THE SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS: THE GEOGRAPHY OF RESOURCE EXPROPRIATION IN COLORADO, 1859-1994 by Cathy E l s a K i n d q u i s t B . A . , C o l b y C o l l e g e , 1978 M . A . , U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o , 1986 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department o f Geography) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA March 1996 © Cathy E l s a K i n d q u i s t , 1996 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of S f e O f e R r t frl-W The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada Date vtLctt-cU. oLDK, t99C» DE-6 (2/88) ABSTRACT T h i s t h e s i s examines the a g r i c u l t u r a l - t o - m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s and the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f South P a r k , a h i g h in te rmontane b a s i n l o c a t e d west o f the Denver m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a i n t h e Rocky Mounta ins o f C o l o r a d o . The f o r m a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n and exchange o f water i n t h i s a r e a began i n 1859 w i t h the a r r i v a l o f m iners and the f i r s t d i v e r s i o n s o f water i n t o s l u i c e b o x e s . In the 1860s, r a n c h e r s c l a i m e d water on a more permanent and e x t e n s i v e b a s i s , u s i n g i t t o i r r i g a t e bo t tomlands t o produce hay and o t h e r f o d d e r c r o p s . T h i s s tudy d i s c u s s e s the e v o l u t i o n o f r a n c h i n g i n South Park from the 1860s t o the p r e s e n t , w i t h s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o the d e l i c a t e l y b a l a n c e d system t h a t had t o be worked out i n such a h a r s h env i ronment . More c e n t r a l l y , the t h e s i s o u t l i n e s the l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system t h a t d e v e l o p e d i n the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o t o govern the use and the exchange o f wa te r ; and i t f o c u s e s upon t h e South Park water t r a n s f e r s and t h e consequent r e t i r e m e n t o f r a n c h l a n d s , from the 1890s t o the 1990s. Wi thout t h e c r i t i c a l components o f water and p r o d u c t i v e h a y l a n d s , y e a r - r o u n d r a n c h i n g c o u l d no t e x i s t i n t h i s m a r g i n a l l a n d . B e g i n n i n g i n t h e 1890s, the c i t i e s a t the f o o t o f the C o l o r a d o F r o n t Range began t o a s s e s s t h e water r e s o u r c e s o f the h i g h b a s i n and contempla te a c q u i s i t i o n s o f key water r i g h t s t o s u p p l y the needs o f the growing urban c o r e . In the c e n t u r y t h a t f o l l o w e d , water r i g h t s were s o l d v o l u n t a r i l y by South Park r a n c h e r s , by t h e i r h e i r s , i i and by s p e c u l a t o r s , t o Denver , C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s , and l a t e r the suburban m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f A u r o r a and T h o r n t o n . The t r a n s f e r o f water t o urban hands t i p p e d the b a l a n c e -e c o n o m i c a l l y , e c o l o g i c a l l y , and p o l i t i c a l l y . What was r e l i n q u i s h e d was not s i m p l y c o n t r o l o f w a t e r , but a l s o c o n t r o l the s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n ' s most v i t a l r e s o u r c e and c o n t r o l o f the a r e a o f o r i g i n ' s f u t u r e . T h i s t h e s i s a d d r e s s e s t h e s e i s s u e s t h r o u g h use o f a r c h i v a l m a t e r i a l s ( l a r g e l y government r e c o r d s ) and t h r o u g h the use o f maps, p h o t o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l s , newspapers , d i a r i e s , and o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s . I n t e r v i e w s and f i e l d work were a l s o c o n d u c t e d , and i n f o r m a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n v i s u a l , t a b u l a r , and w r i t t e n fo rm. As economic development and p o p u l a t i o n e x p a n s i o n i n a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s c o n t i n u e , p r e s s u r e on water r e s o u r c e s i s i n c r e a s i n g . More and more, c i t i e s a r e t u r n i n g t o a g r i c u l t u r a l water r i g h t s and r u r a l communit ies t o o b t a i n t h e i r s u p p l i e s . In t h i s c o n t e x t , i t i s impor tan t t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d the e x p r o p r i a t i o n p r o c e s s , and t h a t i s p r e c i s e l y what t h i s t h e s i s seeks t o d o . i i i TABLE OP CONTENTS A b s t r a c t i i T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s i v L i s t o f T a b l e s v i L i s t o f F i g u r e s v i i Acknowledgements x i C h a p t e r One Introduction: The South Park Water Transfers 1 C h a p t e r Two Water and the West Water and the West i n G l o b a l P e r s p e c t i v e 16 E n v i r o n m e n t a l H i s t o r y and t h e New Western H i s t o r y 19 Geography 32 Economics and O t h e r D i s c i p l i n e s 38 The C h a l l e n g e o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 49 C h a p t e r Three South ParX: Beginnings and Transformations 58 South Park 61 B e g i n n i n g s 65 T r a n s f o r m a t i o n 68 The South Park System o f Ranch ing 79 South Park Water 97 C h a p t e r Four Water Administration The Framework 104 The Emergence o f the S t a t e E n g i n e e r 1 s O f f i c e 111 A d j u d i c a t i o n 118 S t a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n South Park 124 C h a p t e r F i v e The Early Transfers The Denver Water System 154 E a r l y D e s i g n s and P l a n s 159 The F i r s t M u n i c i p a l A c q u i s i t i o n s 167 Developments i n the M i d - T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y 187 C h a p t e r S i x Dry Up Expand ing Demand 203 The B e g i n n i n g s o f Who lesa le E x p r o p r i a t i o n 212 The J a n i t e l l T r a n s f e r 229 The T r a n s f e r s 236 i v C h a p t e r Seven "Making Water Flow U p h i l l : " The Upper South Platte Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t ( F o r m a t i o n o f the Conservancy D i s t r i c t 270 The C h a l l e n g e o f the Water T r a n s f e r s 279 R e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e Conservancy D i s t r i c t 284 L o c a l Power 290 C h a p t e r E i g h t Headwaters The L e g a l and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Framework 304 A r e a o f O r i g i n I s s u e s 310 Water , Power, and the Meaning o f Resource E x p r o p r i a t i o n i n the R u r a l West 316 B i b l i o g r a p h y 324 Appendix A G r a p h i c s : C r e d i t s and S o u r c e s 360 Appendix B South Park Water T r a n s f e r s , Database 367 Appendix C South Park D i t c h e s , Database 371 Appendix D 1885 A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n s u s , South Park 409 Appendix E D i v e r s i o n s , South Park D i t c h e s , 1950-1992 427 Appendix F C o n v e r s i o n s 449 Appendix G D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioners 450 Appendix H Case Numbers, South Park Water T r a n s f e r s , 1933-1992. 451 v LIST OF TABLES 3 - 1 . C o l o r a d o P o p u l a t i o n , 1860. 69 3 - 2 . Park County P o p u l a t i o n , 1860-1890. 79 3 - 3 . Park County A g r i c u l t u r e , 1870-1890. 85 5 - 1 . Growth o f Denver , 1860-1950. 155 5 -2 . P o p u l a t i o n by P r e c i n c t s , Park C o u n t y , 1890-1950. 165 5 - 3 . T o t a l A c r e s , S e l e c t e d Ranches , E a r l y Denver A c q u i s i t i o n s . 178 5 -4 . Water R i g h t s and P r i o r i t i e s , South Park Water T r a n s f e r s , 1932-1934. 181 5- 5. Water T r a n s f e r r e d t o M u n i c i p a l U s e , 1932-1934. 181 6- 1. Growth o f C i t i e s , 1860-1990. 204 6 - 2 . Water R i g h t s and P r i o r i t i e s , South Park Water T r a n s f e r s , 1932-1993. 221 6 - 3 . T o t a l A c r e s , S e l e c t e d Ranches , South Park Water T r a n s f e r s . 225 6 -4 . Water T r a n s f e r r e d t o M u n i c i p a l U s e , 1932-1993. 238 6 - 5 . P r i c e p e r A c r e F o o t , A u r o r a and T h o r n t o n P u r c h a s e s , 1968-1993. 243 6 - 6 . I r r i g a t e d Acreage R e t i r e d , 1968-1993. 245 6 - 7 . Ranch C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , Park County , 1870-1987. 250 6 -8 . L i v e s t o c k P r o d u c t i o n , Park C o u n t y , 1870-1987. 250 6 - 9 . Hay P r o d u c t i o n , Park County , 1870-1987. 251 6 -10 . P o p u l a t i o n , Park County , 1860-1990. 251 v i LIST OF FIGURES 1-1 . Map: L o c a t i o n Map. 2 1-2. Map: South P a r k , Nor th P a r k , M i d d l e P a r k . 3 1 -3 . South Park from G e o r g i a P a s s , 1983. 4 1-4. I r r i g a t i o n D i t c h , South P a r k , 1992. 7 1-5 . C a t t l e i n South P a r k , 1993. 10 1-6 . Abandoned ranch house , South P a r k , 1992. 15 3 - 1 . Map: South Park P h y s i o g r a p h y . 62 3 -2 . Map: E a r l y Towns, Wagon Roads , and R a i l r o a d s , South P a r k , 1858-1918. 71 3 - 3 . Map: A c c e s s t o South P a r k , Mounta in P a s s e s . 74 3 -4 . S a l t Works, South P a r k , n . d . 75 3 - 5 . Samuel H a r t s e l , prominent South Park r a n c h e r n . d . 80 3 -6 . A d o l p h G u i r a u d ' s r a n c h on the M i d d l e F o r k o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , n . d . 83 3 - 7 . Map: Components o f the L a n d . 86 3 - 8 . Map: I r r i g a t e d L a n d s , South P a r k . 88 3 - 9 . A e r i a l v iew o f South Park showing the open p a r k l a n d , f o o t h i l l s , and h i g h mounta in r a n g e s , n . d . 89 3 -10 . F l o o d i r r i g a t i o n on Twe lvemi le C r e e k , 1993. 91 3 - 11 . Hay b a l e s , F r e d a Wahl Ranch , 1992. 93 4 - 1. Map: C o l o r a d o Water D i v i s i o n s . 108 4 - 2 . Stream gaug ing s t a t i o n , 1993. 115 4 - 3 . E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f D i t c h e s , P l a t t e D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1860-1990. 120 4 - 4 . E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f D i t c h e s , T a r r y a l l D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1860-1990. 121 v i i 4 - 5 . Map: South Park D r a i n a g e . 123 4 - 6 . L i n e Drawings: South Fork South P l a t t e R i v e r , Upper and Lower R eaches . 125 4 - 7 . L i n e Drawings: South Fork South P l a t t e R i v e r P r i o r t o R e s e r v o i r C o n s t r u c t i o n . 126 4 - 8 . L i n e Drawings: M i d d l e F o r k South P l a t t e R i v e r , Upper and Lower R e a c h e s . 127 4 - 9 . L i n e Drawings: F o u r m i l e Creek and H i g h C r e e k . 128 4 -10 . L i n e Drawings: Twe lvemi le Creek and B u f f a l o and S a l t C r e e k s . 129 4 - 1 1 . L i n e Drawings: T a r r y a l l Creek and Rock C r e e k . 130 4 -12 . L i n e Drawings: M i c h i g a n Creek and J e f f e r s o n C r e e k . 131 4 - 1 3 . Headgate i n d i s r e p a i r , Benjamin S p i n n e y ' s r a n c h on the South Fork o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , 1910. 135 4 -14 . Newly a p p o i n t e d water commiss ioner A l o n z o Wr ight and d i v i s i o n e n g i n e e r F i l l m o r e C o g s w e l l c l o s i n g down t h e Raynor and Edmondson No. 2 D i t c h on the M i d d l e F o r k o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , 1910. 136 4 - 1 5 . M e a s u r i n g f l u m e , Sheeprock D i t c h on J e f f e r s o n C r e e k , 1993. 143 4 - 16. Water commiss ioner Den ise P a p r o c k i measur ing the f low o f one o f the few r e m a i n i n g i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s i n South P a r k , l o c a t e d on Twe lvemi le C r e e k , 1993. 146 5- 1. The town o f H a r t s e l , w i t h f r e s h l y mown hay i n the meadows i n the b a c k g r o u n d , n . d . 163 5 - 2 . A n t e r o Dam, 1924. 171 5 - 3 . E l e v e n M i l e Canyon dam s i t e a t the t ime o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , 1931. 173 5 -4 . Map: E a r l y Denver A c q i s i t i o n s , E l e v e n M i l e R e s e r v o i r B a s i n , 1929-1932. 177 v i i i 5 - 5 . South P l a t t e R i v e r , d i v e r s i o n dam, and headgate o f the Weed D i t c h ( p r i o r i t y n o . 102) , 1910. 180 5 - 6 . The C o l o r a d o M i d l a n d Ra i lway y a r d a t H a r t s e l , w i t h the meander ing P l a t t e and the H a r t s e l ho t s p r i n g s r e s o r t on the r i g h t , n . d . 191 5- 7. Map: The H y d r a u l i c P a r k , 1994. 193 6- 1. D e n v e r ' s M u n i c i p a l Water S u p p l y , 1990. 2 06 6 -2 . A u r o r a ' s M u n i c i p a l Water S u p p l y , 1990. 208 6 - 3 . Map: The Denver M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a , 1990. 210 6 -4 . Hay ing i n South P a r k , F a l l 1993. 213 6 - 5 . S t a t u s o f D i t c h e s , P l a t t e D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. 214 6 -6 . S t a t u s o f D i t c h e s , T a r r y a l l D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. 215 6 - 7 . Map: Water and Acreage R e t i r e d from P r o d u c t i o n , South P a r k , 1915-1994. 219 6 -8 . F o r m e r l y i r r i g a t e d hay meadows, McDowell Ranch 1993. 222 6 - 9 . J e f f e r s o n L a k e , 1993. 232 6 -10 . Map: M u n i c i p a l Water T r a n s f e r s , South P a r k , 1915-1994. 237 6 -11 . M u n i c i p a l C o n t r o l , P l a t t e D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. 240 6 -12 . M u n i c i p a l C o n t r o l , T a r r y a l l D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. 241 6 -13 . Water T r a n s f e r s , P l a t t e D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. 246 6 -14 . Water T r a n s f e r s , T a r r y a l l D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. 247 6 -15 . Map: Ranch Ownership a t the Time o f T r a n s f e r , South P a r k , 1915-1994. 248 6 -16 . Abandoned r a n c h , South P a r k , 1993. 261 i x 7 - 1 . I r r i g a t i o n Water R i g h t s , P l a t t e D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. 291 7 -2 . I r r i g a t i o n Water R i g h t s , T a r r y a l l D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. 292 7 - 3 . Map: F e d e r a l and S t a t e L a n d , South P a r k , 1992. 294 7 -4 . Map: S e l e c t e d Ranch B o u n d a r i e s , South Park Water T r a n s f e r s , 1932-1994. 295 7- 5. Map: South Park S u b d i v i s i o n s , 1989. 297 8- 1. B r i s t l e c o n e P i n e , South P a r k , 1981. 315 8 -2 . Rainbow o v e r an abandoned r a n c h , South P a r k , 1993. 320 x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many p e o p l e were o f a s s i s t a n c e p r o f e s s i o n a l l y and p e r s o n a l l y i n the c o u r s e o f t h i s p r o j e c t . F i r s t I must thank C o l e H a r r i s , my a d v i s o r , f o r c a r e f u l e d i t o r i a l and s u b s t a n t i v e comments, and f o r the encouragement he gave i n t h e f i n a l y e a r s o f t h i s work. Thanks must a l s o be g i v e n t o members o f my d o c t o r a l committee a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia - Maureen Reed, Graeme Wynn, and M i c h a e l B o v i s i n p a r t i c u l a r . C o l l e a g u e s and f r i e n d s Donald Akenson , Jeanne Kay, V i c t o r K o n r a d , H a z e l Mor row-Jones , John Wiener , C i n d y M i l l e r , Dawn Bowen and J o n a t h a n L i e b p r o v i d e d encouragement and i n t e l l e c t u a l s u s t e n a n c e t h r o u g h o u t . Some s u p p o r t a l s o came from my c o l l e a g u e s a t R a d f o r d U n i v e r s i t y i n V i r g i n i a , e s p e c i a l l y Susan Woodward, R i c k R o t h , and John DeWi t t . Thanks t o my department cha i rman Bernd Kuennecke and my dean S teven P o n t i u s f o r t h e i r p a t i e n c e and i n d u l g e n c e . S p e c i a l thanks t o B i l l O ' B r i e n a t V i r g i n i a T e c h , D a v i d Ware i n Wyoming, L i n d a Winograd i n R e s t o n , V i c t o r E d v a l s o n a t WordPer fec t s u p p o r t , and my c o u s i n Rob C i t c o w i t z f o r e s s e n t i a l a s s i s t a n c e i n the f i n a l phases o f t h i s p r o j e c t . Pat W i l e s and Kathy L imborg d i d an e x t r a o r d i n a r y j o b w i t h the maps and l i n e d r a w i n g s . T h e i r c a r e and p a t i e n c e t h rough rounds o f r e v i s i o n s a r e d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d . Sarah B l a c k , T e r i V e r m i l l i o n , and Sharon Dumont h e l p e d w i t h da tabase e n t r y . Susan Larcom V i n e s , Susan E a r n h a r t , C h r i s R i v e r s , K a r o l y n E l l i s , D . J . x i R o s s , Judy R o b b i n s , B a r b a r a Moore, Dawn B u f f i n g t o n , and C a r o l y n S u t p h i n h e l p e d w i t h l i f e i n g e n e r a l . Simon Kane wrote the " A v e r a g e r " program f o r the da tabase a n a l y s i s , and my b r o t h e r D a v i d K i n d q u i s t was a v a i l a b l e day and n i g h t f o r q u e s t i o n s as I p r o c e s s e d l a r g e d a t a b a s e s u s i n g a most u n f r i e n d l y computer program. My o l d f r i e n d s John A l l a n and P h y l l i s Smith p r o v i d e d e s s e n t i a l s u p p o r t . So d i d M e l a n i e and Zeke . I would l i k e t o ex tend s p e c i a l thanks t o Mark C u r r y and Den ise P a p r o c k i o f the D i s t r i c t 23 water commiss ioners o f f i c e . T h e i r knowledge o f South Park d i t c h e s was i n v a l u a b l e , as was t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o answer q u e s t i o n s and make r e c o r d s e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e . Thanks as w e l l t o J i m C a m p b e l l , deputy water c o m m i s s i o n e r i n the d i s t r i c t s i n c e 1993. S p e c i a l g r a t i t u d e must a l s o be e x p r e s s e d t o South Park r a n c h e r s James McDowel l , W a l t e r C o i l , Roy T e t e r , and James and T w i l a Brompton. No one knows the p a r k as w e l l as the p e o p l e who have ranched t h e r e . The Denver Water Department (DWD) d e s e r v e s r e c o g n i t i o n as w e l l . Sandy Chotechuang , head o f the a r c h i v e s and r e c o r d s depar tment , was o f g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e , as were members o f h e r s t a f f . L a r r y D i r k s i n the e n g i n e e r i n g depar tment , and a t t o r n e y M i c h a e l Walker o f the DWD's l e g a l department were a l s o o f g r e a t h e l p . C h i p s B a r r y , manager o f the Denver Water Department , took t h e t ime t o d i s c u s s w i t h me h i s v iews on the c i t y ' s water s u p p l y , c u r r e n t p o l i c i e s , and p r i o r i t i e s . H i s t ime and t h o u g h t f u l n e s s a r e most a p p r e c i a t e d . x i i Thanks a l s o t o Pau l F l a c k and Doug Kemper, w i t h the Department o f U t i l i t i e s , c i t y o f A u r o r a ; t o Doug Clements a t Spronck Water E n g i n e e r s ; t o Dave Bennet t w i t h the c i t y o f T h o r n t o n ; t o Mark G r i f f i n Smith a t C o l o r a d o C o l l e g e ; and t o C h a r l e s Howe a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o i n B o u l d e r . Warm thanks t o Frank M i l e n s k i S r . , farmer i n the A r k a n s a s V a l l e y and water a c t i v i s i t . A t D i v i s i o n 1 water c o u r t i n G r e e l e y , I found my way t h r o u g h vo luminous c a s e f i l e s and an a t t i c f i l l e d w i t h c o u r t e x h i b i t s w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f C o u r t C l e r k Mary C r e s p i n , h e r deputy c l e r k , and Water R e f e r e e Ray L i e s m a n . A t the D i v i s i o n 1 o f f i c e o f the C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r . L e s D a l b y , Dav id N e t t l e s , A l l e n Berryman, and Becky N i c h o l s were a l l h e l p f u l . B e t t y Dyce and Bonnie T u s i n g e r d e s e r v e thanks a t the C o l o r a d o Department o f N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s i n Denver , as do the s t a f f s a t the C o l o r a d o S t a t e A r c h i v e s , t h e U . S . G e o l o g i c a l Survey (USGS) L i b r a r y , the USGS P h o t o g r a p h i c L i b r a r y , the C o l o r a d o H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , and t h e Denver P u b l i c L i b r a r y (Wayne C o f f e y i n Government Documents and B a r b a r a Wal ton i n Western H i s t o r y , e s p e c i a l l y ) . Thanks a l s o t o the members o f the b o a r d o f the Upper South P l a t t e Water Consevancy D i s t r i c t : S teve Spann, Dave W i s s e l , Verne B u t l e r , Leona N e l s o n , and D i c k Housum; and t o board s e c r e t a r y L i l l i a n W i s s e l . In e n d i n g t h e s e acknowledgements i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e the l o v e and s u p p o r t o f my p a r e n t s , E r i c and C a r o l K i n d q u i s t . Throughout t h i s p r o j e c t and t h r o u g h o u t my x i i i l i f e , t h e y have g i v e n me t h e i r encourangement and u n d e r s t a n d i n g . They have o f f e r e d c o n s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m . Two a s t u t e and q u i c k minded p e o p l e , my p a r e n t s have a lways c h a l l e n g e d me t o t h i n k d e e p l y and examine t h i n g s c a r e f u l l y . They have i n s p i r e d me, by t h e i r example and th rou g h t h e i r b e l i e f i n me, t o push t h e l i m i t s o f e x p e r i e n c e and i d e a s . Wi th a f f e c t i o n , r e s p e c t , and g r a t i t u d e I d e d i c a t e t h i s work t o them. x i v CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION: THE SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS T h i s i s a s tudy i n h i s t o r i c a l geography , b l e n d i n g l a n d and l i f e , p a s t and p r e s e n t , t o u n d e r s t a n d c h a n g i n g p a t t e r n s o f c o n t r o l o v e r n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . I t has o f t e n been s a i d t h a t water f l o w s i n the d i r e c t i o n o f money and power. Such i s the c a s e i n South P a r k , a h i g h , windswept b a s i n i n the Rocky Mounta ins o f C o l o r a d o ( F i g u r e s 1-1 t o 1 -3 ) . Water r e s o u r c e s were f i r s t a p p r o p r i a t e d and put t o l o c a l use by miners and r a n c h e r s i n the m i d d l e o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Today , as the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y draws t o a c l o s e , few water r i g h t s remain i n l o c a l h a n d s . Most o f South P a r k ' s water has been removed from use i n the m o u n t a i n s , and the r i g h t s a r e now owned and used by c i t i e s l o c a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 m i l e s downstream. How has t h i s s h i f t i n c o n t r o l o v e r n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s been a c c o m p l i s h e d ? T h i s s t u d y a t tempts t o a d d r e s s t h i s q u e s t i o n by t r a c i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n and t r a n s f e r o f a g r i c u l t u r a l water r i g h t s i n South Park from 1859 t o the p r e s e n t . When I began t h i s r e s e a r c h , i t was w i t h the i n t e n t i o n o f c o n d u c t i n g a s tudy t h a t a d d r e s s e d t h r e e a s p e c t s o f the South Park water t r a n s f e r s . I i n t e n d e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t the chang ing p a t t e r n o f i r r i g a t i o n i n South P a r k , s t a r t i n g w i t h the e x p a n s i o n o f the system o f d i t c h e s and f o l l o w i n g t h r o u g h t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l - t o - m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . S e c o n d , I p l a n n e d t o d e a l 1 rx.w. Figure 1-1. Map: L o c a t i o n Map. Note : S o u r c e s and c r e d i t s f o r a l l maps and l i n e drawings i n t h i s t h e s i s a re c o n t a i n e d i n Appendix A . 2 WYOMING NEW MEXICO S O U T H P A R K N O R T H P A R K M I D D L E P A R K 25 50 75 100 MILES M.IK CCA LEGEND SOUTH PARK NORTH PARK MIDDLE PARK TOWNS STATE BOUNDARY F i g u r e 1-2. Map: South P a r k , Nor th P a r k , M i d d l e P a r k . The term "park" r e f e r s t o an in termontane b a s i n . T y p i c a l l y , a mounta in p a r k i s sur rounded by mounta ins . In the i n t e r i o r , the r e l a t i v e l y f l a t s u r f a c e i s broken by r i d g e s and o t h e r f e a t u r e s . C o l o r a d o has t h r e e p a r k s : South P a r k , N o r t h P a r k , and M i d d l e P a r k . A l l c o n t a i n the headwaters o f some o f the s t a t e ' s major r i v e r s , t h e South P l a t t e , N o r t h P l a t t e , and the C o l o r a d o r i v e r s r e s p e c t i v e l y . Chap te r t h r e e c o n t a i n s some f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n on t h e term "park" - i t s meaning and i t s o r i g i n s . 3 Figure 1 - 3 . South Park from Georgia Pass, 1983. 4 i n dep th w i t h the impact o f water t r a n s f e r s on the a r e a o f o r i g i n . T h i r d , I wanted t o g r a p p l e w i t h some o f the t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s s u r r o u n d i n g s h i f t i n g power r e l a t i o n s , as c o n t r o l o f r e s o u r c e s p a s s e d from r u r a l t o urban hands . I t soon became c l e a r t h a t s o r t i n g out t h e s i m p l e geography o f c h a n g i n g water use was a gargantuan t a s k . Records were i n c o n s i s t e n t , i n c o m p l e t e , ,. and sometimes c o n t r a d i c t o r y . A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f water r i g h t s i n a d i s t r i c t w i t h o v e r 400 d i t c h e s was q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d as w e l l . The t r a n s f e r s which were t aken t h r o u g h the c o u r t s i n v o l v e d more than two dozen s e p a r a t e l e g a l p r o c e e d i n g s . I t seemed t o me t h a t b e f o r e moving on t o such heady m a t t e r s as s h i f t i n g power r e l a t i o n s , I had t o e s t a b l i s h how much water was i n v o l v e d . How much acreage had come under the d i t c h b e f o r e the t r a n s f e r s s t a r t e d removing i r r i g a t i o n water from use and hay meadows from p r o d u c t i o n i n South Park? In each o f the t r a n s f e r s , had the s a l e s been v o l u n t a r y o r not? Who was s e l l i n g ? Answer ing t h e s e and o t h e r b a s i c q u e s t i o n s took y e a r s o f r e s e a r c h w i t h a wide v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t r e c o r d s . I n f o r m a t i o n was checked and doub le c h e c k e d . In the e n d , what appears h e r e i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from what I had o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d . T h i s work i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y e m p i r i c a l . I t seeks t o a d d r e s s b a s i c q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g the p a t t e r n o f water r e s o u r c e use i n South Park and the f a c t s s u r r o u n d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l - t o -m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s . I t seeks t o e l u c i d a t e the water t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s . 5 The t r a n s f e r o f South P a r k ' s water took p l a c e w i t h i n the r u b r i c o f the l e g a l d o c t r i n e o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n . P r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n t r e a t e d water r i g h t s as p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y r i g h t s . Water c o u l d be c l a i m e d t h r ough p e r s o n a l l a b o r , and once a p p r o p r i a t e d c o u l d be s o l d and exchanged w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e law. I t c o u l d be s o l d s e p a r a t e l y from the l a n d on which i t had been u s e d . I t c o u l d be t r a n s f e r r e d from one t y p e o f use t o a n o t h e r and from one l o c a t i o n o f use t o a n o t h e r . P r o f i t s from the s a l e and exchange o f water r i g h t s a c c r u e d t o the i n d i v i d u a l s s e l l i n g t h o s e water r i g h t s . In South Park water was f i r s t c l a i m e d by miners b e g i n n i n g i n t h e l a t e 1850s. In the 1860s r a n c h e r s e s t a b l i s h e d a g r i c u l t u r a l water r i g h t s , d i v e r t i n g the r e s o u r c e s o f l o c a l s t reams t o grow hay i n the b o t t o m l a n d s . A t h r i v i n g r a n c h i n g economy and a v i b r a n t r a n c h i n g c u l t u r e took shape i n the h i g h in te rmontane b a s i n . C o l o r a d o i s d r y , l i k e much o f the Amer ican West . By the 1890s the c i t i e s growing on the piedmont e a s t o f the Rocky Mounta ins began t o t u r n t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r a l water s u p p l i e s i n the mounta ins . C o n t i n u e d m u n i c i p a l growth r e q u i r e d a r e l i a b l e water s u p p l y , and South Park was the l o g i c a l p l a c e t o t u r n . I t l a y a t the headwaters o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , which r a n t h r o u g h Denver , the r a p i d l y expanding "Queen C i t y " o f the p l a i n s . The c i t y ' s e n g i n e e r s and c o n s u l t a n t s a s s e s s e d the water r e s o u r c e s o f South Park and found hundreds o f s m a l l d i t c h e s i r r i g a t i n g f o d d e r c r o p s ( F i g u r e 1 -4) . They r e c o g n i z e d t h a t 6 Figure 1-4. Irrigation Ditch, South Park, 1992. 7 r a n c h e s and water r i g h t s c o u l d be p u r c h a s e d f o r r e a s o n a b l e p r i c e s , and t h a t water r i g h t s c o u l d be t r a n s f e r r e d t h r o u g h the c o u r t s f o r use downstream i n the c i t y . Through v o l u n t a r y s a l e s and l e g a l t r a n s f e r s , i n the next f o u r decades Denver a c q u i r e d some s m a l l but s t r a t e g i c h o l d i n g s i n South P a r k , and t o o k l e s s t h a n 10% o f the water d e c r e e d f o r i r r i g a t i o n i n the d i s t r i c t . I t was no t u n t i l the l a t t e r h a l f o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h a t c o n t r o l o f water r e s o u r c e s p a s s e d d o m i n a n t l y t o urban h a n d s . S i n c e 1968 m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a l o n g the C o l o r a d o F r o n t Range have a c q u i r e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 75% o f the water r i g h t s once used f o r i r r i g a t i o n i n South P a r k . C l o s e t o 40,000 a c r e s o f h a y l a n d s have been r e t i r e d from p r o d u c t i o n i n r u r a l Park County . South Park i s no l o n g e r a v i t a l r a n c h i n g a r e a . Water s a l e s have been v o l u n t a r y . There i s no Owens V a l l e y s t y l e s u b t e r f u g e o r c o e r c i o n . S t i l l , t h i s q u i e t l e g a l p r o c e s s has p r o d u c e d p r o f o u n d changes i n South Park - the a r e a o f o r i g i n i n t h e s e water t r a n s f e r s . W i t h i n the r u b r i c o f the law, which v iews water as p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y and the r i g h t t o s e l l as b o r d e r i n g on t h e s a c r e d , l i t t l e account has been taken o f the consequences o f t h e s e water s a l e s and t r a n s f e r s t o the p e o p l e o f r u r a l Park County o r the a r e a o f o r i g i n more g e n e r a l l y . The q u e s t i o n o f the impact o f the water t r a n s f e r s i s a complex one . Change i n South Park i s not a t t r i b u t a b l e t o water s a l e s a l o n e . The South Park water t r a n s f e r s o c c u r r e d i n the c o n t e x t o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n and c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n Amer ican a g r i c u l t u r e . F l u c t u a t i n g c a t t l e p r i c e s , i n c r e a s i n g overhead 8 c o s t s , u n r e l i a b l e s u b s i d i e s and s u p p o r t s , and many o t h e r f a c t o r s made r a n c h i n g p r o f i t s s m a l l and u n p r e d i c t a b l e . The economic m a r g i n a l i t y o f h i g h c o u n t r y r a n c h i n g c r e a t e d an i n c e n t i v e f o r South Park r a n c h e r s t o s e l l t h e i r water r i g h t s . M i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s c o u l d be made - f a r more than c o u l d be earned o v e r many y e a r s by b r a v i n g the e l e m e n t s , work ing seven days a week, and engag ing i n b a c k - b r e a k i n g l a b o r ( F i g u r e 1 -5 ) . Once water was s o l d , i t was d i f f i c u l t i f not i m p o s s i b l e f o r a r a n c h e r t o c o n t i n u e t o o p e r a t e even a m a r g i n a l l y p r o f i t a b l e y e a r - r o u n d l i v e s t o c k o p e r a t i o n . In South P a r k , which i s a t an e l e v a t i o n o f 9,000 t o 10,000 f e e t above sea l e v e l , w i n t e r s a re l o n g . W i n t e r f e e d i s grown w i t h i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r . Wi thout i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r , t h e r e i s no w i n t e r f e e d . Wi thout w i n t e r f e e d , t h e r e i s no w i n t e r i n g o f l i v e s t o c k , no y e a r - r o u n d r a n c h i n g i n d u s t r y . Wi thout i r r i g a t i o n water , the l a n d was o f l i m i t e d v a l u e f o r r a n c h i n g . The s a l e o f r a n c h water r i g h t s t o the c i t i e s o f t e n went hand i n hand w i t h the s a l e o f r anch l a n d s t o s u b d i v i d e r s . T h i s changed the l a n d s c a p e , the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the p o p u l a t i o n , and t h e n a t u r e o f the l o c a l economy. As former a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s became r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , a new p o p u l a t i o n began t o make i t s p r e s e n c e f e l t i n Park County . Many o f the new p e o p l e were p u r c h a s i n g l a n d f o r second homes - some f o r r e t i r e m e n t , o t h e r s f o r weekend o r s e a s o n a l r e c r e a t i o n . The p o p u l a t i o n c o m p o s i t i o n o f South Park changed . The r a n c h e r s and p e o p l e employed i n more t r a d i t i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n s were d i s a p p e a r i n g . R e t i r e e s , wh i te and 9 F i g u r e 1 -5 . Cattle i n South Park, 10 b l u e c o l l a r w o r k e r s , and p r o f e s s i o n a l p e o p l e were r e p l a c i n g them. The newcomers were not mountain p e o p l e , they were from the f l a t l a n d s , the e a s t , C a l i f o r n i a , and the c i t i e s . The c h a r a c t e r o f South Park was c h a n g i n g . I f i r s t saw South Park i n the f a l l o f 1980. The peaks t h a t r i n g the g o l d e n f l o o r o f the h i g h b a s i n were d u s t e d w i t h the f i r s t snow. They g l i s t e n e d i n the e a r l y morning l i g h t . I s o l a t e d r a n c h e s were d o t t e d a c r o s s the p a r k ' s u n d u l a t i n g s u r f a c e . Twenty m i l e s d i s t a n t the c raggy peaks o f the Mosqu i to Range, a 14,000 f o o t s p i n e o f mountains t h a t s e p a r a t e s the headwaters o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r from t h o s e o f the A r k a n s a s , were s t a r k l y o u t l i n e d by pendulous b l a c k c l o u d s . S e v e n t y - f i v e m i l e s t o t h e s o u t h , the f a r edge o f the park was framed by the hazy p r o f i l e o f the Sangre de C r i s t o M o u n t a i n s . South Park seemed v a s t and r e l a t i v e l y untouched by the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y urban w o r l d . In t h a t second assessment I was m i s t a k e n . Beneath a t h i n v e n e e r t h a t combines e lements o f the p i c t u r e s q u e n i n e t e e n t h and t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y Amer ican West , l i e s the web o f a modern water system t h a t s u p p l i e s the needs o f b u r g e o n i n g c i t i e s , a t the e a s t e r n edge o f the C o l o r a d o R o c k i e s . The pages t h a t f o l l o w e x p l o r e the development o f t h i s system and the d e c l i n e o f i r r i g a t i o n and r a n c h i n g i n South P a r k . T h i s c h a p t e r has b r i e f l y i n t r o d u c e d the s t u d y . Chapte r Two s e t s out t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l framework - the i d e a s and p e r s p e c t i v e s deemed most u s e f u l i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e o p l e and water r e s o u r c e s i n the Amer ican West. I t summarizes 11 s e l e c t e d a s p e c t s o f a v a s t l i t e r a t u r e , drawing on work i n a v a r i e t y o f f i e l d s i n c l u d i n g geography , h i s t o r y , and e c o n o m i c s . The next f i v e c h a p t e r s a r e l a r g e l y e m p i r i c a l . Chap te r Three i n t r o d u c e s the r e a d e r t o South P a r k , the p l a c e and i t s p a s t . C h a p t e r Four d e a l s w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f water r e s o u r c e s i n South Park and d i s c u s s e s the l e g a l and b u r e a u c r a t i c framework w i t h i n which use and exchange o c c u r . Chapte r F i v e d e s c r i b e s the e a r l i e s t m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s , i n which a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l number o f water r i g h t s were s o l d by l o c a l r a n c h e r s and t h e i r h e i r s t o urban i n t e r e s t s and e f f e c t i v e l y removed from use i n South P a r k . Chapte r S i x c o n t i n u e s the t a l e , f o c u s i n g on more r e c e n t t r a n s f e r s t h a t have removed most o f t h e r e m a i n i n g water r i g h t s from use i n the h i g h , windswept b a s i n . No l o n g e r does i r r i g a t i o n water c o u r s e a c r o s s the h a y l a n d s o f South P a r k . No l o n g e r do a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s s u p p o r t one o f t h e most v i g o r o u s l o c a l c a t t l e i n d u s t r i e s i n the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o . Chapte r Seven d i s c u s s e s the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t , a l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t t r i e s i t s b e s t t o r e p r e s e n t the headwaters communi ty 's need f o r c o n t i n u i n g a c c e s s t o wa te r . Formed o r i g i n a l l y t o p r o t e c t the water r i g h t s o f l o c a l r a n c h e r s and water u s e r s , o v e r t ime the o r g a n i z a t i o n has taken on a b r o a d e r o r i e n t a t i o n , l e s s concerned w i t h s a f e g u a r d i n g the r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l r a n c h e r s than w i t h g u a r a n t e e i n g a base f o r f u t u r e deve lopment . Each o f t h e s e f i v e c h a p t e r s c e n t e r s on a d i f f e r e n t group o r c o m b i n a t i o n o f r e c o r d s : h i s t o r i c a l c o l l e c t i o n s i n Chapte r 12 T h r e e ; the r e c o r d s o f the C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s O f f i c e ( i n c l u d i n g the s t a t e , d i v i s i o n , and d i s t r i c t l e v e l s ) i n Chapte r F o u r ; Denver Water Department r e c o r d s i n C h a p t e r F i v e ; m u n i c i p a l , s t a t e , and c o u r t r e c o r d s i n Chapte r S i x ; and the r e c o r d s o f the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t i n C h a p t e r S e v e n . The e i g h t h and f i n a l c h a p t e r a d d r e s s e s the impact o f the water t r a n s f e r s , and draws some c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g c o n t r o l o f key r e s o u r c e s and the i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r r u r a l communi t i es . R u r a l a r e a s have h i s t o r i c a l l y been dependent on r e s o u r c e based i n d u s t r i e s and economies . Peop le eke out a l i v i n g i n c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the l a n d . Y e t , t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p does not e x i s t i n i s o l a t i o n . Wi thout the market p r o v i d e d by the c i t y , t h e r e would be no r e s o u r c e based economy i n the h i n t e r l a n d . However, when r u r a l communi t ies l o s e c o n t r o l o v e r key r e s o u r c e s the r e s u l t can be economic d e v a s t a t i o n and s o c i a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . A way o f l i f e d i s a p p e a r s . The l a n d i t s e l f i s t r a n s f o r m e d . Such i s the c a s e i n South P a r k . Today South Park appears as a v a s t , brown expanse . Water no l o n g e r shimmers i n the s u n l i g h t as i t c o u r s e s a c r o s s t e n s o f thousands o f a c r e s o f p r o d u c t i v e h a y l a n d . The wind whips up the d u s t as i t p a s s e s o v e r the g r a v e l l y , s p a r s e l y v e g e t a t e d s u r f a c e o f the h i g h p a r k . Many o f South P a r k ' s r e s i d e n t s a r e s e a s o n a l . The economic backbone today i s t o u r i s m and o u t d o o r r e c r e a t i o n . The l a r g e s t employers a r e the c o u n t y , s t a t e , and f e d e r a l governments . Most o t h e r r e s i d e n t s work o u t s i d e the b o u n d a r i e s 13 o f t h e headwaters b a s i n . A few d i e h a r d r a n c h e r s hang o n , r e f u s i n g t o s e l l o r w a i t i n g t o g e t t h e i r a s k i n g p r i c e f rom t h e c i t i e s f o r t h e i r water r i g h t s . Water f lows t h r o u g h South P a r k , from t h e mounta ins and the s n o w f i e l d s t o the c i t i e s . I t i s drawn by g r a v i t y , but a l s o by the c i t i e s ' t h i r s t and power. T r a n s f o r m e d once by the a p p l i c a t i o n o f water t o the l a n d , South Park i s b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d a g a i n t h r ough i t s r e m o v a l . As the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y comes t o an e n d , the p r o c e s s o f d r y i n g up South Park i s n e a r i n g c o m p l e t i o n . T h i s t h e s i s examines t h a t p r o c e s s ( F i g u r e 1 -6 ) . 14 F i g u r e 1-6 . Abandoned ranch house, South Park, 1992. 15 CHAPTER TWO WATER AND THE WEST Water and the West in Global Perspective As we approach the t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y , the s p e c t r e o f water s c a r c i t y on a g l o b a l s c a l e looms l a r g e . Expand ing p o p u l a t i o n s , i n c r e a s i n g imba lances between the l o c a t i o n s o f s u p p l i e s and demands, c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f f r e s h water r e s o u r c e s , and the p o s s i b i l i t y o f c l i m a t e change - a l l combine t o sugges t a p o t e n t i a l c r i s i s . In d r y a r e a s where urban p o p u l a t i o n s a r e g r o w i n g , the s i t u a t i o n i s becoming p a r t i c u l a r l y a c u t e . C i t i e s a c r o s s the g l o b e a r e e x c e e d i n g the l i m i t s o f t h e i r water s u p p l i e s , and i n c r e a s i n g l y a r e b e i n g f o r c e d t o t a p d i s t a n t s o u r c e s , a t ever g r e a t e r c o s t and l e v e l s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o m p l e x i t y . 1 In i n d u s t r i a l i z e d s o c i e t i e s , c o n s e r v a t i o n i s becoming an economic n e c e s s i t y , and p r i o r i t i e s a r e s h i f t i n g " f rom meet ing demand, t o managing demand." 2 But the s h i f t i s s t i l l i n c o m p l e t e , bo th i n d e v e l o p e d and d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s . D e s p i t e c o n s e r v a t i o n measures such as x e r i s c a p i n g , m e t e r i n g , l o w - f l o w f i x t u r e s , and l i m i t a t i o n o f the number o f new b u i l d i n g p e r m i t s , many i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c i t i e s c o n t i n u e t o expand t h e i r s u p p l i e s . In a r e a s where water i s s c a r c e , c i t i e s a re t u r n i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y t o a g r i c u l t u r e , c o n v e r t i n g i r r i g a t i o n water t o m u n i c i p a l u s e . 3 In d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s where c o n f l i c t i s not r a t i o n a l i z e d t h r ough water markets o r media ted th rough w e l l - d e v e l o p e d l e g a l and 1 6 a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s , c o n f l i c t between a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s and c i t y d w e l l e r s i s more d i r e c t . Urban demand f o r water i s i n c r e a s i n g and shows no s i g n s o f l e v e l i n g o f f . On the eve o f the i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n , o n l y 3% o f the w o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n l i v e d i n c i t i e s . 4 By 1920 t h a t f i g u r e had r i s e n t o 14%, and by 1980 t o 41%. 5 Water i s a f i n i t e r e s o u r c e . On a g l o b a l s c a l e , a g r i c u l t u r e c l a i m s 68% o f the water withdrawn from streams f o r human u s e , i n d u s t r y ano ther 25%, and 7% i s used i n t h e home. 6 In t h e d r y Amer ican west , a g r i c u l t u r e c l a i m s an e s t i m a t e d 75-91% o f the w a t e r , a l t h o u g h r o u g h l y 75% o f the r e g i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n i n u r b a n i z e d . 7 T h i s p a t t e r n has prompted many s c h o l a r s and p o l i c y makers t o v iew t r a n s f e r o f a g r i c u l t u r a l water t o m u n i c i p a l uses f a v o r a b l y , on the b a s i s t h a t water i s b e i n g a l l o c a t e d t o h i g h e r v a l u e u s e s . 8 Indeed t h i s i s the c a s e i n s t r i c t l y economic t e r m s , but t h i s g e n e r a l a n a l y s i s o b s c u r e s l o c a l e f f e c t s o f water t r a n s f e r s , and t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t a l , c u l t u r a l , and p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . In any e v e n t , a growing consensus t h a t water t r a n s f e r s and water m a r k e t i n g p r o v i d e s o l u t i o n s t o problems o f urban s u p p l y make i t more l i k e l y t h a t p r e s s u r e w i l l i n c r e a s e f o r urban e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f r u r a l a g r i c u l t u r a l water . As F o l k - W i l l i a m s e t a l p o i n t out i n t h e i r s tudy o f twenty southwestern Amer ican c i t i e s , m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a r e a l r e a d y the most a c t i v e d e v e l o p e r s and p u r c h a s e r s o f water i n the d ry w e s t . 9 P r e s e n t day water wars a r e b e i n g fought on a r e g i o n a l s c a l e , be i t w i t h i n a n a t i o n s t a t e (Co lorado farmer v s . C o l o r a d o 17 c i t y , and A r i z o n a v s . C a l i f o r n i a ) , o r between n a t i o n s t a t e s ( I s r a e l v s . J o r d a n and S y r i a ) . As s u p p l i e s become more s c a r c e , and d i s p u t e s o v e r water remain u n r e s o l v e d , water w i l l i n c r e a s i n g l y become a s o u r c e o f p o l i t i c a l and economic i n s t a b i l i t y . The s c a l e o f c o n f l i c t w i l l expand. A c c o r d i n g t o one e x p e r t , n a t i o n s may be expec ted t o go t o war o v e r water i n the f u t u r e . 1 0 S i n c e the mid -1980s , the p o l i t i c s o f water has i n c r e a s i n g l y p e n e t r a t e d the Amer ican c o n s c i o u s n e s s . There has been a d r a m a t i c i n c r e a s e i n the l e v e l o f a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o water i s s u e s by t h e med ia . The New York Times g i v e s r e g u l a r coverage t o g l o b a l and weste rn water i s s u e s . In 1991, an i s s u e o f Newsweek f o c u s e d on the West , and p r o m i n e n t l y f e a t u r e d water p r o b l e m s . In t h e f a l l o f 1993, a s p e c i a l i s s u e o f N a t i o n a l G e o g r a p h i c was e n t i t l e d "Water: The Power, P r o m i s e , and T u r m o i l o f Nor th A m e r i c a ' s F r e s h Water ; " P u b l i c B r o a d c a s t i n g (PBS) a i r e d a r e l a t e d s p e c i a l on t h e s u b j e c t . P i e c e s on water c o n t i n u e t o be b r o a d c a s t on the M c N e i l - L e h r e r Newshour, p u b l i c r a d i o , and on n a t i o n a l and l o c a l t e l e v i s i o n n e w s c a s t s . Time magazine d i d a c o v e r s t o r y . A t the cusp o f the t w e n t i e t h and t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r i e s , water i s no l o n g e r j u s t an i s s u e f o r p l a n n e r s , e n g i n e e r s , s c h o l a r s , p o l i t i c i a n s , and r e s i d e n t s o f d r y a r e a s . I t has become a mat te r o f n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t and i n c r e a s i n g l y i s b e i n g r e c o g n i z e d as an i s s u e o f g l o b a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Accompanying , and i n some c a s e s p r e c e d i n g , t h i s g e n e r a l l y r a i s e d l e v e l o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s about water has been a 18 p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f s c h o l a r s h i p on the s u b j e c t . H i s t o r i a n s , e c o n o m i s t s , p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s , l e g a l s c h o l a r s , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , e n g i n e e r s , s o c i o l o g i s t s , e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c i e n t i s t s , and geographers have a l l c o n t r i b u t e d t o a r a p i d l y growing and d i v e r s e l i t e r a t u r e . In the pages t h a t f o l l o w , I r e v i e w t h i s l i t e r a t u r e p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d t o the Amer ican West and w i t h an eye t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g the dynamics and meaning o f water t r a n s f e r s a l o n g the C o l o r a d o F r o n t Range. The f i r s t s e c t i o n f o c u s e s on the work o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l h i s t o r i a n s and on p e r s p e c t i v e s o f f e r e d by t h e new weste rn h i s t o r y . The next s e c t i o n e x p l o r e s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f geographers t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g western water and the t h i r d f o c u s e s on the work o f e c o n o m i s t s and o t h e r s c h o l a r s . The c o n c l u d i n g s e c t i o n b r i n g s t o g e t h e r s e l e c t e d a s p e c t s o f t h e s e d i v e r s e l i t e r a t u r e s . The o b j e c t i v e i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o p r o v i d e a framework f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e South Park water t r a n s f e r s t h a t a r e t h e f o c u s o f t h i s t h e s i s . Environmental History and the New Western History H i s t o r i a n s a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f water i n the West th rough m e t i c u l o u s e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h and t h e o r e t i c a l engagement. T h e i r work i s l e s s c o n c e r n e d w i t h d e s c r i b i n g , c a t e g o r i z i n g , m o d e l i n g , and p r e d i c t i n g t h a n i t i s w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g , i n t e r p r e t i n g , and e x p l o r i n g meaning. As s u c h , the h i s t o r i a n s ' work i s perhaps c l o s e r t o t h a t o f the h i s t o r i c a l geographer than i s the work o f o t h e r s c h o l a r s . 19 W a l t e r P r e s c o t t Webb was the f i r s t t o note the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r i d i t y i n d e f i n i n g the Amer ican west as a r e g i o n , hence i n d e f i n i n g i t s h i s t o r y and t h e s o c i e t y t h a t t o o k s h a p e . 1 1 None the l e s s , some h i s t o r i a n s t r a c e the e x i s t e n c e o f water r e s o u r c e s h i s t o r y as a s e p a r a t e f i e l d t o Samuel P. Hays ' C o n s e r v a t i o n and the G o s p e l o f E f f i c i e n c y : The P r o g r e s s i v e C o n s e r v a t i o n Movement. 1890-192 0. p u b l i s h e d i n 1959 . 1 2 Through a s tudy o f the emergence o f m u l t i p l e - u s e water p l a n n i n g on a n a t i o n a l s c a l e , Hays a d d r e s s e d the r e l a t i o n s o f b u r e a u c r a c y , growth , s c i e n c e , and p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m . Hays ' i n t e r e s t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g p o l i t i c a l and economic change moved water h i s t o r y beyond s e l f -c o n g r a t u l a t o r y a c c o u n t s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f e n g i n e e r i n g wonders and t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o a f u n d a m e n t a l l y r a p a c i o u s s o c i e t y , t o a c r i t i q u e o f t h a t s o c i e t y and o f water development more g e n e r a l l y . In the 1960s and 1970s, p r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s began t o produce s t u d i e s o f r e c l a m a t i o n l e a d e r s , 1 3 i n t e r s t a t e and i n t e r n a t i o n a l water c o n f l i c t s , 1 4 l e g i s l a t i o n and p o l i c y development a t the s t a t e and f e d e r a l l e v e l s , 1 5 and i r r i g a t i o n . 1 6 P r i o r t o t h a t t i m e , r e c l a m a t i o n and water r e s o u r c e s h i s t o r y had l a r g e l y been w r i t t e n by j o u r n a l i s t s , p o l i c y makers , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and e c o n o m i s t s . 1 7 The work emerging i n h i s t o r y was a d i v e r s e l i t e r a t u r e f o c u s e d on a r i d and s e m i - a r i d l a n d s , i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e , and e n g i n e e r i n g s o l u t i o n s . 1 8 20 Much o f t h e weste rn water h i s t o r y p roduced i n the 1960s, 70s and 80s f o c u s e d on a g r i c u l t u r e , examined f e d e r a l r e c l a m a t i o n p r o j e c t s and p o l i c i e s , and e x p l o r e d the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the f e d e r a l government and s t a t e and l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . 1 9 O ther s t u d i e s a d d r e s s e d l e g a l a s p e c t s o f water r e s o u r c e s i s s u e s , i n C a l i f o r n i a and o t h e r s t a t e s . 2 0 These i n c l u d e d Rober t D u n b a r ' s F o r g i n g New R i g h t s i n Western Waters , a s tudy o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f wes te rn water law i n the 19th and 20th c e n t u r i e s . 2 1 In t h i s work, Dunbar e l u c i d a t e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t rea tment o f water as p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y and a b u s i v e and w a s t e f u l p r a c t i c e s . In the 1980s t h e r e was a p r o f u s i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p . Much o f t h i s work f o c u s e d on C a l i f o r n i a , the s t a t e w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t a g r i c u l t u r a l consumpt ion o f water and the most r a p i d urban growth i n the Amer ican s o u t h w e s t . 2 2 S t u d i e s by Abraham Hoffman and W i l l i a m K a h r l d e a l t w i t h the Owen's V a l l e y , t apped by Los A n g e l e s f o r i t s m u n i c i p a l s u p p l y . 2 3 K a h r l and Hoffman i n t e r p r e t e d the h i s t o r y o f t h i s w e l l known water t r a n s f e r d i f f e r e n t l y . To K a h r l , a p i c t u r e emerged o f c o l l u s i o n between c i t y o f f i c i a l s , l a n d s p e c u l a t o r s , and t h e f e d e r a l government . Owens V a l l e y was tantamount t o w i l l f u l g e o g r a p h i c a l r a p e . To Hoffman, the s i t u a t i o n was l e s s c l e a r c u t . Where K a h r l saw c o l l u s i o n , Hoffman saw compromise and c o o p e r a t i o n . Where K a h r l saw u n i f i e d i n t e r e s t s , Hoffman saw d i s p a r a t e groups drawn t o g e t h e r by a v i s i o n . Both books made an impor tan t c o n t r i b u t i o n 21 by s h i f t i n g a t t e n t i o n from f e d e r a l i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s and dam b u i l d i n g t o the r o l e o f c i t i e s i n western water d e v e l o p m e n t . 2 4 The most i n f l u e n t i a l work was p u b l i s h e d i n 1985: Donald W o r s t e r ' s R i v e r s o f E m p i r e . 2 5 On the l e a d i n g edge o f the new wes te rn h i s t o r y , Wors te r v iewed weste rn water development as a p r o c e s s o f conquest e n t a i l i n g a t tempted mastery o v e r n a t u r e and c o n t r o l o v e r s o c i a l l i f e . H i s work, so r i c h l y w r i t t e n , reached a u d i e n c e s i n s i d e and o u t s i d e u n i v e r s i t y w a l l s . W o r s t e r ' s h i s t o r y had resonance w i t h the q u e s t i o n s and s e n s i t i v i t i e s o f the t i m e . Wors te r drew h e a v i l y on the i d e a s o f K a r l W i t t f o g e l . 2 6 A t the h e a r t o f W o r s t e r ' s p r o j e c t was the q u e s t i o n , posed by W i t t f o g e l i n 1929: "How does a s o c i e t y ' s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h n a t u r e l e a d t o i t s own r e s t r u c t u r i n g , t o i t s e v o l u t i o n from one form t o a n o t h e r ? " 2 7 To bo th Wors ter and W i t t f o g e l , a m a n a g e r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h n a t u r e was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e v e r i n c r e a s i n g l e v e l s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , m a n i f e s t e d u l t i m a t e l y i n t o t a l i t a r i a n forms o f power. When h i e r a r c h i c a l s o c i e t i e s a r o s e i n c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the c o n t r o l and t r a n s p o r t o f water , W i t t f o g e l d e s c r i b e d them as h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t i e s . Wors te r a rgued t h a t the Amer ican West was a modern h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t y , "shaped by i t s advanced t e c h n o l o g i c a l mastery o f w a t e r . " 2 8 A t the o u t s e t he made c l e a r t h a t h i s p r o j e c t was much l a r g e r than s i m p l y the s tudy o f water i n the wes t , he was a t t e m p t i n g t o r e c a s t wes te rn h i s t o r y i n l i g h t o f q u e s t i o n s o f power. The h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t y t h a t emerged i n the t w e n t i e t h 22 c e n t u r y west was, i n h i s v iew , more c o e r c i v e and h i e r a r c h i c a l than e a r l i e r forms found i n A s i a , the M i d d l e E a s t , and S o u t h e r n E u r o p e . L i k e W i t t f o g e l , Wors ter argued t h a t as the s c a l e and c o m p l e x i t y o f i r r i g a t i o n and water c o n t r o l i n c r e a s e s , power s h i f t s t o e l i t e g r o u p s . 2 9 In R i v e r s o f E m p i r e . Wors te r i d e n t i f i e s t h r e e h i s t o r i c a l modes o f water c o n t r o l : the l o c a l s u b s i s t e n c e mode, the a g r a r i a n s t a t e mode, and the c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e mode, each w i t h i t s own t e c h n i q u e s and a p p a r a t u s e s , power r e l a t i o n s , and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . 3 0 The Amer ican West i s an example o f the c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e mode, i n which c e n t r a l i z e d p l a n n i n g , c o n t r o l o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l e x p e r t i s e by e l i t e s , m o b i l e c a p i t a l , and markets combine t o c r e a t e a d i s t i n c t i v e form o f the h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t y . 3 1 C e n t r a l t o W o r s t e r ' s work i s the i d e a t h a t r e g i o n s o r g a n i z e around e c o l o g i c a l modes o f p r o d u c t i o n , and t h a t the s c a l e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n r e l a t e s d i r e c t l y t o the e x t e n t o f t o t a l i t a r i a n t e n d e n c i e s w i t h i n a s o c i e t y . Wors te r was a t the c u t t i n g edge o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l h i s t o r y , a f i e l d t h a t emerged from work on the c o n s e r v a t i o n movement and from the g r a s s l a n d s t u d i e s o f James M a i i n and W a l t e r P r e s c o t t Webb. The "new" e n v i r o n m e n t a l h i s t o r y , i n W o r s t e r ' s words began "where M a l i n and Webb l e f t o f f . " 3 2 I t was a d i r e c t r e s p o n s e t o c a l l s f o r r e l e v a n c e on c o l l e g e campuses i n the 1960s and 70s and t o the e n v i r o n m e n t a l movement t h a t began w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n o f R a c h e l C a r s o n ' s S i l e n t S p r i n g i n 1962 . 3 3 Wors ter d e f i n e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l h i s t o r y as the s tudy o f the " i n t e r a c t i o n s o f 23 p e o p l e and n a t u r e o v e r t i m e , l o o k i n g f o r t r e n d s , s e e k i n g the o r i g i n s o f contemporary p r o b l e m s , l i s t e n i n g t o the a g e - o l d d i a l o g u e o f humans and t h e e a r t h . " 3 4 In h i s f i r s t book, Dust Bowl . Wors te r i n t e r p r e t e d the d u s t s torms o f the 1930s on the s o u t h e r n p l a i n s as one o f the most d e v a s t a t i n g human-made e c o l o g i c a l d i s a s t e r s i n h i s t o r y , c r e a t e d by the same s o c i e t y - the same s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s , t e c h n o l o g i e s , and economies - t h a t p roduced the g r e a t d e p r e s s i o n . 3 5 In R i v e r s o f E m p i r e , he a g a i n f o c u s e s upon the i n t e r a c t i o n o f p e o p l e and n a t u r e , t u r n i n g t h a t same c r i t i c a l and p e r c e p t i v e gaze t o water s t r u c t u r e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s i n C a l i f o r n i a , and more b r o a d l y , the Amer ican West . I n t e l l e c t u a l l y , Wors te r i s a t the vanguard o f a movement c a l l e d the new weste rn h i s t o r y . A l o n g w i t h P a t r i c i a N e l s o n L i m e r i c k and R i c h a r d W h i t e , two o f the l e a d i n g p r o p o n e n t s , Wors te r i s a r g u i n g a g a i n s t a T u r n e r i a n p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h " f r o n t i e r . " He d e s c r i b e s T u r n e r ' s p r o c e s s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e Amer ican West "a vaporous n o t i o n . " 3 6 The West , Wors ter i n s i s t s , s h o u l d be d e f i n e d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y - as a p l a c e r a t h e r than a p r o c e s s . H i s t o r i a n s need t o be r e g i o n a l i s t s . A r e g i o n emerges as p e o p l e t r y t o make a l i v i n g from a p a r t i c u l a r p a r t o f the e a r t h , as they adapt themse lves t o i t s l i m i t s and p o s s i b i l i t i e s . What the r e g i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s h o u l d f i r s t want t o know i s how a p e o p l e o r p e o p l e s a c q u i r e d a p l a c e and , t h e n , how they p e r c e i v e d and t r i e d t o make use o f i t . He [or she] w i l l i d e n t i f y the s u r v i v a l t e c h n i q u e s they a d o p t e d , t h e i r p a t t e r n s o f work and economy, and t h e i r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . 3 7 R e g i o n s d e r i v e t h e i r i d e n t i t y f rom " e c o l o g i c a l l y adapted modes o f p r o d u c t i o n . 1 , 3 8 He i d e n t i f i e s two dominant modes i n t h e West: 24 r a n c h i n g and i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e , bo th o f which i n v o l v e c o n t r o l o f l a n d and water r e s o u r c e s . In the h i s t o r y o f the Amer ican West , t h e new w e s t e r n h i s t o r i a n s see conques t and c o n t i n u i t y : conquest o f n a t u r e , p e o p l e s , t e r r i t o r i e s , and c u l t u r e s ; c o n t i n u i t y i n terms o f p e r s i s t e n t problems and i s s u e s . These i n c l u d e the r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the env i ronment , dependence on e a s t e r n c a p i t a l , t e n s e r a c e r e l a t i o n s and s o c i a l h i e r a r c h i e s , and the W e s t ' s ambiva lence toward the f e d e r a l government . Threads o f c o n t i n u i t y , t o o , a re no ted i n terms o f fundamenta l s i m i l a r i t i e s between e a s t e r n and wes te rn c u l t u r e . The new western h i s t o r y i n t e r p r e t s the p a s t , not i n terms o f d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s and b r e a k s , but as p a r t o f a n a t i o n a l l e g a c y . P a t r i c i a N e l s o n L i m e r i c k , i n h e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y book The Legacy o f Conques t , d e s c r i b e s the h i s t o r y o f the Amer ican West as t h a t o f "a p l a c e u n d e r g o i n g c o n q u e s t . " 3 9 Her c o n c e p t o f c o n q u e s t i s e m i n e n t l y g e o g r a p h i c a l : i t i s the d i v i s i o n o f space - d e f i n i n g a r e a s , a l l o c a t i n g r e s o u r c e s . L i m e r i c k d i s t i n g u i s h e s two phases o f c o n q u e s t : drawing l i n e s on maps and g i v i n g s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l meaning t o t h o s e l i n e s . 4 0 A c c o r d i n g t o W o r s t e r , h e r c o n c e p t o f conquest has two d i m e n s i o n s : c o m p e t i t i o n f o r n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and c o m p e t i t i o n f o r c u l t u r a l d o m i n a n c e . 4 1 To W o r s t e r , the h y d r a u l i c West i s the u l t i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n o f c o n q u e s t , i n c o r p o r a t i n g bo th c o n t r o l o v e r r e s o u r c e s and c u l t u r a l dominance. "The h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t y o f the W e s t , " he w r o t e , 25 i s i n c r e a s i n g l y a c o e r c i v e , m o n o l i t h i c , and h i e r a r c h i c a l s y s t e m , r u l e d by a power e l i t e based on t h e ownership o f c a p i t a l and e x p e r t i s e . I t s f a c e i s r e f l e c t e d i n eve ry m i l e o f t h e i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l . One might see i n t h a t r e f l e c t i o n t h e q u a l i t i e s o f c o n c e n t r a t e d w e a l t h , t e c h n i c a l v i r t u o s i t y , d i s c i p l i n e , h a r d work, p o p u l a r a c q u i e s c e n c e , a f e e l i n g o f r e s i g n a t i o n and n e c e s s i t y , but one cannot f i n d i n i t much o f what Thoreau c o n c e i v e d as f r e e d o m . 4 2 To W o r s t e r ' s c r i t i c s , p r i n c i p a l l y Donald P i s a n i and N o r r i s Hund ley , t h i s i s the A c h i l l e s h e e l . They argue t h e r e i s no m o n o l i t h . Where Wors ter sees c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , P i s a n i sees f r a g m e n t a t i o n and d i f f u s i o n o f power. Where Wors te r sees c o n s p i r a c y , c o l l u s i o n , and c o r r u p t i o n , Hundley sees a l l i a n c e s between i n t e r e s t groups t h a t s h i f t l i k e q u i c k s a n d . P i s a n i i s the most p o i n t e d i n h i s c r i t i c i s m . He d e s c r i b e s R i v e r s o f Empire as " d e e p l y f lawed - a r r o g a n t , d i s t o r t e d , m o r a l i s t i c . " 4 3 P i s a n i a rgues t h a t the e x t e n t t o which a s o c i e t y i s c o n t r o l l e d by power e l i t e s i s more a f u n c t i o n o f how l a r g e t h a t s o c i e t y i s than o f dependence upon i r r i g a t i o n . 4 4 He contends t h a t W o r s t e r ' s v iew i s p e s s i m i s t i c , o v e r l y c r i t i c a l o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s o c i e t y , and f a i l s t o make n e c e s s a r y d i s t i n c t i o n s between e a s t and west and between h y d r a u l i c and n o n - h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t i e s . 4 5 N o r r i s Hundley J r . , i n h i s r e c e n t l y - p u b l i s h e d The Grea t T h i r s t , m a r s h a l s a l i f e t i m e o f s c h o l a r s h i p on C a l i f o r n i a and the C o l o r a d o R i v e r b a s i n t o q u e s t i o n W o r s t e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the west as a h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t y . F i r s t , based on s t u d i e s o f the Owens V a l l e y P a i u t e - and n a t i v e groups a l o n g r i v e r s i n C a l i f o r n i a , New M e x i c o , and p a r t s o f the G r e a t B a s i n - Hundley 2 6 c o n c l u d e s t h a t e x t e n s i v e i r r i g a t i o n can be p r a c t i c e d i n the r e l a t i v e absence o f w e l l d e v e l o p e d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s . 4 6 C i t i n g the c o n c l u s i o n s o f a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s and o t h e r s c h o l a r s , he a rgues p e r s u a s i v e l y t h a t i r r i g a t i o n - d e p e n d e n t s o c i e t i e s a r e as l i k e l y t o be d e c e n t r a l i z e d as c e n t r a l i z e d i n t h e i r s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and economic o r g a n i z a t i o n . 4 7 In the next 400 p a g e s , Hundley p a i n t s a p i c t u r e o f C a l i f o r n i a i n which m o n o p o l i s t i c e x c e s s e s and communal i m p u l s e s c o e x i s t . L o c a l , s t a t e , and f e d e r a l governments , on the one hand , and p r i v a t e and p u b l i c i n t e r e s t s , on the o t h e r , compete i n one s e t t i n g and c o o p e r a t e i n a n o t h e r . L i k e W o r s t e r , Dunbar, and o t h e r s , he i s c r i t i c a l o f a l e g a l system t h a t promotes and p e r m i t s w a s t e f u l p r a c t i c e s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l a b u s e . 4 8 L i k e P i s a n i , he i s c r i t i c a l o f c h a o t i c management i n which two f e d e r a l , f o u r s t a t e , and one thousand l o c a l a g e n c i e s fragment water a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and c o n t r o l . T h i s l e v e l o f s p l i n t e r e d a u t h o r i t y p roduces i n e f f i c i e n c y , d u p l i c a t i o n o f s e r v i c e s , and a r e a s o f n e g l e c t . 4 9 A c c o r d i n g t o Hund ley , the water e s t a b l i s h m e n t has never been a m o n o l i t h d r i v e n by a s i n g l e purpose o r v i s i o n , save the i d e a t h a t water (and n a t u r e g e n e r a l l y ) e x i s t s t o s e r v e humankind. R a t h e r , as t h i s account has s u g g e s t e d , i t has c o n s i s t e d o f many d i s c r e t e g r o u p s , bo th i n and o u t s i d e o f the s t a t e , each w i t h i t s own ( f r e q u e n t l y changing) agenda t h a t has sometimes l e d t o c o n f l i c t . . . , a t o t h e r t i m e s t o f o o t d r a g g i n g . . . , and on s t i l l o t h e r o c c a s i o n s t o compromises and a l l i a n c e s r e s u l t i n g i n a major u n d e r t a k i n g . . . . The a l l i a n c e s have o f t e n been f l e e t i n g , but t h e i r f r e q u e n c y and c o m p o s i t i o n have been such as t o c r e a t e i n C a l i f o r n i a t h e w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t and most complex h y d r a u l i c s y s t e m . 5 0 As p o l i t i c a l l y and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y a p p e a l i n g as W o r s t e r ' s arguments a r e , e v i d e n c e appears t o be on P i s a n i and H u n d l e y ' s 27 s i d e . The c r i t i c i s m s a r e not t h e o r e t i c a l , t h e y a r e e m p i r i c a l . Based on two decades o f r e s e a r c h on r e c l a m a t i o n , P i s a n i b e l i e v e s t h a t f r a g m e n t a t i o n and c o m p e t i t i o n a r e more dominant f o r c e s i n wes te rn water h i s t o r y than c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . 5 1 Based on t h r e e decades o f work on water law, i n t e r s t a t e compacts , i n t e r n a t i o n a l and i n t e r e s t a t e c o n f l i c t s , and the C a l i f o r n i a w a t e r s c a p e , N o r r i s Hundley has a r r i v e d a t the same c o n c l u s i o n . 5 2 W o r s t e r de fended h i m s e l f r e c e n t l y a t a meet ing o f the Western H i s t o r y A s s o c i a t i o n . He sugges ted t h a t h i s c r i t i c s had overdrawn h i s p o s i t i o n . There was "no h a r s h , t o t a l i t a r i a n power i n the W e s t . " There was no c o n s p i r a c y . R a t h e r t h e r e was a " c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f power , " m a n i f e s t i n a p e r s i s t e n t c o n q u e s t o f n a t u r e t h a t o v e r r o d e the v e r y i n s t i t u t i o n s o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d t o c o n t a i n i t . He r e i t e r a t e d t h a t the West was d e f i n e d by the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between n a t u r e , t e c h n o l o g y , and c u l t u r e , and t h a t f o r the West the r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h water remained most i m p o r t a n t . 5 3 The debate between W o r s t e r , Hund ley , and P i s a n i o v e r the q u e s t i o n o f the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o r d i f f u s i o n o f power i s perhaps the s h a r p e s t edge o f contemporary h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p on weste rn w a t e r . B u t , s i n c e the p u b l i c a t i o n o f R i v e r s o f E m p i r e , h i s t o r i a n s have been w r i t i n g v o l u m i n o u s l y . Works r e p r e s e n t mature s c h o l a r s h i p on wel l -known t o p i c s 5 4 and s t u d i e s o f l o c a l and r e g i o n a l water i s s u e s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f the W e s t . 5 5 S t u d i e s appeared d e a l i n g w i t h i n t e r s t a t e c o m p a c t s , 5 6 water l a w , 5 7 and a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r t o p i c s . 5 8 28 Western water h i s t o r y i s e n j o y i n g a s o r t o f r e n a i s s a n c e . R e p r e s e n t i n g a s y n t h e s i s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l h i s t o r y and the new w e s t e r n h i s t o r y , t h e r e i s a s p e c i a l r e l e v a n c e t o t h i s body o f s c h o l a r s h i p which seeks t o u n d e r s t a n d our p r e s e n t and f u t u r e i n terms o f the p a s t , and a t tempts t o g r a p p l e w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s by u n d e r s t a n d i n g the n a t u r e o f human- land r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Western w a t e r , t o o , i s b e i n g used as a window t o w ider q u e s t i o n s . As John Wal ton wrote i n the p r e f a c e t o h i s 1992 s t u d y o f t h e Owens V a l l e y , h i s work was a h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f t h e " c h a n g i n g r o l e o f t h e s t a t e i n l o c a l s o c i e t y . " 5 9 Power, and the p e n e t r a t i o n o f the s t a t e , a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y t h e f o c u s o f h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p , even i f not e x p r e s s e d i n p r e c i s e l y t h o s e t e r m s . 6 0 I n c r e a s i n g l y , f o c u s on t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i s s u e s and prob lems i s an a c c e p t e d p a r t o f the h i s t o r i a n ' s c r a f t . G e r a l d Nash l e d the way w i t h h i s p o w e r f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the Amer ican West as an urban o a s i s c i v i l i z a t i o n . 6 1 By drawing a t t e n t i o n t o changes i n the r e c e n t p a s t , Nash argued t h a t the West t r u l y emerged as a r e g i o n i n c o n c e r t w i t h r a p i d l y chang ing t e c h n o l o g y and r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t . 6 2 The West , w h i l e d e f i n e d i n the i m a g i n a t i o n by i t s open spaces and n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p a s t , t o Nash , i s d e f i n e d i n r e a l i t y by urban c e n t e r s and t h e r e g i o n ' s emergence i n the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . 6 3 H i s t o r i a n s d e f t l y b r i n g t o g e t h e r t h e u rban w i t h t h e r u r a l , and t h e s o c i a l w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t a l . W i l l i a m R o b b i n s , i n an e s s a y e x p l o r i n g Bernard D e V o t o ' s p l u n d e r e d p r o v i n c e t h e s i s , 29 argued f o r c o n t i n u i t y i n western h i s t o r y , f o r a p e r s i s t e n t h e a r t l a n d - h i n t e r l a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p i n which c a p i t a l inves tment t r a n s f o r m s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i n t o marke tab le c o m m o d i t i e s . 6 4 F o r Robbins c o l o n i a l i s m o p e r a t e s on a r e g i o n a l s c a l e , as opposed t o a n a t i o n a l s c a l e , as i t d i d f o r DeVoto. Where DeVoto saw t h e e a s t p l u n d e r i n g the west , Robbins saw the " i n c r e a s i n g hegemony o f . . . u rban power c e n t e r s o v e r much o f t h e W e s t . " 6 5 T h i s e n t a i l e d the c o n t r o l o f r e s o u r c e s , t e r r i t o r y , and c a p i t a l . Robb ins no ted t h a t the growth o f c i t i e s i n the West p roduced an i n t e r n a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h a t c r e a t e d an u n d e r c l a s s w i t h i n each c i t y . 6 6 I would ex tend t h a t argument and s u g g e s t t h a t the growth o f c i t i e s made an u n d e r c l a s s o f p e o p l e i n the r u r a l h i n t e r l a n d as w e l l . As Robbins p o i n t s o u t , " i s o l a t e d , w i t h r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p o p u l a t i o n s , and l a c k i n g s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e i n t h e t r a d e and exchange r e l a t i o n , r e s o u r c e - d e p e n d e n t communi t ies a r e b y - p r o d u c t s o f i n d u s t r i a l s t r a t e g i e s and d e c i s i o n s made e l s e w h e r e . " 6 7 In sum, R o b b i n s , W o r s t e r , and o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s a r e a d v o c a t i n g a t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n f o r m e d , p o l i t i c a l l y and g e o g r a p h i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e approach t o the western p a s t . 6 8 W i l l i a m Cronon f u r t h e r d e v e l o p s the h i s t o r i a n s ' a n a l y s i s o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the urban and the r u r a l i n t h e Amer ican West . In h i s s tudy o f Ch icago and i t s h i n t e r l a n d , N a t u r e ' s M e t r o p o l i s : C h i c a g o and the Grea t West . Cronon w r i t e s , "Amer icans have l o n g tended t o see c i t y and c o u n t r y as s e p a r a t e p l a c e s , more i s o l a t e d from each o t h e r than c o n n e c t e d . We 30 c a r e f u l l y p a r t i t i o n our n a t i o n a l l a n d s c a p e i n t o urban p l a c e s , r u r a l p l a c e s and w i l d e r n e s s . " 6 9 He a d d s , " c i t y and c o u n t r y have a common h i s t o r y , so t h e i r s t o r i e s a r e b e s t t o l d t o g e t h e r . " 7 0 E s s e n t i a l l y Cronon i s a r g u i n g t h a t the d i v i s i o n o f space i n t o the u rban and the r u r a l r e p r e s e n t s a f a l s e d i c h o t o m y . The two a r e i n e x t r i c a b l y i n t e r t w i n e d . He n o t e s how, when C h i c a g o was becoming urban ( i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and b u i l t ) , i t s h i n t e r l a n d was becoming r u r a l ( c u l t i v a t e d and s e t t l e d ) . Each p r o v i d e d a market f o r the o t h e r ' s g o o d s . The c o u n t r y s i d e p r o v i d e d the f o o d and t h e raw m a t e r i a l s t h a t e n a b l e d l i f e and economic p r o d u c t i o n t o go on i n t h e c i t y . The c i t y p r o v i d e d the market f o r farm p r o d u c t s , t i m b e r , and the l i k e . The c o u n t r y s i d e p r o v i d e d the market f o r t h e c i t y ' s f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t s . C i t y and c o u n t r y were m u t u a l l y dependent and e x i s t e d i n r e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r . To C r o n o n , one o f the d e f i n i n g f e a t u r e s o f the Amer ican w e s t e r n " f r o n t i e r e x p e r i e n c e " i n v o l v e d " the e x p a n s i o n o f a m e t r o p o l i t a n economy i n t o r e g i o n s t h a t had not p r e v i o u s l y been t i g h t l y bound t o i t s m a r k e t s , and the a b s o r p t i o n o f new p e r i p h e r a l a r e a s i n t o a c a p i t a l i s t o r b i t . " 7 1 Most c e n t r a l l y t h i s i n v o l v e d the c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f n a t u r e , the d e s i g n a t i o n o f e lements i n n a t u r e as r e s o u r c e s f o r human use and development f o r p r o f i t . No l o n g e r were t r e e s s i m p l y t r e e s , nor water s i m p l y w a t e r ; they became " f o r e s t r e s o u r c e s " and "water r e s o u r c e s " r e s p e c t i v e l y . In d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o one a n o t h e r , t h e urban and t h e r u r a l were a r t i c u l a t e d . 31 The p e r s p e c t i v e s o f f e r e d by Cronon and Robb ins p rove c r i t i c a l i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the development o f water r e s o u r c e s i n the Amer ican West. Wh i le d i r e c t e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f r u r a l water s u p p l i e s by c i t i e s would not o c c u r u n t i l the l a t t e r p a r t o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y and i n t o the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , development o f s u p p l i e s on farms and ranches a c r o s s the d r y west o c c u r r e d i n the c o n t e x t o f expanding r e g i o n a l , n a t i o n a l , and w o r l d economies . S u p p l i e s were d e v e l o p e d l e s s t o meet i n d i v i d u a l s u b s i s t e n c e needs than t o s u p p l y produce and meat t o b u r g e o n i n g towns and m i n i n g camps and i n c i p i e n t c i t i e s . Geography Geographers have approached water from bo th human and p h y s i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . In human geography , the work o f G i l b e r t F . White s t a n d s o u t . L i k e many i n the f i e l d , White c o n s i d e r s water r e s o u r c e s a t the g l o b a l s c a l e . He i n t e r p r e t s water prob lems as problems o f d i s t r i b u t i o n and management, 7 2 and t r i e s t o draw t o g e t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n from d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s i n o r d e r t o draw compar isons and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . 7 3 Most v a l u a b l e i s W h i t e ' s emphasis on human adjustment and a d a p t a t i o n , be i t t o h a z a r d s , r e s o u r c e s c a r c i t y , o r a range o f p h y s i c a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . He sees human s o c i e t i e s i n i n t e g r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the env i ronment . In a 1984 e s s a y f o c u s i n g on water s c a r c i t y and a g r i c u l t u r e i n the Amer ican West, White p r e d i c t s t h a t water would be taken from a g r i c u l t u r e t o be r e a l l o c a t e d t o o t h e r u s e s , and 32 acknowledged t h a t t h i s would have a r i p p l e e f f e c t i n economic and s o c i a l t e r m s . 7 4 B u t , he n o t e s , r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n would d e c l i n e w i t h o r w i t h o u t i r r i g a t i o n . He q u e s t i o n s whether t h e r e i s s o c i a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a t t e m p t i n g t o f o r e s t a l l the d e c l i n e o f r u r a l communi t i es , where water t r a n s f e r s l e a d t o o u t m i g r a t i o n and a drop i n ne t i n c o m e . 7 5 White c o n c l u d e s by e x p r e s s i n g the b e l i e f t h a t change and ad justment can take p l a c e b e f o r e the West r e a c h e s a water c r i s i s . 7 6 W h i t e ' s work has been i n f l u e n t i a l i n water r e s o u r c e s management, p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s 1969 S t r a t e g i e s o f Amer ican Water Management . 7 7 In t h i s book, White p r e s e n t s a h i s t o r i c a l framework f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g water development i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . He d e s c r i b e s a s h i f t from s i n g l e purpose p r o j e c t s , a t the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y , t o m u l t i p l e purpose p r o j e c t s and water p l a n n i n g by the m i d d l e o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . He e l a b o r a t e d t h i s v iew i n 1 9 7 7 , 7 8 p e r c e i v i n g the c o u n t r y as b e i n g i n t h e m i d s t o f a n o t h e r t r a n s i t i o n i n which m u l t i p l e purpose p l a n n i n g and t h e consequences o f complex r i v e r development were b e i n g c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n . W h i t e ' s work draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts o f r i v e r b a s i n deve lopment . James Wescoat b u i l d s on G i l b e r t W h i t e ' s work i n h i s 1984 book I n t e g r a t e d Water Development - a r e v i s e d v e r s i o n o f h i s P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . Wescoat d e f i n e s i n t e g r a t e d water development as "a p r o c e s s o f ad justment i n water use and p a t t e r n s and p r a c t i c e s t h a t r e s u l t s from the s e a r c h f o r c o o p e r a t i v e l i n k a g e s among water u s e r s . " 7 9 I n t e g r a t e d water 33 development r e p r e s e n t s an a l t e r n a t i v e t o c o m p e t i t i o n . B u i l d i n g on W h i t e ' s range o f c h o i c e c o n c e p t i o n , Wescoat seeks t o i d e n t i f y t h e range o f g e o g r a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s under which c o o p e r a t i o n and c o n s e r v a t i o n might e v o l v e i n western C o l o r a d o . 8 0 In geography much o f the work on water r e s o u r c e s i s b u r i e d i n t h e s e s and d i s s e r t a t i o n s 8 1 o r found i n more o b s c u r e r e g i o n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s . 8 2 As G i l b e r t White noted i n a 1974 r e v i e w , up t o t h a t t i m e , g e o g r a p h i c c o n t r i b u t i o n s had been " m o d e s t . " 8 3 L i k e many n a s c e n t f i e l d s , rev iews r e f e r f r e q u e n t l y t o work i n o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s . 8 4 L i t t l e has been p u b l i s h e d by h i s t o r i c a l g e o g r a p h e r s on the s u b j e c t , 8 5 a l t h o u g h water has been touched upon t a n g e n t i a l l y by M a r s h a l l Bowen i n h i s work on d r y l a n d f a r m i n g . 8 6 The r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n o f Rober t A . S a u d e r ' s The F r o n t i e r : Water D i v e r s i o n i n the Growth and D e s t r u c t i o n o f Owens V a l l e y A g r i c u l t u r e i s an impor tan t d e p a r t u r e . 8 7 S a u d e r ' s work r e p r e s e n t s the f r u i t s o f y e a r s o f s c h o l a r s h i p on the s e t t l e m e n t and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the Owens V a l l e y . Whi le water f i g u r e s p r o m i n e n t l y i n h i s book, h i s p r i m a r y c o n c e r n i s w i t h the s e t t l e m e n t p r o c e s s , i r r i g a t i o n , and water e x p r o p r i a t i o n as they r e l a t e t o changes i n p a t t e r n s o f p o p u l a t i o n and economy. Sauder o f f e r s a h i s t o r i c a l t r e a t m e n t . H i s approach i s c o n c r e t e . He eschews p o l i t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l problems and d i m e n s i o n s . Geographers have a l s o produced some u s e f u l work on water r e s o u r c e s i n A u s t r a l i a , which p r o v i d e s an e x c e l l e n t c o m p a r a t i v e example f o r s c h o l a r s o f the Amer ican W e s t . 8 8 As w e l l , a r e c e n t volume e d i t e d by Denis Cosgrove and G e o f f P e t t s a t tempts t o 34 p r o v i d e a g e o g r a p h i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e on the r e l a t i o n s o f t e c h n o l o g y , c u l t u r e , and water r e s o u r c e s . 8 9 Cosgrove and P e t t s draw m a t e r i a l from d i v e r s e l o c a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g the E n g l i s h F e n l a n d s , t h e c i t y o f V e n i c e , t h e Sahara D e s e r t , Zimbabwe, and Quebec. Contemporary c o n c e r n s t e n d t o dominate t h e s t u d y o f water r e s o u r c e s i n geography . In a r e c e n t rev iew o f the f i e l d t h a t appeared i n Gary G a i l e and C o r t W i l l m o t t ' s Geography i n A m e r i c a . T o b i n e t a l i d e n t i f y s i x r e s e a r c h components: h y d r o l o g y , water q u a l i t y , water management, f l o o d h a z a r d , groundwater r e s o u r c e s , and law and water r e s o u r c e s . 