T R A N S G E N I C E X P R E S S I O N O F H U M A N A L P H A - L - I D U R O N I D A S E I N M O U S E A N D C H A R A C T E R I Z A T I O N O F T H E L O N G T E R M P A T H O P H Y S I O L O G Y O F M U R I N E A L P H A - L - I D U R O N I D A S E D E F I C I E N C Y B y Chr is topher Spencer R u s s e l l B . S c , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1993 A T H E S I S S U B M I T T E D I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L L M E N T O F T H E R E Q U I R E M E N T S F O R T H E D E G R E E O F D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y In T H E F A C U L T Y O F G R A D U A T E S T U D I E S Department o f M e d i c a l Genet ics W e accept this thesis/^s conforming toA)(e required standard T H E U ^ V E R S I T ^ O F B R I T I S H C O L U M B I A December 2003 © Chris topher Spencer R u s s e l l , 2003 Abstract Mucopo lysaccha r idos i s type I ( M P S I) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder result ing f rom def ic iency o f a lpha-L-iduronidase ( I D U A ) , a lysosomal hydrolase required i n the catabol ism o f heparan and dermatan sulfate g lycosaminoglycans ( G A G s ) . M P S I presents as a c l i n i c a l spectrum o f disease ranging f rom a severe mul t i sys tem disease w i t h associated death i n the first decade (Hur le r syndrome) to mi lde r forms o f M P S I w h i c h are compat ib le w i t h a normal l ifespan (Scheie syndrome). Towards a better understanding o f M P S I, I have characterized the long term pathophys io logy o f murine I D U A def ic iency. Skeleta l manifestations represent the earliest c l i n i c a l f ind ing i n M P S I m ice w i t h h is to logic analysis o f g rowth plate and cor t ical bone reveal ing evidence that significant early pathology is present. A n a l y s i s o f the central nervous system has revealed the nove l f inding o f progressive neuronal degeneration w i t h i n the cerebel lum. In addi t ion, bra in tissue from M P S I mice show increased levels o f G M 2 and GM3 gangliosides. W h i l e persist ing to adul thood and capable o f mat ing, the I D U A deficient mouse most c lose ly resembles severe M P S I i n humans or H u r l e r syndrome. W h i l e many efforts are directed towards so lv ing the problems o f l ong term therapeutic gene expression, it remains to be determined i f gene therapy w i l l have the desired curative effects o n the host o f M P S I symptoms, and, addi t ional ly , whether expression o f therapeutic genes i n an unregulated manner w i l l disrupt normal ce l lu lar metabol i sm, i.e. induc ing disease. I have successfully generated mur ine strains w h i c h have the potential to express human I D U A i n a condi t ional transgenic approach. In addi t ion to genetic crosses into the I D U A deficient strain to address the benefit o f I D U A expression i n specific tissues at defined t ime points , these transgenic mice l ines can provide a source o f human I D U A expressing cel ls for use i n transplantation studies. F i n a l l y , the phenotype o f transgenic human I D U A expression, i f any, can be determined. It is hoped that these mouse strains w i l l be useful i n determining levels , locations, and t ime points important to the efficacy and safety o f gene therapy for M P S I. T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s Abstract Table of Contents , Table of Figures Table of Tables List of Abbreviations CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Thesis Focus and Chapter Overview 1 1.2 MPS 1 4 1.2.1 Clinical Presentation of MPS 1 4 1.2.2 Glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans 7 1.2.3 Secondary storage in MPS 1 12 1.2.4 The MPS family of disorders 13 1.2.5 Genetics 1 4 1.2.7 IDUA protein synthesis and transport to the lysosome 21 1.3 Therapies for MPS I 23 1.3.1 Rationale 23 1.3.2 MPS animal models 26 1.3.3 Bone Marrow Transplantation for MPS I in humans 29 1.3.4 Bone marrow transplantation in MPS animal models 30 1.3.5 Cellular transplantation in MPS animal models 31 1.3.6 Gene therapy for MPS 1 32 1.3.7 Gene therapy in animal models of MPS disorders 33 1.3.8 Enzyme replacement therapy for human lysosomal disorders 37 1.3.9 Enzyme replacement in animal models of MPS 38 1.3.10 Generation of a murine model of MPS 1 39 1.4 Thesis objectives and supporting hypotheses 45 CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND METHODS 46 2.1 Polymerase chain reaction 4 7 2.2 Preparation of the human IDUA cDNA 4 7 2.3 Construction of the myeloid-specific transgene constructs. (CD11B-IDUA and CD1 IB-reporter gene) 4 8 2.4 Construction of the myeloid-specific transgene constructs with a selection cassette for selection in ES cells. (CD11B-IDUA and CD1 IB-reporter gene) 48 2.5 Construction of a ubiquitous IDUA expressing transgene construct. (CMV-IDUA) 49 2.6 Construction of a ubiquitous IDUA expressing transgene construct with a selection cassette for selection in ES cells. (pFlox-IDUA) 50 2.7 Construction of a ubiquitous IDUA expressing transgene construct with a selection cassette for selection in ES cells. (pCAGGS-IDUA) 50 2.8 Construction of a conditional Cre regulated transgene construct with a selection cassette for selection in ES cells (pCCALL2-IRES-IDUA) 52 2.9 Histopathology 52 iv 2.10 Radiography 53 2.11 Thin Layer Chromatography of Gangliosides 53 2.12 Colorimetric Assay of Glycosaminoglycans 54 2.13 Embryonic stem cell growth and electroporation 54 2.14 Transfection of ES cells with Cre plasmid 55 2.15 IDUA enzyme assay 55 2.16 Beta-galactosidase staining of ES cells and tissue fragments 56 2.17 Alkaline phosphatase staining of ES cells 56 2.18 Alkaline phosphatase staining ear punches and tissue fragments 57 2.19 DNA Isolation 58 2.20 Transformation 59 2.21 Southern blotting 59 2.22 Animals 59 CHAPTER 3: CHARACTERIZATION OF THE LONG TERM PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF MURINE MPS 1 61 3.1 Abstract 62 3.2 Introduction 62 3.3 Results 64 3.31 Clinical Features 64 3.32 Life span of MPS I mice 66 3.33 Growth Profiles 67 3.34 Radiographic Examination 70 3.36 Glycosaminoglycan Excretion 72 3.37 Gangliosides 73 3.38 Bone Histopathology 74 3.39 Neuropathology 77 3.4 Discussion 80 CHAPTER 4: PRONUCLEAR AND EMBRYONIC STEM CELL ATTEMPTS AT GENERATION OF MURINE TRANSGENIC LINES WITH UBIQUITOUS OR MYELOID SPECIFIC EXPRESSION OF HUMAN IDUA 89 4.1. Introduction 90 4.1.1 A model of in utero bone marrow transplantation 93 4.1.2 Widespread high level IDUA expression 95 4.1.3 The use of the human IDUA cDNA 97 4.1.4 The generation of transgenic mice 99 4.2 Results 103 4.2.1 Pronuclear injection approach for the generation of myeloid specific, and ubiquitous, IDUA expressing transgenic mice 103 4.2.2 Embryonic stem cell approach for the generation of myeloid specific and ubiquitous IDUA expression I l l 4.3 Discussion 120 v CHAPTER 5: CONDITIONAL TRANSGENIC EXPRESSION OF HUMAN ALPHA-L-IDURONIDASE IN A MURINE MODEL TO ESTABLISH EFFECTIVE AND TOLERABLE LIMITS FOR GENE THERAPY FOR MPS 1 121 5.1 Introduction 122 5.1.1 Conditional transgene regulation systems 123 5.1.3 Experimental Approach 130 5.2 Results 137 5.3 Discussion 151 CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 155 6.1 Characterization of the long term pathophysiology of murine MPS 1 156 6.2 Future work: 157 6.3: Generation of transgenic murine strains expressing human IDUA 157 6.4 Future work 163 REFERENCES 164 vi T a b l e o f F i g u r e s F igure 1.1: Heparan sulfate exodegradation 8 F igure 1.2: Dermatan sulfate exodegradation 10 Figure 1.3: Organiza t ion o f the human I D U A gene locus 15 F igure 1.4: The human I D U A c D N A 16 F igure 1.5: Endogenous and exogenous pathways for transport o f lysosomal enzymes i nc lud ing I D U A to the lysosomes 22 F igure 1.6: Routes for the introduct ion o f therapeutic I D U A 24 Figure 1.7: Targeted inact ivat ion o f the murine Idua gene 41 F igure 1.8: C l i n i c a l feature o f Idua -/- m ice at 12 weeks o f age 43 F igure 1.9: E lec t ron micrographs f rom 8 week o l d Idua -/- and control mice 44 F igure 3.1: Phenotype o f M P S I m ice 65 F igure 3.2: L i f e span o f affected animals 67 F igure 3.3 A : G r o w t h curves o f male Idua -/- m ice relative to normals 68 F igure 3 . 3 B : G r o w t h curves o f female Idua -/- and control mice 69 F igure 3.4: Rad iograph ic examinat ion o f Idua -/- and control m ice 70 F igure 3.5: Sku l l s o f Idua -/- and normal male mice at 70 weeks o f age 71 F igure 3.6: G l y c o s a m i n o g l y c a n excret ion i n male Idua -/- and normal m ice 73 F igure 3.7: T h i n layer chromatogram o f bra in l ip ids 74 Figure 3.8: P r o x i m a l t ib ia l g rowth plates 76 F igure 3.9: Po la r i zed l ight mic roscopy o f cor t ica l bone samples 77 F igure 3.10: P A S D staining o f the Purkinje ce l l layer o f cerebel lum 79 F igure 4 .1 : Identity between human and mur ine Idua exon II 99 Figure 4.3: E m b r y o n i c stem ce l l approach for the generation o f transgenic mice 101 Figure 4.4 Transgenic construct for m y e l o i d specific expression 104 Figure 4.5: A map o f the backbone C D 1 l b - h g h vector for m y e l o i d transgene expression 105 F igure 4.7: The p E G F P - C 2 p l a s m i d for expression o f enhanced green flourescent protein 106 Figure 4.8: A n a l y s i s o f 18 samples f rom co-microinj ect ion o f C D 1 l b - I D U A and C D 1 l b -L a c Z constructs 107 F igure 4.9: A n a l y s i s o f 11 samples f rom co-microinj ect ion o f C D 1 l b - I D U A and C D 1 l b -E G F P contructs 108 F igure 4.10: Ub iqu i tous Transgene Construct C M V - I D U A 109 F i g 4 .11: A n a l y s i s o f samples f rom micro in jec t ion o f ubiquitous I D U A construct C M V -I D U A 110 Figure 4.12: p F L O X - C M V - I D U A - E G F P 112 F igure 4 .13: The F l o x vector used for E S select ion o f the ubiquitous I D U A and E G F P expressing construct used prev ious ly for pronuclear injection 113 F igure 4.14: Ub iqu i tous Transgene Construct p C A G G s - I D U A 114 F igure 4.15: p C A G G s vector for h i g h leve l eukaryotic expression 115 F igure 4.16: The pGT1 .8 I r e sBgeo vector 116 F igure 4.17: C D 1 l b - L a c Z reporter construct integrates into E S clones after co-electroporat ion w i t h the C D 1 l b - I D U A - N e o construct 117 Figure 4.18: Representation o f E S clones screened for beta-galactosidase staining intensity 118 vii Figure 5.1: C r e / l o x P recombinat ion 128 F igure 5.2: Schematic o f the select ion and screening for desirable E S clones 132 Figure 5.3: p C C A L L 2 - I R E S - h A P / c g parent construct 133 F igure 5.4: Schematic o f the p C C A L L - I D U A construct 134 Figure 5.5: Recombina t i on and the expression o f human I D U A 136 Figure 5.6: Rearrangement check o n p C C A L L 2 construct 137 F igure 5.7: P C R detection o f bacterial clones conta ining p C C A L L 2 l igated w i t h the human I D U A c D N A 138 Figure 5.8: Pst I restrict ion digest o f p l a smid f rom l iga t ion o f p C C A L L 2 construct w i t h human I D U A c D N A to determine orientation 139 Figure 5.9: Res t r ic t ion digest ion to identify clones w i t h correct ly inserted and unrearranged h I D U A c D N A into p C C A L L 2 139 F igure 5.10: A n a l y s i s o f large scale p l a smid isola t ion o f p C C A L L - I D U A 140 F igure 5.11: L a c Z staining o f E S colonies demonstrating expression var iab i l i ty 141 F igure 5.13: Southern blot analysis o f 48 E S clones w i t h good reporter gene expression for single copy integrates 143 Figure 5.14: A l k a l i n e phosphatase staining o f E S cel ls conta ining single copy integrations o f p C C A L L - I D U A 145 F igure 5.15: O v e r a l l Pedigree 150 Figure 5.16: Schematic o f the select ion and screen for desired E S clones 152 viii T a b l e o f T a b l e s Table 1.1: Representative proteoglycan 12 Table 1.2: Strategies for the introduct ion o f therapeutic I D U A 25 Table 1.3: Therapies for M P S I assessed on M P S mode l 34 Table 2 .1: P C R primers 46 Table 4 .1 : S u m m a r y o f Pronuclear M i c r o i n j e c t i o n attempts at generation o f transgenic l ines 110 Table 4.2: Blas tocyst inject ion o f engineered E S clones produces on ly l o w leve l chimeras 118 Table 5.1: Representative C r e expressing mice 124 Table 5.2: S u m m a r y o f E S clone analysis 145 L i s t o f A b b r e v i a t i o n s A G U aspar tylgycoasminuria beta-geo n e o m y c i n and beta-galactosidase fusion gene B M T bone mar row transplantation C D - M P R cat ion dependent mannose-6-phosphate receptor c D N A complementary D N A C H O Chinese hamster ovary cel ls C I - M P R cat ion independent mannose-6-phosphate receptor C M V cytomegal iv i rus C N S central nervous system C r e causes recombinat ion recombinase C R M cross reactive material C S chondroi t in sulfate D M S O d imethyl sulfoxide D N A deoxyr ibonucle ic ac id D o x doxycyc l ine D S dermatan sulfate E C extracellular space E E early endosome E G F P enhanced green flourescent protein E R endoplasmic re t icu lum E R T enzyme replacement therapy E S embryonic stem ce l l E S embryonic stem (cell) G go lg i G A G g lycosaminog lycan G M ganglioside G T gene therapy G U S beta-glucuronidase H & E haematoxyl in and eosin stain h A P human alkal ine phosphatase H D huntington H L A human leucocyte antigen H S heparan sulfate H S C hematopoietic stem cel ls i .v . intra venous I D U A alpha-L-iduronidase enzyme, c D N A , or m R N A IDUA alpha-L-iduronidase gene, human Idua alpha-L-iduronidase gene, mouse I E immediate early I R E S internal r ibosome entry site k D A k i l o Dal tons K S keratan sulfate L lysosome X L a c Z beta-galactosidase l o x P locus o f crossover L S D lysosomal storage disease M - 6 - P mannose-6-phosphate M P R s mannose-6-phosphate receptors M P S mucopolysacchar idos is m R N A messenger R N A p A polyadenyla t ion s ignal P A S per iod ic -ac id sch i f f w i t h diastase stain P B S phosphate buffered saline P C R polymerase cha in react ion P G K phospho-glycerate kinase P M p lasma membrane R E R rough endoplasmic re t icu lum R N A r ibonucle ic ac id SAT-1 sulfate transporter-1 gene, human Sat-1 sulfate transporter-1 gene, mouse S A T - 1 sulfate transporter-1 protein, c D N A , or m R N A S R P s ignal recogni t ion particle T e t R tetracycline responsive T S P tissue specific promoter V ves ic le xi Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Thesis Focus and Chapter Overview T h i s thesis describes the long term characterizat ion o f murine I D U A def ic iency and the generation o f transgenic murine strains condi t iona l ly expressing human I D U A . Severe M P S I i n humans is a mul t i sys tem, progressive disease w i t h a characteristic phenotype, however the pathological and b iochemica l alterations w h i c h underl ie the development o f overt symptoms i n M P S I are not w e l l understood and dif f icul t to study i n humans. U s i n g a mouse mode l o f I D U A def ic iency, I have studied specif ic features o f I D U A def ic iency and provide new observations and insights o n the pa thophys io logica l progression o f I D U A def ic iency i n mouse, and, l i k e l y , humans. Importantly, I D U A def ic iency i n the mouse is found to most c lose ly resemble severe I D U A def ic iency i n humans, w i t h mul t i sys tem progressive involvement o f most tissues inc lud ing skeletal and neurologic systems. The second objective o f this w o r k was the generation o f mouse strains condi t iona l ly expressing human I D U A for use i n determining the outcome o f specific therapeutic reconsti tution o f I D U A i n a background o f complete I D U A deficiency. T h i s w i l l a l l o w for the assessment o f different therapy approaches for M P S I, w h i c h , a long w i t h a number o f other members o f a larger group o f genetic disorders ca l led ly sosomal storage diseases ( L S D s ) , are some o f the on ly genetic diseases to have reached the point o f gene product therapy. F o r M P S I, therapy is presently i n the fo rm o f ce l l transplantation us ing bone marrow, or enzyme replacement us ing recombinant human I D U A protein enzyme, however approaches us ing gene therapy are also considered suitable. 1 The structure o f the thesis is as fo l lows : Chapter 1 provides background informat ion relevant to this thesis, describes the objectives o f the thesis, and presents hypotheses explored i n the thesis. The current understanding o f human M P S I is presented, i nc lud ing the b iochemica l basis o f M P S , the genetics o f the disease inc lud ing the presence o f an over lapping sulphate transporter gene (SAT-1), and the normal product ion and de l ivery o f I D U A enzyme to the lysosome. The potential for therapy o f M P S I is then discussed, i nc lud ing various routes and methods for correct ion o f I D U A deficiency. A discuss ion o f an imal models o f M P S disorders and attempts at correct ion o f enzyme deficiency provides an up to date r ev iew o f therapeutic approaches for the M P S disorders. The objectives and supporting hypotheses o f the thesis are then presented. Chapter 2 details the materials and methods used i n this project. Chapter 3 is an examinat ion o f the l o n g term c l i n i c a l , b iochemica l , and pa thologica l course o f murine I D U A def ic iency. One o f the major goals o f the characterizat ion o f mur ine I D U A def ic iency is to establish the breadth o f I D U A def ic iency i n mouse and place it o n the spectrum o f human I D U A def ic iency. In addi t ion, the progression o f I D U A def ic iency i n cr i t ica l tissue systems can be determined thus leading towards a better understanding o f the pa thophysio logy o f I D U A deficiency. F i n a l l y , characterization o f murine I D U A def ic iency m a y establish markers o f disease useful i n the assessment o f therapies for I D U A deficiency. Important f indings include the presence o f early pathology i n the growth plates o f bones, the presence o f secondary accumulat ions i n brain s imi la r to those described i n human M P S I, and the presence o f neurologic disease inc lud ing dysmorpho logy o f Purkinje cel ls i n the cerebel lum. The 2 observations are important as they conf i rm the u t i l i ty o f the Idua - /- mouse, and provide a better understanding o f the pathology occur r ing over t ime i n tissues not yet responsive to therapy. Chapter 4 describes the attempted product ion o f transgenic mouse l ines expressing human I D U A either ubiqui tous ly , or i n the m y e l o i d hematoipoiet ic l ineage, for use i n transplantation studies as w e l l as genetic crosses into I D U A deficient l ine . The m y e l o i d specif ic transgenic w o u l d address the m a x i m u m potential o f bone mar row der ived cel ls for the correct ion o f I D U A def ic iency. U s i n g both a pronuclear inject ion approach and an embryonic stem c e l l approach, attempts at generation o f germline transmissible founders or chimeras were unsuccessful. Chapter 5 documents the successful generation o f transgenic l ines expressing human I D U A , emp loy ing a condi t ional transgenic approach i n v o l v i n g Cre-media ted act ivat ion o f human I D U A expression. T h i s approach includes a dual reporter system indica t ing the state o f transgene recombinat ion. In i t ia l mat ing into a widespread C r e -expressing l ine produced double transgenic offspring, some o f w h i c h express human I D U A and the reporter gene a lkal ine phosophatase. These mi ce can be used to express human I D U A speci f ica l ly i n a w i d e variety o f tissues and can fu l f i l l the dual objectives o f chapter 4, namely mar row der ived I D U A expression to represent bone m a r r o w transplantation, and ubiqui tous I D U A expression for transplantation experiments and to determine the phenotype o f I D U A overexpression. Chapter 6 is a d iscuss ion o f the results f rom the thesis. B r i e f l y , the observations described here o n the l ong term pathophys io logy o f I D U A def ic iency i n the mouse improve our understanding o f the cel lu lar events under ly ing the development o f overt 3 symptoms i n human M P S I. The I D U A - d e f i c i e n t mouse mode l o f M P S I represents a l l major aspects o f human I D U A def ic iency so far examined , i nc lud ing significant invo lvement o f the neurologic and skeletal compartments. Secondary accumulat ions o f tox ic gangliosides associated w i t h morpho logy changes and inappropriate ce l l death are found i n the I D U A - / - mouse as they are i n human I D U A def ic iency. F i n a l l y , the generation o f transgenic murine l ines expressing human I D U A w i l l he lp determine effective therapeutic approaches for M P S I and determine the phenotype o f transgenic expression o f I D U A . 