p o e t ' s moment o f a w a r e n e s s . The f i r s t s t a n z a d e s c r i b e s t h e p r e s e n t i n t e r m s o f a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e and p l a c e s T h i s empty s t r e e t , t h i s s k y t o b l a n d n e s s s c o u r e d , T h i s a i r , a l i t t l e i n d i s t i n c t w i t h autumn L i k e a r e f l e c t i o n , c o n s t i t u t e t h e p r e s e n t — A t i m e t r a d i t i o n a l l y s o u r e d , A t i m e unrecommended by e v e n t . ( L D . p . 35) The words " e m p t y " , " b l a n d n e s s " , " i n d i s t i n c t " , c r e a t e t h e s e n s e o f a y a g u e n e s s w h i c h s p r i n g s f r o m o u r d e s i r e n o t t o f o c u s t o o c l o s e l y on t h e p r e s e n t b e c a u s e o f our l a c k o f e x -p e c t a t i o n s f r o m i t . The word " s c o u r e d " i n d i c a t e s t h e a l m o s t w i l f u l n a t u r e o f o u r r e f u s a l t o see c l e a r l y . I n t h e n e x t s t a n z a t h e p o e t shows t h a t what we v i e w as t h e p r e s e n t i s n o t s i m p l y t h e p r e s e n t b u t a l s o t h e f u t u r e and t h e p a s t . I t i s t h e f u t u r e b e c a u s e t h e p r e s e n t o c c a s i o n I s t h e f u t u r e f u r t h e s t c h i l d h o o d saw B e t w e e n l o n g h o u s e s , u n d e r t r a v e l l i n g s k i e s , H e a r d i n c o n t e n d i n g b e l l s — A n a i r l a m b e n t w i t h a d u l t e n t e r p r i s e s . (LJD. p . 35) The Images o f t h e l a n d s c a p e o f t h e f i r s t s t a n z a a r e p i c k e d u p h e r e and g i v e n a new p e r s p e c t i v e . The empty s t r e e t becomes " l o n g h o u s e s " so t h a t t h e f e e l i n g o f l o o k i n g down a l o n g p e r -s p e c t i v e , so l o n g t h a t d e t a i l s a r e e n t i c i n g l y v a g u e , i s c r e a t e d . 201 This i s the c h i l d ' s sense of a future s t r e t c h i n g ahead f u l l of as yet i n d e f i n i t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s . The bland sky from a d i f f e r e n t perspective i s " t r a v e l l i n g s k i e s " , the c h i l d ' s own excitement f i n d s a r e f l e c t i o n i n h i s view of the r e s t l e s s moving q u a l i t y of h is environment. Instead of being " u n -recommended by event" the future seems f u l l of the p o t e n t i a l of "adult e n t e r p r i s e s " . Everything i n the pic ture L s the same, the only d i f f e r e n c e being the perspective of the viewer. The l a s t stanza indica tes what the occasion w i l l seem l i k e when i t has i n e v i t a b l y become the past : A v a l l e y cropped by f a t neglected chances That we insensately forbore to f l e e c e . On t h i s we blame our l a s t Threadbare perspect ives , seasonal decrease. (LD. p. 35) Our view of the past has a d i s t o r t i n g q u a l i t y more extreme than our view of the present or the f u t u r e . The change from the "empty s t r e e t " to the v a l l e y suggests a k ind of romanticism i n our view of the past, perhaps because of a sense that , when we have ceased to look to the future and can only look back to the past, i f we are to a t t r i b u t e any meaning at a l l to l i f e then we must see the u n f u l f i l l e d p o t e n t i a l as being our r e s p o n s i b i l i t y rather than the r e s u l t of there being no p o t e n t i a l . The idea of perspective i s Introduced into t h i s stanza thus emphasising the point that our sense of p o t e n t i a l i s r e l a t i v e , not only i n terms of whether we are looking at 202 t h e p r e s e n t , t h e p a s t o r t h e f u t u r e , b u t a l s o i n terms o f what p o r t i o n o f l i f e we c a n r e a s o n a b l y assume i s l e f t t o u s . T h r o u g h t h e s h i f t i n g p e r s p e c t i v e t h e poem r e c r e a t e s t h e f e e l i n g t h a t i t i s a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f any p a r t i c u l a r t i m e s i n c e i t changes i n t i m e . T h i s i s a t once a n a b s t r a c t i o n o f what i s w o r k e d o u t t h r o u g h t h e a c t i o n o f A G i r l I n W i n t e r and y e t i t w o r k s t h r o u g h images w h i c h g i v e i t a n immediacy and c o n c r e t e n e s s a n d r e c r e a t e t h e p r o c e s s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g and r e a l i z a t i o n ; t h e poem f r o m The N o r t h S h i p s i m p l y p r e s e n t s t h e p o e t ' s c o n c l u s i o n s u s i n g t h e image as a c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n r a t h e r t h a n a r e c r e a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s by w h i c h t h e c o n c l