9 0 Of t h e s e s i x , two a r e o f r e l e v a n c e h e r e : the management component, i n c l u d i n g urban s u p p l y and demand, and the l e g a l component. S t u d i e s o f water r e s o u r c e management have f o c u s e d on c o n s e r v a t i o n , demand f o r e c a s t i n g , d rought management, and p o l i c y . 9 1 Work on the law and water r e s o u r c e i s s u e s has examined l e g a l s o l u t i o n s , the impact o f s p e c i f i c l aws , the l e g a l framework, and l e g a l r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s . 9 2 In the rev iew by T o b i n e t a l , f u t u r e r e s e a r c h d i r e c t i o n s a r e o u t l i n e d i n terms o f " t h e o r y development and model f o r m a t i o n , 1 , 9 3 a p p l i c a t i o n s , and p o l i c y recommendat ions. Water r e s o u r c e s geographers a r e a p p r o a c h i n g t h e s e i s s u e s on a g l o b a l s c a l e , i n c r e a s i n g l y w i t h an eye t o c l i m a t e change and i t s p o t e n t i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h i s work d i f f e r s markedly from my own p r o j e c t , which i s much c l o s e r t o the h i s t o r i a n s ' - l e s s i n t e r e s t e d i n methodology 35 and m o d e l s , than i n i n t e r p r e t i n g c h a n g i n g i n t e r a c t i o n s between p e o p l e and the l a n d , and u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i r r e l e v a n c e t o contemporary s o c i e t y . Indeed the g e o g r a p h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e has i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n , but the h i s t o r i a n s a r e r e a c h i n g a w ider a u d i e n c e w i t h t h e i r f i n d i n g s and i d e a s . They a re p u b l i s h i n g w i t h major u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s e s . T h e i r work i s r e a c h i n g s c h o l a r s i n a v a r i e t y o f f i e l d s , as w e l l as the g e n e r a l p u b l i c . The h i s t o r i a n s a r e e l o q u e n t l y a d d r e s s i n g growing c o n c e r n r e g a r d i n g s o c i e t y ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the envi ronment i n a way t h a t , s a d l y , geographers a re n o t . The d i s c i p l i n e ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h space i n t h e 1960s, 70s , and 80s l e d t o a t u r n i n g away from human- land i n t e r a c t i o n s and from e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t u d i e s . F o r a y s i n t o q u a n t i f i c a t i o n and p o s i t i v i s m l e d human geographers away from w r i t i n g a c c e s s i b l e a c c o u n t s o f the c h a n g i n g i n t e r a c t i o n s between p e o p l e and p l a c e . An e x c e p t i o n here might be the Canad ian l i t e r a t u r e - i n p a r t i c u l a r , work by Bruce M i t c h e l l , Frank Quinn and John C. [Chad] D a y . 9 4 Faced w i t h c o n t i n e n t a l schemes t o d i v e r t Canadian water t o the s o u t h such as NAWAPA (the N o r t h Amer ican Water and Power A l l i a n c e ) and p l a n s t o e x p o r t hydropower , Canadian s c h o l a r s have g i v e n more a t t e n t i o n t o t r a n s f e r s and d i v e r s i o n s and t h e i r impact on the a rea o f o r i g i n than o t h e r N o r t h Amer ican water r e s o u r c e g e o g r a p h e r s . 9 5 Even where d i v e r s i o n s d i d not i n v o l v e t h e rep lumbing o f the c o n t i n e n t and the t r a n s f e r o f water f o r use thousands o f m i l e s away, some p r o j e c t s were 36 m a s s i v e i n s c a l e , and some i n v o l v e d t r a n s - b a s i n d i v e r s i o n s . Day and Q u i n n ' s 1992 Water D i v e r s i o n and E x p o r t . 9 6 d e s c r i b e s some o f t h e s e p r o j e c t s and examines t h e i r impac t : the Long Lake and Ogok i d i v e r s i o n s i n n o r t h e r n O n t a r i o , the C h u r c h i l l - N e l s o n p r o j e c t i n n o r t h e r n M a n i t o b a , the La Grande and James Bay p r o j e c t s i n Quebec, and the Nechako-Kemano p r o j e c t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Canada d i v e r t s more water than any o t h e r c o u n t r y , but u n l i k e most , water i s d i v e r t e d m a i n l y f o r the purpose o f g e n e r a t i n g hydropower; 96 % o f Canadian d i v e r s i o n s a r e f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . 9 7 As the a u t h o r s note though , e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f water has an impact on the a r e a o f o r i g i n , e c o l o g i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y . In Canada, t h e p e o p l e most a f f e c t e d a r e F i r s t N a t i o n s who l i v e i n communi t ies downstream from t r a n s - b a s i n d i v e r s i o n s and l a r g e impoundments. In some c a s e s the impact o f water p r o j e c t s has been d e v a s t a t i n g , a l t e r i n g the e c o l o g y o f s t reams t h a t s u p p o r t the f i s h e r i e s upon which N a t i v e communit ies depend. In i t s c o n c e r n w i t h the a r e a o f o r i g i n , w i t h a f f e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n s and e n v i r o n m e n t s , and w i t h c h a n g i n g r e s o u r c e u t i l i z a t i o n and i t s i m p a c t , the Canadian l i t e r a t u r e comes c l o s e r t o t h e h e a r t o f t h i s s tudy than any o t h e r i n geography . Perhaps t o o , t h e r e i s a s h a r e d dynamic . In a water e x p o r t s c e n a r i o , and even t o the e x t e n t t h a t hydropower p o t e n t i a l i s d e v e l o p e d t o s u p p l y growing demand f o r e l e c t r i c i t y s o u t h o f the b o r d e r , Canad ian r e s o u r c e s a r e b e i n g e x p l o i t e d f o r the b e n e f i t o f a p o p u l a t i o n o u t s i d e the a r ea o f o r i g i n . E x p r o p r i a t i o n o f v i t a l 37 r e s o u r c e s and t h r e a t e n e d r e l e g a t i o n t o the s t a t u s o f per iphery-a r o u s e the same resentment i n Canada t h a t the t h r e a t o f urban e x p r o p r i a t i o n a r o u s e s i s the r u r a l wes t . Canad ian c o n t r i b u t i o n s from o t h e r f i e l d s r e f l e c t s i m i l a r c o n c e r n s and s e n s i t i v i t i e s . 9 8 Economics and Other D i s c i p l i n e s E c o n o m i s t s have done e x t e n s i v e work on water r e s o u r c e s . C o s t - b e n e f i t a n a l y s e s o f water p r o j e c t s ; models o f s u p p l y and demand; s t u d i e s o f economic e f f i c i e n c y i n water u s e , water t r a n s f e r s , and o t h e r t r a n s a c t i o n s ; s t u d i e s o f water p r i c i n g , r a t e s t r u c t u r e s , water markets - a l l draw the a t t e n t i o n o f e c o n o m i s t s . 9 9 Some i l l u m i n a t i n g work i s a l s o b e i n g done by p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s , s o c i o l o g i s t s , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , p l a n n e r s , e n g i n e e r s , p o l i t i c i a n s , l a w y e r s , and j o u r n a l i s t s . In sum, t h e r e i s a d e v e l o p i n g l i t e r a t u r e t h a t d e a l s g e n e r a l l y w i t h water i n the West , and more s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h growing urban demand, p r e s s u r e s on Amer ican a g r i c u l t u r e , and water t r a n s f e r s . Economis t T e r r y Anderson c h a r a c t e r i z e s c o n c e r n o v e r water i n the West as a r i s i n g from p o p u l a t i o n e x p a n s i o n i n the r e g i o n and s c a r c i t y o f s u p p l i e s . 1 0 0 Wi thout the development o f new s u p p l i e s , the q u e s t i o n f a c i n g weste rn s t a t e s becomes how t o a l l o c a t e e x i s t i n g ground and s u r f a c e water r e s o u r c e s . A c c o r d i n g t o A n d e r s o n , contemporary i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e not s u f f i c i e n t l y f l e x i b l e t o manage demand. I n s t i t u t i o n a l entrenchment and power w i e l d e d by p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t groups m i t i g a t e a g a i n s t p r i c e s f o r water b e i n g s e t a t what Anderson and many o t h e r economis ts 38 c o n s i d e r r e a s o n a b l e l e v e l s . 1 0 1 In sum, t h e r e a re t o o many p o l i t i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s on the f r e e market . The new r e s o u r c e economics f o c u s e s on the i n s t i t u t i o n a l env i ronment i n which d e c i s i o n s a r e made and c o n s i d e r s t h r e e e l e m e n t s : p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y r i g h t s , p u b l i c c h o i c e , and e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p . 1 0 2 The e c o n o m i s t ' s i n t e r e s t i n p r o p e r t y r i g h t s i s i n how l e g a l s t r u c t u r e s a f f e c t b e n e f i t s and c o s t s . I f p r o p e r t y r i g h t s a r e w e l l d e f i n e d , d e c i s i o n making i s f a c i l i t a t e d . I f p r o p e r t y r i g h t s a r e e n f o r c e d i n s o c i e t y , t h e r e i s some guaran tee t h a t owners can d e r i v e economic b e n e f i t from p r o p e r t y . I f p r o p e r t y r i g h t s a r e h i g h l y t r a n s f e r a b l e , then t h e o r e t i c a l l y , e f f i c i e n c y and f l e x i b i l i t y a r e enhanced . The e c o n o m i s t ' s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f c h o i c e i s r e l a t e d t o e f f i c i e n c y , i n c e n t i v e s , b e n e f i t s , and the s c a l e o f bo th p u b l i c and p r i v a t e d e c i s i o n mak ing . E n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p i s i n c l u d e d because e c o n o m i s t s c o n s i d e r the market t o be the key t o t h e r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s and b e c a u s e , a c c o r d i n g t o the assumpt ions o f the new r e s o u r c e e c o n o m i c s , the e n t r e p r e n e u r i s the d r i v i n g f o r c e i n the market . From t h i s vantage p o i n t , the t a s k i s t o i d e n t i f y i n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t o r s t h a t c o n s t r a i n the market and f i n d ways t o remove t h e m . 1 0 3 In C o l o r a d o , f o r example, the f r e e market economis t p e r c e i v e s a market c o n s t r a i n e d by the j u d i c i a r y because the c o u r t s a c t s as m e d i a t o r s i n water d i s p u t e s and t r a n s a c t i o n s . 1 0 4 T h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a f f e c t s the t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y o f w a t e r . Water r i g h t s i n C o l o r a d o a r e i n i t i a l l y d e f i n e d i n 39 terms o f t h e amount d i v e r t e d and t r a n s f e r s a r e based on consumpt ive u s e . C o n s q e q u e n t l y , p u r c h a s e r s and s e l l e r s o f water f o r t r a n s f e r never know how much water they w i l l a c t u a l l y o b t a i n u n t i l the c o u r t p r o c e e d i n g s a r e c o n c l u d e d and a d e c r e e i s i s s u e d . 1 0 5 The e lement o f u n c e r t a i n t y undermines t h e market . A l s o , by p r o v i d i n g i n c e n t i v e s t o maximize consumpt ive u s e , the system i n C o l o r a d o d i s c o u r a g e s c o n s e r v a t i o n and e f f i c i e n c y . P o l i t i c a l economis t A l f r e d Cuzan p r e s e n t s some i n t e r e s t i n g arguments r e g a r d i n g the e f f i c a c y o f f r e e market s y s t e m s . 1 0 6 A c c o r d i n g t o Cuzan , i n the Amer ican West p r i o r t o 1880 water was t r e a t e d as a commodity; a f t e r 1880 i t was c o n t r o l l e d p o l i t i c a l l y . In o t h e r words , an economic means o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n and exchange gave way t o a p o l i t i c a l means o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n and e x c h a n g e . 1 0 7 In Cuzan*s frame o f r e f e r e n c e economic means a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e f f i c i e n c y and p o l i t i c a l means w i t h i n e f f i c i e n c y . A f t e r the m idd le o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , when a d m i n i s t r a t i v e systems f o r water were f i r s t assembled , a b u r e a u c r a t i c r u l i n g c l a s s emerged i n the west . T h i s c l a s s had the power t o use p o l i t i c a l means t o r e d i s t r i b u t e wea l th i n the form o f p r o p e r t y and b e n e f i t s , from the p u b l i c t o i t s e l f . 1 0 8 In e s s e n c e Cuzan i s a d v o c a t i n g p r i v a t i z a t i o n as a means o f a c h i e v i n g b o t h e q u i t y and e f f i c i e n c y . He v iews the p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n d o c t r i n e as an outgrowth o f Lockean n a t u r a l l a w . 1 0 9 An a p p r o p r i a t o r a c q u i r e s a r i g h t t o common p r o p e r t y by t a k i n g i t and t h r o u g h l a b o u r p u t t i n g i t t o b e n e f i c i a l u s e . In t imes o f s c a r c i t y , a p p r o p r i a t o r s t a k e o n l y 40 what i s n e c e s s a r y , i n o r d e r o f p r i o r i t y i n t i m e . In o t h e r words , f i r s t p r i o r i t y i s g i v e n t o the a p p r o p r i a t o r whose l a b o u r p u t t h e water t o economic use f i r s t ; second p r i o r i t y i s g i v e n t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t o r whose e f f o r t s put the water t o work s e c o n d . In the 1880s, l e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t i v e r i g h t s l e d t o t h e i r c i r c u m s c r i p t i o n , which i n t u r n a l l o w e d the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l means o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n and e x c h a n g e . 1 1 0 Once s t a t e s t a t u t e s c l e a r l y d e f i n e d the a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f water r i g h t s as u s u f r u c t u a r y , power t i p p e d t o the s t a t e , and j u d i c i a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l expanded. To Cuzan and o t h e r s a l i g n e d w i t h the new r e s o u r c e economics , such a l e v e l o f s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n l e d t o p o o r l y deve loped o r p a r t i a l water m a r k e t s . 1 1 1 Cuzan i d e n t i f i e d two i r o n c l a d laws i n p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e : t h e law o f p o l i t i c a l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and the law o f h i e r a r c h i c a l c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . 1 1 2 A c c o r d i n g t o the f i r s t , t h e r u l i n g c l a s s a lways r e d i s t r i b u t e s power and wea l th t o i t s e l f . A c c o r d i n g t o the s e c o n d , the r e d i s t r i b u t i v e n a t u r e o f p o l i t i c s p roduces c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f power, accompanied by a r t i c u l a t i o n o f the s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y . 1 1 3 Cuzan acknowledges e x p l i c i t l y t h a t as b u r e a u c r a t i c power i n c r e a s e s , e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f e v e r more d i s t a n t water s u p p l i e s t a k e s p l a c e , and t h a t such a c q u i s i t i o n s a r e p a r t o f t e r r i t o r i a l s t r a t e g i e s o f e x p a n s i o n and c o n t r o l . 1 1 4 The problem w i t h much o f the work i n the new r e s o u r c e economics i s t h a t i t assumes e q u i t y e v o l v e s i n f r e e market s e t t i n g s . As h i s t o r i a n Donald P i s a n i a rgues i n h i s 41 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n d o c t r i n e , 1 1 5 the d o c t r i n e was e c o n o m i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d and r e f l e c t e d h i e r a r c h i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s i n western s o c i e t i e s ( p i o n e e r v . newcomer). I t was not t h e p r o d u c t o f a b s t r a c t l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s o f e q u i t y , and i t d i d not p roduce an e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s . A n o t h e r i s s u e i n v o l v e s s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . Rober t C o s t a n z a and R i c h a r d Norgaard b o t h argue t h a t the new r e s o u r c e economics does not d e a l w i t h the i s s u e o f s u s t a i n a b i l i t y i n an adequate w a y . 1 1 6 The new r e s o u r c e economics a d d r e s s e s s h o r t - t e r m p r o f i t a b i l i t y and f e a s i b i l i t y , not the l o n g - t e r m i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l e f f e c t s o f r e s o u r c e d e c i s i o n s . E c o l o g i c a l e c o n o m i c s , by c o n t r a s t , i s a t t e m p t i n g t o p l a c e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y i n the f o r e f r o n t o f the d e b a t e . A l s o , t h e s c a l e o f a n a l y s i s i n much work on water r e s o u r c e s t e n d s t o o b s c u r e l o c a l e f f e c t s o f t r a n s f e r s and o t h e r s u b s t a n t i a l s h i f t s i n the c o n t r o l o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . The d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f communi t i es , l a n d s c a p e s , and ways o f l i f e become i n s i g n i f i c a n t b l i p s on the s c r e e n o f the n a t i o n a l o r w o r l d economy. Economis t Rober t Young w r i t e s , " i r r i g a t i o n i n C o l o r a d o . . . a c c o u n t s f o r a r e l a t i v e l y minor p o r t i o n o f employment and i n c o m e . . . . T h u s , we can expec t o n l y a n e g l i g i b l e impact on l o c a l economies [ from a g r i c u l t u r a l t o m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s ] . " 1 1 7 Human a d a p t i o n , e n v i r o n m e n t a l change , and change i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l power have no p r i c e , hence they a r e not i n c l u d e d i n the a n a l y s i s . 42 In marked c o n t r a s t t o t h i s i s a 1987 book by F . Lee Brown and H e l e n M. Ingram: Water and P o v e r t y i n the S o u t h w e s t . 1 1 8 The a u t h o r s examine water and the r u r a l p o o r i n A r i z o n a , New M e x i c o , and s o u t h e r n C o l o r a d o . T h e i r s tudy f o c u s e s upon N a t i v e A m e r i c a n and H i s p a n i c r e s i d e n t s o f r u r a l a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s . A t the o u t s e t , Brown and Ingram say t h a t the o l d saw t h a t "water f l o w s u p h i l l t o money" has been w e l l s t u d i e d , but i t s c o r o l l a r y - t h a t water f lows away from the poor and the p o w e r l e s s - has been n e g l e c t e d i n most s c h o l a r s h i p . The c e n t r a l p o i n t o f Brown and Ingram's book i s t h a t the r u r a l poor have n e i t h e r b e n e f i t t e d from water development nor p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s . They a r e o f t e n d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by water s a l e s , management d e c i s i o n s , and changes i n water u s e . Water a l s o has v a l u e w i t h i n r u r a l communi t ies t h a t t r a n s c e n d s economic v a l u e . Brown and Ingram r e f e r t o t h i s as "community v a l u e . " They w r i t e : "Long caught up i n the web o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s and s o c i a l d e p e n d e n c i e s , water i s c l o s e l y t i e d t o s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . " 1 1 9 In t r a d i t i o n a l communit ies water i s i n t e g r a l t o the e v o l u t i o n o f r e c i p r o c i t y , c o o r d i n a t i o n , and c o o p e r a t i o n . 1 2 0 Judge A r t E n c i n i a s , i n a d e c i s i o n t h a t s topped a p r o p o s e d water t r a n s f e r i n n o r t h e r n New M e x i c o , d e s c r i b e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n and t h e i r most v i t a l r e s o u r c e : The deep f e l t t r a d i t i o n - b o u n d t i e s o f n o r t h e r n New Mexico f a m i l i e s t o the l a n d and water a r e c e n t r a l t o the maintenance o f t h a t c u l t u r e . Whi le t h e s e q u e s t i o n s seem, a t f i r s t , f a r removed from the s i m p l e q u e s t i o n o f the t r a n s f e r o f a few a c r e f e e t o f water , t h e e v i d e n c e d i s c l o s e s a d i s t i n c t p a t t e r n o f d e s t r u c t i o n o f the l o c a l 43 c u l t u r e by development which b e g i n s w i t h s m a l l seeming ly i n s i g n i f i c a n t s t e p s . 1 2 1 Recent s t u d i e s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l water s a l e s t o c i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g the C o l o r a d o F r o n t Range, a r e b e g i n n i n g t o c o n s i d e r the e f f e c t s o f r u r a l t o urban water t r a n s f e r s on the a r e a o f o r i g i n . 1 2 2 Whi le c o n c l u d i n g t h a t a t the s t a t e l e v e l l o s s e s t o a g r i c u l t u r e and the economy i n g e n e r a l would be n e g l i g i b l e , Howe, L a z o , and Weber noted i n 1990: t h e i n c i d e n c e o f t h e c o s t s i s a lways t o t h e a r e a o f o r i g i n . . . t r a n s f e r s a r e t o uses o u t s i d e the a g r i c u l t u r a l economic a r e a . In such c a s e s , s i g n i f i c a n t uncompensated c o s t s a r e imposed on the l o c a l e c o n o m y . . . . The r e s u l t s t h u s imply t h a t s t a t e s s h o u l d not f e a r water t r a n s f e r s : t r a n s f e r s w i l l not wreck b a s i n s o f o r i g i n nor s t a t e economies . The r e s u l t s do i m p l y , however , t h a t t r a n s i t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e i s war ranted t o h e l p t h o s e p a r t i e s s u f f e r i n g uncompensated e x t e r n a l i t i e s and i n d i r e c t d i s p l a c e m e n t by t r a n s f e r s . A r e a s o f o r i g i n war rant a s s i s t a n c e . 1 2 3 The q u e s t i o n then becomes, how s h o u l d such c o n c e r n s be a d d r e s s e d ? MacDonnel l and Howe i d e n t i f y t h r e e p o s s i b l e s t r a t e g i e s t h a t may be employed: p r o h i b i t i o n o r s e v e r e r e s t r i c t i o n o f t r a n s f e r s , government a l l o c a t i o n , and c o m p e n s a t i o n . 1 2 4 The a u t h o r s came down on the s i d e o f c o m p e n s a t i o n . In a more r e c e n t paper R i c e and MacDonnel l p ropose s i g n i f i c a n t l e g a l re fo rms d e s i g n e d to" f a c i l i t a t e the t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s and t o a d d r e s s more a d e q u a t e l y t h i r d p a r t y e f f e c t s . 1 2 5 They note t h a t u n l i k e the laws o f some o t h e r s t a t e s , C o l o r a d o law encourages permanent a g r i c u l t u r a l t o m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s . 1 2 6 A c c o r d i n g t o the a u t h o r s t h i s has a d e v a s t a t i n g e f f e c t on the a r e a o f o r i g i n , permanent ly removing water r i g h t s 4 4 from use and l a n d from a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . R i c e and MacDonne l l m a i n t a i n t h a t by e n c o u r a g i n g temporary t r a n s f e r s , l a n d c o u l d be f a l l o w e d as opposed t o a b a n d o n e d . 1 2 7 T h i s would p r e v e n t the l o c a l t ax base from b e i n g d e c i m a t e d . I t would p r e v e n t change from b e i n g t h r u s t t o o r a p i d l y on the a r e a o f o r i g i n . A g r i c u l t u r e , be i t c r o p fa rming o r s t o c k r a i s i n g , would be a b l e t o c o n t i n u e on a somewhat s c a l e d back b a s i s . The r u r a l a r e a o f o r i g i n would have the o p p o r t u n i t y t o make a t r a n s i t i o n e c o n o m i c a l l y , s o c i a l l y , and p o l i t i c a l l y . The l i t e r a t u r e i n o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s , t h e n , i s o r i e n t e d t o examin ing contemporary problems and i s s u e s and t o making p o l i c y s u g g e s t i o n s . There have been s t u d i e s o f water p o l i t i c s , 1 2 8 p l a n n i n g , 1 2 9 p o l i c y e v o l u t i o n , 1 3 0 N a t i v e Amer ican water r i g h t s , 1 3 1 c h a n g e s i n a g r i c u l t u r e , 1 3 2 and w a t e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . 1 3 3 J o u r n a l i s t i c t r e a t m e n t s , s u c h as Marc R e i s n e r ' s C a d i l l a c D e s e r t , which spent weeks on the New York Times b e s t s e l l e r l i s t f o r n o n - f i c t i o n , d i d much t o b r i n g wes te rn water i s s u e s t o the p u b l i c ' s a t t e n t i o n . 1 3 4 Two impor tan t c o n t r i b u t o r s rema in : A r t h u r Maass , who s e r v e d i n F r a n k l i n R o o s e v e l t ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and p l a y e d an i n s t r u m e n t a l r o l e i n s h a p i n g n a t i o n a l water p o l i c y i n the p r o g r e s s i v e e r a , and p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t K a r l W i t t f o g e l , who more than any o t h e r s c h o l a r has sought t o t h e o r i z e the r e l a t i o n s o f water and power. In a 1951 s tudy o f the Army Corps o f E n g i n e e r s , r e v e a l i n g waste on a mass ive s c a l e , Maass d e s c r i b e s the c o r p s as " the most 45 p o w e r f u l and most p e r v a s i v e lobby i n W a s h i n g t o n . . . [ the] a r i s t o c r a t s who c o n s t i t u t e i t a r e our h i g h e s t r u l i n g c l a s s . . . no t o n l y the p o l i t i c a l e l i t e o f the Army, t h e y a r e the p e r f e c t f l o w e r o f b u r e a u c r a c y . " 1 3 5 C l e a r l y , he i s i d e n t i f y i n g a power e l i t e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h W o r s t e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Y e t , i n consonance w i t h P i s a n i and H u n d l e y ' s arguments , Maass sees f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f power and a u t h o r i t y , and a r e a l d i v i s i o n s o f governmenta l p o w e r . 1 3 6 He t h u s e n t e r s i n t o t h e deba te s u r r o u n d i n g W i t t f o g e l i n a c u r i o u s way. K a r l W i t t f o g e l ' s O r i e n t a l D e s p o t i s m , i s perhaps the most c o n t r o v e r s i a l work e v e r w r i t t e n on the s u b j e c t o f water and p o w e r . 1 3 7 In i t , W i t t f o g e l d e v e l o p s the i d e a o f t h e h y d r a u l i c c i v i l i z a t i o n , a s o c i e t y o r g a n i z e d around the c o n t r o l o f w a t e r . W i t t f o g e l d i s t i n g u i s h e s s m a l l s c a l e a g r i c u l t u r e , which he c a l l e d h y d r o a g r i c u l t u r e , from h y d r a u l i c a g r i c u l t u r e , which emerges when a l a r g e s u p p l y o f water i s d i s c o v e r e d i n a d r y but p o t e n t i a l l y i r r i g a b l e a r e a , and where e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e water r e s o u r c e r e q u i r e s c o o p e r a t i o n . From t h i s p o i n t , a c c o r d i n g t o W i t t f o g e l , a h y d r a u l i c c i v i l i z a t i o n t a k e s shape . C o o p e r a t i o n r e q u i r e s the m o b i l i z a t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f human r e s o u r c e s and , once c o m p l e t e d , i r r i g a t i o n i n t e n s i f i e s a g r i c u l t u r e . G r a d u a l l y , m a n a g e r i a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s emerge. Power i s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n b u r e a u c r a t i c e l i t e s and i n the hands o f d e s p o t s . F u n c t i o n a l l y , the h y d r a u l i c c e n t e r s i n c o r p o r a t e the a r e a s from which they d e r i v e t h e i r wa te r , the t e r r i t o r y c r o s s e d by t h e i r water works , and the a r e a s s e r v e d by t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s . 46 The key t o a c t u a l i z i n g h y d r a u l i c p o t e n t i a l l i e s i n o r g a n i z i n g mass l a b o u r , f i r s t t o c o n s t r u c t a q u e d u c t s , c a n a l s , and d i v e r s i o n s t r u c t u r e s , then t o engage i n i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e . Once e x t e n s i v e i r r i g a t i o n i s i n p l a c e , o r g a n i z e d l a b o u r can be employed i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n o n - h y d r a u l i c works ( w a l l s , d e f e n s i v e s t r u c t u r e s , r o a d s , s e c u l a r and r e l i g i o u s e d i f i c e s ) as w e l l as s e c o n d a r y h y d r a u l i c works ( f l o o d c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s , d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s , d i k e s , n a v i g a t i o n c a n a l s , and d o m e s t i c water w o r k s ) . To W i t t f o g e l , c e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l o f r e s o u r c e s was i n t i m a t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the t o t a l forms o f power he saw emerging i n the A s i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n s he s t u d i e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , W i t t f o g e l ' s work has been judged under the dark s h r o u d o f h i s p o l i t i c s . Over a p e r i o d o f d e c a d e s , W i t t f o g e l had worked on s u b s t a n t i a l r e v i s i o n s o f Marx ian t h e o r y . 1 3 8 By the end o f h i s l i f e , he r e j e c t e d not o n l y the b l e n d o f Marx, Weber, and the F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l he had espoused i n O r i e n t a l D e s p o t i s m . He became a r a b i d a n t i - c o m m u n i s t . W i t t f o g e l ' s p o l i t i c s a s i d e , p e r i o d i c a l l y s c h o l a r s have g i v e n c r e d i t t o h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n s . In a 1973 a r t i c l e i n C u r r e n t A n t h r o p o l o g y . 1 3 9 W i l l i a m M i t c h e l l a rgues t h a t b o t h W i t t f o g e l and J u l i a n S teward , i n s t u d i e s o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between i r r i g a t i o n and c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , were i d e n t i f y i n g impor tan t s o c i a l consequences o f i r r i g a t i o n , not n e c e s s a r y s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . N e i t h e r Steward nor W i t t f o g e l were s a y i n g t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n and c o o r d i n a t i o n must p recede i r r i g a t i o n . They were s a y i n g t h a t when i t d i d , o r when o r g a n i z a t i o n and c o o r d i n a t i o n were imposed 47 on e x i s t i n g s y s t e m s , a c e r t a i n s e t o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l consequences c o u l d o c c u r . M i t c h e l l s u g g e s t s t h a t r a t h e r t h a n r e j e c t i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c h y p o t h e s i s , s c h o l a r s might want t o c o n s i d e r f u r t h e r what f a c t o r s p r e d i s p o s e a s o c i e t y t o d e v e l o p c e n t r a l l y c o n t r o l l e d h y d r a u l i c works , and what o t h e r f a c t o r s might promote p o l i t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n . 1 4 0 A n t h r o p o l o g i s t M a r v i n H a r r i s ' C a n n i b a l s and K i n g s , c o n t a i n s a s e c t i o n e n t i t l e d "The H y d r a u l i c T r a p . " 1 4 1 H a r r i s w r i t e s , p r e - i n d u s t r i a l h y d r a u l i c a g r i c u l t u r e r e c u r r e n t l y l e d t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f ex t remely d e s p o t i c a g r o - m a n a g e r i a l b u r e a u c r a c i e s because the e x p a n s i o n and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a g r i c u l t u r e - i t s e l f a consequence o f r e p r o d u c t i v e p r e s s u r e s - was u n i q u e l y dependent on mass ive c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s w h i c h , i n the absence o f m a c h i n e s , would o n l y be c a r r i e d out by a n t l i k e a rmies o f w o r k e r s . 1 4 2 H a r r i s a rgued t h a t much o f the c r i t i c i s m o f W i t t f o g e l was unwar ran ted . W i t t f o g e l was not a r g u i n g t h a t the h y d r a u l i c mode o f p r o d u c t i o n gave r i s e t o the s t a t e , r a t h e r i t gave r i s e t o a p a r t i c u l a r form o f power and b u r e a u c r a c y w i t h i n the s t a t e . P o t e n t i a l l y t h i s c o u l d t r a n s l a t e i n t o i n c r e a s e d c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and p e n e t r a t i o n . What W i t t f o g e l ' s t h e o r y s u g g e s t s . . . i s t h a t when c e r t a i n k i n d s o f s t a t e - l e v e l systems o f p r o d u c t i o n undergo i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , d e s p o t i c forms o f government may a r i s e which can n e u t r a l i z e human w i l l and i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r thousands o f y e a r s . 1 4 3 H a r r i s goes on t o sugges t t h a t c a p i t a l i s m emerged i n n o r t h e r n Europe s p e c i f i c a l l y because i t was not a h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t y . 1 4 4 R i g h t o r wrong, K a r l W i t t f o g e l , Donald W o r s t e r , M a r v i n H a r r i s , and o t h e r s who engage w i t h W i t t f o g e l ' s i d e a s s e n s i t i z e us t o the d i m e n s i o n o f power i n western water r e s o u r c e s . Whether we see 48 c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o r f r a g m e n t a t i o n , v i s i o n o r v i l l a i n y , we see power i n t e r t w i n e d i n eve ry p o l i c y , eve ry c o n f l i c t , e v e r y t r a n s a c t i o n , and every sys tem. The C h a l l e n g e o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n My p u r p o s e i s n o t t o d e v e l o p s o c i a l t h e o r y o r t o r e f i n e c o n c e p t i o n s such as W o r s t e r ' s " e c o l o g i c a l mode o f p r o d u c t i o n " and " c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e mode," W i t t f o g e l ' s " h y d r a u l i c c i v i l i z a t i o n " and W o r s t e r ' s m o d i f i e d " h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t y " o f the Amer ican West , o r G i l b e r t W h i t e ' s " a d j u s t m e n t , " o r P a t r i c i a N e l s o n L i m e r i c k ' s " c o n q u e s t . " Nor i s i t t o t e s t the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f the new r e s o u r c e economics o r e c o l o g i c a l e c o n o m i c s . R a t h e r , my purpose here i s t o use such i d e a s t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d the water t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s . The c h a l l e n g e l i e s i n i n t e r p r e t i n g change and u n d e r s t a n d i n g how South Park has been t r a n s f o r m e d o v e r t ime th rough the c h a n g i n g use o f i t s w a t e r . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between c i t y and c o u n t r y i s c e n t r a l t o t h i s s t u d y . I t i s a dependent , a m b i v a l e n t , complex r e l a t i o n s h i p - one t h a t s h o u l d not be o v e r s i m p l i f i e d . R u r a l and urban s h o u l d no t be c o n c e i v e d i n a d ichotomous manner. They a r e s y m b i o t i c c o n c e p t s o r e lements d e f i n e d and a r t i c u l a t e d i n r e l a t i o n t o one a n o t h e r . In a m o d e r n i z i n g w o r l d i t may be tempt ing t o argue t h a t the r u r a l no l o n g e r e x i s t s , t h a t the r e a c h o f t e c h n o l o g y , c a p i t a l , c u l t u r e , and economy from the urban c o r e i s so p e n e t r a t i n g t h a t i t has e f f e c t i v e l y e r a s e d the r u r a l , o r a t 4 9 l e a s t compromised i t . But t o a c c e p t the hegemony o f the c i t y i s t o d i s c o u n t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r u r a l space and h i s t o r y . C i t y and c o u n t r y a r e not the same, d e s p i t e the homogeniz ing i n f l u e n c e o f modern t e c h n o l o g y . R u r a l space i s d e f i n e d by g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s , l e s s dense p o p u l a t i o n s , d i s p e r s e d p a t t e r n s o f s e t t l e m e n t , and , a t l e a s t h i s t o r i c a l l y , the dominance o f r e s o u r c e based economies . R u r a l l i f e r e p r e s e n t s an ad justment t o t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s s t u d y i s concerned w i t h the impact o f development on r u r a l a r e a s , i n p a r t i c u l a r the a r e a o f o r i g i n i n water t r a n s f e r s . The i n t e n t i o n i s t h a t t h i s s tudy w i l l become p a r t o f the growing h i s t o r i c a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e o f water i n the wes t , c o n c e r n e d b r o a d l y w i t h human-environment r e l a t i o n s and w i t h c o n t r o l o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . C h a p t e r Notes 1. P o s t e l , 1985, p . 37. 2. P o s t e l , 1993a, p . 20. 3. Brown and J a c o b s o n , 1987, p p . 3 6 -37; P o s t e l , 1989, p. 24. 4 . Newland, 1980, p . 16. 5. Newland, 1980. p . 7. 6. P o s t e l , 1984, p . 13. 7. F o l k - W i l l i a m s e t a l , 1985, p . 78 . 8. Howe e t a l . , 1990; P o s t e l , 1991; G . F . Whi te , 1984; R . A . Young, 1983 and 1984. 9. F o l k - W i l l i a m s e t a l , 1985. A l s o see E l - A s h r y and G i b b o n s , 1988. 50 10. P o s t e l , 1993b, 10-18 . 11. Webb, 1931 and 1951(Rpt . 1986) . I t s h o u l d be no ted t h a t John Wesley P o w e l l ' s Repor t on the A r i d Lands p r e c e d e d Webb's work and made a c e r t a i n i m p r e s s i o n on the Amer ican c o n s c i o u s n e s s . However, f o r h i s t o r i a n s , Webb's work was c o n s i d e r e d the p i o n e e r i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a r e a and l i t e r a t u r e . 12. P i s a n i , 1988. 13. G r e s s l e y , 1968; L e e , 1972. 14. H u n d l e y , 1963, 1966, 1972, and 1975; P i s a n i , 1975 and 1978. 15. Koppes , 1978. 16. Dunbar, 1944, 1948, and 1960. 17. L e e , 1988, p p . 457-458. 18. F o r a thorough rev iew see L e e , 1978. 19. P i s a n i , 1979, 1982; R o b b i n s , 1978 ( W i l l a m e t t e V a l l e y P r o j e c t ) ; Lawson, 1982 ( P i c k - S l o a n and the M i s s o u r i R i v e r S i o u x ) . 20. Dunbar , 1983; Langum, 1985; and S c o t t , 1985 (on water r i g h t s i n wes te rn Canada) . 21 . Dunbar, 1983. 22. H u n d l e y , 1987; and P i s a n i , 1984. 23 . Hof fman, 1981; K a h r l , 1982. 24. See a l s o W a l t o n , 1992, on the Owens V a l l e y c o n t r o v e r s y ; C l e m e n t s , 1979 and S a y l e s , 1985 on Hetch H e t c h y . 25 . W o r s t e r , 1985. 26. W i t t f o g e l , 1956 and 1957. 27 . From W i t t f o g e l ' s 1929 a r t i c l e " G e o p o l i t i c s , G e o g r a p h i c a l M a t e r i a l i s m and Marx ism" , as quoted i n W o r s t e r , 1984, p . 5. 28. W o r s t e r , 1985, p . 11. 29 . W o r s t e r , 1985, p p . 1 9 - 3 6 . 30. W o r s t e r , 1985, p p . 30 -60 . 51 31. W o r s t e r , 1985, p p . 50 -53 . 32. W o r s t e r , 1984, p. 4. 33. See R. Wh i te , 1985 f o r a rev iew o f work i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l h i s t o r y . In t h i s r e v i e w , he makes r e f e r e n c e t o work by h i s t o r i c a l geographers i n c l u d i n g Andrew C l a r k and Donald M e i n i g (p. 320) . 34. W o r s t e r , 1992, p . 239. 35. W o r s t e r , 1979. 36. W o r s t e r , 1987, p . 141. 37. W o r s t e r , 1987, p. 149. 38. W o r s t e r , 1987, p . 149. 39. L i m e r i c k , 1987, p. 26. 40. L i m e r i c k , 1987, p. 26 -28 . 41 . Wors te r e t a l , 1989. 42. W o r s t e r , 1985, p. 7. 43 . P i s a n i , 1988, p . 319. 44. P i s a n i , 1988, p p . 321-322. 45. P i s a n i , 1989, p p . 261-263. 46. H u n d l e y , 1992, p p . 20 -21 . 47. A l s o see Hund ley , 1987. 48. H u n d l e y , 1992, p . 385. 49 . H u n d l e y , 1992, p p . 390-392. 50. H u n d l e y , 1992, p p . 407-408. 51. P i s a n i , 1975, 1978, 1979, 1982, 1984, 1987, 1989, and 1992. 52. H u n d l e y , 1963, 1966, 1972, 1975, 1987, 1988, and 1992. 53 . Donald W o r s t e r : remarks made as p a r t o f a p a n e l d i s c u s s i o n a t the Western H i s t o r y A s s o c i a t i o n meet ings i n T u l s a , Oklahoma, F r i d a y , O c t o b e r 15, 1993, i n a s e s s i o n t i t l e d "Western Water : I s s u e s and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s " . One o f t h e o t h e r p a n e l i s t s was Donald P i s a n i . 52 54. Hund ley , 1988 and 1992; P i s a n i , 1987 and 1992; and W o r s t e r , 1992. 55 . Sherow, 1990; and T y l e r , 1992. 56. L i t t l e f i e l d , 1991. 57. M i l l e r , 1989; and P i s a n i , 1987. 58. A u g u s t , 1989; S m i t h , 1986. 59. W a l t o n , 1992, p . x v i i . 60. One wes te rn h i s t o r i a n e x p l i c i t l y c a l l s f o r a t t e n t i o n t o power. See O l i n , 1986. 61 . Nash , 1973 ( r p t . 1985) . 62. A l s o s e e , Nash, 1971, 1985, 1991; and Nash and E t u l a i n , 1989. 63. F o r o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s on the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y west , see Malone and E t u l a i n , 1989; and A t h e a r n , 1986. 64. R o b b i n s , 1986. 65. R o b b i n s , 1986, p . 584. 66. R o b b i n s , 1986, p . 593. 67. R o b b i n s , 1986, p . 595. 68. A l s o see Ma lone , 1989; Nugent , 1989; R o b b i n s , 1989. 69. C r o n o n , 1991, p . x v i . 70. C r o n o n , 1991, p . x v i . 71 . C r o n o n , 1991, p . x v i i i . 72. G . F . W h i t e , 1969. 73. G . F . Wh i te , 1977. 74. W h i t e , 1984, p p . 473-474. 75. W h i t e , 1984, p p . 479-480. 76. W h i t e , 1984, p p . 483-484. 77. Wh i te , 1969. 53 78. W h i t e , 1977. 79 . Wescoat , 1984, p . 4. 80. A l s o see Wescoat , 1987. 81 . J a c o b s e n , 1989; L e a r n e d , 1948; P o u l t o n , 1990; Q u i n n , 1970; Thompson 1980 and 1983. A l s o see M.A. t h e s e s c i t e d i n Conzen e t a l , 1993: A l d a b b a g h , 1967 (Water I m p o r t a t i o n , Washington S t a t e ) ; Bauer , 1988 ( R e g i o n a l Water Development , C a l i f o r n i a ) ; M i t c h e l l , I960 (Water 's R o l e i n S e t t l e m e n t , T e x a s ) ; Q u i n n , 1976 (Water Management and U s e , Deleware Bas in ) ; S a u r i - P u j o l , 1990 (Water R i g h t s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , New M e x i c o ) ; and W i l l i a m s , 1972 (Water U s e , U t a h ) . 82. O s b o r n e , 1965; S h u l e r , 1940; W a r k e n t i n , 1971-1972. 83. W h i t e , 1974, p . 107. 84. In the A A G ' s G e o g r a p h i c a l B i b l i o g r a p h y f o r Amer ican L i b r a r i e s . p u b l i s h e d i n 1985, the s e c t i o n by John L . Harper on water r e s o u r c e s (pp. 97-102) c o n t a i n s 34 e n t r i e s . On ly one r e f e r s t o a work by a geographer : G i l b e r t F . W h i t e ' s S t r a t e g i e s o f Amer ican Water Management ( G . F . Wh i te , 1969) . 85. G r e g o r , 1952 and 1968; N a b l a n , 1986; Temple r , 1978. Other edges o f the l i t e r a t u r e i n h i s t o r i c a l geography f o c u s on hydropower and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o l o c a l i n d u s t r y and p a t t e r n s o f s e t t l e m e n t , p r i m a r i l y i n the E a s t ; water q u a l i t y ; water b a l a n c e ; and l a k e l e v e l s ( f o r s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s , r e f e r t o Conzen e t a l , 1993) . 86. Bowen, 1989. F o r a more comple te l i s t i n g o f Bowen's d r y l a n d a g r i c u l t u r e and s e t t l e m e n t work i n Nevada, N e b r a s k a , and o t h e r p a r t s o f the a r i d and s e m i - a r i d west , see Conzen e t a l , 1993. 87 . S a u d e r , 1994. 88. Hea thco te and Mabbut t , 1988; and L o e f f l e r , 1970. 89 . Cosgrove and P e t t s , 1990. 90. T o b i n e t a l , 1989. 91 . T o b i n e t a l , 1989, p p . 119-123. A l s o see Wescoat , 1984 d 1985; G . F . White 1969, 1974, and 1977. 92. T o b i n e t a l , 1989, p p . 130-132. A l s o see J a c o b s e n , 1989; P o u l t o n , 1990; and Wescoat , 1985 and 1986. A l s o , i n T o b i n e t a l , 1989, see r e f e r e n c e s t o the work o f O t i s Templer i n T e x a s . 54 93. T o b i n e t a l , 1989, p. 132. 94. See Q u i n n , 1970, 1981, and 1987; Day and Q u i n n , 1992; and M i t c h e l l , 1980, 1983, and 1984. 95. A l s o see S e w e l l , 1988, and P i a t t , 1987. 96. Day and Q u i n n , 1992. 97 . Q u i n n , 1987, p . 389. 98. P e a r s e , 1984; P e a r s e , B e r t r a n d , and MacLaren , 1985; P e r c y , 1986; B i r c h and MacLock, 1992; and Z i l b e r m a n , 1993. 99 . G a r d n e r , 1983; Huffman, 1983; Rucker and F i s h b a c k , 1983. 100. A n d e r s o n , 1983. 101. A n d e r s o n , 1983, p . 2. 102. A n d e r s o n , 1983, p p . 3 -9 . What f o l l o w s i s a c o n d e n s a t i o n o f A n d e r s o n ' s summary o f the new r e s o u r c e e c o n o m i c s . 103. G i s s e r and J o h n s o n , 1983; S m i t h , 1983. 104. T r e g a r t h e n , 1983. 105. T r e g a r t h e n , 1983, p. 127. 106. C u z a n , 1983. 107. Cuzan , 1983, p. 14. 108. C u z a n , 1983, p . 15, and p p . 29 -30 . 109. C u z a n , 1983, p p . 15-19 . 110. C u z a n , 1983, p p . 20 -21 . 111. M i l l i k e n , 1983. 112. Cuzan , 1983, p . 29. 113. C u z a n , 1983, p p . 29 -34 . 114. C u z a n , 1983, p . 15 and p p . 33-34 . 115. P i s a n i , 1987. 116. C o s t a n z a , 1991, and N o r g a a r d , 1994. 117. R . A . Young, 1983, p. 37. 55 118. Brown and Ingram, 1987. 119. Brown and Ingram, 1987, p. 33. 120. Brown and Ingram, 1987, p p . 33-34; a l s o see the whole c h a p t e r d e a l i n g w i t h the community v a l u e o f water (pp. 2 8 - 4 5 ) . 121. As quoted i n Brown and Ingram, 1987, p . 189. 122. A n d e r s o n e t a l , 1976; Howe e t a l , 1990 and 1992; P r a t t , 1988; Weber, 1988 and 1989; Young, 1983 and 1984. A l s o see M a c D o n n e l l , 1990, and MacDonnel l and Howe, 1990; Brown and Ingram, 1987 (on water and the r u r a l w e s t ) , and Oggins and Ingram, 1990 (on t r a n s f e r s i n A r i z o n a ) . 123. Howe, L a z o , and Weber, 1990, p p . 1203-1204. 124. MacDonne l l and Howe, 1986. A l s o see MacDonnel l and Howe, 1985, and M a c D o n n e l l , 1990. 125. R i c e and M a c D o n n e l l , 1993. 126. R i c e and M a c D o n n e l l , 1993, p p . 1-3 . 127. R i c e and M a c D o n n e l l , p p . 75 -76 . 128. Ingram, 1990. 129. J o n e s , 1986; Rao, 1988. 130. F o s s , 1985; Munro, 1988; Reisman, 1982. 131. M c C o o l , 1987. 132. S c h a f f e r and S c h a f f e r , 1984. 133. G o t t l i e b and F i t z s i m m o n s , 1991. 134. R e i s n e r , 1986. A l s o see R e i s n e r and B a t e s , 1990. 135. Maass , 1951, p. i x . 136. Maass , 1959; and Maass and A n d e r s o n , 1978. 137. W i t t f o g e l , 1957. What f o l l o w s i s a c o n d e n s a t i o n o f arguments made i n the book. A l s o see W i t t f o g e l , 1956. 138. F o r an i n t e r e s t i n g rev iew o f W i t t f o g e l ' s e v o l v i n g i d e a s , see Ulmen, 1975. 139. M i t c h e l l , 1973. 56 140. M i t c h e l l , 1973, p . 534. A l s o see G e e r t z , 1972. G e e r t z , i n a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y , examines t h e r e l a t i o n s o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and i r r i g a t i o n . 141. M. H a r r i s , 1977, p p . 155-163. 142. H a r r i s , 1977, p . 158. 143. H a r r i s , 1977, p . 163. 144. H a r r i s , 1977, p p . 167-177. 57 CHAPTER THREE SOUTH PARK: BEGINNINGS AND TRANSFORMATIONS When E l i z a b e t h L i n k , a young woman from K a n s a s , came a c r o s s Kenosha Pass i n t o South Park i n the summer o f 1907, she saw below h e r a shimmering sea o f water and t a l l , g reen g r a s s . The t r a i n seemed t o s l i c e r i g h t th rough i t as the l o c o m o t i v e r a n a l o n g t h e t r a c k s t o the b u s t l i n g r a i l r o a d town o f Como. 1 How d i f f e r e n t South Park appears t o d a y , and how d i f f e r e n t i t appeared t o e a r l y e x p l o r e r s , t o p p i n g the mounta in p a s s e s t h a t b rought them i n t o the headwaters b a s i n i n the f i r s t h a l f o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Zebu lon P i k e c r o s s e d South Park i n December o f 1806, on h i s i l l - f a t e d r e c o n n a i s s a n c e o f t h e weste rn and s o u t h e r n b o r d e r l a n d s o f the newly a c q u i r e d L o u i s i a n a P u r c h a s e . I t was w i n t e r when P i k e f i r s t saw t h e h i g h b a s i n . He e n t e r e d f rom t h e s o u t h , h a v i n g f o l l o w e d a s m a l l t r i b u t a r y up from t h e Arkansas R i v e r . P i k e s u r m i s e d c o r r e c t l y t h a t he had e n c o u n t e r e d t h e headwaters o f t h e P l a t t e . 2 Upon c r o s s i n g a pass th rough the low scrubby A r k a n s a s H i l l s which bound the park t o the s o u t h , P i k e and h i s p a r t y camped above E l e v e n M i l e Canyon, i n a p l a c e t h a t i s now beneath a l a r g e m u n i c i p a l r e s e r v o i r . 3 The next day they began t h e i r a s c e n t o f the r i v e r , t a k i n g the South F o r k , and l e a v i n g the p a r k somewhere i n the v i c i n i t y o f T r o u t Creek P a s s . P i k e ' s e n c o u n t e r w i t h South Park was b r i e f . H i s p u b l i s h e d account o f the e x p e d i t i o n c o n t a i n e d l i t t l e d e s c r i p t i o n o r d e t a i l 58 about t h e a r e a . Perhaps t h i s was because two months a f t e r c r o s s i n g the b a s i n , P i k e and h i s c o n f e d e r a t e s were c a p t u r e d by the S p a n i s h i n the San L u i s V a l l e y , t aken t o Santa F e , then on t o C h i h u a h u a . P i k e ' s j o u r n a l s , n o t e s , and maps were c o n f i s c a t e d . The a c c o u n t s p u b l i s h e d a f t e r h i s r e l e a s e from S p a n i s h c u s t o d y were r e c o n s t r u c t e d from memory, and South Park appears t o have made l i t t l e i m p r e s s i o n r e l a t i v e t o h i s o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e s . John C h a r l e s Fremont was the next government e x p l o r e r t o e n t e r South P a r k . He t o o was p a s s i n g t h r o u g h . In l a t e June o f 1844, Fremont and h i s p a r t y c l i m b e d i n t o South Park from the n o r t h . From the t o p o f the p a s s , Fremont c o u l d see o n l y the c o n s t r i c t e d v a l l e y o f the P l a t t e , above what we now know as the town o f A lma . He w r o t e , "below us was a g reen v a l l e y , th rough which r a n a s t r e a m ; and a s h o r t d i s t a n c e o p p o s i t e r o s e snowy m o u n t a i n s , whose summits were formed i n t o peaks o f naked r o c k . " 4 The p a r t y descended the rugged s l o p e and camped t h a t n i g h t i n the g r a s s y bot tom. The next day the men c o n t i n u e d down the r i v e r and i n t o the open p a r k , f o l l o w i n g what Fremont d e s c r i b e d as "an e x c e l l e n t b u f f a l o t r a i l . " He w r o t e , On our r i g h t , the bayou was b o r d e r e d by a mountainous r a n g e , c r e s t e d w i t h r o c k y and naked p e a k s ; and be low, i t had a b e a u t i f u l p a r k - l i k e c h a r a c t e r o f p r e t t y l e v e l p r a i r i e s , i n t e r s p e r s e d among low s p u r s , wooded o p e n l y w i t h p i n e and quak ing a s p , c o n t r a s t i n g w e l l w i t h the d e n s e r p i n e s which swept around on the mountain s i d e s . 5 As they descended the M i d d l e Fork o f the South P l a t t e , the p a r t y met a group o f Ute women whose v i l l a g e s were engaged i n b a t t l e w i t h the Arapahoe . Narrowly a v o i d i n g the c o n f l i c t , Fremont and 59 h i s p a r t y c o n t i n u e d down the r i v e r on the o p p o s i t e s i d e o f the r i d g e from t h e U tes and A r a p a h o e s . F r e m o n t ' s e x p e d i t i o n camped one more n i g h t i n South Park b e f o r e c r o s s i n g a low p a s s and d e s c e n d i n g C u r r a n t Creek t o the Arkansas R i v e r . I f Fremont had p a s s e d the way he d i d the y e a r E l i z a b e t h L i n k came a c r o s s Kenosha Pass by t r a i n , he t o o would have seen i r r i g a t i o n water c o u r s i n g a c r o s s the bot tomlands o f the p a r k . The l u s h g r e e n he s p o t t e d i n the narrow v a l l e y bottom a t the headwaters o f the P l a t t e would have extended a l l the way down t o the p o i n t where he and h i s p a r t y l e f t the r i v e r , a d a y ' s march t o the s o u t h . But i n 1844 i r r i g a t i o n had not y e t t r a n s f o r m e d South P a r k ; i t was s t i l l a s e a s o n a l h u n t i n g ground f o r the U t e , A r a p a h o e , and Kiowa p e o p l e , and the s i t e o f summer v i l l a g e s . South Park was known t o the S p a n i s h and t o Amer ican and C a n a d i a n t r a p p e r s , bu t i t s r e s o u r c e s had n o t y e t been a p p r o p r i a t e d and d e v e l o p e d i n a m e a n i n g f u l way by Europeans . E x p l o r a t i o n and r e s o u r c e use i n the c o n t e x t o f the f u r t r a d e s i g n a l l e d , however, the h a r n e s s i n g o f South P a r k ' s p o t e n t i a l . By l o c a t i n g the p l a c e - mapping i t , d e s c r i b i n g i t , and a s s e s s i n g i t s r e s o u r c e s - South Park was e f f e c t i v e l y b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a m o d e r n i z i n g w o r l d and i n t o the w o r l d economy. A t the t ime o f the L o u i s i a n a P u r c h a s e , no-one was q u i t e s u r e p r e c i s e l y what had been a c q u i r e d . Both P i k e and Fremont t r a v e l l e d t o the Rocky Mounta in r e g i o n t o i d e n t i f y what r e s o u r c e s and r o u t e s t h a t might be used t o h a r n e s s the r e g i o n i n t o the r a p i d l y expanding U n i t e d S t a t e s . 60 South Park The m a t r i x f o r development was the l a n d i t s e l f : i n South P a r k ' s c a s e , a h i g h , a g r i c u l t u r a l l y m a r g i n a l l a n d - a b a s i n r o u g h l y 50 m i l e s l o n g and 30 m i l e s w ide . On a l l s i d e s the p a r k i s bounded by mounta ins : t o the n o r t h by the Park Range; t o t h e west by the Mosqu i to Range, the B u f f a l o Peaks , and Kaufmann R i d g e ; t o t h e sou th by the Arkansas H i l l s ; and t o the e a s t by t h e Kenosha and T a r r y a l l Ranges and the Puma H i l l s ( F i g u r e 3-1) . The mounta ins t o the n o r t h and west r e a c h t o e l e v a t i o n s o f 13,000 t o 14,000 f e e t , w h i l e t h o s e t o the e a s t and s o u t h a r e one o r two thousand f e e t l o w e r . They drop f a i r l y a b r u p t l y t o the g r a s s l a n d f l o o r o f the park p r o p e r , e l e v a t i o n 8,500 t o 10,000 f e e t . The p a r k ' s u n d u l a t i n g s u r f a c e , a v a s t g r a s s l a n d , i s b roken by l i g h t l y f o r e s t e d r i d g e s , most t r e n d i n g n o r t h t o s o u t h . The c l i m a t e o f South Park i s h a r s h . The average annual tempera ture i s s l i g h t l y above 35 degrees F a h r e n h e i t . 6 From November th rough March , mean tempera tures a r e below f r e e z i n g ; and tempera tures can f l u c t u a t e w i d e l y on a d a i l y b a s i s . P r e c i p i t a t i o n i s v a r i a b l e . T o t a l s a r e h i g h e s t i n the mountains (30 i n c h e s a n n u a l l y ) and lowest i n the s o u t h e r n and c e n t r a l p a r t s o f the park (under 10 i n c h e s a year ) . 7 On an annua l b a s i s , p r e c i p i t a t i o n on the f l o o r o f the p a r k ranges between 5.6 and 16.7 i n c h e s p e r y e a r . The average o v e r a 40 y e a r p e r i o d i s 10.7 i n c h e s . 8 P r e c i p i t a t i o n i s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n the summer months, and i s d e r i v e d l a r g e l y from thunders torms t h a t sweep v i o l e n t l y a c r o s s the p a r k a lmost every a f t e r n o o n . W i n t e r s a r e 61 Figure 3-1. Map: South Park Physiography. 62 l o n g , snow depths a r e v a r i a b l e from y e a r t o y e a r , and ground b l i z z a r d s a r e common, c l o s i n g r o a d s , p a c k i n g d r i f t s t h a t l i n g e r u n t i l J u n e , and s t r a n d i n g t r a v e l e r s and h i g h c o u n t r y r e s i d e n t s a l i k e . A c c o r d i n g t o a s tudy t h a t a p p r a i s e d the water r e s o u r c e s o f the Upper South P l a t t e b a s i n i n Park and a d j a c e n t T e l l e r c o u n t i e s , average annua l " i n f l o w " i n t o t h e b a s i n from p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s 2 ,270,000 a c r e f e e t , based on a 30 y e a r run o f d a t a . 9 An e s t i m a t e d 89% o f t h a t e v a p o t r a n s p i r e s under the i n f l u e n c e o f heavy , d e s i c c a t i n g winds and i n t e n s e s u n , o r i s consumed by streambank v e g e t a t i o n and seepage , b e f o r e l e a v i n g the a r e a . The r e m a i n i n g 11 %, o r 240,000 a c r e f e e t , f l ows out o f t h e s t u d y a r e a . South Park c o n t a i n s the headwaters o f the South and M i d d l e f o r k s o f t h e South P l a t t e R i v e r . P a r t o f the M i s s o u r i sys tem, the r i v e r d r a i n s t o the e a s t o r A t l a n t i c s i d e o f the C o n t i n e n t a l D i v i d e . W i t h i n the park t h e r e a r e two main d r a i n a g e s : the T a r r y a l l and the P l a t t e . Both s t reams o r i g i n a t e i n the m o u n t a i n s , and f low down t h ro u g h the g r a v e l l y bo t tomlands o f the p a r k , e x i t i n g t h r o u g h c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k on t h e e a s t s i d e . T a r r y a l l Creek j o i n s the mainstem o f the South P l a t t e below South P a r k , where the r i v e r f lows down t h ro u g h the f o o t h i l l s and debouches onto the Grea t P l a i n s . In a g e o l o g y w r i t t e n f i f t y y e a r s ago , but s t i l l c o n s u l t e d w i d e l y t o d a y , J . T . S t a r k d e s c r i b e s t h e 1 4 0 0 - s q u a r e - m i l e b a s i n ' s f o r m a t i o n i n the T e r t i a r y and Quate rnary p e r i o d s . 1 0 The Rocky 63 Mounta ins t h r u s t th rough the e a r t h ' s c r u s t 60 m i l l i o n y e a r s ago, and have been s c u l p t e d o v e r the m i l l e n n i a by w i n d , water , and g l a c i e r s . C y c l e s o f u p l i f t and e r o s i o n c r e a t e d the m a t r i x f o r what we see t o d a y . G l a c i a t i o n c a r v e d the j agged p e a k s , deep v a l l e y s , and c i r q u e s o f the Park and Mosqu i to Ranges, n o r t h and west o f South P a r k . Bands o f weak, f a u l t e d r o c k c o n t r o l l e d the o r i e n t a t i o n o f r i d g e s and v a l l e y s , and m e l t i n g g l a c i e r s f i l l e d the v a l l e y s w i t h t i l l , s p r e a d i n g and smooth ing the c o b b l e s a c r o s s the s u r f a c e , then d e p o s i t i n g mora ines on top o f them as they r e t r e a t e d . 1 1 Water e t c h e d streams and r i v u l e t s i n the t i l l and a s h , and c u t canyons th rough h a r d r o c k . In d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f the p a r k , i n t r u s i v e and e x t r u s i v e r o c k s a r e f o u n d , r e f l e c t i n g d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i e s . South Park i s u n d e r l a i n by p r e - C a m b r i a n r o c k s , m o s t l y metamorphosed sed iments and l a v a s - now s c h i s t and g n e i s s . On the s o u t h e r n marg ins o f t h e P a r k , v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y c r e a t e d the low, r o l l i n g Arkansas H i l l s , T h i r t y n i n e M i l e M o u n t a i n , and a number o f the b u t t e s t h a t do t the l a n d s c a p e between T r o u t Creek Pass and E l e v e n M i l e R e s e r v o i r . The B u f f a l o Peaks , j u s t n o r t h o f T r o u t Creek P a s s , a r e a l s o o f v o l c a n i c o r i g i n . To a l l appearances the peaks were e x t r u d e d t h r o u g h a f i s s u r e , s e p a r a t i n g Kaufmann Ridge from the g e o l o g i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l , bu t much h i g h e r , Mosqu i to Range immed ia te ly t o the n o r t h . What t h i s s u g g e s t s i s t h a t the n a t u r a l t i l t o f the P a r k ' s u n d u l a t i n g s u r f a c e was (and s t i l l i s ) t o the s o u t h ; t h a t the n a t u r a l e x i t f o r the South P l a t t e R i v e r was a l s o t o the s o u t h ; and t h a t u p l i f t and v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y had 64 r e c e n t l y c r e a t e d an e f f e c t i v e dam, d i v e r t i n g the r i v e r t o the n o r t h e a s t t h r o u g h h a r d c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k . What was c r e a t e d by t h i s p r o c e s s was a h i g h , i n h o s p i t a b l e l a n d , s u i t e d t o l i t t l e , i n t h e e a r l y d a y s , bu t h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g , r a n c h i n g , and m i n i n g . G l a c i a t i o n and f l u v i a l e r o s i o n l e f t c o b b l e d ground and t h i n t o p s o i l i n most a r e a s , so the l a n d i n the v a l l e y bottoms was u n s u i t e d t o t i l l i n g . A l t i t u d e and the s h o r t l e n g t h o f the growing season l i m i t e d the p o s s i b i l i t y o f r a i s i n g most c r o p s . The r e s o u r c e base c o n s i s t e d o f wa te r , g r a s s , w i l d l i f e , r o o t s , b e r r i e s , and m i n e r a l s . B e g i n n i n g s The f i r s t p e o p l e t o make use o f South P a r k ' s r e s o u r c e s were N a t i v e Amer icans and t h e i r a n c e s t o r s : U t e s , who dominated the mounta ins o f what we now know as C o l o r a d o , and Arapahoe , Cheyenne, K iowa, and o t h e r p l a i n s t r i b e s , who f o l l o w e d the B u f f a l o i n t o the h i g h park from the e a s t . N a t i v e o c c u p a t i o n was s e a s o n a l . Summer v i l l a g e s were e s t a b l i s h e d and s e r v e d as bases f o r h u n t i n g and f o r g a t h e r i n g r o o t s , b e r r i e s , and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s . In a s u r v e y conducted i n the summer o f 1944 by a r c h a e o l o g i s t s from the U n i v e r s i t y o f Denver , 40 n a t i v e s i t e s o f v a r i o u s ages were documented i n South P a r k . 1 2 The most common t y p e o f s i t e was a camps i te w i t h a nearby work a r e a . Though g e n e r a l l y p o o r i n a r t i f a c t s , South Park s i t e s y i e l d e d c h i p s and p o i n t s . T h e i r d i v e r s i t y sugges ted t h a t m a t e r i a l s were b e i n g b r o u g h t i n from every d i r e c t i o n . 1 3 Numerous s i g n a l f i r e r i n g s 65 were f o u n d , and l o o k o u t s i t e s were i d e n t i f i e d . Some o f the c a m p s i t e s were q u i t e l a r g e , c o v e r i n g up t o s i x a c r e s . A l l were c l o s e t o water and d e f e n s i b l e . The n a t i v e p a t t e r n o f s e a s o n a l use and b u f f a l o h u n t i n g p e r s i s t e d i n t o the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , by which t ime r e s e r v a t i o n s were b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e U t e s and f o r t h e p l a i n s t r i b e s . South Park was known t o the S p a n i s h , but i t was not an i m p o r t a n t s i t e f o r t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . They d e v e l o p e d no s e t t l e m e n t s . They s e n t no permanent r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , e i t h e r o f the c h u r c h o r government . They a p p a r e n t l y c a l l e d the b a s i n " V a l l e S a l a d o , " r e f e r r i n g t o the s a l t marshes and s p r i n g s i n the s o u t h w e s t e r n c o r n e r o f t h e p a r k . Legend has i t t h a t a s u i t o f S p a n i s h armor was found i n t h i s p a r t o f the b a s i n , and t h e r e was p o s s i b l y some m i n i n g a c t i v i t y i n g u l c h e s near A l m a . 1 4 A c c o r d i n g t o most l o c a l h i s t o r i e s , Canad ian and Amer ican t r a p p e r s f i r s t found t h e i r way i n t o the park i n the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . E t i e n n e de Bourgmond was a p p a r e n t l y the f i r s t , i n 1724 . 1 5 O t h e r s f o l l o w e d , m o s t l y undocumented, a f t e r t h e f u r t r a d e i n t h i s r e g i o n began i n e a r n e s t , from 1821 o n . 1 6 South Park was c o n s i d e r e d l a r g e l y Rocky Mounta in F u r Company t e r r i t o r y . Most t r a d e was c o n d u c t e d t h r o u g h B e n t ' s F o r t on t h e A r k a n s a s R i v e r , but some t r a p p e r s had l i n k s w i t h T a o s , and some t o b a s e s i n the e a s t such as S a i n t L o u i s . Drawn l i k e the S p a n i s h t o t h e s a l t marshes , which a t t r a c t e d w i l d l i f e , the F r e n c h s p e a k i n g t r a p p e r s a r e b e l i e v e d t o have c a l l e d the park "Bayou S a l a d e , " a term m o d i f i e d by Amer ican t r a p p e r s i n t o "Bayou 66 S a l a d o , " merg ing the F r e n c h w i t h the S p a n i s h . 1 7 The term "park" d i d not come i n t o e x i s t e n c e u n t i l the 1840s. " P a r e , " i n F r e n c h , means game p r e s e r v e and connotes open s p a c e 1 8 . Mounta in men found t h r e e p a r k s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e C o l o r a d o R o c k i e s : N o r t h P a r k , M i d d l e P a r k , and South P a r k , a l l l a r g e in te rmontane b a s i n s , abundant w i t h game. The b e a v e r market c o l l a p s e d i n the m i d d l e o f t h e 1840s, e n d i n g much o f the a c t i v i t y i n South P a r k . Some t r a p p e r s , l i k e J i m B r i d g e r and K i t C a r s o n , adapted t h e i r s k i l l s t o g u i d i n g and b r o u g h t h u n t i n g and s i g h t s e e i n g p a r t i e s t o the a r e a . Thomas J e f f e r s o n Farnum came th rough i n 1839, Rufus B. Sage i n 1842, George F r e d e r i c k Ruxton i n 1847 o r 1848, and S i r George G o r e , a man n o t e d f o r h i s b l o o d y and w a s t e f u l h u n t i n g , was g u i d e d i n by J i m B r i d g e r i n 1 8 5 5 . 1 9 The f u r t r a d e e s t a b l i s h e d no permanent s e t t l e m e n t s i n South P a r k and c r e a t e d no t a n g i b l e t i e s t o t h e Amer ican government i n t h e e a s t . I t d i d however, p r o v i d e the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r E u r o -Amer icans t o e x p l o r e the mounta ins , note the p r e s e n c e o f g o l d , and f i l e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n away f o r f u t u r e r e f e r e n c e . James P u r s l e y , a t r a p p e r , s p o t t e d g o l d around the same t ime t h a t Zebu lon P i k e c r o s s e d South Park on h i s way t o the San L u i s V a l l e y . 2 0 A F r e n c h - C a n a d i a n t r a p p e r by the name o f DuChet found s i g n s o f c o l o r , t h r e e decades l a t e r , as d i d mounta in man B i l l W i l l i a m s i n 1848. The l u r e o f p r e c i o u s meta ls e n t i c e d men i n t o the mounta ins i n t h e l a t e 1850s, and the b a s i n t h a t had p r e v i o u s l y been 67 p e r c e i v e d as a n a t i v e h u n t i n g ground and game p r e s e r v e became, q u i t e l i t e r a l l y , a g o l d f i e l d . 2 1 F i r s t , t h e r e were p r o s p e c t i n g p a r t i e s . Next t h e r e were p l a c e r c l a i m s and a r u s h o f p o p u l a t i o n 10,000 s t r o n g . In to e x i s t e n c e sprang towns, r a n c h e s , ways ide s t o p p i n g p l a c e s , wagon r o a d s , and o t h e r outward s i g n s o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o the s o c i o - e c o n o m i c t o t a l i t y t h a t was becoming the U n i t e d S t a t e s . Transformation Change came v i r t u a l l y o v e r n i g h t t o South P a r k . The P i k e s Peak r u s h o f 1858 brought miners t o the C o l o r a d o F r o n t Range and s e n t them s c r a m b l i n g up every g u l c h they c o u l d f i n d . The f i r s t p a r t i e s t o p r o s p e c t i n South Park came from t h e d i r e c t i o n o f C e n t r a l C i t y , one o f the e a r l i e s t s e t t l e d a r e a s i n the s t a t e . 2 2 They found g o l d on the n o r t h e r n edges o f the h i g h b a s i n , a l o n g s m a l l t r i b u t a r i e s t h a t f lowed from the Park and Mosqu i to Ranges. Towns began t o appear the next y e a r : T a r r y a l l , H a m i l t o n , F a i r p l a y , and B u c k s k i n J o e were among the f i r s t . T h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s were l a r g e l y s e a s o n a l and d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y male . Census t a k e r s counted 11,610 p e o p l e i n South Park i n the summer o f 1860: 11,506 men and 104 women. 2 3 Tha t y e a r , South Park c o n t a i n e d a lmost a t h i r d o f the p o p u l a t i o n p r e s e n t i n C o l o r a d o T e r r i t o r y (Tab le 3 - 1 ) , n e a r l y d o u b l e t h a t o f any o t h e r p l a c e . But p o p u l a t i o n s h i f t s r a p i d l y i n the m i d s t o f a m i n i n g r u s h , and p e o p l e p r e s e n t i n the d i s t r i c t d u r i n g t h e J u l y e n u m e r a t i o n , c o u l d have c l i m b e d a c r o s s the rugged Mosqu i to Range 68 COLORADO POPULATION, 1860 Male Female Total Denver 4,749 South Park 10,519 91 10,610 Tarryall and South Park 987 13 1,000 Golden 1,014 South Clear Creek 5,966 South Platte Valley 3,714 TOTAL FOR THE TERRITORY 32,691 1,586 34,277 Table 3-1. C o l o r a d o P o p u l a t i o n , 1860. The t a b l e shows p l a c e s w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f 1,000 o r more (Source : U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s ) . t o C a l i f o r n i a G u l c h o r o t h e r l o c a t i o n s by A u g u s t . 2 4 By 1870, when the census t a k e r s came t h r ough a g a i n , South P a r k ' s p o p u l a t i o n had dwind led t o 447 p e o p l e : 317 men and 130 women. 2 5 In 1860, most o f the p o p u l a t i o n was i n t h e towns and the g u l c h e s . 2 6 The heads o f o n l y a dozen o r so househo lds i d e n t i f i e d themse lves as r a n c h e r s . The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f South P a r k ' s i n h a b i t a n t s were m i n e r s , most o f them b o r n i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . Some h a i l e d from Germany, G r e a t B r i t a i n , I r e l a n d , and Canada. Of t h o s e c l a i m i n g o c c u p a t i o n s o u t s i d e m i n i n g , most i d e n t i f i e d themse lves as t r a d e r s , t e a m s t e r s , c a r p e n t e r s , o r s a l o o n and b o a r d i n g house k e e p e r s . There were a few b u t c h e r s and d r o v e r s as w e l l . Out o f 11,610 p e o p l e , seven were b l a c k . 69 In t h e absence o f government, m i n i n g d i s t r i c t s were e s t a b l i s h e d a l o n g l i n e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o r g a n i z e d i n t h e l a t e 1840s i n C a l i f o r n i a . They p r o v i d e d rud imenta ry s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and d e f i n e d the p r i o r i t y o f c l a i m s t o l a n d , m i n e r a l s , and wate r . Each d i s t r i c t s e t f o r t h p r o c e d u r e s f o r s t a k i n g p l a c e r and l o d e c l a i m s , t r a n s f e r r i n g c l a i m s , and r e s o l v i n g d i s p u t e s . 2 7 In some c a s e s t h e d i s t r i c t by laws e s t a b l i s h e d p r o c e d u r e s f o r f i l i n g r a n c h c l a i m s . 2 8 I n to the mounta ins o f c e n t r a l C o l o r a d o , the miners b r o u g h t a system o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n t h a t was a p p l i e d t o water r i g h t s : f i r s t i n t i m e , f i r s t i n r i g h t . The system had been adapted i n the g o l d f i e l d s o f C a l i f o r n i a , where water was s c a r c e and m i n e r s had t o d e v i s e a system o f d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t was f a i r . Demand f o r water was h i g h i n the p l a c e r camps o f C a l i f o r n i a and C o l o r a d o . I t was needed f o r washing and s l u i c i n g , and l a t e r f o r more h i g h l y mechanized forms o f e x t r a c t i o n and r e d u c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g h y d r a u l i c m i n i n g . The r e g i o n moved r a p i d l y towards i n c o r p o r a t i o n w i t h i n an expanding n a t i o n - s t a t e . C o l o r a d o became a t e r r i t o r y i n 1861. Park County was c r e a t e d a t the same t ime - one o f the o r i g i n a l c o u n t i e s . Towns and m i n i n g camps d o t t e d the p a r k and i t s m a r g i n s . Wagon roads t h r e a d e d t h e i r way i n and out o f the h i g h b a s i n , t y i n g i t s i n h a b i t a n t s t o s u p p l y c e n t e r s t o the e a s t and t o m i n i n g camps t o the n o r t h and west ( F i g u r e 3-2) . Many o f the towns were ephemera l , r e p r e s e n t i n g g r e a t e x c i t e m e n t f o l l o w e d by d i s a p p o i n t m e n t o r d i s t r a c t i o n . Each had a p u r p o s e . Some, l i k e 70 F i g u r e 3 - 2 . Map: E a r l y Towns, Wagon Roads , and R a i l r o a d s , South P a r k , 1858-1918. 71 T a r r y a l l , H a m i l t o n , A lma, B u c k s k i n J o e , and Dudley were m i n i n g towns. O t h e r s , l i k e M u l l e n s v i l l e and B o r d e n v i l l e , were r a n c h i n g towns o r ways ide s t o p p i n g p l a c e s . S t i l l o t h e r s were r a i l r o a d towns: Como, Howbert , and B a t h , e s t a b l i s h e d i n the l a t e 1870s and mid -1880s . The b e t t e r a town c o u l d combine p u r p o s e s , the more l i k e l y i t was t o p e r s i s t . H a r t s e l , s t i l l on the map t o d a y , combined r a n c h i n g and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . F a i r p l a y , the county s e a t , combined m i n i n g , government , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , r a n c h i n g , and s e r v i c e s . F r e d E n d l i c h , a g e o l o g i s t w i t h the Hayden Survey work ing i n South Park the summer o f 1873, d e s c r i b e d some o f the remains o f the g o l d r u s h , P l a c e r m i n i n g was f o r m e r l y c a r r i e d on v e r y e x t e n s i v e l y on the South P l a t t e R i v e r , and on a l l the s t reams t r i b u t a r y t o i t r i s i n g i n the range t h a t l i e s between South Park and the A r k a n s a s R i v e r [ the Mosqu i to Range] . In a lmost a l l the g u l c h e s we may f i n d r u i n s o f what were once a c t i v e and t h r i v i n g towns. There i s s t i l l some m i n i n g g o i n g on the P l a t t e . 2 9 He c o n t i n u e d , d e s c r i b i n g the T a r r y a l l s i d e o f the p a r k , There has been c o n s i d e r a b l e m i n i n g done a l o n g T a r r y a l l C r e e k , but a t p r e s e n t l i t t l e work i s i n p r o g r e s s . One d i s a d v a n t a g e i s the s c a r c i t y o f wa te r . I t i s o n l y d u r i n g the s p r i n g and e a r l y summer t h a t t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t water f o r m i n i n g p u r p o s e s . . . In 1860- '65 t h e r e was i n Hami l ton a p o p u l a t i o n o f about 5,000 i n h a b i t a n t s ; today t h e r e a r e not more than about h a l f a dozen f a m i l i e s . 3 0 The Hayden Survey was one o f the Grea t S u r v e y s o f the Amer ican West c o n d u c t e d i n the l a t t e r h a l f o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y under government a u s p i c e s . 3 1 The Hayden, Whee ler , K i n g , and Powe l l s u r v e y s were, t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , s c i e n t i f i c . A l l sought t o map s i g n i f i c a n t s e c t i o n s o f the West , a s s e s s the 72 r e g i o n ' s r e s o u r c e s , and i d e n t i f y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r o u t e s . F e r d i n a n d Vandeveer Hayden had a team o f g e o l o g i s t s and t o p o g r a p h e r s i n South Park i n the summer o f 1873. H i s p e o p l e had p a s s e d t h r o u g h the a rea i n 1869, but t h e i r assessment and c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f South P a r k ' s r e s o u r c e s d i d not b e g i n i n a s y s t e m a t i c way u n t i l the 1873 f i e l d s e a s o n . The Hayden team were i n t e r e s t e d i n economic r e s o u r c e s and deve lopment . In t h e i r work i n 1873, H a y d e n ' s p e o p l e i d e n t i f i e d " p r a c t i c a b l e p a s s e s " 3 2 l e a d i n g deeper i n t o the mounta ins ( F i g u r e 3 - 3 ) . G e o r g i a Pass had an " i n d i f f e r e n t " wagon r o a d . T a r r y a l l P a s s , known today as Boreas P a s s , had a s t a g e l i n e , c o n n e c t i n g B r e c k e n r i d g e w i t h South P a r k . H o o s i e r Pass was d e s c r i b e d as t o r t u r o u s on the Park County s i d e , as was 13,188 f o o t Mosqu i to P a s s . Weston P a s s , f u r t h e r s o u t h , had a "good" wagon r o a d , and T r o u t Creek Pass had a s t a g e l i n e r u n n i n g o v e r i t . R e g u l a r s t a g e s e r v i c e t i e d South Park t o more s e t t l e d p o i n t s t o the e a s t . Coaches r a n between Denver and the towns o f South Park on a d a i l y b a s i s , and between C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s and the h i g h c o u n t r y on a t r i - w e e k l y b a s i s . T r a i n s would not r e a c h the p a r k u n t i l t h e end o f the d e c a d e . In South Park members o f the Hayden s u r v e y found m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e s : g o l d , s i l v e r , and o t h e r m e t a l s . They l o c a t e d s a l t and c o a l r e s e r v e s . In 1869, Hayden 's team p a s s e d by the s a l t works i n t h e southweste rn c o r n e r o f the park ( F i g u r e 3-4) . M i n i n g e n g i n e e r and m e t a l l u r g i s t P e r s i f o r F r a z i e r J r . d e s c r i b e d t h e p r o c e s s : 73 A C C E S S T O S O U T H P A R K M O U N T A I N PASSES I Bailey •MM " > L A SALLE PASS : -••W1LKERSONPASS • Lak* l o k . ' £ IJf ' 'id V)?': " ^ J P O U T CREEK PASS , 3 j M ? i 3 - - 'WWituDim — ' MOUNTAIN PASSES • TOWNS ^ > DRAINAGE ^ R E S E R V O I R S ' V \ p A R K COUNTY AND SOUTH PARK BOUNDARIES CUL F i g u r e 3-3. Map: Access to South Park, Mountain Passes. 74 F i g u r e 3 - 4 . S a l t works, South Park, n.d. (Courtesy, Colorado H i s t o r i c a l Society). 75 A s m a l l c r e e k f l o w s northward [ S a l t C r e e k ] , and i n t h i s c r e e k t h e s p r i n g from which the s a l t i s o b t a i n e d d i s c h a r g e s i t s w a t e r . I t i s c o l l e c t e d i n a box and c o n d u c t e d th r ough a s m a l l c h a n n e l t o the b u i l d i n g s . These a r e two i n number, the one i n which the k e t t l e s a r e p l a c e d f o r m i n g a l o n g wing a t the e x t r e m i t y o f the o t h e r . The works b e l o n g t o R a w l i n s and H a l l , and the b u s i n e s s o f s a l t b o i l i n g was begun by Mr. R a w l i n s i n a s m a l l o u t b u i l d i n g , y e t s t a n d i n g , i n 1 8 6 1 . . . In the l o n g wing a r e one hundred and s i x t e e n l a r g e b o i l i n g k e t t l e s and e i g h t i r o n e v a p o r a t i n g p a n s . . . The s p r i n g water i s f i r s t run i n t o k e t t l e s and h e a t e d . When t h e water has a c q u i r e d a h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e , i t i s drawn o f f i n t o the f i r s t o f two l a r g e e v a p o r a t i n g p a n s , ( e l e v e n by twenty -e i g h t f e e t ) , and a l l o w e d t o e v a p o r a t e . The s u l p h a t e o f l i m e and o t h e r i m p u r i t i e s a r e here s e p a r a t e d from t h e b r i n e , which i s a g a i n drawn o f f i n t o t h e r e m a i n i n g t a n k s . The f i n e s t g r a i n e d s a l t i s o b t a i n e d from t h e second e v a p o r a t i n g p a n , which i s e l e v e n by n i n e t e e n f e e t . The s i x r e m a i n i n g pans a r e each f i v e by n i n e f e e t . 3 3 The Hayden team was s u f f i c i e n t l y impressed t h a t t h e y took a sample t o be a n a l y z e d i n C i n c i n n a t i , f i n d i n g t h e s a l t t o be 99% p u r e . F r a z i e r e s t i m a t e d t h a t the s a l t works p r o d u c e d two t o n s o f s a l t each day . S i x t o 14 men were employed by t h e o p e r a t i o n , and H a l l and Rawl ins s u p p l i e d r a n c h e r s , m i n e r s , and s m e l t e r s . 3 4 In h i s own master r e p o r t , Hayden noted t h a t the South Park s a l t works s u p p l i e d a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f C o l o r a d o . 3 5 He no ted an exposed seam o f c o a l a t what would l a t e r become K i n g C i t y , but i n t h e 1860s and 70s was known as M c L a u g h l i n ' s r a n c h o r L e c h n e r ' s r a n c h . In t h e i r r e c o n n a i s s a n c e o f South P a r k , members o f the Hayden s u r v e y found a s p a r s e p o p u l a t i o n s c a t t e r e d a c r o s s a v a s t b a s i n . They found g h o s t towns l i k e Montgomery, once b u s t l i n g w i t h 1000 p e o p l e , by 1873 i n h a b i t e d by o n l y one f a m i l y . 3 6 They found e x i s t i n g roads and p o t e n t i a l r o a d s . They found g r a s s , and on t h i s they pegged South P a r k ' s f u t u r e . The m i n e s , s e e m i n g l y 76 so r i c h , had been abandoned f o r o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s . F e r d i n a n d Hayden n o t e d i n h i s seven th annua l r e p o r t , There i s one i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e mountainous d i s t r i c t s o f C o l o r a d o , which i s now apparent i n t h e v a l l e y s o f the C o l o r a d o o r F r o n t Range. These g r a s s y a r e a s a r e f a s t b e i n g o c c u p i e d by a mountain p o p u l a t i o n , s p a r s e , i t i s t r u e , but a v e r y t h r i f t y one . The g r a s s not o n l y c o v e r s the v a l l e y s i n the e l e v a t e d r e g i o n s , but grows h i g h up on the m o u n t a i n s i d e , so t h a t i t i s remarkab ly w e l l adapted f o r d a i r y p u r p o s e s . A l a r g e amount o f the b e s t b u t t e r and cheese i s made, and the demand i s g r e a t e r than t h e s u p p l y ; as y e t . 3 7 Cyrus Thomas, a member o f the 1869 p a r t y , was l e s s mat te r o f f a c t i n h i s t o n e , On t o p o f the D i v i d e t h e r e i s one o f the most b e a u t i f u l l i t t l e g r a s s y p l a i n s I e v e r saw, where a l a r g e h e r d o f c a t t l e o r sheep c o u l d f i n d f i n e p a s t u r a g e . . . . The f i n e s t b u t t e r and m i l k I e v e r t a s t e d was o b t a i n e d i n South Park . So d e l i c i o u s was the m i l k t h a t members o f our p a r t y c o u l d s c a r c e l y s a t i s f y themse lves w i t h i t . 3 8 Henry G a n n e t t , a member o f Hayden 's t o p o g r a p h i c a l team, o b s e r v e d , C a t t l e and sheep do w e l l as h i g h as g r a s s grows, but i t i s no t s a f e t o t r y t o w i n t e r them w i t h o u t p r o v i s i o n o f hay above 7500 o r 8000 f e e t . N e a r l y eve ry y e a r s i n c e the s e t t l e m e n t o f the t e r r i t o r y s t o c k has w i n t e r e d out o f doors i n S o u t h , M i d d l e , and E s t e s P a r k s . . . . 3 9 Cyrus Thomas, r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a s s e s s i n g C o l o r a d o ' s a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and p o t e n t i a l on the 1869 e x p e d i t i o n , was a l s o amazed by what c o u l d be r a i s e d i n the p a r k . He noted t h a t W.H. B e r r y o f F a i r p l a y took the t u r n i p p r i z e a t t h e T e r r i t o r i a l F a i r t h a t September , and added: "I ment ion t h i s because t h e s e were r a i s e d on the h i g h e s t p a r t o f the s u r f a c e o f South P a r k , some t e n thousand f e e t above the l e v e l o f the s e a , a lmost a t the marg in o f e t e r n a l s n o w s . " 4 0 77 G a n n e t t , t h e t o p o g r a p h e r , d e s c r i b e d the d r y n e s s o f South P a r k : In g e n e r a l the park i s not w e l l w a t e re d . Near i t s b o r d e r s , e s p e c i a l l y i t s n o r t h e r n and western s i d e s , t h e r e i s a t a l l s e a s o n s an abundance o f good water , but t h r o u g h o u t the whole i n t e r i o r p a r t o f the p a r k water i s s c a r c e . The l a r g e s t reams water bu t a v e r y narrow b e l t i n t h e i r immediate n e i g h b o r h o o d s , and the s m a l l e r s t reams s i n k i n the g r a v e l l y s o i l . 4 1 D e s p i t e t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s , a g r i c u l t u r e was p o s s i b l e i n South P a r k . I r r i g a t i o n was the k e y . Cyrus Thomas, s p e a k i n g more b r o a d l y , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e i n C o l o r a d o would not s u c c e e d w i t h o u t i r r i g a t i o n 4 2 . He was r i g h t , b o t h i n the h i g h c o u n t r y and on the lower l a n d s o f the piedmont and the p l a i n s . In a d e c a d e , South P a r k ' s p o p u l a t i o n had c o n t r a c t e d from 11,610 t o 447 4 3 (Tab le 3 - 2 ) . The r e m a i n i n g p o p u l a t i o n l i v e d p r i m a r i l y on ranches and i n the towns o f F a i r p l a y , A lma, T a r r y a l l , and H a m i l t o n . 4 4 Indeed the p a r k had been t r a n s f o r m e d - v i o l e n t l y , s u d d e n l y , as change b u r s t onto the h i g h c o u n t r y l a n d s c a p e w i t h vehemence. The more e n d u r i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was h a r d l y v i s i b l e . U . S . c o n t r o l o f the l a n d and r e s o u r c e s o f South Park had become e f f e c t i v e . The U n i t e d S t a t e s now had b o t h a s e a s o n a l and y e a r round p o p u l a t i o n i n South P a r k , and an i n v e n t o r y o f the r e g i o n ' s r e s o u r c e s . The U n i t e d S t a t e s now had w i t t i n g and u n w i t t i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the government and the expand ing c a p i t a l i s t system i n s t a l l e d i n the mo u n t a in s . 78 POPULATION, PARK COUNTY, COLORADO, 1860 - 1890 Total Percent Male Female Chanqe 1860 11,610 11,506 104 1870 447 - 96.2% 317 130 1880 3,970 + 788.1% 3,063 907 1890 3,548 - 10.6% 2,337 1,211 T a b l e 3 - 2 . Park County P o p u l a t i o n , 1860-1890 (Source : U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s ) . The South Park System o f Ranch ing Ranch ing emerged a g a i n s t the backdrop o f i n s t a n t deve lopment . I t emerged t o s e r v e the b u r g e o n i n g p o p u l a t i o n o f the m i n i n g towns, not o n l y i n the park p r o p e r , but o u t s i d e i t s m a r g i n s , i n the v i c i n i t y o f p r e s e n t - d a y L e a d v i l l e and B r e c k e n r i d g e . A t f i r s t , the demand f o r b e e f i n the camps was met by d r i v i n g h e r d s o f c a t t l e i n t o the mountains from the e a s t . 4 5 There they f e t c h e d a h i g h p r i c e , e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r f a t t e n i n g f o r s e v e r a l weeks on South P a r k ' s n a t i v e hay , which grew i n t h e bo t tomlands a d j a c e n t t o t h e s t r e a m s . Here were t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f the h i g h c o u n t r y system o f r a n c h i n g t h a t was t o p e r s i s t i n South Park t o the p r e s e n t day . I t was a d e l i c a t e l y b a l a n c e d s y s t e m , d e v e l o p e d i n consonance w i t h a h a r s h l a n d t h a t i n i t i a l l y no one thought c o u l d s u p p o r t a y e a r - r o u n d c a t t l e i n d u s t r y . In a s t o r y t h a t has s i n c e a c q u i r e d the d i m e n s i o n s o f l e g e n d , Sam H a r t s e l ( F i g u r e 3 - 5 ) , a man who became one o f the F i g u r e 3 -5 . Samuel H a r t s e l , prominent South Park r a n c h e r , n . d . H a r t s e l homesteaded a t the c o n f l u e n c e o f the South and M i d d l e f o r k s o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r i n 1862 ( C o u r t e s y , C o l o r a d o H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y ) . 80 r e g i o n ' s l e a d i n g r a n c h e r s , d rove c a t t l e i n t o the p a r k i n the e a r l y 1 8 6 0 s . 4 6 S e v e r a l head s t r a y e d from h i s h e r d and o v e r -w i n t e r e d i n the p a r k . When H a r t s e l d rove the r e s t o f h i s c a t t l e i n the f o l l o w i n g s p r i n g , he found the s t r a y s f a t t e r and s a s s i e r t h a n a n i m a l s d r i v e n t o lower e l e v a t i o n s . U n t i l t h a t t ime i t was b e l i e v e d the env i ronment o f South Park was t o o h a r s h t o s u p p o r t a y e a r - r o u n d c a t t l e i n d u s t r y . T h i s marked the end o f s e a s o n a l r a n c h i n g i n South P a r k , and the b e g i n n i n g s o f permanent , y e a r -round p a t t e r n s o f l i f e i n the h i g h b a s i n . H a r t s e l ' s e x p e r i e n c e s seemed t o p a r a l l e l the emergence o f South Park r a n c h i n g . O r i g i n a l l y , he had come t o the h i g h c o u n t r y as a p r o s p e c t o r i n s e a r c h o f g o l d . 