1.2 M P S I 1.2.1 C l i n i c a l P r e s e n t a t i o n o f M P S I D e f i c i e n c y o f the ly sosomal enzyme a -L- iduron idase ( I D U A ) underlies mucopolysacchardos is type I (or M P S I), w h i c h can result i n a w i d e range o f c l i n i c a l symptoms. M P S I represents the most c o m m o n severe M P S subtype, occur r ing w i t h a frequency o f approximate ly 1/100,000 i n most populat ions ( L o w r y et al, 1990) Three forms o f M P S I are recognized, differing i n onset, system involvement , and overa l l severity, w i t h Hur l e r syndrome ( M P S IH) the most severe, Scheie syndrome ( M P S IS) i n v o l v i n g a m u c h mi lde r course, and Hur le r -Sche ie syndrome ( M P S I H / S ) representing an intermediate phenotype. M P S I therefore presents as a spectrum o f disease phenotypes (Roub icek et al, 1985). H i s to r i ca l l y the differentiation between M P S I phenotypes was based on c l i n i c a l symptom criteria, however molecula r characterization o f the IDUA gene encoding a-L-iduronidase and its mutations increasingly a l lows genotyping o f patients, useful i n prognosis based o n established genotype-phenotype correlations. A l l forms o f M P S I share i n c o m m o n excessive urinary excret ion o f heparan and dermatan sulphate and absence o f a lpha-L-iduronidase act ivi ty . M o s t often born w i t h no obvious phenotype, patients w i t h the most severe fo rm o f M P S I ( M P S I H -Hurler ) usual ly present c l i n i c a l l y before age 2 w i t h developmental delay, coarse facial features, enlargement o f the spleen and l iver , skeletal deformities, a prominent forehead, and jo in t stiffness. Symptoms rap id ly become more severe and diagnosis o f M P S I H typ ica l ly occurs between 6 and 30 months o f age ( C o l v i l l e and B a x , 1996). Deve lopmenta l delay is a precursor to developmental decl ine, w i t h a m a x i m u m functional age o f 2 to 4 years obtainable fo l l owed by progressive deterioration. L i m i t e d language sk i l l s result f rom a combina t ion o f mental handicap, tongue enlargement, a i rway obstruction, and possible hearing loss. Cornea l c loud ing is progressive and m a y result i n bl indness. Hydrocepha lus result ing f rom increased intracranial pressure i s c o m m o n and, again, progressive. Skeleta l deformities are widespread and progressive and include the s k u l l , denti t ion, vertebrae, phalanges and the l o n g bones among others, leading to the term dysostosis mul t ip lex (Fields et al., 1994). Shortened stature and very coarse features are seen w i t h M P S I H . Obstruct ive a i rway disease, respiratory infect ion, and cardiac compl ica t ions are the most c o m m o n causes o f death, w h i c h usual ly occurs before age 10. The m i l d form o f M P S I, Scheie syndrome ( M P S I S) presents at a later age than M P S I H w i t h c l i n i c a l l y significant symptom development usual ly after 5 years o f age w i t h diagnosis no rmal ly between 10 and 20 years o f age, depending on severity. M P S I S is characterized by jo in t stiffness, back pain , aortic va lve disease, and corneal c loud ing , w h i l e intel l igence and stature are normal . W h i l e progressive, the accelerat ion i n disease 5 severity observed i n M P S I H is not seen i n Scheie syndrome. S u r v i v a l into late adul thood is normal , however cardiac compl ica t ions may result i n death before midd le age (Scheie et al, 1962). Intermediate forms o f M P S I (Hur ler -Scheie or M P S I H / S ) have a c l i n i c a l phenotype between Hur l e r and Scheie syndromes. T y p i c a l l y , progressive dysostosis mul t ip lex is present, however l i t t le or no intel lectual dysfunct ion is observed. Other somatic features o f M P S I, i nc lud ing corneal c loud ing , j o in t stiffness, deafness and cardiac disease, are usual ly present. S y m p t o m development occurs between the ages o f 3 and 8 and surv iva l into adul thood is c o m m o n . C l i n i c a l mortal i ty no rmal ly results f rom cardiac involvement and a i rway obstruct ion ( M c K u s i c k and Neufe ld , 1983). The diagnosis o f M P S I i n patients is conf i rmed by measurement o f enzyme act iv i ty i n leukocytes, p lasma, or fibroblasts. Rou t ine ly the enzyme act ivi ty is measured w i t h the use o f a f lurogenic substrate 4-methylumbel l i feryl -a lpha- iduronide ( H o p w o o d and M u l l e r , 1982). Samples used i n the diagnosis o f M P S I include cul tured fibroblasts, p lasma, or serum, and cul tured cel ls der ived f rom amniot ic f l u id for prenatal diagnosis. C h o r i o n i c v i l l u s biopsies are used for diagnosis for a number o f M P S disorders i nc lud ing II, III A , III B , III C , and I V A , however it has been reported that the l o w leve l o f I D U A act iv i ty i n v i l l i makes diagnosis o f M P S I more diff icul t (Poenaru, 1987). The advent o f molecula r diagnosis coupled w i t h the extensive characterization o f mutations i n the IDUA gene p lay an increasing role i n diagnosis as w e l l as w e l l as prognosis and w i l l be discussed later. 6 1.2.2 Glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans Def i c i ency o f I D U A i n M P S I results i n the accumula t ion o f undegraded mucopolysacchar ides , c o m m o n l y ca l led g lycosaminoglycans ( G A G s ) . G A G s are sulfated, l inear carbohydrates consis t ing o f repeating sugar groups, and inc lude heparan sulphate ( H S ) , dermatan sulphate ( D S ) , keratan sulphate ( K S ) , and chondroi t in sulfate ( C S ) . G A G s are no rmal ly found l i nked to a prote in core as part o f macromolecules termed proteoglycans, to w h i c h they impart functional properties. A s M P S I invo lves accumula t ion o f H S and D S the role o f these G A G s and their associated proteoglycans w i l l be discussed here. H S consists o f uronic ac id residues alternating w i t h a lpha- l inked glucosamine residues ( H o p w o o d , 1989). The uronic ac id m a y be g lucuronic or iduronic ac id , and m a y be sulphated. The glucosamine m a y be N-su lpha ted or N-acety la ted , and m a y also be 3- or 6-sulphated. Different permutations o f m o d i f y i n g sulphat ion and acetylat ion o n a carbohydrate backbone, w h i c h i t se l f varies i n sugar group representation, impart G A G s w i t h their unique functional properties and provides for huge complex i ty and b i o l o g i c a l divers i ty w i t h i n each type o f G A G . Degradat ion o f H S and other G A G s begins w i t h proteolysis i n the early endosomes produc ing liberated chains o f G A G (approx. 30kDa) . Endoglycos idases then cleave G A G chains into ol igosaccharides (approx. 5kDa) , w h i c h are targeted to the lysosome for stepwise exodegradation ( reviewed i n H o p w o o d et al., 1989). The structure o f a hypothet ical H S ol igosaccharide and the enzymes required for its lysosomal endodegradation are pictured i n F igure 1.1. 7 o® | K © 0(5} Mc I H2C0H COQrt HjCO© O-L-ldurtiildDW I H @ 0 ® *Ac I D U A ' 2 |:;::::::s :s::;::::, l l l i l ; P ; i l I f ^ l p l i ^ § ' o i l ; I j l ^ v ' ' Nty 1 0 ® Ufa i i i i f i Q ' : : : ; : : : : : v ' ; r 1 i ^ | ^ ^ COOK HgCO© . I - Nftt H:X;.; Figure 1.1: Heparan sulfate exodegradation I D U A hydro lyzes r emova l o f terminal desulfated iduronic ac id residues, step 2 above. T h i s produces free iduronic ac id and leaves a terminal g lucosamine for further exodegradation. 9 enzymes are required for H S degradation. N o t shown: glucosamine-3-sulphatase. F r o m Scr iver e t a l . , 1989. 8 The lysosomal exodegradation o f H S oligosaccharides requires at least nine enzymes, w i t h def ic iency o f any single enzyme result ing i n b lockage o f the entire pathway and accumulat ion o f part ia l ly degraded H S chains. These enzymes include glycosidases such as I D U A , sulphatases, and include a biosynthet ic enzyme that adds an acetyl group required for subsequent enzymat ic degradation. A s shown i n F igure 1.1, a lpha-L-iduronidase ( I D U A ) acts o n terminal desulfated iduronic ac id residues p roduc ing free iduronic ac id and a terminal g lucosamine residue for further degradation. The degradation o f G A G s releases monosaccharides and sulfate w h i c h exit f rom the lysosome for r ecyc l ing i n biosynthetic reactions ( H o p w o o d et al, 1989). Dermatan sulfate ( D S ) consists o f iduronic ac id , w h i c h may be C-2-sulphated, and g lucuronic ac id residues alternating w i t h beta- l inked N-acetylgalac tosamine, w h i c h may be sulphated (Roden , 1980). A s for H S , degradation o f D S containing proteoglycans includes proteolysis f o l l o w e d by endoglycosidase act ivi ty , p roduc ing D S oligosaccharides. The structure o f a hypothet ical D S ol igosaccharide and the enzyme required for its exodegradation are shown i n F igure 1.2. A s for H S catabol ism, def ic iency o f any single enzyme i n the pathway results i n accumula t ion o f undegraded D S oligosaccharides. A s for H S oligosaccharides, I D U A recognizes and cleaves terminal desulfated iduronic ac id residues f rom D S chains, leaving on D S chains terminal N -acetylgalatosamine residues for further enzymat ic degradation. In I D U A def ic iency, H S and D S oligosaccharides w o u l d be expected to accumulate w i t h terminal iduronic ac id residues. The demand for lysosomal degradation o f G A G s varies i n tissues according to G A G and proteoglycan content and turnover. Proteoglycans, the fo rm i n w h i c h G A G s are 9 •'• M?COH COOH H.COH I, A; IDUA * € -... (SxTUci^ N4c 13 0~eic M e l I * jS-t)1ijcnwiiJa« |,JJ H2C0H v. Figure 1.2: Dermatan sulfate exodegradation I D U A hydrolyzes removal of terminal desulfated iduronic acid residues, step 2 above. This produces free iduronic acid and leaves a terminal N-acetylgalactosamine for further exodegradation. From Scriver et al., 1989. 10 functional , are proteins conta ining g lycosaminog lycan carbohydrate chains. T y p i c a l l y , a protein core has one to hundreds o f covalent ly attached G A G chains. Proteoglycans range greatly i n the ratio o f prote in to G A G carbohydrate, and i n G A G compos i t ion . Proteoglycans are dynamic molecules , w i t h expression and compos i t ion , i nc lud ing G A G content, changing dur ing development. Proteoglycans do not share a un i fy ing functional feature, p l ay ing diverse roles such as fo rming components o f the extracellular matr ix , i n c e l l communica t ion , and i n l igand-receptor interactions. Unders tanding the functions o f heparan and dermatan sulfate conta in ing proteoglycans, and the locations where they function, provides some insight into the sites o f G A G accumula t ion i n M P S I. C e l l surface heparan sulfate, attached to transmembrane proteins, modulates the actions o f a large number o f extracellular l igands. The structural heterogeneity o f H S chains a l lows b ind ing o f a diverse repertoire o f proteins under phys io log ica l condi t ions ( reviewed i n Be rn f i e ld e t ah, 1999). The H S chains provide cel ls w i t h a mechanism to mediate interactions w i t h a w i d e variety o f extracellular effectors wi thout requir ing mul t ip le nove l b ind ing proteins. W h i l e found o n a variety o f c e l l surface proteins, H S chains are consistently found on members o f t w o major famil ies o f membrane-bound proteoglycans, the syndecans and the g lypicans . These heparan sulfate proteoglycans i m m o b i l i z e and regulate the turnover o f l igands that act at the ce l l surface, by b i n d i n g to l igands and enhancing format ion o f their receptor-s ignal l ing complexes . The extracellular domains o f syndecans and glypicans can be shed f rom the ce l l surface, p roduc ing soluble H S proteoglycans that act as H S proteoglycan antagonists, and cel ls that are less responsive to l igand s t imulat ion. The l igand affinities o f the syndecans and glypicans include l igands i n v o l v e d i n morphogenesis and w o u n d repair, consistent w i t h 11 the regional and temporal expression patterns o f specific members o f these H S proteoglycans. Internalization o f basic fibroblast g rowth factor at the mouse b lood-bra in barrier invo lves perlecan, a heparan sulfate proteoglycan (Deguch i et al, 2002) . Dermatan sulfate ( D S ) proteoglycans are less widespread than H S proteoglycans but l i kewise show regional and temporal expression patterns consistent w i t h functions i n morphogenesis . D S proteoglycans i n the adult are found i n tissues such as cartilage and bone (Rough ley and L e e , 1994). Table 1.1 describes some c o m m o n proteoglycans, their functional locat ion, and their G A G content. N a m e L o c a t i o n Func t ion G A G s Reference perlecan basement membrane ce l l adhesion H S Grof fen et al., 1999 g lyp i can ce l l surface regulate g rowth factors H S Song and F i l m u s , 2002 decor in connective tissue, cartilage matr ix assembly D S , C S R o u g h l e y and L e e , 1994 aggrecan cartilage osmot ic compressive properties C S , K S R o u g h l e y and L e e , 1994 neurocan extracellular matr ix o f C N S matr ix assembly C S R a u c h et al., 2001 Table 1.1: Representative proteoglycans G A G s = g l y c o s a m i n o g l y c a n s , HS=heparan sulfate, DS=dermatan sulfate, CS=chondro i t i n sulfate, KS=kera tan sulfate, CNS=cen t r a l nervous system. 1.2.3 Secondary storage in MPS I Somewhat unique to some o f the ly sosomal storage disorders is the potential for storage o f compounds not related to the pathway w h i c h is b iochemica l l y deficient. T h i s m a y be attributed to inh ib i t ion o f pathways by storage o f p r imary substrates. Secondary 12 accumula t ion o f gangliosides i nc lud ing GM2 and G M 3 have been noted i n human, canine, and murine , I D U A deficiency, as w e l l as other storage disorders unrelated to p r imary defects o f g lycosph ingo l ip id metabol i sm (Constantopoulos & Dekaban 1978, Constantopoulos et al, 1985). The role that ganglioside accumula t ion p lays i n the pathogenesis o f M P S I disorders is u n k n o w n but may be important. Defects i n the catabol ism o f GM2 gangl ioside i n Tay-Sachs and Sandhoff disease results i n neurodegenerative disease. Gangl ios ides inc lud ing GM2 have been impl ica ted i n neuronal apoptosis, and GM2 has been postulated to underl ie the generation o f ectopic dendrites i n pyramida l neurons i n both Tay-Sachs as w e l l as other general ized ly sosomal storage disorders ( W a l k l e y 1995). 1.2.4 T h e M P S f a m i l y o f d i s o r d e r s A t least 10 enzymes required for G A G catabol ism have been identif ied, p r imar i ly as a result o f s tudying enzyme def ic iency i n the M P S syndromes. A l l o f the M P S associated enzymes are unable to mediate endodegradation; that is , on ly terminal substrates are cleavable. Therefore def ic iency o f any single enzyme required for G A G degradation b locks the degradation pathway, resul t ing i n storage i n the lysosome and excret ion i n the urine. Differences i n the type o f G A G and their terminal residues accumulated i n the different M P S s result i n the dis t inguishing pa thophys io logy o f the M P S s . M P S I, w i t h accumula t ion o f H S and D S , includes, i n severe forms, v iscera l , skeletal , and neuro logica l involvement , consistent w i t h representation o f H S and D S G A G s i n these tissue systems. M P S II, sharing w i t h M P S I accumula t ion o f both H S and D S , has a phenotype s imi la r to M P S I, i n v o l v i n g both somatic and C N S systems. Interestingly, M P S V I , w i t h accumula t ion o f D S on ly , invo lves skeletal disease but 13 normal neurologica l function, w h i l e M P S III A , B , C , and D , w i t h accumula t ion o f H S on ly , invo lves severe mental deterioration, but on ly m i l d somatic symptoms and no skeletal disease. Th i s suggests the skeletal disease observed i n severe M P S I, s imi la r to the phenotype o f M P S V I , l i k e l y results f rom accumula t ion o f D S , w h i l e the neuro log ica l degeneration and C N S involvement observed i n severe M P S I l i k e l y results p r imar i ly f rom accumula t ion o f H S , as observed w i t h M P S III. The role o f K S i n the skeletal system is h ighl ighted i n M P S I V B , where accumula t ion o f K S is associated w i t h a phenotype o f severe skeletal disease. 1.2.5 Genetics M P S I results f rom def ic iency o f a lpha-L-iduronidase , encoded by the IDUA gene. In humans, the IDUA gene is located o n the short a rm o f chromosome 4 close to the telomere (4p l6 .3 ) i n the same reg ion as the Hunt ing ton disease (HD) gene (Scott et al., 1990). The IDUA gene contains 14 exons spanning 19 kb , organized as two clusters o f exons: exon I and II separated by an intron o f 566 bp, a large intron II o f 13 kb , and remain ing exons III to X I V clustered i n a 4.5 k b region (Scott et al., 1991, 1992). Intron 2 o f the human IDUA gene contains an A l u repetitive element and an 86 bp h i g h l y p o l y m o r p h i c V N T R repeat ( D 4 S 1 1 1 ) used i n the diagnosis o f H D (Scott et al, 1992, M a c D o n a l d et al., 1991). Conta ined entirely w i t h i n the IDUA gene, o n the opposite strand to I D U A , is the Sulphate transporter-1 gene, SAT-1 (see F igure 1.3)(Clarke et al.,, unpubl ished data). The SAT-1 gene w i l l be discussed further later. 14 SAT-1 gene ill II I III II mi—\ XIV IDUA Exons I and II IDUA Exons III to XIV IDUA exon • SAT-1 e x o i i ^ Figure 1.3: Organization of the human IDUA gene locus A r r o w s indicate the d i rec t ion o f t ranscript ion the IDUA gene (wi th b lack exons) and the SAT-1 gene (checkered exons). The human IDUA gene spans 19 kb , i nc lud ing intron 2 (13 kb) containing most o f the SAT-1 gene, w h i c h is encoded o n the opposite strand to IDUA and includes a 3 ' untranslated reg ion that overlaps IDUA exon II, a cod ing exon. In humans the IDUA gene produces a predominant transcript o f 2.3 kb at a l o w level o f t ranscript ion as determined by Nor the rn blot analysis (Scott et al., 1992). Alternate sp ic ing o f IDUA exons II, the over lapping exon, and exon I V , has been observed (Scott et al., 1991). A s shown i n figure 1.4, the human I D U A c D N A includes an open reading frame o f 1959 bp, encoding a peptide o f 653 amino acids (Scott et al, 1991). In addi t ion to the human I D U A c D N A , murine and canine I D U A c D N A s have been sequenced (Cla rke et al., 1994, M e n o n et al, 1992). The architecture o f the Idua gene is conserved i n a l l three species, and the Sat-1 sequence and genomic organizat ion has been detailed i n mouse and found to be s imi la r to the human IDUA locus. The entire region o f human chromosome 4 p l 6 . 3 conta ining IDUA is syntenic w i t h a region o f mouse chromosome 5 15 1 GTCACATGGG GTGCGCGCCC AGACTCCGAC CCGGAGGCGG AACCGG(lAGT GCAGCCCGAA 6 1 GCCCCGCAGT CCCCGAGCAC GCGTGGCCAT G C G T C C C C T G C G C C C C J G C G C C G C G C T G C T 1 2 1 G G C G C T C C T G G C C T C G C T C C T G G C C G C G C C C C C G G T G G C C C C G G C C G A G G C C C C G C A C C T 1 8 1 G G T G C A G G T G G A C G C G G C C C G C G C G C T G T G G C C C C T G C G G C G C T T C T G G A G G A G C A C A G G 2 4 1 C T T C T G C C C C C C G C T G C C A C A C A G G C A G G C T G A C C A G T A C G T C C T C A G C T G G G A C C A G C A 3 0 1 G C T C A A C C T C G C C T A T G T G G G C G C C G T C C C T C A C C G C G G C A T C A A G C A G G T C C G G A C C C A 3 6 1 C T G G C T G C T G G A G C T T G T C A C C A C C A G G G G G T C C A C T G G A C G G G G C C T G A G C T A C A A C T T 4 2 1 C A C C C A C C T G G A C G G G T A C T T G G A C C T T C T C A G G G A G A A C C A G C T C C T C C C A G G G T T T G A 4 8 1 G C T G A T G G G C A G C G C C T C G G G C C A C T T C A C T G A C T T T G A G G A C A A G C A G C A G G T G T T T G A 5 4 1 G T G G A A G G A C T T G G T C T C C A G C C T G G C C A G G A G A T A C A T C G G T A G G T A C G G A C T G G C G C A 6 0 1 T G T T T C C A A G T G G A A C T T C G A G A C G T G G A A T G A G C C A G A C C A C C A C G A C T T T G A C A A C G T 6 6 1 C T C C A T G A C C A T G C A A G G C T T C C T G A A C T A C T A C G A T G C C T G C T C G G A G G G T C T G C G C G C 7 2 1 C G C C A G C C C C G C C C T G C G G C T G G G A G G C C C C G G C G A C T C C T T C C A C A C C C C A C C G C G A T C 7 8 1 C C C G C T G A G C T G G G G C C T C C T G C G C C A C T G C C A C G A C G G T A C C A A C T T C T T C A C T G G G G A 8 4 1 G G C G G G C G T G C G G C T G G A C T A C A T C T C C C T C C A C A G G A A G G G T G C G C G C A G C T C C A T C T C 9 0 1 C A T C C T G G A G C A G G A G A A G G T C G T C G C G C A G C A G A T C C G G C A G C T C T T C C C C A A G T T C G C 9 6 1 G G A C A C C C C C A T T T A C A A C G A C G A G G C G G A C C C G C T G G T G G G C T G G T C C C T G C C A C A G C C 1 0 2 1 G T G G A G G G C G G A C G T G A C C T A C G C G G C C A T G G T G G T G A A G G T C A T C G C G C A G C A T C A G A A 1 0 8 1 C C T G C T A C T G G C C A A C A C C A C C T C C G C C T T C C C C T A C G C G C T C C T G A G C A A C G A C A A T G C 1 1 4 1 C T T C C T G A G C T A C C A C C C G C A C C C C T T C G C G C A G C G C A C G C T C A C C G C G C G C T T C C A G G T 1 2 0 1 C A A C A A C A C C C G C C C G C C G C A C G T G C A G C T G T T G C G C A A G C C G G T G C T C A C G G C C A T G G G 1 2 6 1 G C T G C T G G C G C T G C T G G A T G A G G A G C A G C T C T G G G C C G A A G T G T C G C A G G C C G G G A C C G T 1 3 2 1 C C T G G A C A G C A A C C A C A C G G T G G G C G T C C T G G C C A G C G C C C A C C G C C C C C A G G G C C C G G C 1 3 8 1 C G A C G C C T G G C G C G C C G C G G T G C T G A T C T A C G C G A G C G A C G A C A C C C G C G C C C A C C C C A A 1 4 4 1 C C G C A G C G T C G C G G T G A C C C T G C G G C T G C G C G G G G T G C C C C C C G G C C C G G G C C T G G T C T A 1 5 0 1 C G T C A C G C G C T A C C T G G A C A A C G G G C T C T G C A G C C C C G A C G G C G A G T G G C G G C G C C T G G G 1 5 6 1 C C G G C C C G T C T T C C C C A C G G C A G A G C A G T T C C G G C G C A T G C G C G C G G C T G A G G A C C C G G T 1 6 2 1 G G C C G C G G C G C C C C G C C C C T T A C C C G C C G G C G G C C G C C T G A C C C T G C G C C C C G C G C T G C G 1 6 8 1 G C T G C C G T C G C T T T T G C T G G T G C A C G T G T G T G C G C G C C C C G A G A A G C C G C C C G G G C A G G T 1 7 4 1 C A C G C G G C T C C G C G C C C T G C C C C T G A C C C A A G G G C A G C T G G T T C T G G T C T G G T C G G A T G A 1 8 0 1 A C A C G T G G G C T C C A A G T G C C T G T G G A C A T A C G A G A T C C A G T T C T C T C A G G A C G G T A A G G C 1 8 6 1 G T A C A C C C C G G T C A G C A G G A A G C C A T C G A C C T T C A A C C T C T T T G T G T T C A G C C C A G A C A C 1 9 2 1 A G G T G C T G T C T C T G G C T C C T A C C G A G T T C G A G C C C T G G A C T A C T G G G C C C G A C C A G G C C C 1 9 8 1 C T T C T C G G A C C C T G T G C C G T A C C T G G A G G T C C C T G T G C C A A G A G G G C C C C C A T C C C C G G G 2 0 4 1 C A A T C C A T G A GCCTGTGCTG AGCCCCAGTG GGTTGCACCT CCACCGGCAG TCAGCGAGCT 2101 GGGGCTGCAC TGTGCCCATG CTGCCCTCCC ATCACCCCCT TTGCAATATA TTTTT F i g u r e 1.4: T h e h u m a n I D U A c D N A The 2155 bp cDNA has an open reading frame, bold, of 1959 bp encoding a polypeptide of 653 amino acids. A signal peptide of 26 amino acids, underlined, is cleaved at the site indicated by the arrow, leaving a mature polypeptide of 627 amino acids. Exon II of IDUA, complementary to the 3'UTR of the SAT-1 cDNA, is shaded. (Grosson et al, 1994), including the presence of the HD gene. Comparison of the cDNA across species shows the canine and human cDNA and protein show 82% homology (Stoltzfus et al, 1992), while the murine cDNA and protein show 78% and 77% homology with the human cDNA and protein, respectively (Scott et ah, 1995). Expression of Idua appears to be limited at numerous points during transcription. 