u s i o n was r e a c h e d . I n b o t h poems L a r k i n I s d e a l i n g w i t h a d i f f i c u l t c o n c e p t . I n t h e e a r l i e r poem he i s c o n t e n t t o s u g g e s t t h i s by u s i n g a m e t a p h o r w h i c h l e a v e s t h e r e a d e r t o r e s o l v e t h e t o t a l c o n c e p t . The poem f r o m t h e The L e s s D e c e i v e d has t h e q u a l i t y a t t r i b u t e d t o L a r k i n i n a n a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " O b s c u r i t y i n P o e t r y " ^ o f a t t e m p t i n g t o say d i f f i c u l t t h i n g s i n a d e c e p t i v e l y s i m p l e w a y . S i n c e most o f t h e poems i n The N o r t h S h i p p r e s e n t a c o n c l u s i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f t h e y do n o t have a s t y l i s t i c d e v i c e common t o t h e n o v e l s and t h e o t h e r vo lumes o f p o e t r y : L a r k i n ' s t e n d e n c y t o u s e t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f a poem o r a n o v e l i n a p e c u l i a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t m a n n e r . The n o v e l s a r e ^ " O b s c u r i t y i n P o e t r y " , The Times L i t e r a r y S u p p l e m e n t , J a n u a r y 16, 1959, 33. 203 r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h images w h i c h t h r o w t h e r e a d e r hack i n t o t h e n o v e l , s i n c e t h e f i n a l Images p u t t h e a c t i o n i n t o a new p e r s p e c t i v e , one w h i c h u n d e r c u t s t h e f i r m n e s s o f any c o n -c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d e a r l i e r . I n t h e same way many o f t h e poems c o n c l u d e w i t h a q u e s t i o n i n g t o n e w h i c h i n v o l v e s a c o m p l e t e r e a s s e s s m e n t o f what has gone b e f o r e . The c o n c l u s i o n s o f "Reasons f o r A t t e n d a n c e " and " N e x t P l e a s e " have a l r e a d y been m e n t i o n e d i n t h i s c o n t e x t . I n o t h e r poems t h e c o n c l u s i o n draws t o g e t h e r a l l t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e poem t o make a f i n a l a s s e r t i o n , what B e t j e m a n d e s c r i b e s " t h e f i n a l s t r o k e " 2 4 "j* t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f " A n A r u n d e l Tomb" and t h a t o f " C h u r c h G o i n g " a r e examples o f t h i s . L a r k i n ' s method o f e i t h e r d r a w i n g t o g e t h e r a p r o c e s s o f r e a s o n i n g o r c h a l l e n g i n g i t c r e a t e s a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e r e a d e r i s made t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e d e b a t e . The c o n v e r s -a t i o n a l t o n e s i m i l a r l y draws t h e r e a d e r i n as does t h e c h o i c e o f commonplace s i t u a t i o n s and e x p e r i e n c e s t h r o u g h w h i c h L a r k i n e x p l o r e s and r e v e a l s h i s i d e a s . Y e t , d e s p i t e t h e i l l u s i o n w h i c h L a r k i n s u c c e s s f u l l y and d e l i b e r a t e l y c r e a t e s o f p o e t r y b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f g i v i n g p l e a s u r e , i t has a t e n s i o n w h i c h becomes p a r t o f i t s e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e . The c u m u l a t i v e i m p r e s s i o n g i v e n by t h e vo lume The W h i t s u n Weddings i s t h e same as t h e t o t a l e x p e r i e n c e ^ J o h n B e t j e m a n , "The W h i t s u n W e d d i n g s " . The L i s t e n e r . 19 M a r c h , 1964, 483. 204 o f each poem. The a m b i v a l e n c e i n L a r k i n i s h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f random d i s o r d e r a n d m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s i n l i f e and a s t r o n g d e s i r e t o f i n d a m e a n i n g w i t h o u t l o s i n g any o f h i s a w a r e n e s s . One o r d e r he f i n d s i s i n t h e l a r g e p a t t e r n i n t o w h i c h a l l l i v e s f i t , b u t e v e n t h i s p a t t e r n has i t s own q u a l i t y o f m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s . The s e c o n d o r d e r i s one w h i c h he makes f o r h i m s e l f , s i n c e he c r e a t e s p o e t r y o u t o f t h e v e r y d i s o r d e r w h i c h t r o u b l e s h i m . F . W. B a t e s o n I n h i s r e v i e w o f The L e s s D e c e i v e d summarises t h i s a s p e c t o f L a r k i n ' s w o r k : The e m o t i o n a l c r i s e s , t h e s e n t i m e n t a l o u t p o u r s , and t h e a e s t h e t i c t i t i l l a t l o n s a r e a l l , one f e e l s , u n d e r c o n t r o l . They have n o t been d e n i e d o r r e p r e s s e d , t h e y a r e s t i l l t h e r e — b u t i n c l u d e d and c o - o r d i n a t e d i n a r a t i o n a l s y s t e m o f human v a l u e s and o b l i g a t i o n s . 