4 7 He t r i e d h i s f o r t u n e s a t the d i g g i n g s on T a r r y a l l C r e e k , and l i k e so many i n the summer o f 18 60, met w i t h d i s a p p o i n t m e n t . H i s a t t e n t i o n s t u r n e d t o o t h e r ways o f making a l i v i n g . F i r s t , he h i r e d out as a d r o v e r , then he began h i s own s t o c k b u s i n e s s , b u y i n g c a t t l e and oxen d r i v e n i n by m i n e r s . T h i n from the o v e r l a n d j o u r n e y , the c a t t l e c o u l d be f a t t e n e d on South Park g r a s s , then s o l d a t a p r o f i t . H a r t s e l and the o t h e r c a t t l e m e n o f the e a r l y r u s h had no need f o r homesteads o r o t h e r permanent s t r u c t u r e s . They were not so much s t o c k r a i s e r s as s a l e s m e n . They needed t o be m o b i l e and r o o t l e s s , t o move w i t h the market , as demand f o r t h e i r bee f s h i f t e d from camp t o camp and g u l c h t o g u l c h . As the d i g g i n g s p l a y e d out and the C i v i l War drew a t t e n t i o n back e a s t , the n a s c e n t South Park c a t t l e i n d u s t r y moved toward permanence. Sam H a r t s e l moved t o the s o u t h e r n p a r t o f the p a r k . In the f a l l o f 1862, he f i l e d on h i s homestead, 160 a c r e s , a t the c o n f l u e n c e o f the South and M i d d l e F o r k s o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r . O t h e r s r a n c h e r s e s t a b l i s h e d homesteads i n the p a r k i n the 1860s as w e l l : A d o l p h G u i r a u d , Benjamin R a t c l i f f , W i l l i a m B e r r y , Edwin C r o s i e r , C h a r l e s H a l l , T imothy and O lney Borden , and o t h e r s . Some o f the ranches were ephemera l , born o f immediate o p p o r t u n i t y and abandoned f o r t h e l a c k t h e r e o f . Those who s u c c e e d e d took up l a n d i n the s t ream c o r r i d o r s . They c o n s t r u c t e d i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s , p roduced hay , improved t h e i r s t o c k , and expanded t h e i r l a n d h o l d i n g s ( F i g u r e 3 - 6 ) . A p i e c e i n the F a i r p l a y Flume, the l o c a l p a p e r , d e s c r i b e d Sam H a r t s e l 1 s ranch i n 1879 as one o f the most n o t a b l e p l a c e s i n the p a r k . The b u i l d i n g s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d and a r e e x t e n s i v e enough f o r a town i n m i n i a t u r e . They a r e c l o s e by the P l a t t e R i v e r and i n the m i d s t o f a b e a u t i f u l r a n c h t h a t c o v e r s more than 4,000 a c r e s i n i t s a r e a . A l a r g e p a r t o f t h i s i s a l r e a d y under f e n c e and d i t c h e s . A l l o f i t w i l l be when the i n d o m i t a b l e w i l l o f the owner has comple ted a l l o f h i s p l a n s . A l a r g e d i t c h t o c o v e r s e v e r a l hundred a c r e s o f what w i l l be the b e s t h a y l a n d has been t a k e n out o f the L i t t l e P l a t t e R i v e r [ the South F o r k ] , which runs on the o p p o s i t e s i d e o f the v a l l e y from the h o u s e , and the water has j u s t been t u r n e d i n t o i t . S e v e r a l m i l e s o f f e n c e have been c o n s t r u c t e d i n the p a s t y e a r and a number o f men a r e now employed i n f e n c i n g and d i t c h i n g . Mr. H a r t s e l ' s s p e c i a l t y i s t h e r a i s i n g o f c a t t l e , i n t o which he has been g o i n g h i s f u l l l e n g t h f o r f i f t e e n y e a r s . H i s p e r s e v e r a n c e and good judgement has met w i t h marked s u c c e s s , and today he owns one o f the l a r g e s t , as w e l l as one o f the b e s t g raded h e r d s i n the p a r k . As he pays t a x e s on a thousand head o f c a t t l e i t i s s a f e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t he owns a t l e a s t t h a t number. By f r e q u e n t l y p u r c h a s i n g thoroughbred b u l l s he has by degrees brought the grade o f h i s h e r d up t o h i g h s t a n d a r d s o f e x c e l l e n c e . 4 8 82 F i g u r e 3 - 6 . Adolph Guiraud's ranch on the Middle Fork of the South Platte River, n.d. Established in the early 1860s, Guiraud's ranch had some of the oldest and largest ditches in South Park (Courtesy, Colorado Historical Society). 83 In two d e c a d e s , South Park r a n c h i n g had p r o g r e s s e d from r o o t l e s s n e s s t o permanence, from a s e a s o n a l e n t e r p r i s e t o a y e a r - r o u n d i n d u s t r y , and from d r y l a n d g r a z i n g t o i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e . The t h r i v i n g d a i r y i n d u s t r y no ted i n t h e park by the members o f the Hayden Survey i n 1869 was g i v i n g way t o the b e e f c a t t l e and sheep r a i s i n g i n d u s t r i e s . By 1889, t h e r e were 171 farms o r ranches i n Park County ; 79.5% o f them were i r r i g a t e d 4 9 (Tab le 3 - 3 ) . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 24,000 a c r e s were s e r v e d by d i t c h e s , i n c l u d i n g hay meadows and p a s t u r e s . An e s t i m a t e d 120,567 a c r e s were c o n t a i n e d i n f a rms . Ranches averaged 705 a c r e s i n s i z e . T o t a l hay p r o d u c t i o n t h a t y e a r was c l o s e t o 20,000 t o n s , and t h e r e were an e s t i m a t e d 26,377 c a t t l e and 28,211 sheep i n the county t h a t summer when the l i v e s t o c k i n v e n t o r y was t a k e n . 5 0 In the span o f t h r e e d e c a d e s , r a n c h i n g had emerged as a v i a b l e and r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e i n d u s t r y i n the C o l o r a d o h i g h c o u n t r y . 5 1 L e s s g i v e n t o c y c l e s o f boom and b u s t than m i n i n g , r a n c h i n g became the economic and s o c i a l backbone o f r u r a l Park County . South Park r a n c h i n g had r i g o r o u s r e q u i r e m e n t s . In such a h i g h and s e v e r e l a n d , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o use l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s j u d i c i o u s l y . The l a n d was f r a g i l e . C a t t l e and sheep had t o be moved from range t o r a n g e . 5 2 Over t i m e , a system o f t ranshumance was worked out i n which l i v e s t o c k g r a z e d i n sequence on the bot tomland meadows, the d r y open p a r k , the f o o t h i l l s r a n g e , and the h i g h mountain meadows ( F i g u r e 3 - 7 ) . The movements were s e a s o n a l , worked out i n r e l a t i o n t o the 84 CHARACTERISTICS OF RANCHES IN PARK COUNTY, COLORADO, 1870 - 1890 1870 1880 1890 Total Number of Ranches 134 171 Average Ranch Size 670 705 I rr igated ranches as a percent of a l l ranches Includes a l l improved acreage Irr igated Ranches number Percent 136 79.5 Irr igated Acreage 623 * * 24,015 HAY PRODUCTION FOR PARK COUNTY, COLORADO, 1870 - 1889 Land in Farms Acres 89,771 120,567 1870 1880 1889 Total Hay Production Acres Tons Y ie ld 6,178 16,376 281 4,708 19,547 0.8 1.2 LIVESTOCK INVENTORY FOR PARK COUNTY, COLORADO, 1870 - 1890 1870 1880 1890 Horses 56 987 2,488 Mules and Asses Catt le 1 100 133 1,114 20,861 26,377 Sheep 900 2,205 28,211 Swine 29 146 171 Oxen 97 102 4 T a b l e 3 - 3 . Park County A g r i c u l t u r e , 1870-1890 (Source : Bureau o f the C e n s u s ) . U . S . 85 F i g u r e 3-7. Map: Components o f the Land ( A f t e r C r o w l e y , 1964) . The map d i f f e r e n t i a t e s the f o u r s i g n i f i c a n t t y p e s o f range i n South P a r k . Each t y p e o f range had p a r t i c u l a r uses w i t h i n the h i g h c o u n t r y system o f r a n c h i n g . 86 t i m i n g o f i r r i g a t i o n , s n o w f a l l and snowmelt , and f o r a g e c o n d i t i o n s . In the South Park system o f r a n c h i n g , the i r r i g a t e d hay meadows were the c r i t i c a l component 5 3 ( F i g u r e 3 - 8 ) . In some o l d but s t i l l somewhat a p p l i c a b l e work, one r e s e a r c h e r found t h a t South Park h e r d s were dependent upon the meadows f o r 60% o f t h e i r f e e d each y e a r . 5 4 The w i n t e r f e e d i n g season i n c l u d e d a t h r e e - a n d - a - h a l f t o f o u r month p e r i o d o f pure dependence on hay . In a d d i t i o n , l i v e s t o c k g r a z e d on the i r r i g a t e d meadows f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i v e weeks each s p r i n g and e i g h t weeks each f a l l . A s m a l l p a r t o f the h e r d , u s u a l l y the f i n e s t s t o c k and the young b u l l s , remained on i r r i g a t e d p a s t u r e s t h r o u g h t h e summer. 5 5 In t h i s p a t t e r n o f r o t a t i o n , most s t o c k were removed from t h e bo t tomlands every s p r i n g , when i r r i g a t i o n began . They were moved f o r s e v e r a l weeks t o the open p a r k r a n g e , t h e s p a r s e s t o f t h e South Park ranges ( F i g u r e 3 - 9 ) . In the e a r l y summer, t h o s e r a n c h e r s w i t h a c c e s s t o the p a r t i a l l y f o r e s t e d f o o t h i l l s range would move t h e i r s t o c k a g a i n , w h i l e t h o s e w i t h o u t a c c e s s might b r i n g s e l e c t e d s t o c k back onto p o r t i o n s o f the i r r i g a t e d p a s t u r e s . 5 6 Sheep were t y p i c a l l y moved h i g h i n t o the mounta ins i n t h e summer. Under the U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e g r a z i n g p e r m i t s y s t e m , i n s t i t u t e d i n the f i r s t decades o f t h i s c e n t u r y , the h i g h e r t u n d r a range (above a p p r o x i m a t e l y 11,000 f e e t ) was r e s e r v e d f o r sheep and g o a t s , the lower range f o r c a t t l e and h o r s e s . 5 7 In the f a l l , the l i v e s t o c k were r e t u r n e d t o the open p a r k range f o r a few more weeks, then brought i n c l o s e r t o ranch 87 F i g u r e 3 - 8 . Map: I r r i g a t e d L a n d s , South P a r k . 88 F i g u r e 3 - 9 . A e r i a l view of South Park showing the open parkland, f o o t h i l l s , and high mountain ranges, n.d. (Courtesy, U.S. Geological Survey). 8 9 h e a d q u a r t e r s as w i n t e r a p p r o a c h e d . The key t o s u s t a i n a b i l i t y was t o move s t o c k o f t e n , a v o i d i n g d e g r a d a t i o n o f the l a n d from t r a m p l i n g and o v e r g r a z i n g . O ther a c t i v i t i e s h e l p e d d e f i n e the rhythms o f l i f e i n h i g h c o u n t r y r a n c h i n g c o u n t r y : c a l v i n g i n the e a r l y s p r i n g , i r r i g a t i n g from A p r i l t o J u l y , h a y i n g i n l a t e summer, and s e l l i n g and s h i p p i n g o f s t p c k i n the f a l l . C a l v i n g o c c u r r e d j u s t as t h e snows l e f t the p a r k . 5 8 Lambing f o l l o w e d s h o r t l y a f t e r . New s t o c k were s t r e n g t h e n e d c l o s e t o r a n c h h e a d q u a r t e r s , on South Park hay and p a s t u r e . When i r r i g a t i o n began i n l a t e A p r i l o r e a r l y May, c o w - c a l f p a i r s and ewes and t h e i r lambs were moved o u t , onto the d r y open p a r k , and from t h e r e r o t a t e d t o h i g h e r r a n g e . I r r i g a t i o n u s u a l l y o c c u p i e d one man f u l l t ime f o r the season t o r e p a i r o f d i t c h e s and headgates and t o s p r e a d the water a c r o s s the f i e l d s . 5 9 In South P a r k , as i n a l l the mounta in p a r k s , r a n c h e r s used f l o o d i r r i g a t i o n ( F i g u r e 3 -10 ) . They were f o r c e d t o c a p t u r e s u p p l i e s as t h e y were a v a i l a b l e , i n u n d a t i n g the hay meadows w i t h f r i g i d snowmelt water each s p r i n g , which may have had an i n h i b i t i n g e f f e c t on r o o t development and p l a n t g r o w t h . 6 0 I r r i g a t i o n c o n t i n u e d u n t i l l a t e J u l y o r e a r l y A u g u s t , a t which t ime headgates were c l o s e d and the meadows a l l o w e d t o d r y s u f f i c i e n t l y t o p e r m i t h a r v e s t i n g o f the hay c r o p . Today , h a y i n g crews a r e s m a l l due t o m e c h a n i z a t i o n , but p r i o r t o m e c h a n i z a t i o n and on the l a r g e r s p r e a d s now r e t i r e d by m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s , h a y i n g crews 90 F i g u r e 3 - 1 0 . Flood i r r i g a t i o n on Twelvemile Creek, 1993. 91 c o u l d be q u i t e l a r g e . The l a b o r f o r c e was m i g r a t o r y , work ing hay h a r v e s t s i n C o l o r a d o , New M e x i c o , Wyoming, and o t h e r s t a t e s . In the r e c e n t p a s t , South Park r a n c h e r s t u r n e d t o L a r i m e r S t r e e t , D e n v e r ' s e q u i v a l e n t o f the o l d Bowery i n New Y o r k , t o make up t h e i r h a y i n g c r e w s . 6 1 South Park meadows produced o n l y one c u t t i n g o f hay each y e a r . A f t e r the h a r v e s t , i f water were a v a i l a b l e , i t c o u l d be d i v e r t e d once a g a i n th r ough the d i t c h e s t o the meadows and p a s t u r e s , r e p l e n i s h i n g s o i l m o i s t u r e and s u p p o r t i n g some a d d i t i o n a l growth t h a t c o u l d be g r a z e d . The h a r v e s t i n g p r o c e s s took one t o two m o n t h s . 6 2 The l o n g e r a r a n c h e r c o u l d w a i t t o c u t the hay , the h i g h e r the y i e l d , but p o t e n t i a l l y the lower the q u a l i t y . The hay was c u t i n the e a r l y y e a r s by h o r s e - drawn mowers, then by t r a c t o r drawn mowers. I t was l e f t t o c u r e on the g r o u n d , i n the l o n g l i g h t o f South Park summer, then raked i n t o windrows. B a l i n g and r o l l i n g a r e now done m e c h a n i c a l l y . In e a r l i e r t i m e s , v a r i a n t s o f the s l i d e method were u s e d . Hay p r o d u c t i o n i n South Park peaked i n 1949, and s i n c e t h a t t ime has d e c l i n e d ( F i g u r e 3 - 1 1 ) . L i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n has d e c l i n e d c o n c o m i t a n t l y . The i r r i g a t e d meadows were the p r i n c i p a l f eed b a s e , and the component t h a t s u p p o r t e d f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n o f South P a r k ' s o t h e r r a n g e s : the open p a r k , the f o o t h i l l s , and the h i g h m o u n t a i n s . P a t t e r n s o f f a l l s t o c k s a l e s were de te rmined by the n a t u r e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n . 6 3 In c a t t l e r a n c h i n g , the most common t y p e s were c o w - c a l f and y e a r l i n g o p e r a t i o n s . In c o w - c a l f o p e r a t i o n s , 92 F i g u r e 3-11. Hay b a l e s , F r e d a Wahl Ranch, 1992. The Park Range i s i n the b a c k g r o u n d . 93 the r a n c h s u p p o r t e d a b r e e d i n g h e r d o f cows and b u l l s . The cows would c a l v e i n the s p r i n g , g r a z e a l l summer, and the c a l v e s would be marketed i n the f a l l . In y e a r l i n g o p e r a t i o n s , the c a l v e s were h e l d o v e r a w i n t e r , s u p p o r t e d on hay and on the range f o r a n o t h e r s e a s o n , then marketed i n the f a l l . In sheep o p e r a t i o n s , f e e d e r lambs were s h i p p e d out eve ry f a l l when the a n i m a l s were b rought down from above t r e e l i n e . M a r k e t i n g was h a n d l e d i n d i f f e r e n t ways a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . The d r o v e r s / c a t t l e m e n o f the g o l d r u s h brought the p r o d u c t d i r e c t l y t o the market and t o the consumer. S t o c k r a i s e r s i n the 1860s and 70s c o n t i n u e d the p r a c t i c e , sometimes u s i n g b r o k e r s , but from a l a n d base the d r o v e r s / c a t t l e m e n never h a d . In the l a t e 1870s, the Denver , South P a r k , and P a c i f i c Ra i lway p e n e t r a t e d the park from the n o r t h e a s t ; i n the 1880s the C o l o r a d o M i d l a n d l a i d t r a c k i n from C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s . 6 4 The South Park c a t t l e and hay i n d u s t r i e s were now t i e d much more c l o s e l y t o e x t e r n a l markets by t h r e a d s o f s t e e l . South Park hay and b e e f were s o l d a t markets i n Denver and Omaha and s h i p p e d as f a r as E n g l a n d . 6 5 When the r a i l r o a d t r a c k s were t o r n up i n the f i r s t decades o f t h i s c e n t u r y , South Park r a n c h e r s t u r n e d t o t r u c k i n g t o ge t t h e i r p r o d u c t s t o market . Most r e c e n t l y , c o n n e c t i o n s between b u y e r s and s e l l e r s have been made th rough t e l e v i s e d s a t e l l i t e s t o c k s a l e networks and th rough l a r g e r e g i o n a l e x c h a n g e s . 6 6 Over t ime s u c c e s s f u l h i g h c o u n t r y r a n c h e r s expanded t h e i r l a n d h o l d i n g s . 6 7 D u r i n g the homestead e r a i t was not uncommon f o r f a m i l y members t o f i l e on c l u s t e r s o f p a r c e l s . A husband 94 might s e c u r e 160 a c r e s , h i s w i f e a n o t h e r 160 a c r e s , and h e r b r o t h e r an a d d i t i o n a l 160 a c r e s . With the homestead as a n u c l e u s , the most s u c c e s s f u l r a n c h e r s c o n t i n u e d t o expand t h e i r h o l d i n g s , a c q u i r i n g l a n d from t h e i r n e i g h b o r s as they chose t o move on o r f a i l e d i n t h e i r e n d e a v o r s . 6 8 I n i t i a l l y , a c q u i s i t i o n o f open p a r k l a n d was u n n e c e s s a r y . Ranchers homesteaded the b o t t o m l a n d s , i r r i g a t e d hay meadows, and g r a z e d t h e i r h e r d s on t h e open r a n g e , which i n c l u d e d t h e f l a t open p a r k , the l i g h t l y f o r e s t e d h i l l s and r i d g e s , and the h i g h m o u n t a i n s . They made e x t e n s i v e use o f the l a n d . The p a t t e r n began t o change i n the 188 0s as s e t t l e m e n t p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e d . P a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the f o r m a t i o n o f the f o r e s t r e s e r v e s i n the 1890s, and the boom i n d r y l a n d homesteading t h a t peaked i n the 1920s, South Park r a n c h e r s f e l t encroached upon , as the open range shrank and u l t i m a t e l y d i s a p p e a r e d . Most o f the d r y l a n d homesteads f a i l e d , and South Park r a n c h e r s a c q u i r e d the h o l d i n g s as t h e n u c l e i f o r new ranch u n i t s . 6 9 Under the terms o f the T a y l o r G r a z i n g A c t , p a s s e d by c o n g r e s s i n 1934, r a n c h e r s c o u l d a c q u i r e l e a s e r i g h t s t o a d j a c e n t f e d e r a l l a n d s under f a v o r a b l e t e r m s . The i n t e n t was t o c u s h i o n the impact o f the d i s a p p e a r i n g open range on weste rn r a n c h i n g . Ranchers i n South Park and e lsewhere a c q u i r e d l e a s e r i g h t s t o l a n d around a l l t h e i r u n i t s , e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l l i n g v a s t a c r e a g e s . A l t h o u g h the T a y l o r G r a z i n g A c t h e l p e d some s m a l l i n d i v i d u a l r a n c h e r s , i t worked most t o t h e advantage o f l a r g e r a n c h e r s and c o r p o r a t e r a n c h e r s w i t h m u l t i p l e u n i t s o r h o l d i n g s . 95 Sam H a r t s e l 1 s ranch began w i t h 160 a c r e s a t the c o n f l u e n c e o f the South and M i d d l e F o r k s o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r . By 1885, when the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o conduc ted an e x h a u s t i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l c e n s u s , he had expanded i t t o 4200 a c r e s . 7 0 When he s o l d the r a n c h i n 1907, H a r t s e l had 8000 a c r e s . 7 1 In the nex t h a l f c e n t u r y , under v a r i o u s owners, the h o l d i n g s were expanded t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200,000 a c r e s , i n c l u d i n g b o t h deeded a c r e a g e and l a n d s l e a s e d from the f e d e r a l and s t a t e governments a d j a c e n t t o the r a n c h ' s many u n i t s . 7 2 Land was not the o n l y c r i t i c a l r e s o u r c e i n the h i g h c o u n t r y system o f r a n c h i n g . I r r i g a t i o n water f e d the meadows, and was the key t o s i z e a b l e hay y i e l d s , h e r d s , and p r o f i t s . Water was t h e l i f e b l o o d o f South Park r a n c h i n g . In 1889, t h e r a n c h e r s o f South Park l a i d c l a i m t o water r i g h t s , as they had decades b e f o r e t o l a n d . They d i d so f o r m a l l y , on p a p e r , w i t h i n t h e r u b r i c o f the law, 25 y e a r s a f t e r some o f the d i t c h e s had f i r s t been p u t t o u s e . South Park r a n c h e r s t r a n s f o r m e d the l a n d . By 1889 the s u r f a c e o f the park was e t c h e d w i t h i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s and l a t e r a l s . Once brown expanses o f p a r k l a n d were b roken by l u s h g r e e n meadowlands. I r r i g a t i o n water c o u r s e d a c r o s s the f l o o r o f the p a r k . T a l l g r a s s 7 3 waved i n the summer w i n d s . Ranch h e a d q u a r t e r s were d o t t e d a l o n g the b o t t o m l a n d s . S inuous t r a i l s and wagon t r a c k s l i n k e d the ranches t o one a n o t h e r , and w i t h p o s t o f f i c e s and s u p p l y towns. R a i l r o a d s and wagon roads c r i s s -c r o s s e d the p a r k . There were s t o c k pens a t the r a i l w a y 96 s t a t i o n s . There were s c h o o l s down the T a r r y a l l , and i n the towns on t h e P l a t t e s i d e o f South P a r k . Ranch ing was w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d i n the h i g h c o u n t r y . South Park Water In the 1881, the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o e s t a b l i s h e d a system o f i r r i g a t i o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . D i s t r i c t s were fo rmed, water r i g h t s a d j u d i c a t e d i n the c o u r t s , and water commiss ioners a p p o i n t e d t o o v e r s e e the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f wa te r . I n i t i a l l y South Park was not i n c l u d e d , but i n 1889, upon demand o f the i r r i g a t o r s i n the a r e a , the m a t t e r went t o c o u r t and , d i t c h by d i t c h , the water r i g h t s i n South Park were d e f i n e d . I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o an e x i s t i n g system o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n ( f i r s t i n t i m e , f i r s t i n r i g h t ) , each water r i g h t was a s s i g n e d a p r i o r i t y number, i n the o r d e r the d i t c h e s had been c r e a t e d and put t o work i r r i g a t i n g the l a n d . Over 200 r i g h t s were a d j u d i c a t e d i n South Park i n 1889. The l i s t o f c l a i m a n t s read l i k e a v i r t u a l who 's who i n South Park r a n c h i n g : Mar ie G u i r a u d , A l f r e d T . Edmondson, J o s e p h R o g e r s , Benjamin F . S p i n n e y , Samuel T a y l o r , Edward P. A r t h u r , Horace Parmelee , Henry S c h a t t i n g e r , C h a r l e s V o l z . . . 7 4 A c c o r d i n g t o the C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s annua l r e p o r t , 4 ,635 .15 c f s ( c u b i c f e e t p e r second) o f water were d e c r e e d i n Water D i s t r i c t 2 3 , 7 5 which encompassed p r i n c i p a l l y South P a r k , but a l s o i n c l u d e d a r e a s a l o n g the South and N o r t h f o r k s o f t h e South P l a t t e R i v e r , above t h e r a i l r o a d town o f South P l a t t e , j u s t e a s t o f the Denver . South Park 97 i r r i g a t i o n a c c o u n t e d f o r the v a s t m a j o r i t y o f the water : 42 00 c f s (Appendix C : D i t c h e s Database) , 7 6 F o r a l l i n t e n t s and p u r p o s e s , the most v a l u a b l e water r i g h t s i n South Park were c o n t a i n e d i n the 1889 a d j u d i c a t i o n . In t h a t s e n s e , South Park r a n c h e r s were smart t o ensure t h a t t h e i r r i g h t s were r e c o r d e d and g i v e n a p r i o r i t y . D i t c h e s a d j u d i c a t e d a f t e r 1889 were, i n t r u t h , paper r i g h t s . The South P l a t t e R i v e r was o v e r - a p p r o p r i a t e d , and once a d m i n i s t r a t i o n became e f f e c t i v e , l a t e r a p p r o p r i a t o r s , even t h o s e w i t h d i t c h e s b u i l t i n 1880 o r a f t e r , c o u l d f i n d themse lves d e n i e d the r i g h t t o t a k e water i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y the need o f a more s e n i o r a p p r o p r i a t o r downstream. But t h i s was not the c a s e i n 1889. The s t a t e b u r e a u c r a c y was i n c i p i e n t , and o v e r s i g h t and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n were p r a c t i c a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t . Between 1859 and 1889, South Park had emerged as a r a n c h i n g community, bounded by mounta ins , d i s t a n c e , w i n d , and snow, but t i e d by the 1889 a d j u d i c a t i o n , by the c e n s u s , and by l i n e s o f communicat ion t o a r a p i d l y chang ing w o r l d . Water and l a n d were now p r o p e r t y . E lements o f the l a n d (water , g r a s s , and d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f range land) had become economic r e s o u r c e s . A h i g h c o u n t r y s o c i e t y and l o c a l r a n c h i n g c u l t u r e was coming t o g e t h e r . P a r t o f a c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y and s t e e p e d i n Amer ican v a l u e s , t h i s c u l t u r e v a l u e d r e s o u r c e use and development and p r i z e d i n d i v i d u a l i s m . South Park r a n c h e r s r e a d i l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the d e f i n i n g and p r i v a t i z i n g the key r e s o u r c e s : l a n d and w a t e r . What South Park r a n c h e r s thought they were d o i n g when they 98 a d j u d i c a t e d t h e i r water r i g h t s was s t a k i n g a c l a i m . What they were r e a l l y d o i n g was b r i n g i n g t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n the purv iew o f a system o f water r i g h t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n - one the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o had d e v i s e d t o s e r v e i t s own economic and p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s , as w e l l as the i n t e r e s t s o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y owners. C h a p t e r Notes 1. L i n k , 1969. 2. P i k e , R p t . 1987, p p . 465-466 (December 13, 1806 e n t r y ) . 3. P l e a s e note t h a t the s p e l l i n g " E l e v e n M i l e " i s used t h r o u g h o u t t h i s m a n u s c r i p t . On maps, i n h i s t o r i c a l documents , and i n s t a t e r e c o r d s , b o t h the s p e l l i n g s " E l e v e n M i l e " and " E l e v e n m i l e " w i l l be f o u n d . " E l e v e n M i l e " i s used here f o r c o n s i s t e n c y . 4 . J a c k s o n and Spence , 1970, p. 717. 5. J a c k s o n and Spence , 1970, p . 718. 6. W a l t e r e t a l , 1990, p p . 55 -57 ; S p r o n c k , 1990, p . 22. 7. K l e i n , e t a l , 1978, p. 9 . 8. S p r o n c k , 1990, p . 23. 9 . K l e i n e t a l , 1978, p . 1; a l s o see F i c k e e t a l , 1977. 10. S t a r k , 1949. 11 . In t h i s s e c t i o n I c o u l d use p r e c i s e g e o l o g i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y , and d i s c u s s the u p l i f t o f the R o c k i e s (Laramide Orogeny) i n the P a l e o c e n e , the f o r m a t i o n o f South Park i n the O l i g o c e n e , the upward t i l t i n g o f the s o u t h end o f t h e p a r k i n the P l i o c e n e , the W i s c o n s i n g l a c i a t i o n c o v e r i n g I l l i n o i a n g l a c i a t i o n , e t c . I t r eads more smooth ly as i t i s w r i t t e n , w i t h o u t the g e o l o g i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y . Those s e e k i n g more p r e c i s e i n f o r m a t i o n , o r p r e f e r r i n g more s c i e n t i f i c t rea tment a r e urged t o c o n s u l t S t a r k , 1949. What I have done i n t h i s passage i s i n t e r p r e t e d S t a r k ' s 150 page t e x t , c o n d e n s i n g and e x t r a c t i n g what i s impor tan t t o the 99 u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f South Park g e o l o g y f o r the p u r p o s e s o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y . 12. Renaud, 1945. 13. Renaud, 1945, p p . 5 -6 . 14. Simmons, 1966, p . 50. 15. Simmons, 1966, p. 49 . Though t h i s d a t e seems e a r l y , t h i s i s t h e d a t e g i v e n i n Simmons' h i s t o r y . She w r i t e s , "One r e p o r t s t a t e s t h a t even b e f o r e 1700 F r e n c h t r a p p e r s came up t h e A r k a n s a s R i v e r t o the v i c i n i t y o f P u e b l o . . . . E t i e n n e de Bourgmond i s s a i d t o have seen Comanches i n South Park i n 1724. These o c c u r r e n c e s p r e d a t e the o f f i c i a l F r e n c h d i s c o v e r y o f the R o c k i e s i n 1743 i n Wyoming; t h e r e f o r e , the f i r s t Frenchmen i n C o l o r a d o s u r e l y come from L o u i s i a n a r a t h e r than from the n o r t h e r n o u t p o s t s o f New F r a n c e . " Simmons book i s a p o p u l a r h i s t o r y , c o m p l e t e l y d e v o i d o f f o o t n o t e s . As such i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o check the s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . 16. F o r coverage o f South P a r k ' s e a r l y h i s t o r y , see Simmons, 1966, the most complete h i s t o r y o f the a r e a . A l s o r e f e r t o D a v i d s o n , 1940; and B a i r , 1959. 17. Simmons, 1966, p . 14. Simmons' h i s t o r y o f South Park i s e n t i t l e d "Bayou S a l a d o " . T h i s term and a c c o u n t o f i t s usage have become a c c e p t e d i n l o c a l and r e g i o n a l h i s t o r i e s , and they a r e o f t e n r e p e a t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o Simmons "Bayou S a l a d e " i s a C r e o l e t e r m . To my knowledge t h e F r e n c h word " s a l a d e " means s a l a d , and r e f e r s t o l e t t u c e , e n d i v e s and o t h e r l e a f y i tems one may f i n d i n a s a l a d . The term can a l s o be used t o connote a jumbled up mess - h a r d l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o a p l a c e such as South P a r k . More l i k e l y i n my o p i n i o n , the word " s a l a n t " was b e i n g used by F rench s p e a k i n g Canadian t r a p p e r s , and has s i m p l y been m o d i f i e d and b a s t a r d i z e d by Amer icans i n the t ime s i n c e Canadian t r a p p e r s f i r s t p e n e t r a t e d the p a r k . " S a l a n t " means s a l i n e , and can a l s o be used i n r e l a t i o n t o s a l t marshes and a r e a s where s a l t s form a h a r d pan on the s u r f a c e o f the s o i l . Both s a l t marshes and s a l i n e s o i l s a r e found i n South P a r k , e s p e c i a l l y i n the v i c i n i t y o f S a l t C r e e k . 18. See d i s c u s s i o n i n Simmons, 1966. A l s o The C o n c i s e O x f o r d F r e n c h D i c t i o n a r y . 19. Simmons, 1966, p . 20. 20. Simmons, 1966, p . 62. 100 21. T h i s i s not s e x i s t l a n g u a g e . Q u i t e l i t e r a l l y , I mean men. A c c o r d i n g t o the 1860 c e n s u s , the r a t i o was 115 t o 1 i n the m i n i n g towns o f South Park ( U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1860) . 22 . Simmons, 1966, p p . 62 -76 . 23. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864, p . 548. 24. K e r w i n , 1860; and S t a h l , 1860 and 1862. 25. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1872, p . 624. 26. The i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s d e r i v e d from U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1860, M a n u s c r i p t C e n s u s , P o p u l a t i o n S c h e d u l e s . 27 . Montgomery M i n i n g D i s t r i c t , 1861-1866; and M o s q u i t o M i n i n g D i s t r i c t , n . d . . 28. Mosqu i to M i n i n g D i s t r i c t , n . d . , p. 122. 29. Hayden, 1874, p . 302. 30. Hayden, 1874, p p . 301-302. 31. F o r more on the Grea t S u r v e y s , r e f e r t o B a r t l e t t , 1962. 32. Hayden, 1874, p . 675. 33. Hayden, 1870, p . 223. 34. A l l t h i s i s from F r a z i e r 1 s r e p o r t i n Hayden, 1870, p . 223. 35. Hayden, 1870, p . 179. 36. Hayden, 1874, p . 674. 37. Hayden, 1874, p . 37-38 . 38. Hayden, 1870, p . 249. 39. Hayden, 1874, p . 674. 40. Hayden, 1870, p . 250. 41 . Hayden, 1874, p . 672. 42. Hayden, 1870, p . 245. 43. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864 and 1872. 101 44. Hayden, 1874, p . 674. The Hayden s u r v e y e s t i m a t e s the p o p u l a t i o n s as f o l l o w s : T a r r y a l l (200) , H a m i l t o n (100) , Q u a r t z v i l l e (200 i n 1871) , Alma (500 i n 1872) , Dudley (200 i n 1872) . T h i s s u g g e s t s a r e s u r g e n c e i n m i n i n g i n the e a r l y 1870s, a f t e r the census was t a k e n . 45. C r o w l e y , 1964; D a v i d s o n , 1940; Simmons, 1966; and W i l k s , 1963. 46. W i l k s , 1963, p . 26; a l s o see D a v i d s o n , 1940, and Simmons, 1966. 47. W i l k s , 1963, p p . 1-25,.. A l s o see Anonymous, 1899, p p . 171-181. 48. F a i r p l a y F lume. J u l y 17, 1879, p . 3. 49. I n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s d e r i v e d from U . S . Bureau o f t h e C e n s u s , 1895. T a b l e s a r e d e r i v e d from U . S . Bureau o f t h e C e n s u s , 1864-1989 and 1864-1992. 50. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1895. 51 . U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1872, 1883, and 1895. 52. The h i g h c o u n t r y system o f r a n c h i n g i s d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n geographer John Max C r o w l e y ' s 1964 P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n (Crowley , 1964) . The p a t t e r n i d e n t i f i e d by Crowley and d e s c r i b e d here i s c o n f i r m e d i n i n t e r v i e w s w i t h South Park r a n c h e r s , p a s t and p r e s e n t (See Brompton, 1992 and 1993; C o i l , 1992; McDowel l , 1993; and T e t e r , 1993) . 53. C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 75 -76 , 78, and 90. 54. C r o w l e y , 1964, p. 92. 55. C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 90-140. 56. C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 136-139. 57. C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 272-279. 58. C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 54 -56 . 59 . P e r s o n a l Communicat ion: McDowel l , C o i l , T e t e r , and 60. C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 139-140. 61. P e r s o n a l Communicat ion: McDowel l , Brompton, T e t e r . 102 62. C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 140-152; A l s o see Young, 1983, f o r a good g e n e r a l t rea tment o f h a y i n g , and see Peake, 1937, f o r a d e t a i l e d work on t h e C o l o r a d o range c a t t l e i n d u s t r y . 63. C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 56 -61 . 64. F o r more i n f o r m a t i o n on r a i l r o a d s i n South P a r k , see A b b o t t , 1989, C h a p p e l l e t a l , 1974, Freeman, 1896, K i n d i g and H a l e y , 1986, M c F a r l a n d , 1980, and Thomas, 1986. 65. Brompton, P e r s o n a l Communicat ion; C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 56 -61 ; Peake ,1937 . 66. C o i l , P e r s o n a l Communicat ion. 67. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864-1989. 68. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864-1989; a l s o see Crowley , 1964, p p . 40 -47 . 69. C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 190-192; a l s o see Simmons, 1966, D a v i d s o n , 1940, W i l k s , 1963, and Peake , 1937. 70. U . S . Bureau o f the Census and the S t a t e o f C o l o r a d o , 1885, Enumera t ion d i s t r i c t 1, p . 4. 71 . W i l k s , 1963. 72. Young, 1975. 73. F o r t h o s e s m a l l minded, l i t e r a l i n d i v i d u a l s l a c k i n g i n i m a g i n a t i o n i t s h o u l d be noted t h a t " t a l l g r a s s " i s not t e c h n i c a l l y the t a l l g r a s s o f the t a l l g r a s s p r a i r i e s , but r a t h e r " s h o r t g r a s s " grown t a l l i n the f i e l d s such t h a t i t r e a c h e s t h e b e l l y o f c a t t l e g r a z i n g i n t h e meadows. 74. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970 (Case Number 341, O c t o b e r 1889) . 75. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946 (Report o f J . P . M a x w e l l , 1891, p . 197) . 76. The da tabase c o n t a i n s i n f o r m a t i o n f o r o v e r 300 South Park water r i g h t s , assembled from c o u r t documents i n c l u d i n g a d j u d i c a t i o n s and t r a n s f e r d e c r e e s and from s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e c o r d s . P l e a s e r e f e r t o the A p p e n d i x . 103 CHAPTER FOUR WATER ADMINISTRATION The Framework The system o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n was i n t r o d u c e d t o the c e n t r a l Rocky Mounta ins by miners i n t h e P i k e s Peak g o l d r u s h . Though H i s p a n i c s e t t l e r s i n the San L u i s V a l l e y had i r r i g a t e d as e a r l y as 1852, i t was not S p a n i s h water law p e r se t h a t s p r e a d t h r o u g h the g u l c h e s o f the C o l o r a d o R o c k i e s o r was c o n c r e t i z e d i n the laws o f t h e t e r r i t o r y and l a t e r the s t a t e . 1 P r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n , a system based on the i d e a o f f i r s t i n t ime f i r s t i n r i g h t , found e x p r e s s i o n i n i t i a l l y i n m i n i n g d i s t r i c t bylaws and o r g a n i z i n g d o c u m e n t s . 2 M i n e r s needed water f o r p l a c e r m i n i n g and , i n the c o n t e x t o f s c a r c i t y i n the g o l d f i e l d s o f C a l i f o r n i a and C o l o r a d o , deve loped systems t o a l l o c a t e a p r e c i o u s r e s o u r c e . The system was the p r o d u c t o f c o n d i t i o n s i n which p r e c i p i t a t i o n was v a r i a b l e and d r o u g h t s c o u l d be p r o l o n g e d . The system o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n adopted i n the C a l i f o r n i a g o l d f i e l d s was based on the manner i n which m i n i n g c l a i m s were a l l o c a t e d . 3 C l a i m s were l i m i t e d i n s i z e ; d i l i g e n c e had t o be demonst ra ted i n work ing the c l a i m s o r t h e y were e f f e c t i v e l y f o r f e i t e d . Water law e v o l v e d i n a s i m i l a r way. M i n e r s and i r r i g a t o r s were a l l o w e d t o c l a i m o n l y an amount o f water they c o u l d put t o b e n e f i c i a l u s e . Water u s e r s were r e q u i r e d t o demonst ra te d i l i g e n c e i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e i r water r i g h t s by 104 c o n s t r u c t i n g d i t c h e s and c a n a l s , d i v e r t i n g water i n t o s l u i c e b o x e s , pumping i t th roug h h y d r a u l i c m i n i n g h o s e s , o r i r r i g a t i n g a f i e l d w i t h i t . C o n f l i c t i n g c l a i m s were r e s o l v e d a c c o r d i n g t o the p r i o r i t y i n t ime o f the c l a i m . The p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n system s p r e a d th roughout the West i n the decades f o l l o w i n g the 1849 r u s h t o the g u l c h e s o f the S i e r r a s . C o l o r a d o adopted the d o c t r i n e i n perhaps i t s p u r e s t f o r m . 4 U n l i k e C a l i f o r n i a , r i p a r i a n r i g h t s were g i v e n no s t a n d i n g wha tsoever . U n l i k e many o t h e r s t a t e s , C o l o r a d o was e x p l i c i t - i n e a r l y t e r r i t o r i a l documents d a t i n g back t o 1859, as w e l l as i n the s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n w r i t t e n i n 1876 - about the p r i o r i t y o f water r i g h t s . O d d l y , i n o t h e r wes te rn p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n s t a t e s , p r i o r i t y , w h i l e a key f e a t u r e , remained u n w r i t t e n and u n s u p p o r t e d by s t r o n g s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s . 5 A t the n a t i o n a l s c a l e , the d o c t r i n e o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n remained on tenuous ground u n t i l the passage o f the D e s e r t Land A c t o f 1877. The a c t g r a n t e d s t a t e s the r i g h t t o d e f i n e t h e i r own water laws and gave fo rma l f e d e r a l a p p r o v a l t o the system o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n . The a c t e f f e c t i v e l y d e f i n e d water r i g h t s as p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y r i g h t s under the l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e purv iew o f the s t a t e s . In C o l o r a d o and o t h e r western s t a t e s , water r i g h t s do not e n t a i l the s i m p l e r i g h t t o p o s s e s s water and c l a i m ownership o f i t as a commodi ty . 6 Water r i g h t s i n v o l v e the r i g h t t o use w a t e r . A c c o r d i n g t o the C o l o r a d o C o n s t i t u t i o n , the waters o f the s t reams t h a t l i e w i t h i n the s t a t e ' s b o r d e r s b e l o n g t o the 105 p e o p l e and the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o . I n d i v i d u a l s have the r i g h t t o c l a i m , s e l l , o r p u r c h a s e water r i g h t s . I n d i v i d u a l s h o l d i n g water r i g h t s have the r i g h t t o a p p l y t h o s e waters t o b e n e f i c i a l use i n o r d e r o f p r i o r i t y . A r t i c l e XVI o f the C o l o r a d o C o n s t i t u t i o n r e a d s : S e c t i o n 5. Water o f s t reams p u b l i c p r o p e r t y . - The water o f every n a t u r a l s t r e a m , not h e r e t o f o r e a p p r o p r i a t e d , w i t h i n t h e s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o , i s hereby d e c l a r e d t o be t h e p r o p e r t y o f the p u b l i c , and the same i s d e d i c a t e d t o the use o f the p e o p l e o f the s t a t e , s u b j e c t t o a p p r o p r i a t i o n as h e r e i n a f t e r p r o v i d e d . S e c t i o n 6. D i v e r t i n g u n a p p r o p r i a t e d water - p r i o r i t y p r e f e r r e d u s e . - The r i g h t t o d i v e r t t h e u n a p p r o p r i a t e d waters o f any n a t u r a l s t ream t o b e n e f i c i a l uses s h a l l never be d e n i e d . P r i o r i t y o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n s h a l l g i v e the b e t t e r r i g h t as between t h o s e u s i n g the water f o r the same p u r p o s e ; but when the waters o f any n a t u r a l s t ream a r e not s u f f i c i e n t f o r the s e r v i c e o f a l l t h o s e d e s i r i n g t o use the same, t h o s e u s i n g the water f o r d o m e s t i c p u r p o s e s s h a l l have the p r e f e r e n c e o v e r t h o s e c l a i m i n g f o r any o t h e r p u r p o s e , and t h o s e u s i n g the water f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e s s h a l l have p r e f e r e n c e o v e r t h o s e u s i n g the same f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p u r p o s e s . S e c t i o n 7. R i g h t - o f - w a y f o r d i t c h e s , f l u m e s . - A l l p e r s o n s and c o r p o r a t i o n s s h a l l have the r i g h t - o f - w a y a c r o s s p u b l i c , p r i v a t e and c o r p o r a t e l a n d s f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f d i t c h e s , c a n a l s and f lumes f o r the purpose o f c o n v e y i n g water f o r domest ic p u r p o s e s , f o r the i r r i g a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s , and f o r m i n i n g and m a n u f a c t u r i n g p u r p o s e s , and f o r d r a i n a g e , upon payment o f j u s t c o m p e n s a t i o n . S e c t i o n 8. County commiss ioners t o f i x r a t e s f o r water when. - The g e n e r a l assembly s h a l l p r o v i d e by law t h a t t h e b o a r d o f county commiss ioners i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t i e s , s h a l l gave power, when a p p l i c a t i o n i s made t o them by e i t h e r p a r t y i n t e r e s t e d , t o e s t a b l i s h r e a s o n a b l e maximum r a t e s t o be charged f o r the use o f wa te r , whether f u r n i s h e d by i n d i v i d u a l s o r c o r p o r a t i o n s . 7 The C o l o r a d o C o n s t i t u t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d the i n t e r e s t s o f the s t a t e , d e f i n e d c o n v e n t i o n s f o r the use o f water , and a t tempted t o p r o t e c t i t s c i t i z e n s from the p r e d a t o r y p r a c t i c e s o f water d e v e l o p e r s and s p e c u l a t o r s . I t e s t a b l i s h e d a system o f 106 p r e f e r e n c e whereby uses were p r i o r i t i z e d : d o m e s t i c use was most e s s e n t i a l , a g r i c u l t u r e was second i n i m p o r t a n c e , and i n d u s t r y and m i n i n g ( d e s p i t e the f a c t t h a t m in ing had c r e a t e d the system) were a c c o r d e d the l a s t p r i o r i t y . P r e f e r e n c e r e f l e c t e d the a g r a r i a n and d o m e s t i c v a l u e s o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s o c i e t y . Suppor ted by s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s , A r t i c l e XVI o f the C o l o r a d o C o n s t i t u t i o n p r o v i d e d the l e g a l b a s i s f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n o f water r i g h t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h i n the s t a t e . The system t h a t t o o k shape d i v i d e d power and a u t h o r i t y i n water m a t t e r s between t h e c o u r t s and the C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r . Through the c o u r t s , water r i g h t s were a d j u d i c a t e d and d i s p u t e s r e s o l v e d . Through t h e S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e , c r e a t e d i n 1881, water was a d m i n i s t e r e d and d i s t r i b u t e d . P r i o r t o the Water R i g h t s D e t e r m i n a t i o n and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n A c t o f 1969 , 8 water m a t t e r s were h a n d l e d t h r o u g h t h e l o c a l , d i s t r i c t c o u r t s . 9 T h i s i n c l u d e d a d j u d i c a t i o n s , d i s p u t e s , r e d u c t i o n s and abandonments o f water r i g h t s , changes i n the type o r p l a c e o f u s e , f i n d i n g s o f d i l i g e n c e , and o t h e r m a t t e r s . A f t e r 1969, water i s s u e s were d i r e c t e d t h ro u g h n e w l y - c r e a t e d water c o u r t s . 1 0 The s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o was d i v i d e d i n t o seven i r r i g a t i o n d i v i s i o n s , each r e p r e s e n t i n g one o f the s t a t e ' s major d r a i n a g e b a s i n s ( F i g u r e 4 - 1 ) . The 1969 A c t c r e a t e d a water c o u r t i n each d i v i s i o n , r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l water m a t t e r s w i t h i n the b a s i n . A water judge was a p p o i n t e d and g i v e n the a s s i s t a n c e o f a r e f e r e e , who was empowered t o hand le day t o day c o u r t m a t t e r s and r u l e on water r i g h t s i s s u e s . I f the r e f e r e e ' s 107 C O L O R A D O W A T E R D I V I S I O N S 0 25 50 75 100 L E G E N D TOWNS WITH WATER 9 COURTS & DIVISION ENGINEERS OFFICES DRAINAGE DIVISION BOUNDARIES S T A T E BOUNDARIES 5 DIVISION NUMBERS F i g u r e 4 - 1 . Map: C o l o r a d o Water D i v i s i o n s . 108 r u l i n g was d i s p u t e d , the water judge would hear the c a s e . In t h e event t h a t the r u l i n g p roved c o n t e n t i o u s , a p p e a l c o u l d be made t o t h e C o l o r a d o Supreme C o u r t . In more complex c a s e s , the water r e f e r e e had the o p t i o n o f r e f e r r i n g the c a s e t o the judge f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The 1969 Water R i g h t s D e t e r m i n a t i o n and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n A c t succeeded i n s t r e a m l i n i n g the j u d i c i a l management o f wa te r , but i t removed the p r o c e s s somewhat from l o c a l c o n t r o l . No l o n g e r were c a s e s h e a r d a t the county s e a t . No l o n g e r was a c c e s s t o the c o u r t s so easy o r knowledge o f the c o u r t s so immediate . The C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r was charged w i t h a d m i n i s t e r i n g the d e c r e e s o f the c o u r t . I t was the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o see t h a t water was d i s t r i b u t e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h s t a t e s t a t u t e and i n consonance w i t h d i s t r i c t a d j u d i c a t i o n s . Water r i g h t a d j u d i c a t i o n s d e f i n e d l o c a l water r i g h t s : the c l a i m a n t s , t h e amounts o f water t a k e n , the use t o which t h e water was p u t , the p o i n t where the water was d i v e r t e d from the s t r e a m , the name o f the d i t c h , the da te i t was f i r s t pu t t o u s e , i t s p r i o r i t y number w i t h i n the d i s t r i c t , and i n some c a s e s the p l a c e the water was put t o u s e . A d j u d i c a t i o n s c o u l d o c c u r w i t h i n a d i s t r i c t on an annua l b a s i s , and each took p r e c e d e n c e o v e r the a d j u d i c a t i o n t h a t f o l l o w e d . In o t h e r words , a d i t c h a d j u d i c a t e d i n 1889, w i t h a p r i o r i t y da te o f June 1, 1878, would be c o n s i d e r e d s e n i o r t o a d i t c h a d j u d i c a t e d i n 1913 w i t h a p r i o r i t y da te o f May 15, 1867. I t was not o n l y a mat te r o f when a u s e r p u t s the water t o work. L e g a l l y i t was a mat te r 109 o f when t h a t use was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the s t a t e ' s l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s t e m . 1 1 The S t a t e E n g i n e e r a d m i n i s t e r e d C o l o r a d o ' s water th rough seven d i v i s i o n e n g i n e e r s , each r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a major d r a i n a g e b a s i n w i t h i n the s t a t e . The d i v i s i o n e n g i n e e r s , i n t u r n , r e g u l a t e d water use th rough a team o f a s s i s t a n t e n g i n e e r s , and a network o f water commiss ioners and d e p u t i e s o p e r a t i n g a t the l o c a l o r d i s t r i c t l e v e l . 1 2 I t was the l o c a l water c o m m i s s i o n e r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o communicate r i v e r c a l l s t o water u s e r s w i t h i n the d i s t r i c t . A r i v e r c a l l c o u l d be i n i t i a t e d by any a p p r o p r i a t o r who was not r e c e i v i n g a f u l l a l l o c a t i o n o f wa te r . The r i v e r c a l l was, q u i t e l i t e r a l l y , a c a l l f o r water f rom t h e r i v e r . The c a l l c o u l d be i n i t i a t e d anywhere i n the r i v e r s y s t e m . 1 3 The assumpt ion was t h a t i f an a p p r o p r i a t o r was not r e c e i v i n g water , j u n i o r a p p r o p r i a t o r s upst ream were r e c e i v i n g the a l l o c a t i o n . 1 4 Once the d i s t r i c t water commiss ioner was n o t i f i e d , an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e s s was s e t i n mot ion whereby the p r i o r i t y da te o f the w a t e r - s h o r t a p p r o p r i a t o r 1 s d i t c h c o u l d be communicated t o l o c a l water c o m m i s s i o n e r s , who i n t u r n would see t h a t d i t c h e s w i t h p r i o r i t i e s j u n i o r t o the w a t e r - s h o r t d i t c h were shu t down. The p r i n c i p a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f d i s t r i c t water commiss ioners remained e s s e n t i a l l y the same, b e f o r e and a f t e r the passage o f the 1969 A c t . L o c a l water commiss ioners a t tempted t o e n f o r c e C o l o r a d o ' s p r i o r i t y s y s t e m . They kept r e c o r d s o f d i v e r s i o n s i n the d i s t r i c t s , i n s p e c t e d water s t o r a g e 110 f a c i l i t i e s , c o n f i r m e d d i l i g e n c e i n the development o f water r i g h t s , and documented non-use and abandonment. P r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n d o c t r i n e i s v a s t l y more c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n t h i s r u d i m e n t a r y a c c o u n t i m p l i e s , bu t i t has been t r e a t e d i n c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l e l s e w h e r e . 1 5 D e t a i l e d l e g a l e x p l i c a t i o n i s u n n e c e s s a r y h e r e , but the e s s e n t i a l s o f the system must be u n d e r s t o o d i f the South Park water t r a n s f e r s a r e t o be brought i n t o c l e a r e r f o c u s . The t r a n s f e r s took p l a c e w i t h i n a l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system t h a t p e r m i t t e d changes i n the t y p e and l o c a t i o n o f u s e . The t r a n s f e r s a l s o r e p r e s e n t two o f the most e s s e n t i a l e lements o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n d o c t r i n e : the a b i l i t y t o move water from one l o c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r i n o r d e r t o put i t t o economic u s e , and the t rea tment o f water r i g h t s as p r o p e r t y r i g h t s t h a t can be bought and s o l d . 1 6 The Emergence o f the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s O f f i c e By 1880, C o l o r a d o ' s p o p u l a t i o n had s w e l l e d t o c l o s e t o 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 . 1 7 M i n e r s s t i l l roved the mountains i n s e a r c h o f s i g n s o f m i n e r a l i z a t i o n , but the most s i g n i f i c a n t and s t a b l e p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was c l u s t e r e d on the p iedmont , j u s t e a s t o f the F r o n t Range. A p o r t i o n l i v e d i n t h e c i t i e s . O t h e r s r e s i d e d on f a r m s , where i r r i g a t i o n was used t o r a i s e a v a r i e t y o f c r o p s . Demand f o r i r r i g a t i o n water was h i g h , and as c o n f l i c t s between a g r i c u l t u r a l u s e r s a r o s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y , the s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e r e c o g n i z e d the need f o r a s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y o f the s t a t e ' s w a t e r s . 1 8 I l l In 1881, the O f f i c e o f the S t a t e I r r i g a t i o n E n g i n e e r was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r the purpose o f d i s t r i b u t i n g the s t a t e ' s w a t e r s . The o f f i c e assumed o v e r s i g h t o f t e n i r r i g a t i o n d i s t r i c t s , c r e a t e d two y e a r s e a r l i e r by an a c t o f the l e g i s l a t u r e . 1 9 Each d i s t r i c t had a l o c a l S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f I r r i g a t i o n o r water c o m m i s s i o n e r . From 1879 u n t i l the passage o f the Water R i g h t s D e t e r m i n a t i o n and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n A c t 90 y e a r s l a t e r , appointment o f water commiss ioners was l o c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d . County commiss ioners recommended a p p o i n t e e s t o the g o v e r n o r , and water c o m m i s s i o n e r s were p a i d a t l e a s t i n p a r t out o f l o c a l c o f f e r s . A f t e r 1969, water commiss ioners were h i r e d by t h e s t a t e as s a l a r i e d employees . The t a s k s c o n f r o n t i n g the s t a t e ' s f i r s t I r r i g a t i o n E n g i n e e r , Eugene S t i m s o n , were f o r m i d a b l e . In h i s f i r s t b i e n n i a l r e p o r t S t imson s t a t e d t h a t he had d i f f i c u l t y g e t t i n g money from the l e g i s l a t u r e t o pay h i s e m p l o y e e s . 2 0 These d i f f i c u l t i e s c o s t him h i s a s s i s t a n t . I n i t i a l l y the agency f o c u s e d on s u r v e y work and stream g a u g i n g . In o r d e r t o d i s t r i b u t e the s t a t e ' s water i t was n e c e s s a r y t o de te rmine the amount o f water f l o w i n g i n the r i v e r s , then a s c e r t a i n the a c t u a l c a p a c i t y o f i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s . Work f o c u s e d i n i t i a l l y on the Poudre R i v e r , a major t r i b u t a r y o f t h e South P l a t t e , where c o n f l i c t s between i r r i g a t o r s had been most i n t e n s e i n the y e a r s l e a d i n g up t o the a g e n c y ' s f o r m a t i o n . 112 When E . S . N e t t l e t o n took over S t i m s o n ' s p o s i t i o n i n A p r i l o f 1883, he found the o f f i c e i n d i s a r r a y and f u n d i n g s t i l l i n a d e q u a t e . O r g a n i z a t i o n o f the o f f i c e , i t s p o l i c i e s and p r o c e d u r e s , p roceeded from the ground u p . N e t t l e t o n i s c r e d i t e d w i t h " i n a u g u r a t i n g " the s t a t e ' s system o f water r i g h t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . 2 1 He a l s o worked w i t h the l e g i s l a t u r e and the g o v e r n o r t o s e c u r e more money. E f f o r t s a t s u r v e y i n g and gaug ing s t reams expanded i n n o r t h c e n t r a l C o l o r a d o t o the B i g Thompson and S a i n t V r a i n d r a i n a g e s . 2 2 In a d d i t i o n , the d i v i s i o n o f the s t a t e i n t o water d i s t r i c t s c o n t i n u e d ; by 1885 t h e r e were 16, by 1887 34 had been d e s i g n a t e d . C o l o r a d o ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system came t o g e t h e r q u i c k l y . In h i s 1887 r e p o r t t o t h e g o v e r n o r , N e t t l e t o n p r o u d l y n o t e d t h a t t h e system was a r o u s i n g i n t e r e s t i n p l a c e s as f a r away as A u s t r a l i a and was drawing f a v o r a b l e r e a c t i o n from o t h e r western s t a t e s l i k e Wyoming. 2 3 The system was expanded and improved under t h e S t a t e E n g i n e e r s who f o l l o w e d N e t t l e t o n . Measurement o f s t reams was extended a c r o s s the s t a t e t o e s t a b l i s h base f low f i g u r e s , then measurements c o n t i n u e d t o d e v e l o p some u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f y e a r t o y e a r f l u c t u a t i o n s i n s t ream f l o w s . 2 4 As c o u r t a d j u d i c a t i o n s brought d i t c h e s i n t o the l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s t e m , d i s t r i c t s were f u r t h e r d e f i n e d , o f f i c i a l s a p p o i n t e d , and l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n begun. The s t a t e d e v e l o p e d forms and p r o c e d u r e s , i n c l u d i n g , a t l e a s t i n t h e o r y , annua l r e p o r t s from the d i s t r i c t water c o m m i s s i o n e r s . 113 The e a r l y system was f a r from p e r f e c t , bu t t e c h n o l o g y d i d much t o improve a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The advent o f the au tomob i le made a c c e s s t o d i t c h e s and headgates e a s i e r f o r l o c a l water c o m m i s s i o n e r s . The i n c r e a s i n g u b i q u i t y o f the t e l e p h o n e d i d much t o speed the communicat ion o f r i v e r c a l l s . In r e c e n t y e a r s , the development o f s a t e l l i t e t e c h n o l o g y has e n a b l e d the s t a t e t o make the t r a n s i t i o n t o a system o f s a t e l l i t e m o n i t o r e d s t ream g a u g i n g s t a t i o n s , powered by s o l a r p a n e l s ( F i g u r e 4 - 2 ) . The computer has a l l o w e d the c o o r d i n a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n about C o l o r a d o wa te r , water u s e , and water u s e r s on an unprecedented s c a l e . The e x p a n s i o n o f C o l o r a d o ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system f o r water p r o c e e d e d l i k e patchwork . Some p a r t s o f the s t a t e , most n o t a b l y t h e piedmont and e a s t e r n p l a i n s , came more r a p i d l y i n t o the system and more c o m p l e t e l y under the eye o f the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e . In the mountains a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was a t b e s t p a r t i a l . Some d i s t r i c t s , l i k e Water D i s t r i c t 23, which i n c l u d e d South P a r k , were l a r g e and c o n t a i n e d hundreds o f d i t c h e s c a r r y i n g s m a l l amounts o f wa te r . S i n c e p e r s o n n e l were a s s i g n e d on the b a s i s o f the t o t a l c f s ( c u b i c f e e t p e r second) o f water d e c r e e d w i t h i n the d i s t r i c t , not the number o f d i t c h e s o r c o m p l e x i t y o f the i r r i g a t i o n network, Water D i s t r i c t 23 had t o o few water commiss ioners and d e p u t i e s t o r e g u l a t e u s e . D i s t r i c t s such as t h o s e on t h e e a s t e r n p l a i n s , where farmers drew water from l a r g e mutual d i t c h e s and c a n a l s , were l e s s c o m p l i c a t e d t o a d m i n i s t e r . 2 5 S i n c e l a r g e amounts o f water were d i v e r t e d , the 114 F i g u r e 4-2. Stream gaug ing s t a t i o n , p a r t o f the s t a t e ' s p r e s e n t s a t e l l i t e m o n i t o r i n g system f o r s t ream f l o w s , South P a r k , 1993. 115 number o f water commiss ioners and d e p u t i e s was adequate t o the t a s k . M o n i t o r i n g and enforcement were s i m p l i f i e d t o o because the s t a t e ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ended a t the headgate where l a r g e mutua l d i t c h e s took water from the r i v e r . Beyond t h a t p o i n t , appor t ionment o f water was the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the s h a r e h o l d e r s . The e x t e n t t o which water d i s p u t e s a r o s e was i n p a r t a f u n c t i o n o f the water s u p p l y each y e a r . B e g i n n i n g i n 1881, the S t a t e E n g i n e e r m o n i t o r e d the water s u p p l y and the snowpack each y e a r . The p r e c i s i o n o f the measurements and d a t a used by the agency i n c r e a s e d o v e r t i m e , as d i d a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the v a r i a b i l i t y o f the water s u p p l y and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the e x t e n t o f o v e r a p p r o p r i a t i o n on C o l o r a d o ' s r i v e r s . A d m i n i s t r a t i o n e v o l v e d as d i d i r r i g a t i o n . In an i n t e r e s t i n g s e c t i o n o f h i s r e p o r t t o the g o v e r n o r f o r the y e a r s 1925 and 1926, S t a t e E n g i n e e r M i c h a e l C . H i n d e r l i d e r a n a l y z e d the p a t t e r n o f i r r i g a t i o n development i n C o l o r a d o . 2 6 He d i s t i n g u i s h e d f i r s t a p i o n e e r p e r i o d c h a r a c t e r i z e d by " s t r a g g l i n g " d i t c h e s : s m a l l d i t c h e s b u i l t t o i r r i g a t e s m a l l p l o t s o f c r o p s f o r s a l e i n the m i n i n g camps. Around 1864, a p r a c t i c e was adopted f o r c l a i m i n g a water r i g h t by " p o s t i n g o f a n o t i c e on the bank o f the s t ream a t which p o i n t the water was t o be d i v e r t e d , and the f i l i n g o f such n o t i c e i n the o f f i c e o f the c o u n t y r e c o r d e r . " 2 7 By 1870 t h i s p r a c t i c e was u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d . 116 In t h e second phase o f i r r i g a t i o n deve lopment , which H i n d e r l i d e r i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the y e a r s 1870-1874, mutual companies and c o o p e r a t i v e d i t c h e s emerged. The S t a t e E n g i n e e r no ted t h a t " the g r e a t e r p o r t i o n o f our water r i g h t s , i n volume i f no t i n number, were i n i t i a t e d under t h i s m e t h o d . " 2 8 F o l l o w i n g t h i s s t a g e came a t h i r d p e r i o d , s i m i l a r t o the second but much g r e a t e r i n s c a l e . C a n a l s were extended and improved , and new c a n a l s were b u i l t . Large s e c t i o n s o f l a n d were b rought under t h e d i t c h . A l s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s p e r i o d , which l a s t e d from 1874 t o 1890, was c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g i r r i g a t i o n works and water r i g h t s . The s c a l e o f t h e s e endeavors r e q u i r e d e x t e r n a l c a p i t a l . A f t e r 1890, the s t a t e e n t e r e d a p e r i o d o f dam b u i l d i n g . 2 9 As C o l o r a d a n s came t o g r i p s w i t h the r e a l i t i e s o f t h e i r water s i t u a t i o n , the need f o r s t o r a g e was r e c o g n i z e d . Snowmelt p r o v i d e d abundant s u p p l i e s i n the s p r i n g , but by summer water l e v e l s had dropped s u b s t a n t i a l l y . Dam b u i l d i n g p r o v i d e d the p o t e n t i a l t o g i v e i r r i g a t o r s water more c o n s i s t e n t l y o v e r the c o u r s e o f t h e growing s e a s o n . F o r c i t i e s , s t o r a g e meant s u p p l i e s c o u l d be h e l d o v e r t o f i l l d o m e s t i c and i n d u s t r i a l needs i n t i m e s o f d r o u g h t . Dam b u i l d i n g has c o n t i n u e d t o the p r e s e n t , though e n v i r o n m e n t a l o p p o s i t i o n and c h a n g i n g p u b l i c a t t i t u d e s have l e d t o a d e c l i n e i n r e c e n t y e a r s . The l a s t s t a g e i d e n t i f i e d by H i n d e r l i d e r was one c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n c r e a s i n g f e d e r a l invo lvement i n water p r o j e c t s , as l o c a l and p r i v a t e investment p r o v e d inadequa te t o 117 fund deve lopment . The p a t t e r n o f f e d e r a l invo lvement has changed s u b s t a n t i a l l y s i n c e H i n d e r l i d e r ' s t i m e . Today the f e d e r a l government has an expanded r o l e . I t i s i n v o l v e d i n l a r g e s c a l e i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t development and i s i m p l i c a t e d i n a m y r i a d o f ways i n water use v i a the a s s e r t i o n o f f e d e r a l r e s e r v e d r i g h t s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e g u l a t i o n s . A s i x t h and seven t h s t a g e can be added t o H i n d e r l i d e r ' s scheme r e g a r d i n g i r r i g a t i o n development i n C o l o r a d o . The s i x t h b e g i n s w i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c e n t e r - p i v o t i r r i g a t i o n and c o n t i n u e s t o the p r e s e n t . The development o f groundwater , most s i g n i f i c a n t l y on the e a s t e r n p l a i n s , has t r a n s f o r m e d C o l o r a d o a g r i c u l t u r e , a l l o w i n g i r r i g a t i o n and c u l t i v a t i o n t o ex tend f a r beyond r i p a r i a n a r e a s . In 1969, the Water R i g h t s D e t e r m i n a t i o n and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n A c t i n t e g r a t e d the management o f groundwater and s u r f a c e wa te r , i n a u g u r a t i n g ano ther d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e s t a g e i n C o l o r a d o ' s i r r i g a t i o n deve lopment . As s u g g e s t e d p r e v i o u s l y , the 1969 A c t a l s o e n t a i l e d e x t e n s i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s t r u c t u r i n g and a marked d e c r e a s e i n l o c a l c o n t r o l . South Park i r r i g a t o r s d i d not a n t i c i p a t e t h e s e developments when they demanded r a t h e r s t r e n u o u s l y t h a t t h e i r water r i g h t s be a d j u d i c a t e d back i n 1889. A d j u d i c a t i o n D i s t r i c t 23 was formed i n August o f 1888, and the o r i g i n a l a d j u d i c a t i o n o f water r i g h t s i n the d i s t r i c t took p l a c e the f o l l o w i n g y e a r . A c c o r d i n g t o S t a t e E n g i n e e r J . S . Greene , the d i s t r i c t was c r e a t e d 118 upon p e t i t i o n from numerous r e s i d e n t s and u s e r s o f water f o r i r r i g a t i o n i n South Park . The c r e a t i o n o f t h i s water d i s t r i c t was d e s i r a b l e f o r the f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s : f i r s t , t h a t the s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f i r r i g a t i o n s h o u l d be a b l e t o c o n t r o l the use o f waters i n South P a r k , which he i s not a b l e t o do u n l e s s t h a t p o r t i o n o f the c o u n t r y i s embraced i n a water d i s t r i c t ; s e c o n d , t h a t t h e r e s i d e n t s o f t h e Park may s e c u r e an a d j u d i c a t i o n o f t h e i r water r i g h t s , which can o n l y be done i f they a r e embraced i n a water d i s t r i c t . 3 0 In a l l , 228 water r i g h t s were a d j u d i c a t e d w i t h i n the d i s t r i c t , which encompassed South Park and mountainous a r e a s t o the e a s t 3 1 ( F i g u r e s 4-3 and 4-4) . The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f the d i t c h e s were l o c a t e d i n South P a r k , where r a n c h i n g was t h r i v i n g by the l a t e 1880s. The d i t c h e s v a r i e d i n s i z e . Some l i k e the mighty S i g a f u s D i t c h c a r r i e d s e v e r a l p r i o r i t i e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g the d i t c h ' s e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n 1873 and l a t e r en la rgements i n 1875 and 1876. Under the t h r e e S i g a f u s D i t c h p r i o r i t i e s a t o t a l o f 60 c f s o f water c o u l d be c l a i m e d : 25 c f s under the o r i g i n a l p r i o r i t y , 25 c f s under the f i r s t en la rgement , and 10 c f s under t h e s e c o n d e n l a r g e m e n t . 3 2 Most South Park d i t c h e s were s m a l l , c a r r y i n g 12 c f s o r l e s s . O f t e n r a n c h e r s would use a number o f d i t c h e s t o i r r i g a t e a s i n g l e hay meadow o r , i n c a s e s where t h e i r l a n d was i n complex t e r r a i n , would d e v e l o p a network o f d i t c h e s t o i r r i g a t e s m a l l f i e l d s o f hay . Between 1889 and 1913, an a d d i t i o n a l h a l f - d o z e n water r i g h t s were a d j u d i c a t e d i n Water D i s t r i c t 2 3 . 3 3 The 1913 a d j u d i c a t i o n b r o u g h t a n o t h e r hundred d i t c h e s i n t o t h e s t a t e s y s t e m , the 1918 p r o c e e d i n g s i n c o r p o r a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 m o r e , 3 4 and s o . The number grew u n t i l t h e r e were i n e x c e s s o f 400 water r i g h t s d e c r e e d i n South Park a l o n e (Appendix C) . Many 119 ^ N N E Y ESTABLISHMENT OF DITCHES M O U N T A I N RESERVOIR PLATTE D R A I N A G E ^ SOUTH P A R K 1860 - 1990 0ELEVEN MILE CANYON RESERVOIR LEGEND m 1860S 1870 - 1878 Lzma 1879 - 1889 AFTER 1889 — STREAM TT DITCH n.w. CJJt F i g u r e 4-3. E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f D i t c h e s , P l a t t e D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1860-1990. In t h i s s e t o f s c h e m a t i c l i n e d r a w i n g s , p a t t e r n s o f e s t a b l i s h m e n t and a d j u d i c a t i o n o f water r i g h t s a r e shown w i t h i n the South Park d r a i n a g e s y s t e m , d i v i d e d t o show the South P l a t t e and T a r r y a l l s i d e s o f South P a r k . 120 TARRYALL FFFR RESERVOIR, J-E S T A B L I S H M E N T O F D ITCHES T A R R Y A L L D R A I N A G E S O U T H P A R K ' 1860 - 1990 LEGEND m iseos rrr n 1870 -187» 1879 - 188S AFTER 1889 — STREAM TT DITCH CIJL F i g u r e 4 -4 . E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f D i t c h e s , T a r r y a l l D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1860-1990. 121 o f t h e s e water r i g h t s p r o v e d t o be f u t i l e , meaning t h a t they were r a r e l y , i f e v e r , i n p r i o r i t y ; and water was f r e q u e n t l y n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r i r r i g a t i o n . In h i g h - w a t e r y e a r s and under f l o o d c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s e j u n i o r d i t c h e s might r e c e i v e an a l l o t m e n t . On the ground t h i s was not an i s s u e u n t i l en forcement o f the p r i o r i t y system was improved i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . E a r l y i r r i g a t o r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e l o c a t e d near the headwaters , took water b o t h i n and out o f p r i o r i t y . Once the s t a t e g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f d i v e r s i o n s , j u n i o r d i t c h e s became r e l a t i v e l y w o r t h l e s s . Today i n South P a r k , the most v a l u a b l e water r i g h t s a r e t h o s e a d j u d i c a t e d i n 1889, w i t h p r i o r i t y d a t e s o f 1878 o r e a r l i e r . D u r i n g the heyday o f i r r i g a t i o n South Park was e t c h e d w i t h hundreds o f s m a l l d i t c h e s . D i s t r i b u t e d up and down the p a r k ' s two p r i n c i p a l s t r e a m s , the South P l a t t e and the T a r r y a l l ( F i g u r e 4-5) , d i t c h e s d i v e r t e d water from s m a l l e r t r i b u t a r i e s and s p r i n g s as w e l l . In the f o l l o w i n g p a g e s , a s e r i e s o f d iagrams ( l i n e drawings) s c h e m a t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t the d i t c h e s o f South P a r k . L i n e drawings a r e used by e n g i n e e r s and h y d r o l o g i s t s and show s i m p l y the arrangement o f d i t c h e s , t r i b u t a r i e s , and r e s e r v o i r s a l o n g a s t ream o r s t r e t c h o f r i v e r . An o r i g i n a l s e t o f l i n e drawings i s p r e s e n t e d here t o g i v e some sense o f the c o m p l e x i t y o f the South Park s y s t e m . 3 5 F u r t h e r , the l i n e drawings d e p i c t the amount o f water d e c r e e d t o s e l e c t e d South Park d i t c h e s , d i s t i n g u i s h i n g l a r g e d i t c h e s l i k e t h e Canon D i t c h from s m a l l e r c a r r i e r s l i k e the Mary G . Borden D i t c h . The l i n e 122 Figure 4-5. Map: South Park Drainage. 123 drawings a r e c l u s t e r e d by d r a i n a g e . The P l a t t e s i d e o f South Park i s shown i n the f i r s t f o u r p a g e s , and the T a r r y a l l s i d e i n the next two ( F i g u r e s 4-6 t o 4 - 1 2 ) . E a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r , and i n subsequent c h a p t e r s , a n o t h e r s e t o f l i n e drawings show on one page a s i m p l i f i e d s c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the T a r r y a l l s i d e , and on a n o t h e r page , the P l a t t e s i d e o f South Park ( F i g u r e s 4-3 and 4-4) . These l i n e drawings a r e used l i k e t h e m a t i c maps t o p o r t r a y p a t t e r n s w i t h i n the sys tem: p a t t e r n s o f c i t y o w n e r s h i p , p a t t e r n s o f a d j u d i c a t i o n and p r i o r i t y , and o t h e r e lements o f i n t e r e s t . The l i n e drawings p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e s 4-6 th rough 4-12 p r o v i d e the d e t a i l : d i t c h names, l o c a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r d i t c h e s , and the amount o f water d e c r e e d . They show o n l y s e l e c t e d d i t c h e s : t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n a g r i c u l t u r a l t o m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s , and d i t c h e s h i s t o r i c a l l y o r p r e s e n t l y used f o r i r r i g a t i o n . D i t c h e s t h a t were d e c r e e d f o r d o m e s t i c use ( i n c l u d i n g r a n c h c l a i m s ) , f o r m i n i n g , m u n i c i p a l o r i n d u s t r i a l u s e , o r f o r f i s h c u l t u r e have been e x c l u d e d . A l s o , some v e r y j u n i o r d i t c h e s , f o r example the Chet D i t c h e s , 3 6 a d j u d i c a t e d i n 1953, were e x c l u d e d as w e l l . The s m a l l e r s c a l e l i n e drawings p r o v i d e a v iew o f the l a r g e r system and the p a t t e r n s w i t h i n i t . S t a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n South Park South Park p roved t o be one o f the most d i f f i c u l t d i s t r i c t s i n t h e s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o t o a d m i n i s t e r due t o i t s s i z e and v a s t number o f s m a l l d i t c h e s . The n a s c e n t d i s t r i c t had been formed 124 F i g u r e 4 -6 . L i n e Drawings , South Fork South P l a t t e R i v e r , Upper and Lower R e a c h e s , showing i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s i n South Park and s e l e c t e d r e s e r v o i r s i n D i s t r i c t 23. In t h e s e l i n e d r a w i n g s , and t h o s e i n the pages t h a t f o l l o w , i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s and s t reams a r e r e p r e s e n t e d s c h e m a t i c a l l y . The d i t c h e s a r e coded t o r e p r e s e n t the amount o f water ( i n c f s ) d e c r e e d t o each d i t c h . 125 F i g u r e 4 - 7 . L i n e Drawings , South Fork South P l a t t e R i v e r P r i o r t o R e s e r v o i r C o n s t r u c t i o n , showing d i t c h e s i n u n d a t e d by A n t e r o and E l e v e n M i l e Canyon R e s e r v o i r s and not shown on the p r e v i o u s s e t o f l i n e d r a w i n g s . 126 M I D D L E F O R K S O U T H P L A T T E R I V E R - L O W E R R E A C H F i g u r e 4 -8 . L i n e Drawings , M i d d l e Fork South P l a t t e R i v e r , Upper and Lower Reaches . 127 Figure 4 - 9 . L i n e Drawings , F o u r m i l e Creek and H igh C r e e k . 128 129 130 131 a t t h e b e h e s t o f l o c a l r a n c h e r s , but the s t a t e had a p o w e r f u l i n t e r e s t i n e x t e n d i n g i t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t o the h i g h c o u n t r y . Around the t ime the d i s t r i c t was formed, the F a r m e r ' s H igh L i n e C a n a l and o t h e r i r r i g a t o r s i n the South P l a t t e V a l l e y e a s t o f t h e f o o t h i l l s , f i l e d s u i t a g a i n s t the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o and the S t a t e E n g i n e e r . 3 7 A t i s s u e was the f a i l u r e o f the s t a t e t o c l o s e down South Park d i t c h e s t h a t were r u n n i n g water out o f p r i o r i t y . The p l a i n t i f f s a l l h e l d water r i g h t s on the m i d d l e r e a c h o f the South P l a t t e c l o s e t o Denver . They a s s e r t e d t h a t the s t a t e was s h u t t i n g down t h e i r d i t c h e s t o s u p p l y the needs o f s e n i o r a p p r o p r i a t o r s downstream, w h i l e t a k i n g no a c t i o n i n South P a r k , which l a y above them. Wi th t h e F a r m e r ' s H igh L i n e s u i t h a n g i n g o v e r t h e i r h e a d s , t h e s t a t e worked q u i c k l y t o do the b a s i c s u r v e y s and gaug ing n e c e s s a r y f o r the l o c a l water commiss ioner t o have some b a s i s f o r t h e enforcement o f water o r d e r s . S t i l l , enforcement p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t . The S u p e r i n t e n d e n t f o r I r r i g a t i o n f o r D i v i s i o n 1, the South P l a t t e , went p e r s o n a l l y t o South Park i n an e f f o r t t o impose the p r i o r i t y s y s t e m , "but a s i d e from b e i n g unab le t o s e c u r e the needed i n f o r m a t i o n , he found t h a t i n the e x c i t e d c o n d i t i o n o f the p e o p l e i t would r e q u i r e s t a t e m i l i t i a t o e n f o r c e h i s o r d e r s . " 3 8 In such a c l i m a t e , the l o c a l water commiss ioner was h e s i t a n t t o c l o s e headgates t o d i t c h e s t h a t were r u n n i n g out o f p r i o r i t y . In h i s r e p o r t t o the g o v e r n o r f o r t h e 1890 i r r i g a t i o n s e a s o n , the S t a t e E n g i n e e r no ted t h a t on 132 June 4 o r d e r s were communicated t o water commiss ioner H a n l i n , bu t no a c t i o n was taken t o c l o s e down South Park d i t c h e s . 3 9 H i s t o r i c a l l y , South Park i r r i g a t o r s were accustomed t o t u r n i n g water out i n t o t h e f i e l d s i n t h e s p r i n g , and a l l o w i n g the d i t c h e s t o run c o n t i n u o u s l y u n t i l the h a y i n g s e a s o n . Whi le ' f i r s t i n t i m e , f i r s t i n r i g h t ' had s u c c e e d e d i n b r i n g i n g sometimes o r n e r y South Park r a n c h e r s i n t o the s y s t e m , once i n , t h e r e was l i t t l e i n c e n t i v e t o y i e l d t o c a l l s from s e n i o r a p p r o p r i a t o r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e o u t s i d e the d i s t r i c t . A d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o e v o l v e . D i s t r i c t water c o m m i s s i o n e r s were expec ted t o f i l e annua l r e p o r t s summar iz ing d i v e r s i o n s , new d i t c h e s a d j u d i c a t e d i n the d i s t r i c t s , and e s t i m a t e s o f i r r i g a t e d and i r r i g a b l e a c r e a g e . D i s t r i c t 23 water c o m m i s s i o n e r s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , were l e s s d i l i g e n t than o t h e r s , and f o r many y e a r s no i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e f o r South P a r k . 4 0 T h i s may be due i n p a r t t o the h i g h t u r n o v e r i n p e r s o n n e l i n the d i s t r i c t , which r e s u l t e d i n numerous new appointments i n the m i d d l e o f t h e i r r i g a t i o n s e a s o n . Indeed, e a r l y numbers i n water commiss ioner r e p o r t s a re o f t e n h i g h l y i n a c c u r a t e , so even where f i g u r e s a r e r e p o r t e d they a r e o f t e n o f q u e s t i o n a b l e v a l u e . E a r l y r e p o r t s p u t t h e i r r i g a t e d ac reage i n South Park c l o s e t o 75,000 a c r e s i n the e a r l y 1 8 9 0 s . 4 1 By the end o f the d e c a d e , t h e new water c o m m i s s i o n e r ' s e s t i m a t e was about 60,000 a c r e s , 4 2 and by 1905 the e s t i m a t e d acreage t h a t c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y be i r r i g a t e d was s e t a t 26,000 a c r e s . 4 3 D i s t r i c t 23 water commiss ioner A l o n z o Wr ight noted i n the back o f one o f h i s f i e l d 133 b o o k s , t h a t "because i n f o r m a t i o n on l e n g t h o f d i t c h e s and l a t e r a l s i s s o s k e t c h y , and t h e number o f a c r e s i r r i g a t e d by o t h e r s i s so i n a c c u r a t e , 1 , 4 4 no r e p o r t was made f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r y e a r . A p p a r e n t l y p a r t o f the prob lem was t h a t South Park i r r i g a t o r s were r e l u c t a n t t o s h a r e i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h l o c a l water c o m m i s s i o n e r s . W i l l i a m Metz , the water commiss ioner i n 1948, found t h a t some r a n c h e r s f l a t l y r e f u s e d t o g i v e d e f i n i t e i n f o r m a t i o n , so he had t o make e s t i m a t e s o f i r r i g a t e d ac reage and t a l k t o r a n c h foremen and hay crews t o a s c e r t a i n the number o f s t a c k s and the t o n n a g e . 4 5 The problems o f managing an a rea the s i z e o f D i s t r i c t 23 cannot be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . In the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , when water commiss ioners rode on horseback t o p o l i c e t h e i r d i s t r i c t s , i t r e q u i r e d f o u r d e p u t i e s t o o v e r s e e i r r i g a t i o n i n the a r e a . 4 6 Problems w i t h enforcement c o n t i n u e d i n t o the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y as w e l l . In the d i v i s i o n e n g i n e e r ' s r e p o r t f o r 1910, F i l l m o r e C o g s w e l l wro te : On June 6 I r e c e i v e d a w r i t t e n r e f u s a l from the water commiss ioner i n D i s t r i c t No. 23, t o c a r r y out my i n s t r u c t i o n s t o shut down d i t c h e s i n h i s d i s t r i c t p o s t d a t i n g J a n u a r y 1, 1879. On June 18 he r e s i g n e d and a new commiss ioner was a p p o i n t e d by the G o v e r n o r , who r e p o r t e d f o r du ty on June 23. Between the d a t e s o f J u l y 11 and 14 the water commiss ioner o f D i s t r i c t No. 23 and the D i v i s i o n E n g i n e e r c l o s e d down 25 d i t c h e s p o s t - d a t i n g J a n u a r y l , 1867, i n the South P a r k , near H a r t s e l . S i n c e t h a t da te the d i t c h owners i n D i s t r i c t No. 23 have c l o s e d down t h e i r d i t c h e s whenever they were i n s t r u c t e d t o do so by the water c o m m i s s i o n e r . 4 7 That June r a n c h e r Dav id C o l l a r d l o s t h i s j o b , and A l o n z o Wr ight took h i s p l a c e as D i s t r i c t 23 water commiss ioner ( F i g u r e s 4-13 and 4 - 1 4 ) . A s p a t e o f d r y y e a r s d i d not improve t h e s i t u a t i o n 134 Figure 4-13. Headgate i n d i s r e p a i r , Benjamin S p i n n e y ' s r a n c h on the South F o r k o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , 1910. D i v i s i o n e n g i n e e r C o g s w e l l n o t e d , " T h i s headgate was i n v e r y bad c o n d i t i o n . There were no bottom b o a r d s . An open c h a n n e l 5 f e e t w ide , a l o n g s i d e the headgate a l l o w e d any water i n the st ream t o f low i n t o the d i t c h up t o the c a p a c i t y o f the d i t c h . " ( C o u r t e s y , C o l o r a d o S t a t e A r c h i v e s ) . 135 F i g u r e 4-14. Newly a p p o i n t e d water commiss ioner A l o n z o Wr ight and d i v i s i o n e n g i n e e r F i l l m o r e Cogswe l l c l o s i n g down the Raynor and Edmondson No. 2 D i t c h on the M i d d l e Fork o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , 1910 ( C o u r t e s y , C o l o r a d o S t a t e A r c h i v e s ) . 136 i n South P a r k . Under drought c o n d i t i o n s c o m p e t i t i o n f o r water i n t e n s i f i e d . In 1911, A l o n z o Wr ight encounte red c o n d i t i o n s t h a t might be termed an improvement o v e r the p r e v i o u s y e a r , but remained f a r from s a t i s f a c t o r y from the p o i n t o f v iew o f the s t a t e . Wr ight d e s c r i b e d a marked d i f f e r e n c e i n a t t i t u d e i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f South P a r k : In the n o r t h e r n p a r t o f the d i s t r i c t , i r r i g a t o r s i n T a r r y a l l , M i c h i g a n and J e f f e r s o n Creeks have show a d i s p o s i t i o n t o be more l a w - a b i d i n g and have been much more w i l l i n g t o obey the o r d e r o f the water o f f i c i a l s than b e f o r e . I n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o the names o f d i t c h e s , l o c a t i o n o f h e a d g a t e s , e t c . was f r e e l y and k i n d l y g i v e n , and I know o f no i n s t a n c e were an open , d e f i a n t v i o l a t i o n o f the law - such as f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r r e d i n o t h e r p a r t s o f the d i s t r i c t was commit ted . On the South and West o f the d i s t r i c t a l o n g the South P l a t t e and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t f e e l i n g was m a n i f e s t e d . D u r i n g the i r r i g a t i o n season o f 1910 I found i n t h i s l o c a l i t y a v e r y b i t t e r , d e f i a n t f e e l i n g e x i s t e d a g a i n s t the S t a t e E n g i n e e r s . . . Embarking on my d u t i e s e a r l y i n the season o f 1911 I found the same s t a t e o f f e e l i n g s t i l l e x i s t i n g . The streams were low and water everywhere s c a r c e . Demands were f r e q u e n t l y made upon t h i s d i s t r i c t by the D i v i s i o n E n g i n e e r f o r water t o s u p p l y s h o r t a g e s i n o t h e r d i s t r i c t s f o r d i t c h e s h o l d i n g o l d e r p r i o r i t i e s , but i n r a r e i n s t a n c e s were any o f t h e s e demands r e s p e c t e d . Headgates were c l o s e d o n l y t o be found open and d i t c h e s r u n n i n g t o t h e i r f u l l c a p a c i t y on the f o l l o w i n g m o r n i n g . The exper iment o f l o c k i n g the headgates was t r i e d but w i t h no b e t t e r r e s u l t s . In many i n s t a n c e s on the f o l l o w i n g morning the l o c k s were found broken o f f , g a t e s r a i s e d and d i t c h e s r u n n i n g f u l l . T h i s c o n d i t i o n p r e v a i l e d u n t i l the c l o s e o f the s e a s o n . A v e r y l a r g e f o r c e o f d e p u t i e s would have been n e c e s s a r y t o h a n d l e the s i t u a t i o n s u c c e s s f u l l y and as t h e s e were not a v a i l a b l e the s i t u a t i o n was a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n . 4 8 The same y e a r the F a r m e r ' s H igh L i n e c a s e f i n a l l y went t o c o u r t . S t a t e E n g i n e e r C h a r l e s Comstock o b s e r v e d , F o r more than twenty y e a r s t h e r e has been more o r l e s s f r i c t i o n between the d i t c h owners a l o n g the South P l a t t e r i v e r below P l a t t e Canon and the d i t c h owners up i n the 137 South P a r k , o r D i s t r i c t No. 23, the l a t t e r r e f u s i n g t o obey the o r d e r s i s s u e d by the i r r i g a t i o n o f f i c i a l s t o c l o s e down the j u n i o r d i t c h e s i n o r d e r t o s u p p l y the demands o f s e n i o r d i t c h e s i n the lower v a l l e y . The South Park p e o p l e contended t h a t as t h e i r d i t c h e s were s h o r t and seldom extended more than a m i l e away from the r i v e r , the i r r i g a t i o n o f t h e i r g r a s s l a n d d i d not m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t the f low o f the water t o the v a l l e y nor t o any g r e a t e x t e n t r e t a r d i t . 