16 The postulated promoter of the human Idua gene has on ly a G C box-type consensus sequences, and no obvious T A T A box , consistent w i t h a housekeeping gene. In human, murine, and canine, intron 11 contains an apparently conserved G C / A G except ion i n the donor splice site, w h i c h is associated w i t h reduced sp l i c ing eff ic iency and gene expression. The over lapping S a t - 1 gene i n human and mouse, and most l i k e l y the canine Idua gene locus, encodes an m R N A transcript complementary to Idua, and this cou ld further regulate Idua expression v i a antisense interactions. Together, these features of the Idua gene contribute to the l o w leve l o f expression observed f rom the Idua gene. W i t h almost 75 distinct mutations already described i n IDUA, the c l i n i c a l spectrum o f MPS I is expla ined i n part by the m y r i a d o f genotypes possible w h i c h combine alleles that m a y encode l o w levels o f I D U A act ivi ty , or , for n u l l alleles, no I D U A at a l l ( H u m a n Gene M u t a t i o n Database). Muta t ions occur throughout the IDUA gene i n c l u d i n g exon II, the exon over lapping w i t h a por t ion o f S A T - 1 3 ' untranslated sequence. These mutations include nonsense, missense, and spl ice site mutations, m ino r deletions, insertions, and complex rearrangements ( reviewed i n Scott e t a l , 1995). E i g h t nonsense mutations have been described, i nc lud ing W 4 0 2 X , one o f the most c o m m o n mutations i n Caucasians, and a l l result i n a total l ack o f I D U A funct ion and are associated w i t h severe phenotypes when found i n homozygos i ty . Interestingly, some nonsense mutations are associated w i t h l o w e r levels o f I D U A m R N A transcripts, as determined b y Nor the rn blot analysis, indica t ing detection and delet ion o f nonsense mutat ion containing transcripts (Scott e t a l , 1992, B a c h e t a l , 1993). Twenty-one missense mutations have been described i n IDUA. Missense mutations are more l i k e l y than nonsense mutations to permit some enzymat ic function, and many missense mutations are associated w i t h m i l d 17 or intermediate phenotypes w h e n found i n homozygos i ty . Three spl ice site mutations have been described i n IDUA, w i t h two o f them result ing i n inc lu s ion o f introns i n the I D U A m R N A . Sp l ice site mutations are associated w i t h both m i l d and severe phenotypes w h e n found i n homozygos i ty . Seven smal l deletions (1 to 12 bp) and s ix smal l insertions (1 to 12 bp) have been described i n the IDUA gene (Bunge et al, 1994, 1995). 30 non pathogenic po lymorph i sms have been detected i n IDUA. Sib l ings car ry ing ident ical M P S I alleles can have s ignif icant ly different c l i n i c a l outcomes, indicat ing modi f ie r genes or the environment can influence disease progress ion ( M c D o w e l l et al., 1993, Scott et al, 1993, N e u f e l d , 1991). T h i s is also seen i n mouse models o f M P S V I I , where the phenotype o f enzyme def ic iency varies w i t h strain i nc lud ing v iab i l i ty , l i fe span, and reproductive success (Casa l and W o l f e , 1998). In humans, a pseudodeficiency IDUA al lele w i t h exceedingly l o w act ivi ty levels has been described w h i c h produces no c l i n i c a l phenotype i n homozygotes for the al lele , but that encodes such a l o w leve l o f I D U A enzymat ic funct ion that homozygotes appear complete ly I D U A deficient i n standard I D U A enzyme assays and heterozygotes appear as M P S I carriers, compl ica t ing b iochemica l screening for carriers ( W h i t l e y et al, 1996). 1.2.6 The Sat-1 gene Discus s ion o f the Sat-1 gene is relevant to this thesis as the overlap reg ion shared by the genes cou ld impact disease or therapy. The genomic architecture o f Sat-1 is s imi la r i n human and mouse, and is shown i n figure 1.3. In both species, Sat-1 spans approximate ly 6 k b and includes 4 exons (Lee et al, 2003, Regeer et al, 2003) . E x o n s I to III are embedded i n intron 2 o f Idua, w h i l e a 141 bp region o f the 3 ' untranslated reg ion o f Sat-1 overlaps the entirety o f Idua exon II. The two genes are encoded o n opposite strands o f D N A and are transcribed i n opposite directions. The Sat-1 gene encodes a 74 k d protein inc lud ing 12 predicted transmembrane domains . Nor the rn blot analysis indicates S A T - 1 is w i d e l y expressed i n human tissues as a 4.4 kb transcript, w i t h placenta showing an addi t ional , presumably alternatively sp l iced transcript o f 6.0 kb . In contrast, S A T - 1 m R N A expression i n mouse is selective w i t h a transcript o f 4.0 kb observed i n l ive r and k idney, and weaker but detectable signals observed i n lung , spleen, and brain. I D U A m R N A expression i n both human and mouse is widespread but at l o w levels (Clarke et ai, unpubl ished data). The function o f the S A T - 1 protein is on ly par t ia l ly characterized. B i s s i g et al., c loned the S A T - 1 c D N A from rat l ive r us ing a functional expression assay designed to identify transporters o f sulfate and characterized S A T - 1 as the p r imary canal icular sulfate transporter (Bisseg et al., 1994). M a r k o v i c h et al., have shown that S A T - 1 is responsible for the majori ty o f sodium-independent sulfate transport i n the k idney ( M a r k o v i c h et al., 1994), and S A T - 1 has been loca l i zed to the basolateral membrane o f the p r o x i m a l tubule by immunohis tochemis t ry ( K a r n i s k i et al., 1998). S A T - 1 is expressed i n bra in and functions as the m a i n transporter o f sulphate, at least i n rat (Lee et al., 1999). N o diseases have been mapped to the human SAT-1 gene. Abnorma l i t i e s i n sulfate transporter genes related to SAT-1 i n humans have been impl ica ted i n 5 diseases resul t ing f rom mutations i n 3 genes, DRA (Congeni ta l Ch lo r ide Diarrhea) ( M o s e l e y et al., 1999), DTDST (Diast rophic Dysp las ia ) (Hastbacka et al., 1996) and PDS (Pendred Syndrome)(Everet t et al., 1997). DTDST encodes a sulfate transporter that is deficient i n an a l l e l i c series o f 3 c l i n i c a l l y dist inct chondrodysplasias; diastrophic dysplasia , atelosteogenesis type II, and achondrogenesis type I B . A l l 3 disorders result f rom deficient sulfation o f cartilage 19 proteoglycans, w h i c h m a y l i m i t b ind ing w i t h , and act ivat ion of, s t imulatory signals c ruc ia l to chondrocyte funct ion and normal skeletal development. Muta t ions i n D R A underl ie Congeni ta l Ch lo r ide def ic iency, a debi l i ta t ing and potent ial ly fatal disease result ing f rom disrupt ion o f co lon chlor ide an ion homeostasis. P D S encodes a sulfate transporter deficient i n Pendred syndrome, a f o r m o f nonsyndromic deafness w i t h associated goiter. These seemingly unrelated disorders share i n c o m m o n mutations i n genes related to SAT-1. T o further understand the funct ion o f SAT-1, the C l a r k e group has generated a mouse l ine w i t h targeted disrupt ion o f the murine S a t - 1 gene (Cla rke , unpubl ished data). Homozygo te S a t - 1 knockouts are v iable and await further characterization. The unusual architecture o f the Sat-1 and Idua genes, and the apparent concomittant expression o f their m R N A transcripts, indicates antisense mediated regulat ion o f the genes may occur as a result o f the complementary 141 bp over lapping region. I f the transcripts f rom the two genes interact, mutations that destabil ize one transcript might lead to changes i n expression o f the other par t ia l ly complementary transcript. F o r example , mutations i n Idua that destabil ize the I D U A transcript might alter S A T - 1 expression, w h i c h c o u l d contribute to the disease phenotype. A n o t h e r consequence o f the Sat-1 and Idua overlap is the potential for al tering S A T - 1 expression by overexpressing complementary I D U A transgenes. T h i s potential for regulat ion o f S A T - 1 expression has been recognized i n efforts to develop a mouse expressing human I D U A , and as w i l l be discussed led to the use o f the human, rather than mur ine , I D U A c D N A . 1.2.7 IDUA protein synthesis and transport to the lysosome Process ing o f I D U A includes translation, post-translational modi f ica t ion , and de l ivery to the lysosome. Transport and processing are important to this d iscuss ion as they p lay a role i n disease but also as these processes are important for the successful therapeutic in t roduct ion o f I D U A . F igure 1.5 depicts transport o f lysosomal enzymes. L y s o s o m a l enzymes, membrane proteins, and proteins destined for secretion, are translated o n endoplasmic re t iculum-bound r ibosomes and include a hydrophobic signal sequence w h i c h , via interaction w i t h a s ignal recogni t ion particle ( S R P ) , mediates translocation o f the deve lop ing hydroph i l i c protein into the l umen o f the endoplasmic re t i cu lum ( E R ) ( G o r l i c h and Rapoport , 1993). The signal peptide is not present i n the mature protein. In the E R the I D U A polypept ide is folded and processed, i nc lud ing the addi t ion o f h igh mannose ol igosaccharides cr i t ica l to targeting the enzyme to the lysosome. Af te r transfer to the c /s-golgi , mannose ol igosaccharides are modi f i ed by the addi t ion o f a mannose-6-phosphate marker by the act ion o f two enzymes. W i t h the addi t ion o f the mannose-6-phosphate residues, I D U A and other proteins targeted for the lysosome are recognized by either o f two mannose-6-phosphate receptors ( M P R s ) . The first o f these M P R s , the ca t ion independent M P R ( C I - M P R ) , mediates transfer o f mannose-6-phosphate conta ining proteins that are either newly synthesized, or produced exogenously and found i n the extracellular environment, to the lysosome. The cat ion dependent M P R ( C D - M P R ) mediates lysosomal transfer o f n e w l y synthesized enzyme on ly and is not i n v o l v e d i n endocytosis o f exogenous proteins. A s w i l l be discussed later, overexpression o f a prote in w i t h the mannose-6-phosophate marker has resulted i n 21 Figure 1.5: Endogenous and exogenous pathways for transport of lysosomal enzymes including IDUA to the lysosomes (1) m R N A trancripts encoding lysosomal enzymes include s ignal sequences direct ing translocation o f the synthesized protein into the l umen o f the rough endoplasmic-re t icu lum ( R E R ) , where (2) post-translational modif icat ions i nc lud ing addi t ion o f h i g h mannose ol igosaccharides occurs. V e s i c u l a r ( V ) de l ivery to the go lg i (G) is f o l l o w e d by (3) phosphoryla t ion o f ol igosaccharides (p), w h i c h mediates b i n d i n g to mannose-6-phosphate receptors ( M P R s ) i n the go lg i . Phosphoryla ted enzymes bound to M P R s are then transported to early endososmes ( E E ) , where (4) ac id p H dissociates the enzyme-receptor c o m p l e x w h i c h is then del ivered to the lysosome ( L ) , comple t ing the endogenous pathway for lysosomal targeting (5). Exogenous ly produced lysosomal enzymes are targeted to lysosomes (6) by w a y o f c e l l surface M P R s , del ivered to the p lasma membrane ( P M ) f rom the E E (7). (8) R e c y c l i n g o f M P R s to the go lg i . N=nucleus , EC=ext race l lu la r space. F igure based o n K o r n f e l d 1987. apparent ove rwhe lming o f the M P R mediated de l ivery o f l y sosomal proteins, result ing i n reduced levels o f other lysosomal proteins i n the lysosome and increased levels o f lysosomal proteins i n the extracellular environment ( A n s o n et al, 1992). Proteins bearing 22 the mannose-6-phosphate marker b i n d M P R s and are directed to early endosome compartments, where under the influence o f l o w p H , the proteins dissociate f rom the receptors. Freed receptors are recyc led to the go lg i for reuse. Proteins destined for the lysosome, i nc lud ing I D U A , are transported i n an endosome l i ke ves ic le that fuses w i t h or becomes a lysosome. 1.3 Therapies for MPS I 1.3.1 Rationale M P S I, and other lysosomal storage disorders, are somewhat unique i n that mul t ip le strategies for therapeutic reconsti tution are possible . The rationale for therapy for the M P S disorders is based o n two observations. Firs t , cross correct ion o f I D U A deficient fibroblasts occurs w i t h co-cul t iva t ion o f fibroblasts f rom patients w i t h other forms o f M P S disorders. The corrective factor has been determined to be the lysosomal enzyme itself, w h i c h can be secreted by one ce l l for uptake and de l ivery to the lysosome o f another, deficient c e l l (Bar ton and Neufe ld , 1971). Th i s means i n contrast w i t h disorders requir ing endogenous product ion o f therapeutic proteins for correct function, I D U A and other l y sosomal enzymes bear ing the M P R phosphate residue can be introduced i n protein form, rather than requi r ing direct gene therapy approaches. Second, patients expressing on ly l o w level I D U A levels , as l o w as 0 .13% o f normal I D U A protein levels , undergo a dramat ica l ly different disease course inc lud ing no significant central nervous system disease and m i l d skeletal disease (Scott et al., 1993). T h i s suggests that the successful in t roduct ion o f even l o w levels o f I D U A act iv i ty c o u l d improve important features o f M P S I currently not fu l ly addressed. F igure 1.6 depicts the routes for de l ivery 23 o f therapeutic enzyme to the lysosome. Transplanted cel ls are a source o f enzyme w i t h bone mar row transplantation ( B M T ) , w h i c h delivers enzyme to diseased lysosomes v i a Figure 1.6: Routes for the introduction of therapeutic IDUA Therapeutic I D U A can be produced by numerous strategies. (1) transplanted tissue, exempl i f i ed by bone m a r r o w transplantation ( B M T ) , and (2) enzyme replacement therapy ( E R T ) , both i n v o l v i n g de l ivery o f exogenously produced enzyme (so l id l ines) to lysosomes v i a c e l l surface M P R s . (3) Gene therapy ( G T ) , requires de l ivery o f agents to the nucleus (dotted l ine) resulting i n endogenously produced enzyme. N=nucleus , R E R = r o u g h endoplasmic re t iculum, G=go lg i , EE=ear ly endosome, L= lysosome , P M = p l a s m a membrane, EC=ext race l lu la r space, MPRs=mannose-6-phosphate receptors. c e l l surface M P R receptors. U s i n g the same route enzyme replacement therapy ( E R T ) can l ikewise p rov ide therapeutic enzyme. Gene therapy ( G T ) differs f rom B M T and E R T as the therapeutic enzyme is produced internally and is targeted to the lysosome v i a both 24 Strategy Target sites Outcome Limitations Species and references Compat ib le Bone B o n e mar row and Reduc t ion i n donors H u m a n marrow bone mar row urinary G A G Pearson, 1986 trans- der ived cel ls excret ion Transplant ion Shapiro et al, plantation i nc lud ing complicatons , 1995 (BMT) widespread cel ls Somat ic engraftment o f the improvement D o g monocyte /macro- L i m i t e d benefit Constantopoulous phage lineage Stabi l iza t ion to central etal, 1989 o f neurologic nervous system compl ica t ions L i m i t e d benefit to skeletal system L i m i t e d benefit D o g Enzyme Plasma , cel ls Reduc t ion i n to central K a k k i s et al., replacement urinary G A G nervous system 1996 therapy excret ion (ERT) L i m i t e d benefit Ca t Somat ic to skeletal K a k k i s et al, improvement system 2001 Stab i l iza t ion Immuno log ic H u m a n o f neurologic response K a k k i s et al, compl ica t ions 2001 u n k n o w n ; D o g Gene N o t yet defined; u n k n o w n del ivery , S h u l l etal, 1996 therapy Somat ic , central expression, Meertens et al, (GT) nervous system, persistence, 2002 and skeletal i m m u n o l o g i c L u t z k o et al., system response 1999 Table 1.2: Strategies for the introduction of therapeutic IDUA 25 the endogenous route and for ne ighbor ing cel ls , the exogenous route. Gene therapy approaches, i nc lud ing ex vivo gene therapy, have suffered f rom poor transduction efficiencies, short-term or s i lenced gene expression in vivo, and the d i f f icul ty o f de l ive r ing therapeutic protein to target cel ls , but have shown some remarkable results i n an imal models o f M P S disorders. As summar ized i n table 1.2, different approaches to therapy offer specif ic therapeutic benefits, however no therapy is complete. A unique therapy m a y be o f benefit to a subset o f MPS I patients w h i c h have premature stop mutations. In this strategy, aminoglycos ides are used that suppress premature nonsense stop mutations. M P S I fibroblasts heterozygous for IDUA stop mutations Q 7 0 X and W 4 0 2 X , c o m m o n IDUA mutations, showed a restoration o f almost 3 % o f normal I D U A act ivi ty levels w h e n treated w i t h gentamicin. Gen t amic in treatment reduced G A G accumula t ion i n M P S I cel ls to a normal leve l for at least 2 days after d i scont inuing treatment, and produced a reduct ion i n lysosomal storage as shown by flourescent mic roscopy ( K e e l i n g e t a l . , 2001). T h i s treatment cou ld have applications for numerous disorders result ing from premature stop mutations but the in vivo effectiveness and tolerance has not yet been shown. 1.3.2 M P S a n i m a l mode l s A n i m a l models o f human disease are useful both i n understanding disease pa thophys io logy as w e l l as assessment o f therapies. Na tu ra l ly occur r ing an imal models for a number o f MPS disorders have been identif ied, i nc lud ing a lpha-L-iduronidase def ic iency ( M P S I) i n cat (Haskins e t a l , 1979) and dog (Shu l l e t a l , 1982), a ry l sulfatase def ic iency ( M P S V I ) i n cat (Jezyk e t a l . , 1977), and beta-glucuronidase def ic iency ( M P S V I I ) i n dog (Haskins e t a l , 1984) and mouse (Bi rkenmeie r e t a l , 1989). E x a m i n a t i o n o f these natural ly-occurr ing models indicates they represent w e l l the disease pathology and course observed i n the corresponding human M P S disorder. In the M P S I cat, a three basepair delet ion leads to the predicted loss o f a single aspartate residue f rom the feline I D U A polypept ide (He e t a l . , 1999). The leve l o f residual I D U A act ivi ty expressed f rom the three basepair delet ion al lele is uncertain, but transient overexpression o f the c D N A inc lud ing the muta t ion produced no detectable I D U A act ivi ty . The phenotype o f M P S I i n the cat includes somatic, neurologica l , and skeletal invo lvement s imi la r to intermediate or severe M P S I i n humans. T h e M P S I dog m o d e l shares w i t h the M P S I cat an intermediate to severe course i n v o l v i n g somatic, neurologic and skeletal systems, and has been used extensively i n the assessment o f treatment protocols for M P S I. Secondary accumulat ions o f GM2, GM3, and gangliosides have been detected i n canine M P S I as observed i n humans. The organizat ion o f the canine Idua gene has been determined and the c D N A has been sequenced. The basis o f I D U A def ic iency i n the M P S I dog has been found to result f rom a G - t o - A transi t ion i n the donor splice site i n intron 1 o f the canine Idua gene, leading to i n c l u s i o n o f in t ron 1 i n the m R N A and the creation o f a premature terminat ion codon at the exon-intron j unc t i on ( M e n o n e t a h , 1992). The M P S I dog is be l ieved to produce no I D U A act ivi ty and m a y further have a cross reactive material ( C R M ) negative status, w h i c h models those severe human M P S I cases w i t h no generation o f immunogen ic protein. T h i s has important impl ica t ions for therapies w h i c h introduce potent ial ly immunogen ic I D U A protein or nucle ic ac id encoding I D U A to patients that have not been exposed to I D U A antigens, and thus the M P S I dog models the challenges encountered i n C R M negative M P S I patients. The most dramatic therapeutic success has been demonstrated i n another M P S mode l , the M P S V I I mouse. A naturally occur r ing mouse mode l o f complete beta-glucuronidase ( G U S ) def ic iency ( M P S V I I , S l y disease) has been identif ied (Bi rkenmeie r et al, 1989). In addi t ion to H S and D S stored i n M P S I, M P S V I I includes accumula t ion o f K S G A G s , and i n humans complete G U S def ic iency results i n a phenotype s imi la r to severe M P S I, w i t h involvement o f somatic, skeletal and, to a lesser extent than M P S I, neurologic impairment . A number o f factors contribute to the u t i l i ty o f the M P S V I I mouse, i n addi t ion to the advantages o f mouse models i n general discussed, i nc lud ing 1) the ava i lab i l i ty o f a genetically wel l -def ined, inbred popula t ion o f M P S V I I carrier and affected mice , 2) the c l i n i c a l , pathologic , and b iochemica l characterization o f M P S V I I mice , 3) ava i lab i l i ty o f recombinant G U S enzyme, 4) a detailed understanding o f the normal enzyme, i nc lud ing structure and important modif icatons relevant to funct ion has been developed, and 5) the generation o f h is tochemical markers to identify in-situ the loca t ion o f functional G U S enzyme. Important nove l f indings have been made w i t h the M P S V I I mouse that m a y apply to the M P S disorders i n general. M P S V I I m ice have defects i n immune function inc lud ing an impai red T - c e l l prol i ferat ion response and decreased antibody product ion after immun iza t i on w i t h foreign antigens ( D a l y et al, 2000). These defects are thought to result f rom the inh ib i t ion o f proteases required for antigen processing by ly sosomal G A G s . Feta l l y sosomal storage i n M P S V I I m ice is evident very early, by 15.5 days o f gestation, and can be detected i n bra in as early as 3 weeks o f age (Casa l and W o l f e , 2000). The phenotype o f M P S V I I is different w h e n the 28 ident ica l mutant allele is expressed i n different mouse strains, i nc lud ing differences i n v igor , fert i l i ty, and longevi ty , indica t ing the importance o f m o d i f y i n g genes (Casal et al, 1998). 