IMPLICATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CORRELATES OF TECHNOLOGY FOR SUPERVISORY BEHAVIOR by FREDERICK HERBERT HOSTETTER B.A., U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1 9 6 2 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION i n the F a c u l t y of Graduate Studies We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming t o the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A p r i l , 1 9 6 6 I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r reference and study, I f u r t h e r agree that per-m i s s i o n f o r extensive copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by h i s representatives,. I t i s understood that copying, or p u b l i -c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department of Q^ivA.xngvcfl- ftvtaC (fc?ov\w»>s Act H A ^ V I •jvct The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia,. Vancouver 8, Canada. ABSTRACT This study deals w i t h the i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s of indus-t r i a l technology upon the behavior of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s . Homans' paradigm of the c o n s t i t u e n t s of s o c i a l behavior, and Woodward's observations regarding o r g a n i z a t i o n a l cor-r e l a t e s of technology provide the r a t i o n a l e f o r the enuncia-t i o n of s p e c i f i c hypotheses p e r t a i n i n g t o the nature of supervisory a c t i v i t i e s , i n t e r a c t i o n s and sentiments a s s o c i -ated w i t h each of three c a t e g o r i e s of i n d u s t r i a l technology. The v a l i d i t y of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses i s t e s t e d t h r u a secondary a n a l y s i s of data reported i n a number of o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d i e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l behavior. The p e r e n n i a l "man i n the middle 1* concept of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i s r e j e c t e d . I t i s not a v a l i d i d e a l -type concept t h a t i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of su p e r v i s o r y behavior i n a l l forms of contemporary production o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I t appears t h a t the dominant mode of technology w i t h i n a production o r g a n i z a t i o n or work u n i t a f f e c t s o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r u c t u r e and processes. The l a t t e r phenomena seem t o be important f a c t o r s shaping supervisory r o l e de-mands, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of work environment, and, hence, supervisory behavior. Thus, the study suggests the u t i l i t y of three i d e a l - t y p e c o n s t r u c t s of supervisory behavior; one f o r each of the three c a t e g o r i e s of technology. i i i Unit-and small-batch-production technology Role demands in c l u d e an important t e c h n i c a l element. A d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e p e r s o n a l l y attending t o personnel matters, production r e p o r t s and s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , and c o o r d i n a t i n g and monitoring work flow through the u n i t . I n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work fl o w are minimally r e q u i r e d . I n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h both subordinates and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s are t y p i c a l l y t a s k - o r i e n t e d , f a c e - t o -face and devoid of c o n f l i c t . I n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s u p e r i o r s may be mediated by the r e p o r t s of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s i f the l a t t e r are found i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n . Sentiments toward subordinates, s u p e r i o r s and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s tend t o be n e u t r a l t o f r i e n d l y i n tone and f a i r l y constant over time. Mass-production-assembly-line technology The s u p e r v i s o r t y p i c a l l y n e i t h e r possesses, nor i s re q u i r e d t o possess, a s i g n i f i c a n t body of t e c h n i c a l know-ledge or set of t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s . A d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s are d i r e c t e d toward c o o r d i n a t i n g and monitoring work fl o w through the u n i t , and, i n g e n e r a l , a c h i e v i n g the c o l l a b o r a -t i o n of others. These a c t i v i t i e s are e f f e c t e d by v e r b a l i n t e r a c t i o n s , mainly w i t h non-workers such as s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . The requirement f o r i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work f l o w ranges from being minimally r e q u i r e d t o inherent i n the productive process. I n t e r -a c t i o n s w i t h s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s are f a c e - t o - f a c e , t a s k -i v o r i e n t e d , and t y p i c a l l y h o s t i l e . I n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s u p e r i o r s tend t o be t a s k - o r i e n t e d , h o s t i l e and h e a v i l y mediated by the r e p o r t s of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . Supervisory i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates tend t o be f a c e - t o - f a c e , f r e q u e n t l y h o s t i l e , and p r i m a r i l y t a s k - o r i e n t e d . The sentiments of s u p e r v i s o r s toward subordinates, and p a r t i c u l a r l y s u p e r i o r s , are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y those of defense and h o s t i l i t y ; they are unstable over time. Sentiments toward s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s tend t o be n e u t r a l t o h o s t i l e and g e n e r a l l y s t a b l e over time. Continuous-process technology Role demands of the s u p e r v i s o r i n c l u d e an important t e c h n i c a l element; t e c h n i c a l advice i s both sought from and given t o subordinates and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . As the degree of a u t o m a t i c i t y of production c o n t r o l i n c r e a s e s , the need f o r c o o r d i n a t i o n of work fl o w w i t h i n and between u n i t s de-creases ; s i m i l a r l y f o r the requirement f o r e x c l u s i v e l y t a s k -o r i e n t e d i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h other o r g a n i z a t i o n a c t o r s . A d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e i n s p e c t i o n and c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s designed t o assure the s a f e t y of both personnel and the process and equipment. I n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s tend to a l l o w f o r the mutual e v a l u a t i o n of t e c h n i c a l i s s u e s . As the degree of a u t o m a t i c i t y of pro-d u c t i o n c o n t r o l i n c r e a s e s , such i n t e r a c t i o n s tend t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the exchange of advice and i n f o r m a t i o n . Sentiments are g e n e r a l l y n e u t r a l t o f r i e n d l y and s l i g h t l y unstable over time. V.V. Murray, Supervisor TABLE GF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE INTRODUCTION • 1 Statement of Intent and Scope of the Study 1 Methodology and Organization of the Study 2 I . CORRELATES OF TECHNOLOGY: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 6 Roots of the Concept of the D i v i s i o n of Labor Observations of K a r l Marx Observations of Emile Dmrkheim Observations of Max Weber Co n t r i b u t i o n s of Th o r s t e i n Veblen L i m i t a t i o n s of Contemporary Organization Theory Pe r s p e c t i v e s of Joan Woodward and M a r t i n Meissner I I . RESEARCH PROBLEM AND DESIGN 21 Conceptual Scheme 21 Research Problem 23 General Hypothesis 23 Research design 23 I I I . FORMULATION OF SPECIFIC HYPOTHESES . . . . 27 Category I Technology 27 Category I I Technology 39 Category I I I Technology 4# v i CHAPTER PAGE IV. CASE STUDIES: CATEGORY I TECHNOLOGY . . . 60 Case 1 60 Case 2 69 V. CASE STUDIES: CATEGORY I I TECHNOLOGY . . 6%. Case 3 84 Case 4 96 VI. CASE STUDIES: CATEGORY I I I TECHNOLOGY . . 129 Case 5 129 Case 6 141 V I I . ANALYSIS OF DATA 154 Category I Technology 156 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Case 1 156 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Case 2 162 A n a l y s i s of a d d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l data . 174 Category I I Technology 179 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Case 3 179 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Case 4 1$8 A n a l y s i s of a d d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l data . 199 Category I I I Technology 208 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Case 5 208 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Case 6 218 A n a l y s i s of a d d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l data . 227 V I I I . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 235 Conclusions 235 I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r Org a n i z a t i o n Theory . . 254 Need f o r A d d i t i o n a l Research . . . . 256 v i i PAGE BIBLIOGRAPHIES 263 B i b l i o g r a p h y of Case Studies 264 General B i b l i o g r a p h y 265 APPENDICES: ADDITIONAL EMPIRICAL DATA 269 I. Category I Technology: Miscellaneous Observations 270 I I . Category I Technology: Observations on Caaft Technology i n P r i n t i n g . I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r Supervisory Behavior 273 I I I . Category I I Technology: Miscellaneous Observations 275 IV. Category I I I Technology: Miscellaneous Observations 279 V. Category I I I Technology: Notes on Automated Technology 231 LIST GF TABLES TABLE PAGE I. Changes i n Foreman and Group Leader Contacts 9 5 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Conceptual Scheme 22 2. Management Organization. "A Dyeing and Cleaning P l a n t " 61 3. The Management Organization. "An E l e c t r i c a l Engineering Works" 71 4. O r g a n i z a t i o n Chart: Case No. 3 #7 5. Organization Chart: Case No. 4 9& 6. "The People With Whom Tony D e a l t " . . . . 109 7. "As Tony Perceived His S i t u a t i o n " . . . . 116 £>. Management Organization i n "A S t e e l P l a n t " . . 131 9. Model of R e l a t i o n s h i p Among Technology, S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e s and Supervisory Behvaior 257 LIST OF CHARTS CHART PAGE 1. Framework f o r C l a s s i f y i n g Hypotheses and Ordering Observations Based on E m p i r i c a l Data 25 2. S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e s of Category I Technology 28 3 . S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e s of Category I I Technology 40 4 . S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e s of Category I I I Technology 49 5. "Foreman Contact Frequencies" 92 6. "Contact Duration Patterns W i t h i n Assembly-Line S e c t i o n — M a r c h and E a r l i e r " 93 7. "Diagonal Contact Frequencies Between Persons on Adjacent L e v e l s " 94 INTRODUCTION Statement of i n t e n t and scope This study i s an attempt t o develop and t e s t a s e r i e s of s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the f o l l o w i n g dimensions of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory behavior: (1) the nature and frequencies of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory a c t i v i t i e s (2) super-v i s o r y i n t e r a c t i o n p atterns and f r e q u e n c i e s , and (3) the nature of supervisory sentiments toward those o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a c t o r s w i t h whom i n t e r a c t i o n s occur. The phrase "supervisory a c t i v i t i e s " denotes any overt behavior d i r e c t e d toward the accomplishment of supervisory t a s k s . Thus, ac t s of reading , w r i t i n g , observing, speaking and l i s t e n i n g are in c l u d e d under the t i t l e of " a c t i v i t i e s . " " I n t e r a c t i o n s " r e f e r t o a sub-class of a c t i v i t i e s i n which the speaking, l i s t e n i n g and non-verbal communication a c t i v i t i e s of e i t h e r the su p e r v i s o r or another o r g a n i z a t i o n a c t o r e x e r c i s e immediate i n f l u e n c e s upon the behavior or perceptions of another a c t o r . The nature of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l be spoken of as being c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a q u a l i t y or tone a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the "sentiments" engendered by an i n t e r a c t i o n . The term " h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s " s h a l l be used t o denote i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and e i t h e r (1) f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work f l o w , or (2) s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , e.g., maintenance, q u a l i t y c o n t r o l , 2 production planning and scheduling, methods o f f i c e r s , e t c . As used i n t h i s study "sentiments" r e f e r t o the f e e l i n g s of an a c t o r i n response t o a p a r t i c u l a r aspect of h i s environment. Such f e e l i n g s beome "sentiments" i f they endure over a p e r i o d of time, f o r example, a few days, or weeks, or longer. To be more s p e c i f i c , the o b j e c t i v e of t h i s study i s t o proceed by a quasi-deductive method t o formulate and t e s t a s e r i e s of s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the above-noted dimensions of supervisory behavior under three cate-g o r i e s of i n d u s t r i a l production technology. The phrase " i n d u s t r i a l production technology" i s used t o denote the complex of p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s , t e c h n i c a l o p e rations, men-machine systems, and the l e v e l and type of mechanization a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the manufacture or production of a product, s e r i e s of r e l a t e d product, or a s e r v i c e . F ollowing Joan Woodward's study^three d i s c e r n i b l e c a t e g o r i e s of i n d u s t r i a l production technology are u t i l i z e d i n the a n a l y s i s . Category I denotes " u n i t and small-batch production technology." Category I I r e f e r s t o the t e c h n o l -ogy a s s o c i a t e d w i t h "large-batch mass-production, or assembly-l i n e " production. Category I I I r e f e r s t o "continuous-process technology." O v e r a l l methodology and o r g a n i z a t i o n of the study The study commences wi t h an attempt t o set the r e -search i n i t s h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . To t h i s end, the observations of a sample of both the e a r l i e s t and contempo-r a r y students of o r g a n i z a t i o n s and the i m p l i c a t i o n s of technology f o r s o c i a l behavior are examined b r i e f l y . The h i s t o r i c a l survey of Chapter I concludes w i t h reference t o the research of Joan Woodward, which provides a l o g i c a l 2 bridge t o the remaining chapters of the study. In Chapter I I the observation made by Woodward, which serves as the s t a r t i n g point of t h i s study, i s noted. In a d d i t i o n , the conceptual scheme underlying the a n a l y s i s i s explained. Chapter I I concludes w i t h a statement of the general hypothesis of the study, plus an explanation of the a n a l y t i c a l framework used f o r ordering the enunciation of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses and t h e i r subsequent t e s t i n g . Chapter I I I serves t o develop the s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the dimensions of sup e r v i s o r y behavior f o r each of the three categories of production technology. Woodward's observations regarding the o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r u c t u r a l c o r r e l a t e s of a given category of technology are presented and i n t e r -preted. The s p e c i f i c hypotheses p e r t a i n i n g t o the dimensions of supervisory behavior f o r th a t category of production t e c h -nology are then developed. Chapters IV, V and VI each c o n t a i n two case s t u d i e s which provide d e s c r i p t i o n s of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory behavior under production technology Categories I , I I and I I I r e s -p e c t i v e l y . In Chapter V I I the data of the three preceding chap-4 t e r s and the appendices t o the study are analyzed. The purpose of the a n a l y s i s i s to t e s t the v a l i d i t y of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses enunciated i n Chapter I I I . Chapter VIII i n c l u d e s : (1) a summary of the a n a l y s i s c a r r i e d out i n Chapter VII (2) a statement of the conclu-sions emerging from the study (3) an enumeration of f u t u r e research problems suggested by t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and (4) a d i s c u s s i o n of the i m p l i c a t i o n s of the a n a l y s i s f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n theory. 5 FOOTNOTES ON INTRODUCTION •'•Joan Woodward, I n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n : Theory and P r a c t i c e , (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965). 2 I b i d . CHAPTER I CORRELATES OF TECHNOLOGY: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE I n t r o d u c t i o n The contents of t h i s chapter comprise a survey of some of the h i g h l i g h t s from the l i t e r a t u r e p e r t a i n i n g t o technology, the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r , o r g a n i z a t i o n theory, and the s o c i a l e f f e c t s of technology. By sketching the more fundamental r e l a t i o n s h i p s among these elements, and by p o i n t i n g out the l i m i t a t i o n s of contemporary o r g a n i z a t i o n theory, the stage i s set f o r the subsequent a n a l y s i s . The chapter serves t o i l l u s t r a t e the. c o n t i n u i t y between the a n a l y s i s contained i n t h i s study and the research and specu-l a t i o n which precedes i t . H i s t o r i c a l perspective From the e a r l i e s t beginnings of the Western i n t e l -l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n s c h o l a r s have s t u d i e d the nature and 1 2 s i g n i f i c a n c e of the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r i n s o c i e t y . ' A l -though as e a r l y as the time of A r i s t o t l e s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s 3 recognized the importance of s o c i e t y ' s d i v i s i o n of l a b o r and, hence, technology, i t was not u n t i l the end of the eighteenth century t h a t an extensive s o c i a l cognizance was taken of the phenomenon.^ In the w r i t i n g s of Adam Smith one notes what i s 7 probably the f i r s t s e r i o u s attempt t o enunciate a theory of 5 the p r i n c i p l e of the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r . But i t was Comte who f i r s t saw beyond the purely economic nature of the t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y based d i v i s i o n of l a b o r . ^ The s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s , p r e d i l e c t i o n s and values of s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s since Adam Smith have l e d t o research en-deavors a l l apparently stemming, at l e a s t p a r t i a l l y and i n d i r e c t l y i f not d i r e c t l y , from a common concern f o r iden-t i f y i n g the nature and consequences of the t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y conditioned d i v i s i o n of l a b o r . The o b j e c t i v e s of these s c h o l a r s seem t o have been d i r e c t e d toward d e l i n e a t i n g the dominant s o c i a l , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and b e h a v i o r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of the d i v i s i o n of la b o r under i n d u s t r i a l production t e c h -n o l o g i e s . The immediate purpose here i s t o sketch the main boundaries of these broad avenues of i n q u i r y i n order t o e s t a b l i s h the background t o the subsequent a n a l y s i s . The works of K a r l Marx provide a u s e f u l , i f a r b i t r a r y , beginning f o r the survey. In the e a r l i e s t w r i t i n g s by K a r l Marx one f i n d s a number of concepts and themes which appear t o run throughout h i s e n t i r e works. For example, i n h i s German Ideology Marx observes that persons who are "produc-t i v e l y a c t i v e " enter i n t o " d e f i n i t e p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l 7 r e l a t i o n s h i p s . " He goes on t o e x p l a i n t h a t as persons are " e f f e c t i v e , " as they "produce m a t e r i a l l y " and are " a c t i v e under d e f i n i t e m a t e r i a l l i m i t s , " the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y evolves continuously and independently of the w i l l 8 of i n d i v i d u a l s . The same concepts f i n d expression i n h i s l a t e r works, f o r example i n C a p i t a l . Here Marx notes that 'The general c o n c l u s i o n I a r r i v e d a t — a n d once reached, i t served as the guiding thread i n my s t u d i e s — c a n be b r i e f l y formulated as f o l l o w s : In the s o c i a l production of t h e i r means of e x i s t e n c e , men enter i n t o d e f i n i t e , necessary r e l a t i o n s which are independent of t h e i r w i l l , productive r e l a t i o n s h i p s which correspond to a d e f i n i t e stage of development of t h e i r m a t e r i a l productive f o r c e s . The aggregate of these productive r e l a t i o n s h i p s c o n s t i t u t e s the economic s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y . . . t o which d e f i n i t e forms of s o c i a l con-sciousness correspond. The mode of production of the m a t e r i a l means of existence c o n d i t i o n s the whole pro-cess of s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e . ' V The foregoing broad and i n c l u s i v e concepts i n t e g r a t -ing the w r i t i n g s of Marx f i n d expression i n a number of lower l e v e l observations which are p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t o our a n a l y s i s . To i l l u s t r a t e , Meissner remarks that the el d e r Marx focused h i s study upon the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t e c h n i c a l i n n o v a t i o n , production o r g a n i z a t i o n and task segmentation.**"® To paraphrase Marx h i m s e l f , under the e a r l i e s t forms of manufacture, production was ha r d l y d i s t i n -guishable from that of the h a n d i c r a f t trades."*'"'' Neverthe-l e s s Marx suggests that there were s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between these two stages of technology. Under "manufacture" a p o r t i o n of the means of production (e.g. raw m a t e r i a l s 12 and warehouses) are consumed i n common by a l l workers. A l s o , the processes of manufacture create a unique " s o c i a l f o r c e " due t o the f a c t that "many hands take part s i m u l t a -13 neously i n one and the same undivided o p e r a t i o n . " ^ Fu r t h e r -more, at the "great i n d u s t r y " stage of manufacture other 9 b a s i c a l l y s o c i a l transformations occur. Under t h i s l a t t e r stage of technology the worker becomes a "mere appendage" t o machines producing other machines i n work o r g a n i z a t i o n s l a r g e l y independent of worker c a p a b i l i t i e s . " ^ Other lower l e v e l observations made by Marx p e r t a i n -ing t o the impact of technology on o r g a n i z a t i o n are germane. He suggests t h a t the f a c t o r y d i v i s i o n of l a b o r does not p r i m a r i l y y i e l d a d i s t r i b u t i o n of workmen i n t o groups. Rather, " i t i s p r i m a r i l y a d i s t r i b u t i o n of the workmen among 15 s p e c i a l i z e d machines." Cooperation among workers i s , t h e r e f o r e , "only simple." Marx notes that the organized groups p e c u l i a r t o the f a c t o r y (as d i s t i n c t from "manufac-16 t u r e " ) c o n s i s t of the "head workman and h i s few a s s i s t a n t s . " In the f a c t o r y the fundamental d i v i s i o n of l a b o r i s between 17 machine operators and the "mere attendants" of the operators. In a d d i t i o n t o these two groups of a c t o r s which Marx con-s i d e r s t o be p e c u l i a r t o f a c t o r y technology and o r g a n i z a t i o n , there i s a "numerically unimportant" c l a s s of workmen, some of them " s c i e n t i f i c a l l y educated," others "brought up t o a t r a d e , " whose occupation i t i s t o r e p a i r and maintain the 1$ machinery. I t i s c l e a r t h a t Marx i s d e s c r i b i n g the phe-nomenon of what o r g a n i z a t i o n t h e o r i s t s c a l l " l i n e - s t a f f " arrangements. Their o r i g i n s appear t o l i e i n the o r g a n i -z a t i o n a l forms, or s t r u c t u r e , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a r l y f a c t o r y technology. A study of the most advanced production technology 10 and i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of h i s time l e d Marx t o p o s i t t h a t f a c t o r y technology and o r g a n i z a t i o n leads t o the "separation of the i n t e l l e c t u a l powers of production from 19 the manual l a b o r . . . . " 7 I t appears that the s e p a r a t i o n of i n t e l l e c t u a l powers of production from manual l a b o r , plus the " t e c h n i c a l s u b o r d i n a t i o n " of the machine operator and the elaborate system of "barrack d i s c i p l i n e , " provide the b a s i s f o r i n d u s t r i a l patterns of s u p e r v i s i o n . For, as Marx notes, the f i n a l consequence of these processes i s the d i v i s i o n of "work-people i n t o operatives and overlookers. • • • Thus i t i s apparent that Marx's s t u d i e s of the t e c h -n o l o g i c a l l y conditioned d i v i s i o n of l a b o r i n s o c i e t y embrace s e v e r a l areas of i n q u i r y . In p a r t i c u l a r , he develops con-cepts r e l a t i n g production technology t o worker behavior, the o r g a n i z a t i o n of i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s , and broad s o c i a l i s s u e s such as a l i e n a t i o n from work. Emile Durkheim appears to have continued the study of the i m p l i c a t i o n s of the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r along some of the avenues d e l i n e a t e d by Marx. A c a r e f u l study of Durkheim's The D i v i s i o n of Labor 21 i n S o c i e t y y i e l d s a few observations r e l e v a n t t o t h i s survey. Their primary value i s t o i l l u s t r a t e the h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y i n the search f o r understanding regarding the i m p l i c a t i o n s of technology and the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r . L i k e Marx, Durkheim sees i n the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r the "necessary" 11 22 c o n d i t i o n s f o r the development of s o c i e t i e s . I t i s the 23 source of c i v i l i z a t i o n . I t i s through the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r , notes Durkheim, t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s are l i n k e d together. Just as the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r makes a s o c i e t y coherent, so too i t determines the " c o n s t i t u t i v e t r a i t s " of i t s s t r u c -25 t u r e . In i t s non-anomic s t a t e the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r 26 determines " f u n c t i o n s , " and "ways of d e f i n i t e a c t i o n . " Although the broad l i n e s of c o n t i n u i t y between the works of Marx and Durkheim are amply i l l u s t r a t e d i n the preceding remarks, the r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n d u s t r i a l production technologies and forms of the d i v i s i o n of la b o r i n indus-t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s are not as w e l l developed by Durkheim as by Marx. I f broad l i n e s of h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y connect the st u d i e s of Marx and Durkheim, the connections between the en q u i r i e s of Max Weber and K a r l Marx are even more apparent. The use of language, the wide h i s t o r i c a l sweep, the sense of the d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s of production technologies upon the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r so t y p i c a l of Marx, a l l f i n d expres-s i o n i n Weber's work. I t i s evident t h a t Weber recognizes the pervasiveness of the d i v i s i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n of "human s e r v i c e s " i n the 27 i n t e r e s t of production. In p a r t i c u l a r , Weber d i s t i n g u i s h e s between two c l a s s e s of s e r v i c e s f o r economic purposes: "mana-g e r i a l s e r v i c e s " and s e r v i c e s " o r i e n t e d t o the i n s t r u c t i o n s 2o* of a managerial agency." Weber suggests,that v a r y i n g 12 t e c h n i c a l modes of production determine the patterns of 29 "occupational d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . " He argues that The use of mechanized sources of power and machin-ery i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of modern i n d u s t r y . From a t e c h -n i c a l point of view, the l a t t e r presupposes s p e c i a l i z a -t i o n of f u n c t i o n . . . and a l s o a p e c u l i a r u n i f o r m i t y and c a l c u l a b i l i t y of performance, both i n q u a l i t y and. quantity.30 That i s , Weber a s s o c i a t e s machine technology w i t h d i s t i n c -t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o r r e l a t e s i n the form of requirements f o r the planning and c o n t r o l of production. That Weber i s cognizant of the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l cor-r e l a t e s of production technology i s suggested by the pre-ceding d i s c u s s i o n . His cognizance may be made more e x p l i c i t by noting the t e c h n i c a l f a c t o r s which Weber regards as p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the e x p r o p r i a t i o n of the i n d i v i d -u a l worker from the means of production. In developing h i s argument Weber po i n t s t o the f o l l o w i n g "purely t e c h n i c a l " f a c t o r s : (1) the f a c t that sometimes production technology r e q u i r e s the s e r v i c e s of numerous workers e i t h e r s i m u l t a -neously or s u c c e s s i v e l y ; (2) the f a c t t h a t sources of produc-t i v e power may only be r a t i o n a l l y e x p l o i t e d by using them simultaneously f o r b a s i c a l l y s i m i l a r operations under u n i f i e d c o n t r o l ; (3) the f a c t that f r e q u e n t l y a t e c h n i c a l l y r a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of production processes i s p o s s i b l e only by combining complementary processes under continuous and common s u p e r v i s i o n ; (4) the f a c t t h a t coordinated processes of l a b o r can only be e x p l o i t e d r a t i o n a l l y on a l a r g e s c a l e which, i n 13 t u r n r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g f o r the management of such processes of l a b o r ; ( 5 ) the f a c t t h a t , i f production t e c h -nology and raw m a t e r i a l s are under u n i f i e d s u p e r v i s o r y con-t r o l , l a b o r may be subjected t o a " s t r i n g e n t d i s c i p l i n e " thereby c o n t r o l l i n g both the pace, q u a n t i t y , s t a n d a r i z a t i o n 31 and q u a l i t y of production. Subsequent chapters s h a l l develop and t e s t i n con-s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l many of the ideas contained i n the f o r e -going paragraph. This b r i e f sketch of the h i g h l i g h t s of the l i t e r a t u r e p e r t a i n i n g t o technology, the d i v i s i o n of la b o r and t h e i r s o c i a l , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and b e h a v i o r a l c o r r e l a t e s would be incomplete without an examination of the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of Tho r s t e i n Veblen. Joan Woodward s t a t e s t h a t Veblen f i r s t p o s t u l a t e d the l i n k between technology and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . The foregoing d i s c u s s i o n of the w r i t i n g s of Marx, Durkheim and Weber i n d i c a t e s t h a t Woodward's statement i s i n c o r r e c t . A more v a l i d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n s i s t s of acknowledging the c o n t i n u i t y apparent i n the works of Marx, Durkheim, Weber and T h o r s t e i n Veblen. This c o n t i n u i t y of per s p e c t i v e i s amply revealed i n Veblen's observation t h a t ". . . the machine process condi-t i o n s the growth and scope of i n d u s t r y , and . . . i t s d i s -c i p l i n e i n c u l c a t e s h a b i t s of thought s u i t a b l e t o the indus-33 t r i a l technology. . . ."