4 9 In F e b r u a r y o f 1912 an i n j u n c t i o n was i s s u e d e n j o i n i n g the s t a t e ' s i r r i g a t i o n o f f i c i a l s t o d i s t r i b u t e water i n s t r i c t a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the p r i o r i t y system and o r d e r i n g South Park i r r i g a t o r s t o comply . The r u l i n g was a p p e a l e d u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t o the C o l o r a d o Supreme C o u r t . S t a t e o v e r s i g h t o f i r r i g a t i o n i n South Park was o n l y p a r t i a l , as e v i d e n c e d by t h e s m a l l number o f d i t c h e s r e p o r t e d i n d i v e r s i o n r e c o r d s p r i o r t o the 1970s. In 1921 and 1922, i n f o r m a t i o n was o n l y r e p o r t e d f o r 60 out o f o v e r 409 d i t c h e s i n the d i s t r i c t . 5 0 In the 1960s, o n l y 157 d i t c h e s were r e p o r t e d on a c o n s i s t e n t b a s i s by water commiss ioner A x e l C a r l s o n . T e c h n o l o g y speeded communicat ions and improved a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . In 1929, C C . Hezmalhatch assumed the p o s i t i o n o f D i v i s i o n 1 E n g i n e e r and i n i t i a t e d the p r a c t i c e o f d a i l y t e l e p h o n e c a l l s from the d i s t r i c t water commiss ioners t o the d i v i s i o n o f f i c e . Hezmalhatch was a b l e t o keep t r a c k o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n and storm p a t t e r n s a t the headwaters , m o n i t o r prob lems i n the d i s t r i c t s , and communicate r i v e r c a l l s on a d a i l y b a s i s . A d m i n i s t r a t i v e problems i n South Park c o n t i n u e d . Dry c o n d i t i o n s s e t n e i g h b o r a g a i n s t n e i g h b o r . In h i s 1931 r e p o r t t o 138 the s t a t e e n g i n e e r , Hezmalhatch wro te : In D i s t r i c t No. 23, South P a r k , f o r a lmost the f i r s t t i m e , c o n f l i c t s e x i s t e d between s e n i o r and j u n i o r a p p r o p r i a t o r s , i . e . , t h e s e n i o r a p p r o p r i a t o r s were s h o r t e d , due t o j u n i o r s above d i v e r t i n g the s u p p l y . Some improvement i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h i s d i s t r i c t i s b e i n g made each y e a r . However, a few y e a r s l i k e the p a s t , i n which some u s e r s demand s e r v i c e , would be o f m a t e r i a l a s s i s t a n c e . 5 1 D i v i s i v e as i t s o u n d s , c o n f l i c t i n South Park s e r v e d the s t a t e ' s i n t e r e s t s . I f c o n d i t i o n s c o u l d prompt South Park i r r i g a t o r s t o t u r n on each o t h e r , they c o u l d no l o n g e r p r e s e n t a u n i f i e d f r o n t t o s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o r as e f f e c t i v e l y d e f y water o r d e r s . Wi th l i n e s o f c l e a v a g e d e f i n e d , the l o c a l water commiss ioner was i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o e n f o r c e the p r i o r i t y s y s t e m , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e s e n i o r a p p r o p r i a t o r s were on h i s s i d e . As n a t u r e would have i t , t h e d rought Hezmalhatch d e s c r i b e d i n 1931 l a s t e d u n t i l 1938 . 5 2 The s t a t e e n g i n e e r d e s c r i b e d the c o n d i t i o n s a t the b e g i n n i n g : The s e a s o n a l c o n d i t i o n s o f 1931 w i l l d o u b t l e s s go down i n h i s t o r y as t h e most t r y i n g which t h e i r r i g a t i o n i s t has e v e r had t o meet, not o n l y from the s t a n d p o i n t o f i n s u f f i c i e n t water s u p p l i e s , but a l s o as the r e s u l t o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , such as p r o l o n g e d and e x c e s s i v e t e m p e r a t u r e s , d e f i c i e n t r a i n f a l l , i n s e c t p e s t s , low c r o p r e t u r n s , bo th i n tonnage and q u a l i t y , a l l c u l m i n a t i n g i n r u i n o u s p r i c e r e t u r n s , g e n e r a l l y below c o s t s o f p r o d u c t i o n . The ne t r e s u l t o f which has been a body blow t o i r r i g a t e d f a r m i n g and l i v e s t o c k i n t e r e s t s , our two p r i n c i p l e i n d u s t r i e s . 5 3 The s t a t e and the c i t y o f Denver took advantage o f the d i v i s i o n s t h e d rought and g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s c r e a t e d i n t h e South Park r a n c h i n g community. The s t a t e c o n s o l i d a t e d i t s p o s i t i o n , and Denver p u r c h a s e d l a n d and water r i g h t s , 139 e s t a b l i s h i n g a t o e h o l d i n the Park and s e t t i n g the s t a g e f o r the t r a n s f e r o f South Park water t o m u n i c i p a l h a n d s . D e s p i t e s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n the 1930s, problems i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t i n u e d . In the 1940s, s p e c i a l d e p u t i e s from t h e d i v i s i o n o f f i c e were a s s i g n e d t o South Park t o a s s i s t the l o c a l water commiss ioner and h i s team o f a s s i s t a n t s . 5 4 One o f the s p e c i a l d e p u t i e s was J . Eugene W h i t t e n , who i n 1943 became d i v i s i o n e n g i n e e r , and l a t e r s e r v e d as the S t a t e E n g i n e e r from 1951 t o 1964. D u r i n g the summer o f 1939 Whi t ten was a s s i g n e d t o the main o f f i c e i n Denver . He kept a d i a r y i n which he r e c o r d e d s h o r t n o t a t i o n s , many o f them p e r t a i n i n g t o D i s t r i c t 23. On June 30 he n o t e d , " D e s s e r i c h [ the water commiss ioner ] c a l l e d from F a i r p l a y r e p o r t s s t reams h o l d i n g up w e l l . L i t t l e t r o u b l e e xcep t w i t h one o r two o f f e n d e r s who i r r i g a t e a t n i g h t . " 5 5 As a d m i n i s t r a t i o n improved , some South Park i r r i g a t o r s sought t o c i r c u m v e n t en fo rcement . Those who d i d p a i d a p r i c e . In J u l y , one o f the o f f e n d e r s , r a n c h e r George T e t e r , was a r r e s t e d , 5 6 though the deputy d i s t r i c t a t t o r n e y p r o v e d r e l u c t a n t t o p r o s e c u t e t h e c a s e . 5 7 An e d i t o r i a l i n t h e Park County R e p u b l i c a n and F a i r p l a y Flume e x p r e s s e d s e n t i m e n t s i n the d i s t r i c t : T h i s summer's c r i t i c a l water s i t u a t i o n i n South Park has r e v i v e d a g r e a t d e a l o f i n t e r e s t and comment u p o n . . . a c o n d i t i o n t h a t i s m a n i f e s t l y u n f a i r and e m p h a t i c a l l y d e p l o r a b l e . The f i l i n g o f a c r i m i n a l s u i t a g a i n s t one o f our r a n c h e r s who i s r e p o r t e d t o have been u n a b l e t o r e s i s t the v e r y human urge t o d i s r e g a r d i l l adapted water d e c r e e s , by d i v e r t i n g water o r i g i n a t i n g j u s t above h i s p l a c e upon h i s p a r c h e d meadow, which p roduces h i s r a n c h i n g n e c e s s i t y -140 h a y . . . hay i s a l i f e b l o o d o f the e n t i r e i n d u s t r y , s i n c e i t i s o f t e n the d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r i n p e r m i t t i n g a r a n c h e r t o run t h a t amount o f s t o c k which means the d i f f e r e n c e between j u s t meet ing n e c e s s a r y expenses and a r e a s o n a b l e p r o f i t . 5 8 The e d i t o r i a l d e s c r i b e d r a n c h i n g as " the o n l y s t a b l e and r e l i a b l e e n t e r p r i s e i n t h i s c o u n t r y . " Blame f o r the water s h o r t a g e was put s q u a r e l y on the s h o u l d e r s o f Denver , who by t h i s t ime had two l a r g e s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s i n South P a r k : I t i s enough t o e x c i t e t o p r o f o u n d p r o f a n i t y any c i v i c -minded c i t i z e n , l e t a l o n e a d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d r a n c h e r , t o d r i v e th rough our c o n s i d e r a b l e hay p r o d u c i n g a r e a s and see the p a r c h e d meadows, and then d r i v e on down the r i v e r s and see water s t i l l b e i n g s t o r e d i n a lmost f i l l e d - t o - c a p a c i t y r e s e r v o i r s f o r an u n n e c e s s a r y measure o f p r o t e c t i o n t o i n t e r e s t s whose c l a i m s t o such water a t b e s t a r e s u b j e c t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e s u s p i c i o n , and whose methods o f o b t a i n i n g such waters can h a r d l y be h e l d t o be above r e p r o a c h . Such v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s o f t e n en joy p r i v i l e g e s g e n e r a l l y conceded t o ex tend t o abuses o f r i g h t s , but they l i k e w i s e sometimes hang themse lves by t h e i r own e x t e n s i v e abuses o f such r i g h t s , born o f t h e i r s u c c e s s e s i n c o m p a r a t i v e l y minor a b u s e s ; o v e r s t e p p i n g t h e i r r i g h t s t o such an e x t e n t , mere ly upon p resumpt ion t h a t the l i t t l e f e l l o w s cannot o r w i l l not assume the expense and b o t h e r o f s e e k i n g r e t r i b u t i o n and p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e i r s t a t u t o r y r i g h t t h r o u g h the medium o f t h e c o u r t s . 5 9 In September o f the same y e a r Whi t ten r e c o r d e d more prob lems i n D i s t r i c t 23: Metz c a l l e d from F a i r p l a y . R e p o r t s t h a t Mr. F r e d Wahl opened the headgate o f the R a n d a l l d i t c h . . . and t h a t a f t e r Metz c l o s e d i t Wahl c a l l e d Metz on phone and s a i d he was g o i n g t o open s a i d headgate r e g a r d l e s s o f consequence . I n s t r u c t e d Metz t o a s c e r t a i n i f he does open the s a i d headgate and i f he does so a g a i n s t o r d e r s t o o b t a i n a war rant f o r Mr. W a h l ' s a r r e s t . The f o l l o w i n g i r r i g a t i o n season some d i t c h e s were s t i l l d i v e r t i n g water a g a i n s t o r d e r s , but i n g e n e r a l the s i t u a t i o n appeared t o be improved , a t l e a s t a t the s t a r t o f the s e a s o n . 6 1 George T e t e r c o n t i n u e d t o r e s i s t s t a t e c o n t r o l and i r r i g a t e d a t 141 n i g h t . A f t e r f i n d i n g c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e , W h i t t e n l o c k e d the headgate o f T e t e r ' s B o n n e l l D i t c h on t h e M i d d l e Fork o f t h e P l a t t e . T e t e r p r o t e s t e d , but Whi t ten t o l d him the d i t c h would remain l o c k e d u n t i l i t came back i n t o p r i o r i t y . 6 2 Indeed i t was, bu t a g a i n the f o l l o w i n g summer Whi t ten and h i s men were back l o c k i n g the B o n n e l l D i t c h headga te . George T e t e r was by no means the o n l y o f f e n d e r . He had the m i s f o r t u n e t o r a n c h j u s t o u t s i d e the town o f F a i r p l a y , w i t h h i s d i t c h and h i s headgate e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e from the r o a d o r v i a an abandoned r a i l r o a d grade t h a t r a n down the M i d d l e F o r k from F a i r p l a y t o G a r o . Enforcement was most r i g o r o u s c l o s e t o town and i n a r e a s t h a t c o u l d be reached by Park c o u n t y ' s s p a r s e network o f d i r t and g r a v e l r o a d s . D i v e r s i o n r e c o r d s kept by l o c a l water commiss ioners c o n t i n u e t o r e f l e c t t h i s p a t t e r n t h r o u g h t h e 1950s and 1 9 6 0 s . 6 3 Not a l l work done by p e o p l e from the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e was so charged o r i n t e r e s t i n g . Much o f the a c t i v i t y d u r i n g the 1940s, 50s , and 60s i n South Park c e n t e r e d on c h e c k i n g the c o n d i t i o n o f h e a d g a t e s , and i n s t a l l i n g f lumes and measur ing w e i r s be low, so d i v e r s i o n s c o u l d be more a c c u r a t e l y measured ( F i g u r e 4 - 1 5 ) . These f u n c t i o n s were i m p o r t a n t . Wi thout p r o p e r headgates water c o u l d run c o n t i n u o u s l y i n d i t c h e s , and w i t h o u t f lumes a p p r o p r i a t o r s c o u l d t a k e more than t h e i r d e c r e e d amount. By 1942, the war was h a v i n g an impact on a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n South Park and e lsewhere i n the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o . In November, 142 F i g u r e 4 -15 . Measuring flume, Sheeprock Ditch on Jefferson Creek, 1993. 143 the i s s u e o f g a s o l i n e r a t i o n i n g was d i s c u s s e d a t a water c o m m i s s i o n e r s m e e t i n g . 6 4 Ad jus tments had t o be made which c u r t a i l e d enforcement and o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s . D u r i n g the m i d d l e p a r t o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h e r e was a g r a d u a l improvement i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . By the 1960s, the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e was t u r n i n g i t s a t t e n t i o n i n c r e a s i n g l y t o groundwater , t o m o n i t o r i n g r e s e r v o i r and p i p e l i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s and t o g r a p p l i n g w i t h the i s s u e s s u r r o u n d i n g i n t e r b a s i n t r a n s f e r o f water from the weste rn s l o p e o f the R o c k i e s . I r r i g a t i o n i n South Park drew l e s s comment from the main and d i v i s i o n o f f i c e s . In 1964, the s t a t e e n g i n e e r no ted i n h i s annua l r e p o r t "The South Park a r e a was ex t re m e ly d ry and c a u s e d no end o f c o n t r o v e r s y among the r a n c h e r s . " 6 5 The s i t u a t i o n was c o m p l i c a t e d i n mid -August by the sudden dea th o f l o n g t ime D i s t r i c t 23 water commiss ioner A x e l C a r l s o n , who was k i l l e d i n a head -on c a r c o l l i s i o n i n South P a r k . F o r the next s e v e r a l y e a r s t h e r e was no f u l l t ime water commiss ioner i n the p a r k , and p e r s o n n e l from the d i v i s i o n o f f i c e were s e n t t o the d i s t r i c t p e r i o d i c a l l y t o mon i to r the s i t u a t i o n . 6 6 By t h e l a t e 1960s, the p r e s e n t e r a o f a c c e l e r a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l t o m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s was b e g i n n i n g . Water c o m m i s s i o n e r s were c a l l e d upon t o t e s t i f y i n c o u r t t o a u t h e n t i c a t e d i v e r s i o n r e c o r d s and d e s c r i b e h i s t o r i c use under t h e d i t c h e s i n v o l v e d i n the t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s . 6 7 Water c o m m i s s i o n e r s accompanied c i t y e n g i n e e r s and s c i e n t i s t s on f i e l d t r i p s , and sometimes they were c a l l e d upon t o f i n d the s o u r c e o f 144 i l l e g a l i r r i g a t i o n water a f f e c t i n g a r e a s s u b j e c t t o c o u r t mandated d r y up . As the t r a n s f e r s p r o c e e d e d , D i s t r i c t 2 3 water c o m m i s s i o n e r s became l e s s i n v o l v e d w i t h r e g u l a t i n g i r r i g a t i o n i n the f i e l d and more concerned w i t h k e e p i n g t r a c k o f c i t y a c c o u n t i n g o f d i v e r s i o n s . A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was r e v o l u t i o n i z e d i n t h e 1970s by c o m p u t e r i z a t i o n a t the l e v e l o f the d i v i s i o n o f f i c e . In the 1990s, computers were i n t r o d u c e d a t the d i s t r i c t l e v e l when then deputy water commiss ioner Den ise P a p r o c k i b rought h e r own p e r s o n a l computer t o the o f f i c e . A t the s t a t e l e v e l , b e g i n n i n g i n the 1970s, water d i v e r s i o n r e c o r d s were p r o c e s s e d each y e a r and summarized by computer . Over the next two d e c a d e s , e f f o r t s f o c u s e d on g e t t i n g comple te and a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o t h e s t a t e ' s d a t a b a s e . Methods o f measur ing the f low o f water i n d i t c h e s and st reams became more s o p h i s t i c a t e d ( F i g u r e 4-16) , and i n 1985 s a t e l l i t e m o n i t o r i n g o f s t ream f lows was i n i t i a t e d . Beyond t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s , the Water R i g h t s D e t e r m i n a t i o n and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n A c t o f 1969 produced a r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f water a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n C o l o r a d o . As p r o m u l g a t e d , the a c t produced g r e a t e r c e n t r a l i z a t i o n i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Water commiss ioners became s a l a r i e d s t a t e employees , no l o n g e r s e l e c t e d w i t h i n p u t f rom county c o m m i s s i o n e r s . Water m a t t e r s were no l o n g e r heard i n d i s t r i c t c o u r t , but i n water c o u r t s sometimes o v e r a hundred m i l e s away. The new water c o u r t s and the d i v i s i o n o f f i c e s were o f t e n w i t h i n w a l k i n g d i s t a n c e o f one a n o t h e r . 145 F i g u r e 4 - 16 . As h e r deputy and l o c a l i r r i g a t o r Tom Parmelee l o o k o n , water commiss ioner Den ise P a p r o c k i measures t h e f low o f a d i t c h on Twe lvemi le Ranch, one o f the l a s t a c t i v e i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s i n South P a r k , 1993. 146 Indeed water a d m i n i s t r a t i o n remains i m p e r f e c t t o the p r e s e n t , w i t h a c e r t a i n amount o f guesswork i n v o l v e d d e s p i t e the p e r v a s i v e n e s s o f t e c h n o l o g y . D i s t r i c t 23 remains v a s t , w i t h one f u l l t ime water commiss ioner and a deputy h i r e d o n l y f o r the i r r i g a t i o n s e a s o n . Some d i t c h e s a r e s t i l l h a r d t o a c c e s s , o t h e r s c o n t i n u e t o run i l l e g a l l y a t n i g h t . S i n c e the i n c e p t i o n o f the C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e i n 1881, the s t a t e has d e v e l o p e d p o l i c i e s , p r o c e d u r e s , fo rms , and t e c h n i q u e s d e s i g n e d t o make a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and documenta t ion as u n i f o r m as p o s s i b l e . Techno logy p r o v i d e d the means t o more e f f e c t i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . L e g a l changes , most n o t a b l y i n 1969, promoted f u r t h e r c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . 6 8 A d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s t r u c t u r i n g removed the water c o u r t from F a i r p l a y t o G r e e l e y , 135 m i l e s from South P a r k , and e x c l u d e d l o c a l government f rom t h e appointment and r e m u n e r a t i o n o f water c o m m i s s i o n e r s . In f a c t , t h i s l a t t e r change has d e p o l i t i c i z e d the s e l e c t i o n o f water c o m m i s s i o n e r s , which i s b e n e f i c i a l , but more s i g n i f i c a n t l y i t r e p r e s e n t s the e x p a n s i o n o f power a t the s t a t e l e v e l and the c o n t r a c t i o n o f l o c a l power. Under the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l o f the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e , and w i t h i n the l e g a l framework p r o v i d e d by the C o l o r a d o d o c t r i n e o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n , a s e t o f even ts were about t o u n f o l d . South P a r k ' s i r r i g a t i o n water was t o be t r a n s f e r r e d t o urban h a n d s , a t f i r s t s l o w l y i n the 1930s, and then i n a r u s h i n the l a t e r decades o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . 147 Chapter Notes 1. T h i s i s not t o imp ly t h a t S p a n i s h water law had no i n f l u e n c e on t h e system o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n t h a t emerged i n C o l o r a d o and C a l i f o r n i a . F o r a more thorough d i s c u s s i o n o f S p a n i s h water law, see Dunbar, 1983, p p . 4 - 8 ; and c o n s u l t r e f e r e n c e s i d e n t i f i e d i n L e e , 1978 and 1988. 2 . Montgomery M i n i n g D i s t r i c t , 1861-1866; M o s q u i t o M i n i n g D i s t r i c t , n . d . 3. F o r an e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f water law i n C a l i f o r n i a , see Dunbar, 1983, p p . 61 -72 . D u n b a r ' s 1983 book i s c o n s i d e r e d a c l a s s i c , p r o v i d i n g a thorough t r e a t m e n t o f the e v o l u t i o n o f water law i n the weste rn U n i t e d S t a t e s . 4. "Though m o d i f i e d , p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n based on c o n s t i t u t i o n a l law i s the f o u n d a t i o n o f water law i n A l a s k a , A r i z o n a , Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New M e x i c o , Utah and Wyoming. A h y b r i d system o r i g i n a l l y based on r i p a r i a n r i g h t s but l a t e r c o n v e r t e d t o an a p p r o p r i a t i o n s y s t e m , commonly c a l l e d the ' C a l i f o r n i a S y s t e m ' , i s used i n C a l i f o r n i a , K a n s a s , M i s s i s s i p p i , N e b r a s k a , N o r t h Dakota , Oklahoma, Oregon , South Dakota , Texas and W a s h i n g t o n . " ( C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1989) . 5. Dunbar, 1983, p . 74. Note t h a t , f o r t h i s r e a s o n , pure a p p r o p r i a t i o n d o c t r i n e i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as the C o l o r a d o D o c t r i n e . 6. The i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n the Framework s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r r e p r e s e n t s a condensed v e r s i o n o f the a u t h o r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n C o l o r a d o based on the f o l l o w i n g s o u r c e s : Dunbar, 1983; V r a n e s h , 1986; C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1989; and d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h water commiss ioners Mark C u r r y and Den ise P a p r o c k i and w i t h water a t t o r n e y M i c h a e l Wa lker . 7. C o l o r a d o S t a t e C o n s t i t u t i o n , A r t i c l e XVI . As quoted i n V r a n e s h , 1989, p . 61. 8. In a d d i t i o n t o r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h e c o u r t s , t h e 1969 a c t i n t e g r a t e d the management o f ground and s u r f a c e wa te r . T h i s was p e r h a p s , i n b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e , i t s most s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n . In t h i s s tudy however , which emphasizes the a l l o c a t i o n and r e a l l o c a t i o n o f s u r f a c e r i g h t s , t h e r o l e o f t h e a c t i n c h a n g i n g l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e arrangements i s o f g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t . 148 9. P r i o r t o 1969, l o c a l d i s t r i c t c o u r t s were charged w i t h c a r r y i n g out the laws o f the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o i n r e g a r d t o wa te r , i n j u s t the same way t h a t they were charged w i t h c a r r y i n g out the laws o f the s t a t e i n r e g a r d t o c r i m i n a l and c i v i l m a t t e r s . 10. T h i s r e p r e s e n t s c o n s o l i d a t i o n and c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . A f t e r 1969, the water c o u r t s hand led m a t t e r s heard p r e v i o u s l y i n l o c a l d i s t r i c t c o u r t s . 11. A d j u d i c a t i o n d i d not p rove p r o b l e m a t i c because w i t h i n each d i s t r i c t the f i r s t a d j u d i c a t i o n was t r e a t e d as " o r i g i n a l " -meaning t h a t d i t c h e s a d j u d i c a t e d i n 1889 i n South Park w i t h 1867 p r i o r i t y d a t e s were s e n i o r t o d i t c h e s a d j u d i c a t e d a t e a r l i e r t i m e s i n o t h e r water d i s t r i c t s , b e a r i n g 1868 p r i o r i t y d a t e s . W i t h i n d i s t r i c t s a d j u d i c a t i o n d i d no t p r o v e p r o b l e m a t i c because a t f i r s t t h e r e was an absence o f r i g o r o u s en fo rcement . By the t ime enforcement became e f f e c t i v e , a d j u d i c a t i o n was an a c c e p t e d f a c t . 12. Water commiss ioners a re s t a t e o f f i c i a l s . In t h i s sense t h e r e i s no l o c a l j u r i s d i c t i o n p e r s e , o n l y s t a t e j u r i s d i c t i o n . S t a t e j u r i s d i c t i o n extends i n t o l o c a l a r e a s t h r o u g h the d i s t r i c t water c o m m i s s i o n e r s . Water commiss ioners e x e r c i s e a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n l o c a l a r e a s , w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e i r water d i s t r i c t s . 13. The p r i o r i t y system a p p l i e s t o the r i v e r system as a whole ( to the mainstem and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s ) . 14. The b a s i s f o r c o n f l i c t between upstream and downstream a p p r o p r i a t o r s l i e s i n p h y s i o g r a p h y and g r a v i t y . Water f lows f i r s t p a s t the headgates o f upstream a p p r o p r i a t o r s b e f o r e r e a c h i n g the headgates o f downstream a p p r o p r i a t o r s . In the absence o f w e l l deve loped enforcement j u n i o r upst ream a p p r o p r i a t o r s c o u l d t a k e water r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e p r i o r i t y o f t h e i r c l a i m s i n terms o f e i t h e r p r i o r i t y da te o r d a t e o f a d j u d i c a t i o n . 15. Dunbar, 1983; Langum, 1985; and P i s a n i , 1987. 16. As w i l l become c l e a r l a t e r i n t h i s t h e s i s , a complex a d m i n i s t r a t i v e g r i d was b e i n g imposed on South P a r k . The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system was a s t a t e system and o p e r a t e d a t t h a t s c a l e . As s u c h , i t emphasized the needs o f the l a r g e s t p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e most p r o d u c t i v e r e g i o n s , t h e most b e n e f i c i a l u s e s . Those w i t h the economic r e s o u r c e s t o p u r c h a s e and t r a n s f e r water r i g h t s were t h o s e t o whom the b e n e f i t s o f t h e system u l t i m a t e l y a c c r u e d . 17. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864-1992. 1880 C e n s u s . 149 18. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. Eugene K. S t i m s o n , 1882, p p . 7 - 8 . S t imson emphasizes t h a t c o n f l i c t s were not between compet ing t y p e s o f u s e r s , bu t r a t h e r between i r r i g a t o r s . 19. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1989, p. 3. 20. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. Eugene K. S t i m s o n , 1882, p. 17. 21 . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. A d d i s o n J . McCune, 1902, p . 15. 22. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. E . S . N e t t l e t o n , 1885, p . 8. 23. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. E . S . N e t t l e t o n , 1887, p . 7. 24. From r e a d i n g the "water s u p p l y " s e c t i o n o f the s t a t e e n g i n e e r ' s b i e n n i a l r e p o r t s , i t becomes e v i d e n t t h a t i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a t s t a t e • s water s u p p l y had been-s e r i o u s l y o v e r e s t i m a t e d . Year a f t e r y e a r the n o t a t i o n "dry y e a r " a p p e a r e d , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t low p r e c i p i t a t i o n t o t a l s were not y e t u n d e r s t o o d as the norm i n t h i s r e g i o n . 25. F rank M i l e n s k i , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . A l s o see M i l e n s k i , 1990. 26. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. M i c h a e l C . H i n d e r l i d e r , 1927. p p . 14 -17 . 27. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. M i c h a e l C . H i n d e r l i d e r , 1927, p . 14. 28. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. M i c h a e l C . H i n d e r l i d e r , 1927, p . 14. 29. A t t h i s j u n c t u r e some r e a d e r s might expec t a d i s c u s s i o n o f the c o n s e r v a t i o n movement. I t s h o u l d be noted t h a t the schema I am d e s c r i b i n g here i s t h a t o u t l i n e d by M i c h a e l C . H i n d e r l i d e r . He made no ment ion o f the c o n s e r v a t i o n movement p e r s e , perhaps because he h i m s e l f was p a r t o f i t - a c l a s s i c example o f the c l i c h e ' i n a b i l i t y t o see the f o r e s t f o r the t r e e s ' . Those i n t e r e s t e d i n the c o n s e r v a t i o n movement a r e urged t o c o n s u l t R o d e r i c k N a s h ' s c l a s s i c W i l d e r n e s s and the Amer ican Mind (1967) , and h i s e d i t e d volume Amer ican E n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m ; Readings i n C o n s e r v a t i o n H i s t o r y (1990) . 30. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. J . S . Greene , 1889, p. 226. 150 31. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. 1889 Water R i g h t s A d j u d i c a t i o n ( C i v i l A c t i o n 341) . 32. Appendix C . 33. Appendix C . 34. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. 1913 and 1918 Water R i g h t A d j u d i c a t i o n ( C i v i l A c t i o n 341) . 35. I t s h o u l d be noted t h a t t h e s e l i n e drawings a r e not c o p i e s o r d u p l i c a t e s o f a n y t h i n g t h a t e x i s t s i n the p u b l i c r e c o r d . The s k e l e t o n s f o r t h e s e l i n e drawings were r e s e a r c h e d and d e s i g n e d by the a u t h o r u s i n g maps, f i e l d work, and i n t e r v i e w s . Where l i n e drawings d i d e x i s t they were used as a b a s e , but i n many c a s e s c o n t a i n e d o n l y t h o s e d i t c h e s a c t i v e a t the t ime the drawing was made. F o r f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n and c r e d i t s f o r t h e s e and o t h e r maps and f i g u r e s c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s t h e s i s , p l e a s e r e f e r t o Appendix A . 36. The Chet D i t c h e s Numbers 1-4. Appendix C . 37. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. J . P . M a x w e l l , 1891, p . 54. 38. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. J . P . M a x w e l l , 1891, p . 58. 39. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. J . P . Maxwe l l , 1891, p . 59. On p. 63, the S t a t e E n g i n e e r n o t e s t h a t a l l o t h e r water commiss ioners i n a l l o t h e r d i s t r i c t s were c o o p e r a t i v e i n c l o s i n g d i t c h e s i n w a t e r - s h o r t y e a r 1890. 40. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1970. 41 . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. Maxwe l l , 1893, p . 70; C B . Cramer, 1895. 42. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. H .A . Sumner, 1897, p . 99 . 43 . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. Thomas W. J a y c o x , 1907, p . 137. 44. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , 1911-1969. 1912 F i e l d Book, p. 84. 45 . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , 1911-1969. 1948 F i e l d Book, p . 89. 151 46. 47 . 48. 49 . 50. 51 . 52. 53 . 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61 . 62. 63. 64. 65. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. H . A . Sumner, 1897, p . 99 . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. C h a r l e s W. Comstock, 1911, p . 36 .47 . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , 1911-1969. 1911 F i e l d Book, p p . 81 -83 . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. C h a r l e s W. Comstock, 1913, p . 30. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. A d d i s o n J . McCune, 1923, p . 57. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. H i n d e r l i d e r , 1933, p . 201. M i c h a e l C . I t s h o u l d be no ted t h a t a few good water y e a r s were r e p o r t e d d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , but were i n s u f f i c i e n t t o make up the d e f i c i t . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. H i n d e r l i d e r , 1933, p . 12. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , H i n d e r l i d e r , 1943, p . 437. 1882-1946. M i c h a e l M i c h a e l C . C . W h i t t e n , 1939-1947. 1939 D i a r y , June 30. W h i t t e n , 1939-1947. 1939 D i a r y , J u l y 19. W h i t t e n , 1939-1947. 1939 D i a r y , J u l y 21 . Park County R e p u b l i c a n and F a i r p l a y F lume. J u l y 28, 1939, p . 4. Park County R e p u b l i c a n and F a i r p l a y F lume. J u l y 28, 1939, p . 4. W h i t t e n , 1939-1947. 1939 D i a r y , September 28. W h i t t e n , 1939-1947. 1940 D i a r y , May 15. W h i t t e n , 1939-1947. 1940 D i a r y , May 25. Appendix E . W h i t t e n , 1939-1947. 1942 D i a r y , November 24. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1956-1966. A . R a l p h Owens, 1966, p . 67. 152 66. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , 1938-1993. Cor respondence F i l e ( C u r r e n t ) . L e t t e r from Edward W. B l a n k , A s s i s t a n t D i v i s i o n E n g i n e e r , t o D a v i d F o x , E n g i n e e r , O c t o b e r 25, 1984. 67. Mark B. C u r r y ( r e t i r e d water commissioner ) and Den ise P a p r o c k i (water c o m m i s s i o n e r ) , P e r s o n a l Communicat ion . 68. Some r e a d e r s might wonder how t o r e c o n c i l e c l a i m s o f i n c r e a s e d c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and i n c r e a s i n g c o n t r o l by the s t a t e w i t h i m p e r f e c t i o n s i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and c o m p l i a n c e i n South P a r k . I would p o i n t out t h a t t h e s e t h i n g s need no t be a b s o l u t e i n o r d e r t o r e p r e s e n t a r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o v e r t ime o f s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l . 153 CHAPTER FIVE EARLY TRANSFERS The Denver Water System E a r l y p r o s p e c t o r s were drawn t o the s i t e o f Denver by the p r e s e n c e o f water and m i n e r a l s . M i n e r s f i r s t found s i g n s o f c o l o r a t t h e c o n f l u e n c e o f C h e r r y Creek and the South P l a t t e R i v e r i n 1858. In the s e m i - a r i d l a n d s c a p e o f the C o l o r a d o , i n i t i a l s e t t l e m e n t had t o t a k e p l a c e i n l o c a t i o n s where water was r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . The s i t e o f Denver ( f i r s t c a l l e d A u r a r i a ) met t h i s b a s i c c r i t e r i o n . In the c i t y ' s e a r l y y e a r s water was drawn from i n d i v i d u a l and community w e l l s and the C i t y D i t c h e s t a b l i s h e d t o s e r v e the growing communi ty . 1 Numerous p r i v a t e and q u a s i - p u b l i c companies were fo rmed, a t l e a s t on p a p e r , t o b r i n g water t o Denver , but few o f the p l a n s reached f r u i t i o n . The c i t y a c q u i r e d what water r i g h t s i t c o u l d , but due t o problems o f c a p i t a l i z a t i o n i t was l i m i t e d i n what c o u l d be p u r c h a s e d . In 1872 the Denver C i t y Water Company was formed, and o v e r the next two decades numerous s m a l l p r i v a t e water companies s p r a n g u p . C y c l e s o f c o m p e t i t i o n and c o n s o l i d a t i o n e n s u e d . Many o f the s m a l l e r , l e s s w e l l c a p i t a l i z e d companies f a i l e d and were f o r c e d i n t o b a n k r u p t c y . 2 In the 1870s, the Denver C i t y Water Company succeeded i n p r o v i d i n g p r e s s u r i z e d water f o r the f i r s t t i m e . A p a i r o f H o l l y pumps w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f 2 ,500,000 g a l l o n s p e r day were p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n a t the base o f 15th 154 S t r e e t t o pump water from j u s t below the c o n f l u e n c e o f C h e r r y Creek and the South P l a t t e R i v e r . 3 T h i s i n i t i a l l y s e r v e d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 6 ,000 , but as D e n v e r ' s p o p u l a t i o n grew, a t h i r d pump had t o be i n s t a l l e d . T h i s rud imenta ry system met c i t y demand t h r o u g h t h e 1870s 4 (Tab le 5 - 1 ) . In 1875 the c i t y assumed c o n t r o l o f the P l a t t e D i t c h , which was i n bad need o f r e p a i r . 5 O p e r a t i o n o f the d i t c h under c i t y c o n t r o l began i n J u n e . A c c o r d i n g t o the Denver T i m e s . When the water was f i r s t l e t i n , the fa rmers took i t a l l . S l u i c e ways and f l o o d g a t e s were open and the water d i d not r e a c h the c i t y f o r s e v e r a l d a y s . Then when i t began t o a p p e a r , the p e o p l e o f the suburbs t u r n e d i t i n t o t h e i r g a r d e n s . The water p o l i c e made s t r e n u o u s e f f o r t s t o keep t h e s t ream f l o w i n g t o the h e a r t o f the c i t y , but the women would d r i v e them away w i t h c l u b s , brooms, mops and second hand u m b r e l l a s u n t i l l i f e became a burden t o the o f f i c e r s . 6 GROWTH OF DENVER, 1860 - 1950 Year Population 1860 4,749 1870 4,759 1880 35,629 1890 106,713 1900 133,859 1910 213,381 1920 256,491 1930 287,861 1940 322,412 1950 415,786 1960 493,887 1970 514,678 1980 492,365 1990 467,610 T a b l e 5 - 1 . Growth o f Denver , 1860-1950. The t a b l e shows the c i t y o f D e n v e r ' s expanding p o p u l a t i o n . Development o f the c i t y ' s water system was d r i v e n by expanding demand, b o t h a c t u a l and a n t i c i p a t e d . (Source : U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s ) . 155 In the 1880s, the c i t y deve loped a s e r i e s o f i n f i l t r a t i o n g a l l e r i e s , 7 and the f o c u s t u r n e d t o water system e x p a n s i o n and the development o f p rox imate s u p p l i e s . S m a l l companies p r o l i f e r a t e d t o s e r v e s p e c i f i c a r e a s and t y p e s o f u s e r s . The Denver C i t y Water Company and the Denver C i t y I r r i g a t i o n and Water Company merged i n 1882 t o form the Denver Water Company. 8 In 1894, f u r t h e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n o c c u r r e d when the Denver Un ion Water Company was formed b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r 10 s m a l l e r companies , i n c l u d i n g t h e Denver Water Company. 9 Wi th a r e l a t i v e monopoly, t h e Denver U n i o n Water Company p r oceeded w i t h development o f t h e water s y s t e m , making l o n g range p l a n s and s e c u r i n g the money t o b u i l d Cheesman Dam, p r o v i d i n g the c i t y w i t h i t s f i r s t mountain s t o r a g e . Cheesman R e s e r v o i r f i l l e d f o r the f i r s t t ime i n 1905. In 1918, the c i t y o f Denver f l o a t e d a bond and bought the Denver Un ion Water Company fo rming the Denver Water D e p a r t m e n t , 1 0 a p o w e r f u l o r g a n i z a t i o n , s t a f f e d by e n g i n e e r s , t e c h n i c i a n s , and a t t o r n e y s , and o v e r s e e n by the Denver Board o f Water C o m m i s s i o n e r s . In the decades t h a t f o l l o w e d , the c i t y worked on expanding i t s s u p p l y and e x t e n d i n g s e r v i c e t o nearby m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . S t r a t e g i e s f o r d e v e l o p i n g the s u p p l y i n c l u d e d the a c q u i s i t i o n o f South Park water r i g h t s and o t h e r d i r e c t f low water r i g h t s on the South P l a t t e and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s . In the 1920s the c i t y a l s o t u r n e d i t s a t t e n t i o n t o t r a n s - m o u n t a i n d i v e r s i o n s , 1 1 and s i n c e t h a t t ime has pursued an a g g r e s s i v e p o l i c y o f water r i g h t s a c q u i s i t i o n and development on the wes te rn s l o p e o f C o l o r a d o . 156 In 1915 the P u b l i c U t i l i t i e s Commission i n Denver p u r c h a s e d A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r i n South Park . Due t o l e g a l c o m p l e x i t i e s , the c i t y d i d not assume f u n c t i o n a l ownership o f the r e s e r v o i r u n t i l 1924, but the a c q u i s i t i o n o f the dam and l a k e b e h i n d i t gave Denver i t s f i r s t d i r e c t i n t e r e s t i n South P a r k . 1 2 A l r e a d y , eyes had t u r n e d t o the h i g h b a s i n as a p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e o f m u n i c i p a l w a t e r . By the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y the c i t y had adopted a " p o l i c y o f a c q u i r i n g i r r i g a t e d ranches above Denver f o r the sake o f t h e i r v a l u a b l e water r i g h t s . " 1 3 In the decades t h a t f o l l o w e d , the c i t y implemented t h i s p o l i c y i n South Park and e lsewhere a l o n g the South P l a t t e R i v e r . The development o f d i r e c t f low water r i g h t s f o r m u n i c i p a l use o c c u r r e d th rough a p r o c e s s o f water t r a n s f e r i n which water d e c r e e d f o r i r r i g a t i o n use i n one l o c a t i o n was, t h ro u g h the c o u r t s , t r a n s f e r r e d from one t y p e o f use t o a n o t h e r , and from one l o c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r . Such changes o c c u r r e d w i t h i n the r u b r i c o f t h e C o l o r a d o d o c t r i n e o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n . The l e g a l b a s i s f o r t r a n s f e r was e s t a b l i s h e d i n the landmark c a s e o f C o f f i n v . L e f t Hand D i t c h . T h i s c a s e e s t a b l i s h e d the l e g a l i t y o f i n t e r b a s i n t r a n s f e r by p e r m i t t i n g the d i v e r s i o n o f water out o f i t s n a t u r a l b a s i n o f o r i g i n i n t o ano ther d r a i n a g e . 1 4 The c a s e e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t such movements were n o t , de f a c t o , d e t r i m e n t a l t o the b a s i n o f o r i g i n , a t l e a s t not w i t h i n the c o u r t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f C o l o r a d o ' s d o c t r i n e o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n . C o f f i n v . L e f t Hand D i t c h c o n f i r m e d the p o r t a b i l i t y o f the r e s o u r c e and the r i g h t s a t t a c h e d . 157 In t h e e a r l y 1890s, the c a s e o f S t r i c k l e r v . C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s f u r t h e r d e f i n e d the p e r m i s s i b i l i t y o f water t r a n s f e r s . In h i s r e p o r t t o the Governor f o r the y e a r 1891 and 1892, S t a t e E n g i n e e r J . P . Maxwel l no ted t h a t the c a s e e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t , a p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t o r o f water from a s t ream may change the p o i n t o f d i v e r s i o n and the p l a c e o f use w i t h o u t l o s i n g h i s p r i o r i t y , p r o v i d e d the r i g h t s o f o t h e r s a r e not i n j u r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d by such c h a n g e . . . [and t h a t ] a p r i o r i t y t o the use o f water f o r i r r i g a t i o n i s a p r o p e r t y r i g h t , and may be s o l d and t r a n s f e r r e d s e p a r a t e l y from the l a n d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h which the r i g h t r i p e n e d . In the wake o f the S t r i c k l e r d e c i s i o n , the Denver Un io n Water Company t u r n e d i t s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e h i n t e r l a n d - t o South Park and i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l t o m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s . In 1924 s t a t e c o n t r o l o f the t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s was s t r e n g t h e n e d when a judge r u l e d t h a t "no change i n the p o i n t o f d i v e r s i o n can be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t an o r d e r from D i s t r i c t C o u r t . " 1 6 The t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s was now f i r m l y i n the hands o f the c o u r t s , and impor tan t l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s and p r e c e d e n t s had been e s t a b l i s h e d . In C o l o r a d o , water was p o r t a b l e . I t was p r o p e r t y t h a t c o u l d be s o l d and exchanged, t r a n s f e r r e d from p l a c e t o p l a c e and use t o u s e , w h i l e r e t a i n i n g i t s o r i g i n a l p r i o r i t y w i t h i n the s y s t e m . T r a n s f e r s were a l l o w e d b o t h w i t h i n d r a i n a g e b a s i n s and between them, and i n e i t h e r c a s e no i n j u r y was p e r c e i v e d , de f a c t o , t o o c c u r i n the a r e a o f o r i g i n . Once a l e g a l b a s i s was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l t o m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s , Denver p roceeded w i t h p l a n s t o a c q u i r e South Park water f o r urban u s e . A t f i r s t e n g i n e e r s were c a l l e d i n t o a s s e s s the c i t y ' s s i t u a t i o n and p r o p o s e l o n g range 158 p l a n s f o r expanding s u p p l i e s . Next , c o n c r e t e s t e p s were t aken t o d e v e l o p s t o r a g e i n the h i g h b a s i n and t o p u r c h a s e s e n i o r i r r i g a t i o n water r i g h t s . E a r l y D e s i g n s and P l a n s In 1892, e n g i n e e r J . D . S c h u y l e r wrote a r e p o r t a d d r e s s e d t o the d i r e c t o r s o f the C i t i z e n s Water Company i n Denver i n which he u r g e d t h e company t o p u r s u e t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s and w a t e r . 1 7 The one drawback S c h u y l e r p e r c e i v e d was t h a t , h i s t o r i c a l l y , i r r i g a t i o n water had been d i v e r t e d o n l y d u r i n g the i r r i g a t i o n s e a s o n , not c o n t i n u o u s l y as a m u n i c i p a l s u p p l y would r e q u i r e . As s u c h , s t o r a g e was needed t o impound s u p p l i e s f o r use the y e a r r o u n d . By 1903, c i v i l and h y d r a u l i c e n g i n e e r J . C . U l r i c h had been h i r e d by t h e Denver Un ion Water Company t o conduct a s tudy o f the i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s on the T a r r y a l l s i d e o f South Park . U l r i c h gauged the f low o f s t reams and d i t c h e s i n t h e a r e a , and t a l k e d w i t h l o c a l i r r i g a t o r s t o a s c e r t a i n the e x t e n t o f ac reage under t h e d i t c h . A c c o r d i n g t o U l r i c h ' s own a d m i s s i o n , t h e gaug ings were o f f by 10 t o 20% and , r e g a r d i n g acreage e s t i m a t e s , l o c a l r a n c h e r s " e i t h e r d i d not know, o r were de te rmined not t o g i v e us any i n f o r m a t i o n upon the s u b j e c t . " 1 8 One l o c a l man, Ed B a r l o w , was c o o p e r a t i v e and gave U l r i c h the f i g u r e s he u l t i m a t e l y u s e d , though U l r i c h b e l i e v e d the e s t i m a t e s t o be too h i g h . 1 9 The d i t c h e s o f South P a r k , U l r i c h w r o t e , " a r e , f o r the most p a r t , v e r y s m a l l and i n s i g n i f i c a n t a f f a i r s - mere t r e n c h e s 159 i n some c a s e s , r a n g i n g i n w i d t h from o n e - h a l f a f o o t t o t h r e e f e e t . Few o f them a r e more than a m i l e l o n g , and many do not exceed o n e - h a l f a m i l e i n l e n g t h . " 2 0 U l r i c h no ted t h a t t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e c o - m i n g l i n g o f water i n South P a r k , where water s p r e a d o v e r t h e l a n d from one d i t c h was p i c k e d up by ano ther d i t c h and used t o i r r i g a t e a d d i t i o n a l a c r e a g e . The e n g i n e e r a l s o o b s e r v e d two d i v e r s i o n s t h a t took the e n t i r e f low o f the s t r e a m , bu t the immediate r e t u r n f lows were so s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t j u s t below t h e i r r i g a t e d meadows t h e s t ream c a r r i e d the same amount o f water i t d i d above t h e d i v e r s i o n . U l r i c h ' s r e p o r t c o n c l u d e d t h a t most South Park d i t c h e s never c a r r i e d the amounts o f water d e c r e e d t o them, and t h a t r a n c h p u r c h a s e s and water t r a n s f e r s would y i e l d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s water than p r e l i m i n a r y f i g u r e s would i n d i c a t e . 2 1 U l r i c h b e l i e v e d t h a t South Park i r r i g a t i o n r i g h t s would not produce enough water t o j u s t i f y t h e expense o f p u r c h a s i n g them. He thought the p r i c e s South Park r a n c h e r s were a s k i n g f o r t h e i r water r i g h t s were e x c e s s i v e . D e s p i t e U l r i c h ' s recommendat ions, the Denver Un ion Water Company c o n t i n u e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e South Park water r i g h t s . An e x c e p t i o n a l document, a r e p o r t by i r r i g a t i o n e n g i n e e r James Armst rong d e s c r i b i n g a f i e l d t r i p t o the h i g h b a s i n i n e a r l y December o f 1903, r e c o r d s the r e a c t i o n o f South Park r a n c h e r s t o c i t y e n q u i r i e s , From Garos we rode w i t h Mr. S p u r l o c k , a s o n - i n - l a w o f M r s . G u i r a u d , one o f the l a r g e s t l a n d owners i n t h e P a r k , and a l s o one o f the e a r l i e s t and l a r g e s t a p p r o p r i a t o r s o f w a t e r . We were in formed by h im, and a f t e r w a r d s by Mr. 160 Henry L . G u i r a u d h e r s o n , t h a t the o l d l a d y , (she i s s e v e n t y - f i v e y e a r s o ld ) was q u i t e c r a n k y on the q u e s t i o n o f s e l l i n g o u t , and t h a t i t would be o f no use t o c a l l on h e r , t o t a l k about i t . 2 2 The next morning the d e l e g a t i o n from the c i t y met w i t h South Park r a n c h e r and p i o n e e r Sam H a r t s e l , who e v i d e n t l y was w i l l i n g t o s e l l h i s l a n d and water r i g h t s t o the company i f they would be w i l l i n g t o buy him out a t h i s a s k i n g p r i c e . 2 3 Armst rong found o t h e r r a n c h e r s w i l l i n g t o s e l l : George Parmelee and R . B . Shoemaker up on the headwaters o f the South Fork o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , the widow Hodgdon i n the same a r e a , A l f r e d T . Edmondson, J o s e p h P u r c e l l , and Dav id M i l l e r on the M i d d l e Fork -the l i s t was seeming ly e n d l e s s . 2 4 Armst rong no ted t h a t many o f the water r i g h t s a v a i l a b l e were too j u n i o r t o have much v a l u e t o Denver . Armst rong was t r a v e l l i n g i n the company o f J . C . U l r i c h , who had been i n s t r u c t e d t o conduct the same t y p e o f s t u d y he had done s i x months e a r l i e r on the T a r r y a l l . U l r i c h ' s f i n d i n g s were e s s e n t i a l l y the same: d i t c h e s were d e c r e e d f o r s u b s t a n t i a l l y more water than they c o u l d c a r r y , f l o o d i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s and p a t t e r n s o f r e u s e and r e t u r n f lows were the same on the P l a t t e s i d e as t h e y were on the T a r r y a l l s i d e . U l r i c h w r o t e , The i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y i n the f l o o d i n g o f t h e s e bottom l a n d s , the f l o o d i n g p r o c e s s b e g i n n i n g i n the s p r i n g as soon as the s t reams b e g i n t o r i s e and c o n t i n u i n g u n t i l the m idd le o r l a t t e r p a r t o f J u l y , when the water s u p p l y b e g i n s t o f a i l . No e f f o r t i s made t o g radua te the a p p l i c a t i o n o f water t o the a c t u a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f the g r a s s c r o p , but i t i s p e r m i t t e d t o s t a n d on and f low o v e r the i r r i g a t e d a r e a s c o n t i n u o u s l y as l o n g as the s t reams f u r n i s h the s u p p l y . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s p r a c t i c e , and because o f the p r o x i m i t y o f the i r r i g a t e d a r e a s t o the s t r e a m s , the l a t t e r a r e c o n s t a n t l y 1 6 1 r e - i n f o r c e d by the r e t u r n water from the f l o o d e d a r e a s , t h i s water r e a c h i n g the s t ream by bo th p e r c o l a t i o n and s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e o r " r u n o f f . " P a r t o f i t i s r e t u r n e d d i r e c t l y t o the st ream b e f o r e b e i n g used a second t i m e , o t h e r p o r t i o n s b e i n g i n t e r c e p t e d b e f o r e r e a c h i n g the r i v e r by lower d i t c h e s which d i s t r i b u t e i t o v e r o t h e r l a n d s . . . the water i s used o v e r and o v e r a g a i n by d i f f e r e n t consumers b e f o r e l e a v i n g the r e g i o n and p a s s i n g i n t o the canon b e l o w . 2 5 South Park r a n c h i n g was t h r i v i n g i n 1903 ( F i g u r e 5-1) . A c c o r d i n g t o U l r i c h , Most o f the ranches which we examined bore u n m i s t a k a b l e e v i d e n c e o f t h r i f t and p r o s p e r i t y . The houses were g e n e r a l l y commodious and c o m f o r t a b l e ; the b a r n s , o u t -b u i l d i n g s and f e n c e s b e i n g u n u s u a l l y numerous, s u b s t a n t i a l and w e l l m a i n t a i n e d . 2 6 None t h e l e s s many South Park r a n c h e r s were w i l l i n g t o s e l l t h e i r l a n d and water r i g h t s t o the c i t y . A p p a r e n t l y no c o e r c i o n was i n v o l v e d . U l r i c h ended h i s r e p o r t by recommending the c i t y ge t a c c u r a t e measurements o f i r r i g a t e d ac reage and d i t c h c a p a c i t y b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g f u r t h e r . He a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t a team o f n e g o t i a t o r s be s e n t t o the p a r k t o a r range the s a l e s , i f t h a t i n d e e d was what the company wanted t o d o . N o t h i n g m a t e r i a l i z e d . In 1914 J . B . L i p p i n c o t t (of Owens V a l l e y f a m e ) 2 7 was h i r e d as a c o n s u l t a n t by the P u b l i c U t i l i t i e s Commission i n Denver . He was charged w i t h p r e p a r i n g an e s t i m a t e f o r an independent water s u p p l y and new d i s t r i b u t i o n system f o r the c i t y . L i p p i n c o t t noted i n the open ing pages o f h i s r e p o r t t h a t " i t i s not f e a s i b l e from a humane s t a n d p o i n t , t o t ake waters away from a r e a s where they a r e b e i n g b e n e f i c i a l l y used t o a marked d e g r e e . " 2 8 He a d v o c a t e d s e c u r i n g water " f rom a r e a s where the use i s e x t r a v a g a n t and the r e t u r n s i n a d e q u a t e . " South 162 F i g u r e 5 - 1 . The town o f H a r t s e l , w i t h f r e s h l y mown hay i n the meadows i n the b a c k g r o u n d , n . d . L . C . M c C l u r e , photographer ( C o u r t e s y , Denver P u b l i c L i b r a r y , Western H i s t o r y C o l l e c t i o n ) . 163 P a r k , w i t h i t s use o f f l o o d i r r i g a t i o n t o grow f o d d e r c r o p s , was p e r c e i v e d t o be j u s t such an a r e a . On the eve o f Wor ld War I the p o p u l a t i o n o f South Park was s p a r s e (Tab le 5 - 2 ) . There was l i t t l e m i n i n g a c t i v i t y , and r a n c h i n g and hay r a i s i n g formed the backbone o f the a r e a ' s economy. L i p p i n c o t t no ted t h a t many South Park d i t c h e s had no h e a d g a t e s , and t h a t water r a n w a s t e f u l l y o v e r an e s t i m a t e d 40,000 a c r e s o f h a y l a n d s . 2 9 He b e l i e v e d the c i t y c o u l d put the water t o much more b e n e f i c i a l u s e . In o r d e r t o t ake f u l l advantage o f South Park i r r i g a t i o n r i g h t s , the c i t y needed s t o r a g e . A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r , on the South F o r k o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , was i n the p r o c e s s o f b e i n g a c q u i r e d , bu t L i p p i n c o t t * s r e p o r t i d e n t i f i e d a n o t h e r p o t e n t i a l s i t e on M i c h i g a n C r e e k , f o u r m i l e s s o u t h o f J e f f e r s o n . H i s r e p o r t recommended the c i t y " p r o c e e d immedia te ly w i t h the o b t a i n i n g o f t i t l e t o o l d d i t c h e s by the p u r c h a s e o f meadow l a n d s b o t h above the M i c h i g a n and A n t e r o s i t e s . " 3 0 He c o n c l u d e d , "The c i t y u l t i m a t e l y s h o u l d c o n t r o l a l l o f the South P l a t t e and o p e r a t e i t f o r the harmonious maximum development o f i t s a v a i l a b l e water and p o w e r . " 3 1 A f t e r examin ing a range o f o t h e r s u p p l y a l t e r n a t i v e s , L i p p i n c o t t u rged the c i t y t o t u r n i t s a t t e n t i o n t o the mountain meadows o f South P a r k . He e s t i m a t e d t h a t water was l e f t t o s t a n d on t h e s e meadows f o r 60 t o 90 days e v e r y summer, i n o r d e r t o produce a s i n g l e c u t t i n g o f hay . He b e l i e v e d more water e v a p o r a t e d from South Park meadows under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s than was consumed by the c i t y o f Denver i n the 164 POPULATION BY PRECINCTS, PARK COUNTY, COLORADO, 1890 - 1950 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 Jefferson HI 180 164 176 138 211 BordenviIle 34 57 Coma 857 504 423 135 121 183 - town (374) (407) (411) (121) (80) (95) Terryal I 91 30 32 107 92 Hartsel 186 131 93 98 220 355 Goro 80 76 91 25 36 Salt Works 113 74 53 Buffalo Springs 50 54 west on Pass 4 23 Howbert 109 46 74 76 107 Glentivar 40 Fairplay 1,050 406 311 222 283 935 • town (301) (319) (265) (183) (211) (739) Alma 380 401 176 210 714 - town (367) (297) (301) (127) (110) (469) Mosquito 47 23 Horseshoe 41 53 Total (South Park) 2,627 1,919 1,741 1,099 1,358 2,398 Percent of County 74 64 69.9 55.6 70.2 73.3 Percent Increase - 26.9X - 9.3X - 36.9X • 23.6X • 76.6X Total (Park County) 3,548 2,998 2,492 1,977 2,052 3,272 1950 174 75 (39) 176 588 (476) 201 (149) 1,214 64.9 - 49.4X 1,870 T a b l e 5 - 2 . P o p u l a t i o n by P r e c i n c t s , Park County 1890-1950. The t a b l e shows p o p u l a t i o n by p r e c i n c t f o r South P a r k , and the p e r c e n t a g e i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n o v e r t i m e . South Park p o p u l a t i o n i s a l s o shown as a p e r c e n t o f Park C o u n t y ' s p o p u l a t i o n (Source : U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s ) . 165 same span o f t i m e . 3 2 "The q u e s t i o n o f the water r i g h t s and the a r e a i n South P a r k , " he w r o t e , " i s o f such impor tance t h a t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h a t have been made, t h o r o u g h f i e l d s t u d i e s s h o u l d be immed ia te ly t aken u p . " 3 3 In the 1920s the newly formed Denver Water Department r e t u r n e d t o South Park t o r e p e a t , e s s e n t i a l l y , the s t u d i e s U l r i c h and Armst rong had conducted a t the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y . They i n v e n t o r i e d water r i g h t s , measured the c a p a c i t y o f d i t c h e s , and e s t i m a t e d i r r i g a t e d a c r e a g e . S t u d i e s by George M. B u l l c o n f i r m e d L i p p i n c o t t ' s p r e l i m i n a r y f i n d i n g s . 3 4 Water use i n South Park was i n e f f i c i e n t . Decreed c a p a c i t y o f d i t c h e s exceeded a c t u a l c a p a c i t y . B u l l l o o k e d i n some d e t a i l a t the immediacy o f r e t u r n f lows t o the r i v e r from South Park meadows. 3 5 L i k e o t h e r e n g i n e e r s b e f o r e h im , he c o n c l u d e d t h a t once water s a t u r a t e d South Park meadows i n the s p r i n g , v e r y l i t t l e water was consumed. F o r most o f the i r r i g a t i o n s e a s o n , water s i m p l y c o u r s e d a c r o s s the s u r f a c e o f the meadows, and s e t t l e d i n low s p o t s t o e v a p o r a t e . Most o f t h i s water r e t u r n e d t o the s t r e a m . As s u c h , George B u l l p e r c e i v e d t h a t v e r y l i t t l e water c o u l d be t r a n s f e r r e d f o r m u n i c i p a l u s e , s i n c e t o use more than had been consumed by hay o p e r a t i o n s would s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i s r u p t t h e regime o f t h e r i v e r , i n j u r i n g downstream i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d i n g the c i t y i t s e l f . 3 6 B u l l thought the b e n e f i t from p u r c h a s i n g South Park r a n c h e s would a c c r u e t o downstream u s e r s , not the c i t y , and s u g g e s t e d the c i t y r e a c h agreements w i t h downstream s e n i o r 166 a p p r o p r i a t o r s b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g w i t h the p u r c h a s e o f South Park hay l a n d s and water r i g h t s . In a 1926 r e p o r t he argued t h a t "under no c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d s c a t t e r e d ranches be p u r c h a s e d . " 3 7 Due t o the e x t e n t o f r e u s e , he recommended t h a t p u r c h a s e s p r o c e e d from the lower r e a c h e s o f the P l a t t e and the T a r r y a l l , u p , t o a v o i d c l a i m s o f damage by o t h e r i r r i g a t o r s . 3 8 By t h e t ime o f B u l l ' s r e p o r t , t h i s s t r a t e g y was b e g i n n i n g t o be implemented. Two y e a r s e a r l i e r , the c i t y had f i n a l l y r e s o l v e d d i s p u t e s i n the t r a n s f e r o f A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r t o m u n i c i p a l h a n d s . Denver had a l s o j u s t p u r c h a s e d two ranches i n South P a r k : the Ed Bar low ranch (the o l d Olney Borden ranch) on T a r r y a l l C r e e k , and the Rogers Ranch, j u s t above E l e v e n M i l e Canyon on the South P l a t t e . The c i t y p r o c e e d e d t e n t a t i v e l y . E n g i n e e r s and lawyers d i s a g r e e d as t o the a d v i s a b i l i t y o f d e v e l o p i n g water from South P a r k , but i n the end Denver commit ted i t s e l f t o d e v e l o p i n g d i r e c t - f l o w water r i g h t s and s t o r a g e i n the h i g h mountain b a s i n . The F i r s t M u n i c i p a l A c q u i s i t i o n s A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r p r o v e d t o be a f i g u r a t i v e quagmire f o r the c i t y o f Denver . C o n c e i v e d i n the e a r l y 1890s, around the t ime J . D . S c h u y l e r made a r e p o r t t o the C i t i z e n s Water Company, the r e s e r v o i r was not b u i l t u n t i l 1909. S c h u y l e r noted the f l a t n e s s o f the A n t e r o b a s i n , and recommended c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a l o n g , low e a r t h e n dam 36 f e e t h i g h and 4 ,000 f e e t l o n g . 3 9 H i s e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a l e d some p r o b l e m s : 167 The whole f l o o r o f the r e s e r v o i r i s a bed o f s a l t o r a l k a l i , c o v e r e d w i t h a wh i te e f f l o r e s c e n c e l i k e snow i n d r y weather , and t h i s w i l l impregnate the water f o r some t ime a f t e r i t i s f l o o d e d . Not a s p e a r o f g r a s s o r any l i v i n g t h i n g grows on t h i s s a l t y p l a i n . 4 0 A dam was b u i l t and water impounded f o r the f i r s t t ime i n May o f 1909 . 4 1 In O c t o b e r o f the next y e a r the A n t e r o and L o s t Park R e s e r v o i r Company took o v e r management o f the H igh L i n e C a n a l , 4 2 a l a r g e i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h i n the m e t r o p o l i t a n a r ea b e a r i n g a J a n u a r y 18, 1879 p r i o r i t y d a t e . Due t o the i n t e r m i t t e n t and i n s u f f i c i e n t n a t u r e o f f l ows i n t o the c a n a l , the A n t e r o p r o j e c t c o u l d be promoted and j u s t i f i e d as r e g u l a r i z i n g t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water under the H i g h L i n e C a n a l . Shares were s o l d t o i r r i g a t o r s a l o n g the c a n a l and , a c c o r d i n g t o C h a r l e s Comstock, who s e r v e d as the C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r from 1909 t o 1913, the promoters c o l l e c t e d a l l they dared ask f o r r e s e r v o i r r i g h t s i n r e t u r n f o r c o n t r a c t s which were so worded as t o m i s l e a d the p u r c h a s e r s , they s u p p l i e d the c o n t r a c t h o l d e r s w i t h as l i t t l e water as p o s s i b l e , and they d e l i b e r a t e l y s t o l e water which c o n t r a c t h o l d e r s needed and had p a i d f o r , i n o r d e r t o d i v e r t and use i t on l a n d s b e l o n g i n g t o the A n t e r o and L o s t Park R e s e r v o i r Company o r i t s s u b s i d i a r i e s . 4 3 The company brought the A n t e r o I r r i g a t i o n Cana l i n t o o p e r a t i o n i n June o f 1913 w i t h much c e l e b r a t i o n and f a n f a r e . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , the p r o j e c t would open up an a d d i t i o n a l 60,000 a c r e s i n the v i c i n i t y o f B r i g h t o n , n o r t h e a s t o f D e n v e r . 4 4 The p r o j e c t was h i g h l y s p e c u l a t i v e and drew i n v e s t o r s from as f a r away as W a l l S t r e e t . 4 5 When the c a n a l opened, i t was w i t h water p u r c h a s e d from the Denver Un ion Water Company, not w i t h A n t e r o 168 R e s e r v o i r w a t e r . 4 6 The " o p e n i n g " was mere ly a d e m o n s t r a t i o n , and was an e x e r c i s e i n unabashed b o o s t e r i s m . As e a r l y as 1914 problems were e v i d e n t w i t h the dam a t A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r . I t was d e c l a r e d u n s a f e by a Park County Grand J u r y , and i n June the owners o f the dam were i n d i c t e d . 4 7 The o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e was a s i m p l e e a r t h e n dam. L a t e r i t s f a c i n g was l i n e d w i t h cement, but the p e r s i s t e n t a c t i o n o f waves c r e a t e d by w e s t e r l y winds b l o w i n g a c r o s s the r e s e r v o i r ' s s u r f a c e damaged the cement f a c i n g and exposed the e a r t h e n c o r e . Park County r e s i d e n t s r e p o r t e d a c r a c k i n the dam 150 f e e t l o n g , f i l l e d w i t h t r u n k s , b r a n c h e s , b a l e d hay , and o t h e r o b j e c t s t o " r e p a i r " t h e b r e a c h . 4 8 The Grand J u r y found t h a t t h e dam was a n u i s a n c e and a h a z a r d t o the p e o p l e who l i v e d downstream. The S t a t e E n g i n e e r c o n c u r r e d and o r d e r e d s t o r a g e r e s t r i c t e d t o an amount t h a t c o u l d be s a f e l y impounded. Though d e c r e e d f o r c l o s e t o 85,600 a c r e f e e t o f s t o r a g e , i t was e v e n t u a l l y de te rmined t h a t A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r c o u l d o n l y h o l d s l i g h t l y i n e x c e s s o f 15,000 a c r e f e e t o f w a t e r . 4 9 In 1915 the P u b l i c U t i l i t i e s Commission (PUC) i n Denver a c q u i r e d A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r . The c i t y ' s e x p r e s s e d o b j e c t i v e i n b u y i n g A n t e r o was t o g a i n c o n t r o l o f the watershed from which the s u p p l i e s were d r a w n . 5 0 Immediately a f t e r the c o n t r a c t was s i g n e d and deeds t u r n e d o v e r , l a w s u i t s were f i l e d a g a i n s t the P U C . 5 1 One s u i t , i n i t i a t e d by l o c a l r e s i d e n t s , a s s e r t e d t h a t the PUC d i d not have the a u t h o r i t y t o make the p u r c h a s e and p o i n t e d t o problems i n v o l v i n g c l o u d e d t i t l e . A s e p a r a t e s u i t , 169 f i l e d i n B r i g h t o n by i r r i g a t o r s under the F a r m e r ' s H igh L i n e C a n a l , c l a i m e d the waters o f A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r b e l o n g e d t o them. F o r the nex t n i n e y e a r s , the A n t e r o p u r c h a s e was e n t a n g l e d i n the c o u r t s . In 1924 the c i t y was f i n a l l y a b l e t o r e s o l v e the d i s p u t e s , and removed the o n l y r e m a i n i n g r o a d b l o c k , when i t agreed t o p r o v i d e water t o i r r i g a t o r s under the F a r m e r ' s H igh L i n e C a n a l u n t i l s u c h t ime as t h e water was needed f o r m u n i c i p a l u s e . 5 2 D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d the dam remained i n poor c o n d i t i o n . In 1917, C h a r l e s Comstock d e s c r i b e d i t as f o l l o w s : "The dam o f A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r i s not i n good c o n d i t i o n . A l a r g e p a r t o f the c o n c r e t e f a c i n g which was p l a c e d on the i n n e r s l o p e has been d e s t r o y e d , and the r e m a i n i n g p o r t i o n i s e n t i r e l y v a l u e l e s s as a permanent p r o t e c t i o n . " 5 3 Seven y e a r s o f l i t i g a t i o n and n e g l e c t d i d not improve the s i t u a t i o n , as the accompanying photograph shows ( F i g u r e 5 - 2 ) , t aken the y e a r the c i t y assumed f u n c t i o n a l c o n t r o l o f the f a c i l i t y . The Denver Water Department made r e p a i r s , p l a n s were made t o r a i s e the h e i g h t o f the water b e h i n d the dam, and f i n a l l y the 15,000 f o o t f i g u r e was s e t t l e d upon by Denver and the s t a t e . S t o r a g e a t A n t e r o was s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d . C o n t i n u i n g problems a t A n t e r o and an i n c r e a s i n g need f o r s t o r a g e l e d the c i t y t o l o o k f o r o t h e r p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v o i r b a s i n s . One o f the most s u i t a b l e was l o c a t e d a t the s o u t h e a s t e r n edge o f South P a r k , where t h e South P l a t t e R i v e r p l u n g e d i n t o the p i n k and g r e y g r a n i t e o f E l e v e n M i l e Canyon. O t h e r s i t e s were under c o n s i d e r a t i o n as w e l l : the s i t e o f 170 F i g u r e 5 - 2 . Antero Dam, 1924 (Courtesy, Colorado State Archives). 171 T a r r y a l l R e s e r v o i r , where the C o l o r a d o Department o f F i s h and W i l d l i f e b u i l t a r e s e r v o i r t o enhance the f i s h e r y i n the 1930s; and the Two F o r k s d a m s i t e , a t the c o n f l u e n c e o f t h e N o r t h and South F o r k s o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , c l o s e t o D e n v e r . 5 4 A f t e r r e v i e w i n g a l l p r o p o s a l s , i n 1930 the Denver Board o f Water Commiss ioners approved p l a n s t o c o n s t r u c t a h i g h c o n c r e t e a r c h dam a t the head o f E l e v e n M i l e Canyon. I t was e s t i m a t e d the p r o j e c t would p r o v i d e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80,000 a c r e f e e t o f s t o r a g e f o r t h e c i t y . 5 5 One c o n s i d e r a t i o n b e h i n d the p r o j e c t was t h a t A n t e r o Dam might b r e a k . 5 6 I f e n g i n e e r e d p r o p e r l y E l e v e n M i l e Canyon R e s e r v o i r c o u l d c a p t u r e t h e s e f l o o d w a t e r s , p r e v e n t i n g damage from o c c u r r i n g downstream. The E l e v e n M i l e damsi te was g e o l o g i c a l l y one o f the soundest i n the s t a t e . The r i v e r had c a r v e d i t s way th rough the P i k e s Peak b a t h o l i t h , c r e a t i n g a deep chasm. A t the damsi te the canyon was narrow, the r o c k was h a r d , and s i g n s o f s i g n i f i c a n t f a u l t i n g were not i n e v i d e n c e . The c i t y c a l l e d f o r b i d s i n J u l y , 5 7 and c o n s t r u c t i o n began the f o l l o w i n g y e a r w i t h the c u t t i n g o f f o u n d a t i o n no tches i n the s i d e w a l l s o f the canyon , the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a c o f f e r dam and a f lume t o d i v e r t water around the d a m s i t e 5 8 ( F i g u r e 5 - 3 ) . The dam was completed i n 1932. The p r o j e c t r e q u i r e d the r e l o c a t i o n o f a major road t h a t c o n n e c t e d South Park w i t h C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s . The r o a d r a n up E l e v e n M i l e Canyon from Lake George , then f o l l o w e d t h e P l a t t e t o H a r t s e l . The new road was put o v e r W i l k e r s o n P a s s , where a wagon r o a d had been many y e a r s b e f o r e . The town o f Howbert and 172 F i g u r e 5 -3 . E l e v e n M i l e Canyon dam s i t e a t the t ime o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , 1931 ( C o u r t e s y , U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ) . 173 a dozen r a n c h e s were a l s o inunda ted by E l e v e n M i l e Canyon R e s e r v o i r . F o r a l l i n t e n t s and p u r p o s e s Howbert was a g h o s t town by t h e summer o f 1930, the y e a r the c i t y began s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a c q u i r i n g l a n d i n the r e s e r v o i r b a s i n . Once a r a i l r o a d town on the C o l o r a d o M i d l a n d , Howbert was a l l but d e s e r t e d i n the wake o f the r a i l w a y ' s c l o s u r e i n 1924. On p a p e r , many p e o p l e owned p r o p e r t y i n Howbert , bu t i n r e a l i t y the town had o n l y a h a n d f u l o f r e s i d e n t s , a f i l l i n g s t a t i o n , a p o s t o f f i c e and a s c h o o l h o u s e . 5 9 The c i t y began t o d e v e l o p South Park a c q u i s i t i o n s i n e a r n e s t i n the 1930s, once the l e g a l conundrum o f A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r was r e s o l v e d . When the c i t y had a c q u i r e d t h e Denver U n i o n Water Company, i t became s u c c e s s o r i n i n t e r e s t i n two key r a n c h e s i n South P a r k : the Ed Bar low Ranch on the T a r r y a l l and the George A . Rogers Ranch on the South P l a t t e , 6 0 p u r c h a s e d i n December o f 1915 and February o f 1916 r e s p e c t i v e l y . 6 1 The Bar low r a n c h c a r r i e d the t h i r d p r i o r i t y i n D i s t r i c t 23: the Borden D i t c h d e c r e e d f o r 8.7 c f s ( c u b i c f e e t p e r s e c o n d ) . The c i t y went t o c o u r t i n 1933 and t r a n s f e r r e d 8.7 c f s from the Bar low Ranch t o c i t y i n t a k e , a l l o f t h a t under the Borden D i t c h ' s May 1, 1866 p r i o r i t y . The r e m a i n i n g 51.14 c f s o f water d e c r e e d t o d i t c h e s on the p r o p e r t y were abandoned t o the s t ream i n the t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s . 6 2 The George Rogers Ranch was l e s s v a l u a b l e t o the c i t y f o r i t s water r i g h t s than f o r i t s l o c a t i o n . S i t u a t e d i n what l a t e r became the E l e v e n M i l e R e s e r v o i r b a s i n , the r a n c h had o n l y one 174 d i t c h w i t h r i g h t s s e n i o r t o the H igh L i n e C a n a l . In May o f 1934, Denver t r a n s f e r r e d 4.02 c f s t o c i t y i n t a k e from the George Rogers r a n c h : 2.31 c f s from the Weed D i t c h ( p r i o r i t y number 42 and an 1875 water r i g h t ) and 1.71 c f s from the Love and Raynor D i t c h ( p r i o r i t y number 1 3 9 ) . 6 3 The r e m a i n i n g 24.08 c f s d e c r e e d t o t h o s e d i t c h e s was abandoned t o the s t ream i n t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s , a l o n g w i t h 4 .5 c f s d e c r e e d t o the Howbert G u l c h and P e r k i n s G u l c h D i t c h e s , b o t h v e r y j u n i o r water r i g h t s . These ranches had been a c q u i r e d by the Denver Un ion Water Company around the t ime o f Wor ld War I. A p p a r e n t l y they were a c q u i r e d w i t h some s u b t e r f u g e , l o c a l r e s i d e n t s not knowing p r e c i s e l y w i t h whom they were d e a l i n g . A r t h u r D. W a l l , s e n t t o South Park by W a l t e r P. M i l l e r and W i l l i a m P. Rob inson o f the Denver Un ion Water Company i n 1915 and 1916 t o i n v e s t i g a t e p r o p e r t i e s w i t h v a l u a b l e water r i g h t s , w r o t e , "These t r i p s , so f a r as the ' n a t i v e s ' a r e c o n c e r n e d , a re p u r e l y p l e a s u r e t r i p s . " 6 4 W a l l recommended the company p u r c h a s e two o r t h r e e more r a n c h e s w i t h s e n i o r p r i o r i t i e s , s p e c i f i c a l l y , F o u r m i l e Ranch w i t h the Beery D i t c h , the most s e n i o r p r i o r i t y i n the d i s t r i c t , and Henry G u i r a u d ' s r a n c h , w i t h i t s Canon D i t c h b e a r i n g a J u l y 1867 p r i o r i t y d a t e . 6 5 C l e a r l y the company's i n t e r e s t s were s t r a t e g i c . They were not p r o c e e d i n g w i t h a w h o l e s a l e a c q u i s i t i o n o f South Park water r i g h t s ; they were a t t e m p t i n g t o p u r c h a s e water r i g h t s t h a t had the power t o c a l l out o t h e r South Park d i t c h e s . C o n c e r n i n g the v a l u e o f the Bar low Ranch water 175 r i g h t s A r t h u r Wa l l n o t e d , "every farmer i n the South Park on T a r r y a l l Creek o r i t s b ranches w i l l remember t h a t h i s d i t c h has been shut down i n t imes o f s c a r c i t y o f water t o s u p p l y the p r i o r r i g h t s o f the Bar low r a n c h . " 6 6 H e r e i n l a y the v a l u e o f t h e s e s m a l l South Park d i t c h e s . I f Denver i n t e r e s t s c o u l d shut down South Park i r r i g a t i o n l e a v i n g more water i n the r i v e r , t h e i r own l e s s s e n i o r water r i g h t s were l e s s l i k e l y t o be s u b j e c t t o a r i v e r c a l l . The Bar low Ranch was p u r c h a s e d f o r $ 2 0 , 0 0 0 . 6 7 H a l f o f t h a t was p a y a b l e i n c a s h ; the remainder i n the form o f two n o t e s , one f o r $6,000 h e l d by Ed Bar low, the o t h e r f o r $4,000 t o Mary G. B o r d e n , 6 8 t h e widow o f O lney Borden , the o r i g i n a l homesteader and i r r i g a t o r on the 420 a c r e r a n c h . George A . Rogers s o l d h i s 300 a c r e r a n c h f o r $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 . 6 9 W a l l no ted i n a l e t t e r , t h a t the p r i c e was h i g h , but t h a t the p r i c e appeared j u s t i f i e d because o f the s e n i o r i t y o f the Weed D i t c h , the l a n d ' s v a l u e as a r e s e r v o i r s i t e , and the r a n c h ' s l o c a t i o n a t the t ime on the C o l o r a d o M i d l a n d R a i l w a y . 7 0 Development o f t h e s e e a r l y ranch water r i g h t s d i d not take p l a c e u n t i l the 1930s. D u r i n g the i n t e r i m the r a n c h e s were l e a s e d and the water a p p l i e d t o i r r i g a t i o n . 7 1 Once s t a t e a p p r o v a l was g r a n t e d f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f E l e v e n M i l e Canyon R e s e r v o i r , Denver pursued the a c q u i s i t i o n o f l a n d s i n the r e s e r v o i r b a s i n a g g r e s s i v e l y ( F i g u r e 5 - 4 ) , p u r c h a s i n g a dozen r a n c h e s between June 1930 and November 1932 7 2 (Tab le 5 - 3 ) . The town o f Howbert p r o v e d more p r o b l e m a t i c . Gus F i e d l e r , who owned 176 E A R L Y D E N V E R ACQUISITIONS E L E V E N M E L E RESERVOIR BASIN 1929 - 1932 " V V O A C R E S I D I T C H E R \/V X I' „ PARKS •• 'rytinT^' —'< '* ** LEGEND PUBLIC PROPERTY BOUNDARIES TOWNSITE RAILROAD HIGH WATER UNE ELEVEN MJLE CANYON RESERVOIR THOMAS L. SPE M O ACRES DWtGHT B. CLARK 60 ACRES 1 I MLES rum. CJUL F i g u r e 5 - 4 . Map: E a r l y Denver A c q u i s i t i o n s , E l e v e n M i l e R e s e r v o i r B a s i n , 1929-1932. 177 TOTAL ACRES, SELECTED RANCHES EARLY DENVER ACQUISITIONS Transfer Transfer City Decree (Year) Total Acres Borden (aka Barlow) Denver 1933 420 Epperson Denver No Transfer 1,240 Jardon Denver 1932 440 George Rogers Denver 1934 300 Lucinda Rogers Denver No Transfer 1,320 T a b l e 5 - 3 . T o t a l A c r e s , S e l e c t e d Ranches , E a r l y Denver A c q u i s i t i o n s (Source : Denver Water Depar tment ) . 3 0 l o t s i n Howbert , d i d not want t o s e l l t o the c i t y and condemnat ion p r o c e e d i n g s were s t a r t e d a g a i n s t h i m . 7 3 F i e d l e r r e f u s e d t o remove h i s s t o r e r o o m , d w e l l i n g , and a r e s i d e n c e o c c u p i e d by h i s c h i l d r e n , even as the water c r e p t toward h i s p r o p e r t y . In F e b r u a r y o f 1933, an agreement was s i g n e d between Denver and F i e d l e r , i n which F i e d l e r agreed t o remove the improvements on h i s p r o p e r t y a t h i s own expense b e f o r e the r i s i n g r e s e r v o i r reached Howber t . 7 4 F i e d l e r r e t a i n e d h i s o i l , g a s , and m i n e r a l r i g h t s , though the c i t y i n s i s t e d he not d r i l l t h rough the r e s e r v o i r bottom t o e x p l o i t t h e m . 7 5 Wi th the d isagreement w i t h F i e d l e r r e s o l v e d , problems s t i l l remained a t Howbert . A c c o r d i n g t o an i n v e n t o r y o f t i t l e t o E l e v e n M i l e Canyon R e s e r v o i r l a n d s completed by A . D . W a l l i n 1936, s e v e r a l l o t s s t i l l remained u n p u r c h a s e d , l o n g a f t e r the town was under w a t e r . 7 6 S e v e r a l o t h e r ranches i n the r e s e r v o i r b a s i n had water r i g h t s a t t a c h e d t o them. Through t h e p u r c h a s e o f the J a r d o n 178 Ranch, a s m a l l r a n c h o f 440 a c r e s run by two b r o t h e r s , t h e c i t y a c q u i r e d a f u l l i n t e r e s t i n the I s l a n d D i t c h ( p r i o r i t y number 201) , and a h a l f i n t e r e s t i n each the Weed D i t c h ( p r i o r i t y number 102) ( F i g u r e 5-5) and the L i t t l e Channel D i t c h ( p r i o r i t y number 157)J 1 These water r i g h t s were t aken t h r o u g h the c o u r t s and t r a n s f e r r e d t o m u n i c i p a l use i n O c t o b e r o f 1932 (Tab le 5-4) . Out o f 18.91 c f s o f water d e c r e e d t o L o u i e and Henry J a r d o n ' s d i t c h e s , 6.17 c f s were t r a n s f e r r e d t o c i t y i n t a k e f o r m u n i c i p a l u s e . 7 8 T h i s was the h i g h e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f water t r a n s f e r r e d i n any o f the e a r l y p r o c e e d i n g s (Tab le 5 - 5 ) . The Bar low t r a n s f e r (more commonly c a l l e d the Borden t r a n s f e r ) reaped l e s s t h a n 15% o f the d e c r e e d water r i g h t s ; the George Rogers t r a n s f e r around 12% (Appendix B) . The J a r d o n t r a n s f e r was the f i r s t f o r m a l t r a n s f e r o f South Park d i r e c t f low r i g h t s , and s e t an impor tan t l o c a l p r e c e d e n t . The L u c i n d a Rogers r a n c h , a l s o i n the E l e v e n M i l e R e s e r v o i r b a s i n , had t h r e e l a r g e d i t c h e s , a l l w i t h r e l a t i v e l y j u n i o r r i g h t s . 7 9 No f o r m a l t r a n s f e r was made o f the Rogers N o r t h , the Rogers S o u t h , o r the Como J i m D i t c h e s . A h a n d f u l o f o t h e r d i t c h e s i n the E l e v e n M i l e b a s i n were t r e a t e d i n t h e same f a s h i o n as the L u c i n d a Rogers water r i g h t s and never f o r m a l l y t a k e n t h r o u g h t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s . 8 0 In c a s e s where r i g h t s were j u n i o r , o r where h i s t o r i c use was d i f f i c u l t t o d e m o n s t r a t e , i t was no t worth the c i t y ' s t ime o r money t o t ake t h e s e m a t t e r s t o c o u r t . 179 F i g u r e 5 - 5 . South P l a t t e R i v e r , d i v e r s i o n dam, and headgate o f t h e Weed D i t c h ( p r i o r i t y n o . 102) , 1910. A h a l f i n t e r e s t i n the Weed D i t c h was t r a n s f e r r e d t o m u n i c i p a l use i n 1932 i n the J a r d o n t r a n s f e r , the remainder was a c q u i r e d by Denver when the c i t y bought the Epperson Ranch, but was never f o r m a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d . In 1910 the d i v e r s i o n dam was made o f s t o n e , b r u s h , and manure. T h i s t y p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n was q u i t e t y p i c a l i n South Park ( C o u r t e s y , C o l o r a d o S t a t e A r c h i v e s ) . 180 WATER RIGHTS AND PRIORITIES SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS, 1932 - 1934 Transfer city Jardon Denver Borden (aka Barlow) Denver George Rogers Denver Antero Denver Elevenmile Denver Epperson Denver Lucinda Rogers Denver Transfer Decree 1932 1933 1934 No Transfer No Transfer No Transfer No Transfer Water Rights Earl test Eart iest Involved Priority Priority No. 3 6/1/1879 102 5 5/1/1866 3 4 5/1/1875 42 2 10/10/1881 149 4 7/1/1872 15 2 6/1/1879 102 3 5/15/1879 99 T a b l e 5 - 4 . Water R i g h t s and P r i o r i t i e s , South Park Water T r a n s f e r s , 1932-1934 (Source : Denver Water Depar tment ) . WATER TRANSFERRED TO MUNICIPAL USE, 1932 SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS 1934 Transfers City Borden (aka Barlow) Denver Jardon Denver George Rogers Denver Antero Denver Elevenmile Denver Epperson Denver Lucinda Rogers Denver Amount (cfs) Transferred 8.70 6.17 4.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Pre-1879 Water Rights Amount (cfs) Transferred 8.70 0.00 2.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total Decreed Amount (cfs) In Transfer 59.84 18.91 32.60 97.79 8.00 10.80 225.20 Percent Transferred 14.54 32.63 12.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 T a b l e 5 - 5 . Water T r a n s f e r r e d t o M u n i c i p a l U s e , 1932-1934 ( S o u r c e s : Denver Water Department and T r a n s f e r D e c r e e s ) . 181 A s u c c e s s i o n o f d ry y e a r s i n the 1930s l e d Denver t o seek water t o l e a s e . South P a r k , l o c a t e d a t the headwaters o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , was the most l o g i c a l l o c a t i o n . In 1933, Denver a c q u i r e d c o n t r a c t s on a l l d i t c h e s i n D i s t r i c t 23 w i t h p r i o r i t y d a t e s i n the 1 8 6 0 s . 8 1 Ranchers demanded a h i g h l e a s e p r i c e f o r t h e i r water r i g h t s . A passage i n a l e t t e r from A r t h u r W a l l t o Ma lco lm L i n d s e y , an a t t o r n e y , o f f e r s some e x p l a n a t i o n . D i s c u s s i n g E l y B. J o h n s t o n , a r a n c h e r down the T a r r y a l l , W a l l w r o t e : Mr . J o h n s t o n ' s main r e a s o n f o r demanding a h i g h r e n t a l was t h a t a l l o f the ranches i n h i s n e i g h b o r h o o d , i n c l u d i n g h i s own, as a r u l e , r a i s e o n l y s u f f i c i e n t hay t o c a r r y the s t o c k b e l o n g i n g t o the owners t h r ough the w i n t e r and t h a t t h e r e was no hay i n the ne ighborhood f o r s a l e . I t would t h e r e f o r e be n e c e s s a r y f o r him t o p u r c h a s e b a l e d hay i n the J e f f e r s o n ne ighborhood and h a u l t o h i s r a n c h f o r f e e d i n g , t h u s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s i n g the c o s t t o h i m . 8 2 South Park r a n c h e r s got t h e i r p r i c e , and l e a s e s were a c q u i r e d t o the B e e r y , S a d l e r , F o s t e r , G u i r a u d , Canon, and S m a l l D i t c h e s , among o t h e r s . The c i t y went t o c o u r t t o o b t a i n temporary t r a n s f e r d e c r e e s , good f o r the i r r i g a t i o n season o n l y . 8 3 L o c a l r e a c t i o n t o water l e a s i n g , t r a n s f e r s , and ranch s a l e s was m i x e d . When the Denver Un ion Water Company was f i r s t e x p l o r i n g the p u r c h a s e o f the Ed Bar low Ranch, a l e t t e r was r e c e i v e d from C e l s u s P. L i n k , South Park r a n c h e r and l o c a l f i n a n c i e r . Speak ing f o r h i m s e l f and h i s inves tment p a r t n e r E l y P o r t i s , L i n k w r o t e , Both Mr . P o r t i s and I a r e members o f t h e South Park Ranchmans P r o t e c t i v e A s s o c i a t i o n and f o r us t o agree t h a t the p u r c h a s e r w i l l r e c e i v e our s u p p o r t and a s s i s t a n c e i n an 182 a c t i o n t o t r a n s f e r the water r i g h t s from [Barlow Ranch] would not be i n harmony w i t h our o b l i g a t i o n s t o t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n . 8 4 O t h e r s were l e s s h o s t i l e t o urban a t t e n t i o n and i n t e r e s t . As e a r l y as 1916, o f f e r s t o s e l l ranch l a n d s and i r r i g a t i o n water r i g h t s were b e i n g r e c e i v e d by the Denver Un ion Water Company. The h e i r s o f Judge W i l k i n , who ranched on the T a r r y a l l , o f f e r e d t h e company 2,420 a c r e s o f l a n d and f i v e water r i g h t s . 