1.3.3 Bone Marrow Transplantation for M P S I in humans B o n e mar row transplantation is used as a therapy for M P S and other lysosomal storage disorders w i t h l im i t ed success. B o n e m a r r o w is used as a source o f tissue for transplantation as it undergoes extensive prol i ferat ion, offers l ong term expression stabil i ty, and generates c i rcula t ing effecter cel ls that permeate the entire body. B o n e mar row transplantation carries a h i g h r i sk o f mortal i ty and morb id i ty f rom graft versus host disease and other compl ica t ions . In a group o f 23 M P S patients treated w i t h B M T , a morta l i ty rate o f 3 0 % was observed w h e n H L A - i d e n t i c a l sibs were used as donors and even higher rates occurred w i t h noncompat ible donors (Pearson, 1986). W h i l e effective for the somatic features o f M P S I such as hepatosplenomegaly, corneal c loud ing , and jo in t mob i l i t y , B M T is o f l im i t ed benefit to the neurologic and skeletal compl ica t ions o f M P S I. Skeleta l abnormali t ies do not appear to be reversible, though compl ica t ions can be par t ia l ly prevented i f transplantation occurs very early i n the course o f disease. L i k e w i s e neurologic degeneration m a y be s tabi l ized or par t ia l ly prevented when B M T is performed before significant neurologic dysfunct ion is present (Shapiro et al., 1995). T h i s highl ights the need for early diagnosis and intervention for M P S I. The l im i t ed ava i lab i l i ty o f suitable mar row donors, the mortal i ty associated w i t h the procedure, and the l im i t ed effect on c r i t i ca l neurologic and skeletal features o f M P S I make B M T a less than ideal treatment. 1.3.4 Bone marrow transplantation in M P S animal models B o n e mar row transplantation ( B M T ) o f al logeneic normal mar row into myeloabla ted M P S I dogs has been performed w i t h part ial success (Bre ider et al., 1989, S h u l l et al., 1987, Constantopoulous et al., 1989). B M T decreases urinary excret ion o f G A G s and leads to significant improvement o f somatic tissues i nc lud ing l iver , spleen, and k idney . M o d e s t improvement was noted i n the C N S , where l o w levels o f I D U A act ivi ty were detected after transplantation, p roduc ing a decrease i n bra in G A G levels and decreased neuronal vacula t ion (Shu l l et al., 1987), but considerable C N S pathology persists after B M T . Cornea l opaci ty was largely al leviated by B M T (Contantopoulos et al., 1989), however skeletal disease showed o n l y l im i t ed improvement or was delayed i n progression (Shu l l et al., 1988). T h i s is s imi la r to the l im i t ed benefit obtained w i t h B M T i n humans, where somatic tissues s h o w significant improvement w h i l e C N S and skeletal features o f M P S I remain problemat ic , and conf i rms the u t i l i ty o f the M P S I dog for evaluat ion and refinement o f B M T for human M P S I. S i m i l a r to the f indings f rom B M T i n human and canine M P S I, B M T i n young adult M P S V I I m ic e is o f l imi t ed benefit to the skeletal and C N S manifestations o f M P S V I I (Bi rkenmeie r et al., 1991). The l imi ted success o f B M T is be l ieved to result f rom the presence o f irreversible features o f disease and the c los ing o f w i n d o w s for therapeutic intervention, s t imulat ing the invest igat ion o f therapy earlier i n the course o f murine M P S V I I . B M T i n newborn M P S V I I mice treated w i t h condi t ion ing i r radi t ion showed improvement i n somatic systems as expected f rom previous results but, important ly, significant improvement was shown i n bone growth and structure. N e u r o n a l storage and behavioural abnormali t ies were not affected. W h i l e p romis ing , early B M T was not 30 successful i n correct ing storage i n a l l tissues and the i r radiat ion treatment required for engraftment induced dysplas ia i n brain , bone, and other tissues (Sands et al., 1993, Bastedo et al., 1994). T h i s prompted invest igat ion o f early, n o n tox ic approaches to therapy. Wi thou t precondi t ioning such as mar row ablation, a large dose (10 7 ) o f bone mar row cel ls was introduced by i.v. inject ion to 3 day o l d M P S V I I mice , where it is was hoped they w o u l d engraft result ing i n ch imer ic recipients. Long- te rm mul t i l ineage engraftment was established and posi t ive outcomes inc luded prolonged l i fe , improved bone structure, and generally reduced storage, but no reduct ion i n neuron ly sosoma l storage was observed (Soper et al., 2001). A s described earlier, the fetal environment offers unique advantages for therapy. Transplanat ion o f fetal donor tissue into diseased fetal recipients offers further advantages, as graft versus host disease is l im i t ed because o f both the immune tolerance o f the fetal recipient and the immune incompetence o f the fetal donor ce l ls , and addi t ional ly fetal tissue should contain a higher propor t ion o f stem cel ls than older tissues. Transplantat ion o f a l logenic , transgenic fetal l ive r cel ls overexpressing human G U S enzyme into fetal recipients showed early c l i n i c a l improvement at 2 months o f age but no improvement at 7 months (Casal et al., 2001). L o w engraftment levels were assumed to l i m i t therapeutic benefits, however the non-tox ic , early approach clear ly shows promise. 1.3.5 Cellular transplantation in M P S animal models Spec i f i ca l ly targeting the C N S manifestations o f M P S V I I , transplantation o f neuronal progenitor cel ls into the cerebral ventricles o f newborn mi ce resulted i n l o n g term engraftment and increased G U S act ivi ty i n the C N S and decreased lysosomal storage i n neurons and g l i a (Snyder et ah, 1995), an encouraging result for C N S therapy. 31 Anothe r transplantation approach assessed o n the M P S V I I mouse is the implanta t ion o f neo-organs consis t ing o f normal or overexpressing fibroblasts encapsulated i n a matr ix designed to l i m i t immune destruction o f internal G U S -expressing fibroblasts. Introduction o f microcapsules overexpressing G U S into the peri t ioneal cavi ty o f M P S V I I mice reduced l iver , spleen and general v iscera l storage but fa i led to increase G U S act iv i ty i n the bra in , and appeared to i nvoke an a n t i - G U S antibody response w h i c h l imi t ed G U S leve l (Ross e t a l . , 2000), w h i l e introduct ion o f the microencapsules into the cerebral ventricles reversed loca l bra in storage and resulted i n increased bra in G U S act ivi ty and more no rma l behavior (Ross e t a l . , 2000) . 1.3.6 G e n e t h e r a p y f o r M P S I Gene therapy for human M P S I has not yet been attempted. Chal lenges facing G T approaches include main ta in ing therapeutic levels o f gene expression, de l ivery o f gene constructs to cr i t ica l tissues l ike the bra in and bone, and immune response to nove l proteins or de l ivery agents. The attraction o f gene therapy is the poss ib i l i ty o f a universal treatment, without ongoing infusion. A number o f groups have investigated the early stage o f autologous mar row transplantation w i t h re t rovira l ly transduced patient tissue. Fa i rba i rn e t a l . constructed a retroviral vector w i t h the fu l l length c D N A for I D U A and used it to transduce bone m a r r o w f rom patients w i t h M P S I. T h e y showed successful gene transfer into desired C D 3 4 + cel ls and enzyme expression i n the result ing progeny ce l l s (Fa i rba i rn e t a l . , 1996). The enzyme produced was able to correct the lysosomal distention i n M P S macrophages, conf i rming that the enzyme is functional and local izes to the lysosome b y both the endogenous and exogenous routes as desired. N o human trials us ing this approach have yet been attempted. 32 A n i m a l studies on models o f M P S disorders have shown improvement to cr i t ica l organ systems not addressed i n human therapy. M o s t impressive are the results f rom adeno-associated vi rus , o r A A V , used to d i rec t ly transduce diseased tissue in vivo. M o s t important ly, it remains to be determined what amount o f correct ion o f skeletal and neurologic systems is possible i n M P S I, and h o w to achieve this. Spec i f ica l ly , the cel lu lar targets, and t i m i n g o f introduct ion, c r i t ica l to the successful correct ion o f a l l compl ica t ions o f M P S is not yet k n o w n . 1.3.7 Gene therapy in animal models of M P S disorders The M P S disorders are s ingle gene disorders w i t h obvious , easi ly detectable pathologic involvement and as such are considered good models for gene therapy. The m a i n issues l i m i t i n g improvement o f the C N S and skeletal features o f M P S I after B M T or E R T are be l ieved to relate to l im i t ed del ivery to these tissues and/or the presence o f i rreversible pathology before the introduct ion o f therapy. Ideal ly, therapies w o u l d correct a l l aspects o f M P S I and be w i d e l y avai lable . Gene therapy offers the potential for de l ivery to many c e l l types and w i d e spread avai labi l i ty . N u m e r o u s gene therapies have been assessed o n the M P S I dog (see table 1.3). Di rec t intramuscular inject ion o f p l a smid encoding the a lpha-L-iduronidase c D N A resulted i n no detectable enzyme product ion (Shu l l et al., 1996). A further attempt at muscle der ived I D U A expression used myoblasts g r o w n in vitro f rom musc le biopsies transduced w i t h a retroviral vector conta ining the canine gene under control o f the muscle creatine kinase enhancer. W h i l e transduced myoblasts showed several hundred fo ld overexpression o f I D U A in vitro, enzyme 33 Species Therapy Outcome Reference D o g B o n e mar row transplantation Benef i t to somatic storage Improved m o b i l i t y Con t inued skeletal disease Some I D U A act ivi ty i n bra in Bre ider et al, 1989, S h u l l et a/.,1987, Constantopoulous etal, 1989 D o g E n z y m e replacement therapy. Intravenous infusion o f human recombinant I D U A Benefi t to somatic storage Some I D U A act ivi ty i n bra in N o improvement to cartilage Immune response K a k k i s et al, 1996 D o g A d u l t transfer o f retrovirus transfected myoblasts Immune response N o amel iora t ion o f disease S h u l l etal, 1996 D o g In-utero inject ion o f I D U A encoding retrovirus Short term expression i n mul t ip le tissues N o amel iora t ion o f disease course Meertens L et al, 2002 D o g In-utero transfer o f iduronidase-transduced autologous H S C s Immunotolerance to I D U A protein L o w leve l engraftment N o amel iora t ion o f disease course L u t z k o et al, 1999 Cat E R T Intravenous infus ion o f human recombinant I D U A Reduced lysosomal distention L i m i t e d de l ivery to bra in Immune response K a k k i s et al, 2001 M o u s e E R T Intravenous infusion o f human recombinant I D U A Reduced lysosomal distention Cont inued skeletal disease L i m i t e d de l ivery to bra in C la rke et al, unpubl ished Table 1.3: Therapies for M P S I assessed on M P S I models product ion dec l ined rap id ly f o l l o w i n g reintroduct ion o f the cul tured cel ls i n to M P S I dogs. An t ibod ie s specific to I D U A and in f lammat ion at sites o f myoblas t inject ion were detected (Shu l l et al, 1996). 34 Host immune response l ikewise appears to l i m i t the benefit o f autologous transplantation o f re t rovira l ly transduced hematopoiet ic stem cel ls into nonmyeloabla ted recipients. E v e n w i t h h i g h l eve l transduction and overexpression at 10 to 200 fo ld normal levels i n long-term mar row ce l l cultures, and evidence o f engraftment persis t ing after 2 to 3 years post- infusion, albeit at l o w levels o f 0.01 to 1% i n b l o o d and mar row leukocytes, no I D U A enzyme or transcripts encoding I D U A were detected i n any recipient dog ( L u t z k o et al, 1999a). E x a m i n a t i o n o f immune responses revealed humora l responses to I D U A , and cel lular responses were detected against I D U A transduced, but not control , cel ls ( L u t z k o et al, 1999b). The prenatal environment may be i m m u n o g i c a l l y naive and provide for the in t roduct ion o f therapeutic levels o f enzyme before the format ion irreversible features o f M P S I. T o evaluate H S C gene therapy for canine M P S I i n the pre immune fetal environement, in utero adoptive transfer o f I D U A transduced M P S I L T M C s was performed o n fetal nonmyeoloabla ted M P S I pups. (Lu tzko et al, 1999) A g a i n , on ly l o w leve l (1%) engraftement was observed, and no I D U A act ivi ty or I D U A transcripts were detected i n recipients. A l l recipients d ied o f M P S disease w i t h no evidence o f improvement f rom the therapy, however , i n contrast w i t h post-natal transplanatation, no evidence o f a humora l response against I D U A was detected. The l o w levels o f engraftment observed, coupled w i t h poor maintenance o f p rov i r a l I D U A expression, at present l i m i t the u t i l i ty o f this approach for M P S I. Di rec t injection o f a retrovirus vector into the developing fetus showed successful transduction o f numerous cel ls types, and, w h i l e gene expression and I D U A act ivi ty were detected i n the l iver and k idney o f a deceased pup, I D U A act ivi ty was not detected i n adult tissues o f su rv iv ing pups 35 (Meertens et ah, 2002). Th i s again m a y be the result o f def ic iency i n l ong term expression f rom provi ra l vectors. N o n e o f the gene therapy approaches yet assessed i n a mode l o f M P S I produce significant improvement to a l l tissue systems al though the benefit o f early intervention is clear. Gene therapy approaches have also produced some exc i t ing results i n the M P S V I I mouse. Reversa l o f pre-exis t ing storage i n neurons and g l i a was observed w i t h implanta t ion o f re t roviral ly transduced fibroblasts overexpressing G U S into the neocortex o f adult M P S V I I m ic e (Tay lor et ah, 1997). H o w e v e r , expression o f the transgene was lost w i t h t ime. Stable integration into the host genome and efficient transduction o f non d i v i d i n g cells makes lent ivirus mediated therapy attractive. Intraparenchymal inject ion o f lent ivirus encoding G U S into the brains o f adult M P S V I I mice produced stable c e l l t ransduction and G U S expression over the 16 weeks o f the study, and lead to a marked reduct ion i n lysosomal storage i n neurons, g l i a , and perivascular cel ls distant f rom the site o f inject ion ( B o s c h et ah, 2000). Perhaps the best results o f any approach have come w i t h use o f adeno-associated ( A A V ) virus vectors. A A V vectors can infect n o n d i v i d i n g cel ls and m a y lead to integration into the host genome. A single intravenous inject ion o f A A V car ry ing the human G U S c D N A i n newborn mice resulted i n long-term expression o f G U S , persist ing at least 4 months, i n mul t ip le tissues and a dramatic reduct ion i n ly sosomal storage i n mul t ip le organ systems, i nc lud ing the bra in . A l m o s t complete clearage o f l y sosomal storage was observed i n neurons, g l i a , and meninges ( D a l y et ah, 1999). F o l l o w - u p a year after the single inject ion showed treated mi ce had superior surv iva l rates, bone lengths, and weight than untreated M P S V I I mice ( D a l y et ah, 2001). These p romis ing results 3 6 indicate the neurologic and skeletal features o f M P S disorders can be dramat ica l ly inf luenced w i t h therapy, and highl ights the importance o f early intervention. 1.3.8 Enzyme replacement therapy for human lysosomal disorders E n z y m e replacement therapy ( E R T ) is w e l l established for Gaucher disease type I, where c l i n i c a l trials have shown reversal o f the l iver , spleen, and bone mar row compl ica t ions o f this disorder (Bar ton et al., 1991). The skeletal pathology that may be present i n Gaucher type I showed little improvement w i t h E R T . A s bone mar row transplantation does not appear to s ignif icant ly alter the course o f central nervous system disease observed i n other forms o f Gaucher disease w i t h neurologic involvement (types II and III), E R T is not considered suitable for these forms o f Gaucher disease. Important to the success o f E R T for Gaucher was modi f ica t ion o f the enzyme to target uptake to cr i t ica l cel ls . W i t h Gaucher as a m o d e l system, E R T has been developed for other ly sosomal storage diseases inc lud ing Pompe disease (Reuser et al., 2002) and Fabry disease (Breun ig and Wanner , 2003). Recent ly , c l i n i c a l trials determining the safety and efficacy o f I D U A E R T for M P S I have been performed. Recombinan t I D U A enzyme was used to treat 10 patients w i t h va ry ing severity o f M P S I at a dose o f 125,000 units per k g o f body weight g iven intravenously once week ly for 52 weeks ( K a k k i s et al., 2001). Signif icant improvement was noted inc lud ing decreased hepatosplenomegaly w i t h normal iza t ion o f the size o f the l ive r after 26 weeks i n eight o f the patients. Improved f l ex ib i l i t y and decreases i n urinary G A G were also found. Immune reaction to the enzyme can be problemat ic , and 4 patients had detectable serum antibodies to I D U A . It is clear the b l o o d bra in barrier 37 l imi t s the del ivery o f intravenously injected I D U A to the brain. It is not yet k n o w n what impact l ong term E R T w i l l have o n skeletal compl ica t ions o f M P S I, but i t i s clear that early intervention has a greater impact o n disease progression as found w i t h B M T . E R T has important advantages relative to B M T inc lud ing reduced morta l i ty and morbid i ty , and is not l imi t ed by donor compat ib i l i ty . W i t h improvements i n de l ivery and op t imiza t ion o f therapeutic regimes, E R T m a y become the preferred therapy for M P S I, as it has for non-neurologic forms o f Gaucher disease. 1.3.9 Enzyme replacement in animal models of M P S E n z y m e replacement therapy ( E R T ) was attempted i n canine M P S I i n ant icipat ion o f human trials ( K a k k i s et al., 1996, S h u l l et al., 1994). W h i l e the large size o f the dog makes trials prohibi t ive , human recombinant I D U A was produced i n Chinese hamster ovary cel ls and pur i f ied for intravenous injection. Injected enzyme was found to clear f rom the b l o o d q u i c k l y and was taken up p r imar i l y by the l iver . Dramat ic improvement i n lysosomal storage i n both hepatocytes and Kupf fe r cel ls were noted after a short t r ia l o f 12 days. M P S I dogs treated for 3 months showed normal levels o f I D U A act ivi ty i n l iver and spleen, lower levels i n k idney and lung , and barely detectable (less than 5 % o f normal) levels i n brain, heart valves , and cartilage. Pa thologic f indings mir rored enzyme act ivi ty levels , w i t h improvement i n somatic tissues but no improvement noted i n bra in or heart valves (Shu l l et al, 1994). In a l o n g term, higher dose t r ia l , an M P S I dog was treated for 13 months. W h i l e the bra in showed detectable I D U A act ivi ty , and decreased lysosomal G A G storage, h is to logic improvement o f the bra in was not evident. In addi t ion, no improvement i n cartilage and heart va lve was demonstrated w i t h h igh dose long term E R T ( K a k k i s et al., 1996). Thus E R T shares w i t h 38 B M T l imita t ions i n the therapeutic benefit these options offer to the C N S and skeletal systems, and these l imitat ions are fai thfully revisi ted i n the M P S I dog. A s B M T invo lves replacement o f the recipient 's immune system, immune recogni t ion o f foreign I D U A protein is not an issue w i t h B M T . In both short term and long term E R T trials, complement-act ivat ing antibodies against human I D U A were generated, w h i c h may be associated w i t h immune complex deposi t ion o f therapeutic protein, disease, and reduced therapeutic eff iciency. These m a y be par t ia l ly re l ieved w i t h s l o w infus ion o f enzyme and premedicat ion, as described i n the M P S I dog (Shu l l et al, 1994). E R T has been assessed extensively i n the mouse mode l o f M P S V I I . W h e n performed early as suggested by previous B M T trials, E R T results i n de l ive ry o f detectable G U S act ivi ty to cr i t ica l tissues i nc lud ing bone and bra in and lead to a widespread reduct ion i n storage ( V o g l e r et al, 1996). I f performed before 14 days o f age, E R T produced 3 1 % o f normal G U S act ivi ty i n the bra in and resulted i n reduced neuronal storage ( O ' C o n n o r et al, 1998, V o g l e r et al, 1999). T h i s early w i n d o w for C N S improvement indicates either the immature b l o o d bra in barrier a l lows access o f intravenous proteins, or, storage after this t ime point is i rreversible. T h i s was the first demonstrat ion o f significant impact o n the C N S and skeletal disease for an M P S disorder. 1.3.10 Generation of a murine model of M P S I Gene targeting i n embryonic stem cel ls was used to generate a murine m o d e l for M P S I w i t h complete def ic iency o f I D U A (Idua-I-) w h i c h forms the centerpiece o f this thesis (C la rke et al, 1997). A n interruption type k n o c k out construct was designed to introduce the n e o m y c i n antibiot ic resistance select ion cassette into exon V I o f the murine Idua locus as shown i n F i g 1.7. Care was taken to avo id the Sat-1 gene and its possible A . M u r i n e Idua and Sat-1 genomic organizat ion I ^ ~ 1 5 k b Sat-1 gene III / / I Yf//v///A n i m a. i M IDUA Exons I and II W i l d type I D U A transcript II I I I I I I II l ^ , , III XIV IDUA Exons III to XIV B . Interruption construct 11 k b rmUA* Neo I M - H t i H ii imi un—H II VI XIV C . Targeted locus Sat-1 transcript IDUA exon SAT-1 exon Targeted I D U A transcript tHCEDH-ttti—\ III XIV Figure 1.7: Targeted inactivation of the murine Idua gene T h e Idua and Sat-1 genomic locus. B ) U s i n g an interruption type construct e x o n V I o f Idua was targeted by introduct ion o f a n e o m y c i n select ion cassette. The construct was designed to m i n i m i z e disrupt ion to the adjacent Sat-1 gene, regulatory elements for w h i c h l i k e l y are i n intron 2 o f Idua. C ) The targeted locus after homologous recombina t ion and the in t roduct ion o f N e o . The neo cassette is transcribed i n the orientat ion wri t ten, is d r iven by the mouse phoshoglycerate kinase-1 (Pgk-1) promoter, and includes a po lyadenyla t ion sequence. 