^ Veblen observes that 14 The d i s c i p l i n e of the machine process enforces a s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n of conduct and knowledge i n terms of q u a n t i t a t i v e p r e c i s i o n , and i n c u l c a t e s a h a b i t of apprehending and e x p l a i n i n g f a c t s i n terms of mater-i a l cause and e f f e c t . . . . I t s metaphysics i s mat e r i a l i s m and i t s point of view i s t h a t of causal sequence.34 In a d d i t i o n t o comprehending the foregoing broad s o c i o - c u l t u r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of a pervasive machine t e c h n o l -ogy, Veblen p o i n t s t o i t s e f f e c t s upon managerial behavior. He speaks of the "gravest urgency" a s s o c i a t e d w i t h keeping 3 5 comprehensive machine processes operating e f f i c i e n t l y . ^ He suggests t h a t the urgency of e f f e c t i v e "immediate super-v i s i o n of the var i o u s i n d u s t r i a l processes" i s due t o the pervasiveness of the machine technology. Veblen contends t h a t the l a r g e s t e f f e c t s of the d i s c i p l i n e of mechanical operations are t o be sought among those r e q u i r e d t o "compre-3 7 hend and guide" the processes. ' Presumably the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r would be in c l u d e d i n t h i s category. That i s , f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory behavior would appear t o be i n part dependent upon the demands of technology. The presumption made i n the preceding paragraph, as w e l l as the observations of Marx and Weber noted above, appears t o have been discounted by most of the more recent students of o r g a n i z a t i o n theory. With the exception of a handful of very recent s t u d i e s , one f i n d s at best c a s u a l , i s o l a t e d , i n d i r e c t and fragmentary acknowledgments of the e f f e c t s of a s i n g l e mode of production technology upon the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r ' s r o l e demands and behavior. A more dominant and c e n t r a l area of i n q u i r y during the past three decades has d e a l t w i t h the i m p l i c a t i o n s of production t e c h -nology upon the behavior of workers i n l a r g e mass production and assembly l i n e t e c h n o l o g i e s . The Hawthorne s t u d i e s , f o r example, d e l i n e a t e d areas of i n v e s t i g a t i o n which served t o generate countless e m p i r i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s de-signed t o shed some l i g h t upon the s o c i a l problems of an i n d u s t r i a l c i v i l i z a t i o n . I t appears as though a concern f o r d e l i n e a t i n g the i m p l i c a t i o n s of the new and dominant d i v i s i o n of l a b o r under assembly l i n e technology was e i t h e r i m p l i c i t , or i n f r e q u e n t l y e x p l i c i t , i n most e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s and t h e o r e t i c a l statements subsequent t o the Haw-thorne s t u d i e s . During the past three decades a tendency has developed among students of o r g a n i z a t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l behavior t o ignore p o s s i b l e v a r i a b l e e f f e c t s on o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c -t u r e and the behavior of a c t o r s of d i f f e r i n g modes of produc-t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s . C e r t a i n l y there are exceptions t o t h i s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n as t h i s study w i l l r e v e a l . On the whole, how-ever, i t seems as though the f r u i t f u l p e r s p e c t i v e s and obser-v a t i o n s of Marx, Weber and Veblen have been discounted due t o e i t h e r (1) a preoccupation w i t h the i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r o r g a n i -z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e and behavior a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r p e c u l i a r t o assembly l i n e or other p a r t i c u l a r t e c h -n o l o g i e s , or (2) a general i n s e n s i t i v i t y toward the compara-t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and b e h a v i o r a l c o r r e l a t e s of v a r i e t i e s of 16 production technology. Thus, f o r example, c l a s s i c a l manage-ment theory "was developed i n a t e c h n i c a l s e t t i n g but inde-e d o q pendent of technology. . . ." ' p In t h e i r h i g h - l e v e l statements c l a s s i c a l management t h e o r i s t s were prone t o g e n e r a l i z e on the b a s i s of t h e i r t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y narrow ex-perience, plus the expedients found t o be e f f e c t i v e i n prac-tice^"® w i t h i n a given t e c h n o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g . More recent attempts*4"""" t o supplement the theory of "formal" o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h the f i n d i n g s of e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s of the behavior of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a c t o r s a l s o f a i l t o deal adequately w i t h the i m p l i c a t i o n s of production t e c h n o l o g i e s . For example, i n the b e h a v i o r a l models of March and Simon technology i s e i t h e r not inc l u d e d as a v a r i a b l e , o r , i f i n c l u d e d , the pos-s i b i l i t i e s of v a r i a b l e types of technology and t h e i r i m p l i c a -t i o n s f o r other elements of the model are not developed i n d e t a i l . " 4 " 2 An a d d i t i o n a l i l l u s t r a t i o n of the r a t h e r common t e n -dency t o discount the d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s of var y i n g modes of production technology on o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r u c t u r e , processes and the behavior of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a c t o r s i s found i n the l i t e r a t u r e of "human r e l a t i o n s . " As Robert Blauner observes The c r u c i a l v a r i a b l e s t o be s t u d i e d and manipulated [by students of "human r e l a t i o n s " ] are . . . the general s o c i a l climate of the e n t e r p r i s e and the q u a l i t y of i n -t e r p e r s o n a l contact among employees and between employees and t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s — r a t h e r than the worker's r e l a t i o n t o technology and the d i v i s i o n of l a b o r . In a d d i t i o n t o Blauner*s a n a l y s i s of production t e c h -nology and worker a l i e n a t i o n , two recent s t u d i e s a l s o appear o 17 to have grasped anew the perspectives of Marx, Weber and Veblen. Both of these studies give explicit cognizance to the apparent variable effects of differing modes of indus-t r i a l production technology. Although sharing this common basis, the studies move in quite different directions. On the one hand Woodward focuses primarily upon the overall organizational correlates of major classes of production technology."4""* Meissner on the other hand presents an analy-sis of the major dimensions of technologically required and permitted behavior of rank and f i l e operatives as a function 45 of basic types of production technology. The research objectives of this study have been prompted by the observations of Woodward and Meissner, the perspectives of Marx, Weber and Veblen, and the general deficiency of the current state of organization theory in dealing with modes of industrial production technology as a basic variable. Focusing upon an organizational level intermediate between that of Woodward and Meissner the f o l -lowing questions are posed for analysis: What are the ef-fects of current modes of industrial production technology upon the behavior of f i r s t - l i n e supervisors? How might such effects be explained? IB FOOTNOTES ON CHAPTER I I ^Emile Durkheim, The D i v i s i o n of Labour i n S o c i e t y , t r a n s . George Simpson (New York: The Free Press, 1964), p. 39-2 See f o r example the commentary of Xenophon ( c i r c a 370 B.C.) i n F r i e d r i c k Klemm, A H i s t o r y of Western Technology, t r a n s . Dorothea Waley Singer (London: George A l l e n and Unwin, 1959), p. 29. 3 Durkheim, p. 39. 4 I b i d . 5 I b i d . ^ I b i d . , p. 62. 7 E. Fromm, Marx's Concept of Man (New York: Ungar, 1961), p. 197. S I b i d . 9 I b i d . , p. 219. "^Martin Meissner,"Behavioral Adaptations t o I n d u s t r i a l Technology}' unpublished PhD d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of Oregon, copyright 1963 by author. " ^ K a r l Marx, C a p i t a l : C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i s of C a p i t a l i s t Production (New York: Humboldt), p. 192. 1 2 I b i d . , pp. 192-193. 1 3 I b i d . , p. 194. "^Meissner, p. 10. 1 5 M a r x , p. 25B. I b i d . 1 7 I b i d . i a i b i d . 1 9 I b i d . , p. 260. 19 2 0 I b i d . 21 Durkheim, op. c i t . 2 2 I b i d . , p. 50. 2 3 I b i d . 2 i f I b i d . , p. 61. 2 5 I b i d . , pp. 192-193. 2 6 I b i d . , pp. 365-366. 27 Max Weber, The Theory of S o c i a l and Economic Organi-zation , trans. A.M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons, ed. Talcott Parsons (New York: The Free Press, 1964), p. 218. 2 8 I b i d . , p. 219. 2 9 I b i d . 3°Ibid., p. 228. 3 1 I b i d . , pp. 246-247. 32 Joan Woodward, I n d u s t r i a l Organization: Theory and Practise (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 50. 33 Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of Business Enterprise c 1904 (New York: August M. Ke l l y , Bookseller, 1965), p. 06. 3 4 I b i d . , pp. 66-67. 3 5 I b i d . , p. 18. 3 6 I b i d . 3 7 I b i d . , pp. 312-313. 38 ? Woodward, p. 36 3 9 7See f o r example the discussion of the theory of "formal" organization i n Joseph A. L i t t e r e r , Organizations: Structure and Behavior (New York: Wiley, 19©3)• "^Woodward, l o c . c i t . "^""For example, James G. March and Herbert A. Simon, Organizations (New York and London: Wiley, 1958). 20 i p March and Simon, op. c i t . See f o r example, the models of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l member behavior found at pp. 66, 69, 71, 117, 120, 128 and 154. I o Robert Blauner, A l i e n a t i o n and Freedom: The Factory Worker and His Industry (Chicago and London: U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago Press, 1964), p. v i i i . ^Woodward, op. c i t . 45 Meissner, op. c i t . CHAPTER I I RESEARCH PROBLEM AND DESIGN Conceptual scheme Although at a very broad l e v e l the research reported i n t h i s study has been guided by the p e r s p e c t i v e s of Marx, Weber and Veblen, an observation by Joan Woodward c o n s t i t u t e s the most immediate s t a r t i n g p o i n t . ^ Her s t u d i e s of the im-p l i c a t i o n s of production technology f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c -t u r e and processes l e a d her t o the observation t h a t Technology, because i t i n f l u e n c e s the r o l e s defined by the formal o r g a n i z a t i o n , must t h e r e f o r e i n f l u e n c e i n d u s t r i a l behaviour, f o r how a person r e a c t s depends as much on the demands of h i s r o l e and the circumstances i n which he f i n d s h i m s e l f , as on h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . 2 On the b a s i s of the foregoing o b s e r v a t i o n , plus George 3 Homans' model of group s o c i a l behavior, a conceptual scheme was developed which i s designed t o provide a r a t i o n a l e f o r the generation of s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the dimen-sio n s of supervisory behavior under a given category of production technology. Figure I below i s a schematic por-t r a y a l of the conceptual scheme u t i l i z e d i n the research. Figure I i s meant t o convey t h a t the conceptual scheme t r e a t s the nature and b e h a v i o r a l demands of a given category of production technology as an "independent v a r i a b l e . " Supervisory a c t i v i t i e s , i n t e r a c t i o n p a tterns and f r e q u e n c i e s , sentiments, are regarded 22 Organization S t r u c t u r e and Management Processes C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Behav i o r a l Demands of Production Technology Supervisory I n t e r a c t i o n P a t terns and Frequencies Supervisory A c t i v i t i e s Supervisory Sentiments Toward Those w i t h Whom I n t e r a c t i o n s Occur FIGURE I CONCEPTUAL SCHEME UTILIZED IN THE STUDY 23 as "dependent v a r i a b l e s . " The " i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e " postu-l a t e d t o account f o r observed r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the i n -dependent and dependent v a r i a b l e s comprises the s t r u c t u r a l or o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o r r e l a t e s of a given category of produc-t i o n technology observed by Woodward. Research problem The c e n t r a l problem f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n theory which serves as the immediate focus of the research i s i n d i c a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g general hypothesis. The hypothesis g i v e s v e r b a l expression t o the conceptual scheme of Figure I above. General hypothesis Given a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y dominant mode of produc-t i o n technology w i t h i n an e n t e r p r i s e or work u n i t , a number of unique o r g a n i z a t i o n a l or s t r u c t u r a l c o r r e l a t e s w i l l ap-pear, the f u n c t i o n of the l a t t e r being t o f a c i l i t a t e the accomplishment of the e n t e r p r i s e ' s m u l t i - f a c e t e d g o a l s . As a consequence of the e n t e r p r i s e ' s t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y i n f l u -enced s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s , there w i l l emerge a character-i s t i c set of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory a c t i v i t i e s . The l a t t e r w i l l shape a p a t t e r n of supervisory i n t e r a c t i o n and a set of sentiments toward those w i t h whom such i n t e r a c t i o n s occur. Research design In order t o t e s t the v a l i d i t y of the foregoing gen-e r a l hypothesis, the f o l l o w i n g research design i s u t i l i z e d 24 i n Chapter I I I . For a given category of production t e c h n o l -ogy the observations made by Woodward regarding the s t r u c -t u r a l c o r r e l a t e s of t h a t category of technology are summar-i z e d i n chart form. On the b a s i s of these data, the con-ceptual scheme of Figure I , and reasonable, l o g i c a l i n f e r -ences drawn from the data, a s e r i e s of s p e c i f i c hypotheses i s developed regarding the dimensions of supervisory be-h a v i o r under t h a t category of production technology. In Chapter V I I each of the two case s t u d i e s of Chapters IV, V and VI i s analyzed w i t h a view t o : (1) c l a s s i f y i n g the case i n terms of a category of technology (2) t e s t i n g the v a l i d -i t y of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses f o r t h a t category of t e c h n o l -ogy, and (3) r e f o r m u l a t i n g the s p e c i f i c hypotheses as may be r e q u i r e d i n the l i g h t of the a n a l y s i s . Steps (2) and (3) are repeated i n the a n a l y s i s of the a d d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l data l o c a t e d i n the appendices. The development and t e s t i n g of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses are organized and coded according t o the a n a l y t i c a l framework depicted i n Chart I below. 2 5 < O co p a> u 8 «d • H % P o a P CD CO 0) o • H P o CD CO 0) • r l P • r l !> • r l P O «; Horizontal Superiors Subordinates o . S3 0) cr CD-P>4 CD u p cd S 3 -J Horizontal Superiors Subordinates Horizontal Superiors Subordinates CO >> CD • r l S P CD «H • H 3 o > cr •H cu P u O &4 o j (0 CP CD «H (H P 3< H - H P O > I S P o «*5 >» hO O O r-i ttf)«H o CD O fl P a ClJ O O CD EH I-C-3 I - C - 2 I-C-l I-B - 2-c I-B - 2-b I-B - 2-a I-B-l-c I-B-l-b I-B-l-a CM I o J I H I I H t 3 13 P H O • r l Ct} +> 6 S c d t=> CO PQ II-C-3 I I - C - 2 II-G-1 I I _ B - 2 - c I I -B - 2-b I I - B - 2 - a II-B-l-c II-B-l-b II-B-l-a I < I H H r H I OS I H ST P - d T3 I mo c N M OP I Cu 0> (SOW rH CO 43 ~a ?3 CD O CO • H CO P o l III-C -3 I I I - G - 2 III-C-1 I I I - B - 2 - c I I I - B - 2 - b I I I - B - 2 - a III-B-l-c III-B-l-b I I I - B - l - a CM o J I r H H r-i I < I H H H CO O • H P a o O 0 - t 26 FOOTNOTES ON CHAPTER I I Joan Woodward, I n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n : Theory and P r a c t i c e (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1965). 2 r b i d . , p. 79. 3 George Homans, The Human Group (London: Routledge and Kegan P a u l , 1951). CHAPTER I I I FORMULATION OF SPECIFIC HYPOTHESES I n t r o d u c t i o n This chapter presents s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the dimensions of supervisory behavior under each of the three c a t e g o r i e s of i n d u s t r i a l production technology. The code designations f o l l o w i n g the statement of s p e c i f i c hypo-theses are those found i n Chart I . Each of the three cate-g o r i e s of technology i s considered s e p a r a t e l y . Some general observations and in f e r e n c e s based upon Woodward's data pre-cede the f o r m u l a t i o n of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses f o r a given category of technology. The purpose of the l a t t e r observa-t i o n s and in f e r e n c e s i s t o provide the r a t i o n a l e f o r the f o r m u l a t i o n of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses. Category I technology General observations and in f e r e n c e s Probably the most fundamental c o r r e l a t e of Category I production technology i s the "or g a n i c " nature of the manage-ment processes t y p i c a l l y found i n the more s u c c e s s f u l enter-p r i s e s operating under t h i s technology. Therefore we i n f e r t h a t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s c l a s s of production technology are the f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s : (1) the c o n t r i b u t i v e nature of s p e c i a l knowledge and experience t o the common task of the 28 CHART I I STRUCTURAL CORRELATES OF CATEGORY I TECHNOLOGY Category I Production Technology: u n i t and sm a l l batch d e f i n i t i o n : u n i t s produced t o customer requirements; f a b r i c a t i o n of l a r g e u n i t s i n stages S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e of Technology C h a r a c t e r i s t i c 1. Complexity of technology 2. Median number of l e v e l s of management 3. Median c h i e f executive span of c o n t r o l 4. Median f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s ' span of c o n t r o l 5. Existence of "sma l l primary work groups" 6. Rat i o of supervisory t o non-super v i s o r y personnel 7. R a t i o of d i r e c t t o i n d i r e c t workers 8. Middle management span of c o n t r o l 9. Length of management communication l i n e 10. P r a c t i c e of management by committee 11. T e c h n i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of manage-ment and su p e r v i s o r s 12. Required t e c h n i c a l competence of sup e r v i s o r s 13. Source of t e c h n i c a l competence of supe r v i s o r s 14. R e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n of s k i l l e d t o u n s k i l l e d workers Simplest of three c a t e g o r i e s (p.42) 3 (p.52) 4 (p.52) 14-27 (p.61) Yes (p.60) 1:23 (p.55) 1:9 (pp.59-60) r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e (p.53) r e l a t i v e l y short (p.53) r e l a t i v e l y r a r e (P.53) l e s s than i n Cate-gory I I I t e c h n o l -ogy (pp.57-58) r e l a t i v e l y very high (pp.57-58,64) experience plus trade t r a i n i n g highest of the 3 catego r i e s of technology (pp.61-62) 29 CHART II- - c o n t i n u e d S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e of Technology C h a r a c t e r i s t i c 15. Focus of s k i l l e d workers* a c t i v i t i e s 16. A b i l i t y of d i r e c t l a b o r t o i n f l u e n c e the q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of production 17* Existence of formal production c o n t r o l systems 18. Existence of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s 19. Sense of urgency of production 20. Type of communications regarding production 21. Production schedules based on 22. Planning and time p e r s p e c t i v e of top and lower management 23. Perceived s e c u r i t y of employment f o r d i r e c t workers 24« Interdependence of task f u n c t i o n among marketing (M), Production (P) and development (D) 25. Q u a l i t y of interdepartmental r e l a t i o n s 26. Order of manufacturing c y c l e 27. Frequency of o r g a n i z a t i o n problems 28. Typed management of more success-f u l f i r m s d i r e c t l a b o r or production of u n i t s (p.6l) r e l a t i v e l y very great (p.ol) f r e q u e n t l y too d i f f i c u l t t o a t -tempt (pp.42,66) none or few low (p.158) mainly v e r b a l (p.66") f i r m orders only (p. 129) short-term (p.129) f a i r l y high (p.129) high (pp.129-131, 134) good (pp .130-133, 135) M-^D—>P (p.128) low (p.135) "organic"''" (p .64) Source: Joan Woodward, I n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n : Theory and P r a c t i c e (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965). 3 0 e n t e r p r i s e ; ( 2 ) i n d i v i d u a l tasks set by the t o t a l s i t u a t i o n of the e n t e r p r i s e ; ( 3 ) adjustment and c o n t i n u a l r e d e f i n i t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l t a s k s through i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h others; ( 4 ) ad hoc l o c a t i o n of c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y and communication based upon e x p e r t i s e ; ( 5 ) l a t e r a l r a t h e r than v e r t i c a l communica-t i o n s predominating; and ( 6 ) communication of advice and 2 i n f o r m a t i o n r a t h e r than i n s t r u c t i o n s and d e c i s i o n s . I f r e a l i z e d i n p r a c t i c e w i t h i n an e n t e r p r i s e charac-t e r i z e d by Category I technology, the "or g a n i c " nature of the management process suggests t h a t the f i r s t - l i n e super-v i s o r i s allowed a f a i r l y wide area of d i s c r e t i o n over the performance of h i s tasks and h i s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h others. Using a s l i g h t l y more o p e r a t i o n a l phraseology, i t i s i n f e r r e d t h a t , as a consequence of the organic nature of management processes, e n t e r p r i s e o r g a n i z a t i o n under Category I technology i s t y p i c a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by: 1. F a i r l y f l e x i b l e d e t a i l e d production g u i d e l i n e s coming to the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r from l i n e s u p e r i o r s and the few s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s who may e x i s t i n the o r g a n i -z a t i o n . 2 . The i n i t i a t i o n of t a s k - o r i e n t e d i n t e r a c t i o n s ( i . e . , i n t e r a c t i o n s concerned w i t h production schedules, methods, sequence, q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y ) t o the f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r by s k i l l e d d i r e c t workers, and t o the l a t t e r by the former. 3 . Extensive "feedback" t o the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r from s k i l l e d d i r e c t production workers regarding t a s k -o r i e n t e d i n t e r a c t i o n s o r i g i n a l l y i n i t i a t e d e i t h e r d i r e c t l y by the s u p e r v i s o r , or i n d i r e c t l y by s t a f f spe-c i a l i s t s i n the form of production schedules, job s p e c i -f i c a t i o n s , e t c . 4. Minimal r e l i a n c e by a l l l e v e l s of management and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s upon the o f f i c i a l records and other i n f o r -mation generated i n the production planning and c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s . (This i n f e r e n c e f o l l o w s from both the or-ganic nature of the management processes and the f r e -quently r e l a t i v e l y great d i f f i c u l t y of e s t a b l i s h i n g r e -l i a b l e , comprehensive and formal production c o n t r o l s . See Chart I I above.) 5. A high degree of v o l u n t a r y and i n f o r m a l interdependence among f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s and: s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , s e n i o r l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s , and d i r e c t production workers. 6. A low sense of urgency of production experienced by a l l i n d i v i d u a l s , e s p e c i a l l y s k i l l e d d i r e c t workers and t h e i r f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s . In Chart I I are noted a number of s t r u c t u r a l cor-r e l a t e s of Category I technology which may have s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r the development of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the dimensions of supervisory behavior i n t h i s c l a s s of produc-t i o n technology. For example, one notes a r e l a t i v e l y s h a l -low management o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r u c t u r e (3 l e v e l s on the aver-age). In a d d i t i o n , there tends t o be a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l 32 supervisory span of c o n t r o l (small r e l a t i v e e s p e c i a l l y t o Category I I technology). Furthermore, e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I production technology tend t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the existence of sm a l l primary work-groups of s k i l l e d employees able t o i n f l u e n c e t o a considerable degree the qu a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of production. The r e l a t i v e absence of elaborate s t a f f groups engaged i n comprehensive and continuous production planning and c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s , suggests t h a t the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i s able t o exert considerable i n f l u e n c e over the q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of production, e s p e c i a l l y since h i s t e c h n i c a l competence i s r e l a t i v e l y great and apparently i s given scope t o be exer-c i s e d (organic management processes). F i n a l l y , the r e l a -t i v e l y shallow management o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r u c t u r e ; the r e l a -t i v e l y s m a l l f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory span of c o n t r o l ; and the broad c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of organic management processes o u t l i n e d a b o v e — a l l of these f e a t u r e s of the e n t e r p r i s e under Category I technology suggest t h a t frequent and r e l a -t i v e l y non t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y r e q u i r e d i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h others are one important aspect of supervisory a c t i v i t i e s . S p e c i f i c hypotheses Supervisory a c t i v i t i e s (tasks) ( I - A - l ) As a consequence of the above t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y induced f e a t u r e s of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r ' s work environment, i t i s hypothesized t h a t the f o l l o w i n g are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of 33 supervisory a c t i v i t i e s under Category I technology: 1. A p p l i c a t i o n of t e c h n i c a l knowledge and e x e r c i s e of t e c h -n i c a l s k i l l a. Based upon h i s a n a l y s i s of production orders and t h e i r attendant s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r p e r s o n a l l y makes a r e l a t i v e l y broad range of t e c h n i c a l d e c i s i o n s , or g i v e s t e c h n i c a l advice regarding ( i ) choice of work t o o l s , methods and sequence ( i i ) content of i n d i v i d u a l workers' tasks ( i i i ) pace of work and the q u a l i t y of production ( p r i m a r i l y when unforeseen d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e ) . b. The s u p e r v i s o r becomes p e r s o n a l l y i n v o l v e d i n c o n t r i -buting h i s t e c h n i c a l knowledge and experience t o the d i r e c t production a c t i v i t i e s of h i s subordinates ( p r i m a r i l y when unforeseen problems or excessive work-loads a r i s e l 2. In the absence of e x t e n s i v e , continuous, and h i g h l y r a t i o n a l i z e d s t a f f production planning and c o n t r o l a c t i v -i t i e s , the s u p e r v i s o r p e r s o n a l l y executes a range of ad-3 m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d i n g : a. I s s u i n g w r i t t e n or v e r b a l r e p o r t s regarding attendance, production achieved or i n process, pay, e t c . b. A l l o c a t i n g subordinates t o j o b s , job orders, or par-t i c u l a r t a s ks w i t h i n a given job. c. Scheduling and monitoring work fl o w through h i s u n i t . d. Coordinating the work-flow between successive work u n i t s . 34 e. Negotiating w i t h f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work-flo w f o r access t o scarce production resources ( m a t e r i a l s , l a b o r , f a c i l i t i e s , s e r v i c e s , e t c . ) . 3. Because o f , and as part of h i s performance of the f o r e -going a c t i v i t i e s , the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i n Category I production technology performs a c t i v i t i e s the nature of which c o n s i s t s of f a c e - t o - f a c e (verbal) i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates, l i n e s u p e r i o r s , s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s ( i f found i n the e n t e r p r i s e ) and f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work-flow. Frequency of performance of a c t i v i t i e s (I-A-2) The s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the elements of supervisory a c t i v i t i e s c l e a r l y are mutually interdependent. I t i s thus d i f f i c u l t t o separate the elements from one another and p r e d i c t t h e i r r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c i e s . The exer-c i s e of i n t u i t i o n i s , t h e r e f o r e , r e q u i r e d . I t i s hypothesized t h a t the s u p e r v i s o r w i l l be en-gaged r e l a t i v e l y f r e q u e n t l y i n a c t i v i t i e s r e q u i r i n g the a p p l i c a t i o n of h i s t e c h n i c a l knowledge and s k i l l . W i t hin e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I technology the frequency of performance of t e c h n i c a l a c t i v i t i e s w i l l be about equal to t h a t of other c l a s s e s of a c t i v i t i e s . Looking ahead, the hypothesis i s t h a t , i n comparison wi t h Category I I t e c h n o l -ogy, the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r w i l l apply h i s t e c h n i c a l knowledge and s k i l l , and c a r r y out " a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i -t i e s " more f r e q u e n t l y i n Category I technology. The 35 d i s t r i b u t i o n of a c t i v i t y frequencies i n e n t e r p r i s e s under Categories I and I I I technology w i l l be about equal, w i t h the exception of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s , which, i t i s hypothesized, w i l l be of r e l a t i v e l y minor importance under Category I I I technology. Nature of i n t e r a c t i o n s The f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c hypotheses f o l l o w from: (1) the preceding attempt t o o p e r a t i o n a l i z e the i m p l i c a t i o n s of organic management processes, and (2) the foregoing s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the nature and frequency of supervisory a c t i v i t i e s . With subordinates ( I - B - l - a ) . I n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l be fa c e - t o - f a c e and concerned w i t h production methods, pace, q u a l i t y , schedules, s p e c i a l problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the nature of the work at hand, and s p e c i f i c , non-routine jobs or tasks t o be performed by i n d i v i d u a l s or s m a l l groups ( i . e . , " t a s k - o r i e n t e d " i n t e r a c t i o n s ) . Because of the organic nature of management pro-cesses, combined w i t h the low sense of urgency about pro-d u c t i o n , such i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l tend t o be r e l a x e d ; t h a t i s , devoid of c o n f l i c t s over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . They w i l l tend t o a l l o w r e c i p r o c a l feedback and e v a l u a t i o n by the p a r t i e s . The t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e of both p a r t i e s w i l l a l -low the i n t e r a c t i o n s t o be based upon the communication of advice and inf o r m a t i o n r a t h e r than e x p l i c i t i n s t r u c t i o n s and d i r e c t i o n s . 36 With s u p e r i o r s ( I - B - l - b ) . I t i s hypothesized that the nature of i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s l i n e s u p e r i o r s w i l l be i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t of the i n t e r a c t i o n s between the su p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates. H o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s ( I - B - l - c ) . In a d d i t i o n t o the i n t e r a c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s described under " i n t e r -a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates," h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s i n v o l v -ing the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r w i l l i n v o l v e n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s over access t o scarce production r e -sources (e.g., m a t e r i a l s , equipment, l a b o r ) . A l s o , such i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l i n v o l v e a c t i v i t i e s designed t o e f f e c t the r e q u i r e d c o o r d i n a t i o n of work-flow between successive work s t a t i o n s . Frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s At best, only very general hypotheses are p o s s i b l e . The r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l span of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory c o n t r o l , the shallow management o r g a n i z a t i o n , the presence of small primary work groups, and the minimal r e l i a n c e by management upon the formal r e p o r t i n g systems of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s — a l l of which are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Category I technology, have been noted. I n a d d i t i o n , some of the more s i g n i f i c a n t dimensions of organic management processes have been i n d i -cated. These observations, plus the hypotheses concerning the nature and frequency of supervisory a c t i v i t i e s , suggest the f o l l o w i n g hypotheses. 37 Frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates (I-B-2-a). The f u l l p o t e n t i a l (under organic management processes) f o r very frequent i n t e r a c t i o n s between the s u p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates w i l l tend not t o be r e a l i z e d . The extensive t e c h n i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d u t i e s of the s u p e r v i s o r , plus the t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e of d i r e c t workers, w i l l tend t o l i m i t i n t e r a c t i o n s between the p a r t i e s . Gn the whole, then, a moderate r a t e of i n t e r a c t i o n s between the su p e r v i s o r and i n d i v i d u a l subordinates may be a n t i c i p a t e d ; a r a t e g r e a t e r than that found i n Category I I technology, but probably l e s s than i n Category I I I technology. With s u p e r i o r s (I-B-2-b). The f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s , plus the organic nature of manage-ment processes, w i l l tend t o create o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r f r e -quent i n t e r a c t i o n s between the su p e r v i s o r and h i s l i n e supe-r i o r s . The hypothesis i s th a t the frequency of such i n t e r -a c t i o n s w i l l be at l e a s t as great as th a t between the f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates as a group. Also i t i s hypothesized that the frequency of s u p e r v i s o r - l i n e s u p e r i o r i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l be gr e a t e r i n Category I than i n Category I I production technology. The frequency w i l l approximate t h a t found i n Category I I I t e c h n o l o g i e s . Frequency of h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s (I-B-2-c). The r e l a t i v e absence of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s engaged i n production planning and c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s ; the requirements f o r co-o r d i n a t i o n along the work flow; and the scope given t o the 38 e x e r c i s e of the s u p e r v i s o r ' s t e c h n i c a l knowledge and s k i l l — suggest that the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and f e l l o w l i n e - s u p e r v i s o r s w i l l be f a i r l y h i g h , w h i l e the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s t a f f s p e c i a l -i s t s (where they appear i n the management o r g a n i z a t i o n ) w i l l tend t o be low. These hypothesized frequencies are r e l a t i v e both t o those f o r other c l a s s e s of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n Gate-gory I technology and r e l a t i v e t o the corresponding i n t e r -a c t i o n s i n e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I I technology. A s i m i l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n of h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n frequencies i n technology Categories I and I I I i s hypothesized, where, as w i l l be demonstrated, the nature of organic management processes, the scope of a p p l i c a t i o n g iven t o supervisory t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s , e t c . , are observed i n about the same pro p o r t i o n s . U t i l i z i n g the conceptual scheme (Figure I ) r e l a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s , i n t e r a c t i o n s and sentiments; and, given the foregoing analyses and hypotheses, the f o l l o w i n g dimensions of f i r s t - l i n e s upervisory behavior under Category I t e c h -nology are p r e d i c t e d . Supervisory sentiments Toward subordinates ( I - C - l ) . These sentiments w i l l tend t o be n e u t r a l t o f r i e n d l y . They w i l l tend t o be con-stant or s t a b l e over time. Toward s u p e r i o r s (I-C-2). As i n the preceding paragraph. 