8 5 Though one o f the d i t c h e s bore an 1871 p r i o r i t y d a t e , the company d i d not buy t h e r a n c h . Wi th t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n the Borden D i t c h , Denver a l r e a d y c o n t r o l l e d the T a r r y a l l . O f f e r s t o s e l l abounded. Where r a n c h e r s and t h e i r h e i r s were n o t c o n t a c t e d d i r e c t l y by t h e c i t y , they approached Denver t h e m s e l v e s . A 1927 l e t t e r from May P a i g e , a r e l a t i v e o f r a n c h e r O lney P a i g e p r o v i d e s a good example. A d d r e s s e d t o Mayor S t a p l e t o n o f Denver , P a i g e w r i t e s , I have been r e a d i n g a g r e a t d e a l about the water s i t u a t i o n f o r the C i t y o f Denver and would l i k e v e r y much t o have you l o o k i n t o t h e T a r r y a l l Creek p r o p o s i t i o n . . . Denver a l r e a d y owns what was f o r m e r l y the Bar low P l a c e and water r i g h t s some t h r e e and a h a l f m i l e s up the c r e e k from h e r e . . . we would l i k e t o d i s p o s e o f the p l a c e d i r e c t . I t i s my b e l i e f the Pa ige R e s e r v o i r and the dam a t B o n i s B r i d g e , c o u l d be e r e c t e d v e r y e c o n o m i c a l l y and a f f o r d a s p l e n d i d s u p p l y o f pure mountain water f o r the V a l l e y and the C i t y be low. Our Ranch c o n s i s t s o f 710 a c r e s o f l a n d most o f which would be c o v e r e d w i t h water . We have t h r e e good water r i g h t s the o l d e s t o f which d a t e s back t o 1876. The R e s e r v o i r would be about f i v e m i l e s i n l e n g t h and one m i l e i n w i d t h i n p l a c e s and o f c o n s i d e r a b l e d e p t h . I t i s a lmost a n a t u r a l r e s e r v o i r - the o u t l e t b e i n g v e r y narrow. We a r e o n l y a s k i n g $ 30,000 f o r our h o l d i n g s which I c o n s i d e r v e r y r e a s o n a b l e indeed f o r what we have t o o f f e r . 8 6 183 The s i t e was never bought by Denver , but r a t h e r was a c q u i r e d by the s t a t e f o r T a r r y a l l R e s e r v o i r , d e c r e e d f o r f i s h c u l t u r e , not f o r m u n i c i p a l s t o r a g e . T h i s was P a i g e ' s second at tempt t o s e l l h e r r a n c h and water r i g h t s t o Denver . In 192 3 she had penned a s i m i l a r l e t t e r t o the Denver Board o f Water C o m m i s s i o n e r s . A t t h a t t ime she was a s k i n g $ 5,000 more f o r h e r p r o p e r t y . 8 7 As t ime went o n , South Park r a n c h e r s made g r e a t e r use o f b r o k e r s i n m a r k e t i n g t h e i r water r i g h t s t o the c i t y o f D e n v e r . 8 8 O f t e n , t h e water department was c o n t a c t e d t h ro u g h a t t o r n e y s o r t h r o u g h r e a l t o r s and water b r o k e r s . F r e q u e n t l y l e t t e r s o f e n q u i r y would be accompanied by a water r i g h t s assessment and p r e l i m i n a r y s u r v e y o f l a n d s , done by the b r o k e r , the r e a l t o r , o r an o u t s i d e c o n s u l t a n t . The c i t y u s u a l l y d e c l i n e d t o p u r c h a s e the p r o p e r t i e s , c i t i n g l a c k o f funds on t h e i r p a r t o r the j u n i o r s t a t u s o f t h e water r i g h t s i n q u e s t i o n , as the r e a s o n . The South Park water t r a n s f e r s were v o l u n t a r y . Though c i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s were l e s s than honest about who they were and what they were about when they f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t e d water r i g h t s i n the park i n 1915 and 1916, t h e r e was no s u b t e r f u g e w r i t l a r g e i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n . S a l e s were made knowledgeably and f o r p r o f i t . Wi th E l e v e n M i l e Canyon R e s e r v o i r b u i l t , A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r i n t h e p r o c e s s o f r e p a i r , and s t r a t e g i c d i r e c t f low water r i g h t s t r a n s f e r r e d t o c i t y i n t a k e , Denver put the q u e s t i o n o f f u r t h e r South Park a c q u i s i t i o n s i n the hands o f e n g i n e e r s and c o n s u l t a n t s . T r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s t o da te had o n l y a l l o w e d the 184 t r a n s f e r o f what was presumed t o be the amount o f water c o n s u m p t i v e l y used on South Park meadows. E a r l y s t u d i e s by B u l l and o t h e r s had t r i e d t o e s t i m a t e consumpt ive u s e , and f i g u r e s v a r i e d from 1 a c r e f o o t p e r a c r e t o 1.7 a c r e f e e t p e r a c r e . 8 9 These f i g u r e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f f e c t e d the v a l u e o f South Park water r i g h t s . A l s o o f c o n c e r n t o the c i t y was l a c k o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l i n South P a r k . The c i t y f e a r e d j u n i o r d i t c h h o l d e r s would c o n t i n u e t a k i n g wa te r , d e s p i t e D e n v e r ' s s e n i o r c l a i m s . E n g i n e e r Henry P o t t s n o t e d , Owing t o the f a c t t h a t t h e r e a re a g r e a t number o f s m a l l d i t c h e s , many o f which a r e f a r from a r o a d o r a t r a i l , and b e i n g s c a t t e r e d o v e r a l a r g e a r e a , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o p e r l y p o l i c e the v a r i o u s streams and t o r i g i d l y e n f o r c e the water o r d e r s o f the s t a t e e n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n many i n s t a n c e s , the " P r i o r i t y o f O p p o r t u n i t y " seems t o govern more n e a r l y the amount o f water d i v e r t e d than does the " P r i o r i t y o f D a t e . " 9 0 P o t t s b e l i e v e d the o n l y s o l u t i o n was f o r the c i t y t o b e g i n p u r c h a s i n g water r i g h t s a l o n g the lower r e a c h e s o f the P l a t t e and the T a r r y a l l , work ing t h e i r way upstream t o the headwaters . In O c t o b e r o f 1932 P o t t s and h i s team i n s t a l l e d s t ream gauges , and commenced s t u d i e s o f South Park p r e c i p i t a t i o n , s t r e a m f l o w s , and r e t u r n f lows t o the r i v e r from i r r i g a t i o n . The c i t y h i r e d an o u t s i d e c o n s u l t a n t as w e l l . In 1935 F r e d C a r s t a r p h e n s u b m i t t e d h i s r e p o r t , s i m i l a r i n n a t u r e t o the P o t t s r e p o r t o f 1934. C a r s t a r p h e n advoca ted the d r y i n g up o f South Park i n i t s e n t i r e t y , s t a r t i n g on the lower r e a c h e s o f t h e r i v e r s and work ing u p s t r e a m . 9 1 He b e l i e v e d t h a t the use o f water i n South Park was w a s t e f u l and t h a t human a c t i v i t y i n the a r e a was f o u l i n g the w a t e r s . As C a r s t a r p h e n c o n c e i v e d i t , 185 Denver c o u l d buy the r a n c h e s , s e c u r e the water r i g h t s , then s e l l the l a n d t o the f e d e r a l government c r e a t i n g a v a s t game p r e s e r v e . But C a r s t a r p h e n saw t h i s as a temporary s o l u t i o n i n terms o f s u p p l y . South Park might f i l l immediate demand f o r wa te r , bu t the development o f t r a n s m o u n t a i n d i v e r s i o n s and the use o f c o n s e r v a t i o n were needed on the l o n g t e r m . 9 2 C a r s t a r p h e n ended h i s r e p o r t by u r g i n g the c i t y t o a c t i o n : I t i s the o p p o r t u n i t y so l o n g d e s i r e d o f c o n t r o l l i n g a l a r g e p a r t o f D e n v e r ' s w a t e r s h e d . From t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f s a n i t a t i o n i t w i l l be a s p l e n d i d s t a r t i n p r o t e c t i n g the p u b l i c h e a l t h by removing the i n d i v i d u a l homes, out h o u s e s , c e s s p o o l s , b a r n y a r d d r a i n a g e , manure, wastage , and o t h e r s o u r c e s o f water c o n t a m i n a t i o n and p o l l u t i o n t h a t have been endured f o r l o n g i n the South Park because i t c o u l d not be c u r e d . 9 3 The c i t y ' s c o n s u l t a n t saw o n l y v a l u a b l e p r o p e r t y r i g h t s and human s e t t l e m e n t t h a t seemed a n u i s a n c e . He d i d no t see o r a p p r e c i a t e the v i b r a n t r a n c h i n g c u l t u r e t h a t e x i s t e d i n South Park i n the 1930s. M i n i n g i n Park County was i n the do ld rums , and r a n c h i n g (though i t s t r u g g l e d th rough t h e d e p r e s s i o n ) was the l i f e b l o o d o f the p l a c e . Ranchers f i l l e d key p o s i t i o n s i n the community, as county commiss ioners and as s c h o o l board members. T h e i r c h i l d r e n f i l l e d the s c h o o l h o u s e s , t h e i r t a x e s f i l l e d county c o f f e r s . Indeed, as d e f i n e d , water t r a n s f e r s c o u l d p r o c e e d w i t h o u t any r e g a r d f o r the a r e a o f o r i g i n o r i t s p e o p l e . I n j u r y i n water t r a n s f e r c a s e s was c a r e f u l l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d , l e g a l l y o c c u r r i n g o n l y t o t h o s e p e o p l e h o l d i n g v e s t e d water r i g h t s . L e g a l l y t h e r e was no need t o compromise p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y r i g h t s w i t h q u e s t i o n s o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e o r the common g o o d . 186 Developments i n the M i d - T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y The e a r l y water t r a n s f e r s removed 453.14 c f s i n d e c r e e d water r i g h t s from the books i n D i s t r i c t 23, l e s s than 10% o f the water a d j u d i c a t e d i n 1889 (Appendices B and C) . On t h e g r o u n d , much l e s s was taken out o f i r r i g a t i o n because d e c r e e s were e x c e s s i v e . On ly 18.89 c f s were f o r m a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o m u n i c i p a l i n t a k e (Appendix B) . A number o f d i t c h e s b e a r i n g l a r g e d e c r e e s were never taken t h ro u g h t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s : the Chubb D i t c h and the Drake D i t c h beneath A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r , i n c o m b i n a t i o n b e a r i n g 97.79 c f s i n d e c r e e d water (Appendices B and C) ; and L u c i n d a R o g e r s ' d i t c h e s d e c r e e d f o r 225.2 c f s (Appendices B and C) . The a c t u a l c a p a c i t y o f t h e s e d i t c h e s was c e r t a i n l y much l e s s , and t h e i r r i g h t s t o o j u n i o r , o r the c i t y would have t r a n s f e r r e d them as w e l l . In terms o f numbers, a dozen d i t c h e s were submerged under the r i s i n g waters o f r e s e r v o i r s , and h a l f a dozen o t h e r s t r a n s f e r r e d t o m u n i c i p a l u s e . The t o t a l ac reage removed from the county a s s e s s o r ' s books was i n e x c e s s o f 7,700 a c r e s by the end o f the 1 9 3 0 s . 9 4 Not a l l the p e o p l e who s o l d t o the c i t y were removed from t h e i r l a n d . L u c i n d a Rogers l e a s e d from Denver what remained o f h e r r a n c h a f t e r the water r o s e , u n t i l the t ime o f h e r dea th i n 1 9 5 3 . 9 5 Her son Henry a l s o l e a s e d from the c i t y . The town o f Howbert was underwater , b u t i t had been i n d e c l i n e s i n c e the l a s t t r a i n p a s s e d o v e r the t r a c k s i n 1924. A dozen o r so r a n c h e s were c o v e r e d by E l e v e n M i l e , A n t e r o , and T a r r y a l l r e s e r v o i r s . A c c o r d i n g t o the census t h e r e were 394 ranches and 187 farms i n Park County i n 1930; by 1935 the number jumped t o 483 w i t h a r u s h by d r y l a n d homesteaders . By 1940 t h e r e were 306 l e f t , and by 1950 the number dropped t o 1 9 0 . 9 6 A decade l a t e r t h e r e were 1 2 0 . 9 7 Most Park County r a n c h e s were l o c a t e d i n South P a r k , s o , though no t p r e c i s e , t h e s e f i g u r e s r e f l e c t the g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s . Ranch ing i n South Park s u r v i v e d the d e p r e s s i o n and the f i r s t water t r a n s f e r s . In t h e 1940s however, t e n s i o n s between l o c a l i r r i g a t o r s and the c i t y i n c r e a s e d . South Park r a n c h e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e i r water r i g h t s were b e i n g c a l l e d out more f r e q u e n t l y s i n c e the c i t y had b u i l t i t s r e s e r v o i r s and t r a n s f e r r e d d i r e c t f low r i g h t s t o i n t a k e . In 1941, 14 r a n c h e r s f i l e d s u i t on b e h a l f o f a l l D i s t r i c t 23 i r r i g a t o r s , naming Denver and a number o f companies i n the South P l a t t e V a l l e y i n which Denver had an i n t e r e s t . 9 8 The s u i t charged the c i t y w i t h i l l e g a l l y impounding water i n E l e v e n M i l e R e s e r v o i r , and wanted gaug ing and m o n i t o r i n g o f m u n i c i p a l l y c o n t r o l l e d f a c i l i t i e s improved . The language accused Denver o f " u n l a w f u l and n e f a r i o u s p r a c t i c e s " 9 9 and " i l l e g a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s , " 1 0 0 and a c c u s e d water o f f i c i a l s o f " c o n n i v a n c e and c o n s e n t " 1 0 1 i n d e p r i v i n g D i s t r i c t 23 water u s e r s o f an e s t i m a t e d 35,000 a c r e f e e t o f water a y e a r . 1 0 2 Under the i n f l u e n c e o f improv ing s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and the c i t y ' s p r e s e n c e , the regime o f the r i v e r was c h a n g i n g . In t h e i r s u i t South Park i r r i g a t o r s argued t h a t s i n c e water c o u r s e d a c r o s s t h e i r l a n d , much o f i t r e t u r n i n g immed ia te ly t o the 188 s t r e a m , t h a t s h u t t i n g down t h e i r d i t c h e s was o f l i m i t e d u t i l i t y t o the c i t y . Water l e f t i n s t reams was absorbed i n t o the b a n k s , they a r g u e d . Wi thout i r r i g a t i o n water s p r e a d a c r o s s the l a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y th rough the summer u n t i l h a y i n g s e a s o n , then r e t u r n i n g t o the s t ream th rough p e r c o l a t i o n , the regime o f the r i v e r as South Park r a n c h e r s had known i t was changed i n ways t h a t caused s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s . Where r e t u r n f lows from i r r i g a t i o n had p e r c o l a t e d s l o w l y and s t e a d i l y back t o s t reams w i t h min ima l d i u r n a l f l u c t u a t i o n s , r e l e a s e s from r e s e r v o i r s were s h o r t and sudden . I n s t e a d o f water f l o w i n g g r a d u a l l y i n t o t h e i r d i t c h e s o v e r a mat te r o f h o u r s , i r r i g a t o r s downstream from dams had t o c a p t u r e the e x t r a amount o f water when the s w e l l p a s s e d t h e i r h e a d g a t e s . Ranchers argued they d i d not g e t the f u l l amount t h i s way, and t h a t what they got was not as b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e i r g r a s s . 1 0 3 The l a w s u i t sought damages, monetary compensat ion f o r t o n s o f hay l o s t , and some a s s u r a n c e t h a t p r o p e r gauges would be i n s t a l l e d a t a l l South Park r e s e r v o i r s and t h a t s t o r a g e would be m o n i t o r e d more c l o s e l y by the s t a t e . 1 0 4 The p l a i n t i f f s asked t h e c o u r t t o r e g u l a t e r i v e r runs and make the c i t y s t a n d e v a p o r a t i o n and conveyance l o s s e s . The s u i t p r o v e d u n s u c c e s s f u l . In the e a r l y 1950s, the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t was formed t o a d d r e s s t h e s e same c o n c e r n s a g a i n . 1 0 5 C l e a r l y the water s i t u a t i o n was c h a n g i n g i n South Park i n ways t h a t were not b e n e f i c i a l t o l o c a l r a n c h e r s . They c o u l d not i r r i g a t e i n the manner they once h a d . 189 In t h e c o n t e x t o f an economy t a x e d by Wor ld War I I and s u b j e c t t o marked f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e p r i c e o f b e e f , many m a r g i n a l l y p r o f i t a b l e o p e r a t i o n s became u n p r o f i t a b l e ; some f a i l e d c o m p l e t e l y . Other r a n c h e r s , t h o s e h o l d i n g s e n i o r water r i g h t s and c o n t r o l l i n g e x t e n s i v e a r e a s o f b o t t o m l a n d , s u r v i v e d t h i s p e r i o d and i n some c a s e s expanded t h e i r h o l d i n g s by a c q u i r i n g l a n d from l e s s p r o s p e r o u s n e i g h b o r s . The impact o f the c o n t r a c t i n g r a i l r o a d network cannot be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d e i t h e r . South Park r a n c h e r s had l o n g depended on t h e C o l o r a d o M i d l a n d and t h e Denver and South Park l i n e s t o c a r r y t h e i r c a t t l e t o markets i n Denver and Omaha ( F i g u r e 5 - 6 ) . By the eve o f Wor ld War I I , bo th r a i l r o a d s were c l o s e d . Ranchers had t o use t r u c k s , t o ge t t h e i r s t o c k t o market . D u r i n g t h e 1940s, 50s , and 60s , South Park r a n c h e r s i n c r e a s i n g l y adopted mechanized c u t t i n g , b a l i n g , and r o l l i n g i n h a y i n g . A g a i n , t h e more m a r g i n a l o p e r a t i o n s c o u l d l i t t l e a f f o r d t o p u r c h a s e machinery and , as t h e i r n e i g h b o r s d i d s o , m a r g i n a l o p e r a t i o n s became even l e s s a b l e t o compete. Improving s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and p e r s i s t e n t c a l l s on the r i v e r by the c i t y and o t h e r downstream a p p r o p r i a t o r s , made l i f e i n the h i g h p a r k more d i f f i c u l t . In the 1950s, o t h e r c i t i e s a l o n g the C o l o r a d o F r o n t Range began t o show an i n t e r e s t i n South P a r k . In 1951, the c i t y o f Englewood (a suburb o f Denver) a c q u i r e d r i g h t s t o the Boreas D i t c h , a s m a l l i n t e r b a s i n t r a n s f e r d i t c h , b u i l t by C e l s u s P. L i n k . The c i t y p u r c h a s e d the d i t c h from E l i z a b e t h L i n k , h i s 190 F i g u r e 5 -6 . The Colorado Midland Railway yard at Hartsel, with the meandering South Platte River and the Hartsel hot springs resort on the right, n.d. L.C. McClure, photographer (Courtesy, Denver Public Library, Western History Collection). 191 widow. The d i t c h d i v e r t e d a s m a l l amount o f water from the headwaters o f the C o l o r a d o d r a i n a g e . 1 0 6 The c i t y o f C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s a l s o t u r n e d i t s eyes t o South Park and many y e a r s l a t e r became i n v o l v e d i n a c o m p l i c a t e d and a b o r t i v e at tempt t o p u r c h a s e the M a r c o t t Ranch, which c a r r i e d the p r i z e d Beery D i t c h , the number one p r i o r i t y i n South P a r k . In the e n d , Denver a c q u i r e d the r i g h t s t o the Beery D i t c h , and C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s s e t t l e d f o r u s i n g South Park as a c o n d u i t , never t r a n s f e r r i n g d i r e c t f low r i g h t s from the p a r k i t s e l f . C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s , l i k e Denver , had t u r n e d t o t h e w e s t e r n s l o p e t o d e v e l o p i t s water s u p p l y . The c i t y owned r i g h t s on the B l u e R i v e r . In the mid -1950s , i t c o n s t r u c t e d Montgomery R e s e r v o i r a t the head o f the M i d d l e F o r k o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r . The r e s e r v o i r was p a r t o f an e l a b o r a t e network o f p i p e l i n e s , pumping s t a t i o n s , and s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s . Water was d i v e r t e d from the headwaters o f the B l u e R i v e r , immedia te ly n o r t h o f H o o s i e r P a s s . The water was c a r r i e d t h r o u g h t h e H o o s i e r Pass Tunne l t o Montgomery R e s e r v o i r , where i t was conveyed i n t o an underground p i p e l i n e which took i t a c r o s s South Park and on t o C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s . In the 1960s the Homestake P r o j e c t was i n i t i a t e d , i n v o l v i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f ano ther l a r g e p i p e l i n e a c r o s s South Park ( F i g u r e 5 - 7 ) . Homestake was a j o i n t p r o j e c t i n which the c i t i e s o f C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s and A u r o r a (another Denver suburb) d e v e l o p e d water from the weste rn s l o p e i n the v i c i n i t y o f A s p e n . The water was p i p e d th rough the C o n t i n e n t a l D i v i d e and i n t o Twin 192 19*4 Figure 5 - 7 . Map: The H y d r a u l i c P a r k , 1994. 193 L a k e s . From t h e r e i t f lowed i n n a t u r a l c h a n n e l s down the c r e e k t o t h e A r k a n s a s R i v e r and the Ote ro pumping s t a t i o n . The water was t h e n p i p e d up i n t o South P a r k , a c r o s s the b a s i n , and t o a p o i n t where the C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s and A u r o r a s h a r e s o f the water were d i v i d e d . The C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s p o r t i o n was c a r r i e d on by p i p e l i n e t o t h e c i t y . The A u r o r a p o r t i o n was d i v e r t e d i n t o t h e South P l a t t e R i v e r above E l e v e n M i l e Canyon R e s e r v o i r . Though grand h y d r a u l i c schemes had e t c h e d themse lves a c r o s s South P a r k ' s s u r f a c e , the d i r e c t impact o f p i p e l i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n was m i n i m a l . South Park r a n c h e r s a l s o had one more m u n i c i p a l r e s e r v o i r t o contend w i t h (Montgomery). But t h e s e e n g i n e e r i n g f e a t s had removed no r a n c h l a n d from p r o d u c t i o n and r e t i r e d no water r i g h t s . The impact on a g r i c u l t u r e was m i n i m a l . The a r c h a e o l o g i s t E . B . Renaud d e s c r i b e d the p a r k i n 1944 d u r i n g f i e l d work f o r h i s s u r v e y o f n a t i v e s i t e s i n t h e a r e a and a decade a f t e r the e a r l y Denver water t r a n s f e r s . The p a r k was v e r d a n t . As y e t the water t r a n s f e r s had had min imal impact i n terms o f r e d u c i n g r a n c h i n g i n South P a r k . Renaud wro te , A t the f o o t o f a h i g h and v e r y s t e e p s l o p e an immense g r a s s y c a r p e t , o f deep emera ld g reen c o l o r , s p r e a d s f o r m i l e s i n the c l e a r mountain a i r . I t i s edged on the e a s t by wooded h i l l s , the t a l l p i n e s fo rming an uneven b o r d e r o f d a r k g r e e n on t h a t s i d e . To the west the m a j e s t i c summits o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l d i v i d e o u t l i n e t h e i r snow capped heads a g a i n s t the pure b l u e s k y , o r h i d e them i n r o l l i n g masses o f heavy c l o u d s . On t h a t western s i d e the g r a s s i n v a d e s the upper v a l l e y s and makes v a s t bays o f g reen v e g e t a t i o n between the g r a y and y e l l o w r o c k s o f the s l o p e s . . . A c c o r d i n g t o the season the t a l l g r a s s o f the o f t e n marshy meadows r e a c h e s up t o the knees o r even the b e l l i e s o f the c a t t l e and h o r s e s g r a z i n g p e a c e f u l l y i n t h a t g l o r i o u s l a n d s c a p e . A t o t h e r t imes the l a n d i s d o t t e d w i t h the b u l k y hay s t a c k s c a s t i n g t h e i r shadows l i k e d a r k s p o t s o f a f r e e p a t t e r n . The f i r s t t ime I came upon t h a t s e c t i o n o f 194 South Park i t was c o v e r e d w i t h a m i l l i o n s m a l l , p a l e and f r a g r a n t w i l d i r i s e s . T h i s y e a r , l a t e r i n the s e a s o n , everywhere immense f i e l d s o f l i t t l e w i l d f l o w e r s o f a l l s h a d e s , r o s e , p i n k , r e d , b l u e , p u r p l e , o r a n g e , o r y e l l o w , s p r e a d g e n e r o u s l y t h e i r d e l i c a t e p a s t e l shades a l l o v e r the l a n d s c a p e i n e v e r y d i r e c t i o n . 1 0 7 W i l d f l o w e r s b loomed, the g r a s s grew t a l l , and r a n c h i n g s u r v i v e d . The f i r s t a g r i c u l t u r a l t o m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s d i d l i t t l e t o change t h e rhythms o f l i f e i n the p a r k . They i n v o l v e d a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l amount o f water and l e f t the i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and s c a l e o f r a n c h i n g i n South Park e s s e n t i a l l y i n t a c t . However, e a r l y t r a n s f e r s had e s t a b l i s h e d m u n i c i p a l i n t e r e s t s i n South P a r k . Denver was now d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n water m a t t e r s i n D i s t r i c t 23 and s t r a t e g i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d T a r r y a l l C r e e k . P l a n s had been a r t i c u l a t e d f o r d r y i n g up the e n t i r e b a s i n , but t h e s e p l a n s were not implemented by Denver , and they were not c a r r i e d out u n t i l the l a s t t h r e e decades o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . Chapter Notes 1. M o s l e y , 1966, Chapte r I; and M i l l i k e n , 1988, p p . 333-339. The Mos ley m a n u s c r i p t i s a t r u l y e x c e p t i o n a l document. E a r l Mos ley was the manager o f the Denver Water Department f o r many y e a r s , and upon h i s r e t i r e m e n t began work on a d e t a i l e d h i s t o r y o f D e n v e r ' s water s y s t e m . Work was c u t s h o r t by M o s l e y ' s dea th i n 1966. The m a n u s c r i p t was never p u b l i s h e d . 2. M i l l i k e n , 1988, p . 337. 3. M o s l e y , 1966, p. 199. 4. M o s l e y , 1966, p .200 . 5. M o s l e y , 1966, p p . 157-158. 195 6. Denver T i m e s . August 13, 1875, p . 1. 7 . Sampson, 1929, p . 2. 8. M o s l e y , 1966, p . 279. 9 . M o s l e y , 1966, Chapte r IV. M o s l e y 1 s e n t i r e c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h e v e n t s l e a d i n g up t o the c o n s o l i d a t i o n , as w e l l as the d e t a i l s o f the Denver Un ion Water Company's f o r m a t i o n and e a r l y y e a r s . 10. M i l l i k e n , 1988, p p . 338-339. 11. M o s l e y , 1966, p . 342. 12. M o s l e y , 1966, p p . 643-754. 13. M o s l e y , 1966, p p . 633-634. 14. F o r a more thorough d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s landmark c a s e , see V r a n e s h , 1989 and Dunbar, 1986. 15. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. J . P . M a x w e l l , 1893, p . 14. 16. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1882-1946. M i c h a e l C . H i n d e r l i d e r , 1925, p . 214. 17. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . D . S c h u y l e r , 1892. "Repor t on the Water Supp ly f o r 1892 and 1893, and the Way t o Secure I t . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the C i t i z e n ' s Water Company. 18. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . C . U l r i c h , June 1903, "Repor t o f J . C . U l r i c h t o W a l t e r P. M i l l e r " , p p . 1-2 . U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r t h e Denver Un ion Water Company. 19. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. J . C . U l r i c h , June 1903, p. 2. 20. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. J . C . U l r i c h , June 1903, p p . 2 - 3 . 21 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . C . U l r i c h , June 1903, p . 6. 22. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . J . A r m s t r o n g , 1903, "Repor t o f J . J . Armst rong t o W a l t e r P. M i l l e r , " p p . 1-2. U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the Denver Un ion Water Company. 196 23. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. J . J . A r m s t r o n g , 1903, p . 2 . 24. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . J . A r m s t r o n g , 1903, p p . 2 - 5 ; and J . C . U l r i c h , December 1903, "Repor t o f J . C . U l r i c h t o W a l t e r P. M i l l e r , " p p . 5 -12 . U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r t h e Denver Un ion Water Company. 25 . Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. J . C . U l r i c h , December 1903, p p . 2 - 3 . 26. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . C . U l r i c h , December 1903, p . 4 . 27. Or infamy as i t were. 28. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . B . L i p p i n c o t t , 1914, " P r e l i m i n a r y Repor t f o r a New Water Supp ly f o r the C i t y o f Denver" , p . 3. U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the P . U . C . i n Denver . 29. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. J . B . L i p p i n c o t t , 1914, p . 4. 30. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . B . L i p p i n c o t t , 1914, p . l l . 31 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . B . L i p p i n c o t t , 1914, p . 23. The r e p o r t went on t o e x p l o r e o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s as w e l l . 32. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . B . L i p p i n c o t t , 1914, p . 51 . 33. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . B . L i p p i n c o t t , 1914, p . 54. 34. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. George M. B u l l , n . d . and 1926, "Memorandum R e g a r d i n g the Problems o f O b t a i n i n g A d d i t i o n a l Water F o r the C i t y Through the Purchase o f Hay Land i n South P a r k . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the Denver Water Department . The 1926 v e r s i o n and the undated v e r s i o n a re the f i n a l and p r e l i m i n a r y d r a f t s o f the same r e p o r t . The c o n t a i n s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s . 35. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. George M. B u l l , n . d . , p p . 4 - 9 . 36. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. George M. B u l l , n . d . , p p . 8 - 9 . 197 37. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. George M. B u l l , 1926, p p . 9 -10 . 38. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. George M. B u l l , 1926, p p . 9 -10 . 39. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . D . S c h u y l e r , 1892, "Repor t on Mounta in R e s e r v o i r s and Water S t o r a g e , " p . 9 . U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the C i t i z e n s Water Company. 40. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. J . D . S c h u y l e r , 1892, p . 9 . 41 . Comstock, 1917, p. 27. 42. Comstock, 1917, p . 5. 43 . Comstock, 1917, p. 8. 44. C i t y o f Denver . June 28, 1913, p. 13. 45 . Doher ty and Company o f New Y o r k . Denver R e p u b l i c a n . May 21 , 1913, p . 9 . 46. Denver T i m e s . August 27, 1915, p . 1. 47 . Denver T i m e s . August 27, 1915, p . 1. 48. Denver T i m e s . August 27, 1915, p. 1. 49 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. 50. Denver M u n i c i p a l F a c t s . May-June 1924, p . 10. 51 . M u n i c i p a l F a c t s f November-December 1920, p . 12. 52. M u n i c i p a l F a c t s . May-June 1924, p . 10. By the t ime the c i t y d e c i d e d t o s e t t l e the l a w s u i t s , t h e r e were 10 s e p a r a t e s u i t s p e n d i n g a g a i n s t them. 53. Comstock, 1917, p . 15. 54. M u n i c i p a l F a c t s . J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y 1929, p . 4 . Note : The Two F o r k s P r o j e c t was v e t o e d by t h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency i n the e a r l y 1990s. Denver and the o t h e r F r o n t Range c i t i e s i n v o l v e d i n the p r o j e c t s t i l l hope t o r e v e r s e t h a t d e c i s i o n . 55 . Rocky Mounta in News. A p r i l 10, 1930, p . 1. 56. Rocky Mounta in News. June 1, 1930, p . 5. 198 57. Rocky Mounta in News. J u l y 19, 1930, p . 4; and Denver P o s t . J u l y 19, 1930, p . 4 . 58. Denver P o s t f A p r i l 10, 1940, p . 11. 59. The d e s c r i p t i o n o f Howbert as c o m p r i s e d o f a f i l l i n g s t a t i o n , s c h o o l , and p o s t o f f i c e comes from Denver P o s t . A p r i l 10, 1930, p. l l . 60. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o W a l t e r P. M i l l e r , August 31, 1915. 61 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from G e r a l d Hughes and C l a y t o n Dorsey t o E . S . K a s s l e r , May 18, 1917. 62. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n 1974. 63. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n 1936. 64. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o W.P. R o b i n s o n , August 18, 1916. 65. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o W i l l i a m P. R o b i n s o n , August 18, 1916. 66. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o W a l t e r P. M i l l e r , August 31 , 1915. 67. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o W a l t e r P. M i l l e r , August 31, 1915. 68. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o W a l t e r P. M i l l e r , August 31, 1915. 69. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o W a l t e r P. M i l l e r , August 31, 1915. 70. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o John E v a n s , December 28, 1915. 7 1 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. 72. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. A . D . W a l l , 1936, "Rea l E s t a t e Inven tory - 1936 - E l e v e n M i l e Canon R e s e r v o i r L a n d s . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the Denver Water Department . 73 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. F i l e 605.003: Gus W. F i e d l e r . 199 74. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. F i l e 605.003: Gus W. F i e d l e r . 75 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. A . D . W a l l , 1936, p . 15. 76. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. A . D . W a l l , 1936, p. 1. 77 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. A . D . W a l l , 1936, p . 3. 78. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n 1942. 79. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. A . D . W a l l , 1936, p . 12. 80. F o r a l i s t o f d i t c h e s never f o r m a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d , r e f e r t o Appendix C , and see e n t r i e s under the L u c i n d a R o g e r s , E p p e r s o n , and E l e v e n m i l e t r a n s f e r s . Some o f t h e s e d i t c h e s ended up on the abandonment l i s t i n l a t e r y e a r s ; some remained on the books i n D i s t r i c t 23 i n t o the e a r l y 1990s. 81 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o Malco lm L i n d s e y , F e b r u a r y 18, 1933. 82. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o Ma lco lm L i n d s e y , F e b r u a r y 18, 1933. 83 . Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n s 1973, 1975, and 1976. 84. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from C P . L i n k t o J o h n E v a n s , November 23, 1915. 85 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from A . D . W a l l t o W i l l i a m P. R o b i n s o n , J u l y 1916. 86. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r f rom May A . P a i g e t o Mayor Benjamin S t a p l e t o n , June 8, 1927. 87 . Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. L e t t e r from May A . P a i g e t o the Denver Board o f Water Commiss ioner s , November 5, 1923. 88. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. O f f e r s t o S e l l , 1923-1993. O f f e r s t o s e l l water r i g h t s , coming from South Park and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e s t a t e , f i l l s e v e r a l f i l e c a b i n e t s i n the r e c o r d s d i v i s i o n o f the Denver Water Department . 200 89. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. H . L . P o t t s , 1934, "Repor t o f South Park I n v e s t i g a t i o n s f o r 1933," p p . 1-2 . U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the Denver Board o f Water Commiss ioners . 90. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. H . L . P o t t s , 1934, p . 3. 91 . Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. F r e d C . C a r s t a r p h e n , 1935, "Repor t on E n l a r g e d Source o f Water f o r D e n v e r ' s M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a th rough C e s s a t i o n o f I r r i g a t i o n i n South P a r k , C o l o r a d o . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the Denver Water Department . 92. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. F r e d C . C a r s t a r p h e n , 1935, p . 23. 93 . Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. F r e d C . C a r s t a r p h e n , 1935, p . 55. 94. T h i s f i g u r e i s d e r i v e d by add ing up the a c r e s r e p o r t e d i n A . D . W a l l ' s 1936 r e a l e s t a t e i n v e n t o r y , and i n c l u d i n g f i g u r e s f o r the Bar low and Rogers ranches from c i t y f i l e s . The A n t e r o R e s e r v o i r b a s i n i s not i n c l u d e d i n t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n because no r e l i a b l e f i g u r e c o u l d be f o u n d . A l s o see Appendix B. 95. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. Memo from C h a r l e s C . F i s k t o R . B . McRae, Oc tober 23, 1958. 96. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864-1989. 97. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864-1989. 98. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n 3139. 99 . Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n 3139, C o m p l a i n t , p . 13. 100. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n 3139, C o m p l a i n t , p. 5. 101. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n 3139, C o m p l a i n t , p. 5. 102. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n 3139, C o m p l a i n t , p. 6. 103. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n 3139, C o m p l a i n t . 104. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n 3139. 201 105. Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t , 1953-1993. 106. L i n k , 1969. T h i s i s the same E l i z a b e t h L i n k e n c o u n t e r e d a t the b e g i n n i n g o f Chapte r I I I . 107. Renaud, 1945, p . 3. 202 CHAPTER SIX DRY UP Expanding Demand In the a f t e r m a t h o f Wor ld War II the p o p u l a t i o n o f the C o l o r a d o F r o n t Range e x p l o d e d . R a p i d s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n powered a d r a m a t i c e x p a n s i o n i n the demand f o r water as r e t u r n i n g s o l d i e r s took up t r a c t houses a t e v e r g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s from downtown Denver . N u c l e a r f a m i l i e s i n s i n g l e - f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s , sur rounded by s m a l l p l o t s o f g r a s s - d ishwashers humming, washing machines g u r g l i n g , s p r i n k l e r s spewing water i n t o the d r y a i r l i k e p r i v a t e f o u n t a i n s - i t was a s t y l e o f l i f e t h a t r e q u i r e d m u n i c i p a l water on an unprecedented s c a l e . When t h e census t a k e r s c a n v a s s e d Denver i n 1940, they counted 322,412 p e o p l e ; a decade l a t e r t h e c i t y had o v e r 90,000 m o r e . 1 In the suburbs the r a t e o f growth was even more r a p i d (Tab le 6 - 1 ) . In the same p e r i o d , A u r o r a , l o c a t e d j u s t e a s t o f Denver , grew from a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3,437 t o 11 ,421 , an i n c r e a s e o f 232%. In 1950, the f i r s t t ime the Bureau o f the Census r e p o r t e d f i g u r e s f o r the Denver m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , the c i t y and i t s suburbs had j u s t under h a l f a m i l l i o n p e o p l e . By 1970 the p o p u l a t i o n had topped a m i l l i o n , and as the t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y a p p r o a c h e s , the metro a r e a i s r e a c h i n g two m i l l i o n p e o p l e . 2 As e a r l y as the 1920s, Denver t u r n e d t o the weste rn s l o p e o f the R o c k i e s f o r i t s water , expanded h o l d i n g s on the headwaters o f the C o l o r a d o R i v e r , and d e v e l o p e d weste rn s l o p e 203 GROWTH OF CITIES, 1860 - 1990 Denver Aurora Thornton Denver Metro Area Colorado Sorinos 1860 4,749 1870 4,759 (+ 0.2X) 1880 35,629 <• 648.7X) 4,573 1890 106,713 (+ 199.5%) 12,928 (• 182.7X) 1900 133,859 (• 25.4X) 202 23,999 (• 85.6X) 1910 213,381 (+ 59.4X) 679 (• 236. IX) 33,411 (• 39.2X) 1920 256,491 (• 20.2X) 983 <• 44.8X) 30,105 (- 9.9X) 1930 287,861 ( + 12.2X) 2,295 (• 133.5X) 33,237 (• 10.4X) 1940 322,412 < + 12.OX) 3,437 (• 49.8X> 36,789 <• 10.7X) 1950 415,786 <• 29.OX) 11,421 (+ 232.3X) 498,743 45,472 (+ 23.6X) 1960 493,887 (• 18.8X) 48,548 (• 325.IX) 11,353 803,624 (+ 61 IX) 70,194 (• 54.4X) 1970 514,678 (• 4.2X) 74,819 (• 54.IX) 13,326 (• 17.4X) 1,047,311 C + 30.3X) 135,059 (+ 92.4X) 1980 492,365 (- 4.3X) 158,588 (• 112.OX) 40,343 (• 202.7X) 1,352,070 (+ 29 1X> 215,150 < • 59.3X) 1990 467,610 (- 5.OX) 194,342 (• 22.6X) 55,031 (+ 36.4X> 1,848,319 <• 36.7X) 281,077 (+ 30.6X) T a b l e 6 - 1 . Growth o f C i t i e s , 1860-1990. The t a b l e shows the e x p a n s i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n a l o n g the C o l o r a d o F r o n t Range, f o c u s i n g on c i t i e s w i t h i n t e r e s t s i n South Park (Source : U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s ) . 204 s t o r a g e . 3 By 1963, the c i t y was d e r i v i n g h a l f i t s s u p p l y from t h e o t h e r s i d e o f the c o n t i n e n t a l d i v i d e 4 ( F i g u r e 6 - 1 ) . In to t h e 1940s Denver s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s e d i t s s e r v i c e a r e a , p r o v i d i n g water t o nearby m u n i c i p a l i t i e s and suburbs o u t s i d e t h e c i t y ' s b o u n d a r i e s . In the e a r l y 1950s Denver drew the infamous " b l u e l i n e , " d e m a r c a t i n g the maximum r e a c h o f the c i t y ' s s e r v i c e . D e v e l o p i n g communit ies o u t s i d e the b l u e l i n e , and m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a l r e a d y w i t h i n the system t h a t a n t i c i p a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t growth o u t s i d e D e n v e r ' s s e r v i c e a r e a , were f o r c e d t o d e v e l o p t h e i r own s u p p l i e s . The r e s u l t was f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n water s u p p l y and h e i g h t e n e d c o m p e t i t i o n f o r w a t e r . 5 By 1975, 67 s e p a r a t e water s u p p l y a g e n c i e s s e r v e d the m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , 6 though Denver had e r a s e d the B lue L i n e 15 y e a r s b e f o r e . In t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e growing suburbs o f A u r o r a and T h o r n t o n t u r n e d t o South P a r k , implement ing p l a n s Denver e n g i n e e r s had a r t i c u l a t e d a t t h e t u r n o f the c e n t u r y : t o a c q u i r e v i r t u a l l y a l l the i r r i g a t i o n water r i g h t s from the windswept b a s i n a t the headwaters o f the South P l a t t e . O ther i s s u e s c o m p l i c a t e d r e l a t i o n s between the Denver Water Department and suburban m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . U n t i l 1959, the c i t y c h a r t e r l i m i t e d s e r v i c e c o n t r a c t s o u t s i d e o f Denver t o a p e r i o d o f one y e a r . 7 Renewal was u n c e r t a i n . F u r t h e r , t h e c i t y charged d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s t o customers i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e C i t y and County o f Denver . Customers i n A u r o r a p a i d h a l f a g a i n as much f o r t h e i r water as d i d Denver r e s i d e n t s . 8 There was no l i m i t on r a t e i n c r e a s e s . The i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s u p p l y and 205 F i g u r e 6 - 1 . D e n v e r ' s M u n i c i p a l Water S u p p l y , 1990. 206 u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f the c o s t s l e d the c i t y t o d e v e l o p an independent water s y s t e m . 9 In 1949, A u r o r a e s t a b l i s h e d i t s own water depar tment . The c i t y t u r n e d t o groundwater , t o i r r i g a t i o n water r i g h t s on the South P l a t t e and the A r k a n s a s r i v e r s , and t o i n t e r b a s i n t r a n s f e r s from the weste rn s l o p e t o p r o v i d e a m u n i c i p a l s u p p l y . 1 0 In 1967, when i n t e r b a s i n t r a n s f e r water from the Homestake p r o j e c t became a v a i l a b l e f o r the f i r s t t i m e , A u r o r a ended i t s dependence on the Denver Water Department and s e v e r e d a l l t i e s . 1 1 By the mid 1980s, the c i t y had assembled a system and s u p p l y t h a t was s u f f i c i e n t t o p e r m i t i t t o compete w i t h Denver t o s e r v e t h e r e s i d e n t i a l s u b d i v i s i o n s and i n d u s t r i a l p a r k s t h a t c o n t i n u e d t o ooze out onto the p l a i n s and ex tend n o r t h and s o u t h a l o n g the Piedmont ( F i g u r e 6 - 2 ) . A u r o r a began as the s m a l l town o f F l e t c h e r , e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1891. The town was renamed a f t e r the f o u n d e r , C a n a d i a n - b o r n s p e c u l a t o r and r e a l e s t a t e i n v e s t o r Donald F l e t c h e r , l e f t i n the wake o f the c r a s h o f 1893 and s a d d l e d l o c a l r e s i d e n t s w i t h bond payments f o r a n o n - e x i s t e n t water s y s t e m . 1 2 A u r o r a remained s m a l l and r u r a l i n c h a r a c t e r u n t i l the 1930s, when the f e d e r a l government i n f u s e d l a r g e amounts o f money i n t o the m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a ' s economy. 1 3 F i t zs immons Army H o s p i t a l , Lowry A i r F o r c e B a s e , B u c k l e y F i e l d , the Rocky Mounta in A r s e n a l , a l l f e d e r a l m i l i t a r y f a c i l i t i e s , were c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o A u r o r a ' s c o r e . U n l i k e the c i t y o f Denver , which was i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n f i n e d by i t s s u b u r b s , A u r o r a ' s s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d the p o s s i b i l i t y f o r 207 F i g u r e 6 -2 . A u r o r a ' s M u n i c i p a l Water S u p p l y , 1990. 208 v i r t u a l l y u n l i m i t e d growth . V a s t , g r a s s y p l a i n s extended e a s t t o t h e Kansas b o r d e r f rom t h e edge o f t h e c i t y . In r e c e n t d e c a d e s , A u r o r a has pursued an a g g r e s s i v e p o l i c y o f a n n e x a t i o n -e a s t , s o u t h , and n o r t h from i t s n u c l e u s . 1 4 In t h e 1970s, the c i t y ranked as one o f t h e f a s t e s t growing m u n i c i p a l i t i e s i n the c o u n t r y . 1 5 By 1980 i t had become the t h i r d l a r g e s t c i t y i n the s t a t e . 1 6 Economic r e c e s s i o n i n the 1980s s lowed growth f o r a t i m e , bu t i n the 1990s the p o p u l a t i o n and the r e g i o n a l economy a r e e n t e r i n g a n o t h e r phase o f e x p a n s i o n . Douglas C o u n t y , j u s t s o u t h o f A u r o r a , i s now the f a s t e s t growing county i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . 1 7 The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a mass ive new a i r p o r t - t h e f i n a n c i a l l y and t e c h n i c a l l y t r o u b l e d Denver I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t - t o the n o r t h p romises f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n and development i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n as w e l l . T h o r n t o n , the o t h e r major p l a y e r i n t h e South Park water t r a n s f e r s , i s l o c a t e d on the n o r t h e a s t e r n edge o f the m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a ( F i g u r e 6 - 3 ) . I t t o o w i l l b e n e f i t from the removal o f D e n v e r ' s a i r p o r t t o the p l a i n s , and l i k e A u r o r a , has v i r t u a l l y u n l i m i t e d p o t e n t i a l f o r e x p a n s i o n . A l r e a d y t h e c i t y has f o r m u l a t e d p l a n s t o annex l a n d s t o t h e n o r t h . 1 8 E s t a b l i s h e d i n 1953, T h o r n t o n was a pr ime example o f m i d - c e n t u r y p l a n n i n g and development based on a f f o r d a b i l i t y . 1 9 L o t s i z e s were s m a l l , houses were modest and r e a s o n a b l y p r i c e d . T r a i l e r p a r k s were no t o n l y p e r m i t t e d but e n c o u r a g e d . 2 0 The r e s u l t was a more d e n s e l y packed form o f s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n than found e lsewhere i n the m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a . In more r e c e n t y e a r s t h a t p a t t e r n has 209 F i g u r e 6-3. Map: The Denver Metropolitan Area, 1990. 210 changed . The c i t y now seeks t o a t t r a c t more a f f l u e n t r e s i d e n t s . N o r t h o f T h o r n t o n ' s c o r e , r e c e n t development has f o c u s s e d bo th on condominiums and on s u b d i v i s i o n s w i t h l a r g e r l o t s and more s p a c i o u s homes. A g o l f c o u r s e has a l s o been d e v e l o p e d . The c h a r a c t e r o f T h o r n t o n i s c h a n g i n g . In compar ison t o Denver , the m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f T h o r n t o n and A u r o r a a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l . T h e i r p o t e n t i a l f o r growth i s enormous however , and on t h a t b a s i s b o t h c i t i e s have a g g r e s s i v e l y pursued water r i g h t s a c q u i s i t i o n s . As Denver had found h a l f a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r , South Park was a l o g i c a l p l a c e t o e x p r o p r i a t e s u p p l i e s . The South P l a t t e R i v e r p r o v i d e d a n a t u r a l c o n d u i t , c a r r y i n g water by g r a v i t y f rom t h e headwaters t o t h e c i t i e s . Though amounts o f water were s m a l l , the c i t i e s c o u l d j u s t i f y South Park a c q u i s i t i o n s s t r a t e g i c a l l y . As w e l l , the c i t i e s were a d d r e s s i n g t h e i r water s u p p l y problems i n the m i d -t o - l a t e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , by which t ime the o p t i o n s f o r s u p p l y were s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d . The e x t e n t o f o v e r - a p p r o p r i a t i o n on the e a s t e r n s l o p e was w e l l known, and water r i g h t s were much h a r d e r and more e x p e n s i v e t o come b y . Even s m a l l amounts o f water were v a l u a b l e . In t h e l a t e 1960s, the s a l e and t r a n s f e r o f the A u g u s t i n e Ranch water r i g h t s i n a u g u r a t e d a new p e r i o d o f water t r a n s f e r s i n South P a r k , which p e r s i s t s t o the p r e s e n t . The i r r i g a t e d meadows d e s c r i b e d by E l i z a b e t h L i n k i n 1907 and E t i e n n e Renaud i n 1944 a r e b e i n g d r i e d u p . Water no l o n g e r c o u r s e s a c r o s s the s u r f a c e o r shimmers i n the b r i g h t s u n l i g h t , excep t i n i s o l a t e d 211 s p o t s . The p a r k more n e a r l y resembles the p l a c e encounte re d by e x p l o r e r John C h a r l e s Fremont i n 1844: a v a s t brown expanse , b roken by l i g h t l y f o r e s t e d r i d g e s and p a t c h e s o f g r e e n . The d e l i c a t e l y b a l a n c e d system o f r a n c h i n g d e v e l o p e d and m a i n t a i n e d f o r o v e r a c e n t u r y i s d i s a p p e a r i n g , a l o n g w i t h the p e o p l e and the c u l t u r e t h a t accompanied i t ( F i g u r e 6 - 4 ) . The B e g i n n i n g s o f Who lesa le E x p r o p r i a t i o n S i n c e the t ime o f the A u g u s t i n e t r a n s f e r , c l o s e t o 40,000 a c r e s o f hay meadows have been removed from p r o d u c t i o n ; a p p r o x i m a t e l y 500 c f s ( c u b i c f e e t p e r second) o f f low have been t r a n s f e r r e d downstream t o m u n i c i p a l i n t a k e s ; and o v e r 250 s e p a r a t e water r i g h t s have been r e t i r e d from i r r i g a t i o n i n South Park ( F i g u r e s 6-5 and 6-6 and Appendix B ) . On ly a h a n d f u l o f work ing r a n c h e s s t i l l r ema in : the l a t e A l b e r t W a h l ' s ranch on J e f f e r s o n C r e e k ; the l a t e F reda W a h l ' s ranch on M i c h i g a n C r e e k ; A l e x E b e l ' s p l a c e o v e r on T r o u t C r e e k ; Rod and Sandy A n s l e y ' s s p r e a d on the upper r e a c h e s o f the South F o r k o f the South P l a t t e ; J . C . G r e e n ' s ranch on J e f f e r s o n C r e e k , and s e v e r a l o t h e r s . The A u g u s t i n e t r a n s f e r was the l a s t t o be hand led th rough D i s t r i c t C o u r t i n F a i r p l a y . The f o l l o w i n g y e a r the Water R i g h t s D e t e r m i n a t i o n and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n A c t was p a s s e d , removing water c o u r t t o G r e e l e y . The d i t c h r i g h t s t o t h e 4,760 a c r e A u g u s t i n e r a n c h were p u r c h a s e d by A u r o r a i n June o f 1967 . 2 1 The nex t month the c i t y a p p l i e d t o the c o u r t f o r a temporary change i n 212 213 SPINNEY MOUNTAIN RESERVOIR STATUS OF DITCHES PLATTE D R A I N A G E SOUTH 1993 C1JL k E L E V E N MILE I C A N Y O N R E S E R V O I R L E G E N D STREAM DITCH ACTIVE (IRRIGATION) TRANSFERED OR ABANDONED IN TRANSFER \SSS\ ABANDONED AUGMENTATION F i g u r e 6-5. S t a t u s o f D i t c h e s , P l a t t e D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. D i t c h e s i n t h i s s e t o f l i n e drawings a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o whether they remain a c t i v e i n i r r i g a t i o n , were abandoned, o r had r i g h t s t r a n s f e r r e d i n m u n i c i p a l t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s , were t r a n s f e r r e d f o r augmenta t ion , o r were abandoned i n t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s . 214 ROCK CREEK TARRYALL RESERVOIR, STATUS OF DITCHES TARRYALL DRAINAGE SOUTH PARK 1993 ERVOIR / ^ t -v n.w. H ^ H T LEGEND IT STREAM DITCH ACTIVE (IRRIGATION) TRANSFERED OR ABANDONED IN TRANSFER 1ZZZ1 ABANDONED 3 AUGMENTATION F i g u r e 6 -6 . 1 9 9 3 . Status of Ditches, T a r r y a l l Drainage, South Park, 2 1 5 the p o i n t o f d i v e r s i o n , 2 2 s i m i l a r t o the temporary t r a n s f e r s made by the c i t y o f Denver i n the 1930s. In 1968 A u g u s t i n e and the c i t y a p p l i e d f o r a permanent t r a n s f e r . W i t h i n the r u b r i c o f the law, a s m a l l p e r c e n t o f the water r i g h t s were changed i n t h e i r use and p o i n t o f d i v e r s i o n . More s i g n i f i c a n t l y , the 1968 d e c r e e s p e c i f i e d "dry up" on 500 o f the r a n c h ' s f o r m e r l y i r r i g a t e d l a n d s . 2 3 In the d e c r e e Judge Howard Purdy d e f i n e d the t e r m , An a r e a s h a l l be c o n s i d e r e d t o have been d r i e d u p . . . o n l y i f the ground water t a b l e s h a l l have been permanent ly lowered f a r enough below the s o i l g r a v e l i n t e r f a c e t o p r e v e n t the r e p l e n i s h m e n t o f s o i l m o i s t u r e by c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n and a l l s u r f a c e water s o u r c e s which c o u l d r e p l e n i s h s o i l m o i s t u r e , o t h e r than n a t u r a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n , s h a l l have been permanent ly c u t o f f . 2 4 In o t h e r words , the judge was r e q u i r i n g consumpt ive use t o c e a s e . To comply w i t h the terms o f the d e c r e e , A u r o r a implemented the c o n t r o v e r s i a l p r a c t i c e o f t r e n c h i n g , 2 5 d e s c r i b e d i n an a r t i c l e i n the Denver P o s t . Man-made t r e n c h e s c r i s s c r o s s i n g C o l o r a d o ' s South Park g u l p thousands o f g a l l o n s o f wa te r . They a r e p a r t o f an e f f o r t t o d r y up the v a l l e y f l o o r and d i v e r t v a l l e y water - and u n d e r l y i n g groundwater - i n t o the South P l a t t e R i v e r s y s t e m . South Park r e s i d e n t s - r e a c t i n g t o the d i t c h e s , which a r e from t h r e e t o f o u r f e e t deep and t e n f e e t wide -c l a i m t r e n c h i n g i s r a p i n g t h e i r l a n d and r o b b i n g them and t h e i r c h i l d r e n o f a f u t u r e . 2 6 Park County r e s i d e n t s and the S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e a l i k e were c o n c e r n e d t h a t the l o n g term e f f e c t s o f a r t i f i c i a l d r a i n a g e would be d e t r i m e n t a l . 2 7 I t was not known a t t h a t t ime how l o n g f o r m e r l y i r r i g a t e d hay l a n d s would take t o make the t r a n s i t i o n from wet land s p e c i e s o f p l a n t s t o d r y l a n d s p e c i e s . The p r o s p e c t seemed r e a l t h a t the park c o u l d be t u r n e d i n t o a d u s t b o w l . 216 In the d e c r e e A u r o r a was g i v e n the o p p o r t u n i t y t o c l a i m an a d d i t i o n a l amount o f water i f a d e s i g n a t e d 500 a c r e p a r c e l o f s u b i r r i g a t e d l a n d c o u l d be d r i e d u p . 2 8 The c i t y was g i v e n f i v e y e a r s t o a c c o m p l i s h the t a s k . T r e n c h i n g began i n June o f 1969. The c i t y d i d not s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s . 2 9 A 1969 r e p o r t by c o n s u l t a n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t r e n c h i n g was the most c o s t e f f e c t i v e . By 1972 a network o f l a r g e t r e n c h e s and s m a l l e r d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s extended th roughout the A u g u s t i n e meadows. The c i t y r e t u r n e d t o c o u r t ( t h i s t ime i n G r e e l e y ) t o c l a i m more water i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o the amount o f s u b i r r i g a t e d l a n d d r i e d u p . A u r o r a c l a i m e d d r y up on 428.3 o f the 500 a c r e s . 3 0 Denver d i s a g r e e d . In 1976 the c i t y ' s c o n s u l t a n t s , W.W. Wheeler and A s s o c i a t e s , d i d t h e i r own s t u d i e s on the A u g u s t i n e Ranch . T h e i r f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t e d t h a t d r y up had o n l y o c c u r r e d on 237 a c r e s . 3 1 The A u g u s t i n e c a s e dragged on l o n g p a s t the f i v e y e a r p e r i o d o r i g i n a l l y s u g g e s t e d by Judge Purdy . The o r i g i n a l t r a n s f e r was not as c o m p l i c a t e d as were subsequent a t tempts by the c i t y t o c l a i m a d d i t i o n a l w a t e r . In the l a t t e r , numerous o b j e c t o r s took a c t i v e p a r t i n t r y i n g t o c l a i m i n j u r y t o t h e i r water r i g h t s and t o b l o c k A u r o r a ' s c l a i m t o f u r t h e r s u r f a c e d i v e r s i o n s based on l o w e r i n g the water t a b l e . 3 2 The o b j e c t o r s ranged from South Park r a n c h e r s t o l a r g e downstream i n t e r e s t s l i k e Denver and o t h e r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , and the l a r g e mutua l d i t c h companies . The p r a c t i c e o f t r e n c h i n g p roved so c o n t r o v e r s i a l t h a t the c i t y o f A u r o r a abandoned i t . 3 3 In terms o f p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s , 217 t h e p o l i c y p r o v e d d i s a s t r o u s . The p r a c t i c e a l s o a t t r a c t e d numerous c o s t l y and t ime consuming l a w s u i t s . L e g a l d e c i s i o n s i n the mid -1970s , as w e l l , seemed t o be g o i n g a g a i n s t the p r a c t i c e . In 1974 the c a s e o f S o u t h e a s t e r n C o l o r a d o Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t , e t . a l . v . S h e l t o n Farms. I n c . was a p p e a l e d and a p r i o r g r a n t o f a d d i t i o n a l water r i g h t s based on t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f cot tonwoods i n a r i p a r i a n a r ea was r e v e r s e d . 3 4 In a l l f u t u r e South Park t r a n s f e r s , the c i t y o f A u r o r a s e t t l e d f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g s m a l l e r d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s t o a i d i n d r y i n g out the l a n d . The ne t r e s u l t was the same: the l o w e r i n g o f the water t a b l e and a change i n p l a n t s p e c i e s . Though C F . A u g u s t i n e had r e c e i v e d o n l y 500 d o l l a r s an a c r e f o o t f o r water t r a n s f e r r e d from h i s l a n d , o t h e r South Park r a n c h e r s saw t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r economic g a i n . Water r i g h t s were o f f e r e d f o r s a l e on numerous South Park r a n c h e s , 3 5 and the c i t y o f A u r o r a o b t a i n e d o p t i o n s on s e v e r a l o f them. S p e c u l a t o r s such as the Huron Investment Group, Wendel l Cheek and A s s o c i a t e s , and the J a n i t e l l b r o t h e r s r e a d i l y made d e a l s w i t h t h e c i t y . Rancher James McDowell J r . s o l d t o the c i t y o f T h o r n t o n . A l l the s a l e s were v o l u n t a r y economic t r a n s a c t i o n s . Some o f t h e s e s a l e s p r o v e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l because o f t h e s i z e o f the a c r e a g e s and the amounts o f water i n v o l v e d ( F i g u r e 6-7) . The Huron t r a n s f e r and the J a n i t e l l t r a n s f e r were most n o t a b l e i n t h i s r e g a r d . Other s a l e s moved s w i f t l y and r e l a t i v e l y p a i n l e s s l y th rough the c o u r t s . One such c a s e was the McDowell t r a n s f e r , d e c r e e d by the c o u r t i n 1976. 218 F i g u r e 6 - 7 . Map: Water and Acreage R e t i r e d from P r o d u c t i o n , South P a r k , 1915-1994. T h i s map shows the South Park water t r a n s f e r s , r e p r e s e n t i n g each w i t h an e l l i p s e t h a t i s s c a l e d o r s i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o the amount o f water ( c fs ) o r i g i n a l l y d e c r e e d t o d i t c h e s i n v o l v e d i n the t r a n s f e r , and s c r e e n e d o r coded a c c o r d i n g t o the amount o f the i r r i g a t e d acreage r e t i r e d from p r o d u c t i o n . 219 James McDowell S r . had p u r c h a s e d the o l d G u i r a u d Ranch i n the e a r l y 1940s from a bank i n D e n v e r . 3 6 The p r o p e r t y had gone i n t o f o r e c l o s u r e when H a r r y Johns d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y . Johns had i n h e r i t e d the ranch from h i s w i f e , M i l d r e d G u i r a u d , whose f a m i l y had homesteaded the p l a c e . 3 7 The r a n c h had some o f the o l d e s t water r i g h t s i n the South P a r k , the G u i r a u d , S m a l l , and Canon D i t c h e s , a l l b e a r i n g p r i o r i t y d a t e s i n the 1860s (Tab le 6-2 and Appendix C ) . James McDowell J r . t o o k o v e r o p e r a t i o n o f the r a n c h a f t e r he r e t u r n e d from the w a r . 3 8 In the y e a r s t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e younger McDowell expanded h i s h o l d i n g s , a c q u i r i n g the Santa M a r i a Ranch, immedia te ly t o the s o u t h , i n 1964 and e x t e n s i v e summer range i n an a r e a now know as the E l k h o r n . The Santa M a r i a Ranch added the F e h r i n g e r D i t c h e s t o M c D o w e l l ' s p r o p e r t y , w i t h some v a l u a b l e pre -1879 water r i g h t s . In a l l , he assembled 15,944 deeded a c r e s , and h e l d l e a s e s on c l o s e t o 5,000 more 3 9 ( F i g u r e 6-8) . McDowel l was an i n n o v a t o r . In an a t tempt t o improve hay y i e l d s from h i s meadows, he worked c l o s e l y w i t h a g r o n o m i s t s on what came t o be known as the Mounta in Meadows Research P r o j e c t . 4 0 In the 1950s he exper imented w i t h f e r t i l i z a t i o n and p a s t u r e improvements, i n c r e a s i n g hay y i e l d s by a p p r o x i m a t e l y a q u a r t e r o f a t o n p e r a c r e . 4 1 He a p p l i e d f o r and r e c e i v e d t r a n s f e r d e c r e e s t o r e d i s t r i b u t e water from h i s l a r g e s t , most s e n i o r d i t c h e s , t o a r e a s w i t h j u n i o r water r i g h t s t h a t were seldom i n p r i o r i t y . 4 2 In t h i s manner he s p r e a d h i s e n t i t l e m e n t f rom the r i v e r more p r o d u c t i v e l y o v e r h i s l a n d . D e s p i t e t h e s e 220 WATER RIGHTS AND PRIORITIES SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS, 1932 - 1993 Transfer Water Rights Earl i e s t E a r l i e s t Transfer City Decree Involved P r i o r i t y P r i o r i t y Jardon Denver 1932 3 6/1/1879 102 Borden Denver 1933 5 5/1/1866 3 George Rogers Denver 1934 4 5/1/1875 42 Antero Denver No Transfer 2 10/10/1881 149 Elevenmile Denver No Transfer 4 7/1/1872 15 Epperson Denver No Transfer 2 6/1/1879 102 Lucinda Rogers Denver No Transfer 3 5/15/1879 99 Augustine Aurora 1968 14 8/1/1868 10 Beery Denver 1976 5 6/1/1861 1 J a n i t e l l Aurora 1978 & 1991 20 10/1/1874 33 McDowell Thornton 1979 8 7/1/1867 6 High Creek Aurora 1979 8 8/31/1873 22 Four Mile Denver 1982 7 6/1/1868 9 Badger Basin Aurora 1983 13 6/1/1874 25 Coil Aurora 1983 8 5/23/1873 18 Huron Aurora 1983 35 6/15/1874 30 Walker Aurora 1983 10 6/25/1873 20 Platte Anstey Thornton 1986 9 7/1/1879 104 Trout Creek Thornton 1986 5 7/1/1862 2 McNulty Aurora 1986 8 9/1/1873 23 Rocker Seven Thornton 1987 5 4/25/1875 39 Rock Creek Thornton 1987 33 5/15/1871 11 Schattinger Thornton 1987 6 5/15/1875 46 Dixon Johnston Thornton 1988 7 5/15/1872 13 Teter Thornton 1988 3 4/12/1875 37 Indian Mountain Aurora 1988 3 5/20/1878 86 Furman Thornton 1991 3 5/1/1882 154 Michigan Creek Thornton 1991 6 3/15/1880 110 Black Mountain Aurora 1991 7 8/1/1878 92 Col lard Aurora (75%) 1991 2 4/5/1876 55 Thornton (25%) Ralph Johnson Aurora Pending 5 6/1/1875 51 T a b l e 6 -2 . Water R i g h t s and P r i o r i t i e s , South Park Water T r a n s f e r s , 1932-1993 (Source : T r a n s f e r D e c r e e s ) . 221 F i g u r e 6 - 8 . F o r m e r l y i r r i g a t e d hay meadows on the M i d d l e Fork o f t h e South P l a t t e R i v e r , McDowell Ranch, 1993. The McDowell water r i g h t s , some o f t h e most s e n i o r i n South P a r k , were t r a n s f e r r e d t o the c i t y o f T h o r n t o n i n 1979. 2 2 2 changes the McDowell Ranch was b a r e l y b r e a k i n g e v e n . Long w i n t e r s , an a b b r e v i a t e d growing s e a s o n , h i g h c o s t s , and heavy r e l i a n c e on hay made r a n c h i n g m a r g i n a l . 4 3 The McDowell water r i g h t s were a s s e s s e d and o f f e r e d f o r s a l e t o Denver , A u r o r a , and s e v e r a l o t h e r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . T h o r n t o n p r e v a i l e d and g a i n e d impor tan t s t r a t e g i c water r i g h t s , as w e l l as i t s f i r s t South Park h o l d i n g s . In an i n t e r v i e w James McDowell d e s c r i b e d the p r o c e s s o f r e a c h i n g a s a l e agreement as more c o m p l i c a t e d than the t r a n s f e r i t s e l f . He r e c a l l s l i t t l e c o n t r o v e r s y and r e l a t i v e l y few o b j e c t i o n s . 4 4 He a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t h i s water r i g h t s would s e l l f i r s t , bu t u n a b l e t o r e a c h agreement w i t h Denver o r A u r o r a , he s o l d the l a n d f i r s t . I t was s o l d i n one t r a n s a c t i o n t o a M i n n e a p o l i s based development company. Much o f the l a n d was s o l d on p a r t i a l r e l e a s e , meaning t h a t no t i t l e was conveyed u n t i l the p r o p e r t y was p a i d f o r i n f u l l . In t h i s manner, though the s a l e went t h r o u g h i n 1971, the r a n c h e r c o n t i n u e d t o r e c e i v e payments i n t o the 1 9 8 0 s . 4 5 U n l i k e many o t h e r s who t r a n s f e r r e d t h e i r water r i g h t s , McDowell r e t a i n e d a s m a l l but s e n i o r p o r t i o n o f h i s r i g h t s under the G u i r a u d 3T D i t c h . 4 6 These r i g h t s were t r a n s f e r r e d f o r augmenta t ion p u r p o s e s , which meant they c o u l d be used t o augment s t ream f l o w s , compensat ing f o r groundwater w i t h d r a w a l s i n r e s i d e n t i a l s u b d i v i s i o n s from South Park t o Denver . James McDowell s u b s e q u e n t l y s o l d h i s augmentat ion water and r e a l i z e d a r e a s o n a b l e p r o f i t . 4 7 Today he runs a c a t t l e o p e r a t i o n i n M i l l i k e n , C o l o r a d o , l o c a t e d c l o s e t o G r e e l e y on the r o l l i n g 223 p iedmont . Wi th l e s s l a n d , McDowell can s u p p o r t more c a t t l e . L o s s e s t o b r i s k e t (h igh a l t i t u d e d i s e a s e ) have been e l i m i n a t e d , we igh ts o f l i v e s t o c k improved , and overheads l o w e r e d . In 1976, the McDowell water r i g h t s were t r a n s f e r r e d t o m u n i c i p a l u s e . Of 168.48 c f s i n water d e c r e e d t o e i g h t d i t c h e s , 71.79 c f s were t r a n s f e r r e d . 4 8 The r e m a i n i n g 96.69 c f s were abandoned t o the s t ream (Appendix C) . The McDowell t r a n s f e r removed 1,813 a c r e s o f i r r i g a t e d l a n d from p r o d u c t i o n 4 9 and was accompanied by the s a l e and s u b d i v i s i o n o f r a n g e l a n d . Wi thout water and hay , the c r i t i c a l components i n South Park r a n c h i n g , g r e a t expanses o f r a n g e l a n d were o f l i m i t e d v a l u e f o r r a i s i n g l i v e s t o c k . In the 1970s and 1980s e x t e n s i v e t r a c t s o f l a n d were s o l d t o d e v e l o p e r s and s u b d i v i d e d f o r r e s i d e n t i a l u s e . On ly some o f the s u b d i v i s i o n s s u c c e e d e d . Most have remained s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e l o c a t e d i n the d r y , t r e e l e s s s e c t i o n s o f South P a r k . In 1973, the Huron Investment Company a c q u i r e d the E l e v e n M i l e G r a z i n g A s s o c i a t i o n l a n d s and water r i g h t s . In the e a r l y 1960s, most o f the v a s t A . T . McDannald Ranch had been p u r c h a s e d by two l o c a l c o o p e r a t i v e s c o n t r o l l e d by r a n c h e r s : the E l e v e n M i l e and Badger B a s i n G r a z i n g A s s o c i a t i o n s . The former h e l d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 77,500 a c r e s o f l a n d 5 0 (Tab le 6-3) o f which 9,410 were i r r i g a t e d . 5 1 T h i r t y - f i v e d i t c h e s s e r v e d the a s s o c i a t i o n ' s hay meadows and p a s t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g seven w i t h pre -1879 water r i g h t s (Appendix C) . The c i t y o f A u r o r a f i n a n c e d the Huron Investment Company's s i x m i l l i o n d o l l a r p u r c h a s e on the 224 TOTAL ACRES, SELECTED RANCHES SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS Transfer Transfer City Decree (Year) Total Acres Beery Denver 1976 5,600 Borden Denver 1933 420 Coi I Aurora 1983 8,180 Col lard Aurora (75%) 1991 1,840 Thornton (25%) Epperson , Denver No Transfer 1,240 Furmari Thornton 1991 1,080 JanitelI Aurora 1978 & 1991 16,317 Jardon Denver 1932 440 Johnson Aurora Pending 1,900 McDowell Thornton 1979 20,929 Michigan Creek Thornton 1991 2,520 Rock Creek Thornton 1987 2,331 Rocker Seven Thornton 1987 2,406 George Rogers Denver 1934 300 Lucinda Rogers Denver No Transfer 1,320 Total: 66,823 T a b l e 6-3. T o t a l A c r e s , S e l e c t e d Ranches , South Park Water T r a n s f e r s ( S o u r c e s : O f f e r s t o S e l l and E n g i n e e r i n g R e p o r t s ) . c o n d i t i o n t h a t the water r i g h t s be s o l d t o the m u n i c i p a l i t y f o r $800 an a c r e f o o t on an e s t i m a t e d 5,680 a c r e f e e t o f y i e l d t r a n s f e r r e d . 5 2 The c i t y a l s o a c q u i r e d the s i t e f o r a r e s e r v o i r . The i n i t i a l agreement between Huron and A u r o r a was c o n c l u d e d i n J u l y o f 1973. T r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s were i n i t i a t e d i n J a n u a r y o f 1974. O b j e c t i o n s were v o c i f e r o u s , and the c a s e , due t o a p a n o p l y o f l e g a l and f i n a n c i a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s , remained i n t h e c o u r t s f o r n e a r l y ano ther decade b e f o r e a d e c r e e was i s s u e d . 5 3 D u r i n g t h a t t ime A u r o r a engaged i n n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h Denver , the major o b j e c t o r i n the c a s e . 5 4 As i n most o t h e r t r a n s f e r c a s e s , b e f o r e and s i n c e , the i s s u e was i n j u r y . Denver made i t s own s t u d i e s and o b s e r v a t i o n s i n c a s e s , because i t had t o ensure t h a t a p p l i c a n t s i n t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s were not 225 o v e r e s t i m a t i n g consumpt ive u s e . I f the a p p l i c a n t s were, they might c l a i m more water than had h i s t o r i c a l l y been u s e d , d i s t u r b i n g t h e regime o f the r i v e r , as the o b j e c t o r s and o t h e r u s e r s knew i t , and d i s r u p t i n g the p a t t e r n o f u s e . Huron had b i g p l a n s : a 54,680 a c r e s u b d i v i s i o n , p a r t t o be d i v i d e d i n t o 1000 p a r c e l s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 a c r e s and the remainder i n l o t s o f o t h e r s i z e s . 5 5 The company c a l l e d i t the "H igh C h a p a r r a l , " and remnants s u r v i v e t o d a y , even though Huron Investments f i l e d f o r b a n k r u p t c y under C h a p t e r XI o f the N a t i o n a l Bankruptcy A c t i n June o f 1976. S i x months l a t e r , A u r o r a c o n c l u d e d an agreement r e g a r d i n g g r a v e l , payment o f i n t e r e s t , and o t h e r d e t a i l s and problems a r i s i n g from Chapte r X I . 5 6 A key e lement t o the agreement was t h a t Huron had t o c l e a r the t i t l e t o the c i t y ' s p l a n n e d Sp inney Mounta in R e s e r v o i r s i t e and t i t l e t o the water r i g h t s . The c i t y d i d not want t o f o r e c l o s e and become a l a r g e landowner i n South P a r k , p a r t i c u l a r l y because o f l i a b i l i t y and the f a c t t h a t H igh C h a p a r r a l s a l e s were not b r i s k . 5 7 On August 26, 1983, 94.3 c f s o f the Huron water r i g h t s were t r a n s f e r r e d t o A u r o r a ' s m u n i c i p a l s y s t e m . 5 8 That same day , t h r e e o t h e r d e c r e e s were i s s u e d by the water c o u r t i n G r e e l e y , t r a n s f e r r i n g an a d d i t i o n a l 69.59 c f s from South Park d i t c h e s t o the s p r a w l i n g c i t y a t the edge o f the p l a i n s . 5 9 L o c a l newspaper e d i t o r R i c h a r d H a m i l t o n c a l l e d i t one o f t h e d a r k e s t d a y ' s i n Park C o u n t y ' s h i s t o r y . 226 A l s o on t h a t d a y , the water r i g h t s from the Badger B a s i n G r a z i n g A s s o c i a t i o n l a n d s were changed i n t h e i r p o i n t o f d i v e r s i o n and i n t h e i r u s e . 6 0 The a s s o c i a t i o n r e t a i n e d most o f i t s a c r e a g e f o r d r y l a n d g r a z i n g but s o l d i t s water t o A u r o r a . There were 13 d i t c h e s i n v o l v e d , and they i r r i g a t e d c l o s e t o 2,500 a c r e s o f meadows and p a s t u r e s above and below the town o f H a r t s e l . S h o r t l y a f t e r i r r i g a t i o n c e a s e d under the Thompson and Main (or H o t e l ) D i t c h e s , w e l l s i n the town o f H a r t s e l d e c l i n e d i n q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y . Many o f the w e l l s i n town were hand dug and s h a l l o w . R e s i d e n t s compla ined o f a f o u l o d o r , a bad t a s t e , and i n c r e a s e d s t a i n i n g and a c c u m u l a t i o n on f i x t u r e s . The c i t y o f A u r o r a h i r e d B l a t c h l e y A s s o c i a t e s , c o n s u l t i n g e n g i n e e r s , t o conduct a s tudy o f H a r t s e l ' s groundwater s i t u a t i o n and de te rmine " the e f f e c t , i f any , o f the t e r m i n a t i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n on water t a b l e l e v e l s i n H a r t s e l . " 6 1 The s tudy c o n c l u d e d , I t appears t h a t the water r i g h t s t r a n s f e r and subsequent d r y i n g up o f the Thompson and Main o r H o t e l i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s have d r i e d up enough o f the l a n d i n the a r e a and reduced r e c h a r g e t o the t r i b u t a r y s u r f i c i a l a q u i f e r , t h a t some s h a l l o w hand-dug w e l l s may have been a f f e c t e d th rough a drop i n water l e v e l s t o the p o i n t o f h a v i n g l i t t l e o r no p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y . I t was c o n c l u d e d but not w i t h c e r t a i n t y t h a t some o f t h e deeper w e l l s which have been comple ted i n the g r a v e l may a l s o be a f f e c t e d by the drop i n the water l e v e l . . . N o t h i n g i s t o be i m p l i e d i n t h i s s tudy by s u g g e s t i n g s o l u t i o n s t o low water l e v e l problems o f the r e s i d e n c e s i n H a r t s e l . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the p a r t i e s c e a s i n g t o i r r i g a t e l a n d s i n the a rea i s not an e n g i n e e r i n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n o r the s u b j e c t o f t h i s s t u d y . The q u e s t i o n as t o who has the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n the e f f i c i e n c y o f the H a r t s e l w e l l s as p o i n t s o f d i v e r s i o n s h o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d by l e g a l c o u n s e l . 6 2 227 The r e p o r t e x p l o r e d f o u r p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n s , none o f which were implemented i n the f i n a l s e t t l e m e n t . 6 3 The a p p l i c a t i o n f o r a change o f water r i g h t s was f i l e d May 4, 1978 . 6 4 Under A u r o r a ' s management, use o f the water r i g h t s was c e a s e d . Numerous o b j e c t o r s f i l e d appearances i n the c a s e , i n c l u d i n g t h e Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t . As the Badger B a s i n t r a n s f e r was s e t t o go t o c o u r t , the p e o p l e o f H a r t s e l wrote a l e t t e r t o the c l e r k i n an e l e v e n t h hour at tempt t o o b t a i n s t a n d i n g i n the c a s e . 6 5 F o r t y - t w o p e o p l e who l i v e d i n and around H a r t e l s i g n e d the p e t i t i o n . A u r o r a sought t o keep the p e o p l e out o f the c a s e and f i l e d a mot ion t o s t r i k e e n t r y o f a p p e a r a n c e . 6 6 A p p a r e n t l y A u r o r a ' s mot ion was g r a n t e d . In o b t a i n i n g t h e t r a n s f e r d e c r e e t h e c i t y agreed t o s t u d y t h e H a r t s e l water p r o b l e m s . 6 7 The judge r e q u i r e d a 10 y e a r p e r i o d o f c o n t i n u i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n i n which f u r t h e r o b j e c t i o n s c o u l d be f i l e d . 6 8 In 1986 the p e o p l e wrote t o Judge Behrman i n G r e e l e y a s k i n g once a g a i n t o e n t e r the c a s e . 6 9 The judge r e s p o n d e d , s u g g e s t i n g they ge t a l a w y e r . 7 0 In t h e end the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t s t r u c k a d e a l w i t h the c i t y o f A u r o r a i n which $48,000 would be s p e n t t o i n s t a l l C u l l i g a n water systems f o r 3 3 w e l l s i n t h e town o f H a r t s e l . 7 1 In t h e agreement t h e l o c a l water c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t was g r a n t e d 37 a c r e f e e t o f s t o r a g e i n Sp inney Mounta in R e s e r v o i r , c o n s t r u c t e d on the Huron t r a n s f e r l a n d s . L e g a l l y , the s i t u a t i o n was r e s o l v e d . 228 The J a n i t e l l T r a n s f e r A n o t h e r c o n t r o v e r s i a l t r a n s f e r i n v o l v e d the J a n i t e l l water r i g h t s on the upper r e a c h e s o f the T a r r y a l l d r a i n a g e . 7 2 The c i t y o f A u r o r a p u r c h a s e d the J a n i t e l l r i g h t s i n 1974 . 7 3 S i x t e e n thousand a c r e s o f l a n d and 20 water r i g h t s were a c q u i r e d by R a l p h and R i c h a r d J a n i t e l l and t h e i r p a r t n e r s w i t h the s p e c i f i c i n t e n t o f s e l l i n g the water t o A u r o r a . The s a l e o f what had p r e v i o u s l y been known as the Anschutz h o l d i n g s was c o n c l u d e d on August 1, 1973; the next day the J a n i t e l l s and t h e i r p a r t n e r H . J . B l e a k l e y s i g n e d an agreement w i t h the c i t y o f A u r o r a . 7 4 The J a n i t e l l s were a b l e t o make a q u i c k c o n v e r s i o n because the water r i g h t s had a l r e a d y been e n g i n e e r e d and d e v e l o p e d t o t h e i r f u l l e s t e x t e n t by the p r e v i o u s owner, the South Park C a t t l e Company, c o n t r o l l e d by m i l l i o n a i r e P h i l l i p A n s c h u t z . In 1969, c o n s u l t i n g e n g i n e e r C h a r l e s C . F i s k o f Denver a d v i s e d A n s c h u t z on s t e p s t h a t c o u l d be taken t o maximize the v a l u e o f h i s South Park water r i g h t s . F i s k wro te , " the b a s i c o b j e c t i v e i s t o t ake whatever s t e p s a r e n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o a p p l y the maximum amount o f water a v a i l a b l e under your water r i g h t s t o i r r i g a t i o n consumpt ive u s e . " 7 5 Work was done on d i t c h e s , P a r s h a l l f lumes were i n s t a l l e d , and d i v e r s i o n r e c o r d s were kept by t h e r a n c h foreman i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r s a l e t o the c i t y o f A u r o r a . 7 6 Anschutz never c o n c l u d e d an agreement w i t h the c i t y , but chose i n s t e a d t o s e l l out t o the J a n i t e l l i n t e r e s t s f o r 5.5 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . 7 7 229 L i k e the Huron d e v e l o p e r s , the J a n i t e l l s had p l a n s f o r the l a n d t h a t never m a t e r i a l i z e d . They t o o became i n v o l v e d i n b a n k r u p t c y p r o c e e d i n g s a s h o r t t ime a f t e r p u r c h a s i n g the p r o p e r t y . A u r o r a was f o r c e d t o t ake o v e r the mortgage i n 1976 i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t a d e f a u l t . 7 8 D e s p i t e the p r o b l e m s , A u r o r a was a b l e t o b r i n g the t r a n s f e r c a s e t o t r i a l more q u i c k l y than i n the c a s e o f the Huron t r a n s f e r . There were numerous o b j e c t i o n s i n t h e J a n i t e l l c a s e . 7 9 What c o n c e r n e d the o b j e c t o r s was the p o t e n t i a l t o i n j u r y t o t h e i r water r i g h t s . Denver , as the most p o w e r f u l o b j e c t o r , took the l e a d i n the c a s e . Many o f the r e a s o n s s t a t e d were f a i r l y s t a n d a r d : the a p p l i c a t i o n was t o o vague , the amounts c l a i m e d were e x c e s s i v e , some o f the r i g h t s might p rove t o be abandoned. O t h e r s r e a s o n s were q u i t e s p e c i f i c . Denver was most c o n c e r n e d about p h r a s i n g i n the a p p l i c a t i o n t h a t r e f e r r e d t o "new" water t h a t c o u l d be d e v e l o p e d th rough the d r y i n g out o f s u b i r r i g a t e d l a n d . 8 0 The s t a t e made f o r m a l e n t r y i n t o the c a s e as w e l l . 8 1 In a l e t t e r t o Judge C a r p e n t e r i n G r e e l e y , D i v i s i o n E n g i n e e r W.G. "Dugan" W i l k i n s o n e x p r e s s e d t h e i r c o n c e r n s , t h e amount o f water t o be t r a n s f e r r e d . . . i s based upon the ac reage a l l e g e d t o have been i r r i g a t e d h i s t o r i c a l l y w i t h e i t h e r a f u l l o r n e a r l y adequate s u p p l y o f water a v a i l a b l e t o t h o s e l a n d s a t a l l t i m e s . . . . I b e l i e v e the p roposed decree i s d e f i c i e n t i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . . . . The p r i m a r y problems a r e the o v e r e s t i m a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c consumpt ive u s e s , the f a i l u r e t o r e c o g n i z e and p r o v i d e the n e c e s s a r y p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t i n j u r y t o o t h e r water r i g h t s and the absence o f a d m i n i s t r a b l e c r i t e r i a f o r d a i l y d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the amount o f water a v a i l a b l e t o the v a r i o u s water r i g h t s c o n s i d e r e d f o r c h a n g e . 8 2 230 The c a s e went t o t r i a l i n December o f 1976 and c o n t i n u e d f o r a y e a r and a h a l f b e f o r e an i n t e r l o c u t o r y t r a n s f e r d e c r e e was i s s u e d . 8 3 T h i s d e c r e e , i n t e n d e d t o be temporary , remained i n f o r c e f o r a n o t h e r 13 y e a r s , a t which t ime a c o n s e n t d e c r e e was f i n a l l y g r a n t e d . 8 4 In Oc tober o f 1977, the c i t y o f A u r o r a f i l e d a b r i e f i n s u p p o r t o f the p roposed t r a n s f e r . The c i t y was a d v a n c i n g a n o v e l t h e o r y , one not based on v o l u m e t r i c a v e r a g e s . 8 5 Under t h e p roposed d e c r e e , A u r o r a would be a b l e t o d i v e r t water a t new p o i n t s o f d i v e r s i o n o n l y t o the e x t e n t t h a t water was a v a i l a b l e a t the o l d p o i n t o f d i v e r s i o n . In o t h e r words , w i t h p r o p e r g a u g i n g , i t would be p o s s i b l e t o de te rmine how much water was f l o w i n g p a s t the o l d headgates o f the t r a n s f e r r e d d i t c h e s . Water c o u l d then be taken i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o p h y s i c a l a v a i l a b i l i t y . Wi th the use o f l y s i m e t e r s , A u r o r a s u g g e s t e d t h a t measurable consumpt ive use c o u l d be m o n i t o r e d and water t aken o n l y a t t imes when the water would be c o n s u m p t i v e l y u s e d . The c i t y argued t h a t i t s method would l e a d t o l e s s i n j u r y than the use o f v o l u m e t r i c a v e r a g e s . I t m a i n t a i n e d the system would account f o r d a i l y c o n d i t i o n s , and f o r p r e c i p i t a t i o n , i n a way t h a t v o l u m e t r i c averages s i m p l y c o u l d n o t . The A u r o r a p r o p o s a l a l s o i n c l u d e d a p l a n t o mimic r e t u r n f l o w s . S i n c e the J a n i t e l l p u r c h a s e had p r o v i d e d the c i t y w i t h i n t e r e s t s i n J e f f e r s o n L a k e , an i r r i g a t i o n r e s e r v o i r a t the headwaters o f J e f f e r s o n Creek ( F i g u r e 6 - 9 ) , A u r o r a s u g g e s t e d t h a t r e t u r n f l o w s be s t o r e d t h e r e , then r e l e a s e d on a d a i l y 231 Figure 6-9. J e f f e r s o n L a k e , 1993. O r i g i n a l l y b u i l t by South Park i r r i g a t o r s i n the 1890s, the r e s e r v o i r i s now owned by the c i t y o f A u r o r a . Shares were a c q u i r e d by the c i t y i n a complex o f d i f f e r e n t t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s and i n d i v i d u a l t r a n s a c t i o n s . 232 b a s i s . A g a i n , the i d e a was t o t r y t o c l o s e l y approx imate h i s t o r i c c o n d i t i o n s . The p r o p o s a l was i n t r i g u i n g but met w i t h v o c i f e r o u s o p p o s i t i o n from D e n v e r . 8 6 Months o f w r a n g l i n g and 27 days i n c o u r t had p roduced extreme i r r i t a t i o n . A u r o r a ' s a t t o r n e y , John M u s i c k , f i l e d a second b r i e f i n response t o D e n v e r ' s arguments: L i k e t h e neophyte woodsman, u n a b l e t o see the f o r e s t f o r the t r e e s , the o b j e c t o r s ' c l o s i n g s ta tement l o s e s s i g h t o f t h e purpose o f t h i s p r o c e e d i n g , and t h e A p p l i c a n t ' s i n n o v a t i v e p r o p o s a l f o r a c h i e v i n g t h a t p u r p o s e , i n a f o r e s t o f u n r e l a t e d b i t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n and s n a t c h e s o f c o n f l i c t i n g e v i d e n c e . 8 7 A u r o r a p r e v a i l e d and i n F e b r u a r y o f 1978 Judge C a r p e n t e r s i g n e d the i n t e r l o c u t o r y d e c r e e g i v i n g A u r o r a temporary p e r m i s s i o n t o implement i t s p l a n . 8 8 Both A u r o r a and Denver p e t i t i o n e d the c o u r t f o r a r e v i s i o n o f the d e c r e e , based on e x p e r i e n c e d u r i n g the one i r r i g a t i o n season i t was i n e f f e c t . The p e t i t i o n s were l o d g e d t h a t September , and a h e a r i n g s c h e d u l e d f o r a c o u p l e months l a t e r b e f o r e newly a p p o i n t e d Water Judge Rober t Behrman. Due t o t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s i n v o l v e d i n the J a n i t e l l c a s e , b o t h the a p p l i c a n t and the o b j e c t o r s agreed i t was p r e f e r a b l e i f Judge C a r p e n t e r c o u l d h e a r the c a s e . 