4 1 regulatory elements and an interruption construct rather than a delet ion construct was used for I D U A inact ivat ion. A n a l y s i s o f Sat-1 expression by Nor the rn blot analysis indicated S A T - 1 expression was not altered i n Idua -I- mice , w h i l e R T - P C R analysis conf i rmed a complete absence o f I D U A m R N A expression. H o m o z y g o u s Idua -I- mice have no detectable I D U A enzyme ac t iv i ty and have increased ur inary G A G s levels . N o r m a l appearing at bir th , M P S I m ice develop a characteristic phenotype first discernable at 3 weeks o f age and inc lud ing a flattened profi le , th icken ing o f the digits , and coarseness o f the coat as seen i n F i g 1.8. N o obvious growth def ic iency or mortal i ty is seen w i t h i n the first 20 weeks o f l ife, but as discussed i n Chapter 3, M P S I m ice have a shortened l ife span. Skeletal disease i n the M P S I mouse includes anterior f la r ing o f the r ibs and th ickening o f the facial bones as early as 4 weeks o f age. Pa tho log ica l evidence o f disease was found at 4 weeks o f age as l y sosoma l storage observed i n l imi t ed tissues inc lud ing cel ls o f the ret iculoendothel ial system such as Kupf fe r cel ls , splenic s inusoidal l i n i n g cel ls , and g l i a l cel ls . A t 8 weeks o f age, more widespread lysosomal storage is noted i n hepatocytes, chondrocytes, and neurons, as seen i n F i g 1.9. W h i l e Idua -I- mice l ive to adulthood i n contrast w i t h humans w i t h complete def ic iency o f I D U A , the severe skeletal , neurologic , and somatic disease observed i n the Idua -I- m ice is representative o f the severe form o f M P S I or Hur l e r syndrome. Chapter 3 is a study o f the long term pathophysio logy o f I D U A def ic iency i n this murine mode l o f M P S I. The generation o f transgenic models o f therapy for use i n conjunct ion w i t h the Idua -I- mouse strain is the focus o f Chapters 4 and 5. 42 F i g u r e 1.8: C l i n i c a l fea ture o f I d u a -/- m i c e at 12 weeks o f age A : Facial dysmorphic features of Idua -I- mouse (on the right) compared with Idua +/+ mouse (left). Note the shortness to the snout in the Idua -I- mouse with a loss of the fine taper to the face. B : Photograph of the hind paws of the same mice noting the broadness and thickness to the digits of the Idua -I- mouse, right. A s published Clarke et al, 1997. 43 F i g u r e 1.9: E l e c t r o n m i c r o g r a p h s f r o m 8 w e e k o l d I d u a - / - a n d c o n t r o l m ice A , B : L i v e r , magni f ica t ion 4 1 7 5 X . A : Idua +/+ mouse hepatocyte (H) . B : Idua -I- mouse, note vaculated hepatocytes (H) , and vacoulated central Kupf fe r ce l l ( K ) . C , D : S p l e e n , magnif ica t ion 5 4 0 0 X . C : Idua +/+ mouse, s inusoidal ce l l (S). D : Idua -I- mouse, note the h igh ly vacoulated s inusoidal ce l l (S). E , F : Cerebra l cor t ical neuron, magnif ica t ion 9 0 0 0 X . E : Idua +/+ mouse. F : Idua -I- mouse, note the prominent neuronal cytoplasmic vacuola t ion ( N C ) . A l l magnif icat ions are approximate. A s publ ished C la rke et al., 1997. 44 1.4 Thesis objectives and supporting hypotheses Objective: Character izat ion o f the l ong term pathophysio logy o f the M P S I mouse. Hypothesis: I D U A def ic iency i n the mouse w i l l result i n a progressive disease course s imi la r to severe M P S I i n humans. Objective: Generat ion o f a condi t ional transgenic mouse l ine w i t h the potential to express human I D U A . Hypotheses: A b o v e a certain leve l , expression o f the human c D N A encoding I D U A is t ox ic and w i l l produce a unique phenotype, w h i l e l o w leve l transgenic expression o f I D U A w i l l be tolerated i n a normal background. L o w l eve l transgenic expression o f human I D U A w i l l be correct ive for a l l aspects o f mur ine M P S I. 45 C h a p t e r 2: M a t e r i a l s a n d M e t h o d s 2.1 Polymerase chain reaction Primer ID Purpose Primer Sequence 5 prime to 3 prime Product size in basepairs Conditions Neo A PrimerB E S clone and mouse knockout G G A A G A C A A T A G C A G G A T G C T A A G A T G G C T T G T C A C C T G T C T T C A C 1200 58 c anneal 35 cycles HID1F H I D 4 R Human I D U A detection C G C T T C T G G A G G A G C A C A G G C T G G A G A C C A A G T C C T T C C A C T C 340 62 c anneal 35 cycles 2% D M S O HID3F H I D 7 R Human I D U A detection C T G A G C T A C A A C T T C A C C C A C C T G C T C G T C G T T G T A A A T G G G G G T G T C 580 68 c anneal 30 cycles H I D 4 F H I D 6 R Human I D U A detection G A C T T T G A G G A C A A G C A G C A G G T G C T T C C T G T G G A G G G A G A T G T A G T C 370 62 c anneal 35 cycles T a b l e 2.1: P C R p r i m e r s Isolated genomic D N A was used i n P C R reactions. P C R primers used i n this thesis are shown i n table 2 .1 . T y p i c a l condit ions were I m M M g C b , 0.8 u m each pr imer , 0.1 m M d N T P , 0.5 U o f T a q D N A polymerase ( G i b c o B R L ) , and I X P C R buffer i n a f inal vo lume o f 25 to 50 u l . P C R s were ini t iated at 94 C for 2 minutes and then c y c l e d through anneal ing and elongat ion for 30 to 40 cycles as indicated. 2.2 P r e p a r a t i o n o f the h u m a n I D U A c D N A The 2100 basepair sequence enoding the human I D U A c D N A , (a gift f rom D r . John H o p w o o d , W o m e n ' s and C h i l d r e n ' s Hosp i t a l , A d e l a i d e Aus t ra l i a ) , was removed f rom vector backbone w i t h an EcoRI and Hindlll co-digest ion. U s i n g part ial digest ion w i t h TspRl, the native I D U A polyadenyla t ion s ignal was removed. In preparation for l iga t ion into assorted constructs, the EcoRI/Hindlll fragment was K l e n o w blunted. 2.3 Construction of the myeloid-specific transgene constructs. (CD11B-IDUA and CD1 IB-reporter gene) The 6891 bp C D 1 l b . H G H (D736) .gck vector (a gift f rom Frank J i r ik , publ ished in B a c k et al., 1995) was opened at a unique BamHI site for introduct ion of either the human I D U A c D N A or one o f two reporter genes, beta-galactosidase or enhanced green fluorescent protein. The C D 1 l b vector was then blunted and the 5 ' terminal phosphate residues were removed to reduce se l f l iga t ion us ing c a l f a lkal ine phosphatase ( C A I P ) (BPvL). C A F P and residual enzyme were removed i n preparation for l igat ion. F i n a l l y the human I D U A c D N A , or one o f the reporter genes, was blunted and l igated w i t h the vector backbone. The f inal constructs were l inear ized, and m i x e d for pronuclear co-injection. 2.4 Construction of the myeloid-specific transgene constructs with a selection cassette for selection in ES cells. (CD11B-IDUA and CD1 IB-reporter gene) To the C D 1 1 B - I D U A construct described above, a P G K - N E O select ion cassette was added w h i c h a l lows for select ion o f E S clones that have integrated, and are capable of expressing, the transgene construct. The C D 1 IB-reporter gene constructs d i d not have a select ion cassette added and w o u l d be expected to be found i n on ly a subset o f Neo resistant clones after co-integration of the constructs f o l l o w i n g electroporation into E S cel ls . 48 2.5 Construction of a ubiquitous IDUA expressing transgene construct. ( C M V -IDUA) T h e p E G F P - C 2 m a m m a l i a n expression vector (Clontech) was used a source o f a promoter for d r i v i n g h i g h leve l , ubiquitous human I D U A expression, as w e l l as a source o f the enhanced green flourescent protein ( E G F P ) gene. Th i s vector includes a 600 bp human cytomegalovirus ( C M V ) immediate early promoter w h i c h was removed w i t h sequential Asel and Nhel digests. The promoter was then blunted and l igated w i t h a Clal digested and blunted p B S - I D U A vector, p l ac ing the promoter i n front o f the I D U A c D N A . Orienta t ion was checked w i t h restrict ion digestion. The po lyadenyla t ion sequence and terminal non-coding 3 exons o f the human growth hormone gene ( H G H ) was then removed f rom the C D 1 l b parent vector, described earlier, to increase expression levels o f I D U A . Th i s 2.2 kb EcoRI/EcoRI hgh fragment was c loned into an exis t ing EcoRl site. T h i s comple ted the C M V - I D U A por t ion o f the construct. A reporter construct was then isolated f rom p E G F P - C 2 , consis t ing o f the C M V promoter and the E G F P gene as w e l l as a po lyadenyla t ion sequence. Firs t , a Bglll and BamHI digest o n p E G F P - C 2 removed a mul t ip le c lon ing site w h i c h inc luded restrict ion sites that w o u l d make downstream iso la t ion o f the f inal construct diff icul t . Af ter r emova l o f the mul t ip le c lon ing site, the mod i f i ed p E G F P - C 2 was se l f l igated. The C M V - E G F P 1.4 k b fragment wi thout the internal mul t ip le c lon ing site was then isolated us ing an Asel/Mlul d igest ion, blunted, and ligated into the C M V - I D U A vector at an EcoRI site downstream o f the C M V - I D U A fragment. The f inal construct, ca l led C M V - I D U A , was prepared for pronuclear inject ion w i t h anXhol/Bam / / / d i g e s t . 49 2.6 Construction of a ubiquitous IDUA expressing transgene construct with a selection cassette for selection in ES cells. (pFlox-IDUA) F o r select ion i n E S cel ls , the isolated C M V - I D U A construct described above, i nc lud ing the E G F P reporter, was introduced into p F l o x , a parent vector inc lud ing both the n e o m y c i n resistance gene and the thymid ine kinase gene (Mar th , unpublished). The thymid ine kinase gene was not required for this project but this vector contained convenient c l o n i n g sites relative to other n e o m y c i n encoding constructs. 2.7 Construction of a ubiquitous IDUA expressing transgene construct with a selection cassette for selection in ES cells. (pCAGGS-IDUA) A second construct intended to dr ive h igh leve l , ubiquitous human I D U A expression was generated us ing a vector p roven to result i n h igh leve l expression i n transgenic murine l ines, p C A G G s (a gift f rom D r . Jun- ich i M i y a z a k i , publ i shed i n N i w a e t al., 1991). p C A G G s features a p roven ubiqui tous ly strong promoter based o n the ch icken beta-actin promoter as w e l l as the C M V - I E enhancer. Other features o f this vector inc lude the rabbit beta-globin gene polyadenyla t ion sequence for efficient post transcriptional processing, and sp l i c ing to increase expression levels . In order to generate a single construct that encodes both human I D U A as w e l l as a reporter gene, I chose to use an internal r ibosome entry site ( I R E S ) w h i c h a l lows for expression o f two distinct proteins f rom a single R N A transcript. B y phys ica l ly l i n k i n g I D U A and reporter gene expression, cel ls posi t ive for reporter gene expression are l i k e l y to express I D U A . The generation o f p C A G G s - I D U A was intended to express human I D U A and the beta-geo fusion protein encoding n e o m y c i n resistance for selection i n E S cel ls , as w e l l as the reporter gene beta-galactosidase. A vector described earl ier was used w h i c h inc luded the human I D U A c D N A w i t h no polyadenyla t ion site i n a p B S backbone. T h i s vector was digested w i t h Xbal, and a 4.5 kb Xbal/Xbal insert containing an I R E S site and l i nked beta-geo fusion gene were then ligated. Th i s l i nked the I D U A c D N A to the I R E S beta-geo sequences. N e x t , the I D U A - I R E S - b e t a - g e o fragment was isolated w i t h a Sail and part ial NotI digest, and the 6.7 kb fragment was isolated i n preparation for l iga t ion into the parent p C A G G S vector. H o w e v e r for later i so la t ion o f the completed construct, a Sail site had to be introduced into p C A G G s , w h i c h w o u l d a l l o w eventual i so la t ion o f the completed transgenic construct w i t h a single, complete Sail digest ion. A n o l igo was designed w h i c h includes the Sail site and has a f l ank ing Hindlll site, and w h i c h w o u l d i n solu t ion fo rm a duplex that w o u l d a l l o w l iga t ion w i t h Hindlll sites. The sequence for this o l igonucleot ide is 5 ' - A G C T G T C G A C - 3 ' . A f t e r l iga t ion o f the Sail site into Hindlll digested p C A G G s , the ampl i f i ed vector was EcoRI digested to remove an undesired E G F P sequence, and a l inker a l l o w i n g s t i cky l iga t ion w i t h the 6.7 k b I D U A - I R E S - b e t a -geo fragment was engineered. The l inker was generated by p roduc ing two ol igonucleot ides w h i c h , as a duplex, w o u l d have exposed EcoRI s t i cky ends and contain both NotI and Xhol sites. The sequences o f these o l igos are: o l igo #1: 5 ' -A A T T C T C G A G G C G G C C G C - 3 ' , o l igo # 2: 5 ' - A A T T G C G G C C G C C T C G A G - 3 ' . Af ter addi t ion o f the NotI and Xhol sites, the vector was digested w i t h Notl/Xhol, and the Sall/NotI 6.1 kb I D U A - I R E S - b e t a - g e o fragment w o u l d a l l o w s t icky l iga t ion , a s^Tzo /and Sail sites are compatible , however the junc t ion formed is subsequently not recognized by Sail. F i n a l l y , a complete Sail digest ion a l lows for the i so la t ion o f an approximately 9.4 k b transgene construct for electroporation into E S cel ls . 51 2.8 Construction of a conditional Cre regulated transgene construct with a selection cassette for selection in ES cells (pCCALL2-IRES-IDUA) The p C C A L L 2 - I R E S - h A P / c g p l a smid was opened at a unique Xhol site, blunted, and the terminal 5 pr ime phosphate group was removed to l i m i t self- l igat ion. The blunted human I D U A c D N A , w i t h no po lyadenyla t ion s ignal , was l igated w i t h the construct. P l a s m i d clones w i t h the I D U A insert were identif ied by P C R , and orientation o f the I D U A insert was determined by restrict ion analysis . 2.9 Histopathology A n i m a l s were sacrif iced by ce rv ica l d is locat ion and tissues obtained w i t h i n 20 minutes o f death. The cerebrum and cerebel lum o f mutant and control m i ce were r emoved at autopsy and grossly examined and weighed . The cerebrum was sectioned corona l ly and the cerebe l lum hor izonta l ly . Sections were f ixed i n 10% neutral buffered formal in , snap frozen i n l i q u i d ni trogen and f ixed i n 4 % gluteraldehyde. The paraffin embedded sections o f cerebrum and cerebel lum were sectioned at 5 microns , stained w i t h haematoxy l in and eosin ( H & E ) , and per iod ic -ac id sch i f f w i t h diastase ( P A S + diastase). Sections o f the cerebral hemispheres and cerebel lum were h i s to log ica l ly examined by l ight mic roscopy . The h i n d l imbs were disarticulated f rom the hips , cleared o f soft tissue and f ixed overnight i n 10% neutral formal in . The bones were decalc i f ied i n 2 2 % formic ac id for 18 hours and bisected longi tudina l ly . Paraff in embedded sections were then cut at 5 microns and stained w i t h H & E . The growth plate, cor t ical and trabecular bone was examined h i s to log ica l ly w i t h both l ight and po la r i z ing microscopy . 52 2.10 Radiography A n i m a l s were anesthetized w i t h methoxyflurane and X - r a y e d at 200 M A S and 50 K V P at a distance o f 980 m m f rom the source us ing a Genera l E lec t r i c portable X - r a y machine . 2.11 Thin Layer Chromatography of Gangliosides Tota l l i p i d was extracted f rom bra in and part i t ioned w i t h the method o f F o l c h et al., (1957), as mod i f i ed by S u z u k i (1965). B r a i n tissue f rom normal and mutant m ice was weighed and then homogenized for 5 m i n . w i t h 19 v o l . chloroform-methanol (2:1, v /v ) . Af te r f i l trat ion, the residue was extracted w i t h 10 v o l . chloroform-methanol (1:2, v /v) containing 5% H2O. The filtered extracts were combined and ch lo roform was added to give a f inal concentration o f chloroform-methanol o f (2:1, v /v ) . The l ip ids were part i t ioned w i t h the addi t ion o f 0.2 v o l . o f 0 .8% K C l . The upper phase was removed and the lower phase was washed twice . The poo led upper phases were then d i a lyzed i n S p e c t r a / P o r ® tubing (Spectrum M e d i c a l Industries C o . ) for 2 days at 4 °C against several changes o f d i s t i l l ed H2O and then l yoph i l i z ed . The result ing gangliosides were resuspended w i t h 200 u.1 o f chloroform-methanol-water (10:10:3, by vo lume) and chromatographed o n s i l i c a 60 A plates (Whatman Inc.) w i t h ch loroform, methanol 60:40 and 0 . 2 % o c a l c i u m chlor ide for 8 hours. The v o l u m e loaded o n each lane was no rma l i zed for a bra in weight o f 0.3 gms. The gangliosides were v i sua l i zed b y spraying w i t h 2 % resorc inol , f o l l owed by d ry ing at 100 °C for 30 m i n . 53 2.12 Colorimetric Assay of Glycosaminoglycans U r i n a r y g lycosaminog lycan and creatinine excret ion was measured as described by W h i t l e y et al. (1989). U r i n e samples f rom normal and affected mice were col lected and stored at -70 °C unt i l assayed. Heparan sulfate ( S i g m a C h e m i c a l C o m p a n y ) was used to generate a standard curve. U r i n e samples o f 40 u l , d i lu ted 2.5 t imes for normal m ice and 8 t imes for mutant mice , were m i x e d w i t h 500 p i o f 35 u m o l / L D M B reagent, sod ium formate buffer, p H 3.5. A b s o r b a n c y at 535 n m was measured w i t h i n 30 m i n . w i t h a B e c k m a n D U 640 spectrophotometer. U r i n a r y creatinine was measured by the method o f F o l i n us ing creatinine ( S i g m a C h e m i c a l C o m p a n y ) as a standard. 2 u l o f urine was m i x e d w i t h 8 u l o f water fo l lowed by 500ul o f p ic r ic ac id solut ion. Abso rbancy at 535 n m was measured after 20 minutes. Quant i f ica t ion o f g lycosaminog lycan and creatinine i n the urine samples was done by compar ing to the respective standard curves. 2.13 Embryonic stem cell growth and electroporation R l embryo stem cel ls (a gift f rom A . N a g y , M o u n t S ina i Hosp i t a l Research Institute, Toronto) at passage 13 were cul tured o n pr imary embryonic fibroblasts, accord ing to condit ions as described (Wurs t and Joyner, 1993). E S cel ls were g r o w n i n D u l b e c c o ' s modi f i ed Eag le ' s m e d i u m w i t h h igh Glucose (G ibco ) supplemented w i t h 1 5 % fetal c a l f serum (Hyc lone) , 1 m M nonessential amino acids (G ibco ) , 1 m M sod ium pyruvate (G ibco ) , 2 m M L-g lu tamine , 10-6 B-mercaptoethanol ( S i g m a ) , and 1000 U / m l l eukemia inhib i tory factor (G ibco ) . E S and fibroblasts were cul tured at 37 C w i t h 5 % C 0 2 i n air w i t h humidi ty . Elect roporat ion o f E S cel ls (1 X 10 7 ) at passage 14 or 15 was performed i n a B i o - R a d Gene Pulser at 250 V , 500 u F . Immediate ly after electroporation E S cel ls were plated o n gelat in (Sigma) coated plates at h igh di lut ions to promote single 54 co lony development. The next day n e o m y c i n select ion us ing G 4 1 8 ( G i b c o ) at 200 u g / m l was commenced . Af ter 7 to 10 days o f selection ind iv idua l E S colonies were p icked , aggressively t ryps in ized (Gibco) , and transferred to 96 w e l l plates w i t h embryonic fibroblasts for expansion. E S cel ls were g r o w n for 2 to 3 days before passaging, i n v o l v i n g t ryps in iza t ion and transfer to 6 w e l l plates w i t h fibroblasts. E S cel ls were propagated o n fibroblasts un t i l sufficient numbers were attained for screening as desired and freezing. F o r freezing, l og phase growth E S cel ls were t ryps in ized, counted and frozen i n freezing media containing 5 0 % Feta l c a l f serum, 10% D M S O , and 4 0 % E S med ia (described above) at 5 m i l l i o n cel ls per m l i n one m l c ryovia l s . 2.14 Transfection of E S cells with Cre plasmid Transfect ion o f E S clones w i t h Cre encoding p l a s m i d (Joanne F o x , unpublished) was performed to identify clones capable o f C r e recombinat ion and expression o f the human alkal ine phosphatase reporter as w e l l as transgenic I D U A enzyme act ivi ty . E S clones were seeded to achieve l o w density, rap id ly g r o w i n g c lonal rep l ica plates. Transfect ion was carr ied out as described us ing Lipofec tamine ( B R L Cat# 10964-013) i n a 96 w e l l plate format us ing 0.1 ug o f p l a s m i d D N A per w e l l . E S clones were incubated w i t h C r e p l a s m i d for 3 hours, and clones were harvested 3 days later for reporter gene analysis and I D U A enzyme act ivi ty analysis . 2.15 IDUA enzyme assay I D U A act ivi ty was measured us ing a sensitive f luorometr ic assay ( H o p w o o d et al., 1979). Tissues were homogenized i n d is t i l l ed water (25:1 v o l u m e to weight ratio) us ing a motor d r iven pestle i n a ch i l l ed 10 m l glass tube. E n z y m e assays were performed 55 i n buffer consis t ing o f 0.01 % formic ac id , 77 m M N a C I , 7.7 m M sod ium azide, 0.1 % T r i t o n X - 1 0 0 and 25 u M 4-methylumbel l i fe ry l - (a lpha-L- iduronide (S igma) p H 3.5 i n a f inal v o l u m e o f 50 u l . Samples were incubated at 3 7 C for 3-4 h for l iver homogenates and ce l l culture samples, and 16 h for ta i l c l ipp ings . The react ion was stopped w i t h 2 m l o f 1 M g lyc ine N a O H buffer, p H , 10.5. Fluorescence was measured w i t h a Hoeffer Scient i f ic F lorometer (model T K O 100) and expressed i n relat ion to protein mass as determined us ing the L o w r y assay ( L o w r y et al., 1951). A c t i v i t y was expressed as nanomoles o f 4-methyl-umbel l i ferone released per hour. 2.16 Beta-galactosidase staining of E S cells and tissue fragments E S cel ls attached to plates were stained for L a c Z by gentle f ixa t ion w i t h 0 .2% gluteraldehyde i n I X P B S for 5 minutes o n ice. C e l l s were washed three t imes i n wash buffer (2 m M M g C l 2 , 0 . 