39 Between p a r t i e s i n h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s (I-C-3)• As i n the preceding two paragraphs. Category I I technology In t h i s s e c t i o n the s p e c i f i c hypotheses p e r t a i n i n g to the dimensions of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory behavior i n e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I I technology are developed. The b a s i c approach i s the same as that employed i n the previous s e c t i o n . General observations and infere n c e s From the poin t of view of the general hypothesis of the study, perhaps the most important c o r r e l a t e of Category I I technology i s the "mechanistic" nature of the management process w i t h the more s u c c e s s f u l e n t e r p r i s e s employing t h i s type of production technology. I t i s i n f e r r e d t h a t , as-s o c i a t e d w i t h Category I I technology one f i n d s : (1) a r i g i d breakdown i n t o f u n c t i o n a l s p e c i a l i s m s , p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n s of d u t i e s , r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and power, and (2) a w e l l -developed managerial h i e r a r c h y through which i n f o r m a t i o n f i l t e r s up and d e c i s i o n s and i n s t r u c t i o n s f l o w down t o the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r . I f r e a l i z e d i n p r a c t i c e , t h i s i n -ference suggests that the s u p e r v i s o r i s allowed a very l i m i t e d area of d i s c r e t i o n over the performance of h i s a c t i v i t i e s and h i s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h others. To use a somewhat more o p e r a t i o n a l phraseology con-cerning the s i g n i f i c a n c e of mechanistic management, i t i s 40 CHART I I I STRUCTURAL CORRELATES OF CATEGORY I I TECHNOLOGY Category I I Technology: l a r g e batch mass production-and-assembly-line technology S p e c i f i c a t i o n : production i n l a r g e batches; l a r g e batches on assembly l i n e s ; mass production S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c 1. Complexity of technology Average, r e l a t i v e t o Categories I & I I I (p.42) 2. Median number of l e v e l s of management 4 (p.52) 3 . Median c h i e f executive span of c o n t r o l 7 (p.53) 4. Median f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s ' span of c o n t r o l 30-44 (p.61) 5. Existence of "small primary work groups" No (p.60) 6. R a t i o of supervisory t o non-super v i s o r y personnel 1:16 (p.55) 7, R a t i o of d i r e c t t o i n d i r e c t workers 1:4 (pp.59-60) 8. Middle management span of c o n t r o l r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e (p. 53) 9. Length of management communication l i n e r e l a t i v e l y long (p. 52) 10. P r a c t i c e of management by committee r e l a t i v e l y r a r e (p.53) 11. T e c h n i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of manage-ment and sup e r v i s o r s l e s s than i n Cate-gory I I I t e c h n o l -ogy (pp.57-58) 12. Required t e c h n i c a l competence of supe r v i s o r s very low r e l a t i v e t o other categor-i e s of technology (pp.57-58) 13. Source of t e c h n i c a l competence of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s not s t a t e d but probably on-the-job t r a i n i n g CHART I l l — c o n t i n u e d 41 S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c 14. R e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n of s k i l l e d t o u n s k i l l e d workers 15. Focus of s k i l l e d workers' a c t i v i t i e s 16. A b i l i t y of d i r e c t l a b o r t o i n f l u e n c e q u a n t i t y & q u a l i t y of production 17. Existence of formal production con-t r o l systems 18. Existence of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s 19. Sense of urgency of production 20. Type of communication regarding production 21. Production schedules based on 22. Planning and time p e r s p e c t i v e of management 23. Perceived s e c u r i t y of employment f o r d i r e c t workers lowest of three c a t e g o r i e s of technology (pp.61-62) i n d i r e c t l a b o r , e.g., s t a f f work (pp.62-63) r e l a t i v e low (pp.62-63) yes; h i g h l y de-veloped w i t h b u i l t - i n s a n c t i o n f o r f a i l u r e t o meet narrow speci-f i e d o b j e c t i v e s (p.66) numerous and com-prehensive , f r e -quently i n con-f l i c t w i t h f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s (pp. 64-66) r e l a t i v e l y great (pp.135-136) mainly w r i t t e n (p.66) f o r e c a s t s and orders (p.136) medium f o r s e n i o r management, short f o r f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s (pp.135-136) f a i r l y low (p.136) 42 CHART I I I — c o n t i n u e d S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c 24. Interdependence of task f u n c t i o n s among marketing (M), production (P) and development (D) very high (p.137) 25. Order of manufacturing c y c l e D—»P—>M (p.128) 26. Interdepartmental r e l a t i o n s not good (pp . 137 , 145) 27. Frequency of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l problems high (pp. 137, 139, 145) 28. Type of management of more success-f u l f i r m s "mechanistic" (p.64) Source: Joan Woodward, I n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n : Theory and P r a c t i c e (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1965). 43 i n f e r r e d t h a t Category I I technology i s t y p i c a l l y c h a r a c t e r -i z e d by the f o l l o w i n g s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n ; 1. D i r e c t i v e s and d e c i s i o n s f i l t e r i n g down t o the f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r from h i s s u p e r i o r s and l a t e r a l l y from s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . 2. Reliance by a l l l e v e l s of l i n e management and a s s o c i a t e d s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s upon the records generated by the f o r -mal, well-developed production c o n t r o l systems. (The go a l i n view i s t o achieve e f f e c t i v e monitoring of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s behavior, as w e l l as t h a t of h i s subordinates, as demonstrated by the production q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y achieved.} 3. A high sense of urgency regarding production being ex-perienced by a l l persons, p a r t i c u l a r l y the s u p e r v i s o r . 4. A high degree of f u n c t i o n a l interdependence among f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s on the one hand, and f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s r e l a t e d t o each other along the work-flow on the other. As a consequence of the foregoing t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y d e l i m i t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r u c t u r a l c o r r e l a t e s , a cha r a c t e r -i s t i c set of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory a c t i v i t i e s tends t o develop. The observations summarized above i n Chart I I I do not provide any d i r e c t i n s i g h t s i n t o the nature of super-v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s i n e n t e r p r i s e s u t i l i z i n g forms of Cate-gory I I technology. However, c e r t a i n i n f e r e n c e s based upon the preceding observations may be j u s t i f i e d . I f v a l i d , they 44 w i l l prove h e l p f u l i n o p e r a t i o n a l i z i n g f u r t h e r the general hypothesis of the study. I t i s noted from Chart I I I above that the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r has a median span of c o n t r o l i n the order of 30-44- In a d d i t i o n , i t appears t h a t s m a l l primary work groups probably are r a r e i n t h i s type of technology. F u r t h e r -more, r e q u i r e d t e c h n i c a l competence among l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s i s very l i m i t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h a t found i n e i t h e r of Category I or H I production technology. F i n a l l y , because work methods, pace, and volume and q u a l i t y standards a l l tend t o be h i g h l y r a t i o n a l i z e d and c o n t r o l l e d by h i g h e r - l e v e l l i n e management, or non-line s u p e r v i s o r s , the a b i l i t y of e i t h e r d i r e c t workers or the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r u l t i m a t e l y t o adversely i n f l u -ence production q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y i s r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d . S p e c i f i c Hypotheses Supervisory a c t i v i t i e s (tasks) (II-A-1) Given the foregoing t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y induced f e a t u r e s of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r ' s work environment, i t i s hypothesized that the nature of supervisory a c t i v i t i e s (tasks) under Category I I technology c o n s i s t s , f o r the most p a r t , of v e r b a l and non-verbal i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates, l i n e s u p e r i o r s , s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , and f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s i n the work-flow. (The primary object of such i n t e r a c t i o n s i s t o e f f e c t the d i r e c t i v e s t r a n s m i t t e d t o the s u p e r v i s o r by l i n e s u p e r i o r s and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . ) 45 I t i s hypothesized t h a t n e i t h e r the t e c h n i c a l nor " a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s " s p e c i f i e d i n the d i s c u s s i o n of Category I technology w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t elements of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory behavior i n Category I I technology. Frequency of performance of a c t i v i t i e s (tasks) (II-A-2) I f one accepts the s p e c i f i c hypothesis that the nature of f i r s t - l i n e s upervisory a c t i v i t i e s under Category I I t e c h -nology c o n s i s t s mainly of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s , then i t f o l l o w s t h a t the frequency w i t h which these a c t i v i t i e s are performed ( t h e i r r e l a t i v e importance) reduces t o the f r e -quency of i n t e r a t i o n s w i t h others. See below f o r the s p e c i -f i c hypotheses regarding i n t e r a c t i o n s . Nature of i n t e r a c t i o n s With subordinates ( I I - B - l - a ) . The d i s c u s s i o n i n the s e c t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h the i m p l i c a t i o n s of mechanistic manage-ment suggests the f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c hypothesis. I n t e r -a c t i o n s between the sup e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates, a domi-nant f e a t u r e of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r ' s a c t i v i t i e s , w i l l tend t o be h o s t i l e , t h r e a t e n i n g and aggressive i n nature. A l s o , i t i s hypothesized t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n s between the s u p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates w i l l c o n s i s t mainly of fac e - t o - f a c e communications. The content of such i n t e r -a c t i o n s w i l l be concerned p r i m a r i l y w i t h problems of work pace, methods and production q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y . That i s , the i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l p r i m a r i l y be " t a s k - o r i e n t e d . " With s u p e r i o r s ( I I - B - l - b ) . Once again, because of the mechanistic type of management, the sense of urgency of production, the high frequency of " c r i s e s , " e t c . , i t i s hypothesized t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n s between the s u p e r v i s o r and h i s l i n e s u p e r i o r s w i l l ' t e n d t o be tense, h o s t i l e and t a s k -o r i e n t e d i n nature. I n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l f i n d t h e i r bases i n both v e r b a l and w r i t t e n communications. H o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s (with s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s and f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work flow) ( I I - B - l - c ) . For the reasons o u t l i n e d i n the two preceding paragraphs i t i s p r e d i c t e d that t h i s c l a s s of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l be l a r g e l y t a s k - o r i e n t e d , v e r b a l as w e l l as non-verbal, and f r e q u e n t l y tense, t h a t i s , i n v o l v e c o n f l i c t s over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s With subordinates (II-B-2-a). Only the most general hypotheses are p o s s i b l e given the q u a l i t y , f o r our purposes, of Woodward's data. Given the absence of small primary work groups, the mechanistic nature of management, the high sense of production urgency, e t c . , i t i s hypothesized t h a t the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates as a group w i l l be r e l a t i v e l y very high. The frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l subordinates w i l l , however, tend on the average t o be low ( r e l a t i v e t o the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h l i n e s u p e r i o r s , or s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , or f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work f l o w ) . 47 With s u p e r i o r s (II-B-2-b). For the reasons o u t l i n e d i n the previous paragraph, i t i s hypothesized that i n t e r -a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s l i n e s u p e r i o r s w i l l be r e l a t i v e l y f a i r l y low, e s p e c i a l l y those i n i t i a t e d by the sup e r v i s o r h i m s e l f . H o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s ( I I - B - 2 - c ) . By the same token, a r e l a t i v e l y very high frequency of h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r -a c t i o n s i s p r e d i c t e d , e s p e c i a l l y f o r i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . Supervisory sentiments Toward subordinates ( I I - C - 1 ) . In the absence of more complete d e s c r i p t i v e data regarding the nature of; s upervisory a c t i v i t i e s under Category I I technology, i t has been hypoth-e s i z e d t h a t such a c t i v i t i e s w i l l c o n s i s t p r i m a r i l y of i n t e r -a c t i o n s w i t h others. In a d d i t i o n , a r e l a t i v e l y high f r e -quency of tense, t a s k - o r i e n t e d i n t e r a c t i o n s between the super-v i s o r and h i s subordinates has been hypothesized. On the ba s i s of these hypotheses i t i s p r e d i c t e d t h a t sentiments f e l t by the su p e r v i s o r toward h i s subordinates w i l l tend t o range from n e u t r a l t o s u s p i c i o u s t o aggressive depending upon circumstances. Furthermore, because of the high sense of urgency of production and short time p e r s p e c t i v e s of lower s u p e r v i s o r y l e v e l s , these sentiments w i l l tend t o be unstable or v a r i a b l e , ranging from n e u t r a l t o h o s t i l e . Superiors ( I I - C - 2 ) . By the same token, sentiments of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r toward h i s s u p e r i o r s w i l l tend 48 to be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y those of defense and h o s t i l i t y . They w i l l tend t o be v a r i a b l e depending upon the demands of momentary circumstances. P a r t i e s t o h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s ( s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work-flow ( I I - C - 3 ) . S i m i l a r l y , sentiments of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r toward s t a f f s p e c i a l -i s t s and f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work f l o w w i l l tend t o be n e u t r a l t o h o s t i l e i n tone. Given the r e l a t i v e l y high frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s between the p a r t i e s , the sentiments of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r w i l l tend t o be r a t h e r unchang-i n g , at l e a s t i n the short-term. Category I I I technology In t h i s s e c t i o n the s p e c i f i c hypotheses p e r t a i n i n g t o the dimensions of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory behavior under continuous-process technology w i l l be developed. The approach to hypotheses f o r m u l a t i o n w i l l be the same as t h a t employed i n the two previous s e c t i o n s of the chapter. General observations and i n f e r e n c e s Given the general hypothesis of t h i s study, probably the most fundamental c o r r e l a t e of continuous-process t e c h n o l -ogy i s the organic nature of management processes t y p i c a l l y found i n the more s u c c e s s f u l e n t e r p r i s e s employing t h i s type of technology. Proceeding from t h i s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i t i s i n f e r r e d t h a t , the f o l l o w i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h continuous-process technology: (1) the 49 CHART IV STRUCTURAL CORRELATES OF CATEGORY I I I TECHNOLOGY Category I I I Production Technology: continuous-process technology D e f i n i t i o n : i n t e r m i t t e n t production of chemicals i n m u l t i -purpose p l a n t s ; continuous f l o w production of cases, l i q u i d s and c r y s t a l l i n e substances S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c 1. Complexity of technology very great r e l a -t i v e t o Categories I and I I (p.42) 2. Median number of l e v e l s of management 6 (p.52) 3- Median c h i e f executive span of c o n t r o l 10 (p.53) 4. Median f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s ' span of c o n t r o l 11-18 (p.61) 5. Existence of "small primary work groups" Yes (p.60) 6. Rati o of supervisory t o non-supervisory personnel 1:5-9 (p.55) 7- R a t i o of d i r e c t t o i n d i r e c t workers 1:1 (pp.59-60) 8. Middle management span of c o n t r o l r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l (p.53) 9. Length of management communication l i n e r e l a t i v e l y long (p.53) 10. P r a c t i c e of management by committee common (p.53) 11. T e c h n i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of manage-ment and su p e r v i s o r s high r e l a t i v e e s p e c i a l l y t o Category I I t e c h -nology (pp.57-58) 12. Source of t e c h n i c a l competence of sup e r v i s o r s extensive formal or academic t r a i n ing (pp.57-58) 13. Required t e c h n i c a l competence of sup e r v i s o r s r e l a t i v e l y high (PP .57, 65, 149) 14. R e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n of s k i l l e d t o u n s k i l l e d workers midway between t h a t found i n Categories I & I I technology (pp.61-62) . 15. Focus of s k i l l e d workers' a c t i v i t i e s both d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t l a b o r (pp.61-63) 50 CHART I V — c o n t i n u e d S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c 16. A b i l i t y of d i r e c t l a b o r t o i n f l u e n c e the q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of production 17 Existence of formal production con-t r o l systems 18. Existence of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s 19. Sense of urgency of production 20. Type of communications regarding production 21. Production schedules based on 22. Planning and time p e r s p e c t i v e of top management 23. Perceived s e c u r i t y of employment f o r d i r e c t workers 24. Interdependence of task f u n c t i o n s among marketing (M), production (P) and development (D) 25. Order of manufacturing c y c l e 26. Interdepartmental r e l a t i o n s 27. Frequency of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l problems 28. Type of management of more success-f u l f i r m s P o t e n t i a l l y very high (pp.62-63) b u i l t - i n ; v i r t u a l l y automatic; not a source of c o n f l i c t between s t a f f and l i n e (pp .66, 152) few & not e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from l i n e super-v i s o r s ; no i d e o l o g -i c a l c o n f l i c t w i t h l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s (p.65) low (p.65) mainly v e r b a l (p.66) long-range orders (p.66) very long range (p.152) very high (pp.149, 152) minimal (p.153) D—}M~*P (p. 128) f a i r l y good (pp.147,150,152) low (p . l53) 3 "organic" (p.64) Source: Joan Woodward, I n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n : Theory and P r a c t i c e (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965). 51 c o n t r i b u t i v e nature of s p e c i a l knowledge and experience t o the common task of the e n t e r p r i s e ; (2) i n d i v i d u a l tasks set by the t o t a l s i t u a t i o n of the e n t e r p r i s e ; (3) adjustment and c o n t i n u a l r e d e f i n i t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l t a s k s through i n t e r -a c t i o n s w i t h others; (4) ad hoc l o c a t i o n of c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y based upon e x p e r t i s e ; (5) l a t e r a l r a t h e r than v e r t i c a l com-munications predominating; and (6) communication of advice and i n f o r m a t i o n r a t h e r than i n s t r u c t i o n s and decisions.^" As was recognized i n the f o r u m l a t i o n of s p e c i f i c hypotheses f o r Category I technology, i f organic management processes are r e a l i z e d i n p r a c t i c e under continuous-process technology, then the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i s allowed a f a i r l y wide area of d i s c r e t i o n over the performance of a c t i v i t i e s and h i s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h others. To employ a more o p e r a t i o n a l phraseology, i t i s i n -f e r r e d t h a t , as a consequence of the degree of organic manage-ment processes r e a l i z e d i n continuous-process technology, e n t e r p r i s e o r g a n i z a t i o n tends t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by: 1. F a i r l y f l e x i b l e , d e t a i l e d production g u i d e l i n e s coming t o the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r from l i n e s u p e r i o r s and p o s s i b l y from the few s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s (see Chart I I I above) which may be found i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n . 2. Two-way i n i t i a t i o n of t a s k - o r i e n t e d i n t e r a c t i o n i n v o l v -i n g the d i r e c t ( s k i l l e d ) production workers and t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r . 3. Extensive "feedback" t o the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r from s k i l l e d d i r e c t production workers regarding t a s k -o r i e n t e d i n t e r a c t i o n s i n i t i a t e d e i t h e r d i r e c t l y by the s u p e r v i s o r , or i n d i r e c t l y by s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . 4. As a consequence of (a) the complexity of technology (Chart I I I ) and (b) the ease and f r e q u e n t l y v i r t u a l a u t o m a t i c i t y of formal porduction c o n t r o l systems (see Chart I I I ) — a heavy r e l i a n c e by a l l l e v e l s of management and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s upon the records and other i n f o r -mation generated i n the production planning and c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s . However, as a consequence of (b) above, plus organic management processes and items 1, 2, and 3 above, minimal c o n f l i c t a r i s i n g about production matters. 5. A high degree of volun t a r y and i n f o r m a l interdependence among, on the one hand f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s , and, on the other hand s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , s e n i o r l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s and d i r e c t production workers. 6. Generally a low sense of urgency of production e x p e r i -enced by a l l i n d i v i d u a l s , e s p e c i a l l y s k i l l e d d i r e c t workers and t h e i r f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s . When on oc-casion production c r i s e s a r i s e , i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s between workers and s u p e r v i s o r s w i l l not d e t e r i o r a t e g r e a t l y , g iven the existence of organic management processes. Chart I I I s p e c i f i e s a group of s t r u c t u r a l c o r r e l a t e s of continuous-process technology which may have s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r the development of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses. For example, 53 note the f a c t of a sm a l l span of f i r s t - l i n e s upervisory con-t r o l . ( I t i s the smallest of the three c a t e g o r i e s of t e c h -nology. ) The su p e r v i s o r d i r e c t s a s m a l l (primary) group of s k i l l e d d i r e c t production workers who are able t o e x e r c i s e considerable i n f l u e n c e over production, p a r t i c u l a r l y the q u a l i t y of production. The s c a r c i t y of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , or t h e i r l a c k of d i s t i n c t i o n from other management personnel, the tendency f o r production c o n t r o l t o be v i r t u a l l y b u i l t i n t o the productive system, and the high degree of t e c h n i c a l competence of s u p e r v i s o r s , imply the l a t t e r ' s p o t e n t i a l a b i l -i t y t o e x e r c i s e considerable i n f l u e n c e over production quan-t i t y and q u a l i t y . The presence of small primary groups of s k i l l e d workers, the low frequency of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l prob-lems, the l a r g e l y v e r b a l nature of communications, and the broad c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of organic processes of management, suggest t h a t the su p e r v i s o r enters i n t o frequent and casual i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates. From the p r a c t i c e of manage-ment by committee and the long l i n e of management communica-t i o n s , we i n f e r that i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s u p e r i o r s w i l l be frequent and r a t h e r formal i n nature. S p e c i f i c Hypotheses Supervisory a c t i v i t i e s (III-A-1) As a consequence of the foregoing observed and i n -f e r r e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r ' s work environment, the f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of supervisory a c t i v i t i e s under Category I I I technology are hypothesized. 1. A p p l i c a t i o n of t e c h n i c a l knowledge and the e x e r c i s e of t e c h n i c a l s k i l l . In response t o f a i r l y long-range production schedules the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r makes a f a i r l y narrow range of complex t e c h n i c a l d e c i s i o n s , or gi v e s t e c h n i c a l advice t o h i s subordinates, regarding the t e c h n i c a l s p e c i f i c a -t i o n s of the product t o be produced. Advises s u b o r d i -nates regarding t e c h n i c a l adjustments r e q u i r e d i n the process. I f and when c r i s e s occur, he seeks the te c h -n i c a l advice of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s and/or communicates t e c h n i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n s t o h i s subordinates. 2. Given the r e l a t i v e absence of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , the organic nature of management processes, and the auto-matic nature of production c o n t r o l s and r e p o r t i n g , the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r performs none of the a d m i n i s t r a -t i v e d u t i e s d e f i n e d i n Chapter I I I . At most he reviews p e r i o d i c production r e p o r t s as a means of monitoring the performance of h i s subordinates and the processes they c o n t r o l . 3. Because o f , and i n t e g r a l t o the performance of h i s t e c h -n i c a l a c t i v i t i e s , the su p e r v i s o r '-engages; i n f a c e - t o -face i n t e r a c t i o n s p r i m a r i l y w i t h subordinates. Frequency of performance of a c t i v i t i e s (III-A-2) The low sense of urgency of production; the r e l a t i v e l y long time and planning p e r s p e c t i v e of management; the ease of production c o n t r o l ; the existence of sm a l l primary work-groups r e s p o n s i b l e t o the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r — t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s u p e r v i s o r ' s work environment suggest t h a t a c t i v i t i e s c o n s i s t i n g of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h others w i l l occur most f r e q u e n t l y . The performance of t e c h n i c a l a c t i v i -t i e s under continuous process technology w i l l occur somewhat l e s s f r e q u e n t l y . Nature of i n t e r a c t i o n s The s p e c i f i c hypotheses under t h i s s e c t i o n f o l l o w from the preceding hypotheses. With subordinates ( I I I - B - l - a ) . I n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l be f a c e - t o - f a c e , v e r b a l and somewhat i n f o r m a l , that i s , not mainly t a s k - o r i e n t e d . Because of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of organic management processes, both described and hypothesized above, plus the g e n e r a l l y low sense of urgency of production and the absence of c o n f l i c t w i t h s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , i n t e r -a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates w i l l tend t o be r e l a x e d ; t h a t i s , devoid of c o n f l i c t over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . With the p o s s i b l e exception of c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n s , the t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e of both p a r t i e s w i l l a l l o w the i n t e r a c t i o n s t o be based upon the communica-t i o n of advice and i n f o r m a t i o n r a t h e r than e x p l i c i t i n s t r u c -t i o n s and d i r e c t i o n s . With s u p e r i o r s ( I I I - B - l - b ) . I t i s hypothesized t h a t , because of: (1) the r e l a t i v e l y long chain of management com-munication (2) the p r a c t i c e of management by committee (3) the long time and planning p e r s p e c t i v e of management, and 56 (4) the high degree of complexity of the technology, i n t e r -a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s l i n e s u p e r i o r s w i l l tend t o be f a c e - t o - f a c e , t a s k - o r i e n t e d , and g e n e r a l l y r e l a x e d ; t h a t i s , devoid of c o n f l i c t s over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e of both f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s and t h e i r s u p e r i o r s w i l l per-mit the i n t e r a c t i o n s t o be based upon the communication of advice and in f o r m a t i o n as w e l l as i n s t r u c t i o n s and d i r e c t i o n s . H o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s (with f e l l o w f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s ) ( I I I - B - l - c ) . The r e l a -t i v e l y h i g h l y complex nature of f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d continuous-process technology suggests the p r o b a b i l i t y that f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s w i l l enter i n t o i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h f e l l o w super-v i s o r s , e i t h e r along the work-flow or i n the maintenance s e c t i o n s of the e n t e r p r i s e . These i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l tend t o be t a s k - o r i e n t e d , and, given the nature of organic manage-ment processes, l a r g e l y devoid of c o n f l i c t over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The ease and v i r t u a l l y automatic nature of production c o n t r o l , plus the long time and planning p e r s p e c t i v e of management, suggest t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s w i l l be of very l i m i t e d importance, except p o s s i b l y i n periods of c r i s i s i n the pro-duct i o n process. To the extent t o which t h i s c l a s s of i n t e r -a c t i o n s occurs, i t w i l l be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by being devoid of 57 c o n f l i c t over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Mutual communi-c a t i o n of advice and in f o r m a t i o n w i l l be a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e of t h i s c l a s s of i n t e r a c t i o n s . Frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s The foregoing analyses and hypotheses suggest the f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding i n t e r a c t i o n f r e -quencies. With subordinates ( I I I - B ^ - a f r . I n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates w i l l be more frequent than f o r e i t h e r of the other two c l a s s e s of i n t e r -a c t i o n s . In comparison w i t h i n t e r a c t i o n frequencies i n e i t h e r of Category I or Category I I technology, the frequen-cy of i n t e r a c t i o n s between s u p e r v i s o r s and d i r e c t production workers w i l l be the gr e a t e s t i n Category I I I technology. With s u p e r i o r s ( I I I - B - 2 - b ) . The frequency of i n t e r -a c t i o n s between f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s and t h e i r l i n e supe-r i o r s w i l l be l e s s than the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates or p a r t i e s t o h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s . The frequency of s u p e r v i s o r - s u p e r i o r i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l be g r e a t e r i n Category I I I than i n Category I I technology, but s l i g h t l y l e s s than t h a t found i n Category I technology. H o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s ( I I I - B - 2 - c ) . The frequency of t h i s c l a s s of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l be mid-way between the frequencies noted i n the two preceding s e c t i o n s . In compari-son t o Category I I technology, the frequency of h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s i s hypothesized t o be l e s s i n Category I I I 58 production technology. The r e l a t i v e frequency of h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l be approximately the same i n Categories I and I I I technology, w i t h a p o s s i b l y g r e a t e r frequency i n continuous-process types of technology, where the complexity of the technology i s considerably g r e a t e r . Supervisory sentiments Toward subordinates ( I I I - C - 1 ) . Toward s u p e r i o r s ( I I I - C - 2 ) . Toward p a r t i e s i n h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s ( I I I -C-3)« As i n e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I technology, s e n t i -ments of supe r v i s o r s toward subordinates, s u p e r i o r s and p a r t i e s t o h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l tend t o be n e u t r a l t o f r i e n d l y i n tone. However, i n contrast t o Category I technology, these sentiments w i l l e x h i b i t a c e r t a i n amount of i n s t a b i l i t y over time due t o the major s i g n i f i c a n c e a t -tached t o production c r i s e s i n continuous-process technology. 