8 9 By an o r d e r o f the Supreme C o u r t o f C o l o r a d o , t h e r e t i r e d judge was r e - a s s i g n e d t o t h e c a s e . T r i a l was s e t f o r the June o f 1979. A u r o r a took water under the terms o f the i n t e r l o c u t o r y d e c r e e . The c i t i e s c o n t i n u e d t o n e g o t i a t e . Meanwhile e n g i n e e r s , s o i l s c i e n t i s t s , range s c i e n t i s t s , and o t h e r s p e c i a l i s t s conduc ted s t u d i e s t o de te rmine i f A u r o r a ' s method was a c c u r a t e and f a i r . In 1983 Judge Behrman i n q u i r e d about t h e c a s e , n o t i n g i t s h o u l d have 233 been r e s o l v e d f o u r y e a r s b e f o r e . D e n v e r ' s new a t t o r n e y , M i c h a e l Wa lker , responded t h a t the c i t y saw no need t o h o l d a h e a r i n g a t t h a t t i m e , " p r e f e r r i n g i n s t e a d t o work w i t h the c i t y o f A u r o r a i n r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f the d i f f e r e n c e s which have o c c u r r e d . " 9 0 The tone was l e s s a d v e r s a r i a l . Though the two c i t i e s s t i l l had s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s , many i s s u e s had a l r e a d y been r e s o l v e d . A c c o r d i n g t o W a l k e r ' s b r i e f , Denver and A u r o r a had a l r e a d y r e a c h e d agreement on the n a t u r e o f the f i e l d work and f a c t s needed t o r e s o l v e the c a s e . 9 1 Denver had g a i n e d the n e c e s s a r y a c c e s s so s t u d i e s c o u l d be made. What remained was a r r i v i n g a t a s e t o f m u t u a l l y a g r e e a b l e f i g u r e s and , s p e c i f i c a l l y , d e t e r m i n i n g what l i m i t a t i o n s were n e c e s s a r y t o p r e v e n t i n j u r y . In 1991 the c i t i e s comple ted t h e i r n e g o t i a t i o n s and a c o n s e n t d e c r e e was i s s u e d . 9 2 The c i t y o f A u r o r a o b t a i n e d 31.21 c f s , the r e m a i n i n g 84.3 c f s were abandoned t o the s t r e a m . The t r a n s f e r had r e t i r e d 4747.3 a c r e s o f i r r i g a t e d l a n d (Appendix B ) . The J a n i t e l l c a s e was s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t i t h e l p e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e p r o c e s s and p r o c e d u r e s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l - t o -m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s from mountain meadows. The t r a n s f e r e s t a b l i s h e d c e r t a i n c o n v e n t i o n s t h a t i n f l u e n c e d a l l t h e t r a n s f e r s t h a t f o l l o w e d , i n c l u d i n g the Huron and Badger B a s i n t r a n s f e r s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . The water t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s had l o n g been w i t h i n the domain o f t h e c o u r t s , w i t h p l a n n i n g and s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s e n t r u s t e d t o e n g i n e e r s . There was a p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n o f the d i s c o u r s e i n the l a t e 1970s t h a t 234 f u n d a m e n t a l l y changed the p r o c e s s and a c c e s s t o i t by water u s e r s , r e s i d e n t s o f the a r e a o f o r i g i n , and o t h e r l a y p e o p l e . In the J a n i t e l l c a s e , s c i e n c e was put on t r i a l . The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f the w i t n e s s e s c a l l e d were p r o f e s s i o n a l s : water e n g i n e e r s , range management s p e c i a l i s t s , s o i l s c i e n t i s t s , a g r o n o m i s t s , s u r v e y o r s , and t e c h n i c i a n s . A u r o r a c a l l e d i t s e n g i n e e r s and c o n s u l t a n t s , and Denver put i t s s e t o f s p e c i a l i s t s on t h e s t a n d t o r e b u t t h e i r f i n d i n g s , q u e s t i o n t h e i r methods, and a s s e r t a d i f f e r e n t s c i e n t i f i c r e a l i t y . The c i t i e s argued about the e x t e n t o f d r y up t h a t had been a c h i e v e d , the c a p a c i t y o f d i t c h e s , the amount o f consumpt ive u s e , the h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n o f u s e , the c o m i n g l i n g o f waters and i t s impact on the a c c u r a c y o f e s t i m a t e s o f the amount o f i r r i g a t e d ac reage under a c e r t a i n d i t c h . 9 3 How h a r d o r s o f t were t h e numbers? Was one method o f c a l c u l a t i o n more a c c u r a t e than ano ther? Were the s t u d i e s confounded by a n y t h i n g ? B a s i c a l l y , which c i t y ' s e n g i n e e r i n g and s c i e n c e were b e t t e r ? W h i l e a d m i t t i n g t e s t i m o n y from South Park r a n c h e r s , r anch managers , and o t h e r s w i t h l o c a l knowledge, the c o u r t gave more we ight t o the t e s t i m o n y o f the e n g i n e e r s and s c i e n t i s t s . H i s t o r i c a l use was de te rmined t h ro u g h s c i e n t i f i c methods, not t h r o u g h t e s t i m o n y from p e o p l e who had worked the l a n d . In t h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l i z e d d i s c o u r s e , t h e i r knowledge became s e c o n d a r y and s u s p e c t . Indeed they c o u l d t e s t i f y t o d a t e s o f i r r i g a t i o n , and the e x t e n t o f i r r i g a t i o n i n v a r i o u s a r e a s and under c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s , bu t the c o u r t was i n t e r e s t e d i n the s c i e n t i f i c 235 e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g t h e s e c l a i m s . L o c a l knowledge was i n c r e a s i n g l y p e r i p h e r a l i z e d and d i s c o u n t e d . The T r a n s f e r s The A u g u s t i n e , McDowel l , Huron, Badger B a s i n , and J a n i t e l l t r a n s f e r s removed 1386.52 c f s i n d e c r e e d i r r i g a t i o n water from the books i n D i s t r i c t 23 (Appendix B) . The t r a n s f e r s r e t i r e d an e s t i m a t e d 20 ,126 .3 a c r e s o f hay meadows from p r o d u c t i o n and a f f e c t e d f a r i n e x c e s s o f 120,000 a c r e s o f r a n c h l a n d (Appendix B ) . They r e p r e s e n t e d a b e g i n n i n g . Between 1968 and 1993, a t o t a l o f 22 r a n c h e s s o l d t h e i r water r i g h t s t o m u n i c i p a l i n t e r e s t s , r e t i r i n g 39 ,283 .3 a c r e s o f h a y l a n d , removing more than 3110.7 c f s o f d e c r e e d water from i r r i g a t i o n i n the d i s t r i c t and t r a n s f e r r i n g , i n a l l , 480.83 c f s t o m u n i c i p a l use (Appendices B and C) . Three c i t i e s were i n v o l v e d : A u r o r a , T h o r n t o n , and Denver ( F i g u r e 6-10) . The c i t i e s adopted d i f f e r e n t s t r a t e g i e s . Denver c o n t i n u e d i t s p o l i c y o f s t r a t e g i c a c q u i s i t i o n s . In 1976, the c i t y musc led out C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s i n a b i d t o g a i n c o n t r o l o f the Beery D i t c h , the number one p r i o r i t y i n the p a r k . 9 4 Denver t r a n s f e r r e d 20.00 c f s t o m u n i c i p a l u s e , a l l under t h e 1861 p r i o r i t y (Tab le 6 - 4 ) . In 1982, t h e c i t y p u r c h a s e d the Four M i l e Ranch water r i g h t s , a d d i n g the number n i n e p r i o r i t y i n South Park t o i t s h o l d i n g s . 9 5 In each c a s e Denver sought o n l y t o t r a n s f e r the most s e n i o r water r i g h t . The r e m a i n i n g d i t c h e s were abandoned i n the t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s . The c i t y a l r e a d y c o n t r o l l e d the T a r r y a l l 236 F i g u r e 6 -10 . Map: M u n i c i p a l Water T r a n s f e r s , South P a r k , 1915-1994. T h i s map shows the South Park water t r a n s f e r s , r e p r e s e n t i n g each w i t h an e l l i p s e t h a t i s s c a l e d o r s i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o the number o f i r r i g a t e d a c r e s t aken out o f p r o d u c t i o n , and s c r e e n e d o r coded a c c o r d i n g t o the c i t y a c q u i r i n g the water r i g h t s . 237 WATER TRANSFERRED TO MUNICIPAL USE, 1932 - 1993 SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS Pre-1879 Water Rights Total Transfers Amount (cfs) Amount (cfs) Amount (cfs) Percent City Transferred Transferred In Transfer Transferred Huron Aurora 94.30 32.20 678.88 13.89 McDowel I Thornton 71.79 71.79 168.48 42.61 Janitell Aurora 31.21 11.27 115.51 + 27.02 + Badger Basin Aurora 29.46 6.00 183.20 16.08 Coi I Aurora 24.28 13.21 287.05 8.46 Trout Creek Thornton 22.20 + 22.20 + 62.00 + 35.81 + Indian Mountain Aurora 20.13 4.97 58.32 34.52 Beery Denver 20.00 20.00 102.59 19.50 Platte Ansley Thornton 17.80 0.00 156.85 11.35 High Creek Aurora 16.62 10.12 126.40 13.15 Walker Aurora 15.85 11.25 199.02 7.96 McNulty Aurora 15.08 14.12 66.59 22.65 Augustine Aurora 14.98 14.98 240.05 6.23 Black Mountain Aurora 14.44 2.20 105.23 13.72 Furman Thornton 13.90 0.00 36.60 37.98 Michigan Creek Thornton 10.50 0.00 81.36 12.91 Schattinger Thornton 9.79 4.20 21.65 45.22 Rock Creek Thornton 9.40 4.40 112.30 8.37 Borden Denver 8.70 8.70 59.84 14.54 Teter Thornton 8.00 5.10 16.00 50.00 Four Mile Denver 7.00 7.00 96.89 7.22 Jardon Denver 6.17 0.00 18.91 32.63 Dixon Johnston Thornton 5.31 1.61 18.46 28.76 Col lard Aurora (75%) 5.09 3.66 25.00 20.36 Thornton (25%) George Rogers Denver 4.02 2.31 32.60 12.33 Rocker Seven Thornton 3.70 1.40 21.84 16.94 Ralph Johnson Aurora 32.24 Antero Denver 0.00 0.00 97.79 0.00 Elevenmile Denver 0.00 0.00 8.00 0.00 Epperson Denver 0.00 0.00 10.80 0.00 Lucinda Rogers Denver 0.00 0.00 225.20 0.00 + = plus the entire flow of a particular small creek, or a portion of that flow. Table 6-4. Water T r a n s f e r r e d t o M u n i c i p a l U s e , 1932-1993 ( S o urce : T r a n s f e r Decrees and S t a t e A l p h a L i s t ) . 238 w i t h the a c q u i s i t i o n o f the Borden D i t c h . Now the c i t y had g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f the P l a t t e s i d e o f South Park and s m a l l but s e n i o r water r i g h t s w i t h i n the d i v i s i o n as w e l l . A u r o r a and T h o r n t o n d i d not have the l u x u r y o f a d o p t i n g such a p o s i t i o n . They needed t o o b t a i n s u p p l i e s . South Park r i g h t s were b e i n g o f f e r e d up f o r s a l e , and a p r o c e s s had been a r t i c u l a t e d t h a t made many o f the l a t e r t r a n s f e r s f a i r l y r o u t i n e . A u r o r a and T h o r n t o n competed w i t h each o t h e r bo th s t r a t e g i c a l l y and g e o g r a p h i c a l l y . Each sought t h e most s e n i o r and p l e n t i f u l r i g h t s , and n e i t h e r would a l l o w the o t h e r comple te c o n t r o l o f a d r a i n a g e . Both c i t i e s p u r c h a s e d r i g h t s on the T a r r y a l l and the P l a t t e ( F i g u r e s 6-11 and 6 - 1 2 ) . A c q u i s i t i o n o f a d j a c e n t p r o p e r t i e s was o f t e n advantageous because i t f a c i l i t a t e d d r y up and reduced the p o t e n t i a l f o r l a w s u i t s , so c l u s t e r s o f h o l d i n g s emerged. I f the ranch above was no l o n g e r i r r i g a t i n g , then seepage would not keep meadows m o i s t . I f r a n c h e s above o r below were removed from p r o d u c t i o n , then c l a i m s o f i n j u r y might be fewer i n number. In some c a s e s the c i t i e s bought the l a n d as w e l l as the water r i g h t s (Appendix B) . The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s v a r i e d . Sometimes the r a n c h e r would r e f u s e t o s e l l on any o t h e r t e r m s . In t h e Furman t r a n s f e r the c i t y o f Thorn ton p u r c h a s e d v e r y j u n i o r water r i g h t s and 1,080 a c r e s o f l a n d . 9 6 The Furman Ranch was l o c a t e d i n the m i d d l e o f o t h e r T h o r n t o n h o l d i n g s , and Furman 's i r r i g a t i o n had the p o t e n t i a l t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h the c i t y ' s e f f o r t s t o d r y up f o r m e r l y i r r i g a t e d meadows on a d j a c e n t 239 SPINNEY MOUNTAIN RESERVOIR MXJNICIPAJL C O N T R O L P L A T T E D R A I N A G E SOUTH P A R K 1915 - 1994 E L E V E N MILE C A N Y O N RESERVOIR L E G E N D mm DENVER n AURORA EZ3 THORNTON • 3 COLORADO SPRINGS STREAM DITCH o RESERVOIR C£JL F i g u r e 6 -11 . M u n i c i p a l C o n t r o l , P l a t t e D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. Cod ing o n l y d i t c h e s i n v o l v e d i n t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s , t h i s s e t o f l i n e drawings d i f f e r e n t i a t e s d i t c h e s a c c o r d i n g t o the c i t y a c q u i r i n g the water r i g h t s . 240 TARRYALL RESERVOIR ROCK CREEK M U N I C I P A L C O N T R O L T A R R Y A L L D R A I N A G E S O U T H P A R K 1915 - 1994 L E G E N D DENVER HH AURORA 123 THORNTON • 3 COLORADO SPRINGS STREAM " L T DITCH O RESERVOR F i g u r e 6 -12 . 1993. M u n i c i p a l C o n t r o l , T a r r y a l l D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 241 p r o p e r t i e s . Wes Furman e v i d e n t l y knew t h i s and was a b l e t o o b t a i n a good p r i c e f o r h i s r a n c h and h i s water r i g h t s . I t was t o T h o r n t o n ' s advantage t o pay him the g o i n g r a t e f o r water and d r y up h i s r a n c h . 9 7 Furman took the money and found a new s p r e a d i n M o n t a n a . 9 8 A n o t h e r r e a s o n c i t i e s chose t o a c q u i r e ranch p r o p e r t i e s was due t o a c c e s s problems e x p e r i e n c e d d u r i n g the J a n i t e l l t r a n s f e r . E n g i n e e r s and s c i e n t i s t s i n the employ o f A u r o r a and Denver had t r o u b l e g e t t i n g onto the l a n d t o pe r fo rm t h e i r s t u d i e s and m o n i t o r d r y u p . Some c u r r e n t p r o p e r t y owners o b j e c t e d t o t h e i r p r e s e n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o c i t y employees a l l e g e d l y l e a v i n g g a t e s open and c u t t i n g f e n c e s . T h i s a l l o w e d c a t t l e t o move i n t o o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f the r a n g e . 9 9 The p r o p e r t y owners s t a u n c h l y m a i n t a i n e d the c i t y had no r i g h t t o be t h e r e , and the m a t t e r had t o be r e s o l v e d i n c o u r t . The c i t y p r e v a i l e d , but t h a t d i d not e l i m i n a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t s i m i l a r problems c o u l d a r i s e a g a i n . 1 0 0 In a l l , s i x r a n c h e s , i n c l u d i n g b o t h l a n d and water r i g h t s , were a c q u i r e d i n the p r o c e s s o f the l a t e r t r a n s f e r s (Appendix B ) . P a t t e r n s emerged as the t r a n s f e r s p r o c e e d e d . Over t ime the p r i c e o f water became more e x p e n s i v e (Tab le 6 - 5 ) . The A u g u s t i n e water r i g h t s , b e a r i n g the number t e n p r i o r i t y i n the p a r k , were p u r c h a s e d by A u r o r a f o r $500 an a c r e f o o t o f y i e l d t r a n s f e r r e d . By 1993, the Ra lph Johnson water r i g h t s , w i t h the e a r l i e s t p r i o r i t y i n 1875, were worth $3,000 an a c r e f o o t . The p r i c e 242 PRICE PAID PER ACRE FOOT TRANSFERRED AURORA AND THORNTON PURCHASES, 1963 - 1993 SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS Transfer Amount Paid per Transfer City Decree Acre Foot Augustine Aurora 1968 $ 500 Huron Aurora 1983 $ 800 Platte Ansley Thornton 1986 $ . 950 McDowell Thornton 1979 $ 1,200 Badger Basin Aurora 1983 $ 1,250 JanitelI Aurora 1978 & 1991 $ 1,350 High Creek Aurora 1979 $ 1,350 Coil Aurora 1983 $ 1,350 Walker Aurora 1983 $ 1,350 McNulty Aurora 1986 % 1,350 Trout Creek Thornton 1986 $ 1,350 Black Mountain Aurora 1991 $ 1,500 Schattinger Thornton 1987 $ 1,800 Rock Creek Thornton 1987 $ 2,000 Dixon Johnston Thornton 1988 $ 2,400 Teter Thornton 1988 $ 2,400 Furman Thornton 1991 $ 2,400 Indian Mountain Aurora 1988 $ 2,500 Col lard Aurora (75%) 1991 $ 2,500 Thornton (25%) Michigan Creek Thornton 1991 $ 2,800 Rocker Seven Thornton 1987 $ 3,000 Ralph Johnson Aurora Pending $ 3,000 T a b l e 6-5. P r i c e Per A c r e F o o t , A u r o r a and Thorn ton P u r c h a s e s , 1968-1993 ( S o u r c e s : Mark G r i f f i n S m i t h , and C i t i e s o f A u r o r a and T h o r n t o n ) . 243 p a i d depended more on the t ime they were s o l d than on t h e i r p r i o r i t y . In terms o f i r r i g a t e d acreage r e t i r e d , the l a r g e s t t r a n s f e r s o c c u r r e d between 1968 and 1986. S i n c e 1986 no r a n c h e s w i t h more than 1300 i r r i g a t e d a c r e s have been r e t i r e d from y e a r -round p r o d u c t i o n . 1 0 1 And o n l y s i n c e 1987 have the F r o n t Range c i t i e s a c q u i r e d ranches w i t h fewer than 700 i r r i g a t e d a c r e s (Tab le 6 - 6 ) . When c o n s i d e r e d t o g e t h e r w i t h D e n v e r ' s e a r l y t r a n s f e r s i n the 1930s, the l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l - t o - m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s removed a p p r o x i m a t e l y 75% o f the d e c r e e d water r i g h t s from i r r i g a t i o n i n South Park (Appendix C ) . The c i t i e s g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f the d i t c h e s i n a t o t a l o f 27 t r a n s f e r s ( F i g u r e s 6-13 and 6 -14 ) . A c q u i s i t i o n o f a r a n c h ' s water r i g h t s was based on a number o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s : a v a i l a b i l i t y , p r i o r i t i e s , i r r i g a t e d a c r e a g e , and l o c a t i o n - i n a p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v o i r b a s i n o r i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s a c q u i r e d f o r t h e i r water r i g h t s . A v a i l a b i l i t y was o f t e n de te rmined by the t y p e o f ownership a t the t ime o f t r a n s f e r ( F i g u r e 6 - 1 5 ) . S p e c u l a t o r s , and f r e q u e n t l y h e i r s , would s e l l t h e i r water r i g h t s . L o c a l r a n c h e r s s o l d t o o , s p u r r e d on by economic c o n d i t i o n s o r by a sense o f the w r i t i n g on t h e w a l l . As t ime p r o g r e s s e d and n e i g h b o r s s o l d o u t , r e m a i n i n g r a n c h e r s found i t h a r d e r t o s u r v i v e . Ranchers dependent upon seepage from meadows above them found i t took more water t o i r r i g a t e t h e i r h a y l a n d s . As the c i t i e s became i n c r e a s i n g l y dominant and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n th roughout the water d i v i s i o n 244 IRRIGATED ACREAGE RETIRED, 1968 - 1993 SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS Transfer City Irrigated Acres Huron Aurora 9410 Jan i t e l I Aurora 4747.3 Trout Creek Thornton 2600 Badger Basin Aurora 2456 Platte Ansley Thornton 2270 McDowelI Thornton 1813 Augustine Aurora 1700 High Creek Aurora 1624 Coil Aurora 1298 Michigan Creek Thornton 1147 Beery Denver 1125 Walker Aurora 968 Furman Thornton 860 Teter Thornton 820 Rock Creek Thornton 780 McNulty Aurora 775 Four Mile Denver 725 Dixon Johnston Thornton 697 Black Mountain Aurora 678 Ralph Johnson Aurora 670 Schattinger Thornton 660 Col lard Aurora (75%) 638 Thornton (25%) Indian Mountain Aurora 511 Rocker Seven Thornton 311 Total: 39,283.3 Table 6-6. I r r i g a t e d Acreage R e t i r e d , 1968-1993 (Sources D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commissioner and T r a n s f e r D e c r e e s ) . 245 i s 71 l-.-.-A Iv-I-.-- 3nvy W A T E R T R A N S F E R S P L A T T E D R A I N A G E S O U T H P A R K 1915 - 1994 CI.lt \ ELEVEN MILE §CANYON RESERVOIR LEGEND STREAM E S PLATTE ANSLEY TRANSFER ~TJ~ DITCH CZ3 BADGER BASIN TRANSFER E 3 HURON TRANSFER • • f WALKER TRANSFER EHB COR. TRANSFER E l TROUT CREEK TRANSFER • X I FOURMILE TRANSFER 133 ROGERS. 0. TRANSFER V777X BEERY TRANSFER ROGERS, L TRANSFER S 3 MCDOWELL TRANSFER E S EPPERSON TRANSFER B S MCNULTY TRANSFER la'ni JARDON TRANSFER tLTM BLACK MOUNTAM TRANSFER ELEVEN MILE TRANSFER KXS HX3H CREEK TRANSFER ANTERO TRANSFER FrrTTl AUGUSTINE TRANSFER JANITELL TRANSFER Figure 6-13. Water T r a n s f e r s , P l a t t e D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. In t h i s s e t o f l i n e drawings the d i t c h e s a r e broken down by t r a n s f e r . 2 4 6 > * i - u \lltUA TARRYALL RESERVOIR ftj MICHIG CREEK |:-.--:-.-* UJ Ul tr o z o co CC , 5 ^ tt uJ JEFI uj cc =5 O o JEFFERSON LAKE T A R R Y A L L D R A I N A G E SOUTH P A R K 1915 - 1994 LEGEND IT STREAM MICH r r m JAWTEU. TRANSFER F E m ROCK CREEK TRANSFER C D JOHNSON. R. TRANSFER BZZ3 BORDEN TRANSFER S M D I A N M O U N T A M TRANSFER ROCKER S E V E N TRANSFER E g ) MCM6AN C R E E K TRANSFER rrrm FURMAN TRANSFER G S 3 COLLARD TRANSFER JOHNSTON. D. TRANSFER I SCHATTTNOER TRANSFER J E F F E R S O N LAKE TRANSFER C Q TETER TRANSFER rim. C1.K. F i g u r e 6 -14 . 1993. Water T r a n s f e r s , T a r r y a l l D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 247 R A N C H O W N E R S H I P A T T I M E O F T R A N S F E R S O U T H P A R K ( 1915 - 1994 s awTTOGERf F i g u r e 6 -15 . Map: Ranch Ownership a t Time o f T r a n s f e r , South P a r k , 1915-1994. T h i s map shows the South Park water t r a n s f e r s , r e p r e s e n t i n g each w i t h an e l l i p s e t h a t i s s c a l e d o r s i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o the number o f i r r i g a t e d a c r e s t aken out o f p r o d u c t i o n , and s c r e e n e d o r coded a c c o r d i n g t o what t y p e o f owner s o l d the water r i g h t s t o m u n i c i p a l i n t e r e s t s : r a n c h e r s , t h e i r h e i r s , absentee r a n c h e r s , o r s p e c u l a t o r s . 248 improved , r a n c h e r s found t h e i r j u n i o r d i t c h e s c a l l e d out w i t h g r e a t e r f r e q u e n c y and c o n s i s t e n c y . Gone were the economies o f s c a l e , t h e s h a r e d s e r v i c e s l i k e a g r i c u l t u r a l machine and implement d e a l e r s and f a r r i e r s ; gone were t h e hay crews from L a r i m e r S t r e e t i n Denver who might s e r v e one r a n c h a f t e r a n o t h e r u n t i l t h e h a y i n g was done . Rancher dominance on county boards and i n government d e c l i n e d . Park County l o s t i t s t r a d i t i o n a l economic base (Tab les 6-7 t o 6 -10 ) . H igh c o u n t r y r a n c h i n g had a lways been an e c o n o m i c a l l y m a r g i n a l p r o p o s i t i o n . I t e n t a i l e d b a c k - b r e a k i n g l a b o r and s u b s t a n t i a l inves tment i n l a n d , water , mach ines , and l i v e s t o c k . I t i n v o l v e d a c e r t a i n amount o f r i s k . C a t t l e p r i c e s f l u c t u a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l y , making p r o f i t s h a r d t o p r e d i c t and r e l y u p o n . As t h e i n d u s t r y became more t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y s o p h i s t o c a t e d overhead c o s t s i n c r e a s e d . Ranchers were caught i n a c o s t - p r i c e s q u e e z e . In South Park o t h e r f a c t o r s c o m p l i c a t e d the p i c t u r e . In the h i g h c o u n t r y h a r d w i n t e r s c o u l d reduce h e r d s . L o s s e s o c c u r r e d from e x p o s u r e , and i f w i n t e r f e e d r a n s h o r t , an e n t i r e o p e r a t i o n c o u l d be j e o p a r d i z e d . W a t e r - s h o r t y e a r s , lower hay y i e l d s , d i s e a s e s - a l l c o u l d have the e f f e c t o f p u s h i n g an e c o n o m i c a l l y m a r g i n a l o p e r a t i o n t o the b r i n k o f b a n k r u p t c y . The p r e c a r i o u s n e s s o f the l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r y c r e a t e d an env i ronment i n which the s a l e o f r anch water r i g h t s and l a n d c o u l d be q u i t e a t t r a c t i v e . Many r a n c h e r s and t h e i r h e i r s chose t o s e l l . O f t e n r a n c h e r s c o u l d make a g r e a t e r p r o f i t by s e l l i n g l a n d and water r i g h t s t o c i t i e s and s p e c u l a t o r s than t h e y c o u l d by 2 4 9 CHARACTERISTICS OF RANCHES IN PARK COUNTY, COLORADO, 1870 - 1987 Total Nunfeer Average Irrigated Ranches Irrigated of Ranches Ranch Site Number Percent * Acreage 1870 623 • • • 1880 134 670 1890 171 705 136 79.5 24,015 1900 220 967.3 172 78.2 39,861 1910 194 934 162 83.5 64,824 1920 286 838.7 122 42.7 49,793 1925 219 1,532.5 1930 394 1,360 125 31.7 44,038 1935 483 1.061.2 1940 306 1,840.3 148 48.4 41,881 1945 194 3,271.4 1950 190 3,126.6 85 44.7 44,079 195* 159 3,939 58 36.5 10,202 1959 120 4,924.3 71 59.2 42,880 1964 96 5,307.1 61 63.5 28,843 1969 72 5,250 38 52.8 35,178 1974 . 80 4,579 42 52.5 32,642 1978 87 4,152 42 48.3 32,589 1982 146 2,773 65 44.5 18,842 1987 162 2,470 64 39.5 14,346 * a Irrigated ranches as a percent of all ranches •* . Percent of Park county's total land area in farms ... „ Includes all improved acreage Land in Farms Acres Percent 89,771 120,567 212,801 181,199 12.8 239,862 16.7 335,608 23.4 535,826 37.3 512,552 35.7 563,129 40.6 634,658 45.8 594,057 42.9 626,303 45.2 590,913 42.6 509,486 36.8 378,022 27.9 366,281 26.5 361,236 26.1 404,910 28.9 400,090 Table 6-7. Ranch C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , Park (Source : U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s ) . County , 1870-1987 LIVESTOCK INVENTORY FOR PARK COUNTY, COLORADO, 1870 - 1987 Horses Mules and 1870 56 1 1880 987 100 1890 2,488 133 1900 3,646 182 1910 2,382 147 1920 2,998 257 1925 2,316 84 * 1930 2,741 113 1935 2,802 92 1940 2,598 111 1945 2,002 68 1950 1,503 * * 1954 1,021 1959 790 1964 1969 470 1974 383 1978 511 1982 813 1987 1,014 * * * = Mules only. = From 1950 - 1982, figure includes horses, = Horses only. I, 114 20,861 26,377 20,579 17,114 23,677 16,446 14,581 22,512 16,554 17,898 21,241 27,306 23,333 20,910 9,878 16,177 II, 285 10,578 10,074 Sheep 900 2,205 28,211 23,189 16,890 39,194 69 53,807 46,061 39,396 18,052 12,948 17,327 20,246 16,735 2,295 158 727 837 Oxen 29 146 171 164 85 527 260 133 164 212 161 155 112 46 13 13 10 36 37 24 843 60 34 164 19 97 102 4 43 mules, and asses. Table 6-8. L i v e s t o c k P r o d u c t i o n , Park C o u n t y , 1870-1987 (Source : U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s ) . 250 HAY PRODUCTION FOR PARK COUNTY, COLORADO, 1870 - 1987 Total Hay Production Acres Tons Yield 1870 281 1880 6,178 4,708 0.8 1889 16,376 19,547 1.2 1899 31,758 25,878 0.8 1910 38,509 29,921 0.8 1920 40,536 31,856 0.8 1925 40,876 33,297 0.8 1929 41,955 32,047 0.8 1933 39,312 19,473 0.5 1940 40,326 24,884 0.6 1945 39,679 28,353 0.7 1949 45,767 39,784 0.9 1954 22,487 8,608 0.4 1959 39,022 22,701 0.6 1964 22,023 15,557 0.7 1969 20,516 16,578 0.8 1974 17,634 16,660 0.9 1978 16,088 12,784 0.8 1982 18,985 17,563 0.9 1987 15,871 16,636 1.0 T a b l e 6 - 9 . Hay P r o d u c t i o n , Park County , 1870-1987 (Source U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s ) . POPULATION, PARK COUNTY, COLORADO, 1860 - 1990 Total Percent Change Male Female Density 1860 11,610 11,506 104 1870 447 - 96.2% 317 130 1880 3,970 + 788.1% 3,063 907 1890 3,548 - 10.6% 2,337 1,211 1900 2,998 - 15.5% 1,913 1,085 1910 2,492 - 16.9% 1,537 955 1.1 1920 1,977 - 20.7% 1,181 796 0.9 1930 2,052 + 3.8% 1,207 845 0.9 1940 3,272 + 59.5% 1,857 1,415 1.5 1950 1,870 - 42.8% 1,032 838 0.9 1960 1,822 - 2.6% 964 858 0.8 1970 2,106 + 15.6% 1,046 1,060 1.0 1980 5,333 + 153.2% 2,740 2,593 2.5 1990 7,174 + 34.5% 3,676 3,498 3.3 T a b l e 6 -10 . P o p u l a t i o n , Park County , 1860-1990 Bureau o f the C e n s u s ) . (Source : U.S 251 r e m a i n i n g i n r a n c h i n g o r by s e l l i n g t o r a n c h e r s . 1 0 2 L i k e r a n c h e r s e l s e w h e r e , t h o s e i n South Park were i n t e r e s t e d i n max imiz ing p r o f i t s . 1 0 3 As s o c i o l o g i s t and r a n c h e r E l i z a b e t h Maret has n o t e d , the b e e f c a t t l e i n d u s t r y i n the Amer ican West emerged from the s i m p l e p remise t h a t c a t t l e bought i n one p l a c e a t one t i m e , c o u l d be s o l d f o r a h i g h e r p r i c e i n some o t h e r l o c a t i o n a t a l a t e r t i m e . 1 0 4 P r o f i t s r e f l e c t e d the margin between t h e p u r c h a s e and s a l e p r i c e s , l e s s the c o s t o f r a i s i n g t h e l i v e s t o c k . 1 0 5 The expenses i n c l u d e d f e e d , h e a l t h m a i n t e n a n c e , and a l l the overhead c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r u n n i n g a r a n c h , i n c l u d i n g e n e r g y , equipment , ma in tenance , l a b o r , t a x e s , and o t h e r e x p e n s e s . 1 0 6 Western r a n c h i n g r e q u i r e d c o n s i d e r a b l e c a p i t a l , b o t h f o r i n i t i a l inves tments and c o n t i n u i n g o p e r a t i n g c o s t s . 1 0 7 The economic m a r g i n a l i t y o f r a n c h i n g powered water s a l e s , even from t h e b e g i n n i n g . Ranch l a n d s and water r i g h t s were b e i n g o f f e r e d up f o r s a l e a t the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y because p e o p l e were h a v i n g t r o u b l e making a l i v i n g . L e t t e r s o f f e r i n g t o s e l l , c o n t a i n e d i n the f i l e s o f the Denver Water Department, make i t p l a i n t h e some p e o p l e b a d l y needed t o s e l l . 1 0 8 C o n d i t i o n s i n t h e h i g h p a r k were h a r s h , as s u g g e s t e d by a l e t t e r penned i n t h e 1950s by l o n g t ime South Park r e s i d e n t Mabel D a v i d s o n . 1 0 9 She wrote t o the Denver Water Department about r e n t i n g the L u c i n d a Rogers Ranch above E l e v e n M i l e R e s e r v o i r , t h e n owned by the c i t y . M r s . Dav idson had l i v e d i n South Park s i n c e 1917, and she and h e r husband ranched n e a r b y . They had 252 i n s u f f i c i e n t l a n d t o c a r r y t h e i r h e r d o r r a i s e enough hay f o r the w i n t e r . Wi th l i v e s t o c k p r i c e s d r o p p i n g they needed t o i n c r e a s e the number o f head i n o r d e r t o b reak e v e n . L e a s i n g the o l d Rogers Ranch was t h e i r o n l y hope . In h e r l e t t e r she d e s c r i b e d how, by the m idd le o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , l a r g e r a n c h e r s h e l d most o f the g r a z i n g r i g h t s on U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e , s t a t e , and o t h e r government l a n d . In t h e D a v i d s o n s ' c a s e , o i l m a n A . T . "Cap" McDannald , who had bought the o l d H a r t s e l Ranch and owned thousands o f a c r e s , h e l d the l e a s e s i n t h e i r p a r t o f South P a r k . I f they c o u l d not l e a s e t h e Rogers Ranch, the c o u p l e would be f o r c e d t o s e l l , though they d i d not want t o do s o . 1 1 0 C l e a r l y , they were o p e r a t i n g a t the economic m a r g i n . F o r t h e Dav idsons and many o t h e r s , s e l l i n g l a n d and water r i g h t s t o a downstream c i t y c o u l d be more p r o f i t a b l e than c o n t i n u i n g i n r a n c h i n g . The same h o l d s t r u e t o d a y . The d e c i s i o n t o s e l l a l s o r e f l e c t e d s o c i a l changes t h a t ex tended w e l l beyond South P a r k . In the U n i t e d S t a t e s , a g i n g farm p o p u l a t i o n s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n a t i o n a l t r e n d toward the d i s p o s a l o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s , i n c l u d i n g r a n c h l a n d s . 1 1 1 The number o f young farm and ranch e n t r a n t s i s d e c l i n i n g . Changes i n f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e mean t h a t work ing ranches no l o n g e r have the u n p a i d l a b o r they used t o have when c h i l d r e n and members o f the ex tended f a m i l y l i v e d on the ranch and s h a r e d i n the work and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . 1 1 2 M e c h a n i z a t i o n has o f f s e t t h e s e changes i n f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e somewhat, but not w i t h o u t r a i s i n g energy c o s t s . I n c r e a s i n g l y , r a n c h e r s have had t o t u r n t o p a i d l a b o r and 253 e x p e n s i v e machinery i n o r d e r t o c o n t i n u e o p e r a t i n g . Investments i n m a c h i n e r y , maintenance and e n e r g y , and t h e u s e o f p a i d l a b o r a l l impinge on p r o f i t m a r g i n s . 1 1 3 F o r s m a l l o p e r a t o r s r a n c h i n g has the p o t e n t i a l t o become an e c o n o m i c a l l y i r r a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y . Why do p e o p l e remain i n r a n c h i n g ? I n c r e a s i n g l y they do so f o r the " l i f e s t y l e . " As E l i z a b e t h Maret shows i n h e r s o c i o l o g y o f women i n the Texas bee f c a t t l e i n d u s t r y , p e o p l e who remain i n r a n c h i n g do so l e s s f o r p r o f i t than f o r the i n t a n g i b l e s . 1 1 4 They e n j o y work ing o u t d o o r s and w i t h a n i m a l s . They seek a sense o f c o n t i n u i t y w i t h the p a s t , and en joy p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n an i n d u s t r y they p e r c e i v e t o be an impor tan t p a r t o f the r e g i o n ' s h e r i t a g e . They a r e drawn by the image o f the i n d u s t r y and i t s m y s t i q u e . They en joy l i v i n g o u t s i d e o f town w i t h an expanse o f r a n g e l a n d around them. O f t e n , t o make t h i s dream o r l i f e s t y l e c h o i c e p o s s i b l e , contemporary r a n c h e r s have o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s . Some work o u t s i d e the r a n c h t o supplement ranch income and ensure t h a t the o p e r a t i o n b r e a k s e v e n . Some r a n c h e r s supplement t h e i r income by g r a n t i n g h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g r i g h t s on t h e i r p r o p e r t y , o r o i l and gas l e a s e s . 1 1 5 O thers v iew r a n c h i n g as a second o c c u p a t i o n . Some a r e hobby r a n c h e r s who own o n l y a s m a l l number o f l i v e s t o c k and s m a l l a c r e a g e s , but o t h e r s a r e the owners o f l a r g e r , work ing r a n c h e s . A c c o r d i n g t o M a r e t , Ranch ing i s no l o n g e r the s o l e o r even predominant o c c u p a t i o n f o r most r a n c h e r s . Ranchers a r e t e a c h e r s , l a w y e r s , p h y s i c i a n s , e x t e n s i o n s p e c i a l i s t s , c o n t r a c t o r s , s m a l l b u s i n e s s owners. They a r e p e o p l e who can a f f o r d t o have and m a i n t a i n r a n c h e s . 1 1 * 254 The South Park r a n c h e r s who s o l d t h e i r water r i g h t s and i n some c a s e s t h e i r l a n d t o the F r o n t Range c i t i e s were not such p e o p l e . They had worked the range t h e m s e l v e s , and r a n c h i n g had a lways been t h e i r o n l y o c c u p a t i o n . 1 1 7 Roy T e t e r , W a l t e r C o i l , J i m McDowel l , Wes Furman, D a i r S c h a t t i n g e r - t h e s e p e o p l e were r a n c h e r s . In o t h e r c a s e s , South Park water r i g h t s and ranch l a n d s were s o l d and removed from p r o d u c t i o n by c o r p o r a t e r a n c h i n g i n t e r e s t s . The J a n i t e l l s , the A n s c h u t z e s , and Cap McDannald - t h e s e r a n c h owners had o t h e r companies and i n v e s t m e n t s i n o i l , g a s , and r e a l e s t a t e . F o r them r a n c h i n g was a b u s i n e s s . I t was e c o n o m i c a l l y r a t i o n a l f o r t h e s e c o r p o r a t e owners t o m a i n t a i n an i n t e r e s t i n r a n c h i n g o n l y as l o n g as tax laws p e r m i t t e d l o s s e s t o be w r i t t e n o f f and used as t a x b r e a k s . " L i f e s t y l e " was i r r e l e v a n t t o the c o r p o r a t i o n s . La rge c o r p o r a t e o p e r a t i o n s c o u l d b e t t e r absorb w i n t e r s t o c k l o s s e s , sudden r i s e s i n energy p r i c e s , and drought than s m a l l e r , i n d i v i d u a l l y - o w n e d o p e r a t i o n s . The t r a d e l i b e r a l i z a t i o n and the energy c r i s i s i n the 1 9 7 0 s , 1 1 8 p lummeting c a t t l e p r i c e s i n the 1 9 8 0 s , 1 1 9 and changes i n t a x laws as they a f f e c t e d a g r i c u l t u r e i n the l a s t decade and a h a l f 1 2 0 a l l impinged on the p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f r a n c h i n g i n South P a r k . 1 2 1 In some a r e a s , as s m a l l r a n c h e r s went out o f b u s i n e s s , l a r g e r r a n c h e r s and c o r p o r a t e o p e r a t i o n s a c q u i r e d t h e i r h o l d i n g s . 1 2 2 In South P a r k , t h e w a i t i n g b u y e r s were not a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s , but c i t y water depar tments and d e v e l o p e r s . 255 Changes in the American diet also had an impact on ranching. 1 2 3 In the 1980s and the 1990s, Americans became more health conscious and reduced their consumption of red meat, notably beef. The market for western beef shrank. A preference for lean meat also emerged.124 As a result, cattle producers need to pay more attention to the quality of their stock. Increasingly ranchers are turning to breeding programs and biotechnology in order to produce a leaner, more marketable grade of beef. 1 2 5 A l l this comes at a cost, much of which must be born by the rancher. Contemporary ranchers rely on the services of professionals and specialists in herd health, reproductive efficiency, marketing and sales. Modern ranching often involves s a t e l l i t e communications and electronic markets, and the use of computers to track the weight of livestock, nutritional value of beef, market factors, and reproductive performance.126 The scale of traditional ranching operations in South Park was relatively small, and changes in the industry could not be easily absorbed. Rapid technological change was also producing a sense of future shock. The bustle of the traditional livestock sale, the earthiness of breeding bulls with cows, and the solitude of riding the range were fast becoming things of the past. For old-time ranchers, some changes in the industry were distasteful. As ranching declined, a community was disappearing. The population was changing. The precise nature of these changes in 256 South Park i s d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c e . A f t e r 1950, the U . S . Bureau o f the Census changed the way i t enumerated the l a r g e mountain c o u n t y . 1 2 7 No l o n g e r d i d i t count p e o p l e by p r e c i n c t . I n s t e a d , the census bureau d i v i d e d the county i n two, c r e a t i n g n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n enumerat ion d i s t r i c t s . S i n c e 1960, d a t a from the f ragments o f South Park have been lumped t o g e t h e r w i t h d a t a from the growing bedroom communit ies on the e a s t e r n edges o f the c o u n t y . The n o r t h e r n p a r t o f the p a r k i s i n c l u d e d w i t h B a i l e y ; the s o u t h e r n p a r t w i t h Lake George . L o s t i n the r e d r a w i n g o f enumerat ion d i s t r i c t b o u n d a r i e s i s a v iew o f the d i s a p p e a r i n g r a n c h i n g community i n South P a r k . The p e o p l e who were a p a r t o f t h a t community become s t a t i s t i c a l l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t . What i s happening t o them i s l o s t amid the aggrega te p a t t e r n s c r e a t e d by growing numbers o f newcomers . 1 2 8 Economic d e c l i n e and s o c i a l d i s l o c a t i o n i n one g e o g r a p h i c a r ea a r e o b s c u r e d by development and change i n a n o t h e r . These aggrega te d a t a appear t o s u g g e s t t h a t s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e i m p r o v i n g i n Park County , and have been o v e r the p e r i o d c o v e r e d by the most r e c e n t water t r a n s f e r s . A d e c l i n i n g p e r c e n t a g e o f p e o p l e a r e below the p o v e r t y l i n e , e d u c a t i o n and income l e v e l s a r e r i s i n g , and o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s a l s o s u g g e s t o v e r a l l i m p r o v e m e n t . 1 2 9 F o r Park County as a whole , t h i s i s t r u e . The county has grown i n the p a s t 30 y e a r s (Tab le 6 - 1 0 ) . Those moving i n t o the bedroom communit ies o f B a i l e y and Lake George can a f f o r d t o own o r r e n t a s i n g l e f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s i t u a t e d on s e v e r a l a c r e s . They t y p i c a l l y h o l d j o b s i n a 257 m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a - e i t h e r Denver o r C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s . 1 3 0 These a r e the p e o p l e r e v e a l e d i n the census d a t a . The p e o p l e who become i n v i s i b l e a r e t h o s e west o f Kenosha and W i l k e r s o n P a s s e s - the p e o p l e o f South P a r k . The aggrega te census f i g u r e s do no t r e v e a l the c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h i s p o p u l a t i o n as r a n c h i n g d e c l i n e d . They do not show t h a t South P a r k ' s p o p u l a t i o n began t o expand a g a i n as r e s i d e n t i a l development o c c u r r e d and the c o u n t y s t a r t e d t o make the t r a n s i t i o n from r a n c h i n g t o a more d i v e r s i f i e d economy. The aggregate d a t a do not show who i s moving i n t o the p a r k , o r how, over t i m e , r a n c h e r s , m i n e r s , and o t h e r s i n t r a d i t i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n s a re i n c r e a s i n g l y outnumbered by r e t i r e d m i l i t a r y men and women, s k i l i f t o p e r a t o r s , h e a l t h c a r e w o r k e r s , o f f i c e w o r k e r s , c r a f t s p e o p l e , and p r o f e s s i o n a l s . Park County r e c o v e r s e c o n o m i c a l l y , a f t e r p a s s i n g th rough a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n . I t grows i n p o p u l a t i o n and d i v e r s i f i e s . But the c o u n t y ' s t r a d i t i o n a l c o r e - the r e a s o n f o r i t s name, the base o f i t s economy, the h e a r t o f i t s o l d e r c u l t u r e and c h a r a c t e r - South Park - f ades i n t o r e l a t i v e i n s i g n i f i c a n c e . F a i r p l a y remains the county s e a t , bu t i s no l o n g e r the s e a t o f power. The county commiss ioners commute t o F a i r p l a y from the e a s t s i d e o f Kenosha P a s s . Park County i s b e i n g reshaped by p o p u l a t i o n change and economic change. New p e o p l e and i n s t i t u t i o n s , governmenta l and c o r p o r a t e a l i k e , a r e g a i n i n g c o n t r o l o f South P a r k ' s r e s o u r c e s . South Park had been t r a n s f o r m e d once by the a p p l i c a t i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n water t o the l a n d . D r y l a n d s p e c i e s gave way t o 258 wet land s p e c i e s , water c o u r s e d o v e r the g r o u n d , d i t c h e s were c a r v e d i n t o bot tomlands and h i l l s i d e s , and r a n c h e s were e s t a b l i s h e d a c r o s s South Park wherever water was a v a i l a b l e . In the l a t e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h a t l a n d s c a p e , t h a t form o f economic and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , was b e i n g e r a s e d , t h i s t ime t h r o u g h the removal o f water and the d r y i n g up o f the l a n d . The p r o c e s s began i n the 1890s when e n g i n e e r s i n Denver t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o the r e s o u r c e s o f the h i g h p a r k . F i r m i n t e r e s t s were e s t a b l i s h e d by the end the 1930s. In the 1960s and 1970s the e x p r o p r i a t i o n p r o c e s s a c c e l e r a t e d , and as the t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y approaches i t n e a r s c o m p l e t i o n . One e c o l o g i c a l mode o f p r o d u c t i o n has g i v e n way t o a n o t h e r . Urban i n t e r e s t s have a c h i e v e d dominance, and l o c a l power appears t o have been c a r e f u l l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d . The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f South Park i h t h e l a t e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y must be u n d e r s t o o d as p a r t o f a w ider p r o c e s s , p a r t o f the p e r i p h e r a l i z a t i o n o f r u r a l a r e a s , and p a r t o f the h a r n e s s i n g o f key r e s o u r c e s f o r use by the b u r g e o n i n g urban c o r e o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s . South P a r k ' s development had o c c u r r e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a w o r l d economy i n which p r e c i o u s m e t a l s were e x t r a c t e d f o r the purpose o f e n r i c h i n g urban i n v e s t o r s and i n d u s t r i a l i s t s and f u r t h e r i n g the development o f a n a t i o n a l economy. South P a r k ' s c a t t l e i n d u s t r y had emerged t o s e r v e t h o s e i n t e r e s t s and had been i n t e g r a l t o the development o f the Denver s t o c k y a r d s and o t h e r u r b a n - b a s e d economic a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n t h e s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o . What d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e l a t t e r 259 p a r t o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , however, was t h e d i r e c t e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f South P a r k ' s most v i t a l r e s o u r c e : w a t e r . L i k e t h e h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t i e s t h a t had taken shape i n Mesopotamia , L a t i n A m e r i c a , and C h i n a , the h y d r a u l i c west was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f power i n the c o r e . C o n t r o l was ex tended outward - o v e r t e r r i t o r y , o v e r p e o p l e , and over n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . I n c r e a s i n g l y , space was i n t e g r a t e d i n such a way as t o s e r v e urban i n t e r e s t s and i n t e r e s t s t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d the upper e c h e l o n s o f the h i e r a r c h y o f power. In the c a s e o f C o l o r a d o , power was c o n c e n t r a t e d i n the c i t i e s a l o n g the F r o n t Range, and a key f e a t u r e o f t h a t power was domin ion o v e r r e s o u r c e s . Denver and i t s suburbs p o s s e s s e d the t e c h n o l o g y , e x p e r t i s e , c a p i t a l , and the c o n n e c t i o n s t o the w ider w o r l d economy needed t o h a r n e s s the a g r i c u l t u r a l water r i g h t s o f r u r a l C o l o r a d o . H y d r o a g r i c u l t u r e , d e f i n e d by K a r l W i t t f o g e l as i n v o l v i n g s m a l l s c a l e i r r i g a t i o n by i n d i v i d u a l s , f a m i l i e s , and community g r o u p s , 1 3 1 gave way t o l a r g e r , more complex ar rangements . Water u s e , and the t r a n s f e r o f t h a t use t o the c o r e , were i n c r e a s i n g l y b u r e a u c r a t i z e d and managed by t h e s t a t e . E f f e c t i v e l y , by g a i n i n g c o n t r o l o f South P a r k ' s most b a s i c r e s o u r c e , the c o r e p l a c e d l i m i t s upon economic a c t i v i t y and l a n d use i n t h e mountainous p e r i p h e r y . The t r a d i t i o n a l r a n c h i n g c u l t u r e and economy o f South Park was m a r g i n a l i z e d . Urban i n f l u e n c e s r e v e a l e d t h e m s e l v e s i n a v a r i e t y o f ways: i n t h e s u b d i v i s i o n o f l a n d and i n r e s i d e n t i a l deve lopment , i n the 260 i n s t i t u t i o n of zoning, and i n changing population composition and d i s t r i b u t i o n . Park County was losing i t s t r a d i t i o n a l landscape and character as i t was integrated into the urbanizing world of the l a t e twentieth century (Figure 6-16). F i g u r e 6-16 . Abandoned ranch, South Park, 1993. 261 Chapter Notes 1. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864-1992. 2. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864-1992. A l l the m a t e r i a l i n the p r e c e d i n g paragraph was drawn from the U . S . C e n s u s , and i s c o n t a i n e d i n T a b l e 6 - 1 . 3. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. 4. M i l l i k e n , 1988, p. 343. 5. M i l l i k e n , 1988, p . 339. 6. Denver Water Department , 1975, p . x v . 7. M i l l i k e n , 1988, p . 339. 8. M i l l i k e n , 1988, p . 342. 9 . M i l l i k e n , 1988, p . 339. 10. M i l l i k e n , 1988, p . 342. 11. Mehls e t a l , 1985, p . 146. 12. Leonard and N o e l , 1991, p . 350. The i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t F l e t c h e r was Canad ian born comes from Mehls e t a l , 1985, p . 19. 13. Leonard and N o e l , 1991, p p . 351-352. 14. Leonard and N o e l , 1991, p . 355. 15. Leonard and N o e l , 1991, p. 358. 16. Leonard and N o e l , 1991, p . 355. 17. A c c o r d i n g t o a t e l e v i s i o n news r e p o r t , s t a t i o n KUSA, Denver , May 13, 1994. 18. Leonard and N o e l , 1991, p . 363-364. 19. Leonard and N o e l , 1985, p . 363. 20. Leonard and N o e l , 1991, p . 363. 21 . A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. 22. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , 1938-1993. A u g u s t i n e T r a n s f e r F i l e . 262 23. Wi th o v e r - a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f e a s t e r n s l o p e water w e l l known, the c o u r t s were a p p a r e n t l y s e e k i n g ways t o v e r i f y the c e s s a t i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n . In t h i s manner "doub le d i p p i n g " c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y be a v o i d e d . As w e l l , what was coming t o g e t h e r was a f o r m a l system and a lmost f o r m u l a i c approach t o a g r i c u l t u r a l - t o - m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s . As o t h e r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s b e s i d e s Denver became i n c r e a s i n g l y a c t i v e i n t h i s a r e n a , the p r o c e s s became a s o r t o f l e g a l dance . C i t i e s had t h e money t o o b j e c t i n water t r a n s f e r c a s e s , e f f e c t i v e l y d i s p u t i n g amounts o f water c l a i m e d , the e x t e n t o f ac reage r e t i r e d and the l i k e . Denver o b j e c t e d o r i n t e r v e n e d i n v i r t u a l l y every water t r a n s f e r c a s e i n the South P l a t t e d r a i n a g e s y s t e m . In t h i s c o n t e x t the c o u r t s began t o a d d r e s s i s s u e s i n a much l e n g t h i e r , more d e t a i l e d manner than they had p r e v i o u s l y . 24. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n s 3684 and 3705, T r a n s f e r D e c r e e , p. 15. 25 . T r e n c h i n g was i n t r o d u c e d a t t h i s t ime i n o r d e r t o ensure d r y u p , which was mandated i n the c o u r t d e c r e e . In a d d i t i o n , t r e n c h i n g h e l d t h e p o t e n t i a l t o speed the p r o c e s s o f d r y u p , e n a b l i n g c i t i e s t o d i v e r t water i n t o m u n i c i p a l i n t a k e s a t the e a r l i e s t p o s s i b l e d a t e . 26. Denver P o s t . A p r i l 30, 1975, p. 27. 27 . Denver P o s t . A p r i l 30, 1975, p. 27 and p. 34. 28. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n s 3684 and 3705. 29 . Young, 1975, p . 134. 30. A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. H a r t z e l l -P f e i f f e n b e r g e r and A s s o c i a t e s , 1973, " R e s u l t s o f Dra inage E f f o r t s on the A u g u s t i n e - T u r n e r R a n c h . . . . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the A u r o r a Department o f U t i l i t i e s . 31. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. L e t t e r from Raymond A . Hogan and K u r t A . G r e t z i n g e r t o Sam B r y s o n , May 4, 1977. 32. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970. C i v i l A c t i o n s 3684 and 3705. 33. Young, 1975, p . 154; and Douglas Kemper and P a u l F l a c k (Aurora Department o f U t i l i t i e s ) , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 34. Young, 1975, p . 155. 263 35. Denver , Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. O f f e r s t o S e l l . 36. McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 37. T i t l e papers c o u r t e s y o f J i m George a t Park County A b s t r a c t and T i t l e . 38. McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 39. T h o r n t o n , Water Resource S e c t i o n , 1976-1993. Summary o f South Park Water T r a n s f e r s ( L o o s e l e a f B i n d e r ) . 40. S i e m e r , p e r s o n a l communica t ion ; and McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . S iemer i s a noted agronomis t whose work has f o c u s e d on mountain meadows f o r the p a s t t h r e e t o f o u r d e c a d e s . 41 . McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 42. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-8345-76. 43 . McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 44. McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 45. McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 46. McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 47. McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 48. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-8345-76; A l s o see A p p e n d i c e s B and C . 49. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-8345-76. 50. Denver P o s t . November 1, 1973, p . 43. 51 . C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7595-74, D e c r e e . 52. A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. Huron t r a n s f e r f i l e s , Agreements , May 30, 1973 and J u l y 13, 1973, and Addendum C o n t r a c t , O c t o b e r 8, 1973. 53. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7595-74. 264 54. A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. Huron t r a n s f e r f i l e s , Agreement , A p r i l 26, 1982. 55. Young, 1975, p p . 95-112 . 56. A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. Huron t r a n s f e r f i l e s , Agreement , December 17, 1976. 57. A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. Ray D. N i x o n , 1976, "Repor t t o the C i t y o f A u r o r a . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r C i t y Manager Rober t Semple. 58. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7595-74. D e c r e e . 59. The Badger B a s i n , C o i l , and Walker t r a n s f e r s . See Appendix B. 60. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-9234-78. D e c r e e . 61 . B l a t c h l e y and A s s o c i a t e s , 1983, p. 1. 62. B l a t c h l e y and A s s o c i a t e s , 1983, p . 2. 63. B l a t c h l e y and A s s o c i a t e s , 1983, p p . 2 - 3 . 64. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-9234-78. A p p l i c a t i o n . 65. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-9234-78. L e t t e r , May 9 , 1983. 66. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-9234-78. M o t i o n , May 25, 1983. 67. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-9234-78. Order o f C o u r t , August 26, 1983. 68. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-9234-78. D e c r e e . 69. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-9234-78. L e t t e r , March 22, 1986. 70. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-9234-78. L e t t e r , A p r i l 4, 1986. 71 . Park County R e p u b l i c a n and F a i r p l a y F lume. December 24, 1993, p . 1. 265 72. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75. 73. A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. J a n i t e l l t r a n s f e r f i l e s , Purchase agreements . 74. A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. J a n i t e l l t r a n s f e r f i l e s , Purchase Agreements; and Memo from Tom G r i s w o l d t o Dav id A . L i n c o l n , September 10, 1976. 75 . A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. J a n i t e l l t r a n s f e r f i l e s , L e t t e r from C h a r l e s C . F i s k t o P h i l l i p L . A n s c h u t z , F e b r u a r y 25, 1969. 76. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75 . T r a n s c r i p t s : Tes t imony o f Max A r n e s o n , December 8, 1976. 77 . A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. J a n i t e l l t r a n s f e r . Purchase Agreements . 78. A u r o r a , Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1955-1993. J a n i t e l l t r a n s f e r f i l e s , Memo from Tom G r i s w o l d t o D a v i d A . L i n c o l n , September 10, 1976. 79. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75. S ta tements o f O p p o s i t i o n . 80. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75 . C o u r t T r a n s c r i p t , November 16, 1976. 81 . C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75. Case F i l e s , June 30, 1975. 82. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75. L e t t e r from W.G. W i l k i n s o n t o Judge Donald A . C a r p e n t e r . 83 . C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75. Case F i l e s and C o u r t T r a n s c r i p t s . A l s o see the D e c r e e , F e b r u a r y 2, 1978. 84. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75. D e c r e e , March 6, 1991. 85. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75. A p p l i c a n t ' s S u p p o r t i n g B r i e f , O c t o b e r 11, 1977. The remainder o f the m a t e r i a l i n t h i s pa ragraph i s drawn from t h i s l e g a l b r i e f . 86. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75. O p p o n e n t ' s B r i e f , November 28, 1977. 266 87. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. 75. S u p p o r t i n g B r i e f , December 1977. 88. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. 75. D e c r e e , F e b r u a r y 2, 1978. 89. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. 75. Case F i l e s . 90. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. 75. O b j e c t o r ' s B r i e f , August 25, 1983. 91 . C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. 75. O b j e c t o r ' s B r i e f , August 25, 1983. 92. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. 75. D e c r e e , March 6, 1991. 93. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. 75. C o u r t T r a n s c r i p t s . 94. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. 74. D e c r e e . 95. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case 80-CW-313. D e c r e e . 96. T h o r n t o n , Water Resources S e c t i o n , 1976-1993. 97. T h o r n t o n , Water Resources S e c t i o n , 1976-1993. 98. C u r r y , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 99 . C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t , 1970-1993. Case W-7936-75 . Case F i l e s . 100. In a t a l k g i v e n i n J u l y o f 1992, as p a r t o f a t o u r o f South Park o r g a n i z e d by the C o l o r a d o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y and the Mounta in Meadows Research C e n t e r , J e f f C l a r k , then employed by T h o r n t o n , s a i d t h a t d r y up was more e a s i l y m o n i t o r e d and o b t a i n e d when the c i t y c o n t r o l l e d the l a n d . T h i s accounted f o r some o f T h o r n t o n ' s p u r c h a s e s . 101. The f i g u r e s a r e drawn, wherever p o s s i b l e , from the d e c r e e s . Where t h o s e f i g u r e s were u n a v a i l a b l e , ac reage i s d r a w n from e n g i n e e r i n g r e p o r t s . 102. C o i l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . F o r l i t e r a t u r e on s u r f a c e water p r i c e s r e f e r t o S l o g g e t t , 1982; and Morton e t a l , 1982. 103. Biswas e t a l . , 1984, p p . 193-194. Case W-7936-Case W-7936-Case W-7936-Case W-7936-Case W-7936-Case W-7936-Case W-7936-Case W-7739-267 104. M a r e t , 1993, p . 1. A l s o f o r a h i s t o r y o f wes te rn r a n c h i n g and t h e l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r y r e f e r t o B i l l i n g t o n and R i d g e , 1982, p p . 611-628; H i n e , 1984, p p . 138-153; and Whi te , 1991. 105. Biswas e t a l , 1984; M a r e t , 1993, p p . 1 -13; and T o r r e l l e t a l , 1991. A l s o , as t h i s t h e s i s n e a r s c o m p l e t i o n an a r t i c l e appears i n the New York T i m e s . D a t e l i n e : C a s p e r , Wyoming, J a n u a r y 21, 1996. "Ranchers Hur t By S teep Drop In Beef P r i c e s " . C a t t l e p r i c e s a r e n o t o r i o u s l y u n s t a b l e . 106. M a r e t , 1993, p p . 3 -4 ; Brompton, p e r s o n a l communica t ion ; C o i l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion ; McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion ; and T e t e r , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 107. C r o w l e y , 1964, p p . 345-360; M a r e t , 1993, p p . 3-4 and p . 100; and Brompton, p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 108. Denver Water Department , 1892-1993. O f f e r s t o S e l l , 1923-1993. The O f f e r s t o S e l l f i l e s c o n t a i n o f f e r s from r a n c h e r s and fa rmers from South P a r k , the Western S l o p e , and o t h e r p a r t s o f the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o . 109. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. L e t t e r from Mabel Dav idson t o the Denver Board o f Water C o m m i s s i o n e r s , O c t o b e r 14, 1953. 110. Denver , Denver Water Department, 1892-1993. L e t t e r from Mabel Dav idson t o the Denver Board o f Water C o m m i s s i o n e r s , O c t o b e r 14, 1953. 111. G a l e , 1993. 112. M a r e t , 1993, p . 13. 113. Ho lechek e t a l , 1994. 114. M a r e t , 1993, p . 115; and Pope, 1988, p . 168. 115. M a r e t , 1993, p p . 3 -4 . A l s o see M a r t i n e t a l , 1978 w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o h u n t i n g . 116. M a r e t , 1993, p . 4 . 117. C o i l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion; C u r r y , p e r s o n a l communica t ion ; McDowel l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion ; and T e t e r , p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 118. C a s t l e , 1989; Ho lechek e t a l , 1994; On the s u b j e c t o f the r e g i o n a l impact o f t r a d e l i b e r a l i z a t i o n r e f e r t o B l a n d f o r d , 1978. 268 119. C a s t l e , 1989; and H o l e c h e k , 1994. 120. M a r e t , 1993, p p . 115-116; and Schmidt and G a r r i s o n , 1987. 121. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f o t h e r r e l e v a n t f a c t o r s t o South Park r e f e r t o Bement, 1993; Cook and Redente , 1993; and Feuz and K e a r l , 1987. 122. C a s t l e , 1989; Menkhaus e t a l , 1981; and Smi th e t a l , 1987. 123. Lokey and W i l s o n , 1985, p . 39; and M a r e t , 1993, p . 5. 124. M a r e t , 1993, p . 5. 125. C u r r y , p e r s o n a l communica t ion ; and M a r e t , 1993, p p . 98-108. 126. C o i l , p e r s o n a l communica t ion ; C u r r y , p e r s o n a l communica t ion ; and Mare t , 1993, p p . 98-108. 127. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864-1992. The change o c c u r r e d between the d e c e n n i a l c e n s u s e s o f 1950 and 1960. 128. F o r d i s c u s s i o n o f newcomers and t h e i r impact on r u r a l communi t ies r e f e r t o S o r e n s e n , 1977. F o r l i t e r a t u r e on changes i n a g r i c u l t u r e ( i n c l u d i n g c o n s o l i d a t i o n and d e c l i n e ) and t h e i r impact on r u r a l communi t ies r e f e r t o B a r k l e y , 1983; C a r r u t h e r s e t a l , 1977; S o r e n s o n , 1977; and Tweeten, 1983. 129. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , 1864-1992. M a t e r i a l from the 1960, 1970, 1980, and 1990 c e n s u s e s were p u b l i s h e d i n 1961, 1973, 1982, 1991 and 1992 r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f t e r 1950 the census becomes c o n s i d e r a b l y h a r d e r t o n a v i g a t e . The Bureau o f the Census b e g i n s p u b l i s h i n g a wide v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f d a t a , and the m a t e r i a l b e g i n s a p p e a r i n g i n m u l t i p l e volume c o l l e c t i o n s . The way c a t e g o r i e s a re d e f i n e d v a r i e s w i d e l y between c e n s u s e s . E n t i r e c a t e g o r i e s d i s a p p e a r . The s t a t i s t i c s i n c l u d e such t h i n g s as median income, number o f workers employed w i t h i n the c o u n t y , median y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n , and p e r c e n t o f p e r s o n s i n p o v e r t y v e r s u s f a m i l i e s i n p o v e r t y . Because the census now enumerates a " F a i r p l a y D i s t r i c t " and a "Lake George D i s t r i c t " , the aggregate d a t a s u g g e s t a p a t t e r n o f i m p r o v i n g s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s o v e r t i m e , from 1950 t o t h e p r e s e n t . 130. I l i v e d and worked i n Park County a t v a r i o u s t imes between 1980 and 1994. These o b s e r v a t i o n s and o t h e r s c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e c o n f i r m e d by p e r s o n a l communicat ion w i t h r a n c h e r s and o t h e r South Park r e s i d e n t s (See B i b l i o g r a p h y ) . 131. W i t t f o g e l , 1957, p . 2. 269 CHAPTER SEVEN "MAKING WATER FLOW UPHILL:" LOCAL POWER AND THE UPPER SOUTH PLATTE WATER CONSERVANCY DISTRICT Formation of the Conservancy D i s t r i c t As e l s e w h e r e , the e x p a n s i o n o f m u n i c i p a l c o n t r o l o v e r r e s o u r c e s met w i t h l o c a l r e s i s t a n c e . In the e a r l y 1950s, South Park r a n c h e r s formed the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t , i n t e n d e d t o p r e v e n t o r l i m i t f u r t h e r encroachment by Denver and o t h e r urban i n t e r e s t s . 1 I n i t i a l l y , r a n c h e r s came t o g e t h e r and formed a p r o t e c t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n , the p r e c u r s o r t o the c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t . T h e i r f i r s t a c t i o n was t o d r a f t a l e t t e r t o the s t a t e ' s D i v i s i o n E n g i n e e r , R a l p h Owens, o b j e c t i n g t o the manner i n which water was b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d and a d m i n i s t e r e d i n South P a r k . 2 A c c o r d i n g t o the members o f the p r o t e c t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n ' s b o a r d , i r r i g a t o r s i n South Park were b e i n g d e p r i v e d o f water t o which t h e y were e n t i t l e d by d e c r e e . The r e a s o n s they s t a t e d i n v o l v e d what they p e r c e i v e d t o be i l l e g a l s t o r a g e o f water i n D e n v e r ' s A n t e r o and E l e v e n M i l e r e s e r v o i r s . They m a i n t a i n e d t h a t water s u p p l i e s t o t h e s e r e s e r v o i r s and t o Cheesman R e s e r v o i r , f u r t h e r downstream i n the mounta ins , were not b e i n g a d e q u a t e l y m o n i t o r e d , and t h a t exchanges l e d t o the s h o r t i n g o f s e n i o r South Park a p p r o p r i a t o r s . Water was b e i n g taken i l l e g a l l y , they s u s p e c t e d , and was not g e t t i n g th rough t o s e n i o r a p p r o p r i a t o r s downstream on the South P l a t t e ; South Park d i t c h e s were 270 t h e r e f o r e s u b j e c t t o more f r e q u e n t r i v e r c a l l s . The p r o t e c t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n a l s o took i s s u e w i t h the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o ' s f a i l u r e t o charge Denver w i t h e v a p o r a t i v e l o s s e s on waters s t o r e d i n i t s Upper South P l a t t e r e s e r v o i r s . The p r o t e c t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n r e q u e s t e d t h a t the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s O f f i c e i n v e s t i g a t e the s i t u a t i o n t o ensure p r o p e r and f a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f water i n D i s t r i c t 23 . The r a n c h e r s r e t a i n e d l e g a l c o u n s e l and were a d v i s e d t o form a c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t under t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f C o l o r a d o R e v i s e d S t a t u t e s 1953, Chapte r 149, A r t i c l e 6 . 3 The d i s t r i c t was o r g a n i z e d on the b a s i s o f a p e t i t i o n s i g n e d by l o c a l i r r i g a t o r s , owners o f n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d , and t o w n s p e o p l e . 4 No p r o t e s t s t o the p e t i t i o n were f i l e d . On O c t o b e r 17, 1955, the judge s i g n e d the o r d e r o r g a n i z i n g the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t and a p p o i n t i n g the f i r s t b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s . 5 T h i s board i n c l u d e d W a l t e r J . C o i l , A l b e r t W. Wahl , and James L . S e t t e l e , a l l South Park r a n c h e r s , and J e s s e B. F i t zs immons and Ray L a n d i s , r a n c h e r s from the B a i l e y and Lake George s i d e s o f Park County r e s p e c t i v e l y . The d i s t r i c t was d e f i n e d as i n c l u d i n g South Park and the remainder o f Park County and p o r t i o n s o f T e l l e r , J e f f e r s o n , C l e a r C r e e k , and Douglas c o u n t i e s t h a t l a y w i t h i n the South P l a t t e d r a i n a g e . In the f i r s t months a f t e r the d i s t r i c t ' s f o r m a t i o n , the b o a r d was o c c u p i e d by d e t a i l s such as e l e c t i n g o f f i c e r s , h i r i n g l e g a l c o u n s e l , w r i t i n g b y l a w s , and p l a n n i n g f o r t a x a t i o n t o s u p p o r t the d i s t r i c t . 6 Numerous meet ings were h e l d and 271 p r i o r i t i e s d e f i n e d . Among the most p r e s s i n g problems were i s s u e s c o n c e r n i n g D e n v e r ' s s t o r a g e and the emerging problem o f expand ing u s e o f groundwater i n t h e lower p a r t s o f t h e South P l a t t e r i v e r b a s i n . 7 By 1955 P r o f e s s o r H a r o l d A . H o f f m e i s t e r o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o i n B o u l d e r and the U . S . G e o l o g i c a l Survey b e l i e v e d t h a t the pumping o f groundwater was a f f e c t i n g s e n i o r s u r f a c e water r i g h t s . 8 A t t h i s t i m e , groundwater management and s u r f a c e water management had not y e t been i n t e g r a t e d . T h i s would come 14 y e a r s l a t e r w i t h the passage o f C o l o r a d o ' s Water R i g h t s D e t e r m i n a t i o n and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n A c t o f 1969. In 1955 the o n l y r e c o u r s e s e n i o r South Park a p p r o p r i a t o r s had was t o b r i n g s u i t i n c o u r t a g a i n s t w e l l owners on the lower r e a c h e s o f the r i v e r . Such i n t e n t i o n s were s t a t e d by the board o f t h e Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t i n i t s December m e e t i n g , s h o r t l y a f t e r the f o r m a t i o n o f the d i s t r i c t . A l s o h i g h on the l i s t o f p r i o r i t i e s was a meet ing w i t h the Denver Water Board t o e x p l o r e i s s u e s s u r r o u n d i n g s t o r a g e and e v a p o r a t i o n l o s s e s from r e s e r v o i r s . E a r l y i n 1956 the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t h i r e d a c o n s u l t a n t , an e n g i n e e r who was charged w i t h d e t e r m i n i n g the e x t e n t and s o u r c e s o f water l o s s e s from the d i s t r i c t . He de te rmined t h a t t h e r e were s e v e r a l d ime n s io ns t o t h e p r o b l e m : e v a p o r a t i v e l o s s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and t r a n s m i s s i o n l o s s e s , water exchanges , and groundwater p u m p i n g . 9 In F e b r u a r y the b o a r d t r a v e l l e d t o Denver and met w i t h D e n v e r ' s mayor, who a s s u r e d the r a n c h e r s t h a t t h e i r two o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o u l d work 272 t o g e t h e r . 1 0 The d i s t r i c t ' s lawyer was l e s s o p t i m i s t i c , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e g a r d t o the c i t y ' s s t a n d i n g e v a p o r a t i v e l o s s e s , which the e n g i n e e r i n g c o n s u l t a n t had de te rmined amounted t o 14,196 a c r e f e e t p e r y e a r o v e r the p e r i o d 1950-1954, based on l o s s e s from A n t e r o and E l e v e n M i l e r e s e r v o i r s and Cheesman r e s e r v o i r o u t s i d e the p a r k . 1 1 O v e r a l l , the impact on the d i s t r i c t was de te rmined t o be the l o s s o f i r r i g a t i o n water f o r 4,000 a c r e s o f h a y l a n d . 1 2 The d i s t r i c t l a c k e d the f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s t o pursue l e g a l a c t i o n on a l l m a t t e r s o f c o n c e r n . Duane B e r n a r d , the c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t ' s l a w y e r , sugges ted t h a t the d i s t r i c t work w i t h i n - s t a t e and o u t - o f - s t a t e water u s e r s on the South P l a t t e t o i n i t i a t e s e p a r a t e s u i t s i n r e g a r d t o e v a p o r a t i o n l o s s e s and groundwater p u m p i n g . 1 3 The advantage t o work ing w i t h i r r i g a t o r s from o u t s i d e the s t a t e was t h a t i t would ensure t h a t the c a s e would be h e a r d i n f e d e r a l c o u r t . A l r e a d y the p e r c e p t i o n e x i s t e d t h a t t h e C o l o r a d o c o u r t s and the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system s e r v e d i n t e r e s t s i n the c o r e , not the p e r i p h e r y . R e g a r d i n g the i s s u e o f how much water was b e i n g impounded i n m u n i c i p a l r e s e r v o i r s , the d i s t r i c t sought a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s o l u t i o n : i n s t a l l measur ing w e i r s t o m o n i t o r r e s e r v o i r i n f l o w and o u t f l o w and p r o p e r gauges t o mon i to r the h e i g h t o f water i n m u n i c i p a l r e s e r v o i r s . 1 4 By the m idd le o f the 1950s Denver was not the o n l y c i t y w i t h s t o r a g e i n South P a r k . The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Montgomery R e s e r v o i r a t t h e headwaters o f t h e M i d d l e F o r k o f the South P l a t t e gave the c i t y o f C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s a p r e s e n c e 273 t h e r e . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h i s r e s e r v o i r was c o n s t r u c t e d t o impound i n t e r b a s i n t r a n s f e r water from the B l u e R i v e r , but South Park r a n c h e r s s u s p e c t e d t h a t the c i t y was drawing d i r e c t l y on the r e s o u r c e s o f the South P l a t t e , d i m i n i s h i n g the amount o f water a v a i l a b l e f o r i r r i g a t i o n downst ream. 1 5 P o l i t i c s made s t r a n g e b e d f e l l o w s . In May 1956, the c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t ' s l a w y e r , Duane B a r n a r d , spoke w i t h the Denver Water Depar tment ' s l a w y e r , G lenn S a u n d e r s . 1 6 The two men agreed t h a t t h e i r c l i e n t s had common c o n c e r n s r e g a r d i n g groundwater pumping. Saunders a s s e r t e d t h a t such pumping c l o s e t o the r i v e r i n the lower p a r t o f the b a s i n was a l s o h u r t i n g Denver . F u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s r e v e a l e d t h a t w h i l e Denver was w i l l i n g t o s u p p l y l e g a l and e n g i n e e r i n g s u p p o r t , the Queen C i t y wanted t h e Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t t o i n i t i a t e t h e s u i t o v e r pumping i n the South P l a t t e V a l l e y . 1 7 T h i s p r o v e d i n f e a s i b l e . C a p i t a l i z e d th rough t a x e s l e v i e d i n r u r a l c o u n t i e s , the d i s t r i c t l a c k e d the money t o i n i t i a t e such a s u i t . By f a l l the d i s t r i c t had d e c i d e d t o wa i t f o r l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i o n on groundwater p u m p i n g . 1 8 S t a t e s e n a t o r s H a r r y Locke o f H a r t s e l and Ranger Rogers o f Denver agreed t o s p o n s o r a groundwater b i l l whereby the S t a t e E n g i n e e r would i s s u e pumping p e r m i t s , and t h o s e p e r m i t s would be s u b j e c t t o r e v o c a t i o n i f i n j u r y r e s u l t e d t o s e n i o r s u r f a c e water r i g h t s . 1 9 The b i l l p a s s e d , but i t was not u n t i l 1969 t h a t ground and s u r f a c e water would be managed i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h one a n o t h e r . 274 In June o f 1957, the c i t y o f Denver agreed t o o p e r a t e i t s r e s e r v o i r s on an i n f l o w - o u t f l o w b a s i s . 2 0 C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s was somewhat l e s s accommodating and i t was not u n t i l 1961 t h a t an agreement was s i g n e d between the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t and the c i t y r e g a r d i n g g a u g i n g . 2 1 Agreement and a c t i o n were two s e p a r a t e m a t t e r s however . The d i s t r i c t l a c k e d the funds t o pay the l awyers and e n g i n e e r s n e c e s s a r y t o ensure enforcement o f the agreements . In the i r r i g a t i o n season o f 1958, the board a p p e a l e d t o the S t a t e E n g i n e e r , J . E . W h i t t e n : We a r e i n t e n s e l y i n t e r e s t e d a t the p r e s e n t t ime i n the a c u t e s h o r t a g e o f water i n the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t . As you know from the r e s t r i c t i o n s i s s u e d by y o u r o f f i c e , most o f the d i t c h e s i n t h e D i s t r i c t a r e r e s t r i c t e d i n u s e . Upon examina t ion by members o f the B o a r d , we f i n d t h a t most o f the water from st ream f low i s b e i n g u s e d t o m a i n t a i n water l e v e l i n the r e s e r v o i r s i n D e n v e r ' s s t o r a g e s y s t e m . We a l s o f i n d you have no measur ing d e v i c e s t o de termine the amount o f water t h i s i s c o s t i n g the u s e r s o f the n a t u r a l s t r e a m . As you know, t h i s problem has been d i s c u s s e d w i t h your department b e f o r e . We f e e l t h a t now i s the t ime some d e f i n i t e e q u i t a b l e a c t i o n s h o u l d be taken on t h i s v e r y s e r i o u s p r o b l e m . S e r i o u s t o e v e r y owner o f an a p p r o p r i a t i o n on the South P l a t t e w a t e r s h e d . I t i s our hope and d e s i r e t h a t you i n y o u r c a p a c i t y as a d m i n i s t r a t o r o f the water o f the South P l a t t e w i l l c o n s i d e r our problem and d e s i g n a t e t o our use t h a t p a r t o f t h e s t ream we j u s t l y d e s e r v e . We would a p p r e c i a t e an immediate r e p l y and your s u p p o r t i n r e l i e v i n g the c r i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n t h a t i s f a s t l y a p p r o a c h i n g i n our D i s t r i c t . 2 2 The f o l l o w i n g y e a r c o n c e r n s f o c u s s e d on the c i t y o f C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s ' Montgomery r e s e r v o i r . The Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t s e c r e t a r y Walt C o i l no ted i n the A p r i l 24 minutes t h a t the c i t y "had a l l the water s h u t o f f and was h o l d i n g i t i n the Dam w h i l e i t s h o u l d be a l l o w e d t o f low 275 t h r o u g h t h e dam and on down the M i d d l e Fork South P l a t t e R i v e r . " 2 3 Board p r e s i d e n t J i m S e t t e l e sought the a s s i s t a n c e o f the e d i t o r o f the Park County R e p u b l i c a n t o p r e v a i l on the C o l o r a d o F i s h and Game Department t o t ake an i n t e r e s t i n the r e s t r i c t i o n o f f l ows from the r e s e r v o i r . The department d e c l i n e d , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t seepage from the dam was adequate t o s u s t a i n f i s h i n the s t ream and t h e r e f o r e i t had no i n t e r e s t i n the m a t t e r . 2 4 With l e g a l expenses mount ing , the l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t r i e d t o make b e t t e r use o f the media but was u n a b l e t o ge t Denver p a p e r s t o run s t o r i e s on Montgomery R e s e r v o i r . 2 5 Once a g a i n the m a t t e r was t u r n e d o v e r t o the d i s t r i c t ' s l a w y e r s . E n g i n e e r i n g c o n s u l t a n t C l i f f o r d J e x pursued f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s f o r the d i s t r i c t . 2 6 He c o n c l u d e d t h a t when downstream s e n i o r a p p r o p r i a t o r s c a l l e d out South Park d i t c h e s , water go t th rough t o them i n some y e a r s , but i n o t h e r y e a r s i t d i d n o t , because i t was c a p t u r e d i n m u n i c i p a l r e s e r v o i r s . When water f a i l e d t o ge t t h r o u g h t o downstream water u s e r s , c a l l s were r e p e a t e d , and as water became i n c r e a s i n g l y s h o r t downstream, e a r l i e r and e a r l i e r c a l l s were i n i t i a t e d , c l o s i n g down more d i t c h e s i n South P a r k . 2 7 I n c r e a s i n g l y , the d i s t r i c t ' s a t t e n t i o n t u r n e d t o s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . In June I960, s e c r e t a r y W a l t e r C o i l n o t e d , "Mr. J e x s u g g e s t e d we t r y and f i n d a man f o r water commiss ioner t h a t would work w i t h the D i s t r i c t , whenever the p r e s e n t commiss ioner r e s i g n s , as he b e l i e v e s a l o c a l man who i s i n t e r e s t e d i n our prob lems c o u l d do us a l o t o f g o o d . " 2 8 The d i s t r i c t c o n t i n u e d 276 t o be i n v o l v e d i n the c h o i c e o f the l o c a l water c o m m i s s i o n e r . Concerns p e r s i s t e d . The d i s t r i c t ' s new c o n s u l t a n t , C h a r l e s C. F i s k , met w i t h B i l l M a t t e r n from the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e i n 1963 and l o d g e d c o m p l a i n t s r e g a r d i n g the water c o m m i s s i o n e r ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f Montgomery R e s e r v o i r . 2 9 In a l e t t e r t o James L . S e t t e l e , the p r e s i d e n t o f the c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t , the c o n s u l t a n t ment ioned d i s c u s s i n g w i t h B i l l M a t t e r n " the g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e o f South Park a p p r o p r i a t o r s towards the water c o m m i s s i o n e r . " 3 0 He even sugges ted t h a t M a t t e r n h i m s e l f come t o South Park t o m o n i t o r the s i t u a t i o n , s p e c i f i c a l l y n i g h t - t i m e d i v e r s i o n s , and t o d i s c u s s ways t o improve a d m i n i s t r a t i o n by the water commiss ioner w i t h members o f t h e b o a r d . In A p r i l o f 1961 an agreement was c o n c l u d e d between the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t and the c i t y o f C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s r e g a r d i n g gaug ing a t Montgomery R e s e r v o i r . 3 1 A y e a r and a h a l f l a t e r the d i s t r i c t noted t h a t d e s p i t e the agreement , l i t t l e had changed . A c c o r d i n g t o e n g i n e e r C h a r l e s F i s k , C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s i s s t i l l s t o r i n g South P l a t t e R i v e r water a t Montgomery Dam and the s t a t e e n g i n e e r w i l l not make them a d m i n i s t e r t h e water a c c o r d i n g t o law. The s t a t e e n g i n e e r s a y s he was no t a p a r t y t o t h e agreement the d i s t r i c t has w i t h the C i t y o f C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s so he w i l l not make them a b i d e by the a g r e e m e n t . 3 2 F i s k a l s o charged t h a t " the d i v i s i o n e n g i n e e r does not a lways have t o put on the water c a l l t h a t he d o e s , but he f a v o r s the lower d i t c h e s because they a re on h i s back a l l o f the t ime and no one from up here [South Park] b o t h e r s h i m . " 3 3 Mee t ings were s e t w i t h the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e i n e a r l y March , and the 277 d i s t r i c t r e s o l v e d t o pay F i s k t o m o n i t o r the l e g i t i m a c y o f r i v e r c a l l s d u r i n g the 1963 i r r i g a t i o n s e a s o n . 3 4 In A p r i l i t was f i n a l l y agreed t h a t measur ing d e v i c e s would be i n s t a l l e d a t Montgomery R e s e r v o i r , t h a t the c i t y o f C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s would i t s e l f t ake the measurements t h e m s e l v e s and t r a n s m i t d a i l y r e c o r d s t o C h a r l e s F i s k , W a l t e r C o i l , and the S t a t e E n g i n e e r on a weekly b a s i s . 3 5 Though t h i s arrangement p l a c e d t h e fox i n charge o f the c h i c k e n c o o p , the s t a t e and the d i s t r i c t had l i t t l e c h o i c e . Lack o f f u n d i n g and p e r s o n n e l i n h i b i t e d t h e a b i l i t y o f bo th o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o a d m i n i s t e r and o v e r s e e such a r rangements . The s t a t e a l s o l a c k e d the p o l i t i c a l w i l l t o r e a l l o c a t e funds and r e o r i e n t the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system t o a d e q u a t e l y m o n i t o r m u n i c i p a l d i v e r s i o n s and s t o r a g e . To the p r e s e n t , s i m i l a r p r a c t i c e s p e r s i s t i n r e g a r d t o m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s , exchanges , and r e l e a s e s . A t p r e s e n t l e v e l s o f f u n d i n g and s t a f f i n g , t h e s t a t e i s a t b e s t a b l e o n l y t o spot check m u n i c i p a l r e s e r v o i r management, though f i g u r e s a r e now phoned i n d a i l y t o the l o c a l water c o m m i s s i o n e r . S a t e l l i t e m o n i t o r i n g o f s t reamf lows and h i g h - t e c h r e c o r d i n g d e v i c e s h o l d out t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n can be improved . T e c h n o l o g y , however , i s not i n f a l l i b l e . In i t s f i r s t y e a r s the c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f f i r m l y as a l o c a l i n s t i t u t i o n whose purpose was t o p r o t e c t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f water u s e r s i n South Park and o t h e r a r e a s w i t h i n the d i s t r i c t . C l e a r l y , i r r i g a t o r s i n the headwaters b a s i n d i d not t r u s t the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e o r 278 the l e g a l system t o p r o t e c t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . They d i d not t r u s t t h e c i t i e s t o e q u i t a b l y d i v i d e and s h a r e t h e common r e s o u r c e . They succeeded i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n th rough which a t l e a s t some measure o f power c o u l d be e x e r c i s e d o v e r r e s o u r c e s . But t h e s e were the e a r l y y e a r s . By t h e l a t e 1960s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n was b e g i n n i n g t o f o u n d e r . I t was f a c e d w i t h new c h a l l e n g e s and fundamental c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t . S t r a i g h t j a c k e t e d by l i m i t e d f u n d s , the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy became a f l a c c i d o r g a n i z a t i o n . The challenge of the Water Transfers As t ime wore o n , the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t found i t s e l f u n a b l e t o compete. Wi th a l i m i t e d t a x base t h e d i s t r i c t d i d not have the funds t o match t h e c i t i e s ' t e c h n i c a l and l e g a l e x p e r t i s e o r s u p p o r t p r o t r a c t e d l e g a l b a t t l e s . A d i s c e r n a b l e sense o f f r u s t r a t i o n and p o w e r l e s s n e s s s e t i n . 3 6 The b o a r d c o n t i n u e d t o expend money on a t t o r n e y s and e n g i n e e r i n g c o n s u l t a n t s , bu t t o l i t t l e a v a i l . I t was n e v e r a b l e t o ge t Denver t o s t a n d e v a p o r a t i v e l o s s e s on i t s r e s e r v o i r s because o f a document known as the 1941 Agreement , which s t a t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t h a t the c i t y was not o b l i g a t e d t o do s o . 3 7 The b o a r d was not a b l e t o e x e r t c o n t r o l o v e r the appointment o f water c o m m i s s i o n e r s . The appointment p r o c e s s became i n c r e a s i n g l y b u r e a u c r a t i z e d and s e p a r a t e d from l o c a l c o n t r o l . By the l a t e 1960s, the d i s t r i c t was f a c i n g the s p e c t r e o f f u r t h e r water t r a n s f e r s . On December 4, 1967, immed ia te ly a f t e r 279 t h e meet ing o f the C e n t r a l C o l o r a d o C a t t l e m a n ' s A s s o c i a t i o n , the b o a r d o f t h e Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t h e l d a s p e c i a l m e e t i n g . 