5 The o r d e r i s e x t e n d e d i n t o each poem f o r he makes t h e commonplace e x p e r i e n c e s i g n i f i c a n t by i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s a b o u t l i f e , t h r o u g h t h i s he s u g g e s t s t h a t a p a t t e r n o f l i f e must e x i s t , i f any t r i v i a l i n c i d e n t c a n be r e l a t e d t o a w h o l e . He u s e s a p p a r e n t l y n o r m a l s p e e c h p a t t e r n s and v o c a b u l a r y a n d y e t , by c a r e f u l o r d e r i n g , he c r e a t e s f r o m them a s i g n i f i c a n c e w h i c h o u t o f c o n t e x t t h e y w o u l d n o t have so t h a t p o s i t i o n i n g g i v e s emphas i s t o a p a r t i c u l a r word a n d so p a r t i c u l a r m e a n i n g t o a n a p p a r e n t l y f l a t s t a t e m e n t : ^ F . W. B a t e s o n , "The L e s s D e c e i v e d " . E s s a y s i n C r i t i c i s m . J a n u a r y , 1957, p p . 74-70. 205 T y p i c a l l y t h e l i n e f r o m w h i c h t h e s e p o e t s s t a r t ( d e v e l o p e d f r o m M r . E m p s o n ) , i s a p p a r e n t l y t r a n s p a r e n t b u t c o n c e a l s o t h e r meanings b e n e a t h i t s c o l l o q u i a l f l a t n e s s . " L a r k i n does t h e same t h i n g w i t h i n d i v i d u a l words o f t e n by t h e d e v i c e o f r e p e t i t i o n w i t h c u m u l a t i v e m e a n i n g . F o r example i n " W a n t s " (LJD. p . 22), t h e word " h o w e v e r " o c c u r s t h r e e t i m e s i n t h r e e l i n e s : Beyond a l l t h i s t h e w i s h t o be a l o n e • However t h e s k y grows d a r k w i t h i n v i t a t i o n - c a r d s However we f o l l o w t h e p r i n t e d d i r e c t i o n s o f s e x However t h e f a m i l y i s p h o t o g r a p h e d u n d e r t h e f l a g s t a f f — Beyond a l l t h i s , t h e w i s h t o be a l o n e . H e r e t h e word " h o w e v e r " r e l a t i n g t o t h e f i r s t l i n e means , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t o f o u r w i s h t o be a l o n e we do v a r i o u s t h i n g s w h i c h h i d e t h i s f a c t f r o m u s . Put i n t o t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e l a s t l i n e i t has t h e a d d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g t h a t d e s p i t e a l l we do t h e f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t t h e b a s i c d e s i r e i s t o be a l o n e . The a l t e r n a t i n g emphas i s r e f l e c t s t h e c o n s t a n t l y s h i f t i n g emphas is on o u r l i v e s a n d i n d i c a t e s t h e a m b i v a l e n c e o f t h e p o e t i n h i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s l i f e a n d d e a t h . P a r a p h r a s e d , t h e c l a r i t y o f what t h e p o e t i s s a y i n g i s l o s t , though . , t h e l i n e s i n w h i c h he e x p r e s s e s t h i s c o m p l e x i d e a a p p e a r t o be v e r y s i m p l e . I t i s , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , p o s i t i o n i n g w h i c h g i v e s t h e m e a n i n g beyond t h e words t h e m s e l v e s . ^ A n t h o n y H a r t l e y , " P o e t s o f t h e F i f t i e s , " The S p e c t a t o r . 2? A u g u s t , 195^. 261. 2 0 6 I n t h e poem " T o a d s " t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e word " s t u f f " s i m i l a r l y a f f e c t s t h e m e a n i n g o f e a r l i e r p a r t s o f t h e poem. When t h e p o e t e x p r e s s e s h i s d e s i r e t o s h o u t " S t u f f y o u r p e n s i o n " t h e word has c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e s p e e c h w h i c h w o u l d be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " f o l k s " who " l i v e u p l a n e s " . I n m a k i n g s u c h a n a s s e r t i o n he w o u l d be r e l a t i n g h i m s e l f t o t h e m . When he s a y s " t h a t ' s t h e s t u f f / T h a t dreams a r e made o n " he t h e r e -f o r e comments n o t o n l y on t h e u n r e a l i t y o f h i s d e s i r e t o s h o u t " S t u f f y o u r p e n s i o n " b u t a l s o on t h e l i v e s he has b e e n e n v y i n g . A f t e r The N o r t h S h i p L a r k i n ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e f u n c t i o n o f a r t a p p e a r s t o have u n d e r g o n e a c h a n g e . He no l o n g e r seems t o f e e l t h a t a r t and l i f e a r e so u n r e l a t e d t h a t a r t has a q u a l i t y o f a b s t r a c t i o n and i s s u f f i c i e n t l y d i s t a n t t o be r e g a r d e d w i t h o u t r e a l e m o t i o n o r i n v o l v e m e n t . I n s t e a d he employs t e c h n i q u e s d e s i g n e d t o r e l a t e p o e t r y as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e t o l i f e . H i s comments p r e f a c i n g h i s poems i n E n r i g h t ' s a n t h o l o g y show h i s changed a t t i t u d e : I w r i t e poems t o p r e s e r v e t h i n g s I have s e e n / t h o u g h t / f e l t — m y p r i m e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f , w h i c h I am t r y i n g t o p r e s e r v e f r o m o b l i v i o n f o r i t s own s a k e . 