01% deoxycholate , 0 .02% Non ide t -P40 , 100 m M N a P 0 4 , p H 7.3). C e l l s were then stained i n wash buffer containing 1 m g / m l X - g a l , 6 m M potassium ferrocyanide, and 5 m M potassium ferricyanide. S ta in ing was a l l owed to proceed overnight at 37 C , w i t h staining often apparent w i t h i n minutes to hours. E a r punches or sections o f ta i l were stained for L a c Z by p l ac ing i n 96 w e l l plates. Samples were washed three t imes i n I X P B S , then f ixed for 10 to 30 minutes o n ice i n 0 .2% gluteraldehyde i n I X P B S . Samples were then stained as described above, w i t h s ta ining apparent after 10 minutes. 2.17 Alkaline phosphatase staining of E S cells E S cel ls bound to plates were f ixed i n 2 % formaldehyde, 0 .2% gluteraldehyde, i n I X D u l b e c c o ' s P B S w i t h no C a + or M g 2 + , for 5 to 10 minutes at 4 C . C e l l s were then 56 washed twice w i t h I X P B S at r o o m temperature for 5 minutes each. T h e n 100 u l (for 96 w e l l plate) o f I X P B S was added and plates were placed at 70 C for 30 minutes to inactivate endogenous a lkal ine phosphatase act ivi ty . C e l l s were then washed twice w i t h I X P B S at r o o m temperature. C e l l s were then washed i n a lka l ine phosphatase wash buffer, consis t ing o f 100 m M T r i s - H C I , p H 9.5, 100 m M N a C I , and 10 m M M g C l 2 , for 10 minutes at r o o m temperature. C e l l s were then stained w i t h a lkal ine phosphatase N B T / B C I P stain (100 m M T r i s - H C I , p H 9.5, 100 m M N a C I , 50 m M M g C I 2 , 0 . 0 1 % sod ium deoxycholate , 0 .02% N P - 4 0 , 337 ug /ml N B T (nitroblue te t razol ium salt; Boehr inger M a n n h e i m ) , and 175 ug /ml B C I P (5-bromo-4-ch loro-3- indoly l phosphate, t o l u i d i n i u m salt; Boehr inger M a n n h e i m ) , w e l l m i x e d , for 10 to 30 minutes at r o o m temperature. Stain solut ion was then removed, cel ls washed gently twice w i t h I X P B S , and dehydrated w i t h ethanol. 2.18 Alkaline phosphatase staining ear punches and tissue fragments Tissues were f ixed aggressively to a l l o w penetration o f the a lkal ine phosphatase substrate i n 2 % formaldehyde, 0 .2% gluteraldehyde, 0 .02% N P - 4 0 , and 0 . 0 1 % sod ium deoxycholate , i n I X D u l b e c c o ' s P B S w i t h no Ca+ or M g 2 + , for 5 to 10 minutes at 4 C . Tissues were then washed twice i n I X P B S , then a fresh v o l u m e o f I X P B S sufficient to complete ly cover tissues was added and endogenous a lkal ine phosphatases were heat inactivated at 70 C for 30 minutes. Tissues were again washed tw ice i n I X P B S , then washed i n a lkal ine phosphatase buffer (100 m M T r i s - H C I , p H 9.5, 100 m M N a C I , 10 m M MgCh) for 10 minutes, and stained w i t h B M B i g Purp le a lka l ine phosphatase substrate (Boehr inger M a n n h e i m ) at 4 C for 2 to 36 hours i n the dark. 2.19 D N A I s o l a t i o n D N A was isolated f rom tissue (usually tail) or f rom cel ls us ing the same basic protocol . A suitable vo lume o f lys is solut ion, containing 100 m M T r i s - H C I p H 8.5, 5 m M E D T A , 0 .2% S D S , and 200 m M N a C I , was added to samples. F o r a ta i l sample o f 0.5 c m i n length, 400 u l o f lys is solut ion was used. Fresh proteinase K solut ion was added to a f inal concentrat ion o f 0.2 m g / m l f rom a l O m g / m l proteinase K stock. Samples were then incubated overnight at 56 C . A n organic solvent extraction was then performed us ing a v o l u m e o f ch loroform equal to the vo lume o f the digested sample, samples were m i x e d by invers ion, then incubated at r o o m temperature 5 minutes. Samples were then spun for 5 minutes at 12,000 r p m i n a benchtop microcentr ifuge and the upper aqueous phase conta ining D N A was transferred to a new microcentr ifuge tube. A second cho loroform extraction was performed us ing 400 u l choloroform, samples m i x e d , spun, and the aqueous phase transferred to a fresh tube. The f inal v o l u m e was estimated (usually s l ight ly less than 400 ul) and twice the v o l u m e (approx 800 ul) o f 9 5 % ethanol was added to precipitate the D N A fraction. Samples were m i x e d gently by invers ion and then spun at 12,000 r p m for 10 minutes. D N A pellets were then no rma l ly v i s ib le . The pellet was then washed twice by r emov ing the aqueous phase, adding 400 u l o f 7 0 % ethanol, inver t ing, and sp inning as above for 5 minutes. The ethanol was removed, the pellet was a l l owed to air dry no more than 5 minutes, and then the pellet was brought up i n a suitable v o l u m e o f autoclaved H2O or T r i s - E D T A , p H 7.5, for at least 3 hours to overnight at r o o m temperature or 4 C . D N A concentration was determined by gel electrophoresis against standards o f k n o w n concentrat ion and/or by spectrophotometry. 58 2.20 Transformation BPvL D H 5 - a l p h a E . c o l i cel ls were used for a l l transformations. 50 u l o f thawed cel ls were added to coo led tubes o n ice containing 1 to 5 u l o f p l a smid D N A (or l iga t ion reactions) and m i x e d gently by shaking. C e l l s were incubated o n ice for 30 minutes and then heat shocked at 42 C for 30 seconds. React ions were incubated o n ice for 2 minutes before addi t ion o f 1ml o f L B broth. React ions were then incubated at 37 C at 200 r p m for 1 hour before plat ing on L B plates containing 50ug /ml a m p i c i l l i n w i t h or wi thout X - g a l ( 1 % final) depending i f co lor select ion was appl icable . Plates were then incubated overnight at 37 C and ind iv idua l colonies analyzed for p l a smid content. 2.21 Southern blotting G e n o m i c D N A was isolated as described and digested us ing suitable restr ict ion enzymes. Diges ted D N A fragments were separated i n agarose gels and the D N A was then transferred to H y b o n d - N nucle ic ac id transfer membrane (Amersham) overnight us ing standard transfer solutions (Southern, 1975). Suitable probe D N A was labeled w i t h radioactive a l p h a - 3 2 P - d C T P (Amersham) us ing a random pr imer labe l ing system ( G i b c o B R L ) and pur i f ied us ing a G - 5 0 sephadex co lumn . H y d r i d i z a t i o n was performed at 50 to 65 C i n commerc i a l l y avai lable hybr id iza t ion buffer (Clonetech) . Washed membranes were exposed to K o d a k X - O M A T scientif ic imag ing f i l m at -70 C for periods ranging from h a l f a day to a week. 2.22 Animals A n i m a l s were cared for under the guidelines set up by the Canad ian C o u n c i l on A n i m a l Care . A l l animals used for these studies originated f rom a single founder and 59 were established by brother-sister mat ing. The mi ce were fed P M I Feeds autoclaved rodent diet 5010. Chapter 3: Characterization of the long term pathophysiology of murine M P S I Based on the paper "Murine M P S I: Insights into the pathogenesis of Hurler syndrome" Published in Clinical Genetics, 1998 Volume 53, pages 349-361. Christopher Russell, Glenda Hendson, Gareth Jevon, Tina Matlock, Jessica Y u , Muktak Aklujkar, Kwok-Yu Ng, and Lome A Clarke. 61 3.1 Abstract A murine mode l w h i c h shows complete def ic iency i n a lpha-L-iduronidase act ivi ty has been developed and shows phenotypic features s imi la r to severe M P S I i n humans. Here we report o n the long-term c l i n i c a l , b iochemica l , and pathologica l course o f M P S I i n m ic e w i t h emphasis on the skeletal and central nervous system manifestations o f disease. Af fec ted mice s h o w a progressive c l i n i c a l course w i t h the development o f coarse features, altered growth characteristics and a shortened l ife span. Progressive ly sosomal accumula t ion is seen i n a l l tissues. Skeletal manifestations represent the earliest c l i n i c a l f ind ing i n M P S I m ice w i t h h is to logic analysis o f growth plate and cor t ica l bone reveal ing evidence that significant early pathology is present. A n a l y s i s o f the central nervous system has revealed the nove l f inding o f progressive neuronal loss w i t h i n the cerebel lum. In addi t ion, bra in tissue f rom M P S I m ice show increased levels o f G M 2 and G M 3 gangliosides. T h i s murine mode l c lear ly shows phenotypic and pathologic features w h i c h m i m i c those seen i n severe human M P S I and should be an invaluable too l for the study o f the pathogenesis o f general ized storage disorders. 3.2 Introduction The phenotype o f I D U A def ic iency or M P S I i n humans is represented by a spectrum o f c l i n i c a l severity ranging f rom severely affected ind iv idua ls , i.e. Hur l e r syndrome, to more m i l d l y affected ind iv idua l s i.e. Scheie syndrome. In the severe fo rm, symptoms are recognizable i n toddlers (age 1 to 3 years), c l i n i c a l features progress rapid ly , mental retardation becomes pronounced, and death occurs i n the first decade. The mi lde r fo rm o f the disease is associated w i t h a later onset o f symptoms, s lower 6 2 disease progression, no mental degeneration, and l ife into adulthood. Features o f M P S I c o m m o n to both ends o f the c l i n i c a l spectrum include corneal c loud ing , dysostosis mul t ip lex , jo in t involvement and viscera l storage, however , i n severe M P S I, the onset o f these symptoms occurs earlier and become more pronounced than i n mi lde r forms o f M P S I (Scheie etal., 1962). T h i s c l i n i c a l heterogeneity is reflected b y the many mutations that have been ident i f ied at this locus (Cla rke et al., 1993 and 1994, Scott et al., 1993, 1995). Muta t ions that permit some enzyme act ivi ty , as l o w as 0 .13% o f normal I D U A protein, are associated w i t h a mi lde r phenotype (Scott et al., 1993). T h i s f inding indicates that smal l amounts o f residual act ivi ty , par t icular ly w i t h i n the brain , can s ignif icant ly alter the c l i n i c a l phenotype, thus indica t ing the potential o f gene therapy and enzyme replacement strategies for this group o f disorders. E n z y m e replacement i n the f o r m o f bone mar row transplantation ( B M T ) i n humans w i t h M P S I, has shown that al though v iscera l storage can be s ignif icant ly reduced, there is a lesser effect o n the C N S compl ica t ions o f disease and very li t t le effect o n the skeletal manifestations (Peters et al., 1996, F i e l d et al., 1994). In addi t ion, the response to B M T is related to the age o f the patient at the t ime the procedure is performed (Shapiro et al, 1995). W e prev ious ly reported the generation o f a mur ine strain comple te ly deficient i n iduronidase by targeted disrupt ion o f the murine Idua gene. E a r l y characterizat ion revealed that these mice showed phenotypic , pathologic and b iochemica l features w h i c h resembled severe def ic iency o f I D U A i n human M P S I (Cla rke et al., 1997). T h i s chapter characterizes the long term c l i n i c a l , pa thologica l and b iochemica l features o f this mode l w i t h emphasis o n the development o f C N S and skeletal manifestations o f I D U A 63 deficiency. Together it is hoped this w i l l identify pathways altered i n I D U A def ic iency thereby suggesting targets for therapeutic intervention. A s the I D U A deficient M P S I mouse mode l w i l l be used i n the assessment o f therapies for M P S I, characterization o f the Idua -I- mouse might also provide markers o f disease useful i n therapy trials. 3.3 Results 3.31 Clinical Features A t bir th, I D U A deficient (-/-) mouse pups cannot be discerned f rom controls. B y 4 weeks o f age, male Idua -I- mice beg in to present w i t h a progressive fac ia l phenotype i nc lud ing w i d e set eyes, broadening o f the c ran ium, foreshortening o f the snout, and protruding o f the nasal bridge. The facia l features present earlier i n Idua -I- males than i n Idua -I- females. B y 8 weeks o f age, affected m ice have th ickened digits w i t h paws l ack ing i n detailed r e l i e f pattern as compared w i t h controls. There is s l o w progression i n the degree o f facial dysmorphology w i t h the m ice appearing quite coarse by 16 weeks o f age, w h e n affected mice o f both sexes have facia l coarseness reminiscent o f human patients w i t h Hur l e r ' s syndrome. The progression o f these features is detailed i n figure 3.1. The coats o f affected mice are tattered and th in relative to no rma l mice . Redundancy o f the sk in o f the face and th ickening o f the per ioccular tissues results i n partial closure o f the eyes i n some affected mice . S l i t l amp examinat ion does not reveal evidence o f corneal c loud ing even late i n the progression o f murine I D U A deficiency. W h i l e the eyes o f some Idua -I- m ice become encrusted w i t h mucous , the chronic rhini t is often present i n human M P S I H is not an obvious feature o f murine I D U A deficiency. 3.1A 3.IB F i g u r e 3 .1: P h e n o t y p e o f M P S I m i c e 3.1 A : A g e s f rom left to right; 4, 16, 23, 45 , and 54 weeks. No te the progressive development o f coarse facial features and coarseness to the coat. I B : N o r m a l (left) and M P S I m ic e (right) at 40 weeks o f age. M P S I mice develop severe fo ld ing o f sk in as observed over the entire body o f the M P S I mouse, and w h i c h can obscure v i s ion . G i b b o u s deformity is present i n the M P S I mouse and m o b i l i t y is l imi ted . N o t e loss o f hair is unrelated to I D U A deficiency. 65 Y o u n g affected mice are active and appear capable o f a fu l l range o f movement , al though, w i t h age Idua -I- m ice show a progressive decl ine i n mob i l i t y . B y 40 weeks o f age, Idua -I- m ice do not require anesthesia or restraint dur ing examinat ion , i n marked contrast w i t h controls. M a n y Idua -I- m ice develop gibbous deformity w h i c h is resistant to f l e x i o n dur ing examinat ion under anesthesia or after death. Sub luxa t ion o f the hips is apparent i n some older Idua -I- mice and m a y further l i m i t mob i l i t y . W i t h age, many Idua -I- animals have a severely abnormal gait, w i t h dragging o f the hindquarters dur ing forward locomot ion . 3.32 L i f e s p a n o f M P S I m i c e Figure 3.2 highl ights the l ife span o f Idua -I- animals w i t h i n this co lony . The average age o f death o f affected mice is approximately 48 weeks, w i t h the earliest death occur r ing at 25 weeks o f age. N o affected animals have l i v e d past 85 weeks o f age. A m o n g s t control litter mates approximately 5% die o f natural causes w i t h i n the first 90 weeks, and mice typ ica l ly l ive over 2 years. The immediate causes o f death i n affected mice are not readi ly apparent, however , autopsy has revealed evidence o f congestive heart failure i n some mice . 66 100 90 80 70 60 Male MPS I percent deaths Female MPS I percent deaths I Cumulative Probability of death 50 60 A G E i n t e r v a l ( W K S ) 80 90 F i g u r e 3.2: L i f e s p a n o f affected a n i m a l s The percent o f natural deaths occur r ing per each week ly t ime interval was calculated by d i v i d i n g natural deaths i n that interval by the total number o f natural deaths (total natural deaths M P S I male mice=21, females=16). The cumulat ive probabi l i ty o f death was calculated taking into considerat ion a l l animals that persisted through pr ior t ime intervals, and thus includes i n addi t ion to natural deaths, animals that were sacrif iced as w e l l as animals that were s t i l l a l ive at the t ime o f analysis. A total o f 138 M P S I mice were used i n the ca lcula t ion o f cumulat ive probabi l i ty o f death. 3.33 G r o w t h P r o f i l e s W e e k l y weights were recorded on a l l mice , i nc lud ing those w i t h genotypes M P S I Idua -/-, Idua +/- heterozygotes, and Idua +/+ w i l d type homozygotes , to generate weight curves as an ind ica t ion o f growth. Idua +/- and +/+ were used as controls to generate growth curves o f normal mice . The genetic background o f the Idua -I- and normal mice is a m i x o f C 5 7 W / 6 and C B A strains. F igure 3.3 depicts the growth profiles for both male (a) and female (b) mice w i t h i n the co lony. 67 6 0 T 0 - I 1 1 1 1 1 -0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 A G E interval (Wks) Figure 3.3A: Growth curves of male Idua -/- mice relative to normals Weigh ts were moni tored as an index o f growth. 10, 50, and 9 0 t h percentile w e e k l y interval growth curves were established for no rma l animals . The median weight o f mutant mice at each t ime interval is plotted against the normal curves. M . A k l u j k a r gathered an imal weights. 68 50 j 40 --|- 30 --3 O ) J 20 --10 --0 -0 F i g u r e 3 . 3 B : G r o w t h cu rves o f female I d u a - / - a n d c o n t r o l m i c e Female Idua -I- mice have a s imi la r pattern o f growth as Idua -I- males. Y o u n g Idua -I-females (3-30 weeks) are consistently heavier than normals . M . A k l u j k a r gathered an imal weights. A total o f 1300 separate weights were used to profi le the growth o f normal mice (757 male , 543 female) and 875 weights were used for the mutant data points (494 males, 381 females). The weights o f control animals are expressed as percentiles for each w e e k l y interval and the weights for the same interval o f mutant animals are expressed as the median (50th percentile). M a l e s and females differ s ignif icant ly i n weight and so are graphed separately; however the general g rowth pattern o f Idua -I- males and females is s imi lar . Large fluctuations i n the control g rowth profi les o f the normal animals reflect 69 the variation in sample size for each interval. Idua -I- mice of both sexes consistently grow at or above the 50th percentile from 8 weeks to approximately 25 weeks of age. However, by 30 weeks growth of the mutant mice appears to plateau, crossing the 50th percentile curve of the normal mice. B y 50 weeks, mutant mice have weights well below the 50th percentile of controls. 3.34 Radiographic Examination Figure 3.4 reveals the radiographic changes discernible at 57 weeks in Idua -I-animals. Figure 3.4: Radiographic examination of Idua -/- and control mice Idua -I- mice on the left, control same sex littermate on the right. Mice are 57 weeks of age. The Idua -I- mouse shows evidence of severe dysostosis multiplex, including widened ribs, vertebral abnormalities, and craniofacial foreshortening and thickening. A t 4 weeks of age, Idua -I- mice show evidence of foreshortening of the premaxillary bones and enlargement of the cranium. The squamosal, zygomatic and malar process 70 appear denser and smaller. While control mice have a pronounced tapering of the vertebrae spanning the length of the pelvis, the vertebrae in this region in MPS I mice are wider and do not taper relative to adjacent vertebrae. Figure 3.5: Skulls of Idua -/- and normal male mice at 70 weeks of age On left, the Idua -I- skull, on right, normal. The Idua -I- skull has a thickened zygomatic arch, frontal bossing, and widened cranium and nasal bones. This difference in vertebral morphology is evident by 4 weeks and persists for the life span of MPS I mice. The proximal tibial metaphysis of young MPS I mice appear to be less ossified as determined by radiodensity, than noted in control animals. With age, general thickening of the diaphysis of long bones becomes evident and widening of the malar processes and zygomatic arch becomes exaggerated. The ribs of affected mice become wider than in controls and flare at their anterior ends similar to the oar shaped ribs seen in human MPS IH. Late in MPS I (57 weeks) there is evidence of thoracic 71 vertebral kyphosis . F igure 3.5 demonstrates the th ickened skul ls o f M P S I mice relative to normal controls. 3.36 Glycosaminoglycan Excretion U r i n a r y g lycosaminog lycan ( G A G ) levels were ana lyzed i n 114 M P S I and 112 control male mice and plotted i n figure 3.6. M P S I males excrete 2 to 3 t imes the total ur inary G A G o f controls at a l l t ime points ranging f rom 3 weeks to 60 weeks . S i m i l a r l y , M P S I female mice excrete 2 to 3 fo ld greater ur inary G A G levels than female controls. Female M P S I m ice excrete approximately 60 to 7 0 % o f the ur inary G A G o f male M P S I mice , a difference also observed between female and male control mice . N o obvious change i n the l eve l o f G A G excret ion is apparent over the assessed t ime course (3 weeks to 60 weeks) i n either M P S I affected mice or control mice , though t racking ind iv idua l m ice (control or M P S I) over t ime revealed that i nd iv idua l animals d i d have wide variat ions i n the excret ion o f total G A G s . 72 S E < 1600 -r 1400 •-1200 •-1000 •-800 •• 600 --400 --200 •-0 --• IDUA •/-n Control males A Values greater than 1500 • • • • «.. •341 bp F i g u r e 4 .9: A n a l y s i s o f 11 samples f r o m c o - m i c r o i n j ec t ion o f C D l l b - I D U A a n d C D l l b - E G F P con t ruc t s P C R using human I D U A c D N A specific primers HID IF and H I D 4 R designed to generate a 341 basepair P C R product. N o positives were identified while positive control lanes with diluted human I D U A c D N A plasmid are positive. N o transgene positive founders were identified by either P C R , or Southern blot analysis (data not shown). Simultaneously, I attempted to generate transgenic mice with ubiquitous human I D U A expression. A construct for this purpose is shown in figure 4.10. 