59 FOOTNOTES ON CHAPTER I I I Joan Woodward, I n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n : Theory and P r a c t i c e (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1965), p. 23. Woodward defines "organic" management systems as being "more adaptable": jobs l o s e much of t h e i r formal d e f i n i t i o n , and communications up and down the h i e r a r c h y are more i n the nature of c o n s u l t a t i o n than the passing up of in f o r m a t i o n and the r e c e i v i n g of order s . " In the subsequent a n a l y s i s we u t i l i z e a s l i g h t l y more o p e r a t i o n a l concept of "organic" management processes. 2 Tom Burns and G.M. S t a l k e r , The Management of Innova-t i o n (London: Tavistock P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1961), pp. 121-122. 3 ^The foregoing c r i t e r i a s h a l l c o n s t i t u t e the d e f i n i -t i o n of " a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s . " "^Woodward, op. c i t . , p. 23. "'Mechanistic' systems are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r i g i d break down i n t o f u n c t i o n a l spe-c i a l i s m s , p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n of d u t i e s , r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and power, and a w e l l developed command h i e r a r c h y through which i n f o r m a t i o n f i l t e r s up and d e c i s i o n s and i n s t r u c t i o n s f l o w down." In the subsequent a n a l y s i s we u t i l i z e a somewhat more o p e r a t i o n a l concept of "mechanistic" management processes. ^Woodward, l o c . c i t . See footnote 1 of Chapter I I I f o r a d e f i n i t i o n of the concept of "organic" management processes. CHAPTER IV CASE STUDIES: CATEGORY I TECHNOLOGY In t r o d u c t i o n Chapter IV i s the f i r s t of three consecutive chapters devoted e n t i r e l y t o the p r e s e n t a t i o n of e m p i r i c a l data i n the form of case s t u d i e s . The chapter c o n s i s t s of two case s t u d i e s used t o demonstrate examples of the nature of f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r y r o l e demands and environmental character-i s t i c s under Category I technology. The cases have been e d i t e d i n order t o present only those data p e r t i n e n t t o t h i s a n a l y s i s . The sources of the case s t u d i e s w i l l be c i t e d i n i -t i a l l y i n conventional footnote form. T h e r e a f t e r , w i t h i n a given case, only page references w i l l be used t o i n d i c a t e those p o r t i o n s of the s t u d i e s u t i l i z e d i n the research. CASE NO. 1 "A Dyeing and Cleaning Plant Background 1. This i s a short account of the foremen's place i n a f i r m of dyers and cle a n e r s . The f i r m i s a sm a l l one, employing i n a l l about 400 people, of whom 250 are i n the works. The remaining 150 work i n shops belonging to the company, at which goods are r e c e i v e d from cus-tomers f o r c l e a n i n g and dyeing. In t h i s study we are concerned only w i t h the works, w i t h i t s 250 employees and t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s . 61 Factory Organization 2. Figure I I below portrays the management o r g a n i z a t i o n of the e n t e r p r i s e described i n Case No. 1. Company Secretary and r O f f i c e Manager J o i n t Managing D i r e c t o r (A) (Production) J o i n t Managing Director- (B) (Shop Branches) A s s i s t a n t General Manager Works Manager Foreman FIGURE I I MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATION (adapted from source: pp. 73-74) The A s s i s t a n t General Manager "has r e c e n t l y come on the scene. He i s r e s p o n s i b l e t o the Production D i r e c t o r and the Works Manager i s r e s p o n s i b l e t o him although at present, 62 as a newcomer, he i s a c t i n g r a t h e r as a s p e c i a l a s s i s t a n t t o the Production D i r e c t o r than as c o n t r o l l e r of production." In other words, the f a c t o r y w i l l u l t i m a t e l y have f o u r l e v e l s of management a u t h o r i t y i n s t e a d of i t s present three. The Managing D i r e c t o r f o r Production has had a great deal of experience i n the f a c t o r y , i n d i f f e r e n t manage-ment p o s i t i o n s , over the years, and has always been i n -t e r e s t e d i n the methods and processes and i n ways of im-proving them. . . . the Works Manager, the foremen and the other s u p e r v i s o r s have a l l been w i t h the company or the i n d u s t r y f o r many years. The Technology and the Foremen's Work 3. The procedure f o r the major part of the company's business, c l e a n i n g , can be simply described. Goods are c o l l e c t e d from the shop branches by van at n i g h t , and on a r r i v a l at the works are s o r t e d i n t o c a t e g o r i e s f o r c l e a n i n g . Those which i t i s i m p r a c t i c a b l e t o dry-clean u s u a l l y go d i r e c t from the s o r t i n g point t o the Wet-cleaning Department, though others are sent f o r wet-cleaning a f t e r having already been through the Dry-cleaning Department. A f t e r being d r i e d they pass t o the F i n i s h i n g Department f o r s p o t t i n g and p r e s s i n g and are then inspected and dispatched. The a r t i c l e s t o be dry-cleaned go s t r a i g h t t o the Dry-cleaning Department, and then, i n the same way, t o the F i n i s h i n g , I n s p e c t i o n , and Dispatch s e c t i o n s . Dry-cleaning department 4- The Dry-cleaning Department has c l e a n i n g machines, hydro-extractors and tumblers f o r d r y i n g . The work con-s i s t s almost e n t i r e l y of p u t t i n g the c l o t h e s , e t c . , i n t o the c l e a n i n g machines and then t r a n s f e r r i n g them t o the others i n t u r n . As the goods have p r e v i o u s l y been so r t e d according t o m a t e r i a l and c o l o u r , the work i s en-t i r e l y manual and r e q u i r e s no s k i l l or p a r t i c u l a r know-ledge on the part of the workers. 5. There are two s h i f t s working i n t h i s department, each c o n s i s t i n g of f o u r men under a charge-hand. The l a t t e r , who i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the work of the department, i s a l s o i n charge of the s o r t e r , who, however, r e q u i r e s l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n apart from being kept informed about what k i n d of work i s r e q u i r e d next. The department i s a busy one, f o r thousands of a r t i c l e s pass through i n a day and the charge-hand works on the job w i t h the other 63 men f o r a considerable amount of the s h i f t . He does, however, spend some of h i s time o r g a n i z i n g the work so t h a t the washing machines do not stand i d l e and he i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r such t h i n g s as maintaining the l e v e l of c l e a n i n g s p i r i t . He i s a l s o l i k e l y t o f i n d h i m s e l f i n -volved i n minor machine r e p a i r s and maintenance. He spends l i t t l e or no time a c t u a l l y s u p e r v i s i n g the work. 6. This work does not demand a great d e a l of s k i l l on the part of the s u p e r v i s o r and t h e r e f o r e there i s no foreman i n charge. At the same time i t does need a good dea l of p r a c t i c a l experience, p a r t i c u l a r l y of the machines used. The charge-hand on the day s h i f t , i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , has been wi t h the company f o r s i x t e e n years and h i s experience covers n e a r l y a l l the d i f f e r -ent kinds of work done i n the f a c t o r y . He has been i n the Dry-cleaning Department f o r n e a r l y t e n y e a r s , as charge-hand f o r the l a s t f i v e . He i s paid on the same ba s i s as the ordinary operators i n h i s department, i . e . according t o the amount of work handled i n . a week, w i t h a f l a t r a t e a d d i t i o n of fivepence an h o u r . 0 Wet-cleaning department 7. The Wet-cleaning Department deals w i t h two c a t e g o r i e s of work: th a t which cannot be dry-cleaned because of i t s nature, and t h a t which does not respond t o d r y - c l e a n i n g , and i s t h e r e f o r e sent on f o r wet-cleaning. A r t i c l e s a r r i v e i n the department, mostly from the s o r t e r s , w i t h coloured l a b e l s on them i n d i c a t i n g the degrees of p r i o r -i t y they should r e c e i v e . They are s o r t e d i n t o cate-g o r i e s according t o the treatment t o be g i v e n . 8. The a c t u a l c l e a n i n g i s done e i t h e r by hand or by ma-chine, and i n some cases by a combination of the two. There i s a considerable v a r i e t y of p o s s i b l e treatment i n the way of r i n s e s and d r y i n g methods. The workers number eight w i t h an a d d i t i o n a l two men i n a small sec-t i o n devoted t o carpet c l e a n i n g . The equipment c o n s i s t s of washing machines, h y d r o - e x t r a c t o r s , tumblers and other apparatus f o r d r y i n g . In t h i s department, the system of wage-payment depends again on the amount of output and i s e s s e n t i a l l y a group bonus p l a n . 9 . There i s a foreman i n charge and h i s job i s p r i n c i -p a l l y one of o r g a n i z i n g the production f l o w i n the de-partment , not only t o keep the work going but a l s o t o make sure that the c o r r e c t treatment i s given t o the d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s of goods i n v o l v e d . He s o r t s the a r t i c l e s h i m s e l f . A l l t h i s means tha t he must be able t o recognize d i f f e r e n t f a b r i c types and know the e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t kinds of treatment upon them. He needs t o be able t o estimate the l i k e l i h o o d of success i n wet-c l e a n i n g a p a r t i c u l a r garment, and weigh t h i s up against 64 the p r o b a b i l i t y of i t s being u t t e r l y s p o i l e d i f the pro-cess f a i l s . He must have i n mind such t h i n g s as chances of coats s h r i n k i n g , or s k i r t s dropping, or colours run-ning. He must remember t h a t rayon l o s e s h a l f i t s s t r e n g t h when wet, and must be c a r e f u l t o spot t h a t a garment has padding i n i t and so cannot go i n t o the ma-chines. The present foreman has been i n h i s p o s i t i o n f o r the l a s t twenty years, having worked p r e v i o u s l y i n the Wet-cleaning Department of another firm.7 The dyehouse 10. For a number of reasons, only a very s m a l l amount of dyeing i s undertaken these days, and the Dyehouse em-ploys only three workers, w i t h a foreman i n charge. The l a t t e r f s job i s mainly a t e c h n i c a l one; he examines goods sent f o r dyeing and decides on the appropriate treatment. He a l s o has t o advise on the l i k e l i h o o d of s u c c e s s f u l dyeing of goods that are sent from the shops i n d o u b t f u l cases f o r h i s o p i n i o n . A l l t h i s r e q u i r e s a considerable knowledge of f a b r i c s and f i b r e s and p a r t i c u l a r l y of the e f f e c t s on them of b o i l i n g . The foreman's p o s i t i o n i s , from the t e c h n i c a l point of view, a very r e s p o n s i b l e one; present-day f a b r i c s w i t h t h e i r mixtures of n a t u r a l and s y n t h e t i c f i b r e s are d i f f i c u l t t o dye s u c c e s s f u l l y and the r i s k of f a i l u r e i s o f t e n high. The foreman of the Dyehouse gained h i s knowledge of the trade at another company, and came to h i s present p o s i t i o n as an already experienced man during the Second World War. F i n i s h i n g department LL. A f t e r goods have been cleaned they are sent t o the F i n i s h i n g Department where they are prepared f o r d i s -patch t o the shops. The two p r i n c i p a l operations i n the department are s p o t t i n g and p r e s s i n g . Spotting i n v o l v e s examining garments and removing any s m a l l marks l e f t on them a f t e r they have been through c l e a n i n g processes. There i s one group of people engaged on t h i s work. A f t e r the s p o t t i n g the garments are d i s t r i b u t e d by a s e r v i c e operator among the P r e s s i n g S e c t i o n , which c o n s i s t s of a number of small groups, each concentrating on a d i f f e r e n t type of f i n i s h i n g process. The pressers and s p o t t e r s are under the charge of the F i n i s h i n g Department foreman, who a l s o c o n t r o l s two smaller s e c t i o n s , c l e a n i n g household goods and h a t s , which are regarded as part of the F i n i s h -i n g Department. 12. I t i s t h i s foreman who came t o act as a k i n d of unof-f i c i a l c o - o r d i n a t o r of the work of the f a c t o r y . He has been w i t h the f i r m f o r a great many yea r s , coming t o i t when he was eighteen. He has been charge-hand i n the Dry-cleaning Department, foreman of the S p o t t i n g S e c t i o n , 65 and subsequently of the P r e s s i n g S e c t i o n i n a d d i t i o n . He has added t o h i s great amount of p r a c t i c a l experience by studying the technology of c l e a n i n g and dyeing at a l o c a l i n s t i t u t e . When the previous Works Manager l e f t more than two years ago i t f e l l t o him t o co-ordinate the work, f i r s t of h i s department and of those s e c t i o n s most c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o i t , and subsequently of a l l the production departments. His p o s i t i o n as Works Manager has now been f o r m a l l y recognized, though he continues g s t i l l i n h i s r o l e of foreman of the F i n i s h i n g Department. S i l k s p o t t i n g 13. In t h i s s e c t i o n there are a f o r e l a d y and f o u r g i r l s . They do the s p o t t i n g of a l l s i l k or i m i t a t i o n s i l k gar-ments and a l l white garments. The f o r e l a d y spends a good deal of her time checking over and s o r t i n g goods as they a r r i v e i n t r o l l e y s , p u t t i n g aside any that r e -qui r e r e c l e a n i n g , or which have been dry-cleaned and r e q u i r e wet-cleaning. She supervises the work of her g i r l s and when time permits checks what they have done. 14. The f o r e l a d y has been w i t h the company s i n c e the mid-' t h i r t i e s , having worked p r e v i o u s l y at another f i r m as a s p o t t e r . She became f o r e l a d y 'longer ago than I could remember' and has had a vast amount of experience which allows her t o advise when a d d i t i o n a l treatment, other than simple s p o t t i n g , i s necessary f o r garments t h a t have been cleaned. Her r o l e as checker and a d v i s e r i s , i n f a c t , a more important s i d e of her work than her supervisory f u n c t i o n . Repairs department 15. This department undertakes a l t e r a t i o n s and r e p a i r s at the request of customers. There i s a f o r e l a d y w i t h a f a i r -l y Tlarge work-force, i n c l u d i n g some p a r t - t i m e r s , who i s l e f t very much on her own t o run the s e c t i o n . Apart from a d v i s i n g on r e p a i r s and s u p e r v i s i n g and checking work, she keeps records of work done f o r c o s t i n g pur-poses, and of the work of d i f f e r e n t operators f o r wage purposes. I t i s s k i l l e d work i n t h i s department and one of the f o r e l a d y ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i s f o r the t r a i n i n g of new workers, who are f o r the most part inexperienced when they come. The workers range i n age from g i r l s not long out of school t o an o l d lady over seventy. The f o r e l a d y s t a r t e d w i t h the company twenty years ago as a shop a s s i s t a n t , becoming a shop manageress and l a t e r s u p e r v i s o r over s e v e r a l shop-branches before t r a n s f e r -r i n g t o her present job i n 1940. She i s , i n f a c t , one of the few people on the production s i d e who has had experience i n the shops and i s t h e r e f o r e i n a p o s i t i o n to appreciate some of the d i f f i c u l t i e s of d e a l i n g w i t h customers f a c e - t o - f a c e . 66 I n s p e c t i o n department 16. The I n s p e c t i o n Department, which employs women and i s under the c o n t r o l of a Chief Inspector, i s regarded as one of the most important departments i n the works. A l l a r t i c l e s come here f o r examination and those which do not meet the r e q u i r e d standard are returned f o r f u r t h e r processing. The department has a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on operators i n other p a r t s of the f a c t o r y , as work which does not pass i n s p e c t i o n i s returned t o the people r e -s p o n s i b l e , who must re-do i t . The Chief Inspector spends some of her time i n feeding work t o the inspec-t o r s and seeing t h a t they maintain a reasonable r a t e of i n s p e c t i o n , and some of i t i n checking t h e i r work. She a l s o sees t o the s o r t i n g and removal of garments t o the point of d i s p a t c h . She i s h e r s e l f an ex-inspector.9 I n v e s t i g a t i o n department 17. The I n v e s t i g a t i o n Department deals w i t h queries and complaints from the shops and from customers about a r t i -c l e s overdue, missing or damaged. I t s work i n v o l v e s searching f o r garments which have gone a s t r a y i n the f a c t o r y or which may have been dispatched t o the wrong branch i n e r r o r , w r i t i n g l e t t e r s of explanation or a p o l -ogy, arranging f o r c l a i m forms t o be completed and com-pensation s e t t l e d , and d e a l i n g w i t h queries on the t e l e -phone. The s t a f f of three i s under the c o n t r o l of a lady who has had experience both i n t h i s f a c t o r y and w i t h another f i r m . Her r e l a t i o n s w i t h the production s e c t i o n s are i n f o r m a l and f r i e n d l y ; co-operation i n f i n d i n g missing a r t i c l e s i s r e a d i l y given by the f a c t o r y people, who regard her department as one that i s simply doing another necessary job. The Demands of S u p e r v i s i o n Except i n the F i n i s h i n g Department the number of workers under the c o n t r o l of any s u p e r v i s o r i n t h i s f a c t o r y i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l . The importance of a s u p e r v i s o r ' s j o b , however, should not be assessed s o l e l y i n terms of the number of workers he i s i n charge of or the amount of work done i n h i s department. The type of work done must a l s o be taken i n t o account. Here, f o r i n s t a n c e , though i t handles a comparatively small number of a r t i c l e s , the Wet-cleaning Department g i v e s a great d e a l of i n d i v i d u a l a t t e n t i o n t o them. Treatments must be v a r i e d according t o the types of f a b r i c s and colours and the foreman spends a great deal of time d e c i d i n g and a d v i s i n g on i n -d i v i d u a l treatments. The Dry-cleaning Department, how-ever, does work which i s much more r e p e t i t i v e , w i t h l i t t l e m o d i f i c a t i o n of the standard process necessary or p o s s i b l e . In t h i s department i t has not been found 67 necessary t o have a foreman and there i s a working charge-hand i n c o n t r o l of each shift.1° 18. Except i n the Dry-cleaning Department, there are two important requirements f o r the s u p e r v i s o r i n t h i s f a c -t o r y : o r g a n i z i n g a b i l i t y and an expert knowledge of the work done i n h i s department. In the f i r s t place he must be able t o administer h i s department so as t o keep the f l o w of work running smoothly w i t h a l l machines and workers employed t o the best advantage. This does not i n v o l v e a l o t of 'paper work' or any long-term planning but i t does r e q u i r e the a b i l i t y t o t h i n k ahead on a short-term b a s i s , t o adapt t o the d i f f e r e n t requirements of each day. In the second place he must be the t e c h n i -c a l expert and a d v i s e r f o r h i s department. The wet-cl e a n i n g foreman, f o r i n s t a n c e , must be able t o say whether a p a r t i c u l a r a r t i c l e i s l i k e l y t o wet-clean suc-c e s s f u l l y ; the f o r e l a d y i n charge of s i l k s p o t t i n g must be able t o decide whether a garment which i s s t i l l s t a i n e d when i t comes t o her department should be r e -processed. This k i n d of expertness r e q u i r e s a great deal of f i r s t - h a n d experience w i t h the work. 19. There a r e , of course, other f u n c t i o n s f o r the super-v i s o r s t o perform. They are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the t r a i n -i n g of new employees coming i n t o t h e i r departments. They are r e s p o n s i b l e a l s o f o r the engagement of s t a f f f o r t h e i r departments, though i n t h i s case a l l a p p l i -cants are seen f i r s t and screened by the F i n i s h i n g De-partment foreman, now Works Manager, and only the most l i k e l y ones sent on t o be seen and accepted or r e j e c t e d by the foremen. F i n a l l y they are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the work and d i s c i p l i n e of those i n t h e i r departments. This l a s t f u n c t i o n does not f i g u r e prominently, as i t i s the s o r t of f a c t o r y where the workers know what t h e i r jobs are and get on w i t h them without close s u p e r v i s i o n . A system of payment by r e s u l t s plays i t s part i n t h i s and indeed emphasizes the importance of the s u p e r v i s o r as an a d m i n i s t r a t o r . For the system t o run smoothly the supply of work to operators needs t o be continuous and the s u p e r v i s o r must organize t h i n g s so t h a t t h i s i s the case. As we have seen, the I n s p e c t i o n Department con-t r o l s standards of q u a l i t y ; i n d i v i d u a l workers have to re-do work which i s not up t o standard, and t h e i r bonus earnings are adversely a f f e c t e d when garments are r e -turned t o them. 20. The question of s e l e c t i o n and t r a i n i n g of s u p e r v i s o r s c a l l s f o r l i t t l e comment. With the small numbers i n -volved the occasion f o r r e p l a c i n g a s u p e r v i s o r a r i s e s very r a r e l y . There i s no formal scheme of t r a i n i n g f o r s u p e r v i s o r s ; emphasis i s placed r a t h e r on p i c k i n g the r i g h t people f o r the work on the assumption that they can then be r e l i e d upon t o develop the necessary super-v i s o r y s k i l l s i n t h e i r own way. The question of t e c h -68 n i c a l t r a i n i n g f o r s u p e r v i s o r s does not a r i s e , as newly-appointed s u p e r v i s o r s are i n v a r i a b l y h i g h l y experienced i n the work they are t o c o n t r o l . H A t t i t u d e s of the Supervisors While the foremen i n t h i s f a c t o r y spend a consider-able part of t h e i r time h e l p i n g 'on the job,' they do have c e r t a i n signs of s t a t u s which d i s t i n g u i s h them from the ordinary operators. They are given an e x t r a week's h o l i d a y , they have sic k n e s s pay b e n e f i t s and they do not clock on and o f f . As f a r as t h e i r pay i s concerned, the p o s i t i o n i s that the s u p e r v i s o r s are on a f l a t r a t e , which v a r i e s from one i n d i v i d u a l t o an-other but which places a l l of them, as a r u l e , above the earnings of those they are i n charge of. I t must be noted t h a t the work of the f a c t o r y i s t o some extent seasonal, so the few occasions on which a good worker's pay exceeds h i s s u p e r v i s o r ' s wage are more than o f f s e t by the weeks of the ' o f f season. There i s no pension, but a g r a t u i t y on retirement i s payable t o s u p e r v i s o r s at the d i s c r e t i o n of the d i r e c t o r s . 2 1 . The s u p e r v i s o r s are s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r p o s i t i o n . They are l a r g e l y independent, and f r e e t o run t h e i r de-partments as they t h i n k f i t . They do not need t o have much contact w i t h managers as there are no problems of planning, or raw m a t e r i a l , t o be discussed w i t h them, and the s u p e r v i s o r i s the t e c h n i c a l expert i n h i s f i e l d and makes t e c h n i c a l d e c i s i o n s f o r h i m s e l f . The o r g a n i -z a t i o n i s an i n f o r m a l one; s u p e r v i s o r s are not sepa-r a t e d from top management by long l i n e s of c o n t r o l , and they and the managers have worked together long enough to know each other extremely w e l l . The s u p e r v i s o r s ' jobs have not changed very much over the years, and so t h e i r considerable experience remains r e l e v a n t today. Any problems that do a r i s e they can d i s c u s s w i t h the Works Manager, whom they accepted as co-ordinator be-f o r e he was f o r m a l l y appointed t o h i s present p o s i t i o n . 2 2 . R e l a t i o n s between su p e r v i s o r s and t h e i r workers have already been touched upon. They ar e , f o r the most part, very easy and f r i e n d l y , w i t h the s u p e r v i s o r having a l -ways i n the back of h i s or her mind th a t i t w i l l be a t r i c k y job t o f i n d s u i t a b l e replacements f o r any workers who are allowed t o leave where t h i s could be prevented. For the most part r e l a t i o n s between supe r v i s o r s are a l s o good. In a s m a l l , s t a b l e group l i k e t h i s , whose members have known each other f o r many years, g o o d - w i l l and t a c t overcome the minor d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t a r i s e at times i n r e l a t i o n s between them. 2 3 . In f a c t , w h i l e a c e r t a i n amount of co-operation be-tween the f a c t o r y departments i s necessary, the work of 6 9 one does not a f f e c t t h a t of another to any great extent. Very much more does the work of a l l departments a f f e c t the company's shops, and v i c e versa. There are many ways i n which the shops can help the f a c t o r y : by c l o s e l y i n s p e c t i n g a l l a r t i c l e s r e c e i v e d and noting t e a r s , e t c . , by c l e a r l y l a b e l l i n g a l l such t h i n g s as b e l t s t h a t are l i k e l y t o become separated from garments, and so on. For t h e i r p a r t , the f a c t o r y people can help or hinder c o n s i d e r a b l y the work of the shops. At present, n e i t h e r seems t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y aware of the d i f f i c u l t i e s of the other; the f a c t o r y people do not have t o reason w i t h angry customers f a c e - t o - f a c e and the shop people do not know of the t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h some of the treatments they recommend t o customers. This company i s not, of course, the only one t o have t h i s p a r t i c u l a r problem; t o some extent i t i s i n e v i t a b l e i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h i s k i n d , w i t h i t s separate system of c o n t r o l f o r f a c t o r y and s h o p s . 1 2 Conclusion 2 4 . This i s a study of the s u p e r v i s o r s of a small f i r m of cleaners and dyers. In t h i s case the s u p e r v i s o r s are i n charge of v a r y i n g numbers of operators and of d i f -f e r e n t kinds of work. By and l a r g e , they run t h e i r own shops: they are t h e i r own t e c h n i c a l experts, they do not have t o consult w i t h others about p l a n s , or raw m a t e r i a l s . T h e ir t e c h n i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s are heavy, and t h e i r p o s i t i o n r e q u i r e s a great deal of p r a c t i c a l experience of the work they c o n t r o l . 2 5 - The main importance of s u p e r v i s o r s i n t h i s k i n d of f i r m i s t h a t they are d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e , t o a very great extent, f o r the f i r m ' s r e p u t a t i o n w i t h i t s cus-tomers. Products which are not up t o standard cannot be 'scrapped', and so the need f o r t e c h n i c a l compe-tence and years of p r a c t i c a l experience on the part of the s u p e r v i s o r s i s of p a r t i c u l a r importance i n t h i s i n d u s t r y . 1 3 CASE NO. 2 ""An E l e c t r i c a l Engineering Works" Background and Technology 1 . This i s an account of the place occupied by the foremen i n a company about 600 strong engaged i n the manufac-tu r e of e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t . 1 5 70 2. Type of production i n e a r l y years [ f i f t y years ago] set the p a t t e r n f o r what was t o f o l l o w . Thus between 1915 and 1919 the company was engaged e n t i r e l y on con-t r a c t work f o r other o r g a n i z a t i o n s , working t o i n d i v i -dual orders f o r r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s , and t h i s type of work has continued t o be a major part of production.1° 3. Following the post-war slump of 1949, "a gradual ex-pansion occurred . . . and the t o t a l amount of work i n hand 17 became gr e a t e r than i n any other peace-time p e r i o d . " 4. The company has always manufactured e l e c t r i c a l equip-ment such as generators, switchgear and s m a l l - s i z e d e l e c t r i c motors. . . . There i s a l s o a c e r t a i n amount of sub-contract machining. Because the company i s engaged i n a very competitive f i e l d and among i t s r i v a l s i s a number of much l a r g e r mass-producing concerns, i t has tended t o s p e c i a l i z e i n the production of motors of a s l i g h t l y non-standard type. Since many of the orders are f o r small numbers only, production c o n s i s t s t o some extent i n small l o t s of orders of d i f f e r e n t types. There are a l s o long-term orders, so t h a t t o t a l produc-t i o n c o n s i s t s p a r t l y of long-term contract work and p a r t l y of orders f o r small numbers of s p e c i a l designs and types.18 5. Figure I I I below portrays the management o r g a n i z a t i o n of the e n t e r p r i s e discussed i n t h i s case. The Management Organization The managing d i r e c t o r 6. Of the two working d i r e c t o r s , only the Managing D i r e c -t o r d i r e c t l y concerns t h i s study. He i s c l o s e l y i n touch w i t h production and employees through the Works and Per-sonnel Managers. . . . [He] has c o n t r o l l e d the company from the days when i t employed 175 or so workers . . . u n t i l today when i t has 600-odd employees. I t i s only n a t u r a l t o expect t h a t a f t e r n e a r l y twenty years a man-aging d i r e c t o r w i l l have impressed h i s own philosophy of management on a company, e s p e c i a l l y when, as i n t h i s case, i t has grown and prospered under h i s d i r e c t i o n . Leaving aside matters of company p o l i c y and t e c h n i c a l development f o r which he has had r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and c o n s i d e r i n g only h i s views on management, i t may be s a i d t h a t t h i s Manag-ing D i r e c t o r has always b e l i e v e d that a company has a Board of D i r e c t o r s Managing D i r e c t o r Technical D i r e c t o r Personnel Manager Sales Manager Works Manager Chief Designer Chief Draughts-man Head of Test Dept. Accountant Buyer of M a t e r i a l s Foremen FIGURE I I I ^ THE MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATION (adapted from source: p. 19) 72 d e f i n i t e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y towards i t s workers. He has always aimed t o encourage a f a m i l y f e e l i n g i n the f i r m , t o make everyone f e e l t h a t they are thought of as i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h an i n t e r e s t i n the company and i t s a f -f a i r s , and not simply as labour which can be h i r e d or f i r e d t o s u i t the convenience of the moment and w i t h no c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the e f f e c t t h i s may have on t h e i r l i v e s . 