7 He i s i n a s e n s e c o m b a t i n g m o r t a l i t y and m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s by a p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i o n and c o n s e r v a t i o n i n h i s a r t . L i k e Y e a t s ' 7 P o e t s o f t h e 1 9 q 0 ' s . p . 7 7 . 207 " g a y " p o e t I n " L a p i s L a z u l i " he i s a b l e t o v i e w t h e t r a g e d y o f l i f e and y e t g e t beyond t h e d e s p a i r a r i s i n g f r o m t h i s a n d c r e a t e e v e n o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e most t r i v i a l i n c i d e n t . A r e v i e w e r i n The T imes L i t e r a r y Supplement e x p r e s s e s t h i s s e e m i n g p a r a d o x i n L a r k i n * s a p p r o a c h t o h i s a r t : These poems a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e impermanence o f l i f e , t h e l o n e l i n e s s o f man, t h e s a d n e s s o f a g e , t h e i n d u l g e n c e o f memory, t h e s e n s e . . . t h a t l i f e ' s m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s and m a n ' s i g n o r a n c e a r e i n some o b s c u r e l y m o v i n g way c e l e b r a t e d by b e i n g r e c o r d e d . 8 L a r k i n h i m s e l f s u p p o r t s t h i s p o i n t when he s a y s t h a t " t h e i m p u l s e t o p r e s e r v e l i e s a t t h e b o t t o m o f a l l a r t " . 9 I n t h e u s e o f t h e word " c e l e b r a t e " , t h e r e v i e w e r i n The T imes L i t e r a r y Supplement r a i s e s a n o t h e r p r o b l e m a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f L a r k i n ' s p o e t r y and t h a t i s t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f d e f i n i n g h i s f o r m s . R i c h a r d K e l l s a y s t h a t L a r k l n ' s "mode i s l y r i c a l " ^ 0 a n d t h i s v i e w p o i n t w o u l d seem t o s u p p o r t t h e u s e o f t h e word " c e l e b r a t e " i n t h e r e v i e w q u o t e d a b o v e . Susanne L a n g e r i n F e e l i n g and Form d e f i n e s t h e l y r i c a t l e n g t h . I n b r o a d terms The v i r t u a l h i s t o r y t h a t a l y r i c poem c r e a t e s i s t h e o c c u r -r e n c e o f a l i v i n g t h o u g h t , t h e sweep o f a n e m o t i o n , t h e i n t e n s e e x p e r i e n c e o f a mood. T h i s i s a g e n u i n e p i e c e o f s u b j e c t i v e h i s t o r y , t h o u g h u s u a l l y i t i s a s i n g l e e p i s o d e . 8 " U n d e c e i v e d P o e t , " The Times L i t e r a r y S u p p l e m e n t , M a r c h 12, 1964, 216. 9 P o e t s o f t h e 1950*3, p . 7 7 . 1 0 R i c h a r d K e l l , " P o e t r y S e l e c t i o n 1964," The C r i t i c a l S u r v e y , I I , 2, 1965, 110. 208 Its differences from other l i t e r a r y products are not r a d i c a l , and there i s no device c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of l y r i c composition that may not also be met i n other forms. It i s the frequency and importance of c e r t a i n practices, rather than t h e i r exclusive use, that make l y r i c poetry a sp e c i a l type.** The practices she refers to are the use of speech i n the f i r s t person, d i r e c t address and the use of the present tense. These are a l l aspects which are basic to Larkin's poetry. Of the emotional element he says himself i n "The Pleasure P r i n c i p l e " that the f i r s t stage i n writing a poem i s , "When a man becomes obsessed with an emotional concept to such a degree that he i s compelled to do something about i t ; " The second stage i s to "construct a verbal device that w i l l reproduce t h i s emotional concept i n anyone who cares to read i t , anywhere, any time." 1 He thus acknowledges i n his own writing elements basic to the l y r i c : the desire to recreate an emotional experience and to achieve a u n i v e r s a l i t y i n tone. However, there are also aspects of his poetry which Langer sees as having l i t t l e or no place i n the l y r i c poem: the l y r i c poet uses every quality of language because he has neither plot nor f i c t i t i o u s characters nor, usually, any i n t e l l e c t u a l argument to give his poem continuity.I3 The i n t e l l e c t u a l argument i s as basic to the structure of Larkin's poetry as the emotional content! In defining the ^ F e e l i n g and Form, pi 259. 