108 C M V EGFP hgh CMV Human hgh promoter g e n e introns promoter IDUA introns cDNA Figure 4.10: Ubiquitous Transgene Construct C M V - I D U A T h i s construct uses the C M V I E promoter taken f rom a C lon t ech m a m m a l i a n expression pla t form (figure 4.7) and has been demonstrated to result i n h i g h leve l widespread expression inc lud ing v i r tua l ly a l l m a m m a l i a n c e l l types. B o t h the human I D U A c D N A and the E G F P reporter gene are under the regulat ion o f the C M V I E promoter and both genes i n the construct have distal elements o f the human growth hormone gene to increase expression levels . Pronuclear inject ion o f the isolated construct was performed o n approximate ly 350 eggs, and 12 m i c e were produced. P C R and Southern analysis was performed as shown i n figure 4 .11. 109 B. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 — C3 6.4 kb transgene 2.7 kb murine IDUA fragment F i g 4 .11 : A n a l y s i s o f samples f r o m m i c r o i n j e c t i o n o f u b i q u i t o u s I D U A cons t ruc t C M V - I D U A A . Nes ted P C R on 12 samples f rom C M V - I D U A injection. 1st P C R w i t h human I D U A c D N A specif ic pr imers i n exon 3 and 7 fo l lowed by second round o f P C R us ing nested pr imers i n exons 4 and 6. N o posi t ives identif ied. Pos i t ive control sample I D U A c D N A is posi t ive i n both rounds. B . H i n d III digested Southern o f D N A samples expected to produce a band o f 6.4 kb i n transgene posi t ive samples. N o t e band i n a l l lanes i nc lud ing nontransgenic lane w h i c h is a 2.7 k b H i n d III fragment f rom the murine I D U A locus w i t h homology to the human I D U A c D N A probe used and w h i c h represents an internal probe control . N o transgene posi t ive mi ce were identif ied. The cause o f the shift o f the 2.7 k b band i n lane 1 is unknown . A s summar ized i n Table 4 .1 , pronuclear inject ion o f over 1000 eggs w i t h two different constructs produced on ly 41 mice , less than expected. O f these, no transgene posi t ive mice were identif ied. 110 Construct microinjected N u m b e r o f eggs injected N u m b e r o f mice produced Transgene posi t ive Expec ted (10-40%) C D l l b - I D U A C D l l b - L a c Z 408 18 0 1-7 C D l l b - I D U A C D l l b - E G F P - 3 5 0 11 0 1-4 C M V - I D U A C M V - E G F P - 3 5 0 12 0 1-5 Totals : - 1 1 0 0 41 0 4-16 Table 4.1: Summary of Pronuclear Microinjection attempts at generation of transgenic lines Constructs microinjected and result ing mice . N o transgene posi t ive were identif ied. H i s to r i ca l l y , pronuclear micro in jec t ion produces transgene posi t ive offspring i n 10-40% o f offspring, w h i c h w i t h the 41 mice produced here w o u l d be 4-16 posi t ive mice . A n embryonic stem ce l l approach was then used as it was be l ieved possible barriers to transgene posi t ive offspring might be overcome. 4.2.2 Embryonic stem cell approach for the generation of myeloid specific and ubiquitous IDUA expression The E S approach was undertaken after the failure to produce transgene posi t ive offspring by pronuclear microinjec t ion. The C D 1 l b - I D U A construct was c loned into a n e o m y c i n encoding cassette to confer antibiot ic select ion after in t roduct ion into E S cel ls . Co-elect roporat ion o f D N A constructs l a c k i n g select ion cassettes w i t h select ion cassette conta ining constructs has been reported to lead to a h igh l eve l o f co-integration. It was decided not to add a select ion cassette to the C D 1 l b - L a c Z reporter construct but rather to i l l screen E S clones resistant to N e o , and presumed to contain the C D 1 1 B - I D U A construct, for integration o f the L a c Z construct. The C M V - I D U A construct p rev ious ly described and intended for ubiquitous I D U A expression, as w e l l as E G F P reporter expression, was c loned into the F l o x vector shown i n figure 4.12. The F l o x vector was used as it p rov ided convenient c lon ing sites and includes a n e o m y c i n resistance cassette. EGFP SCn bp p a Poly A signa' hIDUA cDNA 2100 bp Poly A signal m Flax sites CMV hgh introns CMV promoter promoter hgh Introns neomycin thymidine resistance kinase cassette cassette Hind i l l EcoHI F i g u r e 4 .12: p F L O X - C M V - I D U A - E G F P A construct designed for ubiqui tous expression o f human I D U A and the E G F P reporter, and a l l o w i n g for n e o m y c i n selection i n E S cel ls . 112 Xmni (5817) Seal (S700) BstXI (3920} Hindttt (3899) a«I (3|B«|) . Smoi immf ' (SccRl/BamHl) (3851) s»ai(38Sif Refer ©123) '•"Fall (37S7) BamHI(3744K P»t! .(438)* H!ncH::|461) CgUl (477)' Flox.gcX {8S«s,'bjs5:; KAHind'MS (39) iSpsI (44) — /stn (50) /•Sacll (52) Mod (67) rfAH.nsJ'.l) (6S1 >P»(I (72) Hlrtclt <7«! Sill {76.._ •Xbal (04) P«if (103) SSul (Z1S) Stul (287) EcoHl (346) Thymidine kinase (Hirt* & •szx>m' $ t f i t f | p m^<*m< a — m « M » • — «"•** ^— 1.6 kb ^— 1.0 kb <«— 0.5 kb F i g u r e 5.6: R e a r r a n g e m e n t c h e c k o n p C C A L L 2 cons t ruc t . Pst I and B a m H I restrict ion enzymes were used to conf i rm that the ampl i f ied p r imary construct was not rearranged after transfection and large scale p l a smid isolat ion. A l l 4 clones tested produced bands as predicted conf i rming no rearrangements had occurred. Ladder sizes are shown o n the far right. The introduct ion o f the human I D U A c D N A was s imple as a unique X h o 1 site is present i n the p C C A L L 2 - I R E S - h A P / c g construct direct ly upstream o f the internal r ibosome entry site ( I R E S ) . A blunted form o f the human I D U A c D N A w i t h no polyadenyla t ion signal 137 was introduced to the X h o 1 opened, blunted p C C A L L 2 - I R £ S - h A P / c g construct, and transformed cultures were screened for the I D U A c D N A by P C R as shown i n figure 5.7. 600 c £ C U u _> re 0. 2 — CM *3 * o U c •z a C c c. _g c 0 u o c re .2 _re ' s - 'C a; 0 u tj rc rc CO rc CC CC CQ CC c u c c u u > c Q. * ^ * • » t i p •I S I P -c -C 1000 500 bp Figure 5.7: PCR detection of bacterial clones containing pCCALL2 ligated with the human IDUA cDNA. A posi t ive P C R result us ing pr imers i n exon 3 and 7 o f the human I D U A c D N A is expected to produce a band o f 600 bp. 3 o f 4 clones tested were determined to contain the I D U A c D N A , however orientation is unknown . T o determine the orientation o f the I D U A c D N A , a Pst 1 d igest ion was performed o n 8 P C R posi t ive clones, as shown i n figure 5.8. C lones 1 and 2 appeared to have the I D U A insert i n the correct orientation. Further restr ict ion analysis was performed w i t h A p a 1, H i n c II, and S p h I, as shown i n figure 5.9. W h i l e clones 1 and 2 generate a l l the predicted bands for a properly oriented clone w i t h a human I D U A c D N A insert upon restriction, clones 3 and 4, w i t h incorrect orientation, and no insert, respectively, c lear ly do not. 138 — ra ra - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ~ 7.4 kb *• 3.0 kb • 1.7 kb 1.2 kb • 0.63 kb 12 k b 3kb 2kb 1 kb k- 0.5 kb f t 1 2 F i g u r e 5.8: Ps t I r e s t r i c t i o n digest o f p l a s m i d f r o m l i g a t i o n o f p C C A L L 2 cons t ruc t w i t h h u m a n I D U A c D N A to d e t e r m i n e o r i e n t a t i o n . I D U A c D N A containing bacterial clones were identif ied by P C R specific to the I D U A c D N A . Des i red orientation o f the c D N A w i t h i n the construct was predicted based on sequence informat ion to produce fragments after Pst I digest ion o f 7400 bp, 3000 bp, 1700 bp, 1200 bp, 630 bp, and 188 bp. Reverse orientation o f the I D U A c D N A was predicted to produce fragments o f 7400 bp, 2100 bp, 2055 bp, 1700bp, 630 bp, and 188 bp. Lanes 1 and 2 contain clones w i t h apparent correct orientation. Lanes 3 to 8 have inserts i n the incorrect orientation. Apa I Hinc II Sph I L 1 2 3 4 | l 2 3 4 | 4 L •12kb .3kb • 2kb tt 0.5 kb tt F i g u r e 5.9: R e s t r i c t i o n d iges t ion to iden t i fy clones w i t h c o r r e c t l y inse r t ed a n d u n r e a r r a n g e d h I D U A c D N A in to p C C A L L 2 . C lones 1 and 2 show predicted correct restr ict ion fragments after A p a I, H i n c II, and S p h I restrict ion digest ion. L = l k b ladder. 139 The f inal p C C A L L - I D U A clone, after restrict ion analysis was ampl i f i ed and a large scale p l a smid isola t ion was performed. A f inal check o f the p C C A L L - I D U A p l a smid was performed w i t h A p a 1, H i n c II, Pst I, and S p H l , as shown i n figure 5.10, and no rearrangements were detected. F i g u r e 5 .10: A n a l y s i s o f l a rge scale p l a s m i d i s o l a t i o n o f p C C A L L - I D U A . Res t r ic t ion digest ion was performed to conf i rm the ampl i f i ed construct contained no rearrangements. D iges t i on w i t h A p a I, H i n c II, Pst I, and S p h I restrict ion enzymes produced bands o f predicted size. The p C C A L L - I D U A p l a s m i d was electroporated into E S cultures, cel ls were plated at very l o w density to promote the format ion o f i nd iv idua l clones f rom single cel ls , and n e o m y c i n selection was carr ied out for 8 days. Ind iv idua l clones were then p icked and transferred to 96 w e l l plates for propagation, further analysis, and freezing. A rep l ica plate o f the cel ls was analysed for L a c Z expression f rom the beta-geo fusion gene. Figure 140 5.11 represents the variable nature of LacZ expression observed between different ES clones. 2 - 6 B 4-3E 4-7A F i g u r e 5.11: L a c Z s t a i n i n g o f E S colonies d e m o n s t r a t i n g express ion v a r i a b i l i t y . A s I found with the transgenic ES approach in chapter 4, genetically identical ES cells derived from single, transgene containing cells, and therefore clones, express variable levels of the beta-galactosidase reporter gene. This is exemplified in figure 5.11. Clone 2 -6B shows strong consistent staining. Clone 4-3E is an example of a clonal population of cells expressing highly variable staining between individual cells, with some cells showing no or little staining while adjacent cells stain strongly. Clone 4-7A demonstrates a weak, but consistent staining clone. This visual screen allows detection of clones hopefully more likely to express transgenes in a consistent manner after differentiation into different cell types in adult mice, and may differentiate clones with high (dark) transgene expression from clones with low (light) transgene expression. Note clones contain multiple cells types including persistent ES cells (small and round) and fibroblast type cells (large and flat). Clones with dark, and consistent, staining were identified, consolidated to new 96 well plates, and amplified. 141 N e x t , clones w i t h suitable L a c Z staining characteristics were analysed by Southern blot t ing to identify clones w i t h single integrations o f the p C C A L L - I D U A construct. Eco RV site probe adjacent unknown genomic Eco RV site genomic DNA // « - / 4 Sea genomic DNA • 9 Single Southern restriction band of unknown size F i g u r e 5.12: S o u t h e r n b lo t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f E S clones c o n t a i n i n g s ingle c o p y in t eg ra t ions o f p C C A L L - I D U A . X or pA=polyadeny la t ion site, P-geo= beta-galactosidase and n e o m y c i n fusion protein. It is important to identify single copy integrates as mul t ip le adjacent integrations m a y show aberrant Cre mediated recombinat ion events. A s depicted i n figure 5.12, an enzyme ( E c o R V ) cutt ing once w i t h i n the p C C A L L - I D U A construct was used such that single copy integrations w o u l d generate a single Southern band, o f u n k n o w n size and dependant o n a restrict ion site i n adjacent genomic D N A , after p rob ing w i t h a por t ion o f the construct as shown. M u l t i p l e tandem copy integrations w i l l produce at least 2 bands after Southern analysis, i nc lud ing one band made up entirely o f repeated construct D N A , expected to be approximately 14.0 kb i n size for a head to ta i l integration, and one terminal band inc lud ing adjacent ch romosomal D N A . These clones are avoided. F igure 5.13 shows the results o f Southern analysis o f transgene expressing E S clones. gigs iHSF 12kb Q w _ _ _ _ _ Q< tt U C tu C X . . *» . , . « . , *- , ^ -12kb t T F i g u r e 5.13: S o u t h e r n b lo t ana lys i s o f 48 E S clones w i t h good r e p o r t e r gene expres s ion f o r s ingle c o p y integrates . Af te r E c o R V digest ion, D N A from E S clones was probed w i t h a fragment o f the p C C A L L - I D U A construct. E S clones w i t h single copy, single locus integrations w i l l produce single bands o f u n k n o w n size. Lane 1-1F, at the upper left hand corner o f figure 5.13, c lear ly shows mul t ip le bands and is thus to be avoided. Lane 1-2H is an example o f a suitable clone. A r r o w s identify E S clones 3-2F and 3-12F, eventual ly to become mouse lines after fu l f i l l ing further expression criteria. A l ine indicates the approximate pos i t ion o f the 12 k b band o f the 1 kb ladder. C lones w i t h bands s l ight ly larger than the 12 kb size were avoided even w i t h single bands as a repeat band o f 14 k b size cou ld be superimposed upon the unique band. 20 o f 48 assessed clones were found to have mul t ip le integrations, partial integrations, or unexplainable or ambiguous integrations, and were discarded. It is clear upon examinat ion o f figure 5.13 that the clones 3-2F and 3-12F, w h i c h f ina l ly produced 143 germline chimeras, are different clones. D u r i n g p i c k i n g o f E S clones, cross contaminat ion o f clones can occur as fragments o f a p i c k e d clone drift and are inc luded w i t h other clones. D u r i n g propagation, one clone may outgrow co-cul tured cel ls leading to single clones w i t h mul t ip le representation i n f inal ampl i f i ed clone l ines. In figure 5.13, c lone 3-2F produces a m u c h larger restrict ion fragment as detected by Southern blot analysis than clone 3-12F. T h i s indicates that a l though the clones were p i c k e d i n close succession and poss ib ly f rom the same plate, creating the potential for cross contaminat ion, these clones sharing except ional L a c Z expression characteristics represent unique and distinct clones. Af te r Southern analysis , clones that p roved to have suitable L a c Z expression and contained single copy integrations were expanded for further analysis and to create l o w passage number freezes suitable for ch imera product ion. Af ter the expansion, samples o f each clone were re-stained for L a c Z to determine the stabili ty o f transgene expression over t ime. O f the top 12 clones after in i t i a l L a c Z staining, s ingle c o p y analysis , and expansion, 6 clones were found to have changed their L a c Z staining properties. C lones were transfected w i t h Cre p l a smid us ing l ipofectamine to determine i f they cou ld recombine and express the human alkal ine phosphatase por t ion o f the construct. F igure 5.14 demonstrates the result o f a partial C re transfection, and demonstrates the binary nature o f recombinat ional act ivat ion. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 0 % o f clones ana lyzed showed evidence o f successful recombinat ion. 14 F i g u r e 5.14: A l k a l i n e phospha tase s t a i n i n g o f ES cells c o n t a i n i n g s ingle copy in t eg ra t ions o f p C C A L L - I D U A . O n the left, E S cel ls unable to express A l k phos after be ing transduced w i t h act ivat ing C R E p lasmid . O n the right, a c lone w i t h ind iv idua l alk phos posi t ive E S cel ls can be seen. The absolute nature o f reporter gene expression, either o n or complete ly off, is exempl i f i ed by the i nd iv idua l strongly expressing cel ls surrounded by cel ls that have not undergone Cre mediated recombinat ion. M o r e than 50 E S clones, in i t i a l ly identif ied for hav ing superior L a c Z staining, were analyzed for single copy integrations, a lkal ine phosphatase expression after recombinat ion, and persistence o f transgene expression w i t h L a c Z after ampl i f ica t ion . A f inal rank ing o f the top 9 clones was generated, shown i n table 5.1. N o t a l l clones w i t h excellent L a c Z staining characteristics were suitable for transgenic mouse generation, for example clone 2 - 6 H , w i t h the best overa l l staining, was not capable o f recombinat ion i n the presence o f Cre , and w o u l d therefore never be able to express human I D U A i n adult mice . Shaded lanes mark the 2 E S clones, 3-2F and 3-12F, that became mouse l ines. 145 Clone ID Percent Confluence Percent LacZ positive Consistency LacZ intensity Southern single copy Alk phos expression Percent Persistent LacZ staining, ranking Clone ID Overall rating 1-2D 100 95 variable yes negative 90,5 1-2D 1-2H 100 92 good yes positive 90,6 1-2H 4 1-3D 75 90 variable yes positive 1-3D 1-4H 75 85 variable yes positive 1-4H 2-6A 50 90 excellent unsure positive 80,8 2-6A 6 2-6B 10 90 excellent yes positive 95 ,2 2-6B 1 2-6H 10 100 excellent yes negative 100,1 2-6H 2-8D 100 90 variable yes positive 2-8D 2-12A 20 95 good yes positive 90,4 2-12A 3 3-1H 50 90 good no positive 3-1H .3-21' 2D 98 excellent yes positive 95.3 3-21' : 3-8D 10 98 good no no cells 3-8D 3-121 80 90 excellent > ^ positive SO. 7 3-12F 5 3-12G 20 80 good no positive 3-12G 3-12H 60 80 excellent no positive 3-12H 4-1C 100 90 good yes negative 4-1C 4-3D 50 80 good no positive 4-3D 4-3E 80 90 excellent yes positive 80,9 4-3E 7 4-4B 70 90 excellent yes positive 75, 10 4-4B 8 4-4H 20 90 good yes negative 70, 11 4-4H 4-5A 80 80 good no positive 4-5A 4-7A 50 85 excellent yes positive 70, 12 4-7A 9 T a b l e 5.2: S u m m a r y o f E S c lone ana lys i s The 20 most suitable l ines as determined by L a c Z staining were ranked for overa l l suitabil i ty. A f inal ranking o f the top 9 clones for the generation o f transgenic mice was determined, far right. C lones 3-2F, and 3-12F, successfully used to generate transgenic mouse l ines, are shaded. 146 T h e p C A L - I D U A mouse l ines . T w o dist inct E S clones have been used to generate mouse l ines: l ine 3-12F was generated by blastocyst inject ion o f E S cel ls , and 3-2F generated by the aggregation technique. B o t h l ines were produced us ing the R l E S l ine der ived f rom a (129/Svcp x 1 2 9 / S v J ) F l embryo. F o r the 3-2F l ine, C D 1 blastocysts were used for the generation o f chimeras. The experiments us ing w i t h the 3-2F p C a l - I D U A l ine were performed by D r . Cor r inne L o b e and staff. The C D 1 mouse strain is useful as they have red eyes and h igh l eve l chimeras can be identif ied by their b lack eyes, encoded by the 129J agouti l ine , and eye co lor is evident right f rom bir th i n contrast w i t h coat co lor selection used i n the tradit ional 129J a g o u t i - C 5 7 B L / 6 b lack system. Suitable E S l ines w i t h desired expression characteristics were thawed and aggregated w i t h eight-cel l stage C D 1 mouse embryos (2.5 days post coitus), then transferred to pseudo-pregnant recipients to produce ch imer ic m ice (Nagy , 1997). M a l e chimeras were mated w i t h C D 1 females to identify germ-l ine transmitters. Pups were genotyped by staining ear c l ips for l a c Z expression (Lobe et ah, 1999). The offspring generated f rom this mat ing are exprected to be 5 0 % C D l / 5 0 % 129Svcp/J ( R l E S cel ls) . A n inbred l ine was also generated, w h i c h i n v o l v e d breeding the 3-2F chimeras w i t h 129 S V E V l ine . F i n a l l y , the 3-2F l ine was mated w i t h mice expressing p C X - N L S -Cre ( M a r and N a g y , unpublished) , a ubiqui tous ly expressing Cre mouse l ine w i t h zygote expression o f Cre . T h i s system includes a Cre recombinase equipped w i t h a nuclear loca l i za t ion signal expressed by the except ional ly strong C M V enhancer/chicken beta-act in promoter combina t ion p C A G G ( N i w a et al., 1991). 147 These mice generated f rom the 3-2F E S l ine await further characterization, however , no obvious phenotype was observed i n litters expected to conta in double transgenic pups that should express human I D U A . L i n e 3-12F was produced us ing E S cel ls and 3.5 day postcoit is blastocysts f rom C 5 7 B L / 6 mice at the Centre for M o l e c u l a r M e d i c i n e and Therapeutics under the supervis ion o f D i a n a Car l son . Chimeras posi t ive for L a c Z staining were then bred w i t h C 5 7 B L / 6 mice produc ing a F l that inc luded pups posi t ive for L a c Z staining w h i c h are a combina t ion o f 129J agouti and C 5 7 B L / 6 . The C r e l ine used for ubiquitous act ivat ion o f the 3-12F p C a l I D U A l ine is Jackson stock # T g N ( h C M V - C r e ) 140 Sau homozygotes . T h i s strain contains a Cre recombinase gene under the control o f a human cytomegalovirus m i n i m a l promoter. T h i s promoter directs widespread t ranscript ion such that Cre recombinase is expressed i n a l l tissues. Th i s includes the germline tissues and gametes, a l l o w i n g for recombinat ion i n fer t i l ized zygotes such that every c e l l o f the developing mouse contains a recombined, activated ce l l expressing I D U A . F igure 5.15 shows the generation o f mouse l ines f rom the p C a l - I D U A 3-12F E S clone. Af te r E S inject ion into blastocyts, and implantat ion into surrogate mothers, 7 pups were born , 4 o f w h i c h had an agouti coat and therefore were constituted b y the 129 J E S cel ls . 3 o f the 4 were male , consistent w i t h the male gender o f the 129 J E S l ine, w h i l e one o f the chimeras was female and therefore u n l i k e l y to be capable o f germline t ransmission o f the transgene. A l l 4 agouti pups were posi t ive for L a c Z expression, indica t ing the p C a l - I D U A construct was successfully expressed. T w o independent chimeras successfully transmitted the transgene to offspring w h e n bred into the b l /6 strain. Transgene bearing offspring f rom the b l /6 and chimera , ident i f ied by L a c Z 148 staining, were then bred into the C M V - C r e mouse l ine . A s the C M V - C r e mice are homozygous for the C M V - C r e transgene, h a l f the offspr ing were expected to be double transgenic, that is containing both the p C a l - I D U A transgene as w e l l as the C M V - C r e transgene. These double transgenic m i ce were expected to express human I D U A , the human alkal ine phosphate reporter, and to no longer express the L a c Z reporter gene. Ini t ia l analysis o f ear notch samples indicates the recombinat ion is not complete i n any o f the double transgenic pups, w i t h samples staining for both L a c Z and a lk phos. These double transgenic mice have no obvious phenotype and await further characterization. 