3 8 Many r a n c h e r s from t h e d i s t r i c t were i n a t t e n d a n c e . A t t h i s meet ing C F . A u g u s t i n e and h i s a t t o r n e y s and e n g i n e e r s appeared t o p r e s e n t t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e r e g a r d i n g the impending s a l e and t r a n s f e r o f water r i g h t s t o the c i t y o f A u r o r a . 3 9 L o c a l r a n c h e r s were not p e r s u a d e d . The board r e s o l v e d t o f i g h t the A u g u s t i n e t r a n s f e r . V e r y q u i c k l y i t became e v i d e n t t h a t i t would be i m p o s s i b l e t o b l o c k the A u g u s t i n e t r a n s f e r . 4 0 I t had a f i r m l e g a l b a s i s . The b e s t the c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t c o u l d do was e n t e r i n t o an agreement w i t h the c i t y o f A u r o r a which e s s e n t i a l l y r e f l e c t e d the c o n d i t i o n s o f the t r a n s f e r d e c r e e : abandonment o f p a r t i c u l a r water r i g h t s , d r y up o f s p e c i f i e d l a n d s , and tempora l l i m i t a t i o n s on the p a t t e r n o f w i t h d r a w a l s . 4 1 Both Park County and the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t s h a r e d c o n c e r n s r e g a r d i n g the impact o f the A u g u s t i n e t r a n s f e r on the tax b a s e . 4 2 A c c o r d i n g t o the minutes o f t h e March 18, 1970, d i s t r i c t m e e t i n g , t h e A u g u s t i n e l a n d s would be a s s e s s e d as i r r i g a t e d l a n d s f o r a p e r i o d o f f i v e y e a r s . A f t e r t h a t t i m e , the l e v e l o f assessment would drop t o t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r d r y l a n d , but the c i t y o f A u r o r a would pay the monetary d i f f e r e n c e t o the c o u n t y . 4 3 In an agreement between the c i t y o f A u r o r a and the Park County c o m m i s s i o n e r s , i t was agreed t h a t , In o r d e r t o a l l e v i a t e the ad va lo rem t a x impact which w i l l a r i s e i n the event t h a t the D i s t r i c t C o u r t a u t h o r i z e s the 280 change i n p o i n t o f d i v e r s i o n o f the A u g u s t i n e water r i g h t s . . . A u r o r a would p r o p o s e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o Park County a n n u a l l y an amount e q u a l t o the revenue d e r i v e d from the l e v y f o r county p u r p o s e s and a s p e c i a l s c h o o l l e v y . . . a p p l i e d t o the d e c r e a s e i n v a l u a t i o n on the A u g u s t i n e -T u r n e r r a n c h e s r e s u l t i n g from t a k i n g l a n d s out o f i r r i g a t i o n . A u r o r a would make up t h e d e f i c i e n c y from y e a r t o y e a r u n t i l such t ime as the a s s e s s e d v a l u a t i o n r e t u r n e d t o t h e amount f o r which the l a n d s were a s s e s s e d i n the y e a r p r i o r t o the t ime the l a n d s were taken out o f i r r i g a t i o n . . . In exchange f o r t h i s o f f e r , and as c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r i t b e i n g made, A u r o r a would e x p e c t t h e Board [o f county c o m m i s s i o n e r s ] t o s p r e a d on i t s minutes the f a c t t h a t the o f f e r does r e s t o r e a l l revenue f o r l e v i e s made f o r county p u r p o s e s and s p e c i a l s c h o o l p u r p o s e s which would o t h e r w i s e be l o s t f o r ad v a l o r e m t a x a t i o n p u r p o s e s , and t h a t the Board o f County Commissioners does not oppose the p roposed change o f p o i n t o f d i v e r s i o n . 4 4 A u r o r a o b t a i n e d the county government 's s i l e n c e . D i s t r i c t meet ings became i n c r e a s i n g l y f r a c t i o u s . There was c o n s i d e r a b l e t u r n o v e r on the b o a r d , and t h e r e were c a l l s f o r the d i s t r i c t t o become more a c t i v e a g a i n i n t r y i n g t o i n t e r v e n e i n c i t y a c t i v i t i e s i n South P a r k . 4 5 P a r t o f the problem was t h a t r a n c h e r s i n the a r e a , and even some o f the b o a r d members, were b e g i n n i n g t o t ake an i n t e r e s t i n s e l l i n g t h e i r own water r i g h t s . A t a meet ing i n August o f 1974, c i t i z e n Mar ie C h i s o l m sugges ted t h a t z o n i n g r e g u l a t i o n s might be used t o p r o t e c t l o c a l water r i g h t s and f o r c e water t o remain on the l a n d . 4 6 The minutes n o t e d , "It was f e l t by the B o a r d . . . t h a t they s h o u l d not t r y t o t e l l anyone what they can do w i t h t h e i r water and p r o p e r t y . " 4 7 The l o c a l c u l t u r e was h i g h l y i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c - s t e e p e d i n v a l u e s t h a t bestowed a c e r t a i n s a n c t i t y on p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s , and c h o i c e . Whi le we can speak o f a l o c a l r a n c h i n g community, i n t r u t h what t h a t means i s a c o l l e c t i o n (not a c o l l e c t i v i t y ) o f i n d i v i d u a l s - i n d i v i d u a l s c a r v i n g out a 281 p l a c e f o r t h e m s e l v e s i n a h a r s h and c h a l l e n g i n g env i ronment , p u r s u i n g t h e i r own dreams and o b j e c t i v e s , and t u r n i n g a p r o f i t t h r o u g h t h e f r u i t s o f t h e i r own h a r d l a b o r . Perhaps one o f South Park h i s t o r y ' s g r e a t e s t i r o n i e s i s t h a t the v e r y v a l u e s t h a t b u i l t the p l a c e were t h o s e t h a t l e d t o i t s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . I n d i v i d u a l r a n c h e r s s o l d out t o the c i t i e s one by one . In some c a s e s i t was t h e i r h e i r s ; i n o t h e r s i t was s p e c u l a t o r s l i k e the J a n i t e l l s o r the Huron Investment Group; bu t i n most c a s e s i t was the r a n c h e r s themse lves who o f f e r e d t h e i r water r i g h t s up f o r s a l e t o the F r o n t Range c i t i e s . I n d i v i d u a l r a n c h e r s had the r i g h t t o d i s p o s e o f t h e i r p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , i n c l u d i n g b o t h l a n d and water r i g h t s , as they saw f i t . I n d i v i d u a l r a n c h e r s had the r i g h t t o s e l l t o m u n i c i p a l i n t e r e s t s , r e g a r d l e s s o f the consequences t o t h e i r n e i g h b o r s and t o the l a n d they l o v e d . Even an o r g a n i z a t i o n such as the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t , which perhaps r e p r e s e n t e d community i n t e r e s t s more than any o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n i n the a r e a , was l o a t h e t o l i m i t o r c u r t a i l i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s . Amer ican v a l u e s a r e pervaded by Lockean i n d i v i d u a l i s m , p a s s e d down t h r o u g h the w r i t i n g s o f Thomas P a i n e and c o n c r e t i z e d i n t h e a c t i o n s o f Thomas J e f f e r s o n and o t h e r s who framed the U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n s t i t u t i o n and B i l l o f R i g h t s . I n d i v i d u a l i s m permeates Amer ican s o c i e t y and f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n i n the laws t h a t govern i t . I n d i v i d u a l i s m i s a t the h e a r t o f l o c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and boards such as the Park County Board o f County Commiss ioners and the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t . These 282 o r g a n i z a t i o n s e x i s t t o p r o t e c t the r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , not c o l l e c t i v e o r communal i n t e r e s t s . Under p r e s s u r e from l o c a l r a n c h e r s and r e s i d e n t s , and under the a d v i c e o f the c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t ' s a t t o r n e y , the board f i l e d s ta tements o f o b j e c t i o n o r o p p o s i t i o n t o m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s . 4 8 H igh C r e e k , J a n i t e l l , Badger B a s i n , and T r o u t Creek - a l l o c c u p i e d the b o a r d ' s t ime and a t t e n t i o n . By 1979, however , i t became o b v i o u s t h a t the d i s t r i c t was d e p l e t i n g i t s money by f i l i n g f u t i l e o b j e c t i o n s t o water t r a n s f e r s . 4 9 L i t t l e was l e f t o v e r f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s m a l l s t o r a g e p r o j e c t s , the p u r c h a s e o f wa te r , o r o t h e r a c t i o n s which might s e r v e t o keep water i n t h e d i s t r i c t . 5 0 N o n e - t h e - l e s s , the d i s t r i c t c o n t i n u e d t o pursue e n t r y i n t o t r a n s f e r c a s e s , though the n a t u r e o f t h i s e n t r y changed s u b s t a n t i a l l y . In O c t o b e r o f 1980 the b o a r d adopted the f o l l o w i n g r e s o l u t i o n : the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t w i l l e n t e r an appearance i n each and every t r a n s f e r c a s e f i l e d i n the Water C o u r t i n Water D i v i s i o n 1 o f the S t a t e o f C o l o r a d o , a f f e c t i n g t r a n s f e r o f waters from the South P l a t t e R i v e r o r any o f i t s t r i b u t a r i e s t o be d i v e r t e d a t o r u s e d o u t s i d e the b o u n d a r i e s o f the D i s t r i c t , bu t w i l l e n t e r s a i d p r o c e e d i n g s as a moderator and a c o n s e r v a t o r o f the wate rs o f the D i s t r i c t , and not n e c e s s a r i l y as an a d v e r s e o r o p p o s i n g p a r t y , but w i l l e n t e r s a i d c a s e s f o r purposes o f e n s u r i n g maximum c o n s e r v a t i o n o f the water r e s o u r c e s o f t h e Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t . 5 1 By d e f i n i n g i t s r o l e i n t r a n s f e r c a s e s as one o f "a modera tor and a c o n s e r v a t o r " and "not n e c e s s a r i l y as an a d v e r s e o r o p p o s i n g p a r t y , " the board e f f e c t i v e l y r e n d e r e d i t s e l f i m p o t e n t . I t became an o b s e r v e r i n s t e a d o f an a c t o r o r d e f e n d e r . Hav ing l o s t i t s sense o f purpose and f o c u s , the Upper 283 South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t p r e p a r e d t o d i s s o l v e i t s e l f i n t h e f a l l o f 1984. The f o l l o w i n g r e s o l u t i o n was unan imous ly adopted by the b o a r d : t h a t t h e purposes f o r which the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t were formed, namely the c o n s e r v a t i o n and p r e s e r v a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l i r r i g a t i o n waters u t i l i z e d on i r r i g a t e d l a n d w i t h i n the D i s t r i c t , no l o n g e r appear t o be f e a s i b l e i n n a t u r e s i n c e numerous m e t r o p o l i t a n t r a n s f e r s have t r a n s f e r r e d i r r i g a t i o n waters f o r use o f t h o s e wate rs i n m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s o u t s i d e the b o u n d a r i e s o f the D i s t r i c t and as a r e s u l t t h e r e o f , numerous l a n d s p r e v i o u s l y i r r i g a t e d a r e now n o n - i r r i g a t e d and f u r t h e r , t h a t s i n c e most o f t h e s e n i o r water r i g h t s l o c a t e d w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s o f the d i s t r i c t have been so t r a n s f e r r e d making the p u r p o s e s o f the D i s t r i c t i n e f f e c t u a l , mute and no l o n g e r a m a t t e r o f g e n e r a l c o n c e r n t o the r e s i d e n t s o f the D i s t r i c t , i t i s t h e r e f o r e R e s o l v e d t h a t the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t . . . s h o u l d be d i s s o l v e d and t h e q u e s t i o n o f d i s s o l u t i o n s h o u l d be s u b m i t t e d t o the v o t e r s o f s a i d D i s t r i c t . . . 5 2 Reorganization of the Conservancy D i s t r i c t B e f o r e the mat te r c o u l d come t o a v o t e , v o c i f e r o u s o b j e c t i o n s were r a i s e d t o the d i s t r i c t ' s d i s s o l u t i o n . Concerned c i t i z e n s and county o f f i c i a l s came t o g e t h e r t o b l o c k the at tempt by the s e a t e d b o a r d t o do away w i t h an impor tan t i n s t r u m e n t o f l o c a l p o w e r . 5 3 To Park County T r e a s u r e r E t t a E v e r e t t and community a c t i v i s t Leona N e l s o n , two o f the pr ime a c t o r s i n t h i s m a t t e r , the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t d i d no t s i m p l y s e r v e a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s . As the women p e r c e i v e d i t , the o r g a n i z a t i o n s e r v e d the headwaters r e g i o n as a whole . The c o u n t y commiss ioners a g r e e d . They recommended t h a t the r e m a i n i n g members o f the d i s t r i c t board r e s i g n and t h a t a new b o a r d be a p p o i n t e d . The new board would be charged w i t h 284 a s s e s s i n g the purpose and the f u n c t i o n o f the c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t and e v a l u a t i n g the work o f the o l d o r g a n i z a t i o n . 5 4 The i n t e n t i o n here was t o d e c i d e whether o r not the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t s h o u l d c o n t i n u e t o e x i s t . In May o f 1985 the judge o r d e r e d the appointment o f Park County r e s i d e n t s N e i l H i c k o k , Leona C . N e l s o n , Vern W. B u t l e r , and Stephen A . Spann t o the b o a r d o f the water c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t . 5 5 Dav id B. W i s s e l , who l a t e r became county a s s e s s o r , was a p p o i n t e d t o the board i n September o f 1 9 8 6 . 5 6 The new b o a r d was r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the o l d one. Gone were the l o c a l r a n c h e r s , the a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s . The new b o a r d members r e p r e s e n t e d a d i s t i n c t l y more r e c e n t and urban e lement o f the p o p u l a t i o n . Most were r e c e n t m i g r a n t s t o Park C o u n t y . 5 7 Some owned second homes i n the d i s t r i c t . Two (Spann and B u t l e r ) b rought e n g i n e e r i n g e x p e r t i s e and e x p e r i e n c e w i t h the s t a t e ' s water a d m i n i s t r a t i o n system t o the o r g a n i z a t i o n . In e s s e n c e the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the board was d i v e r s i f i e d and p r o f e s s i o n a l i z e d . The new b o a r d adopted s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e s and p r i o r i t i e s f o r t h e Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t . A f t e r months o f r e v i e w , the new b o a r d c o n c l u d e d " t h a t the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t had l i t t l e power t o i n f l u e n c e every water r i g h t c a s e t h a t came b e f o r e t h e water c o u r t s . " 5 8 Money was s c a r c e and the members o f the board c o n c l u d e d they would have t o be h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e i n terms o f e n t r y i n t o water t r a n s f e r c a s e s . 5 9 They d e c i d e d t o i n v e s t p a r t 285 o f t h e i r funds i n a s tudy d e s i g n e d t o de te rmine the wants and needs o f p e o p l e i n the d i s t r i c t , 6 0 and t o g i v e a h i g h e r p r i o r i t y t o augmenta t ion and water q u a l i t y i s s u e s . 6 1 With a new p o o l o f e x p e r t i s e t o draw upon, the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t became i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d i n water management. I t made p l a n s t o a c q u i r e water s u p p l i e s and s t o r a g e t o ensure the d i s t r i c t ' s f u t u r e deve lopment . The new b o a r d c o n s i d e r e d a g r i c u l t u r a l , r e s i d e n t i a l , and r e c r e a t i o n a l u s e s , as w e l l as such i s s u e s as f l o o d c o n t r o l , 6 2 and sought t o educa te the p u b l i c i n r e g a r d t o the c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n and f u n c t i o n i n g , and i n r e g a r d t o b a s i c t e r m i n o l o g y and c o n c e p t s i n water r e s o u r c e s management. 6 3 The new b o a r d members f u l l y a c c e p t e d the premise o f e s t a b l i s h i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g a m a n a g e r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h n a t u r e . Where they p a r t e d company w i t h the c i t i e s and w i t h the s t a t e was i n r e g a r d t o who s h o u l d d i r e c t and d e f i n e t h a t m a n a g e r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . The Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t b o a r d thought t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y s h o u l d r e s t i n l o c a l hands . The new b o a r d ' s a m b i t i o n s were g r e a t , bu t an at tempt t o r a i s e the m i l l l e v y and i n c r e a s e the l e v e l o f t ax s u p p o r t was d e f e a t e d . 6 4 In p a r t t h i s had t o do w i t h s u s p i c i o u s n e s s o f the new b o a r d - d i s t r u s t o f newcomers, p r o f e s s i o n a l s , and p e o p l e w i t h o u t s t r o n g t i e s t o the l a n d . In p a r t t h i s had t o do w i t h more g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e s r e g a r d i n g a d d i n g y e t one more l a y e r t o l o c a l government . The o r g a n i z a t i o n chose t o c o n t i n u e i t s work w i t h l i m i t e d f u n d s . I n c r e a s i n g l y the emphasis was p l a c e d on 286 p r o v i d i n g water f o r f u t u r e deve lopment . A document d a t e d May 17, 1986, e x p r e s s e d some o f t h e s e c o n c e r n s : The l o s s o f water and l a n d t o downstream m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s has been an i s s u e f o r many y e a r s but seems t o have i n t e n s i f i e d i n r e c e n t months. Ways and means were d i s c u s s e d whereby the powers and a u t h o r i t i e s o f the water c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t c o u l d be used t o p r o v i d e an a l t e r n a t i v e t o s a l e o f water r i g h t s o u t s i d e the a r e a . . . . The need t o p r o v i d e s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f a s s u r e d water f o r economic development was brought o u t . Such water s h o u l d be a v a i l a b l e whether f o r a b o b s l e d r u n , open ing o f a s m a l l mine , s t a r t i n g a new b u s i n e s s o r d e v e l o p i n g a new r e c r e a t i o n a l p u r s u i t . U n l e s s e f f o r t s a r e s t a r t e d now t o d e v e l o p a program whereby such water can be made a v a i l a b l e , more water w i l l move toward the metro a r e a and the economy o f the South Park a rea w i l l s u f f e r . 6 5 In the d i s t r i c t ' s f i l e s can be found numerous c l i p p i n g s and s c r i b b l i n g s i n d i c a t i n g t h o u g h t f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , and economic c l i m a t e i n wh ich t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n was o p e r a t i n g . 6 6 The conundrum i n v o l v e d k e e p i n g water i n the r u r a l h i g h c o u n t r y a t a t ime when the government and the major water i n t e r e s t s i n the s t a t e were i n c r e a s i n g l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h f i n d i n g "ways t o enab le water t o move t o i t s h i g h e s t economic use a t the l e a s t c o s t w h i l e p r o t e c t i n g p u b l i c v a l u e s . " 6 7 The new Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t h i r e d c o n s u l t a n t s t o d r a f t r e p o r t s t h a t a d d r e s s e d water problems i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h b r o a d e r i s s u e s o f economic and r e c r e a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . 6 8 The new b o a r d t u r n e d a t t e n t i o n t o bo th l e g a l m a t t e r s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s , i n c l u d i n g w e t l a n d s , water q u a l i t y , and the impact o f m u n i c i p a l t r e n c h i n g . One o f the i s s u e s e n t a n g l e d i n the c h a n g i n g wate rscape o f South Park was i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e from e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s . The 287 board was forced to walk a t ightrope , between l o c a l res idents wanting to leave options open for future economic development, and environmental preservat ion i s t s who would l i k e to see des ignat ion of the upper reaches of the South P la t t e as a wi ld and scenic r i v e r , or as park of some k i n d . A report prepared for the Colorado Environmental C o a l i t i o n concluded, "Besides the spectacular scenery, the w i l d l i f e hab i ta t , and world c lass f i shery the area possesses, the area provides an important r e c r e a t i o n a l opportunity for our increas ing ly urban soc ie ty to enjoy the wonders of the natura l environment." 6 9 The board, r e s i s t i n g such pressure from Denver and Boulder based environmental groups, adopted a p o s i t i o n favoring economic development with some modicum of environmental s e n s i t i v i t y . In recent years the Upper South P la t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t has turned i t s a t tent ion to s p e c i f i c projec t s and p lans . The board has managed to negotiate an agreement with the c i t y of Aurora which provides the d i s t r i c t with storage i n the c i t y ' s Spinney Mountain R e s e r v o i r . 7 0 This enables the conservancy d i s t r i c t to implement a d i s t r i c t - w i d e augmentation plan whereby water can be made a v a i l a b l e for r e s i d e n t i a l and economic development throughout the area. The d i s t r i c t - w i d e augmentation plan provides water suppl ies that can be assured, and that cannot be t rans ferred to urban use. In t h i s manner the Upper South P la t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t w i l l p lay a c r i t i c a l r o l e i n the continued development of r u r a l c e n t r a l Colorado. 288 The Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t has a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n p r o j e c t s such as the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the dam a t the F a i r p l a y Beach , which w i l l enhance r e c r e a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n the a r e a . 7 1 The d i s t r i c t has become i n v o l v e d i n t h e H a r t s e l water s i t u a t i o n 7 2 and h e l p e d l o c a l r e s i d e n t s r e a c h some form o f agreement w i t h the c i t y o f A u r o r a as t o the s o l u t i o n o f water q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y problems t h a t a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h the Badger B a s i n water t r a n s f e r . 7 3 Indeed the d i s t r i c t b o a r d c o n t i n u e s t o mon i to r and f o l l o w water t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s i n the c o u r t s , but r a r e l y does the d i s t r i c t become d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d . Wi th no power t o b l o c k urban e x p r o p r i a t i o n , and no d e s i r e t o i n h i b i t t h e r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s t o d i s p o s e o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y as they c h o o s e , the d i s t r i c t p e r c e i v e s i t s r o l e as b e i n g " t o see t h a t a d v e r s e impacts t o the l o c a l a r e a a r e kept t o a minimum a t l e a s t i n the s h o r t r u n . " 7 4 O p e r a t i n g i n the s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and economic c l i m a t e o f the l a t e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , the o r g a n i z a t i o n i n c r e a s i n g l y seeks accommodating r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h o s e c o n t r o l l i n g South Park water r i g h t s . Today the c o n t r o l l i n g i n t e r e s t i s h e l d by the c i t i e s , and i n t h a t sense some p e o p l e i n the d i s t r i c t p e r c e i v e the b o a r d t o be compromised. However, i t s h o u l d be remembered t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l p r o t e c t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n and Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t sought c l o s e and accommodating r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h o s e c o n t r o l l i n g South Park water r i g h t s a t the t ime t h e d i s t r i c t was formed. The p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e s were t h a t , i n t h e mid -1950s , c o n t r o l o f l o c a l water r e s o u r c e s 289 r e s t e d d o m i n a n t l y i n l o c a l hands , and the water was used i n a g r i c u l t u r e . Today t h a t i s no l o n g e r t r u e ( F i g u r e s 7-1 and 7-2) . Local Protections T h e o r e t i c a l l y , the p e o p l e o f r u r a l Park County have two o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t can p r o t e c t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s i n t h e f a c e o f i n c r e a s i n g water s c a r c i t y : the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t and the Park County government , most s p e c i f i c a l l y the b o a r d o f county c o m m i s s i o n e r s . Both o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t impor tan t i n s t r u m e n t s t h ro u g h which l o c a l i s s u e s can be a d d r e s s e d . N e i t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n has the power t o s t o p m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s o r l i m i t the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m u n i c i p a l r e s e r v o i r s , but bo th can a d d r e s s the impact o f u rban e x p r o p r i a t i o n . In t h e s i m p l e s t t e r m s , urban e x p r o p r i a t i o n l i m i t s the amount o f water a v a i l a b l e f o r f u t u r e development w i t h i n the a r e a o f o r i g i n . The Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t i s t r y i n g t o a d d r e s s t h i s i s s u e by a c q u i r i n g s t o r a g e and water r i g h t s i n o r d e r t o implement a d i s t r i c t - w i d e augmentat ion p l a n . The c o u n t y government can a d d r e s s t h i s i s s u e t h ro u g h z o n i n g and by p e r m i t t i n g c o n s e r v a t i o n - o r i e n t e d l a n d uses and i n d u s t r i e s t h a t make e f f i c i e n t , b e n e f i c i a l use o f p r e c i o u s water r e s o u r c e s . However, Park County and the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t remain caught i n a s q u e e z e . Both a r e dependent upon t a x r e v e n u e s . The t r a n s f e r s have had an a d v e r s e 290 115* 144). (172)| (12»; (20 ^ | M f ( 2 l 5 > P W ( 1 M ) | 1 (113)| Ct O O -J < < ™ » " (278)1 1 ( w ^ v ^ i n ^ (284) (285) M 2 tu (184) > ' 1/2) ANTERO RESERVOIR tu UJ [ S UJ a tu I !» MIDDLE F O R K DLTuDDIDD 8 -II I II 8 on 3 I IRRIGATION WATER RIGHTS PLATTE DRAINAGE SOUTH PARK 1993 TROUT " CREEK uji-se •Jt-U i SPINNEY MOUNTAIN RESERVOIR F.LB. CIM. 0ELEVEN MILE CANYON RESERVOIR LEGEND STREAM u OTTCH DITCHES REMAINING IN IRRIGATION (42) PRIORITY NUMBER G E I SENIOR WATER RIGHTS PRE 1879 F i g u r e 7 - 1 . I r r i g a t i o n Water R i g h t s , P l a t t e D r a i n a g e , South P a r k , 1993. T h i s s e t o f l i n e drawings shows d i t c h e s r e m a i n i n g a c t i v e i n i r r i g a t i o n , w i t h p r i o r i t y numbers. The most v a l u a b l e s e n i o r water r i g h t s a r e shown u s i n g s t r i p e d l i n e s . The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f South P a r k ' s i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s a r e no l o n g e r i n u s e , h a v i n g been t r a n s f e r r e d o r abandoned i n a g r i c u l t u r a l t o m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s between 1932 and the p r e s e n t . 291 (355) (321) m oc u J E F F E R S O N LAKE (342) | (130 ft 175) (39) SNYDER CREEK (185) ROCK CREEK (70) TARRYALL RESERVOIR C£M. " IRRIGATION W A T E R RIGHTS T A R R Y A L L D R A I N A G E S O U T H 1993 (45 ft 73) [ LEGEND TJ STREAM DITCH DITCHES REMAINING IN IRRIGATION (42) PRIORITY NUMBER 2 2 SENIOR WATER RIGHTS PRE 1879 F i g u r e 7 - 2 . P a r k , 1993. I r r i g a t i o n Water R i g h t s , T a r r y a l l D r a i n a g e , South 292 e f f e c t on the t a x base by removing i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d from t h e t a x r o l e s and r e n d e r i n g i t d r y g r a z i n g l a n d , a s s e s s e d a t a lower v a l u e . The t r a n s f e r s have a l s o removed l a n d from the t a x books a l l t o g e t h e r , e i t h e r t e m p o r a r i l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y . I f , d u r i n g the p e r i o d o f c o n t i n u i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n i n a water t r a n s f e r , l a n d i s h e l d by a c i t y , i t cannot be t a x e d because m u n i c i p a l governments a r e not l i a b l e f o r t a x e s under C o l o r a d o law. I f t h a t l a n d i s then c o n v e r t e d i n t o p u b l i c l a n d and h e l d by t h e Department o f W i l d l i f e , a m u n i c i p a l i t y , o r by t h e s t a t e as a r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a , then the l a n d may be removed from the t a x books i n p e r p e t u i t y . As y e t , adequate p r o v i s i o n s do no t e x i s t t o compensate r u r a l c o u n t i e s f o r l o s t t a x e s and f o r impacts such as i n c r e a s e d t r a f f i c on r o a d s , i n c r e a s e d demand f o r law e n f o r c e m e n t , and i n c r e a s e d need f o r emergency s e r v i c e s . E x a c e r b a t i n g the problem f o r Park County i s the p a t t e r n o f p u b l i c ownership o f l a n d . The U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e , the Bureau o f Land Management, and the S t a t e o f C o l o r a d o c o n t r o l between 60% and 70% o f Park C o u n t y ' s t o t a l l a n d a r e a 7 5 ( F i g u r e 7 - 3 ) . S i n c e t h e water t r a n s f e r s began, t h a t p e r c e n t a g e has o n l y i n c r e a s e d . I f s e l e c t e d ranch b o u n d a r i e s ( F i g u r e 7-4) a r e compared w i t h the map showing f e d e r a l and s t a t e c o n t r o l , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r South P a r k , i t becomes o b v i o u s t h a t r a n c h i n g r e p r e s e n t e d the most e x t e n s i v e p r i v a t e l a n d u s e . I t p r o v i d e d the g r e a t e s t number o f t a x a b l e a c r e s w i t h i n the c o u n t y . As i r r i g a t e d ac reage i s removed from p r o d u c t i o n and improvements 293 F i g u r e 7-3. Map: F e d e r a l and S t a t e L a n d , South P a r k , 1992. 294 F i g u r e 7 - 4 . Map: S e l e c t e d Ranch B o u n d a r i e s , South Park Water T r a n s f e r s , 1932-1994. 295 f a l l i n t o d i s r e p a i r , the r u r a l c o u n t y ' s a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a t e l o c a l t a x revenues i s s e v e r e l y c u r t a i l e d . As r a n c h e s a r e s o l d , l a n d i s o f t e n s u b d i v i d e d f o r r e s i d e n t i a l use ( F i g u r e 7 - 5 ) . In the l o n g term t h i s h o l d s the p o t e n t i a l t o i n c r e a s e l o c a l t ax r e v e n u e s , because r e s i d e n t i a l l a n d can be t a x e d a t a h i g h e r r a t e than a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d . In the s h o r t term however, t h i s has not been the r e s u l t . Many s u b d i v i s i o n s have g a i n e d a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t u s and a v o i d e d h i g h e r l e v e l s o f t a x a t i o n by l e a s i n g t o l i v e s t o c k i n t e r e s t s . When c a t t l e o r sheep a r e g r a z e d w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s o f a s u b d i v i s i o n , even f o r o n l y a mat te r o f months d u r i n g the y e a r , t h e l a n d may be c l a s s i f i e d as a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d . The county i s no t y e t d e r i v i n g the t a x b e n e f i t r e s i d e n t i a l development was e x p e c t e d t o p r o v i d e . C o n s t r a i n e d by inadequate f u n d i n g , the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t and the Park County government a r e d o i n g what they can t o r e t a i n some measure o f c o n t r o l o v e r l a n d and water r e s o u r c e s . Park County i s i n t r a n s i t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o the most r e c e n t f i g u r e s , i t has become the n i n t h f a s t e s t growing county i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . 7 6 Most o f the growth i s c o n c e n t r a t e d on the n o r t h e a s t e r n edge o f the c o u n t y , w i t h i n commuting d i s t a n c e o f Denver , but development i s p e n e t r a t i n g more remote a r e a s o f the county as w e l l : d r y , sc rubby G u f f e y i n the s o u t h e r n p a r t o f the c o u n t y , t h e windswept expanses o f South P a r k , and the f o o t h i l l s around Lake George . R e s i d e n t i a l deve lopment , so l o n g a n t i c i p a t e d by county o f f i c i a l s , i s becoming a r e a l i t y . Wi th i t 296 F i g u r e 7 - 5 . Map: South Park S u b d i v i s i o n s , 1989. 297 w i l l come s t r a i n s on the i n f r a s t r u c t u r e - on the s c h o o l s , r o a d s , and s e r v i c e s , but w i t h i t w i l l come an expanding tax b a s e . The r a t e o f development and p o p u l a t i o n e x p a n s i o n i n the mid-1990s make economic d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n i n e v i t a b l e . C o t t a g e i n d u s t r i e s and s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s a r e most l i k e l y t o a p p e a r , and the county may be more s u c c e s s f u l i n a t t r a c t i n g s m a l l and medium s i z e d b u s i n e s s e s . As development p r o c e e d s , the l i n e between the urban and the r u r a l becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y b l u r r e d . The urban c o r e and the r u r a l p e r i p h e r y a r e i n t e g r a l t o one a n o t h e r . As Cronon has so e l o q u e n t l y p o i n t e d o u t , t h e u rban and the r u r a l e x i s t o n l y i n r e l a t i o n t o one a n o t h e r . The c i t y i s b u i l t w i t h the r e s o u r c e s o f the c o u n t r y s i d e - the wa te r , the t i m b e r , t h e s t o n e . I n d u s t r y and m a n u f a c t u r i n g expand u s i n g the m a t e r i a l s the c o u n t r y s i d e p r o v i d e s and the p o p u l a t i o n o f the c o u n t r y s i d e as a market . The c o u n t r y s i d e i s c u l t i v a t e d , g r a z e d , l o g g e d , and mined (brought i n t o p r o d u c t i o n so t o speak) t o s e r v e t h e p o p u l a t i o n and t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e c i t y . The rhythms o f l i f e have changed s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n South Park o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f the l a s t c e n t u r y and h a l f . T r a n s f o r m a t i o n has been e f f e c t e d th rough the chang ing r e l a t i o n s h i p between a s o c i e t y and i t s key r e s o u r c e s . H y d r o a g r i c u l t u r e gave way t o the h y d r a u l i c s o c i e t y o f the m o d e r n i z i n g Amer ican West. L o c a l c o n t r o l gave way t o e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . One e c o l o g i c a l mode o f p r o d u c t i o n gave way t o a n o t h e r . In such a h i g h , h a r s h env i ronment , p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r economic development remain l i m i t e d . Not even modern t e c h n o l o g y can 298 a l t e r t h a t e n t i r e l y . What can change i s manner i n which s m a l l , r u r a l p l a c e s can r e t a i n some measure o f c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r own d e s t i n i e s and the rhythms o f d a i l y l i f e . Power l i e s not i n k e e p i n g the w o r l d o u t , but i n r e t a i n i n g some measure o f i n t e g r i t y and i d e n t i t y i n an i n c r e a s i n g l y g l o b a l i z e d and homogenized w o r l d . Chapte r Notes 1. Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t [ h e r e a f t e r USPWCD], 1955-1994, M inutes and O r g a n i z i n g Documents. 2. USPWCD, 1955-1994, D r a f t l e t t e r t o Ra lph Owens, n . d . 3. O r i g i n a l water c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t l e g i s l a t i o n was promulga ted i n 1938 and r e v i s e d i n 1953. 4. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , 1938-1993, Cor respondence F i l e s . 5. Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970, C i v i l A c t i o n 3418. 6. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , O c t o b e r 17, O c t o b e r 26, and December 19, 1955. 7. USPWCD, 1955- 1994, M i n u t e s , December 19, 1955. 8. USPWCD, 1955- 1994, M i n u t e s , December 19, 1955. 9. USPWCD, 1955- 1994, M i n u t e s , February 17, 1956. 10. USPWCD, 1955- 1994, M i n u t e s , A p r i l 13, 1956. 11. USPWCD, 1955- 1994, M i n u t e s , A p r i l 13, 1956. 12. USPWCD. 1955- 1994, M i n u t e s , A p r i l 13, 1956. 13. USPWCD, 1955- 1994, M i n u t e s , A p r i l 13, 1956. 14. USPWCD, 1955- 1994, M i n u t e s , May 2, 1956. 15. USPWCD, 1955- 1994, M i n u t e s , A p r i l 13, 1956. 299 16. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M inutes o f S p e c i a l M e e t i n g , May 16, 1956. 17. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , June 11, 1956. 18. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , Oc tober 11, 1956. 19. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M inutes o f S p e c i a l M e e t i n g , December 17, 1956. 20. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , June 28, 1957. 21 . USPWCD, 1955-1994, Agreement between the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t and the C i t y o f C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s , A p r i l 11, 1961. 22. USPWCD, 1955-1994, L e t t e r read i n t o J u l y 8, 1958 m i n u t e s . 23 . USPWCD, 1955-1994, M inutes A p r i l 24, 1959. 24. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , A p r i l 24, 1959. 25. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , May 6, 1959. 26. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , September 17, 1959. 27. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , June 2, 1960. 28. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , June 2, 1960. 29 . USPWCD, 1955-1994, Correspondence F i l e s , L e t t e r from C h a r l e s C . F i s k t o James L . S e t t e l e , A p r i l 19, 1963. 30. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Correspondence F i l e s , L e t t e r from C h a r l e s C . F i s k t o James L . S e t t e l e , A p r i l 19, 1963, p . 2 . 31. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Agreement between the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t and the C i t y o f C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s , A p r i l 11, 1961. 32. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , Oc tober 17, 1962. 33. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , Oc tober 17, 1962. 34. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , February 19, 1963. 35. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , A p r i l 16, 1963. 36. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Minutes 1964-1984. 37. C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , 1938-1993. 1941 Agreement. 300 38. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M inutes o f S p e c i a l M e e t i n g , December 4, 1967. 39. No te : The A u g u s t i n e t r a n s f e r i s d i s c u s s e d i n some d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r V I . I t was the f i r s t a g r i c u l t u r a l t o m u n i c i p a l t r a n s f e r o f d i r e c t f low water r i g h t s s i n c e D e n v e r ' s e a r l y t r a n s f e r s i n the 1930s. I t i n a u g u r a t e d a new e r a - an e r a i n which South Park e f f e c t i v e l y l o s t c o n t r o l o f i t s r e m a i n i n g water r e s o u r c e s . 40. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M inutes o f S p e c i a l M e e t i n g , November 27, 1968. 41 . USPWCD, 1955-1994, M inutes o f S p e c i a l M e e t i n g , November 27, 1968. And Park County D i s t r i c t C o u r t , 1889-1970, C i v i l A c t i o n s 3684 and 3705. 42. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M inutes o f S p e c i a l M e e t i n g , December 4, 1967; M i n u t e s , March 18, 197 0. 43 . USPWCD, 1955 -1994, M i n u t e s , March 18, 1940. 44. USPWCD, 3, 1968 1955-• -1994, Correspondence F i l e s , Agreement 45. USPWCD, 1955 -1994, M i n u t e s , 1965-1984. 46. USPWCD, 1955 -1994, M i n u t e s , August 1, 1974. 47. USPWCD, 1955 -1994, M i n u t e s , August 1, 1974, p . 2. 48. USPWCD, 1955 -1994, M i n u t e s , May 21, 1975. 49 . USPWCD, 1955 -1994, M i n u t e s , J u l y 11, 1979. 50. D i s c u s s i o n o f such s t r a t e g i e s and the d i s t r i c t ' s b road powers i n t h i s r e g a r d da te t o : USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , August 2, 1973. 51. USPWCD, 1955-1994, R e s o l u t i o n , Oc tober 9 , 1980. 52. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , Oc tober 6, 1984. 53. Leona C . N e l s o n , 1993, p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 54. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Annual R e p o r t , 1985, p p . 17-20 . 55. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Order o f the C o u r t , C i v i l A c t i o n 3418, May 28, 1985. 56. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Annua l R e p o r t , 1985, p. 19; and Dav id B. W i s s e l , 1993, p e r s o n a l communica t ion . 301 57. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Annual R e p o r t , 1985, p p . 26 -28 . 58. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Annua l R e p o r t , 1985, p . 20. 59. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , 1985-1994. 60. USPWCD, 1955-1994, F o u n d a t i o n f o r Urban and Ne ighborhood Development , I n c . 1986. " P r o j e c t t o F a c i l i t a t e C i t i z e n Involvement and Suppor t f o r Comprehensive P l a n n i n g by the Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the USPWCD, June 1986. 61. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , 1985-1994. 62. USPWCD, 1955-1994, F a c t S h e e t s . 63. USPWCD, 1955-1994, F o u n d a t i o n f o r Urban and Neighborhood Development , I n c . 1986. " P r o j e c t t o F a c i l i t a t e C i t i z e n Involvement and Suppor t f o r Comprehensive P l a n n i n g by t h e Upper South P l a t t e Water Conservancy D i s t r i c t . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the USPWCD, June 1986. 64. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , September 27, 1986. 65. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Handwr i t ten document d a t e d S a t u r d a y , May 17, 1986, a p p a r e n t l y w r i t t e n p u r s u a n t t o meet ings w i t h o f f i c i a l s i n the f i v e c o u n t i e s s e r v e d by the USPWCD - found i n A l l i e d Movers box on t o p o f f i l e c a b i n e t i n Park County B u i l d i n g and Zon ing Depar tment 's s t o r a g e room. 66. USPWCD, 1955-1994, R e c o r d s , 1984-1994 ( i n p a r t i c u l a r c l i p p i n g f i l e s and o t h e r m i s c e l l a n e o u s f i l e s ) . 67 . USPWCD, 1955-1994, F i l e e n t i t l e d "Newspaper C l i p p i n g s 1985", "A Summary o f a r e p o r t by the Western G o v e r n o r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n Task F o r c e on Water E f f i c i e n c y - J u l y 1986," p . 6. 68. USPWCD, 1955-1994, A q u a t i c and Wet land C o n s u l t a n t s , I n c . and Gary L a c y , 1989. " M i d d l e Fork o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r - C o r r i d o r P l a n n i n g S t u d y . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the USPWCD, November 1989; see a l s o Brown, B o r t z , and C o d d i n g t o n , I n c . , 1987, "Water Management f o r t h e Upper South P l a t t e B a s i n . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r t h e USPWCD, O c t o b e r 1987. 69. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Todd R o b e r t s o n , 1990. "Beyond Two F o r k s : F u t u r e Management A l t e r n a t i v e s f o r the Upper South P l a t t e R i v e r B a s i n . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t s p r e p a r e d f o r C o l o r a d o E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o a l i t i o n , May 1990, p . 39. P l e a s e no te t h a t f o r me, the words " f o r o u r . . . u rban s o c i e t y " a r e t h e o p e r a t i v e words, and seem q u i t e t e l l i n g . 302 70. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , 1990-1994; a l s o n o t e s t aken by a u t h o r d u r i n g a t tendance a t USPWCD meet ings i n 1993 and 1994. 71 . USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , 1990-1994. 72. USPWCD, 1955-1994, M i n u t e s , 1990-1994. 73. No te : The H a r t s e l water s i t u a t i o n and the Badger B a s i n water t r a n s f e r a r e d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n Chapte r V I . 74. USPWCD, 1955-1994. M i n u t e s , June 20, 1985. 75. USPWCD, 1955-1994, Brown, B o r t z , and C o d d i n g t o n , I n c . , 1987, "Water Management f o r the Upper South P l a t t e B a s i n . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r the USPWCD, O c t o b e r 1987; a l s o Leona C . N e l s o n , p e r s o n a l communica t ion , and c o n f i r m e d by the U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e . 76. U . S . Bureau o f the C e n s u s , as r e p o r t e d i n the Park County R e p u b l i c a n and F a i r p l a y Flume. June 2, 1995, p . 1. 303 CHAPTER EIGHT HEADWATERS The Legal and Administrative Framework A t what p o i n t does water f l o w i n g f r e e l y i n a s t ream become a " r e s o u r c e " ? I would argue i t becomes a r e s o u r c e when a p e r s o n c o n c e i v e s some economic o r p e r s o n a l use f o r i t . I t becomes a r e s o u r c e when a s o c i e t y and i t s i n d i v i d u a l members a p p r o p r i a t e i t - c l a i m i t as t h e i r own and a p p l y i t t o t h e i r own b e n e f i t . In t h e h i g h windswept b a s i n a t the headwaters o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r , water was p r o p e r t y and had been d e f i n e d as such s i n c e t h e t ime t h e European powers c a r v e d up N o r t h A m e r i c a , d i v i d i n g t h e l a n d , wa te r , and n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s among them. As E u r o - A m e r i c a n s p e n e t r a t e d the i n t e r i o r o f the c o n t i n e n t , they e s t a b l i s h e d systems f o r the a l l o c a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s and systems o f o w n e r s h i p . The s o c i e t y t h a t extended i t s c o n t r o l i n t o the Rocky Mounta ins o f C o l o r a d o was f u n d a m e n t a l l y a c q u i s i t i v e - based on n o t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l ownership and r i g h t . T h i s o r i e n t a t i o n was i n no sense c o l l e c t i v e . Resources were something t o be c l a i m e d and e x p l o i t e d , not something t o be s h a r e d . As s u c h , they were a l l o c a t e d w i t h i n the framework o f the law. The system o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n was based on the i d e a t h a t r e s o u r c e s c o u l d be a c q u i r e d i n a r a t i o n a l and o r d e r l y manner, i f o n l y p e o p l e were f r e e t o work and d e r i v e b e n e f i t from t h e i r own l a b o r . T h i s was 304 a f u n d a m e n t a l l y Lockean n o t i o n . P u r s u i t o f s e l f - i n t e r e s t and a c q u i s i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s were v i r t u a l l y synonymous. I t i s t h r o u g h a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f l a n d , w a t e r , and o t h e r m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s t h a t s o c i e t i e s p r o g r e s s from a s t a t e o f n a t u r e t o the c o n d i t i o n o f c i v i l p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t i e s . I t i s t h r o u g h i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t govern a p p r o p r i a t i o n and s e c u r e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y i n t e r e s t s t h a t the t e n s i o n between i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s and p r o c l i v i t i e s , on the one hand , and the needs o f s o c i e t y f o r o r d e r and c o n f o r m i t y , on the o t h e r hand , a re m e d i a t e d . The f o u n d i n g documents o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s were based on John L o c k e ' s i d e a s . The D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence r e s t s on t h e i d e a t h a t men have n a t u r a l r i g h t s , i n v e s t e d i n them by God . Governments a r e i n s t i t u t e d by men f o r the purpose o f p r o t e c t i n g t h e s e r i g h t s . To Locke t h e s e were the r i g h t s t o l i f e , l i b e r t y , and p r o p e r t y . To have d e s i g n s on the p r o p e r t y o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n , e s p e c i a l l y where t h a t p r o p e r t y had been a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h t h a t i n d i v i d u a l ' s l a b o r , was an a s s a u l t t h a t f l e w i n the f a c e o f c i v i l v a l u e s and n a t u r a l r i g h t . I t was the g r a v e s t form o f i n s u l t and t h r e a t . The f ramers o f the D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence m o d i f i e d L o c k e ' s language somewhat. The n a t u r a l r i g h t s they i d e n t i f i e d were the r i g h t s t o l i f e , l i b e r t y , and the p u r s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s , by which t h e y meant e s s e n t i a l l y p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y r i g h t s . The i n d i v i d u a l had the r i g h t t o a c q u i r e p r o p e r t y and a c t i v e l y pursue s e l f - i n t e r e s t , t h e r e b y a c c u m u l a t i n g a wea l th o f p o s s e s s i o n s and e x e r t i n g c o n t r o l o v e r i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s . 305 Once an i n d i v i d u a l owned p r o p e r t y , the i n d i v i d u a l had the r i g h t t o d i s p o s e o f i t as he saw f i t . T h i s was the v e r y e s s e n c e o f the d o c t r i n e o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n as i t was a p p l i e d t o water r e s o u r c e s i n the a r i d and s e m i - a r i d Amer ican West. The system was i n s t i t u t e d t o s a f e g u a r d the r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s a p p r o p r i a t i n g the waters o f wes te rn s t reams and p u t t i n g t h o s e waters t o b e n e f i c i a l u s e . Once t h o s e r i g h t s were a s s e r t e d they were m a i n t a i n e d by d i l i g e n c e , and the owner had the r i g h t t o s e l l and exchange t h o s e p r o p e r t y r i g h t s ( u s u f r u c t u a r y though they may be) i n the most p r o f i t a b l e manner p o s s i b l e . S e l f - i n t e r e s t was a t the v e r y h e a r t o f t h e l e g a l d o c t r i n e o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n and the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system t h a t was assembled t o p r o t e c t t h o s e r i g h t s . I t i s w i t h i n the framework p r o v i d e d by t h e s e l e g a l and b u r e a u c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t the South Park water t r a n s f e r s have t a k e n p l a c e . The system p r o t e c t s the r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l water u s e r s - the owners o f the water - be they s m a l l f a r m e r s , i n d i v i d u a l r a n c h e r s , o r l a r g e c i t i e s . The system does not p r o t e c t the commons - the l a n d o r the community - i n the a rea from which r e s o u r c e s a r e b e i n g t a k e n . I t was never i n t e n d e d t o do s o . In t h i s c o n t e x t , the a r e a o f o r i g i n i s a f f o r d e d no p r o t e c t i o n . Water can be s o l d and t r a n s f e r r e d as l o n g as no m a t e r i a l i n j u r y o c c u r s t o i n d i v i d u a l water u s e r s i n the r i v e r s y s t e m . L o s t j o b s , c l o s e d s c h o o l s , s h r i n k i n g tax b a s e s , and a 3 0 6 c h a n g i n g env i ronment a r e o f no consequence i n water t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s . As R . H . Tawney has p o i n t e d o u t , s o c i e t i e s based on r i g h t a r e a c q u i s i t i v e s o c i e t i e s . 1 They a r e r u l e d by law, which r e c o g n i z e s no mora l l i m i t a t i o n s t o the p u r s u i t o f i n d i v i d u a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t . S o c i e t i e s based on the p r i n c i p l e o f f u n c t i o n o f f e r an a l t e r n a t i v e by i n s i s t i n g t h a t p r o p r i e t a r y r i g h t s be e x e r c i s e d i n such a way t h a t they s e r v e some s o c i a l purpose o r f u n c t i o n . Through s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o t h e community, p r o p r i e t a r y r i g h t s a r e m a i n t a i n e d . How t h e n , can an a c q u i s i t i v e s o c i e t y become a f u n c t i o n a l s o c i e t y ? How can the system o f p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n be m o d i f i e d t o t a k e i n t o account the needs o f the community? One answer might be t h a t o n l y a r e v o l u t i o n c o u l d a c c o m p l i s h such a change i n Amer ican s o c i e t y . P r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n cannot be changed because i t i s t o o t h o r o u g h l y immersed i n t h e l i b e r a l i s m and i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t l i e a t the v e r y h e a r t o f the a c q u i s i t i v e s o c i e t y . I t can o n l y be d i s c a r d e d i n i t s e n t i r e t y . A n o t h e r answer might be t h a t s o c i a l change i s i n c r e m e n t a l -t h a t s m a l l changes can u l t i m a t e l y produce l a r g e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . I f such i s the c a s e , then a b e g i n n i n g i n water t r a n s f e r c a s e s would be t o acknowledge what everybody s h o u l d a l r e a d y know: the a r e a o f o r i g i n i s a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d by water t r a n s f e r s . R a t h e r than e r e c t i n g a system t o compensate a community t h a t has l o s t i t s t r a d i t i o n a l economic b a s e , t h e answer may l i e i n g r a n t i n g a r e a s o f o r i g i n a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e 307 ( l e t us say 5% t o 10%) o f t h e water o r i g i n a l l y d e c r e e d t o d i t c h e s i n v o l v e d i n t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s . C o n t r o l o f t h e s e s u p p l i e s c o u l d then be g i v e n t o c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t s , which c o u l d implement d i s t r i c t - w i d e augmentat ion p l a n s t o s u p p o r t c o n t i n u e d development i n the a r e a o f o r i g i n . T h i s would not e n a b l e r a n c h i n g t o r e t u r n t o South P a r k , but i t would a l l o w economic a c t i v i t i e s t o t a k e p l a c e t h a t use water on a much more l i m i t e d s c a l e . I t would p e r m i t r e s i d e n t i a l development t o o c c u r and a l l o w p e o p l e t o e s t a b l i s h s m a l l c o t t a g e i n d u s t r i e s and t o p r o v i d e s e r v i c e s t o the t r a v e l l i n g and r e c r e a t i n g p u b l i c . C o n s e r v a t i o n would be e s s e n t i a l . In l i g h t o f Tawney 's i d e a s , c o n s e r v a t i o n would be the s o r t o f f u n c t i o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s o c i e t y n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n p r o p r i e t a r y and u s u f r u c t u a r y r i g h t s . C y n i c s w i l l say t h i s would p rove i m p o s s i b l e . No i n c e n t i v e e x i s t s f o r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s t o a c t i n such a manner. The law does not r e q u i r e them t o do s o . But e v i d e n c e from s e v e r a l q u a r t e r s might s u g g e s t o t h e r w i s e . F i r s t : c o n s e r v a t i o n easements - under t h i s p r a c t i c e l a n d owners r e t i r e o r f a l l o w p o r t i o n s o f t h e i r l a n d i n exchange f o r c o n c e s s i o n s and v a r i o u s forms o f compensat ion o r a s s i s t a n c e . C o n s e r v a t i o n groups have persuaded a s u r p r i s i n g number o f r a n c h e r s and fa rmers t o a l l o w t h e s e easements i n r e c e n t y e a r s i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t endangered s p e c i e s and r e d u c e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n . Second: i n South Park the c i t i e s have s topped engaging i n t r e n c h i n g meadows, d y n a m i t i n g o f beaver dams, dumping f i l l on w e t l a n d s , and o t h e r 308 e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e p r a c t i c e s . They c e a s e d and d e s i s t e d i n p a r t under d u r e s s from the E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency , and i n p a r t because t h e s e a c t i o n s l e d them i n t o a p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s n i g h t m a r e . Bad p r e s s and bad b l o o d make i t more d i f f i c u l t f o r m u n i c i p a l water depar tments t o a c q u i r e new s u p p l i e s and d e v e l o p t h o s e s u p p l i e s w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y f r e e hand . The s i m p l e c o n c e s s i o n o f work ing hand and hand w i t h a l o c a l c o n s e r v a n c y d i s t r i c t c o u l d u l t i m a t e l y work t o t h e c i t i e s ' b e n e f i t . G r a n t i n g the d i s t r i c t 5% t o 10% o f the water d e c r e e d f o r i r r i g a t i o n might q u i e t l o c a l o p p o s i t i o n and speed the t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s . T h i s approach would not s o l v e a l l the prob lems f a c e d by the a r e a o f o r i g i n i n water t r a n s f e r s , but i t p r o v i d e s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r d i s c u s s i o n . A n o t h e r i d e a perhaps w e l l worth c o n s i d e r i n g i s the s u g g e s t i o n made by R i c e and M a c D o n n e l l , t h a t C o l o r a d o water law be changed t o encourage temporary t r a n s f e r s . 2 A t p r e s e n t the law does q u i t e the o p p o s i t e . I t r e q u i r e s permanent c e s s a t i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n and v e r i f i a b l e d r y up o f the l a n d . Temporary t r a n s f e r s c o u l d e n a b l e r a n c h i n g t o c o n t i n u e i n p l a c e s l i k e South P a r k . In some y e a r s the hay meadows would be f a l l o w e d ; no i r r i g a t i o n would t a k e p l a c e ; and the c i t i e s would use t h e wa te r . In o t h e r y e a r s the r a n c h e r s would t u r n water out o f the s t reams a t t h e i r headgates and i r r i g a t e the meadows as t h e y had f o r o v e r a c e n t u r y . Temporary t r a n s f e r s c o u l d h e l p e f f e c t an e a s i e r t r a n s i t i o n as r u r a l economies s h i f t f rom r a n c h i n g o r i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e t o new economic b a s e s . 309 A r e a o f O r i g i n I s s u e s As water was withdrawn from use i n South P a r k , r u r a l Park County f a c e d t h e l o s s o f i t s most s t a b l e and e n d u r i n g i n d u s t r y . E s t a b l i s h e d i n the e a r l y 1860s, South Park r a n c h i n g had been the c o u n t y ' s economic backbone . I t r e p r e s e n t e d the most e x t e n s i v e l a n d u s e , and employed a s m a l l though r e l i a b l e number o f p e o p l e . Ranchers s e r v e d as county c o m m i s s i o n e r s , s c h o o l b o a r d members, and a l o n g w i t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s f i l l e d a number o f o t h e r c i v i c p o s i t i o n s . The a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n formed the c o r e membership o f c h u r c h c o n g r e g a t i o n s . C h i l d r e n from ranch f a m i l i e s f i l l e d most o f the s e a t s o f l o c a l s c h o o l h o u s e s . The t a x e s p a i d t o the county a s s e s s o r on l a n d , l i v e s t o c k , and r a n c h improvements r e p r e s e n t e d the d o l l a r s the county c o u l d r e l y upon from y e a r t o y e a r t o fund roads and o p e r a t i o n s . M i n i n g was c y c l i c a l . I t boomed and went b u s t , i n f u s i n g l a r g e amounts o f c a p i t a l i n t o the l o c a l economy f o r b r i e f p e r i o d s o f t i m e . Ranch ing was the s t a b l e base o f the l o c a l economy. As the water t r a n s f e r s p r o c e e d e d , Park County was thrown i n t o a s t a t e o f economic , s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l t r a n s i t i o n . As r a n c h e r s s o l d t h e i r water r i g h t s , d i s p o s e d o f t h e i r l a n d , and l e f t the a r e a , Park county took on a new s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r - more u rban and l e s s t r a d i t i o n a l . On the n o r t h e a s t e r n edge o f the c o u n t y , i n the B a i l e y a r e a , a bedroom community t o Denver began t o emerge i n t h e 1970s. By s h e e r f o r c e o f numbers t h e B a i l e y a r e a came t o dominate Park County p o l i t i c s . The p o l i t i c a l map o f t h e county was redrawn a g a i n and a g a i n , as v o t i n g d i s t r i c t 310 b o u n d a r i e s were changed t o accommodate the b u r g e o n i n g bedroom community i n the m o u n t a i n s . Today v o t e r s i n B a i l e y dominate a l l t h r e e county commiss ioner d i s t r i c t s . As r a n c h i n g d e c l i n e d , water r i g h t s were t r a n s f e r r e d , and l a n d was s u b d i v i d e d , the c h a r a c t e r o f South Park began t o change as w e l l . The p e o p l e moving i n were not r a n c h e r s ; they were p e o p l e from the f r o n t range urban c o r r i d o r and e lsewhere i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . Many o f them were p u r c h a s i n g second homes and r e t i r e m e n t homes. O t h e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the n o r t h w e s t e r n p a r t o f the c o u n t y , were employed i n the r e c r e a t i o n and s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s on the Summit County s i d e o f H o o s i e r P a s s , i n t h e w o r l d c l a s s s k i a r e a o f B r e c k e n r i d g e . T r a d i t i o n a l e lements had by no means been e l i m i n a t e d . Ranch ing and m i n i n g p e r s i s t e d , bu t t h e mix was c h a n g i n g . I n c r e a s i n g l y , t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s became s i m p l y p a r t o f more complex s o c i o - e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l l a n d s c a p e s . In terms o f power, South Park r a n c h e r s had l o n g dominated t h e ranchmen's a s s o c i a t i o n i n c e n t r a l C o l o r a d o , which was one o f t h e most p o w e r f u l i n the s t a t e . In the m idd le o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , as the s t a t e ' s economy d i v e r s i f i e d , the i n f l u e n c e o f t h e ranchmen's a s s o c i a t i o n s a t the s t a t e h o u s e began t o d e c l i n e . In a r e a s where r a n c h e r s e i t h e r s o l d out o r were bought out by c i t i e s , s u b d i v i d e r s , o r s p e c u l a t o r s , the d e c l i n e o f the power o f the a s s o c i a t i o n s and t h e i r members was more d r a m a t i c . I t was tantamount t o f a l l i n g o f f the edge o f a p o l i t i c a l f l a t e a r t h . 311 In e f f e c t South Park was b e i n g c o l o n i z e d by urban i n t e r e s t s . M u n i c i p a l i t i e s were p u r c h a s i n g the wa te r , d e v e l o p e r s were s u b d i v i d i n g the l a n d , and s u b s e q u e n t l y i n d i v i d u a l s were p u r c h a s i n g t h e i r s m a l l share i n e a c h . In p a r t as a r e s p o n s e t o g rowth , and i n p a r t as a r e s u l t o f the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f newcomers z o n i n g was implemented i n Park County f o r the f i r s t t ime i n 1976. Zon ing wrank led o l d t ime r e s i d e n t s - townspeop le , r a n c h e r s , and miners a l i k e . I t was seen as i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h the b a s i c r i g h t o f Amer icans t o do w i t h t h e i r p r o p e r t y what they w i s h e d . D e s p i t e t h e s h i f t i n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n t o t h e B a i l e y s i d e o f Kenosha P a s s , the county s e a t remained i n F a i r p l a y . The town t u r n e d i n c r e a s i n g l y away from s e r v i c e s t o t h e r a n c h i n g and m i n i n g communit ies and toward s e r v i c e s f o r the t r a v e l i n g and r e c r e a t i n g p u b l i c . R e c r e a t i o n , t o u r i s m , and t r a v e l had indeed been e lements i n the South Park economy s i n c e t h e m i d d l e o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T r a v e l e r s on the C o l o r a d o M i d l a n d R a i l r o a d used t o s t o p a t H a r t s e l t o r e j u v e n a t e a t the ho t s p r i n g s f o r a weekend. S p e c i a l e x c u r s i o n t r a i n s r a n t o a p l a c e c l o s e t o E l e v e n M i l e Canyon so t o u r i s t s c o u l d p i c k w i l d f l o w e r s . S e r v i c e t o t r a v e l e r s on the r e g i o n ' s r a i l l i n e s and wagon r o a d s had been p a r t o f the c o u n t y ' s economy s i n c e the e a r l y 1860s. But i n the l a t e 1970s and the e a r l y 1980s, r e c r e a t i o n , t o u r i s m , and t r a v e l , became the new backbone o f the a r e a ' s economy and the g r e a t hope f o r the c o u n t y ' s f u t u r e . 312 The t r a n s i t i o n has been d i f f i c u l t f o r Park County . L e s s than 40% o f the c o u n t y ' s l a n d i s p r i v a t e l y owned and t a x a b l e . The f e d e r a l and s t a t e governments c o n t r o l the m a j o r i t y o f the l a n d . S i n c e the F r o n t Range c i t i e s began p u r c h a s i n g r a n c h l a n d s and c o n s t r u c t i n g r e s e r v o i r s i n the 1920s, urban m u n i c i p a l i t i e s have compounded the problem o f government ownership o f l a n d . A c c o r d i n g t o s t a t e law, government l a n d cannot be t a x e d . The water t r a n s f e r s have removed some o f Park C o u n t y ' s most v a l u a b l e l a n d from p r o d u c t i o n - the i r r i g a t e d b o t t o m l a n d s . What remains i n p r i v a t e hands i s now t a x e d a t a lower r a t e based on economic m a r g i n a l i t y and reduced p r o d u c t i v i t y . Land a c q u i r e d by the c i t i e s i s removed from the tax books a l t o g e t h e r , even i f o n l y f o r a f i v e t o t e n y e a r p e r i o d w h i l e d r y up i s b e i n g comple ted and the l a n d remains under the c o n t i n u i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the water c o u r t . Where r e s e r v o i r s a r e b u i l t , where l a n d donated t o t h e C o l o r a d o D i v i s i o n o f W i l d l i f e , o r where i t i s t u r n e d i n t o a s t a t e r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a , the l a n d i s a l s o t a x exempt. Park County f i n d s i t s revenues d e c l i n i n g as the c h a l l e n g e s o f making t h e t r a n s i t i o n from r a n c h i n g t o a d i v e r s i f i e d economy i n t e n s i f y . In t ime t h e s e l o s s e s w i l l be o f f s e t by r e s i d e n t i a l deve lopment ; b u t , u n t i l l o o p h o l e s a r e c l o s e d t h a t p e r m i t s u b d i v i s i o n s t o ge t a g r i c u l t u r a l t a x s t a t u s based on the p e r f u n c t o r y p r e s e n c e o f a h a n d f u l o f c a t t l e f o r a few months o f t h e y e a r , b e n e f i t s w i l l not be r e a l i z e d . P o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e s and the movements o f r e s i d e n t s and r e c r e a t i o n a l i s t s c r e a t e s t r a i n s on t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . Tax revenues a r e n e c e s s a r y t o 313 m a i n t a i n t h e e v e r - e x p a n d i n g web o f d i r t and a s p h a l t r o a d s i n t h i s v a s t r u r a l c o u n t y , t o s u p p o r t the s c h o o l s , and t o p r o v i d e a v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l s e r v i c e s . When a r e a o f o r i g i n i s s u e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d more b r o a d l y , Park County i s i n an advantageous p o s i t i o n . When compared w i t h an a r e a s l i k e Crowley and Ote ro c o u n t i e s on the A r k a n s a s R i v e r below P u e b l o , a f a rming r e g i o n which i s r e l a t i v e l y f l a t and becomes o p p r e s s i v e l y hot d u r i n g the summertime, South Park i s f o r t u n a t e . I t i s s p e c t a c u l a r l y b e a u t i f u l , has a deep and i n t e r e s t i n g h i s t o r y , and a f f o r d s ample r e c r e a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s : f i s h i n g and camping f o r the s e d e n t a r y , h i k i n g and c r o s s - c o u n t r y s k i i n g f o r the a c t i v e , and d i r t b i k i n g and f o u r w h e e l i n g f o r t h o s e who would r a t h e r l e t an eng ine do the work. The beauty o f South Park i s no l o n g e r s i m p l y an a t t r i b u t e o f the a r e a . I t must be c l a s s i f i e d as a " s c e n i c r e s o u r c e " ( F i g u r e 8 - 1 ) . As water i s removed from the l a n d and i r r i g a t i o n c e a s e s , t h e p l a n t s p e c i e s i n South Park meadows undergo a t r a n s i t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o range s c i e n t i s t and e n g i n e e r P a u l F l a c k , who works f o r the c i t y o f A u r o r a , i t t a k e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i v e t o t e n y e a r s f o r d r y l a n d s p e c i e s t o r e p l a c e more h y d r o p h y t i c s p e c i e s i n the former meadows. 3 As the water t a b l e d r o p s , the mountain meadow p l a n t s d i e , and g r a d u a l l y o t h e r p l a n t s b e t t e r adapted t o a s e m i -a r i d env i ronment t ake t h e i r p l a c e . A t the t ime o f the A u g u s t i n e t r a n s f e r i n t h e l a t e 1960s, one o f the f e a r s was t h a t South Park would be t u r n e d i n t o a d u s t b o w l . That f e a r has p r o v e d u n f o u n d e d . Indeed on windy d a y s , d u s t d e v i l s can be o b s e r v e d 314 Figure 8-1. Bristlecone Pine, South Park, 1981. 315 s w i r l i n g a c r o s s the u n d u l a t i n g f l o o r o f the p a r k , but f o r the most p a r t they do not form on the f o r m e r l y i r r i g a t e d hay meadows. They t e n d t o o c c u r i n s t e a d on the s p a r s e l y v e g e t a t e d range o f t h e open p a r k . I t i s i n the open p a r k t h a t damage from o v e r g r a z i n g i s most e v i d e n t , not i n the o l d bot tomlands where i r r i g a t i o n water i n u n d a t e d f i e l d s o f n a t i v e hay f o r o v e r a c e n t u r y . Some a r e a s remain l u s h due t o n a t u r a l s u b i r r i g a t i o n , but most o f the former h a y l a n d s a r e i n the p r o c e s s o f t r a n s i t i o n , r e t u r n i n g t o a s t a t e t h a t more n e a r l y approx imates what John C . Fremont would have seen when he c r o s s e d the p a r k i n the l a t e 184 0 s : a v a s t g o l d e n brown expanse , b roken here and t h e r e by s m a l l , b r i l l i a n t p a t c h e s o f g r e e n . South Park was t r a n s f o r m e d t w i c e : once by the a p p l i c a t i o n o f water t o the l a n d and now by i t s removal and e x p r o p r i a t i o n . Water, Power, and the Meaning of Resource Expropriation i n the Rural West South Park i s not an i s o l a t e d c a s e . The Owens V a l l e y i n C a l i f o r n i a p r o v i d e s the most d r a m a t i c p o i n t o f c o m p a r i s o n . D r i e d up t o s l a k e the t h i r s t o f the growing c i t y o f Los A n g e l e s , t h e Owens V a l l e y saw the demise o f i t s c o r e i n d u s t r y ( a g r i c u l t u r e ) as c o n t r o l o f water r e s o u r c e s p a s s e d t o urban h a n d s . I t e x p e r i e n c e d s i m i l a r d i s l o c a t i o n s , e c o n o m i c a l l y , s o c i a l l y , and p o l i t i c a l l y . 316 The main d i f f e r e n c e between the two p l a c e s l a y i n the manner by which the t r a n s f e r s p roceeded - i n how l a n d and water r i g h t s were a c q u i r e d . In the Owens V a l l e y t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e s u b t e r f u g e . Many o f the v a l l e y ' s r e s i d e n t s had no i d e a who t h e y were d e a l i n g w i t h when e n q u i r i e s began i n t o t h e p u r c h a s e o f l a n d and water r i g h t s . In South P a r k , though A . D . W a l l made h i s f i r s t assessment o f the b a s i n ' s r e s o u r c e s s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y , l o c a l r a n c h e r s soon d i s c o v e r e d he was r e p r e s e n t i n g the c i t y o f Denver and was s e e k i n g t o p u r c h a s e water r i g h t s f o r use downstream. Some r a n c h e r s approached Wa l l and the c i t y d i r e c t l y w i t h o f f e r s t o s e l l . O t h e r s s a t down t o d i s c u s s t h e m a t t e r v o l u n t a r i l y . A n o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e between South Park and the Owens V a l l e y l a y i n the degree o f c o l l u s i o n between the c i t y , the f e d e r a l government , and s p e c u l a t o r s i n the C a l i f o r n i a c a s e . Such an u n h o l y a l l i a n c e d i d not e x i s t i n South P a r k . In the e a r l y t r a n s f e r s Denver a c t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y . In the l a t e r t r a n s f e r s , t h o s e b e g i n n i n g i n 1968 and c o n t i n u i n g t o t h e p r e s e n t , some c o o p e r a t i o n e x i s t e d between d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f government; but i t n e v e r approached the l e v e l o f c o m p l i c i t y found i n the Owens V a l l e y . The c i t i e s o f A u r o r a , T h o r n t o n , and Denver sought t o t r a n s f e r water w i t h i n the framework o f the law, and they d e v e l o p e d a c l o s e work ing r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e and w i t h i n d i v i d u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h a t arm o f the s t a t e b u r e a u c r a c y a t bo th the d i s t r i c t and the d i v i s i o n l e v e l s . 317 As t ime p a s s e d , t h e c i t i e s had t o contend w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e g u l a t i o n s and c o n c e r n s about the use and abuse o f p u b l i c l a n d s . In t h a t c o n t e x t , the c i t i e s d e v e l o p e d c l o s e work ing r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h the U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e , E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency , Bureau o f Land Management, and C o l o r a d o D i v i s i o n o f W i l d l i f e . These r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t i n c h a r a c t e r from t h o s e i n the Owens V a l l e y . The a l l i a n c e s t h a t emerged i n C a l i f o r n i a around the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y were formed i n an e r a o f b o o s t e r i s m and b i g dam b u i l d i n g . Land s p e c u l a t o r s , government b u r e a u c r a t s , r e c l a m a t i o n p r o m o t e r s , and c i t y e n g i n e e r s had a common and f u n d a m e n t a l l y r a p a c i o u s i n t e r e s t . They saw the r e s o u r c e s o f r u r a l a r e a s as t h e i r s f o r the t a k i n g i n the name o f p r o g r e s s . In the l a t t e r p a r t o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h a t a t t i t u d e has been tempered somewhat, though c e r t a i n l y not e r a d i c a t e d . M u n i c i p a l i n t e r e s t s and agents o f the f e d e r a l and s t a t e government o p e r a t e i n a c l i m a t e o f s c a r c i t y . R e s o u r c e s a r e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d as f i n i t e and as r e q u i r i n g j u d i c i o u s management i f they a r e t o p rove r e l i a b l e i n the f u t u r e . In t h e c a s e o f South Park the work ing r e l a t i o n s h i p between the F r o n t Range c i t i e s and t h e S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e i s a p r a c t i c a l one , b o r n o f n e c e s s i t y . I t i s not l i k e t h o s e found i n the Owens V a l l e y , which more c l o s e l y resembled a p r i d e o f l i o n s l i c k i n g t h e i r chops o v e r the s p o i l s o f the k i l l . Most s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i n South Park water s a l e s were v o l u n t a r y . L o c a l r a n c h e r s and t h e i r h e i r s a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e d 318 i n the t r a n s f e r o f water r i g h t s o f f the meadows o f the park and i n t o m u n i c i p a l water p i p e s . Some s o l d knowing ly t o s p e c u l a t o r s , who t u r n e d around and f l i p p e d the water r i g h t s t o the F r o n t Range c i t i e s . Other l o c a l p e o p l e went d i r e c t l y t o the c i t i e s , o f f e r i n g t h e i r water r i g h t s and sometimes t h e i r l a n d f o r s a l e . The r a n c h e r s and t h e i r h e i r s h i r e d water b r o k e r s , e n g i n e e r s , and l a w y e r s . They c a r e f u l l y a s s e s s e d the r e s o u r c e s they p o s s e s s e d and sought t o d e r i v e the g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e p r o f i t . T h i s i s i n s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o the p a t t e r n s t h a t u n f o l d e d i n the Owens V a l l e y , where c o e r c i o n , d e c e i t , and condemnat ion were r e l a t i v e l y common. The South Park water t r a n s f e r s r e p r e s e n t a q u i e t , v o l u n t a r y p r o c e s s . As such they may s e r v e as a b e t t e r example o f what may be e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r i n the f u t u r e i n the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o and e lsewhere a c r o s s the Amer ican West. I t i s i n t h e i r s u b t l e t y t h a t the South Park water t r a n s f e r s f i n d t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e . The drama o f the Owens V a l l e y makes an i n t e r e s t i n g s t o r y -s u b t e r f u g e , c o l l u s i o n , l o c a l r e s i s t a n c e e x p r e s s e d i n the b lowing up o f dams - a l l the e lements o f a James M ichener n o v e l o r a Ho l lywood mov ie . South Park i s l e s s d r a m a t i c , but no l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t . The q u i e t , l e g a l p r o c e s s t h a t o c c u r r e d i n South Park removed o v e r 40,000 a c r e s o f h a y l a n d s from p r o d u c t i o n , and r e t i r e d 253 s e p a r a t e water r i g h t s from use i n the h i g h b a s i n . Few d i t c h e s remain i n a c t i v e use i n South P a r k . What was t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e a r e a ' s most v i t a l i n d u s t r y has p r a c t i c a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d ( F i g u r e 8-2) . 319 3 2 0 Rural Park County has been thrown into a state of t r a n s i t i o n , and the law provides no remedies and no protection. According to the law, the area of o r i g i n i s not damaged by these proceedings; only the holders of vested water righ t s can l e g a l l y be injured i n a water transfer. This disturbing pattern of transfer without recourse i s bound to be repeated i n one location a f t e r another i n the areas that surround Denver, Phoenix, Albuquerque, S a l t Lake City, Las Vegas, and other western c i t i e s . The problem w i l l grow worse as urban populations expand and the demand for water grows. Small r u r a l populations lack the economic and p o l i t i c a l might that derives from numbers; that power l i e s i n the c i t i e s . M u n i c i p a l i t i e s can legitimately argue that drying up the hinterlands serves the interests of the greatest number of people. Reallocating water resources from the production of low value fodder crops to i n d u s t r i a l and domestic uses i s economically r a t i o n a l . But economic r a t i o n a l i t y takes no account of history. I t places no value on s o c i a l l i f e or on landscape. The transfer of South Park's water i s erasing a way of l i f e and transforming a landscape. The open spaces of Park County are giving way to r e s i d e n t i a l subdivisions. The horse as a mode of transportation i s being replaced by a l l t e r r a i n vehicles that snarl and hiss, and tear at the sparse dryland vegetation and t h i n t o p s o i l . Winnebagos and t r a v e l t r a i l e r s b l i g h t the landscape i n the same spots i n the high mountain range where cowboys made camp during c a t t l e drives j u s t a couple 321 o f decades ago . The s a l o o n s o f South Park a r e f i l l e d w i t h urban cowboys, not p e o p l e who have a c t u a l l y worked the l a n d . Yet i t was the c i t y ' s c a p i t a l t h a t o r i g i n a l l y b u i l t the p l a c e . M i n e r s found t h e i r way i n t o the h i g h p a r k t o e x p l o i t i t s m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e s . Ranchers took up r e s i d e n c e t o f e e d the p r o s p e c t o r s , and l a t e r expanded t h e i r h o l d i n g s t o s u p p l y bee f t o the c i t y o f Denver and the s t o c k y a r d and s l a u g h t e r h o u s e system t h a t was t i e d so c l o s e l y t o n a t u r e ' s m e t r o p o l i s - C h i c a g o . The r u r a l cannot e x i s t w i t h o u t the u r b a n . They a r e p a r t o f a cont inuum t h a t p r o v e s m u t u a l l y d e f i n i n g and m u t u a l l y s u p p o r t i n g . Each f o s t e r s the growth o r d e c l i n e o f the o t h e r . As P a t r i c i a N e l s o n L i m e r i c k has p o i n t e d o u t , the Amer ican West i s not as d i s t i n c t from the E a s t as i t would l i k e t o b e l i e v e . 4 The W e s t ' s h i s t o r y i s r e p l e t e w i t h c o n t i n u i t i e s , a l l p a r t o f the l e g a c y o f c o n q u e s t . In the h i s t o r y o f the r u r a l wes t , i n t h e p r o c e s s e s and f o r c e s t h a t t r a n s f o r m l i f e and l a n d s c a p e i n the r e g i o n , t h e r e a r e p e r s i s t e n t t h r e a d s . These i n c l u d e the p e n e t r a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l , m u n i c i p a l i n t e r e s t s , and urban v a l u e s , and they r e f l e c t the p r imacy o f h e a r t l a n d - h i n t e r l a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Perhaps South Park has not changed as much as some, i n c l u d i n g m y s e l f , would l i k e t o b e l i e v e . Perhaps the r e a c h o f u r b a n i n t e r e s t s i s no g r e a t e r today than i t was a c e n t u r y and h a l f ago . T e c h n o l o g y and t ime have changed i t somewhat i n form, but i n s u b s t a n c e and mot ive the r e l a t i o n s h i p between c i t y and c o u n t r y s i d e has changed l i t t l e . The p r e s e n t i s p a r t o f a 322 c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r y i n which e lements o f n a t u r e become r e s o u r c e s f o r human use and c o n s u m p t i o n . R u r a l l i f e i s d e f i n e d by what the c i t y needs and by what an u r b a n i z i n g and i n d u s t r i a l i z i n g s o c i e t y p e r m i t s and v a l u e s . T h i s i s a l l p a r t o f the l e g a c y o f c o n q u e s t . E x p l o i t a t i o n and e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f key r e s o u r c e s remain a p a r t o f the v e r y f a b r i c o f l i f e i n the h i g h windswept b a s i n t h a t l i e s a t the headwaters o f the South P l a t t e R i v e r . 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"Map o f Water D i s t r i c t 23, I r r i g a t i o n D i v i s i o n No. 1 ." D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . D i t c h e s Database (Appendix C ) . Mark C u r r y ( D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , r e t i r e d ) , P e r s o n a l Communicat ion . TWELVEMILE CREEK - p . 129. B a s e : O r i g i n a l L i n e Drawing by K i n d q u i s t and L i m b o r g . S o u r c e s : C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1918. "Map o f Water D i s t r i c t 23, I r r i g a t i o n D i v i s i o n No. 1." D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . D i t c h e s Database (Appendix C ) . Mark C u r r y ( D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , r e t i r e d ) , P e r s o n a l Communicat ion. BUFFALO CREEK AND SALT CREEK - p. 129. B a s e : O r i g i n a l L i n e Drawing by K i n d q u i s t and L i m b o r g . S o u r c e s : C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1918. "Map o f Water D i s t r i c t 23, I r r i g a t i o n D i v i s i o n No. 1 ." D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . D i t c h e s Database (Appendix C ) . Mark C u r r y ( D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , r e t i r e d ) , P e r s o n a l Communicat ion. TARRYALL CREEK - p . 130. W.W. Wheeler and A s s o c i a t e s , J a n u a r y 1977. " T a r r y a l l C r e e k . " D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . D i t c h e s Database (Appendix C ) . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1918. "Map o f Water D i s t r i c t 23, I r r i g a t i o n D i v i s i o n No. 1." Base: S o u r c e s : 361 D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r 1 s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . ROCK CREEK - p . 130. B a s e : O r i g i n a l L i n e Drawing by K i n d q u i s t and L i m b o r g . S o u r c e s : C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1918. "Map o f Water D i s t r i c t 23, I r r i g a t i o n D i v i s i o n No. 1." D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . "Rock Creek - Park County - D i s t r i c t 2 3 . " E x h i b i t s , Rock Creek - T h o r n t o n T r a n s f e r . D i v i s i o n I Water C o u r t , G r e e l e y . D i t c h e s Database (Appendix C ) . Mark C u r r y . ( D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , r e t i r e d ) , P e r s o n a l Communicat ion . MICHIGAN CREEK - p . 131. B a s e : W.W. Wheeler and A s s o c i a t e s , J a n u a r y 1977. " M i c h i g a n C r e e k . " D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : D i t c h e s Database (Appendix C ) . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1918. "Map o f Water D i s t r i c t 23, I r r i g a t i o n D i v i s i o n No. 1 ." D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . JEFFERSON CREEK - p . 131. B a s e : W.W. Wheeler and A s s o c i a t e s , J a n u a r y 1977. " J e f f e r s o n C r e e k . " D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : D i t c h e s Database (Appendix C ) . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1918. "Map o f Water D i s t r i c t 23, I r r i g a t i o n D i v i s i o n No. 1 ." D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . L i n e Drawings Cathy K i n d q u i s t , c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n and r e s e a r c h Pa t W i l e s , d e s i g n and d r a f t i n g SERIES: PLATTE DRAINAGE TARRYALL DRAINAGE - ESTABLISHMENT OF DITCHES, 1860-1990 - p p . 120-121. - STATUS OF DITCHES, 1993 - p p . 214-215. - MUNICIPAL CONTROL, 1993 - p p . 240-241. - TRANSFERS, 1993 - p p . 246-247. - IRRIGATION WATER RIGHTS, 1993 - p p . 291-292. B a s e : O r i g i n a l L i n e Drawing by K i n d q u i s t and W i l e s . S o u r c e s : Note : T h i s s e r i e s assembled from l i n e drawing s e r i e s d e t a i l e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . The two s c h e m a t i c drawings a t t h i s 362 s c a l e r e p r e s e n t South P a r k ' s two d r a i n a g e s : the T a r r y a l l and the P l a t t e . D i t c h e s Database (Appendix C ) . Maps Cathy K i n d q u i s t , c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n and r e s e a r c h Pat W i l e s , d e s i g n and d r a f t i n g LOCATION MAP B a s e : p . 