1 2 P h i l i p Larkin, "The Pleasure P r i n c i p l e , " Listen. I I , 3, 1957, 28i ^ F e e l i n g and Form, p: 259. 209 d r a m a t i c L a n g e r s u g g e s t s : we do n o t u s u a l l y have any i d e a o f t h e f u t u r e as a t o t a l e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h i s c o m i n g b e c a u s e o f o u r p a s t and p r e s e n t a c t s ; s u c h a s e n s e o f d e s t i n y a r i s e s o n l y i n u n u s u a l moments u n d e r p e c u l i a r e m o t i o n a l s t r e s s . 1 ^ The sense o f t h e f u t u r e f u l f i l l i n g a p a t t e r n e s t a b l i s h e d by p r e s e n t and p a s t i s one o f t h e d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s o f L a r k i n ' s 1 p o e t r y a s i s t h e " t e n s i o n b e t w e e n p a s t and f u t u r e " . J L a r k i n h i m s e l f s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f r e c o n c i l i n g t h e two e l e m e n t s o f t h e d r a m a t i c and t h e l y r i c a r i s e s f r o m h i s b a s i c t h e o r y o f p o e t r y w h i c h he d e s c r i b e s a s " e m o t i o n a l i n n a t u r e a n d t h e a t r i c a l I n o p e r a t i o n . " l ^ Much o f B r o w n i n g ' s p o e t r y p r e s e n t s s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s o f d e f i n i t i o n . I n h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s on B r o w n i n g J . P . H u l c o o p d e f i n e s b o t h t h e l y r i c and t h e d r a m a t i c f o rm s i n o r d e r t o r e a c h a d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e h y b r i d mode i n w h i c h B r o w n i n g w r i t e s . He d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e l y r i c f r o m t h e d r a m a t i c as f o l l o w s : L y r i c and d r a m a t i c c a n be d e f i n e d as g e n r e s and d i s -t i n g u i s h e d f r o m one a n o t h e r on t h e b a s i s o f t h e a t t i t u d e s w h i c h e a c h a d o p t s t o w a r d s t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r . I t i s n o t u s u a l l y t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r o f t h e g e n u i n e l y r i c t o r e v e a l e i t h e r h i m s e l f o r t h e s p e a k e r as ^„ a c h a r a c t e r ; t h e l y r i c poem r e v e a l s a mood o r s t a t e o f m i n d . • ^ F e e l i n g and F o r m , p . 308. 1 5 i b i d . , p . 308. 1 6 " T h e P l e a s u r e P r i n c i p l e , " p . 2 8 . 1 7 J . F . H u l c o o p , " R o b e r t B r o w n i n g , ' M a k e r o f P l a y s ' and P o e t " ( P h . D . , L o n d o n , I960), p . 508. 2 1 0 H o w e v e r , I n B r o w n i n g ' s p o e t r y , a s i n L a r k i n ' s , t h e r e a r e e l e m e n t s w h i c h t a k e t h e poem beyond t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f l y r i c , w h i c h have a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e d r a m a t i c w h i l s t n o t b e i n g c a p a b l e o f b e i n g d e f i n e d t o t a l l y i n te rms o f t h e d r a m a t i c . To d e s c r i b e t h i s h y b r i d f o r m D r . H u l c o o p u s e s t h e t e r m " s t r e a m -o f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s l y r i c " , i n w h i c h t h e mood o r s t a t e o f m i n d becomes c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a n i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r ; t h e r e i s a r e a l a t t e m p t t o s u g g e s t a c o n s i s t e n t l y o p e r a t i n g v i e w p o i n t w h i c h w o u l d , i f r e l a t e d t o a d r a m a t i c s i t u a t i o n , d e t e r m i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a c t i o n s o r r e a c t i o n s . I n f a c t , no s u c h s i t u a t i o n o c c u r s ; t h e poem r e m a i n s t h e c r y o f a n o c c a s i o n . ; . I n t h i s f o r m we e n c o u n t e r a c h a r a c t e r , s t i l l l y r i c a l l y r e v e a l e d t h r o u g h moods and s t a t e s o f m i n d , who i s i n v o l v e d I n a d r a m a t i c s i t u a t i o n o r s t o r y . 