149 3-12F embryonic stem cell clone Chimera # 1 A 4 I X 5 A 6 \ ^ \ X CH0 Legend m Male • pCal-Idua 3-12F CMV-Cre • Female O double transgenic • F i g u r e 5.15: O v e r a l l P e d i g r e e M o u s e l ines generated f rom the p C a l - I D U A 3-12F embryonic stem ce l l c lone. Ch imeras were bred w i t h bl /6 mice to produce a stable mouse strain. Offspr ing o f the b l /6 and ch imera mat ing were then bred w i t h C M V - C r e m i ce to produce double transgenic offspring that should express human I D U A and a lkal ine phosphatase i n a widespread fashion f rom an early stage o f development. These double transgenic offspr ing are v iab le , and express human I D U A and the a lkal ine phosphatase reporter gene. 150 5.3 D i s c u s s i o n T h i s chapter describes the successful generation o f the p C a l - I D U A lines, transgenic mouse l ines w i t h the potential to express human I D U A . I employed a condi t iona l transgenic system i n v o l v i n g Cre-mediated act ivat ion, and an approach i n v o l v i n g embryonic stem cel ls , to generate mice i n w h i c h the expression o f human I D U A cou ld be regulated both spatially and temporal ly . The C r e - L o x recombinat ion system has n o w been used successfully for many different manipulat ions o f the mouse genome (Nagy , 2000). The absolute nature o f transgene expression afforded by the C r e - L o x system was especia l ly useful for this work , where it is important to be able to complete ly regulate I D U A expression, especia l ly i n the un-recombined, " I D U A o f f state. In addi t ion, the avai labi l i ty o f w e l l characterized mouse strains expressing tissue speci f ic-Cre w i l l a l l o w many specific questions about therapeutic intervention for M P S I to be addressed w i t h the p C a l - I D U A strains. The embryonic stem c e l l approach to the generation o f transgenic m i ce p roved useful for this w o r k and produced l ines w i t h the potential for adult transgene expression. The smal l number o f E S clones deemed suitable for the generation o f transgenic l ines after mul t ip le screens, less than 5 % o f E S clones, h ighl ights the advantage o f this approach, w h i c h a l lows for the ident if icat ion o f rare integrates permiss ive to long term, ubiqui tous expression. In practice, on ly 6 o f 400 E S clones were deemed to be h igh ly desirable for mouse l ine product ion after 5 cri ter ia were met, as shown i n figure 5.16. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 % o f p i c k e d E S clones showed in i t i a l desirable L a c Z staining qualit ies. O f 48 clones assessed for single copy integrations, on ly 50 % showed a c lear ly desired result. Repeated L a c Z staining after 3 further passages (approximately 7 to 10 151 1 . Does clone survive antibiotic selection ? N O Y E S f f D i e s 2. Desirable LacZ expression ? N O Y E S ^ 9 0 % 10% v D i s c a r d 3. Single copy integration ? N O Y E S vj, 4 0 % 6 0 % v D i s c a r d 4. Persistent LacZ expression ? N O vj, 50% Y E S 50% y 10 % of picked clones Total: 0.1 X 0.6 = 6% of picked clones Total: 0.06 X 0.05 = 3% of picked clones D i s c a r d 5. Successful recombination ? N O \f/ 20% Y E S 80% A. D i s c a r d Desired clones for the generation of transgenic mice Total: 0.03 X 0.08 = 2.4% of picked clones Figure 5.16: Schematic of the selection and screen for desired ES clones The percentage o f cel ls discarded and saved is shown for each screening leve l . O n the right, the remain ing percentage o f E S clones deemed suitable at that l eve l o f screening. Af te r numerous screens less than 5 % o f randomly p i c k e d E S clones su rv iv ing antibiot ic selection are deemed suitable for the generation o f transgenic mice . 152 days o f continuous culture) showed 50 % o f clones under considerat ion had profoundly changed L a c Z staining characteristics. The majori ty o f clones tested, 80%, showed recombinat ion potential as determined by a lkal ine phosphatase staining. O v e r a l l , less than 5 % o f clones su rv iv ing antibiotic select ion were deemed suitable for inject ion into blastocysts towards the generation o f transgenic mouse l ines. A s pronuclear inject ion tends to produce greater numbers o f mul t ip le integrations, i t is clear that generating mice w i t h ubiquitous expression potential by pronuclear inject ion might require the product ion and screening o f hundreds o f mice . C lea r ly the elements inc luded i n this transgenic construct are not sufficient to insulate the construct f rom regional influences. In fact, clones w i t h t ruly superior transgene expression may not o n l y benefit f rom integration into a permiss ive site but, i n fact, a site subject to regional enhancers. Thus the analysis o f transgene expression at bo th the E S and adult tissue leve l c o u l d be useful i n the ident i f icat ion o f regions i n the genome suitable for l o n g term h igh level transgene expression. These regions c o u l d be useful i n the generation o f transgenic organisms, or i n gene therapy approaches. Ini t ia l results f rom studies w i t h the p C a l - I D U A l ines indicate that, w h e n at least one o f the p C a l - I D U A transgenic l ines is bred into a ubiquitous activator Cre l ine , some o f the double transgenic offspring undergo recombinat ion result ing i n expression o f both human I D U A and the reporter a lkal ine phosphatase. These p C a l - I D U A lines can be used to express human I D U A speci f ica l ly i n a w i d e variety o f tissues, by mat ing w i t h mice expressing Cre i n a tissue specific manner. Thus both the objectives o f chapter 4, namely the generation o f transgenic l ines w i t h mar row ce l l der ived I D U A expression, and ubiqui tous I D U A expression, can be real ized. 153 Transgenic l ines expressing human I D U A i n m a r r o w der ived cel ls , w h e n crossed into the I D U A deficient mouse l ine , w i l l be useful i n determining the m a x i m u m possible therapeutic benefit o f expression f rom this c e l l l ineage, and this compound transgenic-knockout w i l l represent a genetic m o d e l o f in utero bone mar row transplantation. The generation o f a mouse l ine that expresses h igh levels o f human I D U A i n a l l tissues was undertaken for two reasons. M o s t important ly, I w i shed to develop a strain o f mice expressing active human I D U A , as w e l l as a reporter gene, for use as a donor strain i n transplantation experiments w i t h M P S I mice . The second objective o f this project was to determine the outcome o f h i g h l eve l , widespread I D U A expression o n development. I D U A is no rma l ly expressed at very l o w levels and the consequences o f abnormal ly h igh levels o f I D U A act iv i ty are u n k n o w n . The in i t i a l results described here indicate that at least mosaic expression o f human I D U A is tolerated dur ing development and is not associated w i t h any obvious phenotype. 154 C h a p t e r 6 : S u m m a r y a n d conc lus ions 6.1 Characterization of the long term pathophysiology of murine M P S I Current ly , there are no effective therapeutics that alter a l l o f the features o f lysosomal storage disorders. A s such, severe M P S I is not presently curable, a l though bone mar row transplantation and enzyme replacement therapy offer part ial amel iora t ion o f some disease symptoms. The means by w h i c h iduronidase def ic iency, and the result ing accumula t ion o f heparan and dermatan sulfate, leads to the detectable c l i n i c a l abnormali t ies i n M P S I are not fu l ly understood. It remains to be determined w h i c h features o f M P S I are irreversible and w h i c h features can be improved , w i t h therapy. In addi t ion, the identif icat ion o f the specific ce l lu lar targets and cr i t ica l t ime points for successful therapeutic intervention are unknown . The generation o f a mouse mode l o f M P S I has a l l owed for specif ic questions about the progression o f symptom development to be addressed i n a manner not possible i n human M P S I patients. Important f indings described i n this thesis inc lude the presence o f early pathology i n ret iculoendothelial cel ls , g rowth plates o f bones, the presence o f secondary accumulat ions o f substrates not direct ly l i nked to I D U A def ic iency i n bra in , and the presence o f neurologic disease inc lud ing dysmorpho logy o f Purkinje cel ls i n the cerebel lum. L o n g term characterizat ion o f murine M P S I suggests this an ima l m o d e l represents severe human M P S I, or Hur l e r syndrome, as there is obvious involvement o f the neurologic and skeletal systems, despite the fact that the murine m o d e l l ives into adulthood. The observations i n this rodent mode l are important as they conf i rm the u t i l i ty o f the I D U A deficient mouse, and provide a better understanding o f the pathology occur r ing over t ime i n tissues not yet responsive to therapy. F i n a l l y , characterization o f these 156 features o f murine I D U A def ic iency has identif ied numerous markers o f M P S I progression that w i l l be useful i n the assessment o f therapies for I D U A def ic iency. 6.2 Future work: The M P S I mouse provides a convenient mode l for the detailed examinat ion o f I D U A def ic iency and represents a useful mode l for general ized lysosomal storage disorders. Future studies on this mouse mode l w i l l l i k e l y focus o n further understanding the neurologic and skeletal features o f M P S I. Perhaps more important, even wi thout delineating the under ly ing causes o f these M P S I features, this an imal mode l should prove useful i n the assessment o f therapeutics for M P S diseases. 6.3: Generation of transgenic murine strains expressing human IDUA. The objective o f this project was to generate transgenic mouse l ines expressing human I D U A . Af te r numerous attempts to produce transgenic mice expressing human I D U A us ing both pronuclear inject ion as w e l l as embryonic stem ce l l approaches, w i t h tradit ional , non-regulated promoters, no transgenic mice were generated. T h i s led to the use o f a condi t ional system, i n w h i c h the expression o f human I D U A is regulated b y the int roduct ion o f Cre recombinase. U s i n g Cre mediated recombinat ion, and a dual reporter system, two transgenic mouse lines have been developed w h i c h have the potential to express human I D U A i n a c e l l specif ic manner. B y u t i l i z i n g the ever expanding l ibrary o f m ice expressing Cre recombinase i n specific tissues, the effects o f specific reconsti tution o f I D U A , i n a background o f I D U A def ic iency, can be determined. These mi ce strains w i l l help identify where, and when, therapeutic I D U A is most effective i n prevent ing or correct ing specific features o f I D U A deficiency. In addi t ion, the compat ib i l i ty o f expression o f human I D U A w i t h normal c e l l metabol i sm, and an imal development, can be determined. There are many stages i n the cel lu lar maturat ion o f a lysosomal enzyme that might be overwhe lmed dur ing h i g h leve l transgenic expression. Correct post translational modi f ica t ion , endosomal compartment transport, and general ized ly sosomal funct ion c o u l d be altered w h e n one lysosomal enzyme is inappropriately expressed. M a n y transgenic c e l l l ines or mouse strains have been generated that express predominant ly human lysosomal enzymes. K y l e et al. generated a mouse l ine expressing the human G U S enzyme, deficient i n M P S V I I . The G U S enzyme is targeted to the lysosome v i a the mannose-6-phosphate ( M 6 P ) receptor, as is I D U A . T h e y demonstrated complete correct ion o f the murine M P S V I I phenotype w h e n the transgenic l ine expressing human G U S was crossed into the G U S -/- M P S V I I mouse l ine ( K y l e et al, 1990). M i c e hemizygous for the human genomic transgene expressed 10 fo ld higher levels o f G U S act iv i ty i n most tissues and d i d not produce any detectable negative phenotype. T h i s conf i rmed that human G U S is enzymat ica l ly functional and is proper ly targeted i n murine cel ls , can correct mur ine M P S V I I , and is w e l l tolerated even at h i g h levels o f expression. Expre s s ion o f alpha-galactosidase A at h i g h levels i n Chinese hamster ovary ( C H O ) cel ls results i n its intracel lular aggregation, crys ta l l iza t ion i n lysosomes, and selective secretion (Ioannou et al, 1992). It m a y be that certain enzymes have a tendency for aggregation and that overexpression o f these enzymes creates an environment for aggregate format ion. A transgenic mouse l ine overexpressing human alpha-galactosidase between 20 and 10,000 fo ld had no obvious phenotype result ing f rom overexpression (Kase et al, 1998) and no detected aggregate formation. 158 H u m a n I D U A has been overexpressed i n c e l l culture us ing Chinese hamster ovary ( C H O ) to levels 3000 to 7000 fo ld above normal ( K a k k i s et al, 1993). Surpr i s ing ly , the act ivi ty and dis t r ibut ion o f 5 other l y sosomal enzymes were not s ignif icant ly affected even at this h i g h leve l o f overexpression. N o aggregations were noted. Th i s abi l i ty for overexpression o f an enzyme bearing the M 6 P phosphate residue for lysosomal targeting without dis turbing general lysosomal targeting m a y be l imi t ed to certain c e l l types. Re t rov i ra l transduction o f human M P S I fibroblasts w i t h 3 constructs expressing va ry ing levels o f human I D U A produced surprising results that are relevant to this current thesis; i nc lud ing the induct ion o f a nove l disease state ( A n s o n et al., 1992). The 3 constructs differed i n the regulatory elements d r iv ing expression o f human Idua c D N A , w i t h the first, p L I d S N , us ing the 5 ' v i r a l l ong repeat ( L T R ) , the second, p L N C I d , uses the cytomegalovirus ( C M V ) immediate early promoter, w h i l e i n the third, p L N T i d , the C M V promoter is replaced w i t h a fragment o f the mouse C D 4 5 gene. The three constructs, L N C I d , L I d S N , and L N T I d , were found to express 2 5 0 X , 1 5 0 X , and 1 0 X normal levels o f I D U A act ivi ty i n M P S I human fibroblasts. W h i l e a l l three constructs corrected the enzymat ic defect i n M P S I fibroblasts, on ly the construct w i t h the lowest l eve l o f expression ( 1 0 X , L N T I d ) was successful i n fu l ly correct ing the G A G storage o f the M P S I fibroblasts. Increasing overexpression o f I D U A resulted i n reduced therapeutic benefit as assessed by intracel lular accumula t ion o f sulphate labeled G A G . In addi t ion, the levels o f other lysosomal enzymes were determined to be lowered i n lysosomes, but increased i n the ce l l media , indicat ing the lysosomal enzymes were secreted rather than del ivered to the lysosome ( A n s o n et al., 1992). The pattern o f decreased lysosomal enzymes i n the lysosome but increased extracellular concentrations o f l y sosomal 159 enzymes is found i n I c e l l disease, w h i c h results i n increased secretion o f mannose-6-phosphate-dependent lysosomal enzymes as the enzyme media t ing addi t ion o f terminal mannose phosphate residues is deficient. W i t h overexpression o f the mannose-6-phosphate bearing I D U A i n this study, the M P R receptor mediated del ivery o f lysosomal enzymes is thought to be disrupted, leading to mis rout ing o f l y sosomal enzymes to the secretion pathway and ul t imately the extracellular space. The consequences o f this mis rout ing o f l y sosomal enzymes, should it occur i n vivo, are unknown . The catalytic act ivi ty o f l y sosomal enzymes at the near neutral p H o f the extracellular space has not been investigated but w i t h sufficient enzyme even l o w levels o f act ivi ty might result i n inappropriate degradation o f enzyme substrates. These results indicate the leve l o f I D U A expression occur r ing i n gene therapy m a y need to be l im i t ed for op t imal correct ion o f lysosomal storage o f G A G s , and suggest that excessive levels o f I D U A expression, as cou ld occur for some ce l l types after gene therapy, m a y not be therapeutic. Macrophage specif ic transgenic overexpression o f human protective protein/cathepsin A ( P P C A ) was par t ia l ly corrective for a mur ine m o d e l o f galactosial idosis ( P P C A - / - ) , a v iscera l and neurodegenerative disease resul t ing f rom def ic iency o f P P C A . Cor rec t ion o f v iscera l storage and partial correct ion or delay o f onset o f neuronal storage was achieved w i t h either bone mar row transplantation o f transgenic mar row overexpressing P P C A f rom a macrophage specific promoter element into the P P C A - / - mouse, or w i t h breeding o f the same macrophage specif ic P P C A transgenic l ine into P P C A - / - mice ( H a h n et al., 1998). Some neuronal cel ls , i n c lud ing Purkinje cel ls , cont inued to show storage and d ied w i t h both therapy approaches. T h i s 160 indicates that, at least w i t h the levels o f transgene expression achieved i n this study, mar row der ived cel ls i nc lud ing macrophages m a y not be able to fu l ly correct neuronal lysosomal storage and pathology. Some c e l l types m a y be better targets for the therapeutic overexpression o f a ly sosomal enzyme than others. Pompe disease includes severe metabol ic myopathy and cardiomyopathy and therefore musc le w o u l d seem a log ica l choice for expression o f the therapeutic lysosomal enzyme alpha-glucosidase ( G A A ) deficient i n this disorder. U s i n g knockout m ic e w i t h this disease, and transgenic l ines containing the c D N A for the human enzyme under muscle or l iver specific promoters control led by tetracycline, Raben et al. demonstrated that the l iver p rov ided enzyme far more eff iciently than muscle tissue. The achievement o f therapeutic levels w i t h skeletal muscle expression required the entire musc le mass to produce h igh levels o f enzyme o f w h i c h litt le found its way to the p lasma, whereas l iver , compr i s ing less than 5% o f body weight , secreted 100 fo ld more enzyme, a l l o f w h i c h was i n the active 110 k D a precursor fo rm (Raben et al, 2001). In a transgenic l ine w i t h very h igh expression o f G A A i n skeletal muscle it was shown excessive levels o f G A A are not w e l l tolerated, w i t h v i r tua l ly every ce l l containing smal l lysosomes w i t h P A S - p o s i t i v e storage material . It is clear that the transport systems for de l ivery o f exogenous ly sosomal enzymes, us ing the mannose-6-phosphate receptors, a l lows rescue o f an imal models o f lysosomal storage disease w i t h gene products o f human versions o f the ly sosomal enzymes. Overexpress ion o f lysosomal enzymes has been associated w i t h numerous phenomenon inc lud ing aggregation o f transgenic proteins, secretion o f transgenic as w e l l 161 as native lysosomal enzymes, and def ic iency o f in t ra lysosomal- lysosomal enzymes leading to ly sosomal disease i n ce l l culture. Surpr is ingly , transgenic mouse l ines overexpressing lysosomal enzymes have for the most part not exhibi ted obvious c l i n i c a l or pa thologica l phenotypes, w i t h the except ion o f lysosomal storage disease i n m i ce overexpressing G A A enzyme i n muscle . The phenotype o f the overexpression o f I D U A o n normal c e l l metabol i sm is relevant to gene therapy approaches for M P S I. O n l y by overexpressing I D U A i n a l l tissues, dur ing development, can the safety o f such approaches be determined. In addi t ion, ce l l specific reconsti tut ion o f I D U A act iv i ty i n a background o f I D U A def ic iency m a y identify ce l l types required for efficient correct ion o f M P S I compl ica t ions . It has been determined that expression o f human I D U A i n normal mice , at the levels obtained w i t h these transgenic strains, does not induce obvious disease. The dual reporter expression system w h i c h indicates the state o f Cre mediated recombinat ion, and therefore human I D U A expression, has proven functional and the expression o f human I D U A has been conf i rmed. The generation o f a condi t iona l system for the expression o f human I D U A i n mice w i l l p rovide a versatile too l for the study o f the effects o f gene therapy for M P S I. In addi t ion to genetic crosses into the I D U A deficient strain to address the benefit o f I D U A expression i n specific tissues at defined t ime points, these transgenic mice lines can provide a source o f human I D U A expressing cel ls for use i n transplantation studies. Since these transgenic m ic e express a reporter gene as w e l l as human I D U A , this system provides ease o f moni to r ing o f transgene expression and the t racking o f transgenic cel ls i n recipients. F i n a l l y , the phenotype o f transgenic human I D U A expression, i f any, can 162 be determined. It is hoped that these mouse strains w i l l be useful i n determining levels , locat ions, and t ime points important to the eff icacy and safety o f gene therapy for M P S I. 6.4 F u t u r e w o r k M u c h remains to be learned f rom the condi t ional transgenic l ines produced dur ing this thesis work . M o s t important ly; crosses into the I D U A deficient murine l ine and l ines expressing Cre recombinase need to be comprehensively analyzed. In particular, detailed evaluat ion o f human specif ic I D U A ac t iv i ty after C r e recombinat ion , i n var ious mouse tissues by immunocapture is c r i t i ca l . The complex i ty o f this analysis and the considerable t ime required for breeding into var ious C r e expressing l ines as w e l l as the mur ine I D U A deficient l ine precluded inc lus ion into this thesis project. 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