7. Two e f f e c t s of t h i s manner of t h i n k i n g may be i n -stanced. In l i n e w i t h the d e s i r e t o t r e a t a l l workers as r e s p o n s i b l e i n d i v i d u a l s , there i s a determination f i r s t t o have as few r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s as p o s s i b l e , and secondly, t o a l l o w anyone access t o top management. Each employee of the company knows that he can have an i n t e r v i e w w i t h the Managing D i r e c t o r , i f he wishes t o see him. 8. The Managing D i r e c t o r i s i n c l o s e tough w i t h the works s i d e of the business not only through h i s contact w i t h the Works and Personnel Managers, but a l s o by means of h i s d a i l y walk around the works and h i s c h a i r -manship of the Works Advisory Committee [the labour-management works c o u n c i l ] . Perhaps he i s more c l o s e l y concerned w i t h the d e t a i l of what i s going on than would be the case w i t h other men i n h i s p o s i t i o n ; . . . . . His intense i n t e r e s t i n the work of the company and i n i t s people has continued as the company has grown.19 The works and personnel managers 9. Responsible t o the Managing D i r e c t o r f o r production i s the Works Manager. He and h i s a s s i s t a n t are both p r o f e s s i o n a l engineers who have been w i t h the company i n t h e i r present c a p a c i t i e s s i n c e j u s t before the war, and so have l i v e d through the major p e r i o d of company growth. At the r i s k of o v e r - s i m p l i f y i n g the p i c t u r e , i t can be s a i d t h a t the Works Manager h i m s e l f i s p r i n -c i p a l l y concerned w i t h the t e c h n i c a l side of the pro-d u c t i o n work, l e a v i n g f a c t o r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n l a r g e l y t o the A s s i s t a n t Works Manager. Thus the Works Manag-er w i l l be most o f t e n found i n one of the shops, t a l k -i ng over and suggesting s o l u t i o n s t o a d i f f i c u l t y caused by some t e c h n i c a l problem. The A s s i s t a n t Works Manager, on the other hand, i s concerned w i t h produc-t i o n c o n t r o l and progress, p l a n t and b u i l d i n g mainte-nance and so on. 10. The Personnel Manager i s r e s p o n s i b l e t o the Manag-ing D i r e c t o r f o r engaging and d i s m i s s i n g s t a f f , f i x i n g r a t e s of pay, arranging merit i n c r e a s e s , and d e a l i n g w i t h any personal d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t may be brought t o him. He a l s o plays a major part i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n of sports and s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n the company, 73 and i n a d d i t i o n has r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , j o i n t l y w i t h the Accountant, f o r packing and t r a n s p o r t and the main f a c t o r y s t o r e s . He . . . j o i n e d the f i r m as a youth j u s t before the war and [has] been given a f u l l e n g i-neering t r a i n i n g . . . .20 The Workers and the Factory Atmosphere 11. Something should be s a i d of the general atmosphere i n the f a c t o r y . . . . the general atmosphere i s an ex-tremely happy one. A number of p o s s i b l e reasons f o r t h i s can be suggested: f i r s t the same team of managers and most of the foremen have l i v e d through the expan-s i o n years together, and so the p o l i c y has had time t o take root and grow as the f i r m has grown; secondly r e -l a t i o n s between management and union r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s — both i n f o r m a l l y and at J o i n t C o n s u l t a t i o n meetings i n which each department i s represented by i t s shop stew-a r d — a r e on the whole f r i e n d l y ; t h i r d l y , there i s the d e l i b e r a t e i n f o r m a l i t y of the o r g a n i z a t i o n , and the r e c o g n i t i o n of each employee as an i n d i v i d u a l of im-portance i n h i s own r i g h t . 12. The company [has] a s o l i d core of workers who have been w i t h i t f o r over f i f t e e n years or more, but w i t h the expansion of recent years these represent a s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n of the whole than they d i d . Most of them are s k i l l e d men, and the present aim i s t o en-l a r g e the core, f o r , l i k e a l l f i r m s , t h i s one wishes t o f e e l t h a t i t can depend on a few workers, p a r t i c u -l a r l y s k i l l e d men, through any change. However, i t i s being found extremely d i f f i c u l t t o get s u i t a b l e s k i l l e d men f o r the production shops and any a d d i t i o n t o the production s t r e n g t h can only be made by the recruitment of s e m i - s k i l l e d or u n t r a i n e d personnel. . . . t h i s a f -f e c t s the foreman's job and makes i t more d i f f i c u l t than i n former years. 13. There i s a shortage of s k i l l e d workers i n the area, . . . . For the s k i l l e d labour that i s a v a i l a b l e there i s acute competition between the v a r i o u s f i r m s R e l a t i o n s between management and workers are such that there are no hard f e e l i n g s when good workers leave and they are u s u a l l y re-engaged i f they wish t o r e t u r n , as they q u i t e o f t e n do Despite the d i f f i c u l t labour p o s i t i o n i n the d i s t r i c t , however, the turnover i n t h i s f i r m i s no more than the average f o r the i n d u s t r y . 14. We come now t o the eleven foremen and the jobs they perform, t h e i r a t t i t u d e s t o t h e i r work, to t h e i r c o l -leagues and t h e i r managers, and how they f i t i n t o the framework of management i n t h i s company.21 74 The Foreman's Background 15. Most of them have been w i t h the company f o r at l e a s t f i f t e e n y ears, having p r e v i o u s l y served a p p r e n t i c e s h i p s i n e i t h e r mechanical or e l e c t r i c a l engineering. The c a s e - h i s t o r y of one of them, Mr. X, i s f a i r l y t y p i c a l of the group. 16. Mr. X i s now f o r t y - s e v e n years o l d , and has l i v e d most of h i s l i f e w i t h i n a few miles of h i s present job. When he l e f t school at the age of fourteen he went t o work i n a f i r m of e l e c t r i c a l engineers, and obtained an a p p r e n t i c e s h i p . He served h i s time, and then con-t i n u e d t o work f o r the f i r m i n h i s t r a d e . . . ., Mr. X obtained employment w i t h h i s present company i n 1937, working i n a trade c l o s e l y s i m i l a r t o h i s own. I t was at about t h i s time that the company's expansion began and that the present management team took over. Then came the war-time increase i n numbers, w i t h the neces-s i t y of i n c r e a s i n g the number of departments and i n consequence the number of foremen. In 1940 Mr. X was appointed as a foreman, and he has h e l d h i s p o s i t i o n ever s i n c e . 17. I t w i l l be seen t h a t Mr. X i s a man who has been a l l h i s working l i f e i n v o l v e d w i t h the k i n d of work which he i s now s u p e r v i s i n g , having served an a p p r e n t i c e s h i p and worked f o r a p e r i o d as a craftsman. He has had no f u r t h e r education s i n c e he l e f t school except f o r the t e c h n i c a l part of h i s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p , nor d i d he have any t r a i n i n g f o r h i s work as a foreman. He was ap-pointed because he was a good workman who, i t was f e l t , would be able t o stand up t o the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n -volved i n a s u p e r v i s o r y p o s i t i o n and who showed signs of possessing the l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s required.22 The Foreman's Work 18. The foreman's work can be considered as c o n s i s t i n g of t e c h n i c a l , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and s u p e r v i s o r y d u t i e s . . . T e c h n i c a l d u t i e s 19. In t h i s , as i n other f i r m s , the t e c h n i c a l s i d e of the foreman's work has changed considerably over the years. In e a r l i e r days the foreman of t h i s company was t o l d what work was t o be done i n h i s shop and he then had t o work out the best way of doing i t . He had t o consider work methods from the p o i n t s of view of q u a l i t y of work, and economy of m a t e r i a l and time. I t was u s u a l l y up t o him t o decide the order i n which jobs and operations had t o be done. Today, much of t h i s i s done f o r him by s p e c i a l i s t departments. The Progress 7 5 Department l a y s down the sequence of the operations on a p a r t i c u l a r job and says when they are t o be done. The Planning Department p r e s c r i b e s the methods to be used. But however cut and d r i e d t h i s sounds i n theory, i t does not mean tha t i n p r a c t i c e the foreman has l i t t l e t e c h n i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y today. He i s s t i l l the man on the spot, the man of p r a c t i c a l experience, and the f a c t t h a t the Planning Department decides on methods does not r e l i e v e him of the n e c e s s i t y t o consider t h e i r d e c i s i o n s very c a r e f u l l y , t o c r i t i c i z e them when necessary and take steps t o see t h a t jobs are done i n the most economi-c a l ways. He w i l l , i n f a c t , very o f t e n be consulted on any matter out of the ordinary before the Planning De-partment decides on the methods. His experience and knowledge a l s o play a part i n e s t a b l i s h i n g piece r a t e s f o r j o b s — m a t t e r s i n dispute w i l l be thrashed out by the f i x e r s , the planners and the foreman. 2 0 . The growth of s p e c i a l i s t departments has meant th a t there has been a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s k i l l and a change i n the complexity of the work of the production departments. P r e v i o u s l y the s k i l l e d workers were a l l engaged on pro-duction work, under the c o n t r o l of the various shop f o r e -men. Today many of them are i n the Planning Department, the Tool-room, and I n s p e c t i o n s e c t i o n s , and t h e i r work makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r the a c t u a l production work t o be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y done by l e s s s k i l l e d people. For the foreman's p a r t , t h i s means tha t he i s now s u p e r v i s i n g many more s e m i - s k i l l e d and u n s k i l l e d workers on simpler jobs. He has l e s s planning t o do but he has t o do more t r a i n i n g of new a d u l t workers, as the work s t i l l r e -q u i r e s a c e r t a i n amount of s k i l l and experience and care, and new workers are mostly inexperienced when they come to i t . 2 3 A d m i n i s t r a t i v e d u t i e s 2 1 . In the o l d days, but w i t h i n the experience of most of the foremen, every department r e c e i v e d a works order f o r every separate j o b , g i v i n g d e t a i l s of the p a r t i c u l a r job to be done and the number r e q u i r e d . The foreman was i n complete c o n t r o l from the moment he r e c e i v e d the works order; he decided who should do the job, which machines should be used, how much m a t e r i a l would be needed and when i t should be fetched from the s t o r e s . Owing to the i n c r e a s i n g complexity of the work, however, and the need f o r management to be kept more e x a c t l y informed of the production p o s i t i o n throughout the company, a few years ago the Progress Department was reorganized and a new system of c o n t r o l i n s t a l l e d . The Progress Department i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f o l l o w i n g every job through from begin-ning t o end; i t makes sure that the r i g h t amount and 76 type of m a t e r i a l i s a v a i l a b l e t o make the s p e c i f i e d num-ber of components, and t h a t every department c a r r i e s out i t s work as f a r as p o s s i b l e t o schedule, so tha t there i s a steady flow of work throughout a l l shops. Instead of j u s t the simple works order, the foreman i s now sent, together w i t h the works order, separate r e q u i s i t i o n orders f o r every d i f f e r e n t type of m a t e r i a l t h a t w i l l be re q u i r e d f o r the job , a l l of which he has t o check and s i g n i n order t o ob t a i n the m a t e r i a l needed. This i n -volves him i n handling more paper than p r e v i o u s l y , even though much of t h i s paper work i s f a i r l y r o u t i n e . . . . 22. On the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s i d e the foreman i s a l s o respon-s i b l e f o r keeping c e r t a i n records and making r e g u l a r r e -tu r n s . These concern such t h i n g s as the work done i n h i s shop, and d a i l y absentees. There are a l s o o c c a s i o n a l r e p o r t s and l i s t s t o be compiled concerning, f o r example, h o l i d a y arrangements. (The company operates a system of staggered h o l i d a y s . ) Progress r e p o r t s on c e r t a i n workers are a l s o r e q u i r e d at i n t e r v a l s , as are re p o r t s on the apprentices i n h i s shop. 23- I t can be seen t h e r e f o r e that the amount of c l e r i c a l work r e q u i r e d of the foreman can be s u b s t a n t i a l and i s always co n s i d e r a b l e , and c e r t a i n l y a great d e a l more than had t o be done i n the o l d days. One reason i s the bigger number of workers th a t the foreman has t o deal w i t h . As we have seen, the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the Progress Depart-ment has a l s o l e d t o an increase i n paper-work f o r the foreman. Another department whose importance has i n -creased i s the Personnel Department, and t h i s too has i n -volved e x t r a work i n some d i r e c t i o n s f o r the foreman, a l -though r e l i e v i n g him of some burdens i n others. I t i s e s s e n t i a l f o r these s p e c i a l i s t departments, i f they are t o f u l f i l t h e i r f u n c t i o n s p r o p e r l y , t o be i n possession of up-to-date i n f o r m a t i o n about the s i t u a t i o n i n the works, whether concerning production or personnel matters; as they have increased i n importance, so has the amount of c l e r i c a l or a d m i n i s t r a t i v e work done by the foreman increased.2 4 Supervisory d u t i e s 24. By 'supervisory' we mean tha t aspect of the foreman's work concerned w i t h the handling of the workpeople under h i s c o n t r o l . The most obvious r e s p o n s i b i l i t y here i s f o r maintaining d i s c i p l i n e , i n i t s widest sense; t h a t i s of endeavouring t o ensure t h a t workers a r r i v e r e g u l a r l y and p u n c t u a l l y and work s t e a d i l y and c a r e f u l l y during t h e i r proper hours of work. I f the purpose has not changed i n t h i s company, i t i s recognized t h a t the meth-ods have, because of the a l t e r e d s i t u a t i o n of both the workers and the foreman. The worker's p o s i t i o n i s v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t nowadays from what i t was before the war; then 77 workers knew tha t they could be e a s i l y r e p l a c e d , where-as now t h i s i s not the case. Not only can the worker a f f o r d t o r i s k being sacked, he can a f f o r d t o leave of h i s own accord safe i n the knowledge that other em-ployers w i l l be g l a d t o engage him. 25. The change i n the circumstances of the worker has changed the p o s i t i o n of the foreman. The l a t t e r can no longer t h i n k i n terms of h i s workpeople wishing t o stay at a l l c o s t s ; . . . . the 'sack' i s not the ex-treme penalty i t used t o be. Another f a c t o r which has changed the s i t u a t i o n from the foreman's point of view i s the increased importance of the Personnel Depart-ment. Before the war the foreman h i r e d and f i r e d the workers i n h i s shop. Now the h i r i n g i s done by the Personnel Department, w i t h the foreman having the r i g h t t o t u r n down anyone he t h i n k s not l i k e l y t o be s a t i s -f a c t o r y , but not having the power to d i s m i s s , except a f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h the Personnel Manager. . . . There are two other p e n a l t i e s which can be i n f l i c t e d : suspension, a power which i s never used i n the company nowadays, and varying the pay r a t e , which can only be done a f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h the Works Manager. 26. As f a r as the maintenance of d i s c i p l i n e goes, then, the p o s i t i o n i s very d i f f e r e n t from before the war. As there i s no penalty which the foreman can impose w i t h -out f i r s t g e t t i n g permission, and as t h i s i s only en-couraged i n s e r i o u s cases, i t i s evident that he needs t o use l e a d e r s h i p of a d i f f e r e n t type. Much more t r o u b l e has t o be taken over newcomers and, as we have seen, more t r a i n i n g of a d u l t workers i s necessary. Late-comers and absentees have t o be "reasoned w i t h " , and not threatened. 27 The foreman a l s o has c e r t a i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r the t r a i n i n g of apprentices. Every boy goes i n t o the v a r i o u s shops, l e a r n i n g something of the work th a t i s done i n each, and the foreman must e i t h e r g i v e i n s t r u c -t i o n h i m s e l f or see that an experienced man i s put i n charge of the boys. I t i s up t o the foreman t o a r -range matters so t h a t apprentices spending about s i x months i n h i s shop have the opportunity of g e t t i n g a l l -round p r a c t i c a l experience of the processes t h a t are c a r r i e d on there. He must be i n c l o s e enough touch w i t h t h e i r work, even i f he i s not s u p e r v i s i n g i t per-s o n a l l y , t o be able t o send r e p o r t s on the progress they are making and the promise they show to the Per-sonnel Manager, who r e l i e s on t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n f o r planning t h e i r f u t u r e training.25 78 S e l e c t i o n and T r a i n i n g of Foremen 28. Vacancies f o r foremen's p o s i t i o n s do not a r i s e very f r e -quently. When they do, the p o l i c y i s t o promote from w i t h i n i f p o s s i b l e but there i s no hard and f a s t r u l e about t h i s ; i f there appears t o be no s u i t a b l e man then the company i s q u i t e prepared t o b r i n g someone i n from outside. . . . A p p l i c a n t s from i n s i d e the company are almost i n -v a r i a b l y experienced tradesmen who have been a c t i n g as charge-hands or s e t t e r s . . . . 29. This s e l e c t i o n method ensures that so f a r as p o s s i b l e the prospective foreman w i l l have had adequate t r a i n i n g and experience i n the t e c h n i c a l s i d e of the job he i s t o supervise. Up t o the present i t has not been f e l t neces-sary t o arrange t r a i n i n g i n the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e or super-v i s o r y aspects of the foreman's job. The A t t i t u d e s of the Foremen I t i s now time t o consider the f e e l i n g s of the foremen about t h e i r work and i t s circumstances. While they do not a l l f e e l q u i t e the same way about t h e i r j o b s , they have a s u r p r i s i n g amount i n common when they come to t a l k about t h e i r work.26 A t t i t u d e s t o s t a t u s 30. 'I t h i n k sometimes the foremen f e e l t h a t a l o t of t h e i r s t a t u s has been taken away from them', was a r e -mark made by one foreman and echoed by others i n d i f -f e r e n t words. And what do the foremen mean by t h i s word 'status'? What they mean can be understood from 'the d i f f e r e n t i a l between foreman and worker nowadays i s a l t o g e t h e r too s m a l l ' and, i n a convenient summary, 'l e s s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , l e s s p r i v i l e g e s , l e s s contact w i t h managers and a lower q u a l i t y work-force'. 31. This i s not t o say t h a t t h i s company's foremen are discontented; on the contrary they agree that the a t -mosphere i n the f i r m i s a happy one. Nevertheless we have seen that a p e r i o d of change and growth has come about, and as the job of the foreman has g r a d u a l l y changed, so, i t appears t o him, has the s t a t u s , the importance of h i s job i n the eyes of management. . . . . On the whole, as i n many other f i r m s today, the foreman i s j u s t i f i e d i n t h i n k i n g t h a t he i s l e s s valuable t o the f i r m than he used t o be, at l e a s t i n terms of h i s pay. 32. Other p r i v i l e g e s enjoyed by the foremen are the same as f o r a l l the company's s t a f f as opposed t o h o u r l y - p a i d workers, and i n c l u d e sickness pay f o r up 7 9 t o a month and afterwards at the company's d i s c r e t i o n , and no c l o c k i n g on and o f f . The foreman's hours are the same as f o r h o u r l y - p a i d workers. . . . . . . . The foreman's job c a r r i e s considerable r e -s p o n s i b i l i t y , but a l s o . . . i t i s of r a t h e r a d i f f e r e n t k i n d from e a r l i e r days. The words of one of the f o r e -men are r e v e a l i n g : 'Before the war the foreman ran h i s own shop.' The i m p l i c a t i o n i s that nowadays he does not, and so he f e e l s that h i s job i s a l e s s r e s p o n s i b l e one. Before the war he made h i s own estimates, promised job completion times, engaged and dismissed h i s own s t a f f , w h i l e nowadays these f u n c t i o n s have been taken from him by Planning Progress and Personnel Departments, and t o t h i s extent he i s no longer i n such d i r e c t c o n t r o l . On the other hand, the i n t r o d u c t i o n of f u n c t i o n a l s p e c i a l -i s t s and more elaborate c o n t r o l systems means r e a l l y not t h a t the foreman's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s l e s s , but that i t i s d i f f e r e n t . His r o l e demands, f a r more than i t used t o , the a b i l i t y - and w i l l i n g n e s s t o co-operate w i t h others. He must be prepared and able t o make out r e -turns a c c u r a t e l y and p u n c t u a l l y f o r the Personnel De-partment , or to d i s c u s s methods of work w i t h the P l a n -ning Department. We have already seen, moreover, that the foreman has t o spend more time i n t r a i n i n g new adult workers than he once d i d . 3 3 • There are one or two other t h i n g s which the foremen t h i n k adversely a f f e c t t h e i r s t a t u s . They f e e l , e.g. t h a t i t i s made r a t h e r too easy f o r t h e i r workers t o go d i r e c t t o members of higher management w i t h t h e i r problems. In f a c t , people l i k e the Managing D i r e c t o r and the Personnel Manager, though they are f a i r l y o f t e n approached by workers about such t h i n g s as e d u c a t i o n a l and w e l f a r e matters, are conscious of the need t o up-hold the foreman's a u t h o r i t y and they r a r e l y deal w i t h matters which come i n t o the foreman's province. But the foreman, who i s concerned about h i s s t a t u s and per-haps too l i a b l e t o suspect people of reducing i t , i s i n c l i n e d t o f e a r that h i s workers go t o others t o d i s -cuss matters t h a t are h i s concern. . . . . The r e l a t i o n s between foremen and shop stew-ards are g e n e r a l l y very good and the foremen sometimes even ask the shop stewards to r a i s e matters they want discussed at the meetings [of the Works Advisory Coun-c i l ] . Nevertheless, though i t i s only a s m a l l point t o t o the foreman, they do tend t o regard the s i t u a t i o n [of t h e i r l i m i t e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n c o u n c i l meetings] as another s i g n of d e c l i n i n g status.27 R e l a t i o n s w i t h managers 34. I t might almost be s a i d that the l a c k of a t t e n t i o n which they give t o the c l e r i c a l s i de of t h e i r work i s 80 the most s e r i o u s shortcoming of the company's foremen. . . . the growth of the company has l e d t o more paper-work f o r the foremen, paper-work on which the s p e c i a l -i s t departments such as Planning, Progress and Person-n e l depend f o r t h e i r knowledge about the day-to-day s i t u a t i o n . Without t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n they cannot c a r r y out t h e i r f u n c t i o n s p r o p e r l y . . . .: why are these d u t i e s not d e a l t w i t h more ef-f e c t i v e l y and why i s t h e i r importance not recognized? • • • • 3 5« The answer . . . i s . . .; the foreman's paper work i s not done more e f f e c t i v e l y because he i s not made t o do i t e f f e c t i v e l y . . . . the foreman does appreciate the importance of the s p e c i a l i s t departments, but does not recognize how important he i s t o them. While he appreciates the need t o g i v e i n f o r m a t i o n t o another foreman, he does not r e a l i z e j u s t how much these other departments are dependent on him f o r i n f o r m a t i o n . This could be put another way by saying t h a t he i s i n c l i n e d t o t h i n k a s p e c i a l i s t department has taken over part of h i s job e n t i r e l y , and that t h a t part of the job can now be l e f t t o i t . 36. Though considerable t r o u b l e i s u s u a l l y taken t o ex-p l a i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n of new systems t o the foremen, i t should be remembered t h a t foremen r e c e i v e no t r a i n -ing f o r t h e i r job other than the t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g and experience they o b t a i n as operators. I t i s not s u r p r i s -i n g , then, t h a t they should not r e a l i z e completely j u s t where thepr r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ends and someone e l s e ' s be-g i n s . . . . I t appears t h a t some formal i n s t r u c t i o n i n the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s i d e of h i s work would be v a l u a b l e t o the new foreman, t o g i v e him i n f o r m a t i o n about the work of f u n c t i o n a l departments and the r e l a t i o n between t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and h i s . 37. I t was s a i d e a r l i e r that the foremen are not f o r c e d t o do a l l the t h i n g s t h a t they are t h e o r e t i c a l l y respon-s i b l e f o r . I t seems that t h i s i s due p a r t l y t o the f a c t t hat some managers p r e f e r t o do t h i n g s themselves r a t h e r than i n s i s t t h a t the proper people do them. The Person-n e l Manager, f o r i n s t a n c e , w i l l go t o production depart-ments and get f o r h i m s e l f i n f o r m a t i o n which foremen have delayed sending to him. The Works Manager w i l l s o r t out f o r a foreman a d m i n i s t r a t i v e problems which have r e -s u l t e d i n a delay i n production. On the whole, t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s more or l e s s accepted by everyone; over the years i t has become known t h a t there are c e r t a i n t h i n g s that c e r t a i n foremen aren't expected t o do. At the same time, there are some unfortunate r e s u l t s . Some managers are overworked through doing others' work f o r them. Again, foremen are not always o b l i g e d t o do t h i n g s they could reasonably be expected to do and so they do not 81 get p r a c t i c e and experience i n s o l v i n g t h e i r own problems. 38. This leads us t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s between higher managers and foremen. I t can be s a i d at once th a t they are extremely good and f r i e n d l y at a per-sonal l e v e l . The Managing D i r e c t o r ' s l a r g e l y success-f u l attempt t o maintain a happy working atmosphere i s appreciated and applauded. The managers are seen as very hard-working and competent i n d i v i d u a l s . I t does not excape the a t t e n t i o n of the foremen, however, th a t the managers are devoting a good deal of time t o doing other people's work. This i s g e n e r a l l y regarded as being bad both f o r the company and f o r departments. I f the Works Manager i s occupied i n d e a l i n g w i t h s p e c i f i c departmental d i f f i c u l t i e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , he has not enough time to do h i s own work, nor i s he a v a i l a b l e t o " the r e s t of the f a c t o r y . (This i s what was meant by the comment "le s s manager contact'.) . . the foremen f e e l t h a t higher management does not always take a suf-f i c i e n t l y strong l i n e . 39* Any d e s c r i p t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s between people at d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n order that i t may be c l e a r , i s bound t o be o v e r - s i m p l i f i e d . The f o r e -man's view i n the present case, i n very simple terms, i s : (a) h i s a u t h o r i t y i s lessened and h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i -t i e s fewer, due t o the growth of s p e c i a l i s t departments who now do part of what was h i s j o b , and due t o the f a c t that communications between management and workers can by-pass him; (b) the managers are i n c l i n e d t o do too much of the work t h a t should be done by the foreman, i n s t e a d of concentrating on t h e i r own work and ensuring that everyone e l s e does the same. . . . . Top management does not regard them [the foremen] as of lower s t a t u s or importance, though i t may not have done everything p o s s i b l e t o make i t c l e a r t o the foremen th a t w h i l e t h e i r r o l e has changed and some tasks have been taken away, other aspects of t h e i r work are more important than ever. . . . 28 Conclusion 40. This study has been mainly concerned w i t h the foreman's r o l e , and p a r t i c u l a r l y how i t has a l t e r e d , i n a growing o r g a n i z a t i o n . We have seen how an increase i n numbers, the need f o r more t r a i n i n g of adult workers, and the growing importance of s p e c i a l i s t departments have a l l c o n t r i b u t e d t o the change i n the foreman's job. Also t h a t he h i m s e l f sees i n the changes a lowering of h i s s t a t u s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . I t i s suggested t h a t the foreman's r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s are i n f a c t no l e s s s impor-tan t than they were. . . . 2 9 82 FOOTNOTES ON CHAPTER IV The Place of the Foreman i n Management. Seven case s t u d i e s undertaken by the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of I n d u s t r i a l Psychology (London: S t a p l e s Press, 1957),pp. 73-82. 2 p . 73. 3pp. 73-74. V 74-V 74. 6pp. 74-75. 7pp. 75-76. 8 PP. 76-77 9pp. 77-78 1 GP P . 78-79. i ; Lpp. 79-80. 1 2 p p . 81-82. 1 3 p . 82. ^ T h e Place, of the. Foreman i n Management. Seven case Studies undertaken by the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of I n d u s t r i a l Psychology (London: S t a p l e s P r e s s , 1957), pp. 17-33. 1 5 P . 17. 1 6 P . 17. 1 7 p p . 17-18. p. 18. 1 9 p p . 19-20. 20 upp. 20-21. pp. 21-22. 22 23 24 pp. 22-23 pp. 23-24 pp. 24-25 2 5 p p . 26-27 2 6 p p . 27-28 2 7 p p . 28-30 *°pp. 30-32 29 p. 32 . CHAPTER V CASE STUDIES: CATEGORY I I TECHNOLOGY In t r o d u c t i o n Chapter V comprises two case s t u d i e s u t i l i z e d i n t h i s study t o demonstrate examples of the nature of s u p e r v i s o r y r o l e demands and environmental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h i n enter-p r i s e s employing Category I I technology. The s t u d i e s have been e d i t e d so t h a t only those data are i n c l u d e d which are p e r t i n e n t t o the a n a l y s i s t h a t f o l l o w s i n Chapter V I I . Case No. 3 Background and D e s c r i p t i o n of P l a n t Technology 1. This p a r t i c u l a r semi-independent pl a n t s p e c i a l i z e d i n a type of custom-made u n i t forming a component part of many types of e l e c t r i c a l equipment.2 2. To meet competition, i t was becoming e s s e n t i a l t o make more complex u n i t s and a l s o t o reduce t h e i r s i z e . Top p l a n t management not only gave [a r e c e n t l y enlarged] group of engineers s m a l l e r and more complex u n i t s t o design, but, breaking the plant precedent of s p e c i a l i z -i n g i n custom-made products, a l s o decided t o mass-produce some of these u n i t s . . . [ a l s o ] the plant was i n the throes of a major expansion. From e a r l y s p r i n g 1951 t o mid-winter 1952, ten months l a t e r , the number of employees more than doubled.3 3. The s p e c i a l mass-production (assembly l i n e ) s e c t i o n was . . . l o c a t e d i n one room and supervised by one foreman. . . . [The s e c t i o n ] was t o perform a l l operations i n quick succession. Thus, the foreman i n charge not only 85 had a l l the headaches accompanying r a p i d expansion, but he a l s o faced i n m i n i a t u r e , problems met i n a l l three manufacturing departments, plus the customary problems which accompany r e p e t i t i v e assembly l i n e operations.4 4. As one company observer phrased i t : 'This o r g a n i -z a t i o n puts r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on the immediate super-v i s o r . . . higher-ups [are] not h e l d r e s p o n s b i l e . ' . . . department heads . . . now a l l found themselves over-involved i n t h e i r own departments and l e f t t o go-it-alone.5 Organization of Assembly-line S e c t i o n 5. The f o r t y workers i n the assembly l i n e s e c t i o n were d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r groups under the s u p e r v i s i o n of a s i n g l e foreman. Group 1 c o n s i s t e d of 6 g i r l s winding c o i l s , i n -c l u d i n g t h e i r group l e a d e r . Group 2 comprised one group leader and eleven c o i l assembly-line g i r l s . In Group 3 eighteen case assemblers (1 group l e a d e r , twelve assembly l i n e g i r l s assembling p a r t s and f i n i s h e d c o i l s , 4 o l d e r g i r l s preparing covers f o r cases, and 1 r e p a i r g i r l ) were employed. Group 4 was made up of 4 men performing v a r i o u s f i n i s h i n g operations. They had no group leader and so 6 reported d i r e c t l y t o the s e c t i o n foreman. 6. In a d d i t i o n , there were i n the room three t e s t g i r l s or i n s p e c t o r s , supervised by a t e s t foreman who v i s i t e d them at i n t e r v a l s during the day. In t h i s study, we w i l l be d i r e c t l y concerned only w i t h groups 2 and 3, the two assembly-line groups, con-s i s t i n g at the s t a r t of about 30 g i r l s . Each of these two groups was under the semi-supervision of a d i f f e r e n t group l e a d e r , who at the same time was a member of the union. These two group l e a d e r s , both women, i n t u r n reported t o the s e c t i o n foreman [Teddy, the focus of our a t t e n t i o n ] . 7 O v e r a l l Organization. Further Notes on Technology 7. W i t h i n the plan t f u l l - t i m e time study and methods im-provement o f f i c e r s were u t i l i z e d . - A l s o , a r i g i d system of 86 i n v e n t o r y c o n t r o l was employed. 