1 ° The above d e s c r i p t i o n i s more a p p l i c a b l e t o L a r k i n ' s work i n The L e s s D e c e i v e d a n d The W h i t s u n Weddings t h a n any more l i m i t e d d e f i n i t i o n . To t a k e j u s t one e x a m p l e , "Reasons f o r A t t e n d a n c e " g i v e s t h e r e a d e r a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n d o f r e a c t i o n L a r k i n makes when p r e s e n t e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n ; he s u g g e s t s t h a t h i s r e a c t i o n t o t h e d a n c e r s i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a w h o l e a r e a o f h i s r e s p o n s e s so t h a t t h e r e a d e r h a s a c l e a r sense o f a n i n d i v i d u a l . The s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h he f i n d s h i m s e l f i s p o t e n t i a l l y d r a m a t i c . He c o u l d be p u t i n t o t h e p o s i t i o n where he has t o make a c l e a r c h o i c e be tween r e m a i n i n g o u t s i d e a n d p a r t i c i p a t i n g . The p r o c e s s o f argument I n t h e poem i s a n i n n e r c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h i s 1 8 J . P. H u l c o o p , p . 649. 211 s i t u a t i o n , t h o u g h he i s n o t c a l l e d u p o n t o a c t on t h e b a s i s o f h i s c h o i c e . The poem i s I n t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e t h r o u g h o u t b u t i t c a r r i e s i m p l i c a t i o n s o f b o t h p a s t a n d f u t u r e , s i n c e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e a c t i o n L a r k i n d e f i n e s i s one i n a r e c u r r e n t p a t t e r n . The l i n e o f d e v e l o p m e n t I have t r a c e d f r o m t h e n o v e l s t o t h e l a t e r poems a l s o has i t s p l a c e i n t h e w r i t e r ' s movement t o w a r d s new f o r m s : I n many r e s p e c t s L a r k i n ' s work a p p e a r s t o be v e r y c o n v e n t i o n a l and u n e x p e r i m e n t a l : he u s e s t r a d i t i o n a l s t a n z a i c f o r m s , rhyme schemes and d i s c r e e t i m a g e r y i n h i s p o e t r y j u s t as i n t h e n o v e l s he seems a t f i r s t r e a d i n g t o be m a k i n g s i m p l e a n d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d u s e o f t h e n a r r a t i v e f o r m . I n b o t h m e d i a , h o w e v e r , he w o r k s w i t h i n t h e c l o s e l y d e f i n e d c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m t o a c h i e v e s o m e t h i n g w h i c h t r a n s c e n d s i t . J u s t a s h i s p o e t r y c a n n o t be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d e f i n e d i n t e r m s o f e s t a b l i s h e d g e n r e so h i s n o v e l s go beyond t h e s i m p l e n o v e l f o r m t o become n o v e l - p o e m s . The e lement w h i c h t h e y have i n common i s t h e l y r i c a l : I have a l r e a d y shown t h o s e a s p e c t s o f t h e p o e t r y w h i c h c a n be d e f i n e d i n no o t h e r w a y . The n o v e l s a r e l y r i c a l i n t h e s e n s e t h a t Freedman d e f i n e s i n The L y r i c a l N o v e l : I have d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e c h a p t e r s on J i l l a n d A G i r l I n W i n t e r t h a t t h e a c t u a l a c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l s i s s l i g h t ; what i s more i m p o r t a n t i s t h e p r o c e s s o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d p e r c e p t i o n w h i c h each o f t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s u n d e r g o e s . The e x t e r n a l w o r l d i n w h i c h each l i v e s i s d e s c r i b e d l e s s t o 212 c r e a t e f o r t h e r e a d e r a s e n s e o f t h e " r e a l i t y " o f t h e l i v e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s t h a n t o c r e a t e a n e x t e r n a l r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f e a c h . The w o r k i n g t o w a r d s a r e s o l u t i o n i n e a c h n o v e l i s done t h r o u g h Images , s i n c e e v e n t h e a c t i o n becomes p a r t o f t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e i m a g e r y . A l l t h e s e a s p e c t s o f t h e n o v e l s put them i n a s p e c i a l c a t e g o r y w h i c h Freedman l a b e l s t h e l y r i c a l n o v e l : N o v e l s a r e u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s t o r y t e l l i n g : t h e r e a d e r l o o k s f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r s w i t h whom he c a n i d e n t i f y , f o r a c t i o n i n w h i c h he may become e n g a g e d , o r f o r i d e a s and m o r a l c h o i c e s he may see d r a m a t i z e d . L y r i c a l p o e t r y on t h e o t h e r h a n d , s u g g e s t s t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g s o f themes i n m u s i c a l o r p i c t o r i a l p a t t e r n s . C o m b i n i n g f e a t u r e s o f b o t h , t h e l y r i c a l n o v e l s h i f t s t h e r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n f r o m men a n d e v e n t s t o a f o r m a l d e s i g n : The u s u a l s c e n e r y o f f i c t i o n becomes a t e x t u r e o f i m a g e r y , and c h a r a c t e r s a p p e a r a s p e r s o n a e f o r t h e s e l f . L y r i c a l f i c t i o n , t h e n , i s n o t d e f i n e d e s s e n t i a l l y by a p o e t i c s t y l e o f p u r p l e p r o s e . . ; R a t h e r , a l y r i c a l n o v e l assumes a u n i q u e f o r m w h i c h t r a n s c e n d s t h e c a u s a l and t e m p o r a l movement o f t h e n a r r a t i v e w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f f i c t i o n . I t i s a h y b r i d g e n r e t h a t u s e s t h e n o v e l t o a p p r o a c h t h e f u n c t i o n o f a poem:18 The r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e n o v e l s a n d t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t i s a l s o t y p i c a l o f t h e l y r i c a l n o v e l : The h e r o a s a n a e s t h e t i c image o f n a t u r e l e a d s t o t h e t e c h n i q u e o f m i r r o r i n g . . . The " w o r l d " i s p a r t o f t h e h e r o ' s i n n e r w o r l d ; t h e h e r o , i n t u r n , m i r r o r s t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d and a l l i t s m u l t i t u d i n o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . 1 9 1 fl R a l p h F r e e d m a n , The L y r i c a l N o v e l ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963), p . 1. 1 9 i b i d . , p . 21. 213 I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h e way i n w h i c h L a r k i n c o n c l u d e s b o t h t h e n o v e l s and I n d i v i d u a l poems w i t h i n t h e l a s t two v o l u m e s w i t h images o r s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h t u r n t h e r e a d e r b a c k i n t o t h e n o v e l o r poem. I n t h i s r e s p e c t he i s v e r y much a l y r i c w r i t e r by F r e e d m a n ' s d e f i n i t i o n , s i n c e , t h r o u g h h i s c o n c l u s i o n s , he i s f o r c i n g t h e r e a d e r t o see t h e n o v e l o r poem as a w h o l e : C o n v e n t i o n a l l y t h e l y r i c , as d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e e p i c a n d d r a m a , i s s e e n e i t h e r a s a n i n s t a n t a n e o u s e x p r e s s i o n o f a f e e l i n g o r as a s p a t i a l f o r m . The r e a d e r a p p r o a c h e s a l y r i c i n t h e way a n o n l o o k e r r e g a r d s a p i c t u r e : he sees c o m p l e x d e t a i l s i n j u x t a p o s i t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e s them a s a w h o l e . 2 0 T h e r e i s a v e r y c l e a r l i n e o f d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e t e c h n i q u e i n L a r k i n ' s work w h i c h i s e x p r e s s i v e o f t h e d e v e l o p -ment I n h i s i d e o l o g y . The N o r t h S h i p i s i n many r e s p e c t s v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e l a t e r w o r k , b u t I t does c o n t a i n i n embryo most o f what was t o f o l l o w ! M o s t o f t h e poems i n t h e volume c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d a s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y r i c s , t h o u g h n o t v e r y good o n e s . The i d e a s t h e y e x p r e s s a r e c o n v e n t i o n a l p o e t i c o n e s , so t h a t t h e r e i s n o t a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n f o r m a n d c o n t e n t ; b o t h a r e c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d s t e r e o t y p e d . The n o v e l s r e p r e s e n t a g r e a t e r s k i l l i n e x p r e s s i o n a n d a m a t u r i n g o f a p e r s o n a l i d e o l o g y ; i n them a l e s s c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m i s u s e d t o e x p r e s s what i s new and i n d i v i d u a l , t h o u g h 2 0 T h e L y r i c a l N o v e l , p i 6 i 214 t h e l y r i c e l e m e n t o f t h e f i r s t book i s r e t a i n e d . The L e s s D e c e i v e d and The W h i t s u n Weddings a g a i n c o n t a i n t h e l y r i c e l e m e n t , b u t f u s e d w i t h i t a r e t h e n a r r a t i v e and d r a m a t i c e l e m e n t s l e a r n t I n t h e n o v e l s . The u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w e l d i n g o f t h e two f o r m s i s e x p r e s s i v e o f L a r k i n ' s v i e w o f t h e w o r l d a t t h e t i m e i The r a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e w h i c h i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d r a m a t i c a n d n a r r a t i v e e l e m e n t s o f h i s poems, i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e work o f a p o e t s u c h a s P o p e ; L a r k i n , who i s aware o f t h e