8. Members of the time study and work methods department analyzed the work operations i n great d e t a i l , sub-d i v i d i n g the t o t a l assembling operations i n t o a number of h i g h l y r e p e t i t i v e jobs by a s s i g n i n g t o each g i r l only a very few p a r t i c u l a r operations t o perform on each unit, such as i n s e r t i n g a c o i l i n a case, t u r n i n g a screw, or s o l d e r i n g a connection. Each g i r l was assigned no more than fo u r or f i v e operations t o perform on each u n i t — a l l f o u r or f i v e t o be completed i n a l i t t l e over 1 1/2 minutes. . . .8 9 . As the [assembly-line] s e c t i o n was placed i n the As-sembly Department, the s e c t i o n foreman reported t o the Assembly Department,head, who reported t o the c h i e f of a l l production. In t u r n the l a t t e r worked d i r e c t l y under the plan t manager.9 10. Figure IV below i s a schematic p o r t r a y a l of the or-g a n i z a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n of managerial and supervisory person-n e l i n the plan t as a whole. Supervisory Behavior and Problems of Su p e r v i s i o n A major component of any work environment w i t h which a s u p e r v i s o r must cope i s the a t t i t u d e s toward work of sub-ordinates and s u p e r i o r s . Evidence p e r t a i n i n g t o such a t t i -tudes and t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r supervisory behavior are summarized i n the next three paragraphs. 11. Another irksome t r a i t of the [assembly-line] job [ i n a d d i t i o n t o the 20 s e c , 5-step assembly operation] was the pacing imposed by a moving assembly l i n e or by the speed of adjacent workers. . . . many of the g i r l s paid l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o the b e l t , but passed items t o one another since they were rubbing elbows anyway. As the employees' rhythm demands and temperments d i f f e r e d , many c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y p r e f e r r e d d i f f e r e n t speeds and rhythms of work flow. To keep the work on an assembly l i n e f l o w i n g smoothly, every p o s i t i o n has t o be f i l l e d , and everyone working i n rhythm. . . . Sometimes, however, Teddy [the foreman] d i d not even have enough of these g i r l s t o repla c e absen-t e e s , so he would have t o phone . . . t o get a r e p l a c e -ment immediately t r a n s f e r r e d . . . f o r the day. At other Plant Manager Scheduling and E f f i c i e n c y D i v i s i o n (Production C o n t r o l ) 2 Foremen Machining Dept. Production C o n t r o l C o i l w i n d -i n g Dept. Assembly Dept. M a t e r i a l C o n t r o l D i v i s i o n 1 Group Leader Engineering D i v i s i o n 2 Engineers 2 Foremen 1 Group Leader Test D i v i s i o n 2 Foremen 2 Group Leaders 2 (Foremen 1 Group Leader 1 Foreman 12 Group Leaders 1 Foreman 1 Group Leader I 2 Assembly Foremen 6 Group Leaders Assembly-line Section Foreman \ >GOO square yards (IV,A,3 and IV,B,2). Gn the other hand one notes two operators manning the con-t r o l s i n a power paint where p h y s i c a l i s o l a t i o n has v i r -228 t u a l l y been e l i m i n a t e d due t o the i n t e g r a t i o n and c e n t r a l i -z a t i o n of c o n t r o l s (IV,B,3). These c o n f l i c t i n g data i n d i -cate the need f o r a d d i t i o n a l research designed t o d e l i n e a t e the composition, s t r u c t u r e and behavior of work groups under continuous-process technology. According t o Charts I I , I I I and IV, one expects t o observe a progressive increase i n the number of l e v e l s of management from Category I t o Category I I I production t e c h -nology. However, the a d d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l data (V,C,3) i n d i c a t e s that w i t h i n e n t e r p r i s e s under continuous-process technology a development toward increased automatic con-t r o l s may r e s u l t i n the r e d u c t i o n of the nnmber of l e v e l s of management w i t h i n the e n t e r p r i s e . A d d i t i o n a l research w i l l be needed t o c l a r i f y the behavior of t h i s s t r u c t u r a l c o r r e l a t e of production technology both w i t h i n and among the major c a t e g o r i e s of technology. Organic processes of management In g e n e r a l , the data of the appendices both support and challenge the hypotheses regarding the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimensions of organic management processes w i t h i n c o n t i n -uous-process technology. For example, organic management processes are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the s e t t i n g of i n d i v i d u a l t a s k s according t o the t o t a l s i t u a t i o n of the f i r m . The appendix data suggest on the one hand, t h a t r e s p o n s b i l i t i e s are heavy and few d u t i e s s p e c i f i c a l l y assigned (IV,7). On the other hand primary tasks may be c l e a r l y defined and 229 accepted as such (IV,10(a)). The c o n t r a d i c t i o n between these two references i s apparent. An explanation of t h i s apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n may i n c l u d e the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t datum (IV,10(a)) i s based upon Woodward's study of a r a t h e r l a r g e sample of continuous-process e n t e r p r i s e s , and, hence, represents an average c o n d i t i o n . On the other hand, datum (IV,7) i s probably based upon a sma l l e r sample, and hence, represents a more unique c o n d i t i o n . An a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e of organic management processes p e r t a i n s t o the ad hoc l o c a t i o n of c o n t r o l a u t h o r i t y based upon e x p e r t i s e . Two references (IV,10(b)) and (V,A,4) sup-port t h i s premise plus the f a c t t h a t i t i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h continuous-process technology. A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of organic management processes which, i t was argued, would be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h continuous-process technology concerns the predominance of l a t e r a l over v e r t i c a l communications. I f i n f a c t s u p e r v i s o r s tend t o concentrate upon i n s p e c t i o n and c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s (IV,2) then, the obser-v a t i o n might be challenged. On the other hand, i f team work by a l l erew members i s important at a l l times (V,A,3) then, the observation may be confirmed i n p a r t . Therefore, notwithstanding the apparent existence of organic processes of management i n the e n t e r p r i s e s described i n Gases 5 and 6, the pervasiveness and d e t a i l e d c h a r acter-i s t i c s of t h i s type of management process under Category I I I technology r e q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l e l u c i d a t i o n . 230 Support f o r S p e c i f i c Hypotheses Supervisory a c t i v i t i e s (III-A-1) (1) A p p l i c a t i o n of t e c h n i c a l knowledge and the e x e r c i s e of t e c h n i c a l s k i l l In g e n e r a l , the data of the appendices confirm the r e f o r m u l a t i o n of our s p e c i f i c hypotheses under t h i s s e c t i o n as found i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Case No. 6. The t e c h n i c a l a d v i s o r y r o l e of the su p e r v i s o r i s i m p l i e d i n items (IV,4), (V,B,2) and (V,B,4). (2) A d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s The observation t h a t s u p e r v i s o r s tend t o concentrate upon i n s p e c t i o n and c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s (IV,2) lends support t o the r e f o r m u l a t i o n of the s p e c i f i c hypothesis of t h i s sub-s e c t i o n t o conform more c l o s e l y w i t h the hypothesis regard-ing a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s under Category I technology. Reference (IV,B,1) represents a d d i t i o n a l c o n f i r m a t i o n . (3) In the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Case 6 the apparent need t o reformulate the s p e c i f i c hypotheses p e r t a i n i n g t o super-v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s whose nature c o n s i s t s of i n t e r a c t i o n s p r i m a r i l y w i t h subordinates was demonstrated. S p e c i f i c a l l y , the requirement t o extend the hypotheses t o i n c l u d e an a c t i v e l i s t e n i n g r o l e on the part of the f r o n t - l i n e super-v i s o r as he seeks the t e c h n i c a l views of h i s subordinates was noted. The a d d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l data o f f e r confirma-t i o n of the v a l i d i t y of t h i s reforumlated hypothesis (V,A,7) 231 and (V,A,4). Frequency of a c t i v i t i e s (III-A-2) The data of Appendices 17 and V shed no l i g h t on the v a l i d i t y , or otherwise, of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses of t h i s sub-section. Nature of i n t e r a c t i o n s With subordinates ( I I I - B - l - a ) . A n a l y s i s of the ad-d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l data f a i l s t o produce evidence c o n t r a -d i c t i n g the s p e c i f i c hypotheses of t h i s s u b-section. The f r e e i n t e r a c t i o n of workers roughly equal i n s t a t u s w i t h t h e i r s u p e r i o r s (IV,8); the s l i g h t pressure t o get out production (IV,9i; the c l e a r and accepted d e f i n i t i o n of primary tasks ( I V , l Q ( a ) ) ; the l i s t e n i n g behavior of the s u p e r v i s o r (V,A,4), (V,A,6)—these observations appear t o support the hypotheses t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates w i l l be f a c e - t o - f a c e , i n f o r m a l ( i . e . , c o n s u l t a t i v e i n n a t u r e ) , and devoid of con-f l i c t over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . With s u p e r i o r s ( I I I - B - l - b ) . The a d d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l data of the appendices do not permit t e s t i n g the s p e c i f i c hypotheses of t h i s s ub-section. H o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s ( I I I - B - l - c ) . A d d i t i o n a l v a l i d a t i o n of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses concerning the nature of h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s i s not p o s s i b l e given the q u a l i t y of the data. 2 3 2 Frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s With subordinates ( I I I - B - 2 - a ) . An average of 5 con-t a c t s per day between workers and t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s i s noted ( V ,A , 4 ) . Although the data of the appendices do not permit e v a l u a t i o n of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the r e l a t i v e frequencies of i n t e r a c t i o n s between the s u p e r v i s o r on the one hand, and subordinates, s u p e r i o r s and p a r t i e s t o h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s on the other hand, the hypotheses regarding the r e l a t i v e frequency of subordinate-supervisor i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n the three c a t e g o r i e s of production technology i s p a r t i a l l y v a r i f i a b l e . Thus, i t was hypothe-s i z e d t h a t the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s between s u p e r v i s o r s and t h e i r subordinates would be g r e a t e r i n Category I I I technology than i n Category I I technology. I t appears that the median frequency of such i n t e r -a c t i o n s i n Category I I technology v a r i e s between once per day and "at l e a s t twice per day but l e s s than once per hour" ( 1 1 1 , 3 9 ) . I t i s p o s s i b l e , t h e r e f o r e , that the obser-v a t i o n at (V,A , 4 ) confirms t h i s hypothesis. The data of the appendices do not permit a d d i t i o n a l t e s t i n g of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the frequency of e i t h e r i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s u p e r i o r s , or h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r -a c t i o n s . Supervisory sentiments Toward subordinates ( I I I - C - 1 ) . The s p e c i f i c hypoth-e s i s t h a t sentiments of s u p e r v i s o r s toward workers would 233 tend t o be n e u t r a l t o f r i e n d l y i n tone would appear t o be supported by the observation t h a t h o s t i l i t y between the s u p e r v i s o r and h i s crew was almost non-existent (V,A,6). The q u a l i t y of data i n Appendices IV and V does not permit a d d i t i o n a l t e s t i n g of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses per-t a i n i n g t o the nature of supervisory sentiments toward s u p e r i o r s , or toward p a r t i e s i n h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s . Chapter Summary The preceding a n a l y s i s has sought t o t e s t the v a l i d i t y of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding s u p e r v i s o r y behavior under the three categories of i n d u s t r i a l production t e c h -nology. The q u a l i t y and comprehensiveness of the data posed s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s upon the extent and o b j e c t i v i t y of the t e s t i n g . In the f o l l o w i n g chapter the conclusions t o be drawn from the foregoing a n a l y s i s w i l l be s t a t e d . 234 FOOTNOTES ON CHAPTER V I I F.L.W. Richardson, Talk, Work and A c t i o n ( I t h a c a , New York: The So c i e t y f o r Ap p l i e d Anthropology, C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , New York State School of I n d u s t r i a l and Labor R e l a t i o n s , 1961), p. 54. CHAPTER V I I I SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS I n t r o d u c t i o n The purposes of t h i s f i n a l chapter are t h r e e - f o l d : (1) t o present the conclusions of the preceding analyses i n a manner which i l l u s t r a t e s the apparent consequences of i n d u s t r i a l production technology upon those dimensions of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory behavior d e a l t w i t h i n the study (2) t o o f f e r a few observations regarding the i m p l i c a t i o n s of the study f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n theory, and (3) t o enumerate the main avenues of p o s s i b l e subsequent research suggested by the a n a l y s i s . Conclusions The a n a l y s i s undertaken i n t h i s study s t a r t e d from the premise t h a t Technology, because i t i n f l u e n c e s the r o l e s defined by formal o r g a n i z a t i o n , must t h e r e f o r e i n f l u e n c e i n -d u s t r i a l behaviour, f o r how a person r e a c t s depends as much on the demands of h i s r o l e and the circumstances i n which he f i n d s h i m s e l f , as on h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . ! An attempt has been made i n the a n a l y s i s t o t e s t the s p e c i f i c hypotheses developed i n Chapter I I I regarding the demands of the su p e r v i s o r ' s r o l e and the circumstances i n which he f i n d s h i m s e l f i n each of the three c a t e g o r i e s of i n d u s t r i a l production technology. What conclusions may be 236 drawn from the a n a l y s i s ? S t r u c t u r a l C o r r e l a t e s of Technology In v a r y i n g degrees, depending upon the d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of technology and o r g a n i z a t i o n found i n each of the s i x case s t u d i e s , i t was p o s s i b l e t o i l l u s t r a t e the presence of the s t r u c t u r a l c o r r e l a t e s of production t e c h n o l -ogy noted by Woodward. In p a r t i c u l a r , the manner i n which organic and mechanistic management processes occurred i n the e n t e r p r i s e s described i n the case s t u d i e s was demonstrated. The a n a l y s i s appears t o point t o the co n c l u s i o n that organic management processes are more or l e s s i d e n t i f i a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of most Category I and Category I I I produc-t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s . However, i t i s noted from the a n a l y s i s of Chapter V I I tha t the theory of mechanistic management c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I I technology tends t o break down somewhat i n p r a c t i c e . Thus, although c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s of mechanistic management appear t o be present i n Category I I technology, t h e i r impact on f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r y behavior does not conform t o the theory. In p a r t i c u l a r , the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r f i n d s h i m s e l f w i t h -out a " p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n of d u t i e s , r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and power. . . . " S i m i l a r l y , as e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I technology i n c r e a s i n g l y assume the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r -i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Category I I technology, r e s i d u e s of mechanistic processes of management tend t o develop. For 237 example, the Case 2 sup e r v i s o r y r o l e demands regarding t e c h n i c a l matters tend t o approach those hypothesized t o be found under Category I I technology. I n a d d i t i o n , the q u a l i t y of supervisory sentiments toward immediate super-i o r s r e v ealed i n Case 2 e x h i b i t a s h i f t i n the d i r e c t i o n of those regarded as c o r r e l a t e s of Category..II technology. A second q u a l i f i c a t i o n of the observations regarding mechanistic management processes r e l a t e s t o the "very l i m i t e d area of d i s c r e t i o n " possessed by the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r concerning the a c t i v i t i e s he performs and the nature of h i s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h others. While the broad parameters of these i n t e r a c t i o n s appear t o be determined by technology and i t s s t r u c t u r a l c o r r e l a t e s (see Figures VI and V I I ) , the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i n e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I I technology i n f a c t e x e r c i s e s some d i s c r e t i o n i n deci d i n g w i t h whom and how f r e q u e n t l y he i n t e r a c t s , p a r t i c -u l a r l y w i t h subordinates. For example, although he has a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e span of c o n t r o l , he i n t e r a c t s mainly w i t h h i s f a v o r i t e group l e a d e r s . In e f f e c t , he s e l e c t s the subordinate through whom he attempts t o r e a l i z e production o b j e c t i v e s . Gn the whole, however, the nature of the t e c h -nology does appear t o determine the object of s u p e r v i s o r -subordinate i n t e r a c t i o n s . In a d d i t i o n , t e c h n o l o g i c a l and r o l e demands appear t o determine the o b j e c t , or r a i s o n d'etre of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s and s u p e r v i s o r s . F i n a l l y , although the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i n e n t e r p r i s e s 238 under Category I I technology apparently has l i t t l e d i s c r e -t i o n over the frequency or d i r e c t i o n of i n i t i a t i o n of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s u p e r i o r s , there seems t o be an area of d i s c r e t i o n i n terms of frequency and d i r e c t i o n of i n i t i a t i o n of i n t e r a c t i o n s between the s u p e r v i s o r and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . By u t i l i z i n g the data of the case s t u d i e s an e f f o r t was made t o v a l i d a t e the s p e c i f i c hypotheses regarding the dimensions of s u p e r v i s o r y behavior enunciated i n Chapter I I I . Where the a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t the hypotheses could not be defended i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l form they were reformulated. What r e s u l t s emerge from the a n a l y s i s ? That i s , what con-c l u s i o n s might be drawn regarding the r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n d u s t r i a l production technology and f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r y behavior? More g e n e r a l l y , what are the i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n theory suggested by the a n a l y s i s ? F i r s t - l i n e Supervisory Behavior and I n d u s t r i a l Production Technology The a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s i n Category I technology review production orders and t h e i r attendant s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . On the b a s i s of these data the s u p e r v i s o r t y p i c a l l y makes a f a i r l y broad range of t e c h n i c a l production d e c i s i o n s , or g i v e s t e c h n i c a l advice t o h i s sub-ordinates regarding (a) choice of work t o o l s , methods and work sequence (b) the content of i n d i v i d u a l worker's t a s k s , and (c) the pace of work and the q u a l i t y of production r e -quired (mainly when unforeseen d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e ) . The 239 f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r may become p e r s o n a l l y i n v o l v e d i n c o n t r i b u t i n g h i s t e c h n i c a l knowledge and experience t o the d i r e c t production a c t i v i t i e s of h i s subordinates i f unfore-seen production problems or excessive work loads develop. In comparison w i t h the requirement f o r and scope a v a i l a b l e t o the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i n Category I t e c h -nology regarding the e x e r c i s e of t e c h n i c a l knowledge and s k i l l , the su p e r v i s o r i n Category I I technology i s r e s t r i c t e d . He t y p i c a l l y n e i t h e r possesses, nor i s r e q u i r e d t o possess, a s i g n i f i c a n t body of t e c h n i c a l knowledge or set of t e c h -n i c a l s k i l l s . In e n t e r p r i s e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by Category I I production technology i t i s the s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t r a t h e r than the f i r s t - l i n e production s u p e r v i s o r who executes a c t i v i t i e s and d e c i s i o n s demanding r e l a t i v e l y advanced t e c h n i c a l knowledge and s k i l l . With the exception of those a c t i v i t i e s designed t o i n f l u e n c e the pace, volume and q u a l -i t y of p r o d u c t i o n — a c t i v i t i e s which i n v o l v e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s as w e l l as s u b o r d i n a t e s — t h e t e c h n i -c a l l y o r i e n t e d a c t i v i t i e s of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r under Category I I technology are very l i m i t e d . L i k e the r o l e demands of the su p e r v i s o r under Cate-gory I technology and i n contrast t o the r o l e of the super-v i s o r under Category I I technology, the r o l e demands of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i n e n t e r p r i s e s u t i l i z i n g continuous-process technology i n c l u d e an important t e c h n i c a l element. The continuous-process s u p e r v i s o r responds t o f a i r l y l o n g -240 range production schedules (e.g., one week i n advance) by executing r e l a t i v e l y complex t e c h n i c a l d e c i s i o n s regarding production s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . Depending upon the degree of adjustments r e q u i r e d i n the process, the s u p e r v i s o r advises subordinates, although the l a t t e r e x e r c i s e a considerable degree of d i s c r e t i o n i n making t e c h n i c a l adjustments t o the process, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the more advanced forms of con-tinuous-process t e c h n o l o t y . When production c r i s e s or non-r o u t i n e s i t u a t i o n s emerge the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r f r e -quently seeks the advice of both s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s and sub-o r d i n a t e s . He a l s o communicates t e c h n i c a l advice t o sub-ordinates i n such s i t u a t i o n s . C e r t a i n hypothesized a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s do not appear t o f i g u r e predominantly i n the behavior of the f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i n Categoryltechnology. For example, a c t i v i t i e s such as c o o r d i n a t i n g work flow between successive work u n i t s and n e g o t i a t i n g w i t h f e l l o w f i r s t - l i n e super-v i s o r s along the work-flow f o r access t o scarce o r g a n i z a t i o n -a l r esources, do not appear t o be major a c t i v i t i e s of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i n u n i t and small-batch production technology. However, a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s such as preparing personnel attendance and production r e p o r t s , and c o o r d i n a t i n g and monitoring the work-flow through h i s u n i t do seem t o be s i g n i f i c a n t elements w i t h i n the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r ' s set of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s i n Category I technology. 241 In Category I I technology, s u p e r v i s o r y a d m i n i s t r a -t i v e a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e c o o r d i n a t i n g and monitoring the work-flow through h i s u n i t , as i n Category I technology. More g e n e r a l l y , the great bulk of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e rvisory a c t i v i t i e s under Category I I technology appear t o c o n s i s t almost e x c l u s i v e l y of v e r b a l i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates, s u p e r i o r s and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . Whereas under Category I technology work-flow i n t e r -a c t i o n s among f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s do not appear t o be t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y r e q u i r e d , t h i s c l a s s of i n t e r a c t i o n s appears to be an indeterminate phenomenon i n e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I I technology. On the one hand, work-flow i n t e r -a c t i o n s do not seem t o f i g u r e predominantly i n the r o l e demands of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r under Category I I technology. For example, n e i t h e r Figure VI nor Figure VII suggest the importance of such i n t e r a c t i o n s . However, as w i l l be developed i n more d e t a i l below, such i n t e r a c t i o n s i n f a c t range from being i n s i g n i f i c a n t at one extreme t o being inherent i n the a c t i v i t i e s of the su p e r v i s o r at the other extreme. The primary o b j e c t i v e s of supervisory i n t e r a c t i o n s under Category I I technology are (1) t o e f f e c t the d i r e c -t i v e s t r a n s m i t t e d t o the su p e r v i s o r by h i s l i n e s u p e r i o r s and the s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s (2) t o achieve the c o l l a b o r a t i o n of subordinates and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s (3) t o monitor the performance of h i s subordinates' a c t i v i t i e s (4) t o co-242 ordinate the a c t i v i t i e s of h i s subordinates, and (5) t o mediate c o n f l i c t s between h i m s e l f , and subordinates and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s on the one hand, and subordinates and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s on the other. That i s , h i s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h others are both immediately t a s k - o r i e n t e d (items 1 and 4 above) and p a r t i a l l y non-task o r i e n t e d (item 5). A d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s i n continuous-process technology appear t o be more impor-ta n t than i n Category I I technology and equal i n importance t o t h a t found i n e n t e r p r i s e s employing Category I technology. Thus, i n contrast w i t h the s i t u a t i o n under Category I t e c h -nology, and l i k e c e r t a i n forms of Category I I technology (see below), the continuous-process s u p e r v i s o r may co-ordinate the flow of work between h i s and succeeding work u n i t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when automatic or semi-automatic con-t r o l s are absent. He f r e q u e n t l y u t i l i z e s production con-t r o l r e p o r t s t o monitor the performance of h i s subordinates and the production processes which they c o n t r o l , p a r t i c -u l a r l y i n the more advanced stages of continuous-process technology, t h a t i s , where the process c o n t r o l s are com-prehensive and automatic. Other a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s may i n c l u d e arranging maintenance p r i o r i t i e s and programs as w e l l as the t r a n s p o r t of products and m a t e r i a l s t o and from the production s i t e . In c o ntrast w i t h the behavior of f i r s t - l i n e super-v i s o r s under e i t h e r Category I or Category I I technology, 243 the continuous-process s u p e r v i s o r appears t o concentrate upon i n s p e c t i o n and c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s designed t o assure the s a f e t y of h i s workers and the process i t s e l f , as w e l l as t o achieve production o b j e c t i v e s . Face-to-face i n t e r a c t i o n s mainly w i t h subordinates appear t o f i g u r e predominantly i n the a c t i v i t i e s of the continuous-process f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r . In Category I I technology such i n t e r a c t i o n s are mainly w i t h non-workers, as i n d i c a t e d above. In c o n t r a s t w i t h the behavior of s u p e r v i s o r s i n Category I and I I technology, the s u p e r v i s o r i n continuous-process forms of technology appears t o l i s t e n a c t i v e l y t o h i s subordinates and t o seek t h e i r t e c h n i c a l advice regard-i n g the s t a t e of the process and problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t . His r o l e as a l i n k between workers and management seems t o be more h i g h l y developed i n continuous-process technology than i n e i t h e r of Category I or Category I I technology. R e l a t i v e Frequencies of A c t i v i t i e s Performed by the Supervisor Throughout the a n a l y s i s i t was necessary t o be con-scious of the l i m i t a t i o n s t o hypotheses t e s t i n g imposed by the q u a l i t y of the data. This s i t u a t i o n makes i t s e l f p a r t i c u l a r l y f e l t i n regard t o the hypotheses p e r t a i n i n g t o the r e l a t i v e frequencies w i t h which a c t i v i t i e s are per-formed and i n t e r a c t i o n s occur. Because the s p e c i f i c 244 hypotheses regarding the r e l a t i v e frequencies at which sup e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s are performed remain untested, con-c l u s i o n s are unwarranted. Restatement of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses at t h i s point would not be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the purposes of t h i s chapter. The Nature of I n t e r a c t i o n s I n v o l v i n g the F i r s t - L i n e Supervisor Although the l i m i t a t i o n s of the data posed problems i n t e s t i n g the s p e c i f i c hypotheses of t h i s s e c t i o n , a s e r i e s of i n f e r e n c e s from the data i n d i c a t e t h a t the f o l l o w i n g observations have some v a l i d i t y . In g e n e r a l , i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work-flow appear to be minimally r e q u i r e d i n Category I technology. To the extent t o which they occur, t h i s c l a s s of i n t e r a c t i o n s ap-pears t o be r e l a x e d . That i s , i n t e r a c t i o n s between f e l l o w f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s i n Category I technology appear t o be t a s k - o r i e n t e d and devoid of c o n f l i c t over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . As i n d i c a t e d above, under Category I I technology i n t e r a c t i o n s between f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s along the work-flo w range from a very minimal requirement as reported i n Cases 3 and 4 (where the technology i s t h a t of the manufac-t u r e of e l e c t r i c a l components), t o being v i r t u a l l y inherent i n the nature of supervisory a c t i v i t i e s (e.g. , i n the production of automobiles (111,31)). To the extent t h a t 245 such i n t e r a c t i o n s are r e q u i r e d and occur, they tend t o be v e r b a l and t a s k - o r i e n t e d . The data p e r t a i n i n g t o i n t e r a c t i o n s between f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s under Category I I technology i s more extensive. The a n a l y s i s p o i n t s t o the con c l u s i o n that i n t e r a c t i o n s between s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s and f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s i n Category I I technology tend t o be f a e t - t o - f a c e , t a s k - o r i e n t e d , and f r e q u e n t l y h o s t i l e i n tone. The l a t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c appears t o f i n d i t s source i n the p r a c t i c e s of mutual "buck pass i n g " and the by-passing of the s u p e r v i s o r by the s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t , i n c o n t r a s t , Category I t e c h n o l -ogy s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s appear t o take e x p l i c i t cognizance of the s u p e r v i s o r ' s sphere of a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h a t i s , avoid by-passing. Consequently, the q u a l i t y of i n t e r a c t i o n s between f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s appears t o be g r e a t e r i n Category I technology than i n Category I I technology. Although the data i n regard t o i n t e r a c t i o n p a tterns i n continuous-process technology i s of l i m i t e d scope and q u a l i t y , c e r t a i n t e n t a t i v e conclusions appear warranted. W i t h i n continuous-process technology the requirement f o r i n t e r a c t i o n s between s u p e r v i s o r s r e l a t e d t o each other by the work f l o w appears t o d i m i n i s h as the extent of auto-matic c o n t r o l : over the process i n c r e a s e s . S i m i l a r l y , the importance of i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e super-246 v i s o r s and s c i e n t i f i c s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s (e.g., t e s t i n g l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i c i a n s ) v a r i e s w i t h the s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of production c o n t r o l s . Where such c o n t r o l s are few and rudimentary, i n t e r a c t i o n s between the sup e r v i s o r and t h i s c l a s s of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s assumes gr e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e . Where production c o n t r o l i s complete and v i r t u a l l y auto-matic, such i n t e r a c t i o n s appear not t o be t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y r e q u i r e d , except i n non-routine or c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n s . The a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s (e.g., development s c i e n -t i s t s ) tend t o be t a s k - o r i e n t e d , f a c e - t o - f a c e , and devoid of c o n f l i c t s over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The l a t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c appears t o be t y p i c a l of both Category I and Category I I I technology but a t y p i c a l of Category I I t e c h -nology. The communication of advice and i n f o r m a t i o n , r a t h e r than p r i m a r i l y d e c i s i o n s and i n s t r u c t i o n s , appears t o be a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of i n t e r a c t i o n s between f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s under Category I I I technology. The l a t t e r f e a t u r e of h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s appears t o be a t y p i c a l of Category I I technology. While, i n g e n e r a l , i n t e r a c t i o n s between s u p e r v i s o r s and t h e i r l i n e s u p e r i o r s under Category I technology, tend t o be f a c e - t o - f a c e , they may a l s o be mediated by the r e p o r t s of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . A l s o , w h i l e such i n t e r a c t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y devoid of c o n f l i c t over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l -i t y , c e r t a i n ambiguities regarding the l i m i t s of the f i r s t -247 l i n e s u p e r v i s o r ' s a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y may be pres-ent. The l a t t e r phenomenon i s perhaps a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a mechanistic residue e x i s t e n t i n the organic management processes. The a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s l i n e s u p e r i o r s i n Cate-gory I I technology tend t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h o s t i l i t y . They appear t o be concerned e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h production q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y . In a d d i t i o n , the subject of super-v i s o r - l i n e s u p e r i o r i n t e r a c t i o n s may be concerned w i t h the h i g h l y v a r i a b l e s t r e n g t h and d i s p o s i t i o n of the f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r ' s work f o r c e . I n t e r a c t i o n s are both f a c e -t o - f a c e as w e l l as mediated by the r e p o r t s of s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , the l a t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c being more pro-nounced i n Category I I technology than i n Category I t e c h -nology. The data p e r t a i n i n g t o i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s l i n e s u p e r i o r s i n Category I I I technology i s l i m i t e d . The a n a l y s i s does suggest t h a t t h i s c l a s s of i n t e r a c t i o n s i s g e n e r a l l y devoid of c o n f l i c t s over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . In a d d i t i o n , i t appears th a t such i n t e r a c t i o n s are based t o a s i g n i f i c a n t degree upon the communication of advice and i n f o r m a t i o n as w e l l as d e c i s i o n s and directiw&§. None of the foregoing c h a r a c t e r -i s t i c s of i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s s u p e r i o r s appear t o be t y p i c a l of the corresponding 248 i n t e r a c t i o n s i n Category I I technology. To what extent does the nature of i n t e r a c t i o n s be-tween su p e r v i s o r s and subordinates vary across the three c a t e g o r i e s of i n d u s t r i a l production technology? For e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I technology, the a n a l y s i s p o i n t s t o the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n s between the s u p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates tend t o be f a c e - t o - f a c e , and concerned w i t h production methods, pace, q u a l i t y , the adherence t o schedules, and s p e c i a l problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h non-routine jobs or t a s k s . I t appears t h a t such i n t e r -a c t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y devoid of c o n f l i c t over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I t i s questionable whether i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i n Category I technology and h i s subordinates t y p i c a l l y a l l o w f o r the mutual evalu-a t i o n of i s s u e s based upon the t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e of both p a r t i e s . S i m i l a r l y , i t i s d o u b t f u l whether s u p e r v i s o r -subordinate communications are t y p i c a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the exchange of advice and i n f o r m a t i o n r a t h e r than i n s t r u c -t i o n s and d i r e c t i v e s being t r a n s m i t t e d t o the subordinate. I n t e r a c t i o n s between subordinates and t h e i r immedi-ate s u p e r v i s o r s i n Category I I technology are f a c e - t o - f a c e i n nature and apparently are perceived by the subordinates as being r a t h e r h o s t i l e . In a d d i t i o n , these i n t e r a c t i o n s are p r i m a r i l y t a s k - o r i e n t e d , t h a t i s , concerned w i t h g i v i n g e f f e c t t o the d i r e c t i v e s and i n s t r u c t i o n s t r a n s m i t t e d t o the s u p e r v i s o r by h i s l i n e s u p e r i o r s or the s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . 2 4 9 Although p r i m a r i l y t a s k - o r i e n t e d i n nature, i n t e r a c t i o n s between workers and f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s are not ex-c l u s i v e l y so. The mediation of c o n f l i c t , plus a l i m i t e d amount of casual s o c i a l i z i n g , seem t o be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of such non-task-oriented i n t e r a c t i o n s . In continuous-process technology i n t e r a c t i o n s be-tween the supervisor and h i s subordinates tend t o be f a c e -t o - f a c e and not mainly t a s k - o r i e n t e d as i n Category I I technology. On the whole, such i n t e r a c t i o n s tend t o be devoid of c o n f l i c t over a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . In a previous s e c t i o n i t was questioned whether i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates i n Category I technology allowed f o r the mutual e v a l u a t i o n of i s s u e s based upon the t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e of both p a r t i e s . Also the doubt was expressed whether supervisor-subordinate communications were t y p i c a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n Category I technology by the exchange of advice and i n f o r m a t i o n r a t h e r than i n s t r u c t i o n s and d i r e c t i v e s . That such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of organic management processes are not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the s i t u a t i o n i n Category I I technology i s evident from the a n a l y s i s . However, i t appears that i n continuous-process technology i n t e r a c t i o n s between the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates are of a c o n s u l t a t i v e nature, and per-mit the f r e e i n t e r a c t i o n of workers roughly equal i n s t a t u s to t h e i r immediate s u p e r v i s o r s . The communication of advice and i n f o r m a t i o n , r a t h e r than mainly d e c i s i o n s and i n s t r u c -250 t i o n s , does appear t o c h a r a c t e r i z e such i n t e r a c t i o n s . The l a t t e r two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of subordinate-supervisor i n t e r -a c t i o n s become i n c r e a s i n g l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of continuous-process technology as the degree of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of pro-duct i o n c o n t r o l s i n c r e a s e s . Frequency of I n t e r a c t i o n s The scope f o r o f f e r i n g reasonably w e l l - s u b s t a n t i a t e d conclusions regarding the frequency of s u p e r v i s o r y i n t e r -a c t i o n s i n Category I technology i s very l i m i t e d due t o the q u a l i t y of the data. Therefore, a very t e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n i s o f f e r e d t o the e f f e c t t h a t the s u p e r v i s o r ' s t e c h n i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s tend t o l i m i t the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates. I t appears as though the technology of u n i t and s m a l l batch production may place very minimal requirements f o r such i n t e r a c t i o n s . The a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s that the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s between sub-ordinates and f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s i s l e s s i n Category I technology than i n Category I I I technology. I t i s not pos-s i b l e t o present any conclusions regarding the frequency of e i t h e r h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n s or i n t e r a c t i o n s between sup e r v i s o r s and t h e i r l i n e s u p e r i o r s i n e n t e r p r i s e s charac-t e r i z e d by u n i t and small-batch production technology. The a n a l y s i s of supervisory behavior under Category I I technology i n d i c a t e s t h a t the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s be-tween s u p e r v i s o r s and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s i s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h . 251 The q u a l i t y of the data does not permit an accurate assess-ment of the r e l a t i v e frequencies of i n t e r a c t i o n s between s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s and f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s on the one hand, and s u p e r v i s o r s , subordinates, or l i n e s u p e r i o r s on the other hand. I t appears th a t i n t e r a c t i o n s between s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s and f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s occur more f r e q u e n t l y than i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h e i t h e r l i n e - s u p e r i o r s or subordinates as a group. I n t e r a c t i o n s between f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s and t h e i r l i n e s u p e r i o r s are both t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y determined and a f -f e c t e d by the p e r s o n a l i t i e s of i n d i v i d u a l s . In comparison t o the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s between the su p e r v i s o r and e i t h e r s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s or subordinates, the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h l i n e s u p e r i o r s i s r e l a t i v e l y low i n Category I I technology. The a n a l y s i s of the case s t u d i e s and a d d i t i o n a l em-p i r i c a l data p e r t a i n i n g t o Category I I technology i n d i c a t e s t h a t the frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n between the su p e r v i s o r and h i s subordinates as a group i s l e s s than the frequency of the other c l a s s e s of i n t e r a c t i o n s . Most su p e r v i s o r y i n t e r a c t i o n s i n v o l v e non-workers. The p a t t e r n i s compli-cated by the tendency f o r mechanistic management theory t o break down i n p r a c t i c e as noted above. 1-Qne of the e f f e c t s of t h i s phenomenon seems t o be a measure of d i s c r e t i o n open t o the su p e r v i s o r i n regard t o which of h i s subordinates he i n t e r a c t s w i t h and how f r e q u e n t l y . 252 Although i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h subordinates tend t o occur r e l a t i v e l y i n f r e q u e n t l y , the soothing of r u f f l e d d i s p o s i t i o n s of female subordinates appears t o be an im-portant a c t i v i t y (hence a frequent a c t i v i t y ) of the f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i n Category I I technology. The data p e r t a i n i n g t o i n t e r a c t i o n frequencies i n Category I I I technology are indeed scanty. However, as was concluded i n Chapter V I I , an average i n t e r a c t i o n f r e -quency of f i v e contacts per day between subordinates and the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r appears t o exceed t h a t found i n e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I I technology. I t i s concluded t h a t continuous-process s u p e r v i s o r s i n t e r a c t more f r e -quently w i t h t h e i r subordinates than do f i r s t - l i n e super-v i s o r s i n Category I I technology. Supervisory Sentiments In t e s t i n g the v a l i d i t y of the s p e c i f i c hypotheses concerning supervisory sentiments i n Category I technology i t was necessary t o draw cautious and c a r e f u l l y considered i n f e r e n c e s from l i m i t e d data. I t appears t h a t sentiments of the s u p e r v i s o r i n Category I technology towsrd subordin-a t e s , s u p e r i o r s , and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s tend t o be n e u t r a l t o f r i e n d l y i n tone, f a i r l y constant over time, and t o be based i n part upon a mutual respect f o r others' t e c h n i c a l knowledge and experience. Compare the foregoing s i t u a t i o n w i t h t h a t found under 253 Category I I technology. The data p e r t a i n i n g t o Category I I technology c o n t a i n numerous d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t r e f e r -ences regarding supervisory sentiments. The a n a l y s i s p o i n t s t o the conc l u s i o n that supervisory sentiments t o -ward subordinates and v i c e versa may be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as v a r i a b l e or unstable due t o (1) the high sense of urgency of production (2) the r e l a t i v e l y short time p e r s p e c t i v e of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s (3) the i r r e g u l a r demands of pro-duction technology and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , and (4) the more or l e s s constant production-centered demands of su p e r v i s o r s on subordinates. Such sentiments appear t o range from empathy t o h o s t i l i t y . In Category I I technology the sentiments of f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s toward t h e i r l i n e s u p e r i o r s tend t o be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y those of defense and h o s t i l i t y , perhaps because of the breakdown of mechanistic management prac-t i c e s as manifested i n (1) the apparent ambiguity e x p e r i -enced by the su p e r v i s o r i n regard t o h i s a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r production, and (2) the frequent by-passing of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r by s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s . Sentiments f e l t by the s u p e r v i s o r toward h i s l i n e s u p e r i o r s tend t o be v a r i a b l e or unstable over time. The explanation of the l a t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c may l i e i n the r e l a t i v e l y low frequency of such i n t e r a c t i o n s and the frequent minor production c r i s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Category I I technology. Sentiments of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r toward s t a f f 254 s p e c i a l i s t s i n Category I I technology appear t o be n e u t r a l t o h o s t i l e and g e n e r a l l y s t a b l e over time, p o s s i b l y due t o the r e l a t i v e l y high frequency of t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s . The negative c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h i s c l a s s of sentiments might be due t o the breakdown of mechanistic management theory noted i n the preceding paragraph. One notes, t h e r e f o r e , a r a t h e r marked s h i f t i n the q u a l i t y and s t a b i l i t y of s u p e r v i s o r y sentiments as the l e v e l and nature of the mechanization of productive a c t i v i t i e s changes from Category I t o Category I I technology. As i n -d i c a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g paragraph, the q u a l i t y of super-v i s o r y sentiments i n e n t e r p r i s e s under Category I and Cate-gory I I I technology appears t o be s i m i l a r . D i r e c t expressions of the sentiments of s u p e r v i s o r s toward others were absent from our data bearing upon con-tinuous-process technology. An a n a l y s i s of the a v a i l a b l e data leads t o the i n f e r e n c e t h a t supervisory sentiments toward subordinates, s u p e r i o r s and s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s tend t o be n e u t r a l t o f r i e n d l y i n tone. In periods of c r i s i s , or i n non-routine s i t u a t i o n s which subordinates regard as being d e a l t w i t h i n e f f e c t i v e l y by the f i r s t - l i n e supervisor, sentiments may e x h i b i t a s l i g h t amount of i n s t a b i l i t y , t h a t i s , become m i l d l y negative. I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r Organization Theory The preceding s e c t i o n o u t l i n e d the conclusions emerg-in g from t h i s e x p l o r a t o r y study of the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between 255 modes of i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n technology and f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r y behavior. What g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s may be drawn which are r e l e v a n t t o o r g a n i z a t i o n theory? F i r s t , i t appears t h a t i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n t e c h -n o l o g i e s may be viewed t o advantage as "independent v a r i -a b l e s " g i v i n g an i n d u s t r y or e n t e r p r i s e d i s t i n c t i v e and p a r t i a l l y p r e d i c t a b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e and process c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e which are i n pa r t shaped by the dominant mode of p r o d u c t i o n technology i n c l u d e (1) the s t r u c t u r e , com-p o s i t i o n and scope of the management o r g a n i z a t i o n (2) the s k i l l , s t a t u s , and a u t h o r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h i n and be-tween managerial cadres and p r o d u c t i o n workers (3) the s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n as expressed by org a n i c or me c h a n i s t i c processes of management (4) the nat u r e , extent and r e l a -t i v e ease of p r o d u c t i o n p l a n n i n g and c o n t r o l (5) the room f o r maneuvre by f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s allowed by the procedures of p r o d u c t i o n p l a n n i n g and c o n t r o l (6) the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s , i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s and s e n t i -ments of members of the managerial cadres, and (7) r e q u i r e d interdependence among o r g a n i z a t i o n a l u n i t s and the problems p e c u l i a r t o such r e q u i r e d interdependence. Second, i t appears as though the f o r e g o i n g o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l c o r r e l a t e s of i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s may be conceived of as " i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s " which p a r t i a l l y account f o r the observed r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the independent 256 v a r i a b l e s of dominant modes of production technology and v a r i o u s "dependent v a r i a b l e s " such as the dimensions of f i r s t - l i n e s upervisory behavior or r o l e demands. That i s , o r g a n i z a t i o n theory must acknowledge thag modes of i n d u s t r i a l production technology tend t o be a s s o c i -ated w i t h s p e c i f i c and g e n e r a l l y p r e d i c t a b l e c o r r e l a t e s such as those s p e c i f i e d above. The combined i n f l u e n c e of t e c h n o l o g i c a l demands on supervisory behavior and the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e and process c o r r e l a t e s of t e c h -nology s i g n i f i c a n t l y help t o shape a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c set of supervisory t e c h n i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s . The l a t t e r i n t u r n r e q u i r e of the f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r a p a t t e r n of i n t e r a c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g h i m s e l f and subordinates, s u p e r i o r s , s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s , and f e l l o w s u p e r v i s o r s along the work-flow. F i n a l l y , as a consequence of these p a r t i a l l y t e c h -n o l o g i c a l l y r e q u i r e d i n t e r a c t i o n s , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e n t i -ments tend t o develop and t o e x h i b i t r a t h e r p r e d i c t a b l e q u a l i t i e s and degrees of s t a b i l i t y over time. Figure IX below i s a schematic p o r t r a y a l of the apparent i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s study f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n theory. The f i g u r e i s meant t o i l l u s t r a t e the interdependent e f f e e t s of each of the s i x model elements. The Need f o r A d d i t i o n a l Research Although f o r the purposes of a n a l y s i s a degree of c a u s a l i t y or determinism has been assumed t o h o l d among the 257 FIGURE IX MODEL OF THE ELEMENTS INVOLVED IN THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERVISORY BEHAVIOR 258 "independent," " i n t e r v e n i n g " and "dependent" v a r i a b l e s , the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among these elements are undoubtedly-more s u b t l e and complex than t h i s study might suggest. Figure IX above i s meant t o convey a sense of the complex a s s o c i a t i o n s which l i k e l y e x i s t among the main ca t e g o r i e s of the a n a l y s i s . H o p e f u l l y , i t w i l l avoid any suggestion of a crude t e c h n o l o g i c a l determinism which may have crept i n t o the a n a l y s i s . A l s o , i t i s f u l l y acknowledged th a t technology i s but one s i g n i f i c a n t independent v a r i a b l e a f f e c t i n g the s t r u c t u r e and processes of complex organiza-t i o n s , and, hence, the behavior of s u p e r v i s o r s . Undoubtedly, 2 the e f f e c t s of time and t e r r i t o r y , economic f a c t o r s , mana-g e r i a l i d e o l o g y , s o c i o - c u l t u r a l v a l u e s , and p e r s o n a l i t i e s of members of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e l i t e s are at l e a s t as s i g n i f i -cant as technology i n shaping the behavior of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s . The most conspicuous and fundamental research prob-lems i n d i c a t e d by t h i s e x p l o r a t o r y study are the need t o e l u c i d a t e i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l and w i t h g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n , the complex of i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s which may e x i s t among (1) the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of technology and i t s demands on organiza-t i o n a l a c t o r s , (2) the s t r u c t u r a l c o r r e l a t e s of a given mode of production technology, and (3) the dimensions of f i r s t - l i n e s upervisory behavior. In order t o e f f e c t such a d d i t i o n a l research a number of b a s i c problems grappled w i t h i n the present study must 259 be d e a l t w i t h . For each i d e n t i f i a b l e category of indus-t r i a l production technology, a d d i t i o n a l research i n the f o l l o w i n g areas i s r e q u i r e d i f the i n s i g h t s gained i n the present study are t o prove of value i n o r g a n i z a t i o n theory. 1. D e l i n e a t i n g the s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r sup e r v i s o r y behavior of management by committee or i t s absence. P r a c t i c e of management by committee w i l l have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the nature and frequency of i n t e r a c t i o n s , and, hence, a f f e c t sentiments. In a d d i t i o n , i t may have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the nature and q u a l i t y of management communications w i t h r a n k - a n d - f i l e o p e r a t i v e s . 2. S p e c i f y i n g the t e c h n i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of managerial and f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r y personnel. 3. S t a t i n g i n b e h a v i o r a l terms the a c t i v i t i e s and i n t e r -a c t i o n patterns of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s . 4. Quantifying the time and t e r r i t o r y parameters r e l e v a n t t o supervisory planning and c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s , and s p e c i -f y i n g the e f f e c t s of such parameters upon the behavior of f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s . 5. Expressing i n b e h a v i o r a l terms the i m p l i c a t i o n s of " o r g a n i z a t i o n problems" a f f e c t i n g the s u p e r v i s o r , 6. C l a r i f y i n g and s t a n d a r d i z i n g the c r i t e r i a f o r c l a s s i f y -i n g an e n t e r p r i s e w i t h i n a category of i n d u s t r i a l production technology. 7. Monitoring communication networks i n v o l v i n g the f i r s t -l i n e s u p e r v i s o r i n order t o (a) a s c e r t a i n i n t e r a c t i o n 260 patterns, frequencies and durations, and (b) indicate the content or subject of verbal communications. 8. Developing, testing and validating instruments designed to determine the nature and st a b i l i t y over time of super-visory sentiments toward subordinates, superiors, staff specialists, and fellow supervisors along the work-flow. 9 . Ascertaining the relative proportions of time spent by the f i r s t - l i n e supervisor in his main ac t i v i t i e s . 10. Correlating the relationships which may exist between the technologically required and permitted behavior of production workers on the one hand, and the behavior of the f i r s t - l i n e supervisor on the other hand. 11. Identifying the effects of organic and mechanistic management processes upon the behavior of f i r s t - l i n e supervisors. 12. Identifying the effects upon the number of levels of management in an enterprise due to the relative ease, accuracy and completeness of production control processes. This exploratory study demonstrates that certain relationships among industrial production technology, organi-zation structure and management practices, and f i r s t - l i n e supervisory behavior may be predicted at a f a i r l y high level of generalization. Subsequent confirmatory studies based upon the conclusions of this study and focusing on the above research problems, may contribute additional under-261 s t a n d i n g of the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l phenomena explo r e d here. I f subsequent r e s e a r c h i s s u c c e s s f u l i n t h i s r e g a r d , a d a p t a t i o n t o t e c h n o l o g i c a l change w i t h i n the e n t e r p r i s e may be more r e a d i l y achieved. F i n a l l y , the i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o the body of o r g a n i z a t i o n t h e o r y of the s t r u c t u r a l and b e h a v i o r a l c o r r e l a t e s o f v a r i o u s modes of i n d u s t r i a l pro-d u c t i o n technology may w e l l enhance the p r e d i c t i v e c a p a b i l -i t y of t h a t t h e o r y , and, hence, begin t o meet the c h a l l e n g e 3 o f f e r e d decades ago by E l t o n Mayo: t o p r o v i d e the indu s -t i r a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r w i t h u s e f u l s o c i a l s k i l l s . 262 FOOTNOTES ON CHAPTER V I I I r "^Joan Woodward, I n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n : Theory and P r a c t i c e . (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1965), p. 79. 2 E r i c J . M i l l e r , "Technology, T e r r i t o r y and Time," Human R e l a t i o n s , V o l . X I I , No. 2, (1959), pp. 243-272. J E l t o n Mayo, The S o c i a l Problems of an I n d u s t r i a l C i v i l i z a t i o n (Boston: Graduate School of Business Adminis-t r a t i o n , Harvard U n i v e r s i t y , 1945). BIBLIOGRAPHIES 264 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CASE STUDIES Case 1 The Place of the Foreman i n Management. Seven case s t u d i e s undertaken by the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of I n d u s t r i a l Psychology. London: Staples Press, 1957, pp. 73-82. Case 2 The Place of the Foreman i n Management. Seven case s t u d i e s undertaken by the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of I n d u s t r i a l Psychology. London: Staples Press, 1957, pp. 17-33. Case 3 Richardson, F.L.W. Talk, Work and A c t i o n . I t h a c a , New York: The S o c i e t y f o r App l i e d Anthropology, C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , New York State School of I n d u s t r i a l and Labor R e l a t i o n s , 1961. Case 4 Z a l e z n i k , A. Foreman T r a i n i n g i n a Growing Enter-p r i s e . 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" Human Or g a n i z a t i o n , V o l . 15, No. 2, 1956, pp. 2k^2S~. Klemm, F r i e d r i c k . A H i s t o r y of Western Technology. Trans. Dorothea Waley Singer. London: George A l l e n and Unwin, 1959-Kornhauser, A r t h u r , Robert Dubin and Arthur N. Turner (eds.). I n d u s t r i a l C o n f l i c t . New York, Toronto, London: McGraw-Hill, 1954. Lawrence, Paul R., et a l . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Behavior and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n : CasesT^Concepts, and Research Findings" Homewood, 111.: I r w i n Dorsey, 1961. L e i f e r , Walter (ed.). Man and Technology. Germany: Max Hueber, Verlag Munchen, 1963. 2 6 7 L i p s e t , Seymour M., M a r t i n A. Trow and James S. Coleman. Union Democracy: The I n t e r n a l P o l i t i c s of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Typographical Union". Garden C i t y , N.Y.: Free P r e s s , 1956. L i t t e r e r , Joseph A. Organizations: S t r u c t u r e and Behavior. New York: Wiley, 1963. 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"Technology, T e r r i t o r y and Time." Human R e l a t i o n s . V o l . X I I , No. 2, 1959, pp. 243-272. McLuhan, M a r s h a l l . Understanding Media: The Extension of Man. Toronto: McGraw-Hill, 1965. R i c e , A.K. "The Experimental Reorganization of Non-Automatic Weaving i n an Indian M i l l . " Human R e l a t i o n s , V o l . V I I I , No. 2, 1955, pp. 199-250. S e l z n i c k , P h i l i p . Leadership i n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n : A Socio-l o g i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Evanston, 111., White P l a i n s , N.I.: Row, Peterson, 1957. Smith, Adam. An I n q u i r y i n t o the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. New York: Modern L i b r a r y , (c) 1937, by Random House. Stinchcombe, Arthur L. "Bureaucratic and C r a f t Adminis-t r a t i o n of Production: A Comparative Study." A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Science Q u a r t e r l y , IV, 1959, pp. 168-187. 268 Thompson, James D. and F r e d e r i c k L. Bates. "Technology, O r g a n i z a t i o n , and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . " A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Science Q u a r t e r l y , V o l . I I , No. 3 (Dec. 1957), pp. 325-343. Tonnies, Ferdinand. Fundamental Concepts of Sociology (Gemeinschaft und G e s e l l s c h a f t ) . Trans, and sup-plemented by Charles P. Loomis. New York: American Book Company, 1940. T r i s t , E.L. and K.M. Bamforth. "Some S o c i a l and Psycho-l o g i c a l Consequences of the Longwell Method of C o a l - g e t t i n g . " Human R e l a t i o n s , V o l . IV, No. 1 (Feb. 195D, pp. 3-38. Turner, Arthur N. " I n t e r a c t i o n and Sentiment i n the Foremen-Worker R e l a t i o n s h i p . " Human O r g a n i z a t i o n , V o l . 14, No. 1, 1955, pp. 10-16. Veblen, T h o r s t e i n . The I n s t i n c t of Workmanship. New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1918. . The Theory of Business E n t e r p r i s e , (c) 1904, New York: August M. K e l l y , B o o k s e l l e r , 1965. Walker, C R . "Work Methods, Working C o n d i t i o n s , and Morale." In Kornhauser, Dubin and Ross (eds.), I n d u s t r i a l C o n f l i c t . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954. pp. 345-358. . , Robert H. Guest and Arthur N. Turner. The Fore-man on the Assembly L i n e . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1956. Warner, W. Ll o y d and J.O. Lfitw. The S o c i a l System of the Modern Factory: The S t r i k e : A S o c i a l A n a l y s i s . New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1947. Weber, Max. The Theory of S o c i a l and Economic Organ i z a t i o n . Trans. A.M. Henderson and T a l c o t t Parsons. Ed. by T a l c o t t Parsons. New York: The Free Press, I964. Whyte, W i l l i a m F. Men at Work. Homewood, 111.: Dorsey, 1961. Woodward, Joan. I n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n : Theory and P r a c t i c e . London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965. APPENDICES ADDITIONAL EMPIRICAL DATA 270 APPENDIX I CATEGORY I TECHNOLOGY: MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS 1. Unit production time i s r e l a t i v e l y l o n g . 1 2. C o n t r o l of a c t u a l output and q u a l i t y can be maintained at the worker-operator l e v e l . 2 3. The need f o r s u p e r v i s i o n i s reduced. 4. Worker commitment r e q u i r e d i s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h . 4 5 5. Worker autonomy may be r e l e v a n t here. 6. S e n s i t i v i t y t o the i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the worker seems to be one of the t r a i t s which super-v i s o r s may use t o o b t a i n a high l e v e l of produc-t i v i t y from the worker. 0 7. There i s a c u r v i l i n e a r r e l a t i o n between worker p a r t i c i -p a t i o n and such consequences as output.7 8. S u c c e s s f u l s u p e r v i s i o n r e q u i r e s the a b i l i t y t o play m u l t i p l e , d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r o l e s . 8 9 . S u c c e s s f u l s u p e r v i s o r s tend t o delegate more a u t h o r i t y , t o be supportive i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h sub-o r d i n a t e s , and t o g i v e more a t t e n t i o n t o c r e a t i n g ^ employee morale than do unsuccessful s u p e r v i s o r s . 10. More cohesive groups tend t o be more e f f e c t i v e . 1 ^ 11. High producers tend t o be deviants [and i s o l a t e s ] from the group's p r o d u c t i v i t y norms. E f f o r t s at group s o c i a l c o n t r o l seems t o encourage deviant high producers. 