f a u l t s i n h i s s o c i e t y b u t who has no hope o f r e f o r m i n g t h e m , i s a s c l o s e t o b e i n g a poet o f s o c i a l s a t i r e as t h e age c a n p r o d u c e . He c a n n o t be a t r u l y s a t i r i c poet i n t h e manner o f P o p e , b e c a u s e o f h i s l a c k o f c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e c o h e r e n c e o f h i s s o c i e t y , o f h i s own p l a c e i n i t , and o f t h e r e l e v a n c e o f b o t h i n u n i v e r s a l t e r m s . The l y r i c e l e m e n t t h u s p r o v i d e s a b a l a n c e , a n d a n e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s s e n s e o f b e i n g a n I n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n d i n g e m o t i o n a l l y t o p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s : The d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m The N o r t h S h i p t o The w h i t s u n Weddings i s b a s e d , t h e r e f o r e , o n a g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s w i t h i n t h e p o e t o f b o t h h i m s e l f a n d h i s e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d h i s i n c r e a s i n g d e s i r e a n d a b i l i t y t o e x p r e s s h i m s e l f i n forms w h i c h r e f l e c t h i s s e n s e o f a n age w i t h o u t t r a d i t i o n s i n w h i c h new v a l u e s must be e s t a b l i s h e d i n b o t h l i f e and a r t : BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY MATERIAL a) Novels L a r k i n , P h i l i p . J i l l . London: Faber and Faber, 1964, 1st ed., 1946^ . A G i r l i n Winter. 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New Lines. London: Macmillan, 195&. . New Lines I I . London: Macmillan, 1963. Enright, D. J . , ed. Poets of the 1950*5: An Anthology of New English Verse. Tokyo: Kenkyusha Ltd., 1958. SECONDARY MATERIAL a) Books Bodkin, Maudi Archetypal Patterns In Poetry. London: Oxford University Press, 1934. Cox, C. B. and Dyson, A. E. Modern Poetry: Studies i n P r a c t i c a l C r i t i c i s m : London: Arnold, 1963: Fraser, Gi S. The Modern Writer and His World. London: Deutsch, 1964. . V i s i o n and Rhetoric: Studies i n Modern Poetry. London: Deutsch, 1962. Freedman, Ralph. The L y r i c a l Novel. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963. Frye, Northrop. Fables of Identity, Studies In Poetic Mythology: New York: Harvest Brace and World, I963; Glndin, James. Postwar B r i t i s h F i c t i o n . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962. Grubb, Frederick. A V i s i o n of R e a l i t y : A Study of Liberalism In Twentieth Century Verse. London: Chatto and Windus, Langer, Susanne K. Feeling and Form.. New York: Scribner, 1953* Lodge, David. Language of F i c t i o n . Essays In C r i t i c i s m and Verbal Analysis of the English Novel. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966. Moore, Geoffrey. Poetry Today. London: The B r i t i s h Council, 1958: 217 P r e s s , J o h n . . . . R u l e - a n d - E n e r g y : T r e n d s I n B r i t i s h P o e t r y S i n c e t h e S e c o n d W o r l d War . L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963. R o s e n t h a l , M• L . The M o d e r n P o e t s : A C r i t i c a l I n t r o d u c t i o n . New Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965. S t e v e n s W a l l a c e . Opus P o s t h u m o u s . L o n d o n : F a b e r a n d F a b e r , 1957. T h w a i t e , A n t h o n y . C o n t e m p o r a r y E n g l i s h P o e t r y : A n I n t r o d u c t i o n . L o n d o n : Heinemann L t d . , 1959* V a n 0 * C o n n o r , W i l l i a m . The New U n i v e r s i t y W i t s a n d t h e End o f M o d e r n l s m i C a r b o n d a l e : I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963; W o o l f , V i r g i n i a . The Common R e a d e r . New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t B r a c e a n d W o r l d , 1925: . G r a n i t e a n d R a i n b o w . L o n d o n : The H o g a r t h P r e s s , i 9 6 0 : b) A r t i c l e s a n d R e v i e w s A n o n . " P o e t i c M o o d s ; " The T imes L i t e r a r y S u p p l e m e n t . 16 December , 1955, 762: . " U n d e c e i v e d P o e t . " The Times L i t e r a r y S u p p l e m e n t . 12 M a r c h , 1964, 216. • " O b s c u r i t y i n P o e t r y . " The T imes L i t e r a r y S u p p l e m e n t . 16 J a n u a r y , 1959, 33. . "A G i r l I n W i n t e r . " The Times L i t e r a r y S u p p l e m e n t . 22 M a r c h , 1947, 125, . "The L e s s D e c e i v e d . " The L i s t finer, 15 November , 1956, 809: . " S o l i t a r y S e n s i b i l i t y . 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