12. High group cohesion tends to accompany reduced member anxiety.12 13. There tends t o be l e s s v a r i a b i l i t y i n a c t u a l produc-t i v i t y w i t h i n h i g h l y cohesive groups than w i t h i n low cohesive groups.13 14. I f work groups are allowed t o s e l e c t t h e i r own members-., turnover, l a b o r and m a t e r i a l s costs tend t o d e c l i n e . ^ 271 15. L a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l ( s tatus) work f l o w r e l a t i o n s dominate the work s i t u a t i o n f o r employees.15 16. For experienced workers, r e l a t i o n s w i t h the super-v i s o r are r e l a t i v e l y rare.16 17. The supe r v i s o r ' s s k i l l i n easing d i s t r e s s e s i n the work flow c a r r y major weight i n determining the worker's sentiment toward the supervisor.17 18. A ba s i c s k i l l r e q u i r e d of workers i s the a b i l i t y t o i n i t i a t e i n t e r a c t i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s f o r others.18 19 19» Work group s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s are of primary importance. 20. I n t e g r a t i o n and c o o r d i n a t i o n of the m u l t i p l e s k i l l -s t a t u s l e v e l s of the primary work group i s r e -re q u i r e d . 20 21. Work pace i s l a r g e l y i n f l u e n c e d by the nature of the item being produced.21 22. Accurate worker c o o r d i n a t i o n and worker s k i l l i s r e -quired ( e s s e n t i a l ] f o r work rhythms and a minimum of emotional s t r a i n . 2 2 23. The su p e r v i s o r ' s i n i t i a t i o n of a c t i v i t i e s w i l l vary depending upon a combination of tasks t o be done, the s k i l l and p e r s o n a l i t y of workers.23 24. Management c o n t r o l of production i s minimal because i t i s so d i f f i c u l t . 2 4 25. Agreement regarding production standards i s d i f f i c u l t t o a t t a i n . 2 5 26. Determination of i n d i v i d u a l merit (as the b a s i s f o r s a l a r y increases and promotions) i s f r e q u e n t l y very d i f f i c u l t . 2 6 27 27. The foreman's i n f l u e n c e on production i s dubious. 28. The foreman's knowledge of h i s workers and h i s a b i l i t y t o c o r r e c t c r i t i c a l p o i n t s i s c r u c i a l . 2 8 29 29. Workers value steady work pace and c o o r d i n a t i o n . 30. Technology and work flow tend t o allo w more l a t i t u d e f o r f r e e i n t e r a c t i o n s than i n Category II.3 0 31. The work s i t u a t i o n tends t o place upon the workers them-selves the burden f o r org a n i z i n g t h e i r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . 3 1 272 the hand got method of c o a l - g e t t i n g we f i n d s m a l l (2-3 men), s e l f - s e l e c t e d , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d crews performing a l l underground o p e r a t i o n s (no d i v i s i o n of l a b o r between groups) the work group determining i t s own pace (no d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n over the c o l l i e r s ) i s o l a t e d teams engaged i n constant work w i t h exten-s i v e f r e e i n t e r a c t i o n s among crew members each worker capable of performing a l l work t a s k s . 33 u n i t and s m a l l batch manufacturing we note:-^ r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p l a n n i n g , c o n t r o l and exe c u t i o n at a l l s u p e r v i s o r y l e v e l s foremen i n i t i a t i n g i n t e r a c t i o n s t o workers r e : p r o d u c t i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , methods and sequence d e t a i l e d o r g a n i z a t i o n , p l a n n i n g and c o n t r o l of work l e f t almost e n t i r e l y t o f i r s t - l i n e s u p e r v i s o r s a h i g h degree of s u p e r v i s o r y involvement i n the a f f a i r s of the company, p l u s a h i g h l y developed sense of s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . 273 APPENDIX II CATEGORY I TECHNOLOGY OBSERVATIONS ON CRAFT TECHNOLOGY IN PRINTING., THE IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPERVISORY BEHAVIOR Background facts on printing 1. Skilled craftsmen comprise about 70 per cent of the direct 3 5 labor in the printing trades. y 2. The typical shop i s small. In 1955 the average printing establishment had 25 employees compared with 69 em-ployees in chemicals, 134 in textiles and 334 in auto-'s /£. mobiles. About 42 per cent of a l l printers work in shops with fewer than 100 employees compared to 26 per cent of a l l factory workers and 23 per cent, 15 per cent and 4 per cent respectively in chemical, textile and transportation equipment industries. Organizational characteristics 3. "The essential feature of a craft technology i s i t s lack of standardization of the product."37 4. "In the small or middle-sized plants characteristic of the industry, there i s much . . . functional rationality . . ."38 Supervision in the printing craft 5. "The freedom to determine techniques of work, to choose one's tools, and to vary the sequence of operations, i s part of the nature and traditions of craftmanship. Because each job i s somewhat different from previous jobs, problems continually arise which require a drafts-man to make decisions. Traditional s k i l l thus involves 274 the frequent use of judgement and i n i t a t i v e , aspects of a job which give the worker a f e e l i n g of c o n t r o l over h i s environment. H 39 6 . "The craftsman's high degree of personal c o n t r o l im-p l i e s a complementary freedom from e x t e r n a l super-v i s o r y c o n t r o l . Craftsmen, w i t h t h e i r strong sense of independence and d i g n i t y , resent c l o s e s u p e r v i s i o n and are l i k e l y t o r e s i s t i t more m i l i t a n t l y and suc-c e s s f u l l y than other manual workers. They have l i t t l e need f o r e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l s , s i n c e they have i n t e r n a l -i z e d standards of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , output, and work-sh i p . T h e i r d i s c i p l i n e i s s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e , supported by the group d i s c i p l i n e of t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l c r a f t , which enforce c o l l e c t i v e standards of excellence and behavior. Craftsmen g e n e r a l l y consider themselves as good as t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s i n s o c i a l s t a t u s as w e l l as p r o f e s s i o n a l competence. In c r a f t i n d u s t r i e s , the foreman i s oft e n the oldest and most experienced journeyman. He may be more respected, but he i s not b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the others. "40 7. "Technical c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h s u p e r i o r s does take place i n c r a f t i n d u s t r i e s , but si n c e craftsmen have a more independent domain, i t i s b u i l t i n t o the system l e s s than i n continuous process technology. " 4 1 8. " P r i n t e r s have extended the freedom from s u p e r v i s i o n n a t u r a l t o c r a f t production t o a point perhaps un-r i v a l e d i n modern i n d u s t r y . Foremen are r e q u i r e d t o be union members, and thus t h e i r a c t i o n s may be c o n t r o l l e d by the workers themselves, who can invoke union r u l e s t o check them."42 To a l a r g e extent the workers themselves run the composing room.43 9. "Although the p r i n t e r ' s freedom and c o n t r o l i s l a r g e l y due t o the nature of c r a f t technology, i t i s r e i n -f o r c e d and strengthened by s p e c i a l economic c o n d i t i o n s and by s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s of the i n d u s t r y which have a long h i s t o r y . The unusual power of the union and the reduced a u t h o r i t y of the su p e r v i s o r s are two such unique f e a t u r e s of the industry. " 4 4 275 APPENDIX I I I CATEGORY I I TECHNOLOGY: MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS 1. E f f i c i e n c y and e f f e c t i v e n e s s of work groups appear t o be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o low " c o n s i d e r a t i o n " and much " s t r u c t u r i n g " of the work situation.4 5 2. For production operations of category I I , absenteeism and number of grievances f i l e d tend t o be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o " i n i t i a t i n g s t r u c t u r e " and n e g a t i v e l y r e -l a t e d t o consideration.4 6 3. S u p e r i o r - s u p e r v i s o r r e l a t i o n s are most important; o r i e n t a t i o n t o the f e e l i n g s of subordinates i s thus jeopardized.47 4. S t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s o r i g i n a t e production standards which the foreman must uphold. C r u c i a l c o n t r o l i n f o r m a t i o n by-passes the foreman and goes d i r e c t l y t o h i s boss. 48 5. Foremen-foremen (peer) r e l a t i o n s h i p s are inherent i n category I I technology; are l a r g e l y i n f o r m a l and a source of c o m p l i c a t i o n i n the foremen-superior r e l a -t i o n s h i p s . 49 6. Work flo w r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n the work u n i t tend t o be important.50 7. C o n f l i c t s over production may be a source of low morale and workers w i t h h o l d i n g production.51 8. On short production runs s u p e r v i s o r y planning s k i l l s become important.52 9. Workers tend t o see the foreman's r o l e as d i f f i c u l t and undesirable.5 3 10. S u p e r v i s o r s ' i n t e r a c t i o n s tend t o be s h o r t , frequent and mainly w i t h non-workers.54 11. Workers i n i t i a t e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h t h e i r foreman more f r e q u e n t l y than v i c e versa.55 12. The foreman's " l e a d e r s h i p c l i m a t e " appears t o be the primary determinant of h i s a t t i t u d e s and behavior. 276 13. I n d u s t r i a l workers i n category I I technology seem t o p r e f e r working under foremen who are high i n " c o n s i d -e r a t i o n " and t o d i s l i k e working under foremen high i n " i n i t i a t i n g s t ructure."57 14. Category I I technology presents management w i t h very d i f f i c u l t t e c h n i c a l questions of "balancing the l i n e " — a matter of concern t o the workers.58 15. The t e c h n i c a l environment i s overwhelming. To the ex-te n t t h a t the s u p e r v i s o r can modify the degree of impact of t h i s environment, he can b u i l d f a v o r a b l e sentiments toward himself.59 16. Workers tend t o despise t h e i r jobs because (a) they cannot c o n t r o l the work pace (b) work i s h i g h l y r e p e t i t i v e (c) minimum s k i l l i s r e q u i r e d (d) methods and t o o l s are completely s p e c i f i e d (e) only "surface a t t e n t i o n , " not involvement, i s needed ( f ) s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n i s l i m i t e d . 6 0 17. I n t e r a c t i o n between workers i s l i m i t e d by s u p e r v i s o r s as w e l l as technology. Primary group i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s thus d i f f i c u l t . 6 1 18. Under the l o n g r w a l l method of c o a l - g e t t i n g c o o r d i n a t i o n between and w i t h i n s h i f t s i s r e q u i r e d . " S h i f t deputies" are r e s p o n s i b l e t o management f o r the s h i f t (!s produc-t i o n . 62 19. P h y s i c a l h a b i t a t and l a r g e span of s h i f t deputy's ^con-t r o l make e f f e c t i v e communications d i f f i c u l t . 6 3 20. For the l o n g - w a l l method of c o a l - g e t t i n g , task i n t e r -dependence w i t h i n and between s h i f t s i s co n s i d e r a b l e . One hundred percent performance i s r e q u i r e d at each step i f the system i s t o operate e f f e c t i v e l y . 6 4 21. The main burden of keeping down the number of c y c l e stoppages f a l l s on the s h i f t deputy. He alone has c y c l e , as d i s t i n c t from t a s k , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Close s u p e r v i s i o n i s v i r t u a l l y impossible.65 22. In an automobile assembly l i n e : 5 l e v e l s of the manage-ment h i e r a r c h y ; s u p e r v i s o r ' s span of c o n t r o l covers 25-35 workers; workers' tasks completely p r e s c r i b e d , w i t h the average time c y c l e f o r each operator's job being about 1 1 / 2 min. I n t e r a c t i o n among workers i s minimal; i t i s not f u n c t i o n a l l y required.66 23* Automobile assembly l i n e operations r e q u i r e an enor-mous amount of planning and c o o r d i n a t i o n by s p e c i a l -277 i z e d t e c h n i c a l s e r v i c e groups (2 1/2 d i r e c t workers t o 1 s t a f f or s e r v i c e position).67 24* "At point a f t e r p o i n t , machines or t e c h n i c a l experts have absorbed many of the d u t i e s normally a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f r o n t - l i n e s u p e r v i s i o n . " M a t e r i a l s c o n t r o l and handling experts monitor the movement, amount and placement of worker; the conveyor c o n t r o l s pace of production. The time of each job element i s f u l l y prescribed.68 25. Foremen are unanimous i n agreeding t h a t r e l a t i o n s w i t h subordinates are the most important part of t h e i r job; the key t o t h e i r success. 69 26. Absenteeism and production q u a l i t y are the s u p e r v i s o r ' s two l a r g e s t problems.70 27. Important su p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s : the a b i l i t y t o absorb management pressure; p r o t e c t i o n of workers' i n t e r e s t s and c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h them.71 72 28. Good human r e l a t i o n s are e s p e c i a l l y important. 29. The foreman i s s t r a t e g i c i n the s w i f t adjustment of the new r e c r u i t t o the unique experience of a mobile work environment.73 30. Human r e l a t i o n s problems w i t h m u l t i p l i c i t y of s t a f f -s e r v i c e groups are minimal.74 31. Foremen i n t e r a c t i o n s are based upon work-flow problems. F e l l o w foremen are g e n e r a l l y seen as h e l p f u l . Fore-man cooperation along the work-flow i s important.75 32. S t r i c t adherence t o the formal chain of command (re- i 'orders and communications) i s h e a v i l y emphasized but f r e q u e n t l y v i o l a t e d due t o pressures of production. 33. Major supervisory d u t i e s i n c l u d e : t r a i n i n g , checking q u a l i t y and d e a l i n g w i t h the personal problems of workers (e.g. workers' a t t i t u d e s toward q u a l i t y ) . 77 34* The foreman's t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y based problems i n c l u d e : (a) c o n d i t i o n of t o o l s and m a t e r i a l s (b) supply of m a t e r i a l s and p a r t s t o the u n i t (c) interdependence of operations from one u n i t t o the next along the moving conveyor (d) the f l u c t u a t i o n of l i n e speeds and i t s e f f e c t s (e) the "balance" of work between each of the opera-t o r s at the v a r i o u s s t a t i o n s along the line.78 76 278 35. Management and foremen recognize t h a t q u a l i t y produc-t i o n flows from a s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e d group possessing a sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r doing a good j o b — and doing i t f o r a foreman who i s the group's leader i n f a c t as w e l l as t i t l e . 7 9 36. Emergencies are normal: a f u n c t i o n of departures from routines.80 37. The essence of the foreman's job i s doing something g-. d i f f e r e n t every minute (400-600 separate episodes/day. 38. I f can be concluded t h a t i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r working en-vironment a foreman-worker r e l a t i o n s h i p contains a higher degree of p o s i t i v e sentiment when there i s more frequent i n t e r a c t i o n , provided t h a t such i n t e r a c t i o n i s not confined s o l e l y t o matters r e l a t e d t o the j o b , but i s perceived as i n c l u d i n g i n f o r m a l , f r i e n d l y con-t a c t s i n a d d i t i o n t o those r e q u i r e d i n the course of work. . . . Most of these workers d i s l i k e d t h e i r im-mediate job. The technology of the moving l i n e pro-duced i n the m a j o r i t y a f e e l i n g of pressure and im-p e r s o n a l i t y . . . . Under these circumstances one would expect t h a t the content and nature of i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h foremen would be more important than i t s frequency alone.82 83 39. "Frequency of I n t e r a c t i o n (Talking) w i t h Foremen. (Percentage of T o t a l Sample)" Talk w i t h Foremen Plant Y Plant X Often (at l e a s t once per hour) O c c a s i o n a l l y (at l e a s t twice per day) Rarely (once per day or l e s s ) Indeterminate or no answer 23.3 33.3 39.1 46.1 31.2 20.6 6.4 — 100 100 279 APPENDIX IV CATEGORY I I I TECHNOLOGY: MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS 1. There i s reason t o b e l i e v e t h a t worker autonomy ( i . e . general s u p e r v i s i o n ) i s not probably r e l e v a n t t o continuous process technology.84 2. Given the p o t e n t i a l i t y of an e r r o r causing s u b s t a n t i a l l o s s i n the process should i t go unattended, managers and s u p e r v i s o r s w i l l tend t o concentrate on i n s p e c t i o n and c o n t r o l functions.85 3. Worker commitment r e q u i r e d i s probably minimal. 4. Workers expect immediate s u p e r v i s o r s t o be t e c h n i c a l l y competent. For more s e n i o r l e v e l s of s u p e r v i s o r g 7 workers look f o r g r e a t e r human r e l a t i o n s s k i l l s . 5. In new power p l a n t s , foremen expect t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s t o be a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y s k i l l e d . T e c h n i c a l and human r e l a t i o n s s k i l l s are f e l t t o be l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t . In o l d e r p l a n t s [ l e v e l s of automation l o w e r ] , human r e l a t i o n s s k i l l s are r a t e d higher than t e c h n i c a l or a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s k i l l s . 8 8 6. Workers tend t o be t i e d t o remote c o n t r o l panels. A c t i v i t i e s are geared t o c o n d i t i o n s of the process. I n t e r a c t i o n s are r e q u i r e d when changes are being made. 7. R e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s heavy: few d u t i e s are s p e c i f i c a l l y assigned.90 8. Free i n t e r a c t i o n i s permitted. Workers (operators) are roughly equal i n s t a t u s t o t h e i r boss. Supervisory support of top management i s minimal.91 9. There i s l i t t l e pressure t o get out the work. The job i s n e i t h e r nervously nor p h y s i c a l l y fatiguing.9 2 10. Woodward notes two important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of cate-gory I I I technology which are common to category I technology. 93 (a) the d e f i n i t i o n of the primary task not only i s c l e a r - c u t , but i s acceptable t o those concerned [note c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h 7 above] (b) a c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n of the p l a n n i n g , execution and c o n t r o l elements i n the production f u n c t i o n 280 She remarks t h a t the s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s s i m i l a r i n ca t e g o r i e s I and I I I . 9 4 11. In category I I I technology "the extreme mechanization has brought the character of the worker's techno-l o g i c a l work environment f u l l c y c l e back toward tha t of a h i g h l y s k i l l e d craftsman. The semi-s k i l l e d or u n s k i l l e d machine tenders, the ' p r o l e -t a r i a t , ' have been e l i m i n a t e d , and engineers and t h e i r maintenance crews composed of s k i l l e d mechanics are a l l t h a t remain."95 281 APPENDIX V CATEGORY I I I TECHNOLOGY Notes on automated technology A. The f o l l o w i n g b r i e f notes have been drawn from Charles 96 R. Walker's study of the f i r s t continuous seamless pipe m i l l i n the United S t a t e s . 1. 1. The t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n described i n t h i s study "pushed the mechanical process . . . [of pipe-making] a long step toward the automatic. . . . I t made pos-s i b l e increased production w i t h fewer people. . . . I t decreased the need f o r muscle and increased the 97 demand f o r mental s k i l l s . " 2. The work flow i n the seamless m i l l i s continuous. The s t e e l b i l l e t moves s u c c e s s i v e l y through f i v e processes, each of which i s as s o c i a t e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r u n i t of machinery. The f i v e u n i t s are connected w i t h each other by conveyors. 9^ 3. There are 9 operators i n the hot m i l l crew, eight i n re g u l a r p o s i t i o n s and one man who " s p e l l s " a l l the others. Senior operating r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a d j u s t -ments on the most important u n i t i n the sequence, and f o r o v e r a l l c o o r d i n a t i o n of the operations, r e s i d e s 99 w i t h the foreman. The nine crew men are f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d t o each other and t o the machinery they operate 282 as a team or c r e w . 1 0 0 Jobs are e i t h e r wholly or p a r t l y a u t o m a t i c . 1 0 1 "Team work by a l l [crew] members . . . i s important not only when 'the m i l l i s r o l l i n g ' but when 'changepvers' and readjustments of equipment are c a l l e d , f o r . " 1 0 2 4. The t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n described by Walker apparently r e s u l t e d i n increased contacts between 103 workers and s u p e r v i s o r s . The m a j o r i t y of the crew r a t e d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h s u p e r v i s o r s as " b e t t e r " than i n the o l d m i l l . 1 0 4 In the new seamless m i l l there was l e s s i n t e r v e n t i o n by s e n i o r supervisory l e v e l s when 105 t r o u b l e occurred. y The crew reported l e s s supervisory "nagging" and more l i s t e n i n g t o workers i n the new mill 1 0° Once the problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n were overcome, contacts between workers and foremen became l e s s frequent. An average of 5 contacts 107 per day was recorded. 5. The workers valued the possession of t e c h n i c a l s k i l l , . 108 by s u p e r v i s o r s . 6. Once the new seamless m i l l was " r o l l i n g " at a s a t i s f a c -t o r y r a t e , and, hence, once both production and earnings were h i g h , "pressure" on the workers l i g h t e n e d . There was " l e s s i n t e r p e r s o n a l t e n s i o n " between s u p e r v i s i o n 109 and the crews; h o s t i l i t y had almost e n t i r e l y disappeared. 7 7. "The foreman group occupied an ambivalent and changing p o s i t i o n between [the production] group and management. 283 I n c r e a s i n g l y i t . . . [became] recognized i n theory and p r a c t i c e t h a t t o do h i s job e f f e c t i v e l y a foreman should not only transmit and i n t e r p r e t management's orders t o the worker but i n t e r p r e t and transmit the workers' needs t o management.""^® B. The f o l l o w i n g observations p e r t a i n t o Chalres R. Walker's study of the f i r s t continuous seamless pipe m i l l i n the 111 United S t a t e s . x The Foreman's Job (as reported by a foreman) 1. " [ I n the new seamless continuous m i l l the foreman's job i s ] p a r t l y , of course, what i t always was, the d i r e c t i o n and t r a i n i n g of your work f o r c e i n t h e i r proper jobs. There's keeping t h e i r time, l o o k i n g a f t e r s a f e t y , and doing paper work. But i n other ways a foreman's job on an automatic m i l l i s qu i t e d i f f e r e n t . To s t a r t w i t h , on the ol d e r type [ i . e . non-raut omat i c ] of m i l l he had a l a r g e r crew and each man had a s p e c i f i c work area; any-t h i n g he had t o do, he d i d mostly through manual con-t r o l , through wheels and l e v e r s , f o r example. Now, on t h i s m i l l there are many automatic guages. . .: slow-down switches, t i m e r s , r a i s i n g and lowering mechanisms, e t c . , a l l mechanically or e l e c t r i c a l l y s t a r t e d or stopped and designed t o perform i n a c y c l e sequence. 2. "So today i n s t e a d of s u p e r v i s i n g workers so much, you a c t u a l l y supervise machines. . . . You have nine men 284 s c a t t e r e d over an area 150 yards wide and probably eight or nine hundred f e e t long. Most of that space i s f i l l e d up w i t h conveyors and other machinery. The t i m e r s must be c o r r e c t e d and the machinery kept operat-i n g p r o p e r l y . A good foreman i n s t e a d of having a back-l o g of j u s t p r a c t i c a l m i l l knowledge must have a h e l l of a l o t of m i l l experience plus e l e c t r i c a l and mechan-i c a l t r a i n i n g . . . . 3. "This new type of m i l l i s a l o t harder, I t h i n k , on the foreman. . . . you're depending on a l o t of machines [not men] t o do a l o t of work, and i f they don't do i t , you've got t o get i n there and see t h a t they do. . . . 4. "The foreman becomes a [ t e c h n i c a l ] t r o u b l e shooter." C. The f o l l o w i n g observations p e r t a i n t o the i n d i v i d u a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o r r e l a t e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n of more extensive automatic c o n t r o l s i n 112 e l e c t r i c power p l a n t s . 1. The i n t r o d u c t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l automatic c o n t r o l s i n the e l e c t r i c power pla n t r e s u l t e d i n the b o i l e r , turbine-generator and i t s e l e c t r i c a l s w i t c h i n g system being p h y s i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d and operating as a s i n g l e independent u n i t . "The new p l a n t c o n s i s t s of f o u r 113 such u n i t s . " J 2. The i n t e g r a t i o n and c e n t r a l i z i n g of c o n t r o l s of the b o i l e r - t u r b i n e - g e n e r a t o r p a r t s of the system p a r a l l e l e d 285 the i n t e g r a t i o n of operations i n the new p l a n t . The major c o n t r o l s f o r the e n t i r e plant were c e n t r a l i z e d on one f l o o r i n three c o n t r o l s t a t i o n s . x x 4 3. The more h i g h l y automated system of production has brought about " s i g n i f i c a n t " changes i n the o c c u p a t i o n a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e of the p l a n t . Personnel requirements were cut i n h a l f , w i t h most of the reduc-t i o n o c c u r r i n g i n the operating jobs. "Whereas nine men are used on the e l e c t r i c a l switchboards i n the o l d e r p l a n t , only two are s p e c i f i c a l l y r e s p o n s b i l e f o r t h i s 115 operation i n the new one." ' The new technology appears t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h increased t e n s i o n f e l t by the workers. Their r e s p o n s b i i l i t i e s have increased; they depend more upon each other f o r i n f o r m a t i o n about the system. P h y s i c a l i s o l a t i o n of workers i s v i r t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e d w i t h the i n t e g r a t i o n and c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of c o n t r o l s . . . ."there i s strong i n d i c a t i o n that the men f e e l a g r e a t e r u n i t y , more l i k e a s i n g l e group than 116 they d i d p r e v i o u s l y . " A r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the super-v i s o r y s t r u c t u r e has a l s o accompanied the t e c h n o l o g i c a l change. "In the new p l a n t , a s i n g l e foreman . . . i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r operations i n the p l a n t , and i s i n charge of the t o t a l plant during the evening and night s h i f t s . " x x 7 (One l e v e l of s u p e r v i s i o n has been eliminated.) He does not d i r e c t l y supervise a l l of the men of h i s s h i f t . Rather, he r e l i e s on the s e n i o r operator t o supervise the work of the other two operators. 286 I t appears t h a t the requirements f o r e f f e c t i v e super-v i s i o n have a l s o undergone change due t o the t e c h n o l o g i -c a l i n n o v a t i o n . Those s u p e r v i s o r s who are seen as most s a t i s f a c t o r y by t h e i r subordinates are a l s o preceived as being the most capable on both the t e c h n i c a l and on the human r e l a t i o n s s i d e of t h e i r jobs. Those s u p e r v i s o r s considered u n s a t i s f a c t o r y are r a t e d low i n p r o f i c i e n c y on t e c h n i c a l and human r e l a t i o n s s k i l l s . Among those s u p e r v i s o r s who were r a t e d as i n t e r m e d i a t e l y s a t i s -f a c t o r y , those who were perceived as competent i n human r e l a t i o n s , but not i n t e c h n i c a l a b i l i t y , more oft e n were considered s a t i s f a c t o r y by t h e i r subordinates than the sup e r v i s o r s who were seen as good on the t e c h -n i c a l s i d e but poor i n human r e l a t i o n s . Using the s a t i s f a c t i o n of subordinates w i t h t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s as the c r i t e r i o n , then the good s u p e r v i s o r seems t o com-bine both t e c h n i c a l and human r e l a t i o n s s k i l l s , w i t h human r e l a t i o n s a b i l i t y being the most important. This seems t o be e q u a l l y t r u e i n the two plants.119 FOOTNOTES ON APPENDICES 1. Robert Dubin et a l . Leadership and P r o d u c t i v i t y : 1965), p. 15. 2 I b i d . 3 I b i d . ^ I b i d . , P. 66. 5 I b i d . , P. 30. 6 I b i d . , p. 39. 7 I b i d . , P. 47. S I b i d . , P. 78. 9 Loc. c i t . I b i d . , P- 79. C.J. French, t i o n a l Behavior and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n : Cases, Concepts, and Research Findings (Homewood, 111.: Irw i n Dorsey. 1961). pp. 198-199. 12 Stanley F. Seashore, i n Lawrence et a l . , Organiza-t i o n a l Behavior and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n : , pp. x 3 L o c . c i t . x^Van Z e l s t , i n Lawrence et a l , p. 202. 15 •Htf.F. Whyte, Men at Work (Homewood, 111.: Dorsey, 1961), p. 134. 16 Loc. c i t . x 7 L o c . c i t . 18 I b i d . , p. 135. 1 9 I b i d . , p. 149. 2 G I b i d . , p. 155. 288 21 ^ I b i d . > P. 160 22 " L o c . c i t . 2 3 I b i d . , P- 161. 2 4 I b i d . > P. 169. 2 5 I b i d . , P. 170. 26T Loc. c i t . 2 7 I b i d . > P. 171. 2 * L o c . c i t . 2 9 I b i d . , P. 173. I b i d . , P« 175. 31 T Loc. c i t . 3 2 E . L . T r i s t and P s y c h o l o g i c a l Consequences of the Longwall Method of Coal-g e t t i n g , " Human R e l a t i o n s , V o l . IV, No. 1 (Feb. 1951), p. 144. 33 -^Joan Woodward, I n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n : Theory and P r a c t i c e (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1965), pp. 157-TLW. •3 1 Robert Blauner, A l i e n a t i o n and Freedom: The Factory Worker and His Industry (Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago Press, 3 5 I b i d . , p. 53. 3 6 I b i d . , p. 46. 3 7 I b i d . , p. 90. 3 8 I b i d . , p. 38. 3 9 I b i d . , p. 43-40 T Loc. c i t . 4 1 I b i d . , p. 148. 4 2 I b i d . , p. 44. 4 3 L o c . c i t . 289 4 4 L o c . c i t . yE.A. Fleishman et a l , Leadership and Supe r v i s i o n i n Industry: An E v a l u a t i o n of a Supervisory T r a i n i n g Program (Columbus, Ohio: Bureau of E d u c a t i o n a l Research, 1955), pp. 37-38. 4 6 I b i d . , p. 7-4 7 R o e t h l i s b e r g e r i n Dubin, Human R e l a t i o n s i n Adminis-t r a t i o n (Englewood C l i f f s , N.J.: P r e n t i c e H a l l , 2d ed., 1961) p. 211. 4 8 I b i d . , p. 212; Whyte, op. c i t . , pp. 137-138. 4 9 D u b i n , Human R e l a t i o n s , p. 212; Whyte, op. c i t . , p. 142. 50 Whyte, l o c . c i t . ^ L o c . c i t . 5 2 I b i d . , p. 145. ^ 3 L o c . c i t . 5 4 I b i d . , p. 191. ^ L o c . c i t . 56 Fleishman et a l , op. c i t . , p. 7« ^ 7Loe. c i t . ^ 8Whyte, op. c i t . , p. 189. 5 9 I b i d . , p. 197. ^°Louis E. Davis i n E.A. Fleishman (ed.), Studies i n Personnel and I n d u s t r i a l Psychology (Homewood, 111.: Dorsey, 1961), p. 273. ^ F . J . J a s i n s k i , "Technological D e l i m i t a t i o n of Recip-r o c a l R e l a t i o n s h i p s : A Study of I n t e r a c t i o n Patterns i n Industry," Human Orga n i z a t i o n , V o l . 15, No. 2 (1956), p. 25; Whyte, op. c i t . , p. 194. 6? T r i s t and Bamforth, op. c i t . , p. 10. ^ 3 L o c . c i t . 290 64 65 66, I b i d . , p. 18. I b i d . , p. 22. C.R. Walker, R.H. Guest and A.N. Turner, The Fore- man on the Assembly Line (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni-v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1956), p. 7. 67-68 69 70 71 72 I b i d . , p , P I b i d I b i d I b i d I b i d I b i d 7 3 I b i d 7 4 I b i d 7 5 I b i d 76 77 78 79 80 81 I b i d I b i d I b i d I b i d I b i d I b i d 8. 10. 12. 13. 28. 72. 32. 36. , pp. 36-40. , p. 41. 54. 65. 75. 79. 123-> P > P , P , P , P , P , P , P , P , P 82 "A.N. Turner, " I n t e r a c t i o n and Sentiment i n the Foremen-Worker R e l a t i o n s h i p , " Human Or g a n i z a t i o n , V o l . 14, No. 1 (1955), p. 16. 83 84 85 86 87 I b i d . , p. 11. Dubin et a l , op. c i t . , p. 30. I b i d . , p. 14. I b i d . , p. 16. I b i d . , p. 95. 291 i 88 T Loc. c i t . go 7Whyte, op. c i t . , pp. 198-214. 9 G L o c . c i t . 9 1 I b i d . , p. 215. 92 CR. Walker, "Work Methods, Working Conditions and Morale," In Kornhauser, Dubin and Ross (eds.),. I n d u s t r i a l C o n f l i c t (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954), p. 352. 93 ^Woodward, op. c i t . , p. 161. 9 4 L o c . c i t . 95 ^ W a l k e r , "Work Methods, Conditions and Morale," op. c i t . , p. 352. 96 CR. Walker, Toward the Automatic Factory: A Case Study of Men and Machines (New"Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y P ress, 97 " I b i d . , pp. x v i i - x v i i i . 9 ^ I b i d . , p. 5-" i b i d . , p. 11. 10G T V i. , n 1 0 I b i d . , p. 12. 1 Q 1 L o c . c i t . 1 Q 2 I b i d . , p. 15. 1 0 3 I b i d . , p. 47. x G ^ L o c . c i t . 1 G 5 I b i d . , p. 48. 106 T Loc. c i t . 1 0 7 I b i d . , p. 49. 1 0 g I b i d . , p. 108. 1 0 9 I b i d . , 81. 1 1 Q I b i d . , 1 4 5 . 292 Man and Automation: Report of the Proceedings of a Conference sponsored by the So c i e t y f o r App l i e d Anthropology at Yale U n i v e r s i t y . Dec. 27, 28, 1955 (New Haven, Yale Uni-v e r s i t y P r e s s , 195o), pp. 48-52. 1 1 2 X*F.C. Mann, L.R. Hoffman, " I n d i v i d u a l and Organiza-t i o n a l C o r r e l a t e s of Automation," Journa l of S o c i a l Science, V o l . X I I , No. 2 (1956), pp. 7-17. 1 1 3 I b i d . , p. 9. 114T Loc. c i t . 1 1 5 I b i d . , p. 11. l l 6 I b i d . , p. 14. 1 1 7 L o c . c i t . l l S I b i d . , p. 15. 119T Loc. c i t .