2. Park County , 1993. "Park County Base Map." Park County S u r v e y o r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : H a r o l d F a y e , 1976. " C o l o r a d o R o c k i e s - Peaks and P a s s e s . " In M a r s h a l l Sprague , C o l o r a d o : A B i c e n t e n n i a l H i s t o r y . New York : N o r t o n . COLORADO MOUNTAIN PARKS - p. 3. B a s e : C E . K i n d q u i s t and P . L . W i l e s , 1994. " L o c a t i o n Map." S o u r c e s : J . M . C r o w l e y , 1964. "The Mounta in Parks o f C o l o r a d o - R e g i o n a l S e t t i n g . " In C r o w l e y , 1964 (See B i b l i o g r a p h y ) . H a r o l d F a y e , 1976. " C o l o r a d o R o c k i e s - Peaks and P a s s e s . " In M a r s h a l l Sprague , C o l o r a d o : A B i c e n t e n n i a l H i s t o r y . New Y o r k : W.W. N o r t o n . SOUTH PARK PHYSIOGRAPHY - p . 62. B a s e : A l l a n C a r t o g r a p h y , 1989. " C o l o r a d o . " M e d f o r d , Oregon: Raven Maps and Images. P . L . W i l e s and C E . K i n d q u i s t , 1994. " R e l i e f . " Note : U s i n g A l l a n C a r t o g r a p h y ' s map o f C o l o r a d o as a b a s e , Pat W i l e s c r e a t e d an o r g i g i n a l map, r e n d e r i n g the topography o f c e n t r a l C o l o r a d o i n d o t s as opposed t o c o l o r s - an accompl ishment b o r d e r i n g on the m i r a c u l o u s . Though c o n c e i v e d by K i n d q u i s t , t h e g e n i u s and p r e c i s i o n r e q u i r e d t o p roduce t h e s e maps must be a t t r i b u t e d t o Pat W i l e s , g r a p h i c a r t i s t . S o u r c e s : U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e (USDA) , 1992. " P i k e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t . " n .p .R IDGES, RANGES, AND STREAMS B a s e : P . L . W i l e s and C E . K i n d q u i s t , 1994. " R e l i e f . " S o u r c e s : U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e (USDA), 1992. " P i k e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t . " n . p . EARLY TOWNS, WAGON ROADS, AND RAILROADS SOUTH PARK, 1858-1918 - p . 71 . B a s e : Park County , 1993. "Park County Base Map." Park County S u r v e y o r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : G.M. Whee ler , 1873. G e o g r a p h i c a l and G e o l o g i c a l E x p l o r a t i o n s and Surveys West o f the 100th 363 M e r i d i a n . A t l a s . Wash ington: Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e . F . V . Hayden, 1881. G e o l o g i c a l and G e o g r a p h i c a l A t l a s o f C o l o r a d o and P o r t i o n s o f A d j a c e n t T e r r i t o r y . Washington: Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e . George C r o f u t t , 1885. "New S e c t i o n a l Map o f C o l o r a d o . " In C r o f u t t * s G r i p s a c k Guide o f C o l o r a d o . Omaha: The O v e r l a n d P u b l i s h i n g Company. O.M. and J . C , 1888. "Map Showing L o c a t i o n o f Horse Shoe M i n e s : Wagon Roads , South Park and Horse Shoe R a i l w a y , and Weston Pass L i n e . " C o l o r a d o H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y C o l l e c t i o n . C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r , 1918. "Map o f Water D i s t r i c t 23, I r r i g a t i o n D i v i s i o n No. 1 ." D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . Edward M. M c F a r l a n d , 1980. " C o l o r a d o M i d l a n d R a i l w a y . " In The M i d l a n d R o u t e : A C o l o r a d o M i d l a n d Guide and Data Book. G o l d e n : C o l o r a d o R a i l r o a d Museum. ACCESS TO SOUTH PARK MOUNTAIN PASSES - p. 74. B a s e : P . L . W i l e s and C E . K i n d q u i s t , 1994. " R e l i e f . " S o u r c e s : U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e (USDA), 1992. " P i k e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t . " n . p . COMPONENTS OF THE LAND SOUTH PARK - p . 86. B a s e : Park County , 1993. "Park County Base Map." Park County S u r v e y o r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : J . M . Crowley , 1964. "Major Components o f the L a n d . " In C r o w l e y , 1964 (See B i b l i o g r a p h y ) . U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e (USDA), 1992. " P i k e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t . " n . p . HISTORICALLY IRRIGATED LANDS SOUTH PARK - p . 88. B a s e : W.W. Wheeler and A s s o c i a t e s , n . d . "South Park G e n e r a l A r e a Map." Denver Water Department , R e c o r d s . S o u r c e s : 1974-1993. C o u r t E x h i b i t s : T r a n s f e r Maps -I r r i g a t e d L a n d s . C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t . R e c o r d s . Weld County C o u r t h o u s e , G r e e l e y . COLORADO WATER DIVISIONS - p . 108. B a s e : H a r o l d F a y e , 1976. " C o l o r a d o R o c k i e s - Peaks and P a s s e s . " In M a r s h a l l Sprague , C o l o r a d o : A B i c e n t e n n i a l H i s t o r y . New Y o r k : W.W. N o r t o n . 364 S o u r c e : C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r . 1989. " D i v i s i o n s . " D i s t r i c t 23 Water C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . SOUTH PARK DRAINAGE - p . 123. B a s e : W.W. Wheeler and A s s o c i a t e s , n . d . "South Park G e n e r a l A r e a Map." Denver Water Department , R e c o r d s . S o u r c e s : U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e (USDA), 1992. " P i k e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t . " n . p . EARLY DENVER ACQUISITIONS ELEVEN MILE RESERVOIR BASIN, 1929-1932 - p . 177. B a s e : Park County , 1993. "Park County Base Map." Park County S u r v e y o r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : Denver M u n i c i p a l Water Works, 1936. "Lands Purchased f o r E l e v e n M i l e Canon R e s e r v o i r . " Denver Water Department , R e c o r d s . THE HYDRAULIC PARK, 1994 - p. 193. B a s e : Park County , 1993. "Park County Base Map ." Park County S u r v e y o r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e (USDA), 1992. " P i k e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t . " n . p . DENVER'S MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY, 1990 - p . 206. B a s e : Denver Water Department , 1984. U n t i t l e d r e n d e r i n g o f the Denver water system t h a t i n i t i a l l y appeared on t h e c o v e r o f t h e D r a f t EIS f o r Two F o r k s R e s e r v o i r . Denver Water Department , R e c o r d s . S o u r c e s : Denver Water Department , 1968. "Denver Board o f Water Commiss ioners - Water S u p p l y S y s t e m . " Denver Water Department , R e c o r d s . AURORA'S MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY, 1990 - p . 208. S o u r c e : A u r o r a Department o f U t i l i t i e s , 1991. "Raw Water Supp ly System - C i t y o f A u r o r a . " A u r o r a Department o f U t i l i t i e s , R e c o r d s . DENVER METROPOLITAN AREA, 1990 - p. 210. B a s e : C E . K i n d q u i s t and P . L . W i l e s , 1994. " L o c a t i o n Map." S o u r c e s : S . J . Leonard and T . J . N o e l , 1990. "The Emergence o f Metro D e n v e r . " In Leonard and N o e l , 1990 (See B i b l i o g r a p h y ) . FEDERAL AND STATE LAND SOUTH PARK, 1992 - p . 294. B a s e : Park County , 1993. "Park County Base Map." Park County S u r v e y o r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e (USDA), 1992. " P i k e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t . " n . p . J . M . C r o w l e y , 1964. "South Park - Land O w n e r s h i p . " In C r o w l e y , 1964 (See B i b l i o g r a p h y ) . 365 SELECTED RANCH BOUNDARIES SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS - p . 295. B a s e : Park County , 1993. "Park County Base Map." Park County S u r v e y o r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : 1974-1993. C o u r t E x h i b i t s : T r a n s f e r Maps. C o l o r a d o , D i v i s i o n 1 Water C o u r t . R e c o r d s . Weld County C o u r t h o u s e , G r e e l e y . SOUTH PARK SUBDIVISIONS, 1989 - p . 297. B a s e : Park County , 1993. "Park County Base Map." Park County S u r v e y o r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : Park C o u n t y , 1989. "Park County S u b d i v i s i o n s . " Park County B u i l d i n g and Zon ing O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . SERIES: SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS - WATER RIGHTS AND IRRIGATED ACRES RETIRED FROM PRODUCTION, 1915-1994 - p . 219. - MUNICIPAL WATER TRANSFERS, 1915-1994 - p . 237. - RANCH OWNERSHIP AT TIME OF TRANSFER - p . 248. B a s e : Park County , 1993. "Park County Base Map." Park County S u r v e y o r ' s O f f i c e , F a i r p l a y . S o u r c e s : T r a n s f e r s Database (Appendix B) H i s t o r i c a l Photographs As c r e d i t e d i n the c a p t i o n s . C o n t e m p o r a r y / C o l o r Photographs Cathy K i n d q u i s t , p h o t o g r a p h e r . 366 APPENDIX B SOUTH PARK WATER TRANSFERS, DATABASE The f i r s t and s m a l l e s t o f the d a t a b a s e s p r e s e n t e d i n the a p p e n d i c e s , the T r a n s f e r s Database c o n t a i n s b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e r a n c h e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e South Park water t r a n s f e r s . The i n f o r m a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n two p a r t s , and the c a t e g o r i e s a r e coded as f o l l o w s : TRANSFER CITY D OWNERSHIP TOTAL AC PRIORITY PN DECREE WR LAND AMT IN TFR AMT TFRED AMT RELINQ PCT TFRED PCT RELINQ IRR ACRES Name o f ranch i n v o l v e d i n m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r C i t y a c q u i r i n g water r i g h t s Dra inage (P=P la t te , T = T a r r y a l l ) Ownership o f ranch a t t ime o f s a l e o f water r i g h t s : L o c a l = L o c a l r a n c h e r L o c a l (He i rs ) = L o c a l r a n c h e r ' s h e i r s Abs Rancher = Absentee r a n c h e r L o c a l Coop = C o o p e r a t i v e o f l o c a l r a n c h e r s ( f o r example: g r a z i n g a s s o c i a t i o n s ) Spec = D e v e l o p e r s o r S p e c u l a t o r s T o t a l a c r e s i n the r a n c h ( i f known) P r i o r i t y da te - e a r l i e s t water r i g h t P r i o r i t y number - e a r l i e s t water r i g h t Date o f fo rmal t r a n s f e r d e c r e e . Note : Some have no d e c r e e d a t e , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t no fo rma l t r a n s f e r o f water r i g h t s o c c u r r e d , o r t h a t ( i n the c a s e o f the R a l p h Johnson ranch) t h e c a s e has not y e t gone t o c o u r t . The number o f water r i g h t s i n v o l v e d i n t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s Land s o l d t o c i t y i n t r a n s f e r (Y=Yes, N=No) T o t a l amount o f water ( i n c f s - c u b i c f e e t p e r second) d e c r e e d t o d i t c h e s i n v o l v e d i n t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s Amount t r a n s f e r e d i n c o u r t p r o c e e d i n g s t o a new (mun ic ipa l ) p o i n t o f d i v e r s i o n a n d / o r s t o r a g e . Amount r e l i n q u i s h e d t o the s t ream i n c o u r t p r o c e e d i n g s P e r c e n t t r a n s f e r e d P e r c e n t r e l i n q u i s h e d I r r i g a t e d a c r e s r e t i r e d from p r o d u c t i o n 367 S o u r c e s The i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s da tabase i s drawn p r i m a r i l y from c o u r t documents ( the f o r m a l t r a n s f e r d e c r e e s ) . I t i n c l u d e s i n f o r m a t i o n from o r i g i n a l a d j u d i c a t i o n papers and the d i s t r i c t water c o m m i s s i o n e r . TRANSFER CITY D OWNERSHIP TOTAL AC PRIORITY PN DECREE WR LAND AMT IN TFR AMT TFRED AMT RELINQ PCT TFRED PCT RELINQ IRR ACRES T r a n s f e r Decrees D i s t r i c t 2 3 Water Commiss ioner Denver Water Department , A u r o r a Department o f U t i l i t i e s , C i t y o f T h o r n t o n (Water R e s o u r c e s D i v i s i o n ) T r a n s f e r Decrees T r a n s f e r Decrees T r a n s f e r Decrees T r a n s f e r Decrees D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commissioner T r a n s f e r D e c r e e s , Water R i g h t A d j u d i c a t i o n s T r a n s f e r D e c r e e s , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commissioner ( "Alpha l i s t " ) T r a n s f e r D e c r e e s , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commissioner ("Alpha l i s t " ) T r a n s f e r D e c r e e s , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner , and C i t y Water Departments ( e n g i n e e r i n g r e p o r t s ) . 368 PART I TRANSFERS DATABASE T R A N S F E R A n t e r o A u g u s t i n e B a d g e r B a s i n B e e r y B l a c k M o u n t a i n B o r d e n C o i l C o l l a r d C o l l a r d E l e v e n M i l e E p p e r s o n F o u r M i l e F u r m a n H i g h C r e e k H u r o n I n d i a n M o u n t a i n J a n i t e l I J a r d o n J o h n s o n , R a l p h J o h n s t o n , D i x o n M c O o w e l I M c N u l t y M i c h i g a n C r e e k P l a t t e A n s l e y R o c k C r e e k R o c k e r S e v e n R o g e r s , G e o r g e A . R o g e r s , L u c i n d a S c h a t t i n g e r T e t e r T r o u t C r e e k W a l k e r C I T Y D OWNERSHIP T O T A L A C D e n v e r P L o c a l 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a P A b s . R a n c h e r 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a P L o c a l C o o p 0 . 0 0 D e n v e r P 5 6 0 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a P S p e c 0 . 0 0 D e n v e r T L o c a l ( H e i r s ) 4 2 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a P L o c a l 8 1 8 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a T L o c a l 1 3 8 0 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n T L o c a l 4 6 0 . 0 0 D e n v e r P L o c a l 0 . 0 0 D e n v e r P L o c a l ( H e i r s ) 1 2 4 0 . 0 0 D e n v e r P 0 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n T L o c a l 1 0 8 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a P S p e c 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a P L o c a l C o o p 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a T S p e c 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a T S p e c 1 6 3 1 7 . 0 0 D e n v e r P L o c a l 4 4 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a T L o c a l ( H e i r s ) 1 9 0 0 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n T L o c a l 0 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n P L o c a l 2 0 9 2 9 . 7 0 A u r o r a P A b s R a n c h e r 0 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n T S p e c 2 5 2 0 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n P S p e c 0 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n T S p e c 2 3 3 1 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n T S p e c 2 4 0 6 . 0 0 D e n v e r P L o c a l 3 0 0 . 0 0 D e n v e r P L o c a l 1 3 2 0 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n T L o c a l 0 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n T L o c a l 0 . 0 0 T h o r n t o n P S p e c 0 . 0 0 A u r o r a P S p e c 0 . 0 0 P R I O R I T Y PN D E C R E E UR It 1 0 / 1 0 / 1 8 8 1 1 4 9 / / 2 Y 0 8 / 0 1 / 1 8 6 8 10 1 1 / 2 7 / 1 9 6 8 14 N 0 6 / 0 1 / 1 8 7 4 25 0 8 / 2 6 / 1 9 8 3 13 N 0 6 / 0 1 / 1 8 6 1 1 0 7 / 1 4 / 1 9 7 6 5 Y 0 8 / 0 1 / 1 8 7 8 9 2 0 3 / 2 0 / 1 9 9 1 7 N 0 5 / 0 1 / 1 8 6 6 3 0 4 / 1 3 / 1 9 3 3 5 Y 0 5 / 2 3 / 1 8 7 3 18 0 8 / 2 6 / 1 9 8 3 8 H 0 4 / 0 5 / 1 8 7 6 55 0 9 / 1 9 / 1 9 9 1 2 Y 0 4 / 0 5 / 1 8 7 6 55 0 9 / 1 9 / 1 9 9 1 2 Y 0 7 / 0 1 / 1 8 7 2 15 / / 4 Y 0 6 / 0 1 / 1 8 7 9 102 / / 2 Y 0 6 / 0 1 / 1 8 6 8 9 1 1 / 1 2 / 1 9 8 2 7 N 0 5 / 0 1 / 1 8 8 2 154 0 2 / 0 8 / 1 9 9 1 3 Y 0 8 / 3 1 / 1 8 7 3 2 2 0 6 / 2 1 / 1 9 7 9 8 N 0 6 / 1 5 / 1 8 7 4 3 0 0 8 / 2 6 / 1 9 8 3 35 N 0 5 / 2 0 / 1 8 7 8 8 6 0 8 / 1 0 / 1 9 8 8 3 N 1 0 / 0 1 / 1 8 7 4 3 3 0 3 / 0 6 / 1 9 9 1 2 0 N 0 6 / 0 1 / 1 8 7 9 102 1 0 / 2 8 / 1 9 3 2 3 Y 0 6 / 0 1 / 1 8 7 5 51 / / 5 N 0 5 / 1 5 / 1 8 7 2 13 0 4 / 2 9 / 1 9 8 8 7 H 0 7 / 0 1 / 1 8 6 7 6 0 1 / 1 6 / 1 9 7 9 8 H 0 9 / 0 1 / 1 8 7 3 23 1 2 / 0 1 / 1 9 8 6 8 H 0 3 / 1 5 / 1 8 8 0 110 0 2 / 0 8 / 1 9 9 1 6 Y 0 7 / 0 1 / 1 8 7 9 104 0 3 / 2 0 / 1 9 8 6 9 N 0 5 / 1 5 / 1 8 7 1 11 0 7 / 2 3 / 1 9 8 7 3 3 Y 0 4 / 2 5 / 1 8 7 5 3 9 0 6 / 2 5 / 1 9 8 7 5 Y 0 5 / 0 1 / 1 8 7 5 42 0 5 / 2 3 / 1 9 3 4 4 Y 0 5 / 1 5 / 1 8 7 9 9 9 / / 3 Y 0 5 / 1 5 / 1 8 7 5 4 6 1 0 / 0 1 / 1 9 8 7 6 N 0 4 / 1 2 / 1 8 7 5 3 7 0 4 / 2 9 / 1 9 8 8 3 N 0 7 / 0 1 / 1 8 6 2 2 0 3 / 2 0 / 1 9 8 6 5 N 0 6 / 2 5 / 1 8 7 3 20 0 8 / 2 6 / 1 9 8 3 10 N 369 PART II TRANSFERS DATABASE TRANSFER CITY Antero Denver Augustine Aurora Badger B a s i n Aurora Beery Denver Black Mountain Aurora Borden Denver C o i l Aurora Col l a r d Aurora Col l a r d Thornton Eleven M i l e Denver Epperson Denver Four M i l e Denver Furman Thornton High Creek Aurora Huron Aurora Indian Mountain Aurora J a n i t e l l Aurora Jardon Denver Johnson, Ralph Aurora Johnston, Dixon Thornton McDowelI Thornton McNulty Aurora Michigan Creek Thornton P l a t t e Ansley Thornton Rock Creek Thornton Rocker Seven Thornton Rogers, George A. Denver Rogers, Lucinda Denver S c h a t t i n g e r Thornton Teter Thornton Trout Creek Thornton Walker Aurora AMT IN TFR . AMT TFRED AMT RELINQ 97.79 0.00 0.00 240.45 14.98 225.47 183.20 29.46 153.74 102.59 20.00 82.59 105.23 14.44 90.79 59.84 8.70 51.14 287.05 24.28 262.77 18.75 3.82 14.93 6.25 1.27 4.98 8.00 0.00 8.00 10.80 0.00 0.00 96.89 7.00 89.89 36.60 13.90 22.70 126.40 16.62 109.78 678.88 94.30 584.58 58.32 20.13 38.19 115.51 31.21 84.30 18.91 6.17 12.74 32.24 0.00 0.00 18.46 5.31 13.15 168.48 71.79 96.69 66.59 15.08 51.51 81.36 10.50 70.86 156.85 17.80 139.05 112.30 9.40 102.90 21.84 3.70 18.14 32.60 4.02 28.58 225.20 0.00 0.00 21.65 9.79 11.86 16.00 8.00 8.00 62.00 22.20 39.80 199.02 15.85 183.17 PCT TFRED PCT RELINQ IRR ACRES 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.23 93.77 1700.00 16.08 83.92 2456.00 19.50 80.50 1125.00 13.72 86.28 678.00 14.54 85.46 350.00 8.46 91.54 1298.00 20.36 79.64 478.50 20.36 79.64 159.50 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.22 92.78 725.00 37.98 62.02 860.00 13.15 86.85 1624.00 13.89 86.11 9410.00 34.52 65.48 511.00 27.02 72.98 4747.30 32.63 67.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 670.00 28.76 71.24 697.00 42.61 57.39 1813.00 22.65 77.35 775.00 12.91 87.09 1147.00 11.35 88.65 2270.00 8.37 91.63 780.00 16.94 83.06 311.00 12.33 87.67 0.00 0.00 ^ 0.00 0.00 45.22 54.78 660.00 50.00 50.00 820.00 35.81 64.19 2600.00 7.96 92.04 968.00 370 APPENDIX C SOUTH PARK DITCHES, DATABASE The D i t c h e s Database i s perhaps the most impor tan t da tabase p r e s e n t e d i n the a p p e n d i c e s . I t c o n t a i n s d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n about 417 i r r i g a t i o n water r i g h t s i n South P a r k . The da tabase e x c l u d e s o t h e r d i t c h e s i n C o l o r a d o Water D i s t r i c t 23 which l i e o u t s i d e the b o u n d a r i e s o f South P a r k . The da tabase a l s o e x c l u d e s d i t c h e s t h a t were h i s t o r i c a l l y used f o r p u r p o s e s o t h e r than i r r i g a t i o n (m in ing , f o r example ) . The purpose here i s t o l o o k a t water r i g h t s t h a t have become, o r have the p o t e n t i a l t o become, i n v o l v e d i n a g r i c u l t u r a l - t o - m u n i c i p a l water t r a n s f e r s . T h i s da tabase can be l i n k e d w i t h the D i v e r s i o n s Database p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix E , which i s a l s o a r r a n g e d a l p h a b e t i c a l l y by d i t c h . In t h i s manner, i n f o r m a t i o n about the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d i t c h e s can be c o n n e c t e d w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e i r u s e . C a t e g o r i e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n the D i t c h e s Database a r e coded as f o l l o w s : DITCHES Name o f the d i t c h TRANSFER T r a n s f e r d i t c h as i n OWNER 1993 Owner i n 1993 ( C i t y , L o c a l owner o r I r r i g a t o r ) SOURCE Stream o r s o u r c e from which d i t c h t a k e s i t s water ADJ Year o f A d j u d i c a t i o n PRIOR DATE P r i o r i t y Date PN P r i o r i t y Number CFS 0 Amount o f water ( i n c f s ) d e c r e e d t o d i t c h i n o r i g i n a l a d j u d i c a t i o n CFS D Amount o f water d e c r e e d t o d i t c h a c c o r d i n g t o t r a n s f e r d e c r e e AMT IN TFR Amount o f water i n v o l v e d i n t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s CFS TFRED Amount t r a n s f e r e d t o m u n i c i p a l use i n 371 CFS RELINQ AF TFRED DEC IRR AC STATUS ORIGINAL CLAIMANT COMMENTS c o u r t p r o c e e d i n g s Amount r e l i n q u i s h e d t o the s t ream i n t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s Amount o f water ( i n a c r e f e e t ) t r a n s f e r r e d t o m u n i c i p a l use (may r e p r e s e n t a maximum o r an average annua l f i g u r e ) - i f known I r r i g a t e d acreage a c c o r d i n g t o t r a n s f e r d e c r e e S t a t u s o f the d i t c h : TFR = t r a n s f e r e d t o m u n i c i p a l use TFRAB = abandoned i n t r a n s f e r p r o c e e d i n g s IRR = i r r i g a t i o n ( s t i l l a c t i v e ) AUG = augmentat ion AB = abandoned Person c l a i m i n g d i t c h a t t ime o f o r i g i n a l a d j u d i c a t i o n V a r i e d : n o t e s i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s i n d a t a , l o c a l changes i n water r i g h t s , and m i s c . i n f o r m a t i o n . "CA 7777" r e f e r s t o a c o u r t c a s e number. Sources I n f o r m a t i o n i n the D i t c h e s Database i s drawn from a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f s o u r c e s , p r i m a r i l y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e documents g e n e r a t e d by the C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r ' s o f f i c e and by the D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner . Cour t documents, i n c l u d i n g bo th o r i g i n a l a d j u d i c a t i o n s o f water r i g h t s , and t r a n s f e r d e c r e e s were a l s o used as s o u r c e s . DITCHES TRANSFER OWNER 1993 SOURCE ADJ PRIOR DATE PN T r a n s f e r Decrees D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commissioner (ownership l i s t ) D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commissioner ( "A lpha" l i s t ) Water R i g h t A d j u d i c a t i o n s Water R i g h t A d j u d i c a t i o n s , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commissioner (water r i g h t l i s t s , 1918 d i s t r i c t map), C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r (water r i g h t t a b u l a t i o n s , 1890-1990) Water R i g h t A d j u d i c a t i o n s , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commissioner (water r i g h t 372 CFS O CFS D AMT IN TFR CFS TFRED CFS RELINQ AF TFRED DEC IRR AC STATUS ORIGINAL CLAIMANT COMMENTS l i s t s , 1918 d i s t r i c t map), C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r (water r i g h t t a b u l a t i o n s , 1890-1990) Water R i g h t A d j u d i c a t i o n s , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Coinrnissioner (water r i g h t l i s t s , 1918 d i s t r i c t map), C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r (water r i g h t t a b u l a t i o n s , 1890-1990) T r a n s f e r Decrees T r a n s f e r D e c r e e s , Water R i g h t A d j u d i c a t i o n s T r a n s f e r D e c r e e s , D i s t r i c t 2 3 Water Commissioner ( "A lpha" l i s t ) T r a n s f e r D e c r e e s , D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commissioner ( "A lpha" l i s t ) T r a n s f e r Decrees T r a n s f e r Decrees D i s t r i c t 23 Water Commiss ioner ( "A lpha" l i s t ) Water R i g h t A d j u d i c a t i o n s M i s c e l l a n e o u s 373 t n o f\J f \ j © o f\. C J o » -§ f - 00 CO CO C CO i n i n >C 0> N . R» n - r<- co CO CO CO CO CO s s — o> c o rvi - r>. h - m 00 CO CO co - - * - » - © © m — L A f O M O n j r y o o r j o o o o GO CO 00 CO co co cc co o o o o CO CO CO CO 00 CO CO CO O* O" o* O- c O* O* O1 o* g oo co co co co CO co co co co co co t- i - u c j L -«J 01 O C O O —' u . O —' —< u_ 3 3 ' 8 » - ' O L . L . - 8 ' C O I 0 3 0 3 . - . 0 0 — 0 — 0 3 0 3 — - - - - -O -1- IS C J u — • C J C J Ol ^ 3 — C J C J 0> Of -tt: -tf - ~ - * U (A » — — _* L . L . C J C J L 3 01 i - O — — O O >. C C —. O —• X X U . U . - - — 0* as 03 — u . — —' —• co x x o x i oi «) ti o> m > _ _ > . > . — — t_ -> t_ — —' "n "c i_ i_ 3 L . 3 O I O > ' 0 - O L . L . D 0 I 0 I 0 3 O O O 2 3 - — 0 3 0 3 O O O C O - w _ _ - - H - » — X X » — > — H < a. w < < EH < a w w as o EH 8 flQvflOtLC i . t ^ . c i - L . a i c j ' L . - - "5 J= JZ oc 03 03 4-» CO « - O L . « - L . C O C O ) O — 1- > _ _ i - i - o c 3 — 3 — 3 0> .c 01 « < < « « X » - Q S g —J —J c c fc. L. o o c — >- >• 03 01 01 3 JC 4-CJ) O) 03 3 — _ < X CL c — a o o o C J C J c •s L . 0> o IX c < O l 01 c 4 - 01 L . U U 4- 4- " 6 01 03 03 03 03 L . 01 —- —' — —• O C O C O C O C L EL . C D 01 L . C J c j I— a "2 "? c c oi ai T ) T 3 L_ L . 01 O 01 0) — K l >- — " O Z 3 3 01 — 03 CM Ol 01 • —' — Ol • L . fc- O O —1 — — C O 00 Z S E — — O C —-—I T J I P Z I U C n » « B fl o L , ai • ) • * • - c C ( - L . u t _ L . t - b . f c . C a i > . w — o i o t o i a i o i a i o > o i o i o j o i u E o > L . j c j . c c * D ' o T 5 T 5 " 0 " O T 5 J - - * - * — • v a o i C C C C L . L . C C C C C O 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 O I O I — — O O O O < < < < < B O ( D a { D I B ( D O — fl B B B o o § o o 374 _ IM K l ^ >0 K> f l CM CM O VT o o r\j r\j v r o ^ (vj m v r m * . N W S r> o o o i n CM O CL c o c o S C IC IC R R CO CO CO CO CO CO o - c o c o c o c o c o c o c o c o o o c o o o c o CO CO 8 ^ $ IC IC CO CO CO K 1 0 ^ - O O ^ K > K l f O K > K I K l K 1 0 r \ i C M O O K I O I A CO CO "O *o C* O O O O © O O S O-o o o o o l> o> o> O - o> CO CO CO CO OQ CO CO CO CO CO CO CO OL 3 — —. t i l (/; (/! u . u . u . I k T ] eft u . u_ »*- «*_ H - C C C O Q u . (A T3 « 5 a x L . L - L - $ 1 . 0 ) e> — — — o o o c o o i o ) L . • £ — • — ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ U ^ O ^ C C C i U . C . C + ' H - O 8 c "8 S o o u > - . > O O 0 J O O O O > o c r j i c u i _ . o i _ i _ t _ < _ c • e e u C e u 3 3 — 3 3 3 3 e u » - O U J Q < « « < < < « Q II f o fc c fc fc * • C C O u O O 1- t-U O l _ L- U O O n . c 3 D 5 5 11 111 I c c _ (0 *^ L . c c c ai u c eu L. I_ 1- > O I- > O O O O O C U O C t 3 < • O (A —' 3 C CO eu cu O- c . i - t- o reek tl fnger 4 ^ >- j Rock C Borden link Beery Janite Schatt McNult Black >- > . — — CU CU — — > . « - 3 3 3 l - — o 2 Z CU C O u u cu a o x x m - » x S 3 3 O J * 4* .tt . V ^ 01 t) t l O O V V 4) 4) t l ft) t l (I 4> 1- Iw (_ l _ L_ t_ L-O O CJ CJ U O CJ . X . K - g -* -cc cc cc o o o cj c o o o o c co at CK ec cc < -» cu 4 J 4 J (D CO CU L. 4-> CU — Ol C o a •8. cu CM CM O J o d d c c cu cu • 6 ? «-5 cu cu CNJ ro cu «o • • en eS O O CD — z z 3 co I i 8 I s 3 (- CD O CD CO 4rf CA —* . J* J£O m cu u o o O O l 8 ) f D » ] c c c E £ ^ L t L L t E 3 3 3 3 3 3 » - ( M K l » J tfl <0 S _ eg E i C ( l l t t i t l l l l « l i ' 3 l ! ^ I "8 O l - X § a O b- 1-CU CU 01 CO o o u u 375 •X _» ^ OJ O (M 0 * !_T » 0 * 0 O N- m C O * - i n v - O J %*-fNJ £ c o >r m s K . m » - >© i n - * c o m i n ^ « * f « « - * - >o N - O O C*» CO CO > ->r c o r >0 * " N M f » - N a j ' * < - i n i f t ' - « - f - » - « - * - ( M ^ ^ M f O r ^ < c o r n < liJ >o ^ i n «— C\J N- f v j ^ c o r - K i ^ ^ ^ ^ o o o f V N ^ i N ^ ^ n j / t i n ^ c o e o * 2 c o c o c o c o c o eg c o Q Q O o o o c O c O e o c o c a a o a c o e o o *— o «— CM «— «— >r ^ u ^ i n o o i n i n ^ - r — ^ - o o « r v i » — * - o ^ - ^ - » — o o o o o i n w O O ^ - O O J r - -J-r o i n H O ^ ^ fO i n i f t ^ * r \ o i n > # ^ ^ ^ c Q \ f \ \ f t ^ ^ \ j ^ * o \ n \ n ^ ^ ^ o * * T * f c o < - o o o o o o o o o « - o o o c 5 c 3 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O > O > O » C > ( > C > > O ^ 0 > C > C > p v C > ( > O ^ O ^ CO > 0 > C O t > e O K > O C O f O C J U c j c j c j w> O tt* o C ww — C C C u-eo ••— co ca a i cn cu z o) a» a» © CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ -C § 3 3 - • X X X 3 3 5 — o o X u> u . —' L . U U L . L . L . W - . L . w w . > . > . > . > . > . > . > • o n — — — — — — — — — * - u L . t- u t- u u L . > . — «* . C L ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 T 3 " O " D " O T 3 " O J . L L L U U U u i l l . j f l t l i S ' j . t J ' i i t i t i - <0 10 10 <0 9 tO 3 2 3 41 — — — — _ — _ _ (A OC t— cn s c o» aj at L . u o o 3 3 < < § g S § S § s § 4 - M « . 0 . 4 _ ' f f | ( g ( O U U < O « - l 9 - - 4 - > + -C C C u C w w U 0 t » c . C < - C . C C C 1 _ L . O L . O O O > > O L . O L . L . L . O O O C O C L . L . C C L . O L . O O O -C -C -C 3 J= 3 3 3 V . 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J . c j C J c j ca "2 Of *- CO 01 U C J ( J U U C J < J f c * C o o o o o o o c c a o c o c a c a c o - o c a c < - i co co «— CM f l 01 CO O O CO — Z Z 3 00 S ^ cu a a a a a 4 J - C c e c c "3* L. U *C_ "t_ ~U U c 3 3 3 3 3 3 00 CB CQ CO CD CO CB CD c »• CM m > » m 01 CO CO — >. z L. CU 41 •M 5. C « C CO 41 4) tl £ £ -CJ CJ CJ CJ 41 0) 01 3 £ £ £ £ CJ CJ CJ CJ CO CO E § .11 CJ CJ 41 41 "S CD JC — O CO O 3 C J_ O O X — Z 3 >• CO CO c_ 01 oo »a -a — >• CO CO CO CO o o c u CJ CJ c • 10 o a 386 CJ < o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O O O O r O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O s * -o o o -o o O rvj O •o «-o o o o o o o o o o o o o m m ro N n i -ro Kl IM o o o o o o o o o m o o co o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r s . O O O O O O O O O O Q r O C M O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O CO o o i s . o d -* I s . O O O O O o — r s . 3 — o o m o s r r o IM rs- m O -O o m e d o O i — O O sO IM ro s» — CM O O co m o o o o so sa O O Is. O O O O O O I M s r O O I M O < - 0 O O O O o m o ro o o c O IM O « - O O C o ^ o » - i s - o ' o r o o o o o O O O O s» e o s r o o o s r m o rs- «— o o o o o o o N > « - > t n i n o O k n o o o o o o r o s 9 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o c M i M c M S i n i n o o o o o o o o o i n c > c > - - s r i n s o o O s r o o > j > o o o s s r t n < O s O i n < ~ r O s r . * c M t M O O O O O k c O s 0 S S s ! o r o o r o m - - « - - - - - r o - - - - - - .— o o o o o o o - - - - - - o o _ " » o o o o o o o » o - o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o i M r o r o o o o o o o o o o o o m o c > < — s c r m s o o o s r o o s # o o i > ^ - > o s o < o s o r s . s > r r i j ^ o o o o r s - N ^ s d r s . r s ^ d r o d m s r CM IM CM CM - - m m ^ O O O O O O S - - - - - - O O i n Q O s 0 O O O l > l > O O O O O O O O O O O O o o o O ' O O c M t M r o r o o o o o o s O i s « o o o o i n c > i > ^ > e r i n s 3 o o s r o o o o o o > s » i « s O s O s O s o r s . r ^ > » ^ - * - - a 3 0 0 i s . r V s O i s - r s . o r o o ' r o r ^ - - m - - s - > s T « ~ CM CM CM CM i n n - - - - - - - - - - - - «— ai ca oi co TJ TJ Tj TJ 01 —• t - S _» — a O T J * ' - g l l L O — 3 — C O C O I O O O O O O O - < a u u u u - - ->s 01 C <2 -_! (0 01 • ca < 01 c ca c. 01 cj 4— t_ +J CO 01 J_ 3 CD a CO CO TJ 3 ca a. 3. < CO 01 01 O O - c o — ca "o! c. X c 3 01 C >• 01 o a o c- t_ co a TJ c. oi 3 TJ O co 3 01 O CO X co ce co u- ca CM CM No. No. No. No. c U i Enl Enl Enl _- «— IM CM IM ac CM § T — — CM ro ro o i c c o o o o o o * £ o i n — o c o « « - e - e - e z - E - c ' i 3 w s ^ - e — — or J - T J T J — c . .— ca o o o o o c j o i ~~ - - -ui o x _ a t - e - c a c a c O T J C » J - * t . - i > s u u u c . i _ u u " S 5 z i r r ^ . . M S 1 1 S 1 . 5 . S I O O O O O O O O O O Q O - 3 0 0 0 U i U J - - J • u c c c c c c u - C 01 — •— •— *»• 41 3 § 3 8 7 3 O O O O 3 O O O O < ) O r \ J O O ^ O O O O O O O O O O O O O O v T i n c o i n o « - m m § c > * o > Q o o r*» m m > KI - - - - - - - - r\j r\j o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O O O Q O Q Q O Q O O o o o o o o o o o o O O O O O O O N . O r o m o o o o o o t M •o o m o o o d d o o o - - o - - L r i L n o o o o o ^ 3 o a - - o o o »* o o o o • - • - o v» - - «— o m o o < M ( M m o o v r o o o o o o - - O v j - v r v r f N - o o o o o • - >*• o C M « -o i n o o o N - i n o o o o c o o o o ^ r o c M o o r» CM 4 o - - o > o o o o o o o o O f O O O O •— e O O O O - J f O C M t M C M N . - " • - - • » » CM * HI o <>•*--c c '3 '3 cu Ol C _ •O 3 CO o • II II > 3 2 o o o X X X c c « .: s S 1. "S 3- 3-. c e x: cu 41 01 X — > > 1 CU ca ea ca cu 388 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o - - - - - - - - o o o o o o o o o o o * - -o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o u a O O O O N - O O O O O O O O O C O O 3 O O O O O O O O v J - o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o a o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o < a 2 2 2 2 2 . 2 2 2 2 2 2 K ? 2 2 0 0 9 ° * ^ o ° ° o o o o c > f - o o o a o •— oo o •— o •— -o o - ~ OOK.CO*— o e o c o r u o o o o o o a o o o o o o o o o o o o d d o o o o r - o o o o> o d d O va-i n o o o o o o o o r g m o o o o o o o m r g o o o o o m o o o o o o o o o - - O T — o o o o o o o o o o o * - o i n o o o o o o r - - - o o o o o o o - - G O O o © o O O O O O O O O O K I O K I t M - O Q O O O - O - - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 o - - c a o r » o o o o - - ^ » — ^ o c o r u c > o r s j a D O » - - o o o o * n o u - \ o c ^ c o r \ J CM v f v O a o a o > o - - o o a o o o o f O K » 0 ' O o o o - - c o c o f . o o o o - - L r \ - - i j ^ a a j r v j c ^ o r - c o o - - o o o o c o u ^ u ^ o c > a _ r \ j CM CM t— f o f\i r y r-o o o o o o o c o o - — o u ^ o o o o o o r v . - - o o o g o o g c > ' C > o o g g i n O O O O O f ^ r v . r ^ * 0 O f 0 v r > 0 O O O O ' 0 - - O O O O O O O f 0 ^ O O O O oj * — * - CM *- m * — n -j - CM ry T — —— m c « o at C 73 3 ea c c c c c o o o o o a a o o -s -s •§ -s o til J . O HI 01 - L. >. CO CJ 44 01 CB O — 01 § 3 - X 73 01 2 —' ac - I 3 T S £ 3 01 ii ai f>- oi — c >.<__. ._ C- *— C J 01 c *— 01 4— CO —* -x 3 x: • - S ca 8 u 3 3 "5 ac x x -» u . c/i o o z z CM c. 01 CO CO Cl u c. ca u 01 01 o 01 PCI Rog O) o ac z - X a. J - ack CM No d ca 01 0. • • c c c v> cu z • • o 01 o o « 01 01 >~ cu UJ Cr Cr z z us us us X 01 >. >. >- *> 44 44 x: sz CJ 1— c_ c * sz CO ce CO 44 4-1 44 01 c c c at 01 01 01 01 "o o o o o O X a : X z X X z X X X X 3 8 9 O O O O O O O - T O O O O O IM o o o o o o o o o o ac CO o o o o o o o o o o o o o c o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o U - V O O O O O O O O O O a O O O O O i n — - - m O -O si oi ( M O O O c M ^ o o m r o o o •o «- o o o o CO r— o r v i o o o o o o d o d o sO o o o o o o o o o ( M o o o o o o o o CM O o d d CM m i n - - o o o m o o c M « - s » s » e o f » - ro sd o o i n o o o m ro o o s T «— «— O o o CM O - O O O O O O IM « - CO CO CO i n ro o o ro o o O CM o T - 1 C ' ro « - o o o o o i n m i n CM o o o ~ r o CM sef co co co N . o o o o o o o o o o - o o o m o o o o o o o - " IM - o -o o o o o -4* rs- o o m o c cu Jrf Jr f J r f J r f cn cu eu eu eu oc c cu V eu cu u l c c . c L . u . u C J C J c j CO 4-z CO Jrf Jrf Jrf Jrf < J - ej o (J u ac ej o o o o *— CO QC ac ac oc s* " C CO en 5 c . u Tj eu eu co 2-e- — co 3 c o 5 a u i oc u - -» cu — c j eu Jrf — 8 co oc -> c -8 — — ~z> z (J X o o C J C J C J >— o cu c — c CO CO CO . _ CU U U X CU a S i d d e s d d d u UJ a ^ •0 in O O O vJ- o o m o o i - t) « 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 ^ m a o o o o o o o o o a o o o o o a o o o S o o O v j - o o o o o o r n o o v O f n ^ a a g o o g o o a o o o o o i n o K K o o o o d i M M o d d d 8 8 8 § 8 8 8 3 S - - - - o o o o o o i n K » o 3 8 8 3 & 3 S S & 5 . 8 3 o g g o o o o o - - t M O - - - - o o o o o o o g g o o o a d o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o o o o o o ro m CM o co o CM -or o o o o o o o o o o g o o o o o i n o t n o o o o o * o r n v » d i n ^ d c M O i n o o o . n m m o o o o o g g i n i n o o o o m o o N . r - - o o o i n c M O c o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o g o cn o o o o o 3 O CM O O 3 o o o « a f o m > < r O i n - - c 3 C M O i n Ki •» fl m m in o c/i i n m o o o o o o m o o o o m i n o o o o i n i n c o o o o - o 3 § 3 < O C Q Q Q C M - - * f Q CM ( O « -c o o o o o o o o o o o i n g o O K » > » d i n - - O C M r - . i n o - - O i n m «- m ro CM in « - « - % » • at LU u . CO 3 < CA CA CA CA 3 3 3 3 oi o> a t ao 3 3 3 3 < < < < OJ cu c CO a> IO d « . « a *—*-» .— •— C C C U CO CO co ••— u U c_ t_ cu CU cu cu • -< J - J _ o CO co CO CO CJ 3 3 3 3 -d z CM IO • c o O o LU z z z C. c c_ u CU 11 cu CU M _- __ c o CA CA i g cu -Z O cu cu z — a § s s aa ca O S O S C Lm CU cu J4> —— mmt CA CA C C XZ xz o o <_ 8 3 3 3 0> O 5 O O LV LW L V QC 3 3 (3 U c. cu CU J -—' Cl a a. a. a. a. O z mmm C U l •— c c O o O z «-> +-CO CO —» *—' «•* c CO CO LU cu cu cu cu 01 CU Cl 4-' *— Cl o c . c *-i J c c mmt cu CO CO cu e Lm 0. oc a. a. Q. a. 391 o o o o o o o o o o o g o o g o o g o o o o o o o o g o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o LU a o o o >o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o un ro co o o i n «4- i n r o o m o o r o i n CM •— o o o o o o o o < i n o m o i n o N - O N . 00 N . CO IM O O CO O > CM (M » - « - s r - ~ N . o o - o c o c o s O i n i n ' - - - i M O - - o O O O CM O o o o o o g g o o o g g o o g g g o o o o o o o t > J I M I M I M I M C > s 3 l O i n ' - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Crt CJ - - O O - - O O O O O O C M ( M - - O r M O O O O o o o o « - o « - o < -• - o o o o m o o o o o - - < 0 ' 0 > O i n i n c M O O O u " i O C M O ^ « - O O r O « - O O C O O O O O O I M C M O O O L n o o o o o o o o o o r - -« - CM . CO 8 ) <0 *g -o 0 <0 <0 m m oi ru o *— r— o o fO o o o u ^ o o o o o f \ i r s j o o o ^ o t n g ^ O O C O O O O ^ O O ^ O ^ O ^ O O r ^ O r ^ c O M Ift N CO N O <- OJ M ry (\j OJ OJ -4* ^ m m CM ! < A r t ' O e o e o < ) ! A i n i - N f y " - i - t -^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ c ^ - i ^ * : ui CA eg CA CA c y a > c u a j a » a ) c o a » c u c c c c c 41 41 0) V O V 4) 4 ) 4 I < < < < < CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ o o o u o u o u o o c a c o a i f l i d i 5 5 5 o o o o o o — — — — CA 0) CA ( A 3 3 3 3 ? ? ? ? < < < < 41 z g C c C0 3 JC J - J -cu o> - : o ^ r g r o ^ i n s o r - c o < > C c c c c c •— C J Z 9 9 3 8 9 . . . . cu -— - - CM CM ro u • 6 e 6 fi fi O O O O 31 cy) 3 Z — < O O O O O O O O O T J T J T J T J - O Z z z z 5 S C Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z L U U i U J U i k U c _ _ » o o o o o — - f l - a u j « £ 4 _ * - f c u z z z z z - ) < « . * * . s > . H > . > t - > < * . < « - < « . < * . Q C ) 0 c ) 0 g 0 c i a c ) T J T J T J T J _ ; M _ T J - - - - * - * - - ^ * . * . * - * c a _ C C C C U T J l $ - I C A U » c n i A C c — • — — c c c c c o C O e a i o c O B C C C C C C C l_ flj c Q 4 l ( n i S A < t Q t S c 0 > } 3 i j g O O 392 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o un o c j a l o < Cf t> a C M o -* o O O O Q r - K . O O Q o o o m s . o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o e o o o o o o o o o o o o o O O O O O O O O O - O O •vf CM v* m v» o o o o o o Iv. O CM o m i n aS o - - d 3 v» « -CM CM O «— o m o « — o - - o e o o o m K . f~ o o o S o o o o o o o m o o o o o o o o r n o - - r v . c o o o - ' n o o o o o o m o o v o c j o v o m d - - o o o o eg m a . a o •— m O O O O C M N . C M O o o i n o r - m m o CM CM •— o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o v l - C M v f v f O O O O v» co ao vT CM fv. CM O C M C M - - i n v » " C M v f v J > v * ; Q C > i n C M C f M - - v r a 3 a 3 G O - O v r CM o ' O s . —— i n m m to « - CM m 3 ' • l n l l * . o ^ l • o ^ ^ , 0 ' " 0 » • ( ^ J l O ( ^ J » - O I -« • (M IM » • T - eg eg « - «— .-*£ Jki ._-C i o o o — — — "8 c. i '5 oc oc ac z z ce cc ai c a i r i C C C ca 3 ca oi oi oi ca oi oi e c u —« — CJ CJ Cl —• v - * « ' « - c i - c a c a z j i o i 3 3 3 o — — •— 5 o _ -2 c c j i " c " S 9 S 8 5 o X •g i ca c — 3 CJ a . j -01 ea —— CM c re 44 CO . 01 CJ CO o o c o c 3 z z U i z XZ O xz XI xz as u. *-* 44 c c __ J - X c c 3 O XL a u c c 01 01 01 ztz CA o O O 44 CV CD 0) LU LU 01 01 01 OS z z CA c co c c CO u c c c 3! c c O CO to to CJ CJ CJ tO ca CO to CO CO 1 c CJ 44 44 O c 3 3 3 c c c c c c S 01 44 44 a. V - •4-J . M -*! 01 01 01 01 tv 01 c 44 ca CO to 01 CO C0 ca u o o CB a> 0) CO cn cn u TS xz XZ to 01 a> CD a i o o o o o o o O O IB IS ca u u 01 xz ac ac ac ac ac ac ac ac ac CA CA v> CA (A CA IA CA CA IA C M m v » m vo o o o d o to z c o cu — -: 5 O - 1 3 os "a CO CA 3 3 _L 393 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o d d o o o o o o o o o o o o O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o • M O O O O O O O O O r s - o o o o o o o o m o o o C M C M I M ( M O i l l O O » - N I M K I O O O O O O O O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O ^ O O t M l M I M I M O O O > » - - O O i n i n O O - - I M O r O t M r O O O O O O O O O O O O O O o o o o m o o u i o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o i n c n o o r - o c o i n i n o o - - o o r O ( M i o o o i n i n * -- - o o o o o o o o >» o o O T - O N O I M I M C M C M N . 41 ~ c *- o CD C — 3 a . x c c c c oi cu eu cu > 01 01 01 01 i u ai LU 3 "S u » CD J f at 01 CO 01 01 « 01 CD Cr c C c t- c 4- 4— 01 01 •a CO CO CO T J 3 3 3 3 T J t- O CD CO CO CO o L . 3 3 3 CO CO 1- < < < •g. 4 -S. •£ ac ac ac cc o o § § co co ca co C C C C •§ -s -s •§ f l\i Kl vf « JC . ( J O O O w cn c/s to (— z z z z C A CO CO CO CO CO - C c c c c CO c c C J 01 01 01 01 >» o o > > > > c_ 01 01 01 V u >- >. 4— u> 4-w> 4-C A 4-1 C/> 4-w> CO CO CO T J CO J- 01 C 41 o u »— IM d d z z c t-g 0. u t-3 3 CO 3. CD 41 — eg — CA — C M O Z o c Z 41 := "8 "8 oi oi X X X i o -r d d x c c c c 3 3 3 >. >-01 41 394 o o o 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 O O O Q O O O O O C M o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r - o o o O O O O PU O O O O o o o o o o «- r - o r - o v f f n o m v f m O c o o o o o o c M m o o o o t M o § 0 O O o i n o m o o m - ^ • — • - • — 0 0 IC o o o o •— o - O f n o - j f i n r - o e o - — K I o o o - O ' . i n N o t . -CO '— <— *— o m m vO •— m m •— «- «- m •- «- m r * o co «— o 41 o w ca c co "3 cu 43 « § c CO U CJ CJ J X ca ca ca c. —• a ca CB cj 41 cj o u u C - • - 4 « X X X OC -9 •0 co « - CM a. > . Crt T J c ca ca 3 3 —- CM m >r m r — d o d o o x z z z < * C C C C C C C _ , S < -i_ u c S 4 i 4 i 4 i c i t c a c c g 4 > 41 « S w w w w w 4 . 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CD 01 J C 01 41 4 0 7 1 8 at w c -5 • " . * ° « CM •*- IM - C "8 a» T J 11 01 ca z Q_ TJ V S £ = O ^ o - 3 " "8 « "2 8 Oi w 01 01 C 01 e c u u o u 01 JS 41 a >— a s i C J . w c X X TJ Z S TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ CO CO co CO S 5 3 3 3 - - oi — at ac ac > » > » > » > > > to CB aj to oi oi oi 3 3 3 ^ 8^ ^ 8^ 3 CO CO-CO L. o at cj a f l — at c. 3 U i o 01 -1 CJ < «§ 01 CO u o at a S 5 o o at ot cs CJ c c « ct at s 01 0 01 CJ S 5 5 5 §5 *-» •* .>.>. in ot Ot CO TJ TJ TJ u (S O d) CO 2 2 3 3 o o o 2 2 2 U U C. 5 C S 41 V O > > "TJ T J T J *•»+«» *«» a o a t i v v i A u i -i « r » r U t l l t U i « i l J t l l g 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 CM d d 8 8 •ko* *•* i i 8 8 *•* *•* 1 I — — c 3 3 3 408 APPENDIX D 1885 AGRICULTURAL CENSUS, SOUTH PARK In 1885 the s t a t e o f C o l o r a d o conducted a c e n s u s , u s i n g the forms o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s Census o f 1880. In the pages t h a t f o l l o w , a p o r t i o n o f the enumerat ion i s t r a n s c r i b e d : t h e m a n u s c r i p t a g r i c u l t u r a l census f o r South P a r k . O r g a n i z e d i n f o u r s e c t i o n s , the f i r s t p a r t p r e s e n t s f i g u r e s on r a n c h v a l u e and a c r e a g e . The second p a r t shows p r o d u c t i o n , l a b o u r , f e r t i l i z e r , and f e n c i n g . P a r t I I I i s a l i v e s t o c k and p o u l t r y i n v e n t o r y , and P a r t IV r e p r e s e n t s p r o d u c t i o n o f hay and p o t a t o e s . The t a b l e s i n t h i s appendix p r e s e n t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r South Park o n l y . Data from o t h e r c o r n e r s o f Park County were e x c l u d e d on the b a s i s o f the a u t h o r ' s knowledge o f p i o n e e r names i n t h e s e p a r t s o f the c o u n t y : the P l a t t e Canyon a r e a i n the n o r t h w e s t , t h e B l a c k Mounta in and West F o u r m i l e a r e a s ( the p r e s e n t - d a y G u f f e y area) t o the s o u t h , and the Lake George a r e a i n the s o u t h e a s t . The c a t e g o r i e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a re coded as f o l l o w s : ED Enumerat ion D i s t r i c t (1885 C e n s u s , Park County , Co lo rado) P Page (1885 C e n s u s , Park County) LAST_NAME L a s t Name, Head o f Ranch Household FIRST_NAME F i r s t Name, Head o f Ranch Househo ld TENURE Tenure : Own = Owns r a n c h RENT = Rents o r L e a s e s CROP = S h a r e c r o p s IMP_ACRES Improved acreage UNIMP_ACRES Unimproved acreage FARM_VALUE V a l u e o f the Farm ( i n d o l l a r s ) MACH_VALUE V a l u e o f Machinery ( i n d o l l a r s ) 409 STOCK_VALUE FENCES FERTILIZER LABOUR PAID LABOUR WKS PRODUCTION AC_MOWN AC_UNMOWN TONS_HAY AC_POTATOE BUSH POTAT V a l u e o f S t o c k ( i n d o l l a r s ) M i l e s o f Fence Tons o f F e r t i l i z e r T o t a l P a i d f o r Labour ( i n d o l l a r s ) T o t a l Weeks o f Labour (example: 1 p e r s o n f u l l t ime = 52 weeks; 2 p e o p l e f u l l t ime = 104 weeks; 10 p e o p l e h i r e d f o r 8 weeks around the h a y i n g season = 8 0 weeks) T o t a l Farm P r o d u c t i o n ( i n d o l l a r s ) A c r e s o f Hay Mown A c r e s o f I r r i g a t e d Meadow (Unmown) Tons o f Hay Cut A c r e s o f P o t a t o e s P l a n t e d B u s h e l s o f P o t a t o e s Produced Note : The a u t h o r has a t r a n s c r i b e d copy o f the e n t i r e Park County A g r i c u l t u r a l Census f o r 1885. 410 PART I 1885 CENSUS VALUE AND ACREAGE p LAST_NAME fIRST_NAME TENURE IMP_ACRES UNIMP_ACRE FARM_VALUE MACH_VALUE STOCKJ/ALU 1 Lowe Charles U. Own 280 0 2000 300 1000 1 Humferson Edger Own 500 160 3000 200 1000 1 Sweet J.K. Own 700 0 15000 500 2500 1 Radford M.C. Own 1000 0 4500 100 3000 1 D i xon J.M. Own 1000 0 12000 250 2000 1 Parmelle J.D. Own 1500 0 5000 250 2500 1 Shoemaker R.P. Own 500 0 4000 200 2000 1 Haver L.C. Own 2000 0 9000 200 20000 1 Sweek J.L. Own 300 0 5000 200 30000 1 Funk W.H. CROP 500 0 20000 100 1500 2 Hulock J.P. Own 8000 40 2000 150 210000 2 Abrams Clara Own 8 0 350 0 0 2 Asher J.R. Own 160 0 200 100 200 2 Lloyd U.C. Own 0 100 50 0 300 2 Aulstrun E.M. Own 0 75 5000 125 1500 2 Scott Mrs.S.A. Own 0 75 1500 150 13000 2 Davis Charles Own 18 7 2000 100 1200 2 Goodnight Joseph Own 10 0 250 50 700 2 Dell Mary Own 15 0 1000 200 1000 3 Littleton U.A. Own 0 160 700 100 6000 3 Tremayne Richard Own 30 50 5000 300 16500 3 HartselI Joseph Own 10 40 200 100 4000 3 Bender John Own 15 105 1200 75 6000 3 Berry UM. Own 60 40 5000 500 3500 3 ? Own 40 0 500 50 1500 3 Wi tcher John R. Own 20 140 200 50 32000 3 ? Own 60 100 200 50 6500 3 O'Brien John Own 30 130 1000 50 11000 3 Gross Thomas Own 50 50 2500 75 4000 4 Tremayne Harry Own 20 300 1000 200 2000 4 Turner Charles Own 0 160 350 25 360 4 Robbins Thomas Own 150 500 8500 100 9000 4 Sims J.B. Own 150 0 300 75 13000 4 Pruden L.H. Own 100 260 500 150 1000 4 RusseI R.B. RENT 0 30 10000 100 2000 4 HartselI Samuel Own 200 4000 100000 1000 40000 4 Rickard U.B. Own 50 550 8000 200 4000 4 Risner UM. RENT 0 480 0 0 200 4 Donovan A.C. Own 200 500 10000 150 12000 5 Guiraud Louis Own 600 1400 30000 1500 5000 5 Rinehart P.F. Own 200 1000 11000 0 500 5 Eulor ?.P. Own 0 291 2000 300 2000 5 Alden Howell Own 300 260 10000 500 1500 5 Alden E. Own 70 130 3000 100 1000 5 Dudley Geo. Own 50 200 3000 200 6000 411 ED P LAST_NAME FIRST_NAME TENURE IMP_ACRES UNIMP_ACRE FARMJ/ALUE MACH_VALUE STOCK_VALU 1 5 Mi 1I igan Jas. Own 0 160 300 50 1000 1 5 Fiffe Obe. Own 0 150 500 50 800 1 5 Rich N.A. Own 100 540 10000 100 3000 1 5 Binkley John Own 40 540 3000 100 6000 1 6 Johnston Oliver Own 75 85 5000 100 1200 1 6 Johnston UM. Own 40 120 1200 50 275 1 6 Nelson Lars Own 0 200 800 200 1300 1 6 Weston Geo. Own 200 820 7000 100 5000 1 6 Weaver Jos. Own 20 300 900 75 1500 1 6 Mi Her David Own 200 1040 10500 100 4000 1 6 Merts UM. Own 0 40 800 100 3000 1 6 Rogers Jas.E. Own 0 0 0 0 2200 1 6 Own 0 320 1500 100 3000 1 6 Smith, Purcell Own 200 860 8000 150 400 1 7 Eddy Brothers Own 0 1100 10000 300 50000 1 7 Becham Henry C. Own 0 0 0 0 20000 1 7 Tremayne John Own 40 200 10000 100 300 2 1 Wadley Mary & Sons Own 1500 900 10000 200 1200 2 1 Spur lock Obediah CROP 0 0 0 0 250 2 1 Chalmers Harold CROP 4000 4000 40000 800 350 2 1 Guiraud Mary Own 1000 100 10000 100 15000 2 1 Guiraud Joseph Own 1000 150 10000 0 225 2 1 Guiraud Joseph Own 1000 100 10000 0 . 0 2 2 Feringer, Rink Own 960 40 25000 952 1240 2 2 Rishaburger Henry Own 320 0 2000 525 8500 2 2 Harrington J.C. Own 2640 0 2640 1000 10000 2 2 Spinney Benjamin F. Own 4240 0 42400 1000 13000 2 2 Rogers Joseph Own 1280 0 35000 1000 20000 2 2 Rayner James B. Own 400 0 3500 230 1000 2 2 Own 160 0 800 175 1344 2 2 Stoll Frederick Own 160 0 2000 1065 2350 2 2 Smi th E.J. Own 480 0 17500 500 2500 2 2 Swan Richard Own 320 0 6000 400 3205 2 3 Bysong Joseph Own 160 0 1000 0 1100 2 3 Clarkson Ann Own 160 0 2500 110 2905 2 3 VermiI lion UM. Oun 160 0 150 0 0 2 3 Stoll Frank Own 160 0 600 100 530 2 3 Messenger Ortero Own 270 50 500 25 170 2 3 Horn John Own 100 60 700 25 713 2 3 Pulver Frank C. Own 160 0 1500 175 1060 2 3 North George Own 160 0 0 0 0 2 3 Row John CROP 160 100 1000 0 325 2 4 Fluntan Gottlieb Own 120 80 1000 25 3075 2 4 Badger John Own 160 0 600 150 1800 2 4 H i wan Thomas Own 160 0 3000 80 1525 2 4 MclaughI in Sarah A. Own 320 0 6283 400 3715 2 4 Krebi11 Henry Own 160 0 500 600 0 2 4 •> Alexander Own 160 0 100 2 700 2 4 Mahoney Michael Own 320 0 4000 50 2300 2 4 KrebiIt Henry Own 160 0 1500 125 600 412 ED P LAST_NAME FIRST_NAME TENURE IMP_ACRES UNIMP_ACRE FARMJ/ALUE MACH_VALUE STOCKJ/ALU 2 4 Kelley Jacob Own 320 0 1000 150 3565 2 4 Herman John Own 160 0 100 0 50 2 5 Baker David Own 720 0 20000 1290 0 2 6 Duberry Uilla CROP 480 0 1800 150 725 2 6 Duberry Lilley RENT 760 0 2000 200 3135 2 6 Ui11iams John Own 440 0 4000 150 3110 2 6 Allen ? Own 320 0 6000 100 2775 2 6 Allen Addie Own 80 0 500 0 285 2 6 Farnum UM. R. Own 320 0 5500 150 260 2 6 Bonis Lawrence Own 360 0 3000 100 3430 2 6 Packer G.U. Own . 1120 0 15000 300 13300 2 6 Hawkins Joseph Own 80 0 200 0 150 2 6 Link James R. Own 1520 0 13000 300 38000 2 7 Borden Tiojothy Own 1360 0 15000 300 5760 2 7 ? John Own 520 0 7000 250 2000 2 7 Stout Albert Own 600 0 0 0 370 2 7 Slater S.S. Own 2500 0 25000 1000 15875 2 7 UiIson u.v. Own 320 0 8500 50 50 2 7 Crosier Edwin R. Own 320 0 5000 200 2160 2 7 McCartney UM. Own 440 0 8000 500 5050 2 7 Borden Mary Own 2200 0 20000 500 5915 2 7 Troppe George Own 440 0 2200 200 3425 2 7 Dunbar Thomas Own 1600 0 10000 250 7400 2 3 Dunbar James Own 440 0 5000 200 2835 2 a Dunbar Charles Own 320 0 3500 100 2180 2 8 Pike E. Own 280 0 4000 200 1150 2 8 Miller UM. Own 160 0 0 0 1075 2 a Monoghan Peter CROP 300 0 3000 350 3300 2 8 Coats Raymond Own 160 0 300 100 1625 2 8 Uhitten, Geddes Own 800 0 6750 1190 3735 2 8 7 Henry Own 160 0 2000 0 825 2 8 Ratcliff Benjamin Own 1290 0 1800 100 2000 2 8 Lee James Own 320 0 3000 300 8005 2 9 Case E.L. Own 480 0 5000 1000 4871 2 9 Uyatt John Own 80 130 1000 200 4735 2 9 Baker David Own 720 0 20000 615 1290 2 9 Harriman Clark Own 160 0 1000 100 5025 2 9 L i tmer Fred J . Own 640 0 15000 1000 2925 2 9 Craig U.H. Own 160 0 1000 200 1000 2 9 Head U.K. Own 1000 0 10000 1200 2160 2 9 Crockett Joseph Own 760 0 15000 1000 5550 2 9 Read Edwin F. Own 240 0 5000 200 720 2 9 Tyler Samuel Own 400 0 7000 500 1400 2 10 McCartney Frank U. Own 160 0 3300 200 400 2 10 LaselI Samuel Own 160 0 5000 200 8550 2 10 Peabody Lei on Own 290 0 5000 200 1180 2 10 Hoi thusen UM. M. Own 320 0 1000 200 2560 2 10 Votz John Own 320 0 5000 300 1500 2 10 Shattinger Henry Own 640 0 10000 300 1200 2 10 Hyatt Thomas Own 160 0 1000 200 900 2 10 Smi th James J . Own 160 0 6000 100 625 413 ED P L A S T _ N A H E F I R S T _ M A H E 2 10 S t o w WM. J. 2 10 K l i n e D a v i d 2 14 L a v a c k C h a r l e s 2 14 B o l i n g e r W e b s t e r 2 14 W a d s w o r t h F r e d e r i c k M 2 14 R e i c h e n e c k e r A l b e r t 2 14 L i n k , L e e J a n e s , WM. 2 14 N i c k e r s o n C h a r l e s 2 14 B u r n s U M . M . 2 14 O ' N e i l D a n i e l T E N U R E I H P _ A C R E S U N I M P _ A C R E Own 160 0 Own 160 0 Own 3 2 0 0 Own 1 0 8 0 0 Own 7 5 0 0 Own 1 2 0 0 0 Own 5 6 0 0 Own 160 0 Own 4 0 0 0 Own 8 4 0 0 0 0 7 6 5 1 1 2 3 5 1 8 F A R H J / A L U E M A C H J / A L U E S T O C K V A L U 2 0 0 0 100 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 2 0 0 3 5 0 0 1 5 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 5 4 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 100 2 8 5 0 0 0 0 9 9 3 8 2 3 3 8 9 0 9 8 9 5 6 1 8 414 PART I I 1885 CENSUS PRODUCTION, LABOUR, AND MISCELLANEOUS P LAST..NAME FIRST.,NAME FENCES FERTILIZER UBOURJ>AID LABOUR.UKS PRODUCTION 1 Lowe Charles U. 0 0 s 1100 52 $ 574 1 Humf erson Edger 0 0 s 0 0 s 0 1 Sweet J.K. 0 0 $ 700 52 s 3500 1 Radford M.C. 220 0 s 0 0 % 150 1 Dixon J.M. 70 0 s 500 52 t 1500 1 Parmelle J.D. 0 0 s 200 52 t 500 1 Shoemaker R.P. 0 0 s 200 52 s 500 1 Haver L.C. 200 0 $ 1500 52 t 600 1 Sweek J.L. 0 0 s 50 3 s 120 1 Funk U.H. 0 50 $ 200 8 s 360 2 Mulock J.P. 0 0 s 3000 52 J 0 2 Abrams Clara 0 0 s 0 0 J 0 2 Asher J.R. 0 0 s 0 0 J 150 2 Lloyd W.C. 0 0 $ 0 0 J 0 2 Autstrum E.M. 0 0 400 52 J 380 2 Scott Mrs.S.A. 0 0 300 52 J 50 2 Davis Charles 0 0 s 0 0 s 500 2 Goodnight Joseph so 0 0 0 £ 300 2 Dell Mary 150 0 s 200 52 s 700 3 Littleton W.A. 0 0 0 0 J 0 3 Tremayne Richard 0 0 s 100 52 J 500 3 HartselI Joseph 0 0 s 100 20 J 260 3 Sender John 0 0 s 0 0 J 100 3 Berry UM. 0 0 s 300 52 600 3 7 0 0 $ 0 0 $ 120 3 Uitcher John R. 0 0 $ 100 20 800 3 ? 0 0 s 75 12 $ 150 3 O'Brien John 0 0 $ 200 40 500 3 Gross Thomas 0 0 s 100 12 J 500 4 Tremayne Harry 0 0 s 0 0 $ 325 4 Turner Charles 65 0 s 0 0 0 4 Robbins Thomas 0 0 $ 100 12 s 600 4 Sims J.B. 0 0 s 0 0 120 4 Pruden L.H. 0 0 t 300 52 J 600 4 Russel R.B. 0 0 s 1000 52 J 0 4 HartselI Samuel 0 0 s 3000 0 $ 2000 4 Rickard U.B. 0 0 s 0 0 J 300 4 R i sner UM. 0 0 s 0 0 J 0 4 Donovan A.C. 0 0 s 1000 90 1000 5 Guiraud Louis 0 0 s 3500 400 s 3600 5 Rinehart P.F. 200 0 s 1000 0 $ 1200 5 Eulor ?.P. 0 0 100 0 s 0 5 Alden Howell 0 0 s 500 100 J 2000 5 Alden E. 0 0 s 150 52 s 600 5 Dudley Geo. 0 0 t 400 100 s 300 5 Milligan Jas. 0 0 s 0 0 $ 0 415 ED P LAST_NAME FIRST_NAME FENC 1 5 Fiffe Obe. 0 1 5 Rich N.A. 0 1 5 Binkley John 0 1 6 Johnston Oliver 0 1 6 Johnston UH. 0 1 6 Nelson Lars 0 1 6 Ueston Geo. 0 1 6 Weaver Jos. 120 1 6 Miller David 0 1 6 Merts UN. 0 1 6 Rogers Jas.E. 0 1 6 0 1 6 Smith, Purcell 0 1 7 Eddy Brothers 0 1 7 Becham Henry C. 0 1 7 Tremayne John 0 2 1 Wadley Mary & Sons 0 2 1 Spur lock Obediah 0 2 1 Chalmers Harold 500 2 1 Gui raud Mary 0 2 1 Gui raud Joseph 900 2 1 Guiraud Joseph 0 2 2 Feringer, Rink s 2 2 Rishaburger Henry 200 2 2 Harrington J.C. 0 2 2 Spinney Benjamin F. 1500 2 2 Rogers Joseph 500 2 2 Rayner Janes B. 100 2 2 •? 0 2 2 Stoll Frederick 0 2 2 Smith E.J. 0 2 2 Swan Richard 0 2 3 Bysong Joseph 100 2 3 Clarkson Am 0 2 3 Vermillion UM. 0 2 3 Stoll Frank 0 2 3 Messenger Ortero 100 2 3 Horn John 0 2 3 Pulver Frank C. 0 2 3 North George 0 2 3 Row John 0 2 4 Fluman Gottlieb 100 2 4 Badger John 0 2 4 Hi wan Thomas 0 2 4 Mclaughlin Sarah A. 0 2 4 Krebill Henry 0 2 4 7 Alexander 0 2 4 Mahoney Michael 50 2 4 ICrebi 11 Henry 0 2 4 Kelley Jacob 25 FERTILIZER LAB0UR_PA1D LABOUR_UKS PRODUCTION 0 $ 0 0 $ 0 0 s 200 52 $ 500 0 s 100 36 s 300 0 $ 200 52 $ 500 0 s 75 20 $ 600 0 $ 0 0 s 0 0 400 75 $ 1000 0 * 100 20 s 150 0 s 800 75 $ 1500 0 s 0 0 s 0 0 s 0 0 0 0 s 0 0 s 0 0 s 300 52 $ 700 0 s 1000 52 $ 0 0 $ 400 52 s 0 0 $ 50 38 $ 1000 0 s 1500 260 s 750 0 s 0 0 s 0 0 s 1000 80 s 5000 0 s 1000 84 s 1950 0 s 0 0 $ 1800 0 * 0 0 $ 1000 0 $ 1840 140 s 2750 0 $ 600 60 s 0 1000 s 1800 1000 s 15000 0 s 2500 1500 s 3000 0 s 1500 180 s 0 0 s 300 28 s 400 0 s 30 4 s 150 0 $ 415 45 s 825 0 s 0 0 $ 125 0 s 500 40 $ 850 0 $ 25 4 $ 25 0 s 250 12 s 300 0 s 0 0 s 0 0 s 200 0 s 470 0 s 0 0 s 130 0 s 0 0 s 0 150 % 60 8 s 400 0 s 0 0 s 0 0 s 0 0 s 0 0 s 50 4 $ 0 0 s 75 5 s 400 0 J 0 0 $ 50 0 s 450 40 s 425 0 $ 0 0 s 200 0 s 0 0 $ 300 0 $ 0 0 $ 1000 0 s 100 20 $ 200 0 s 150 0 s 8 416 ) P LAST_NAME FIRST_NAME FENCES FERTILIZER LABOUR.PAID LABOUR_WKS PRODUCTION 4 Hennan 5 Baker 6 Duberry 6 Duberry 6 Williams 6 Allen 2 6 Allen 2 6 Farnun 2 6 Bonis 2 6 Packer 2 6 Hawkins 2 6 Link 2 7 Borden 2 7 ? 2 7 Stout 2 7 Slater 2 7 Wilson 2 7 Crosier 2 7 McCartney 2 7 Borden 2 7 Troppe 2 7 Dunbar 2 8 Dunbar 2 8 Dunbar 2 8 Pike 2 8 Miller 2 8 Monoghan 2 8 Coats 2 8 Whitten, Geddes 2 8 ? 2 8 Ratcliff 2 8 Lee 2 9 Case 2 9 Wyatt 2 9 Baker 2 9 Harriman 2 9 Litmer 2 9 Craig 2 9 Head 2 9 Crockett 2 9 Read 2 9 Tyler 2 10 McCartney 2 10 Lasell 2 10 Peabody 2 10 Holthusen 2 10 votz 2 10 Shattinger 2 10 Hyatt 2 10 Smith 2 10 Stow John David Willa Li I ley John ? Addie Lawrence G.w. Joseph James R. Timothy John Albert S.S. U.V. Edwin R. WM. Mary George Thomas James Charles E. WM. Peter Raymond Henry Benjamin James E.L. John David Clark Fred J . U.H. U.R. Joseph Edwin F. Samuel Frank W. Samuel Lelon John Henry Thomas James J . UM. J . 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 100 100 0 0 450 150 100 500 120 100 50 300 0 300 50 23 20 0 0 100 600 0 200 200 300 50 0 0 100 100 2000 300 250 300 100 0 0 0 50 150 50 50 0 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 900 76 0 0 0 0 320 15 0 0 0 0 350 12 0 0 500 40 0 0 1500 96 600 260 600 52 0 0 1800 720 90 8 250 24 500 32 1200 104 0 0 800 65 0 0 0 0 170 12 0 0 350 0 0 0 2000 200 500 0 900 76 88 20 900 104 0 0 900 76 500 40 500 104 25 52 3000 0 600 0 125 0 1000 0 150 0 600 0 300 0 0 0 250 0 250 0 400 0 200 0 0 0 417 ED P LAST_HAME F I RST_NAME FENCES FERTILIZER LABOUR_PAID LABOUR_U»CS PRODUCTION 2 10 K l i n e David 0 2 14 I a vac k Charles 100 2 14 B o l i n g e r Webster 0 2 14 Wadsworth F r e d e r i c k M. SO 2 14 Reichenecker A l b e r t 0 2 14 L i n k , Lee Janes, WM. 0 2 14 Nickerson Charles 0 2 14 Burns WM.M. 0 2 14 O'Neil D a n i e l 100 0 **** 0 s 0 0 S 0 0 s 500 0 s 2800 0 $ 0 0 $ 0 0 s 1850 0 s 1500 0 s 0 0 $ 800 0 $ 250 12 s 1000 0 s 0 0 s 800 0 s 0 0 S 0 0 $ 900 72 $ 1200 0 $ 0 0 s 0 1230 s 65463 7912 s 144242 418 PART III 1885 CENSUS LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 LASTJIAME FIRST_MAME AC_MOWN ACJJNMOUN TONS_HAY AC_P0TAT0E BUSH_POTAT Lowe Charles W. 70 210 41 0.25 5 Humferson Edgar SO 480 10 0.50 15 Sweet J.K. 200 500 200 0.00 0 Radford H.C. 25 100 18 0.00 0 Dixon J.M. 200 800 150 0.00 0 Parmelle J.D. 50 0 60 2.00 100 Shoemaker R.P. 100 400 75 0.50 25 Haver L.C. 75 2000 80 0.00 0 Sweek J.L. 25 0 20 0.00 0 Funk U.H. 100 400 50 0.00 0 Mulock J.P. 30 10 35 0.00 0 Abrams Clara 0 0 0 0.00 0 Asher J.R. 10 0 11 3.00 70 Lloyd W.C. 0 0 0 5.00 100 Aulstrum E.M. 25 0 30 0.50 20 Scott Mrs. S.A. 10 0 5 0.00 0 Davis Charles 0 0 0 7.00 500 Goodnight Joseph 0 0 0 4.00 300 Dell Mary 5 0 10 4.00 100 Littleton U.A. 0 0 0 0.00 0 Tremayne Richard 30 0 60 0.00 0 HartselI Joseph 0 0 0 0.00 0 Sender John 10 0 10 0.00 0 Berry UM. 60 0 70 2.00 32 ? 10 0 20 0.00 0 Uitcher John R. 14 0 50 0.00 0 15 0 15 2.00 75 O'Brien John 15 0 40 1.00 300 Gross Thomas 10 0 40 1.00 75 Tremayne Harry 16 0 15 0.00 0 Turner Charles 0 0 0 0.00 0 Robbins Thomas 100 500 100 0.00 0 Sims J.B. 25 125 20 0.00 0 Pruden L.H. 100 0 90 0.00 0 RusseI R.B. 0 0 0 0.50 25 HartselI Samuel 200 0 300 0.00 0 Rickard U.B. 50 0 50 0.00 0 R i sner UM. 0 0 0 0.00 0 Donovan A.C. 200 0 200 0.00 0 Gui raud Louis 600 0 600 0.00 0 Rinehart P.F. 200 0 200 0.00 0 Eulor ?.P. 0 0 0 0.00 0 Alden Howell 300 0 300 3.00 150 Alden E. 50 0 20 0.00 0 Dudley Geo. 50 0 50 0.00 0 Hilligan Jas. 0 0 0 0.00 0 419 ED P LASTJIAME F1RST_NAME ACJMWN ACJJNMOWN T0NS_HAY AC_POTATOE BUSH_POTAT 1 5 Fiffe Obe. 0 0 0 0.00 0 1 5 Rich N.A. 100 0 40 0.00 0 1 5 Binkley John 40 0 35 0.00 0 1 6 Johnston Oliver 100 0 65 0.00 0 1 6 Johnston WM. 40 0 55 0.00 0 1 6 Nelson Lars 0 0 0 0.00 0 1 6 Weston Geo. 200 0 125 0.00 0 1 6 Weaver Jos. 20 0 0 0.00 0 1 6 Miller David 200 0 150 0.00 0 1 6 Herts UM. 0 0 0 0.00 0 1 6 Rogers Jas. E. 0 0 0 0.00 0 1 6 0 0 0 0.00 0 1 6 Smith, Purcell 200 0 100 0.00 0 1 7 Eddy Brothers 0 0 0 0.00 0 1 7 Bee-ham Henry C. 0 0 0 0.00 0 1 7 Tremayne John 40 200 50 0.00 0 2 1 Wadley Nary & Sons 100 2300 75 0.00 0 2 1 Spurlock Obediah 0 0 0 0.00 0 2 1 Chalmers Harold 500 3500 500 0.00 0 2 1 Gui raud Mary 100 0 100 0.00 0 2 1 Guiraud Joseph 0 0 175 0.00 0 2 1 Guiraud Joseph 0 0 100 0.00 0 2 2 Feringer.Rink 250 750 275 0.00 0 2 2 Rishaburger Henry 0 0 0 0.00 0 2 2 Harrington J.C. 200 2240 200 0.00 0 2 2 Spinney Senjaain F. 370 3850 200 0.00 0 2 2 Rogers Joseph 150 1130 100 0.00 0 2 2 Rayner Janes B. 50 850 50 0.00 0 2 2 15 145 12 5.00 200 2 2 Stoll Frederick 50 110 50 12.00 500 2 2 Smith E.J. 15 455 15 5.00 200 2 2 Swan Richard 65 255 65 0.00 0 2 3 Bysong Joseph 2 158 2 0.00 0 2 3 Clarkson Am 12 148 12 0.00 0 2 3 Vermillion UM. 0 0 0 0.00 0 2 3 Stoll Frank 2 158 2 0.00 400 2 3 Messenger Ortero 0 0 0 0.25 130 2 3 Horn John 0 0 0 0.00 0 2 3 Pulver Frank C. 6 154 5 0.00 0 2 3 North George 0 0 0 0.00 0 2 3 Row John 5 150 5 0.00 0 2 4 Fluman Gottlieb 15 285 15 5.00 275 2 4 Badger John 12 150 12 0.00 0 2 4 Hi wan Thoaas 5 155 5 5.00 275 2 4 McLaughlin Sarah A. 25 295 25 0.00 175 2 4 Krebill Henry 20 140 20 0.00 0 2 4 ? Alexarider 5 155 5 0.00 0 2 4 Mahoney Michael 50 270 50 0.00 0 2 4 Krebill Henry 14 146 14 2.00 100 2 4 Kelley Jacob 300 312 8 0.00 100 4 2 0 ED P LAST NAME FIRST NAME 2 4 Herman John 2 5 Baker Oavid 2 6 Duberry Uitla 2 6 Duberry Li I ley 2 6 Ui Hams John 2 6 Allen ? 2 6 Allen Addie 2 6 Farnum UM.R. 2 6 Bonis Lawrence 2 6 Packer G.U. 2 6 Hawkins Joseph 2 6 Link James R. 2 7 Borden Timothy 2 7 John 2 7 Stout Albert 2 7 Slater S.S. 2 7 UiIson u.v. 2 7 Crosier Edwin R. 2 7 McCartney UM. 2 7 Borden Mary 2 7 Troppe George 2 7 Dunbar Thomas 2 8 Dunbar James 2 8 Dunbar Charles 2 8 Pike E. 2 . 8 Miller UM. 2 8 Monoghan Peter 2 8 Coats Raymond 2 8 Uhitten, Geddes 2 8 Henry 2 8 Ratcliff Benjamin 2 8 Lee James 2 9 Case E.L. 2 9 Uyatt John 2 9 Baker David 2 9 Harriman Clark 2 9 Litmer Fred J . 2 9 Craig U.H. 2 9 Head U.R. 2 9 Crockett Joseph 2 9 Read Edwin F. 2 9 Tyler Samuel 2 10 McCartney Frank U. 2 10 Lasell Samuel 2 10 Peabody Lelon 2 10 Holthusen UM. M. 2 10 Votz John 2 10 Shattinger Henry 2 10 Hyatt Thomas 2 10 Smi th James J . AC MOUM AC UHMQUM TONS_HAY AC_POTATOE BUSH_POTAT _0 0 0 0.00 0 200 520 200 0.00 0 0 0 0 0.00 0 20 740 20 1.00 50 40 400 40 1.00 50 40 280 60 3.00 160 5 75 5 0.50 150 30 290 60 0.00 0 30 830 60 0.00 0 200 0 200 0.00 0 10 70 10 0.00 0 150 370 150 0.00 0 0 1160 200 0.00 0 10 310 10 0.00 0 0 0 0 0.00 0 600 1900 500 0.00 0 0 0 0 0.00 0 100 220 100 0.00 0 300 190 250 0.00 0 100 2100 100 0.00 0 80 360 168 0.00 0 30 1570 40 0.00 0 25 415 25 0.00 0 20 300 20 0.00 0 100 180 135 0.00 0 50 110 50 0.00 0 100 200 100 0.00 0 0 0 0 0.00 0 275 525 275 0.00 0 50 110 50 0.00 0 65 1225 150 0.00 0 25 295 20 0.00 0 250 230 150 0.00 0 0 0 0 0.00 0 200 320 200 0.00 0 100 60 75 0.00 0 300 340 250 0.00 0 130 30 100 0.00 0 500 500 500 0.00 . 0 300 400 300 0.00 0 100 100 100 0.00 0 260 200 175 0.00 0 50 110 50 0.00 0 100 60 70 0.00 0 100 190 60 0.00 0 35 285 35 0.00 0 90 230 75 0.00 0 100 540 100 0.00 0 100 0 4 0.00 0 3 0 4 1.00 175 421 ED P LAST_MAME FIRST_MAME AC.MOUM ACJJWOwN T0MS_HAY AC_POTATOE BUSH_POTAT 2 10 Stow UM. J . 0 0 0 0.00 0 2 10 Kline David 0 0 0 0.00 0 2 14 Lavack Charles 100 220 100 0.00 0 2 14 BoIinger Uebster 150 930 150 0.00 0 2 14 Wadsworth Frederick M. 50 700 50 0.00 0 2 14 Reichenecker Albert 10 1191 7 0.00 0 2 14 Link,Lee Janes, UM. 50 640 50 0.00 0 2 14 Mickerson Charles 0 0 0 4.00 464 2 14 Burns UM. M. 150 250 150 0.00 0 2 14 O'NeiI Daniel 150 690 150 0.00 0 • 0 0 0 0.00 0 12341 46947 11665 81.00 5296 4 2 2 PART IV 1885 CENSUS PRODUCE p LAST_NAME FIRST_NAME HORSES MULES OXEN MILCHCOUS OTHER_COWS SHEEP SWINE POULTRY r Lowe Charles W. 13 1 7 5 28 Y 0 8 1 Hunferson Edgar 10 0 2 3 0 N 0 4 1 Sweet J.K. 20 0 0 12 0 N 0 50 1 Radford H.C. 3 0 0 17 60 N 0 0 1 Dixon J.M. 8 4 0 7 50 N 0 9 1 Parmelle J.D. 0 2 0 12 35 N 1 40 1 Shoemaker R.P. 7 2 0 3 22 N 0 0 1 Haver L.C. 50 0 0 0 800 N 0 12 1 Sweek J.L. 15 0 0 3 1000 N 0 30 1 Funk U.H. 4 1 0 10 40 N 0 5 2 Mulock J.P. 75 0 0 1 6000 M 2 25 2 Abrams Clara 0 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 2 Asher J.R. 2 1 0 0 0 N 0 0 2 Lloyd U.C. 0 0 0 5 0 N 0 15 2 Aulstrum E.M. 21 5 0 5 20 Y 12 56 2 Scott Mrs. S.A. 5 0 0 3 500 N 1 12 2 Davis Charles 4 0 0 5 50 H 3 20 2 Goodnight Joseph 5 1 0 8 1 H 1 40 2 Dell Mary 4 0 0 4 11 N 8 40 3 Littleton U.A. 10 2 0 10 225 N 0 44 3 Tremayne Richard 10 0 0 15 450 N 9 50 3 HartselI Joseph 4 0 0 15 125 N 1 0 3 Bender John 8 0 0 12 300 N 1 6 3 Berry WM. 6 0 0 20 70 N 1 24 3 ? 3 0 0 2 48 N 1 12 3 Witcher John R. 40 0 0 21 1200 N 0 0 3 11 0 0 0 193 N 0 24 3 O'Brien John 40 0 0 0 400 N 0 0 3 Gross Thomas 11 0 0 6 100 N 2 10 4 Tremayne Harry a 0 0 a N 0 24 4 Turner Charles 12 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 4 Robbins Thomas 23 0 0 7 250 Y 1 25 4 Sims J.B. 30 0 0 9 400 N 0 15 4 Pruden L.H. 12 0 0 4 6 N 0 12 4 Russel R.B. 5 1 0 6 60 Y 2 50 .4 HartselI Samuel 75 4 0 20 1000 Y 5 50 4 Rickard W.B. 7 0 0 50 50 N 0 24 4 Risner WM. 0 0 0 3 3 N 1 33 4 Donovan A.C. 25 0 0 3 200 N 0 0 5 Guiraud Louis 45 0 0 5 13 Y 0 100 5 Rinehart P.F. 65 0 0 6 500 N 3 50 5 Eulor ?.P. 4 0 0 0 0 N 0 12 5 Alden E. 15 0 0 3 7 N 3 8 5 Dudley Geo. 16 0 0 5 9 N 0 12 5 Hilligan Jas. 2 0 0 4 14 N 1 18 5 Fiffe Obe. 18 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 4 2 3 ED P l_AST_NAME FIRST_MAME HORSES MULES 1 5 Rich N.A. 15 4 1 5 Binkley John 14 0 1 6 Johnston 01iver 0 2 1 6 Johnston WM. 3 0 1 6 Nelson Lars 1 2 1 6 Weston Geo. 6 0 1 6 Weaver Jos. 7 0 1 6 Miller David 12 2 1 6 Herts WM. 9 0 1 6 Rogers Jas. E. 50 0 1 6 5 0 1 6 Smith, Purcell 3 0 1 7 Eddy Brothers 65 0 1 7 Becham Henry C. 38 0 1 7 Tremayne John 3 0 2 1 Wadley Mary S Sons 15 0 2 1 Spur lock Obediah 35 0 2 1 Chalmers Harold 15 0 2 1 Guiraud Mary 0 0 2 1 Guiraud Joseph 0 0 2 1 Guiraud Joseph 0 0 2 2 Feringer,Rink 11 0 2 2 Rishaburger Henry 8 0 2 2 Harrington J.C. 25 2 2 2 Spinney Benjamin F. 28 0 2 2 Rogers Joseph 30 1 2 2 Rayner Janes B. 20 0 2 2 7 4 0 2 2 Stoll Frederick 13 0 2 2 Smith E.J . 0 0 2 2 Swan Richard 8 0 2 3 Bysong Joseph 7 0 2 3 Clarkson Am 6 1 2 3 Vermillion UM. 0 0 2 3 Stoll Frank 1 1 2 3 Messenger Ortero 3 1 2 3 Horn John 0 0 2 3 Pulver Frank C. 15 0 2 3 North George 0 0 2 3 Row John 2 0 2 4 F liman Gottlieb 0 0 2 4 Badger John 17 0 2 4 H i wan Thomas 2 0 2 4 McLaughlin Sarah A. 14 0 2 4 Krebi11 Henry 11 0 2 4 •> Alexander 1 0 2 4 Mahoney Michael 10 0 2 4 Krebi11 Henry 10 0 2 4 Kelley Jacob 6 0 2 4 Herman John 1 0 2 5 Baker David 6 0 4 2 4 OXEM MILCHCOWS 0THER_COUS SHEEP SWINE POULTRY 0 12 100 N 0 0 0 16 300 N 0 0 0 15 36 N 10 6 0 0 0 N 0 0 4 15 21 N 2 24 0 3 197 N 0 12 0 11 34 N 2 24 0 5 165 N 0 6 0 5 90 N 4 15 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 4 80 N 0 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 0 2176 0 0 0 0 800 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 6 3 5 Y 0 15 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 6 7 600 Y 3 20 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 1 2 Y 1 7 0 4 250 N 2 21 0 0 0 N 7 50 0 6 150 N 0 0 0 20 400 Y 0 40 0 14 600 N 0 0 0 13 19 N 2 30 0 15 94 N 1 13 0 0 40 N 0 65 0 35 38 Y 0 0 0 10 15 N 0 0 0 25 27 N 10 40 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 3 10 N 0 24 0 3 0 N 0 0 0 3 13 N 3 12 0 4 4 N 1 30 0 2 5 N 0 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 20 100 N 0 0 0 6 19 N 0 0 0 7 31 N 0 0 0 18 57 N 0 19 0 12 0 N 0 0 0 13 18 N 0 0 0 0 60 N 0 0 0 2 2 N 0 18 0 10 117 N 0 40 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 ED P LASTJJAME FIRSTJIAME HORSES MULE! 2 6 Duberry Ui I la 4 0 2 6 Duberry LiUey 6 0 2 6 UiUams John 4 2 2 6 Allen 7 4 4 2 6 Allen Addie 0 0 2 6 Farnum UM. R. 2 0 2 6 Bonis Lawrence 4 0 2 6 Packer G.U. 20 0 2 6 Hawkins Joseph 0 0 2 6 Link James R. 26 0 2 7 Borden Timothy 24 0 2 7 ? John 4 0 2 7 Stout Albert 2 0 2 7 Slater s .s . 25 4 2 7 UiI son u.v. 1 0 2 7 Crosier Edwin R. 10 1 2 7 McCartney UM. 20 0 2 7 Borden Mary 21 1 2 7 Troppe George 8 0 2 7 Dunbar Thcjmas 25 0 2 8 Dunbar James 11 0 2 8 Dunbar Charles 8 0 2 8 Pike E. 13 0 2 a Miller UM. 0 0 2 8 Monoghan Peter 8 0 2 8 Coats Raymond 8 0 2 8 Whitten, Geddes 10 1 2 8 7 Henry 2 0 2 8 Ratcliff Benjamin 4 0 2 8 Lee James 15 0 2 9 Case E.L. 11 0 2 9 Wyatt John 7 4 2 9 Baker David 6 0 2 9 Harriman Clark 7 0 2 9 L i tmer Fred J . 6 0 2 9 Craig U.H. 10 0 2 9 Head U.R. 11 0 2 9 Crockett Joseph 12 0 2 9 Read Edwin F. 2 0 2 9 Tyler Samuel 5 0 2 10 McCartney Frank U. 2 0 2 10 Lasell Samuel 0 0 2 10 Peabody Lelon 4 0 2 10 Holthusen UM. M. 2 0 2 10 Votz John 3 0 2 10 Shattinger Henry 7 0 2 10 Hyatt Thomas 6 0 2 10 Smith James J . 6 0 2 10 Stow UM. J . 0 0 2 10 Kline David 1 30 2 14 Lavack Charles 9 0 4 2 5 OXEN MILCHCOWS 0THER_C0US SHEEP SWINE POULTRY 0 5 201 N 0 20 0 4 96 N 1 27 0 12 92 H 0 60 0 22 33 N 5 20 0 4 8 N 1 15 0 2 7 N 0 0 0 20 74 H 2 12 0 10 400 H 0 30 0 0 5 N 0 0 0 12 1200 N 0 0 0 3 157 N 0 20 0 35 71 N 0 12 0 2 0 N 0 0 0 7 203 N 0 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 8 47 N 1 18 0 25 75 N 8 30 0 6 114 N 2 15 0 18 54 N 0 16 0 12 238 N 1 25 0 6 65 N 2 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 5 15 H 0 26 0 5 25 N 0 0 0 40 5 N 0 0 0 10 10 N 0 10 0 6 81 N 2 19 0 3 22 N 0 0 0 20 30 H 0 0 0 12 55 N 11 24 0 10 90 Y 2 12 0 35 65 H 2 6 0 2 18 N 0 0 0 5 145 N 0 0 0 32 85 N 0 30 0 0 10 N 1 12 0 8 6 N 0 0 0 5 195 N 0 18 0 2 15 N 0 14 0 10 25 N 0 12 0 2 0 N 0 0 0 12 88 N 2 50 0 7 8 N 2 24 0 13 57 N 0 20 0 10 20 N 0 12 0 4 10 N 0 0 0 4 4 N 0 22 0 2 2 N 0 18 0 5 8 N 0 12 0 6 32 N 0 0 0 1 64 N 0 0 ED P LASTJiAME FIRST_NAME HORSES MULES 2 14 Bolinger Webster 0 0 2 14 Uadsworth Frederick H. 10 0 2 14 Reichenecker Albert 3 0 2 14 Link,Lee James,UM. 5 0 2 14 Nickerson Charles 2 0 2 14 Burns UM. M. 16 0 2 14 O'Neil Daniel 17 0 1 5 Alden HowelI 15 0 1785 87 OXEN MILCHCOWS OTHER COWS SHEEP SWINE POULTRY 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 30 90 N 0 0 0 18 32 N 0 0 0 0 32 N 0 0 0 12 28 N 0 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 5 35 N 0 0 0 6 10 N 0 12 25 1239 25514 152 2185 426 APPENDIX E DIVERSIONS, SOUTH PARK DITCHES, 1950-1992 The l a s t o f the a p p e n d i c e s , the D i v e r s i o n s Database summarizes i n f o r m a t i o n about the use o f South Park d i t c h e s . In P a r t I, t o t a l d i v e r s i o n s under each water r i g h t a r e p r e s e n t e d decade by d e c a d e . In P a r t I I , t he amount o f l a n d i r r i g a t e d under each water r i g h t and the amount o f water a p p l i e d on an annua l b a s i s a r e summarized decade by d e c a d e . The averages i n P a r t I I i n c l u d e d a t a f o r o n l y t h o s e y e a r s the d i t c h e s were i n a c t u a l u s e . Not a l l d i t c h e s i n South Park were m o n i t o r e d by the l o c a l water commiss ioner on a r e g u l a r b a s i s . F o r some d i t c h e s v i r t u a l l y no documenta t ion o f use e x i s t s , though the d i t c h e s were a c t i v e i n i r r i g a t i n g South Park meadows from the t ime o f t h e i r i n c e p t i o n . A l l the i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s d e r i v e d from the r e c o r d s o f the C o l o r a d o S t a t e E n g i n e e r - the annua l summaries o f d i v e r s i o n s s u b m i t t e d by l o c a l water c o m m i s s i o n e r s , housed i n t h e o f f i c e s o f the Department o f N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s i n Denver . Column h e a d i n g s a r e coded as f o l l o w s : DITCH TRANSFER PN AF SUM 50s Name o f D i t c h Name o f T r a n s f e r P r i o r i t y Nuniber Sum o f D i v e r s i o n s ( i n a c r e f e e t ) 1950s AC AVG 1950s AF_SUM_60s AF_SUM_70s AF_SUM_80s AF SUM 90s Sum o f Documented D i v e r s i o n s - 1960s Sum o f Documented D i v e r s i o n s - 1970s Sum o f Documented D i v e r s i o n s - 1980s Sum o f Documented D i v e r s i o n s - 1990s Average Number o f A c r e s I r r i g a t e d - 50s 427 AF_AVG 1950s Average Amount o f Water D i v e r t e d ( i n a c r e f e e t ) - 1950s AC_AVG 1960s Average A c r e s I r r i g a t e d - 1960s AF_AVG 19 60s Average Water D i v e r t e d - 1960s AC_AVG 1970s Average A c r e s I r r i g a t e d - 1970s AF_AVG 1970s Average Water D i v e r t e d - 1970s AC_AVG 1980s Average A c r e s I r r i g a t e d - 1980s AF_AVG 1980s Average Water D i v e r t e d - 1980s AC_AVG 1990s Average A c r e s I r r i g a t e d - 1990s AF_AVG 1990s Average Water D i v e r t e d - 1990s Under T o t a l D i v e r s i o n s , when numbers d e c l i n e o v e r t ime ( f o r example: d rop from 4300 i n the 1950s, 60s , and 70s , t o 1400 i n the 1980s) , i t s u g g e s t s t h a t the d i t c h has been t r a n s f e r e d out o f i r r i g a t i o n and t o m u n i c i p a l u s e . In the c a s e o f j u n i o r water r i g h t s , the d e c l i n e sometimes s u g g e s t s improved en fo rcement . The i n f o r m a t i o n i n the D i v e r s i o n s Database can be l i n k e d w i t h the D i t c h e s Database i n Appendix C . 428 • o o ^ o o o o o o o o o _ . _ IA Ifl N ro ro ry r\j ^ o 3 O CM CM > - O > •o • * r 0 O ^ O > 0 O O O O O O O O ' 0 ^ 0 r v J < * •O m O >r ut m (M ro w N « « (M IN -cj > >J >r ^ •j ; i n f l 4 i n cO m co o o rg N - - t> O r CVJ T- V m o N. N. fO o o O CO sO o >o o >o m o i n m rvj « M (M f \J «0 O >*• m >r xO " o o o o o o o o 3 O O O CM fNJ » - o » *o •* AJ • -ro o o >]• s . f— o O 3 cS o3 > o o > o o o o o o _ m un CM i n r y r y ^ o » ^ J " LTV ~ T O O CM CM O *- t> O <0 >r f>J ^ - T— ro o o *t s s ro o> o EH CO 2 o M co a ea > < EH O EH 1 3 3 GO 4 ro ro o o o o o o >» -o CO I A CO O O (M CM — O O >o >»• i n o cn m C M I M O O I O > » ^ » > C O ' -I M N I M r - r - i A T - s f C M r - . r~- o c o o c o O C M L O * — o U I m «— «— » - > - A J M « - r o r o 3 JZ « — en at eg c 3 _ a < z a. -» o O cj u 4 c C c 3 K >> a 3 V cu C c 01 CA j i J i 3 3 c c cu cu r - o O < < cu cu X X c. !_ c_ CU CU c CJ CJ c . j * J i cu o j i c_ o o w T J J i J J I c_ cj «l CO CO CO CO c_ u CJ 3 o 41 • O o o z ac CO CD ca a . a . od OC ac c -8 c_ — cu c cu c c c CO CO cn cn cu « -3 CU c- O >« > . T J CU CU CO _ _ cu X X CU J J ( J «j «o c § S § o S ocioa-o u c o c A c n c o c n o O c S C — ' O C - C - C - C - C C . C C . 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O O 3 JC z CO z Z CO c O {— Z u CJ CJ cj O V CO cj 3 cj 0 0 X CO X X CO X 3= X oc ac JC JC J C JC JC JC JC JC JC JC JC JC 41 3 CD - J c 8 o 41 . _ c C co < -> 41 c_ c_ - * 01 cu a i T J J W O CO 41 41 U CO I— I— c < 41 ** C —• w o — a c o — 3 U C c I - c * CA O O CO — § 41 CA CD °0 c (M r o • * m v» a. 41 CO —. — O O O O O O CO — >. z z z z — — § | _ cu 41 *-i 0 - c w CJ « ** C C C S 4 I 4 ) 4 I 4 I C 0 4 ) 4 > _ _ _ _ _ _ I l f C C f f C C i : c o c o c o c o c o c a c o u u u c j u u u t j u u w _ _ w C l_ (_ C_ (_. (_ u 3 3 3 3 3 3 4-» +«* 2 a* cu 41 3 co ts 6 11 § C J cj C J CO c 3 c J= 0 X —' 3 >• ca CO c_ Z H- 41 oO «0 — 41 •*• at TJ L_ c_ u. t_ x OC * 41 41 41 CU CD JC — — •— •«• § — Q CA CO CO CO u . O O O O O O C . U C U L . U • C J C J U C J C J U C J O «— IM d d c c UJ UJ —. JC J C JC c • co a a § S S 0 0 a 41 J S J= c 0 0 — w u > 4 3 0 CM O i O O O O O PO P- o CM -O oo eg o o 01 oo co O O - O - O N - O O • O - O N - N - N - PO PO >() •<) (X r j (M <- f" o o o o o o o> o O O — r -0 0 co oS O O - O O ^ O O O f O O ^ O O O C p O PO o -4- o fM ro co co ro ro *0 co o co n » rg r-- .— « - -*T *— -O IM O J O ro r— O O O O O 3 S c o o o o i e o o o o o o o O -O -O P» o o •0 >g N . ro ro 4} 4 IM N CM f <-t> O O vO o o o o 3 O ' O O ' O C O P O O ' O O O C O O PO O - 4 - O O J P O co a m ro O CO O 33 ro O CM ^" P~ « - -4" — >Q IM IM S " CM o o o o 3 O O IM CO CO ~o -o r> o o p» P» K . ro ro IM O l IM « - «— o o o o o «-o o 3 o o -o o -o 0 *o o o eg o 01 ro co co ro -jr ao ro o CM « - -J- «- -o 3. 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O 0 0 O O O CO CO CD CO TJ a 0 0 a a O TJ 3 CD 0 u CJ u CJ cj 10 a . 3C < CO X X X X X X QQ — II — u X CJ c J = 3 S 11 CO c 3 CJ 11 a 0* a'S *-» Q Crt CO —» S -§ I = = -5 *- IM — CM No. No. No. No. Enl Enl c U i Enl - — — CM IM CM No. No. No. O 3E O 3E No. nger nger c_ CU CD c nger nger nger Fehn Fehri Fehri Fehri Fehri Fehri « - O • - CA * * O O « -w ae ac 11 41 U 11 11 431 <« f » o O ro o 8: K X ° - 2 < 0 C M O O < 0 ~ r c M C M CM O » - o N . to IA ro O to in >a» ro co 09 ~» o i 3 o o r o r o o g > Q < o o o a o o o o ^ r c > c o < o r u a i n i n <0 « O d IA «- r% AI a ) ro CM CM LA ro i o co co r o r^. o N t- )^ Kl IO IM >0 >0 LTI r>- o o ro o 8: K 3 ° ^ 2 -># IA ro IA IA So o ro ro eg -o -o CO IA IA 13 >0 « >s> ro CM A i IA ro ro CM ^ - T - N O OOOOOO^TOKCOCOAI LA «- r>- CM co CJ n s » 4 4 IA o o ro o i n > i ' O T - - f l v 3 ( \ j o o > O N , N ( \ j c f l r ^ - o «— r\j o> o s » m *o NT Lrt K ) o ro ro cO i n i o M ( M N ry o N- un m ro C* un m ro co co ^ 3 o r O f O c O N Q N g o o o o o o co m i n -o >o "O oo M N N i n ro a) i M r - r - v3 PO fO r y ^ O CO CO m »— N . 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C CO CO CO C c c o> CB CO CU cu O o o o z z z z X z z z 4 3 2 t \ j o c o o r \ j o o o o o o g s s (M (M i n m IM CM CM CM s CM CO m i n u i i n O N . IM o o o § i n 8* «- 10 O O O O C M O C O O O O O O O O CM CM O -o m m CM CM CM CM O O CM s o m i n o o o o o P - C M O O O O O O S i n o« O CO fO CM CM O O O O O O O CM CM •O -o m m CM CM CM CM I M C 0 C M C 0 O O O O i o O i n i n O i n m O l>» CM o o o o O N . " CO 8J O O Q O I M O C O O C M O O O O O O 3 CM CM o m m rg r\j (M OJ O (Ni CO (NI CO m m m m c* O O O O h o f M O O O O O O co ! n C K » co cj M c. c C c. — 01 Q O 01 3 J C g c. O i l ' u 3 O — o O aj 01 !«•. oi >. u C_ W CJ 01 — J< 3 -CO (J .01 01 JC JC JC JC C W U W C J U C J C J — S o C c- J= co 3 cj - » u . C/1 10 JC JC JC 0 01 O 01 § . C CO CO Z O u c_ T J 01 01 U co CL C? 3 -> U l oc u» o " I M n • * «8 c U i u c_ s g i c CO CO > . 01 J = J Z 10 CJ cj c j oc to II II 4 1 01 » -01 01 t i s : 433 co o o o vf o co CM m ro o >o ro co op co o - CM co ro >o vg vf co •» w « » 3 S CO CO CM O vf O J O J N O r— - - - - - - .JJ co C M O . — O O C M O O O CM O O CM vf >— CO vf v f O O c o c M r o r o o «— ro co eg eg rv, i n co ro >o vo vf CO vf ro ro O v o o o o o o o o x g CM O -O co rv, CM fv. — a C O C O C M O v f O O O v f C M O ^ - O O C M O O O oj o j -o <- oj o o j ro OJ o j vO co o oj m co v r v r T— - j" . — ro vf O v f o o co I M ro ro o ro co eg eg rv. co ro >o "O vf vf ro ro o • o o o o o o o o CM o co rv. o j 3 Sco ca _ CM CM vg «— - - - - - CO O v f O O O v f C M O * - O O c M O O o O v f o o co CM ro ro o so ro ao eg co N . CM co ro is vj vf co vf ro ro o O O O O O vo o eg eo co o j o vO CO CM CM vg CM ro CM CM SO CO — v f v f »- w~ v f O O O v f c M O « - O O C M O O O O v f O O C O C M r O r O O v O O O O -— ro eg eg eg rv. CM m co ro i s •o vf co co v* ro ro o o o o o eo eg r CM CM v OJ OJ v vf vf «- *-vf O O O vf CM »— IM O CO O CM vf ~^ » - O O CM O O O ro o ro i n CM ro O CM *— m »— *— i n eg eg vf ro -3 N . ao O ro « - m «— co - - s co o rv. _ - » • * • » CM o «— ro ro IM eo ro - g o .— c o c o c M r o i M i n r o - o c o CM • - O N C O ' - M ' r v ^ r - •— J C CU 41 CA CO ac — ca LU —• u . 41 l -CA +- 4» ac — a> < C TJ CO JC CO 41 V 41 ao 41 c C S v c. 41 im C CJ «-i 4) J ! CA CO CD Tj 3 JC 3 3 C TJ u ac CD CD CD CO CO o o o cj 3 3 ~i ao CO CJ CJ X 3C < < 3 < to 2 o 4) CO >. >. _ « — • C S cn c e o v v . 4 l w < 0 O ' U ^ 3 CO CD as u U O J Z c u e cj •— C J D C - U a > « l a C - ' . £ I— 3 — — C _ L . I _ U U X C 0 X U M o a i c a c o c Q < a o v > u 4 t 4 > " -a - J X X X X X X X X X X X a co JZ j= CJ CJ l_ u 41 41 iu 5? C J J C — X X X X X X X X c LU cu w — W C O C O C O C O C C U C U C U J C _ _ . C — — — — 0 O 3 S - — • CJ — — O 41 41 41 41 - - . C J = CO X X X a c a e z z o o o o a . § s ca co j= o =0 =o — u — o c JZ LU CA — cu 3 cu 13 _ 434 § e» e> CM o rv. co e> oj <\i i n , N. S r^ . o — CO o » _ -a 3 CO o o CO ro m i n •o ro - l - O m O O Q C M - 4 ' C M O O Q O Q O -o r^ n ro — -o o o co <-m e$ 8 co ro C M •— o vt* m vr ro eg CM CM CO 5 oo i CM O IV. -o CO o CM CM u"l CM O r*. c> «— >o m « - CM •— *-CM O CO CO >Cf O -o o ro co o in m «J -O ro o o o (M »f CM o r»-ro »- •& o co — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 e$ S co CM «- o i n CM o s. -o oo o CM CM m CM o r— o «— ~o m CM CM O N. >0 CO O CM CM in CM O s t> »- ^r >o m * - CM *— o co co 5> -J rn o i n i n < 4 I O >*• o ro o o co co O v r ro o m m « » -O ro O O C M v T C M O O O •o r>- - * ro « - ~o o> co «-e> co «-o o o o o -o 0> eg o CM o 5> *5 co vr CNI <- O co o o o o >0 0> CO Q CM O CM i n i> « co >j ro ro CM «— o co o >» m CM O N. %o CO O CM CM m CM CJw N. c> «— sjp >o m »— CM •— Q so co - r o >r ro o m i n •» -O ro >0 r»-ro <— -o o cs C M O O O O O O O O O ^ C > c g o c M O C M ' 0 m > « co >* ro cc ro CM « - O CO o cc CM O •O «-CM « - CS — •O « - -— CM CM > f 4 C9 * J i o >f CM r*- •— r\i «— CM ro — r- •- . -o c M i n - o c M r o r ^ m o s * — • - « — « — CM c •s o ac 3 3 S 0 Z — ' O O O O O O , c z z z z z z • • C C C - — w w o o cu — cu 3 coca w z z a c . 5 . c 3 w w c o t O I S C O C A LU *^ w CA w CO i i - • i w u_ i w *w (j u CJ o cs a a w w w w w w — co co ^ i i n IM eo *— *— CM CM ro ro >o ca o rv. v O O O O O O O O O O O O O IM CO •» s . . . o -o ro r » r » « - « - o o o o IM o eo tn ro O O O eo co eo CM PO PO CM co m m CM CM ro ro -o ca 3. o P*. to m P I P - P » -O r- r- 00 O O IM eo * ~ * — CM o co eo eo o o co CM ro ro IM ro eo i n tn CM co CM PO PO vO v Q O O O O O O O O O O O O O i M c O v r e a c o o i M v r v r P v . v 9 v r v i r o o P v . o -o ro rv. rv. -o *— O O CM CO O O O O — - o co tn ro t- co « - « - CM O O ao co eo CM ro ro CM eo tn in CM CM ro ro -o o co s O Pv- N- CO PO vg po ro rv. i rv. . vo « - * - >0 < *- < CM CrO CM • r«. v» pv. CM < CM ^ IM •O — vf O ro ro * - c> o> i5 M I M ' — . > ( > > • — co fv. o cs ro CM vx ro — f» o> i n CM rv. o» ro o ro » - <- vf vo c> vO o eo n *-CM «— « - « - Pv. oc .2 .g a - 41 t_ CJ is g ac c Mount! Creek i 1 CO CO Black High Huron Roger Roger J C J C J C 41 41 41 41 41 41 U C_ t_ u C J C J 41 c 41 41 c g — 3 3 3 O ... c u c O o O u c CO 3 ID t- c_ u Hu CO —. —. rv. 2 41 O JC O CJ cj O CM PO vf l-» *rf « - T - CM IM ro o • • • • • -I o o o o o — • 41 CJ JC C O - > c tu at — c : O J = J = J = — QI V W M M JC JC I — L . L . 3 0 4 1 4 1 3 . C A O O O U 41 41 30 w v^ a . Z CA C CO 41 c c j C C co *rf *u» o C C LU LU v 5 2 S S S 5 i i i « — ^ U < U W U U U < 0 < U W W > - 1 ' t- ^ w cu ^ t . 4 4 4 4 ^ 3 J 3 j < ^ C ^ cu cu cu cu cu 0 CO o o>» o un un cO >0 un o o o o o o o o o o o o o O O O J O O O O O O 3 (Nl HO O N » n IM O « - vf IO * f -O t> 5 to O J O J N O 0 0 0 in co <4 C O O O O O O O O O O O O N Q O a 2 = o — 3 CM >o o o >— vf o CM o ro ro - * *o *o rv. -o o (VI ca o r«. C M C M v O CO O O O O O O 10 I A co o * O C M C M O ro «— CM CM «— «— «— CM ro LA o O CO CM CM «— to . - 4 L A 4 < O •— f O 0 0 * 0 O — — vf C M CM O r v . CO O ( M CM 10 r o •— to C O r o CM r o CM CO O O vf vf O CM «— *—- CM «— *— vf CO c < c s § a c e — 3 3 c c c c 41 CU 41 CU > > > > cu cu cu cu I I I U l III 111 -S.-S.-i-S. 4> c u una 8* ? 5* < < < o z cu <*— O 3 od ca v f I A 0 0 2 Z cu cu **- *t~ 1 i «cj OS *o O CO z c o CU • -s § cu cx) TJ s 1 1 g -C/» C/l C/J i cn c/> c c a a C A CA cj § i_ ~ co - j c5 CM ro vf CU TJ cu z «— CM ro vf v» to o> 0 0 0 CM • * * * - OC C C «— C M C O C C Z Z Z - — 01 C U C U J X J C C u. cu cu * CU O O O O w - 1 o d CU CU 3 Q . C U C U v • CU - * — - T J T J T J T J * o — z z z z - - O S c u c u o o c u — — i c o c o c o o z c — ca c c OJ — — _i a C C Z Z C A — — 11 11 « « z to co ca co ca —« - o o c x x c j c j x x z z z z -» w C C C C C O C C C U C O C O O C C C U C C C > . C C J C U C U C U C 0 > . O O — l a X l C ' l l c l l l C l u y t l l j c j cu — > > > > c — * — c X c T c s c c u c u > > t C 3 3 C C C z z c i e c i c c f C c * e — c . c u c u c u c u c > . > « F 5 S o c c e u e u o 5 o c c c T J a . w « « w « e o c o c O C U . C . C . e . C . C C C C C C 3 3 3 CO C A C A C A C A C A C A I — I— I— I— L - I — . - • _ > _ K l - | . | - h h h - l - ] ' l 3 " l ] 3 ] 4 3 7 *0 r o O N . O i n r u N N O co r o -^r 3 CO cO >•»* m t n N { O* O* CO n * C M >*• «— (Ni 3 § * O r o c > N - o o o o m r\j N N o O c o r o NT co co >r s f co m m *•* i o 2 co ^ > l> CO N N sf o o o o O IM ^ < (A O • O r O O N - O O O O u n c O C O m N S I N . o co m u i O co ro >J m i j > t> o nj >* \t O v 3 rO O N . LO (M K N O co ro v» CO LO LO _ 35 o e> O CM vf vf -i» 3 CO N . (Nl •r— (M < (0 o O v O r o o r — o o o o m (NI rv. rs- o o co ro vf m o CO CO vf vf CO o m i n vf i n -o co O l> CO S . (Nl vf vf vf t— (Nl m o r o v j o CM CM co « - o o < — i N i r o v f - o r — Z O CM «— C 0 ( N l ( N I O O v f 4 0 « - * - CM CM CM CM «— rv. c> a . v f m « — «— » - ( N t v f « — «— «— «— «— «— r o r o r o r o * - CM CM * (J *-» co c co "3 « -a « S z 3 ) L a L u o co IZ 3 J C J I J C U C_> U J< cu o a u ci •— •— — w J C £ XZ XI J C — c j u u u y c co .— — — O co — CM ro v f xz CM ro co <— CM ro r— cn . . . . • c o o o o O O ' - O O O z z z z < z z c. z z z a . c _ c c c c c c g c_ 3 . 3 K C / I C . C C . U C C U C U C O C U C O O C G B C U Z C O C O O CU CU C U O W W - J W W ^ W V _ , ^ T 3 T 3 C- S a] ^ ^ ^ " S t n t o — f f ^ ^ c — to *3 03 CJ ai eg cj cu cu cu vxzxzxzxzxzxz-— •— ~— a 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 5 3 5 3 3 3 438 O O O CM i n O O O -O O O CM CM O O < o D c o ' g ' - } K i J r J I ft i n i n 4 a 4 u. o m m v r -o o o o o o o o o o o o o m s S O O O O O O O O s S c O O C M N . m CM o o O vg o v f so i n o o o o a I O CM CM v f -jr o i n co C O N O v f o o • - » » o O vf vf vf vf vf o Pv. o EH <; Q w > W < O E-t 2 D O £ < > < a < a u tr* < M « cc M CO Cd CC u cs > < o > > C3 > < o o o o m o o r v - o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o r o r o o r v - o c a O O O O . M s 3 O s 3 O O O O O O O O O O O O I M O O O I 0 m O s 0 O o O o d o ^ " a o . - o a o o o o o O o o o o ro C M . - in v f C M I M co o co co so o i - . i M i M ' - ' - v f v f ro C M co ro ro m C M C M C M i M i n 3 0 0 C M t n O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O m O O « — O O O O O • a O C M C M O O O s S O O O O O O O O ' O C O O I M O O ' - C M C M O O ^ S c a c < i o v f K i v f i N . i n o m m s s a S s g p u j o s g o - v r o i n c g O v f v f rv. rv. « - t n i n v f M f i v f v f v f j m c O v O v f O v f v f v f m o o o o o i n o o r v . o o o o o o o o o o o o i n o g o h o r o o r v . 0 c n O O O O C M s S O v g o O O O O O O O O O O O t M O O O I O r O O s S O S O O O O ^ O O ^ O O O O O O O O O O O O H O O O O O O P O I M T - m v f C M C M c o o c o c o -o o C M C M •— "— vf vf ro C M co ro K l m C M C M C M C M m 3 o o c M i n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o « - o o o o o s 0 O C M C M O O O s 3 O O O O O O O O s 3 C 0 O C V J O O « — C M C M O O » — . . . . • . • • > r v - c o c c O v r r o v r r v . L n i M O O o o o o o o r o r M r M v r o o ^ o ^ c > O f M C > o m m s s c o v g r u o s s o v f Q i n c O O v f v f rv. rv. .— m m v f v 5 v f v f v 5 m co -O vf o v f v f v f in o o o o o c n o o N . o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o r o r o o r v . o g j O O O O C M s O O s S O O O O O O O O O O O O C M O O O I O P O O s S O P o O C S o ' . - O O ' - O O O O O O O O O O O O v g o o O P O r O O s g o f v O O O O f O C M i n v f CM CM CO O CO CO -O O £ N N r i - 4 4 rO CM CO PO PO in C M C M C M CM m o o o c M i n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o i n o o * — o o o o o B s S s 5 o i M I M O O O s O O O O O O O O O s 3 C O O I M S e d e o O v f f l v f r v I i n c M c z I o o o o ^ m m s S c O v o i M O s s o v f O i n e g O v f v f rv. rv. * i n i n v f 5 5 v f v f 5 S i n co -o v r a v f v f v f m o N . o o o •o o o o i s > * l 3 o o o o « — o o . - o o o o C J O o o o o r o c M r - S < » - C M l M » - T - v f v f ro CM o o o o o o o o m O O O O O O O O I M O O O O O 3 CM ro C O co °. 3 O gr. f£ m in 3 O O O K » K » 0 < 0 0 O CO CO ,«o o m m cvi (xi o i CM m — o o g o o «— CM CM O O 3 m i M O O o o o o o o MS o ss m ro C M cS 3 o O O » - O O O CM o o o r o r o o N - o o o o r o r o o s g o S o o o o o o m o m m C M I M O O ro vf vf C M < M C M . - •— i n * -o o o o v g o o o r o r o o s s co o co co sS I S . Pv. O C O co o C M m «— O « - C M c c CO CO CM CM CM O o in m »- ro P O o _ o C M m *•> u cn cu CO CO fl C — 3 — - > CO O < a : a . - » u § •S u o cc S C CO CO J C 3 C C 01 o 5 < < oi X X t_ cu cu C c j Ss J C J C *^ QJ c 0 u w u T 3 JC CU co co co co c_ C J 01 _ _ — _ o o CO CQ CQ Ck Ct. CO C C c "3 « c . _ 01 CO j cn - I c c — o» oi a _ T J T J J C C J v - U CO CO CO C M d 01 s s -C A CA O Oil in < o J 8 < «-8. CJ O < o I rv. u . O a > CD < O I *o u . O "i 3 CJ o O 0 2 ! 2 9 ^ 5 0 0 ^ Q 5 Q 0 o o o o o o > 0 ' - o o i n o o f v j r u o o O ' O o o o o -,— r - c o c o c o r u o i n ^ ' O o o o o o o o o o o c o ^ !l? ^ 3 3 N ^ «9 o >ct^ CM M w co (\ N ro i n o O vO >o CO ^ >o (NJ >*f fO tNJ CNJ o (M csi O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O r ^ N . O O ' - O O ' - O N O O O O O O O O O o o o o ^ i n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ^ > o o o r ^ o o u n u n o o o o o o o o o o o o i n ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o > o o o o u n o o i n t n o o o o o o o o O O f M ( \ J P O O J O O C O O (M (M GO CM CM <— O i — O m m m i o m CM «— rsi «- sQ N . CO O vJ- >*• CM rO rO CO CM N ^ ^ O0o«5«0 CO (M -vj- -J" IO CM CM >0 *0 rO »0 CM CM O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O N - N . O O ' — O O ^ O ' O O O O O O O O O o o o o ^ u o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o - o ^ o o o N - o a i n i n o o o o o o o o O O O O u ^ ^ O O O O O O O O O O O O O O o O o O O O i n O O i n i n O O O O O O O O O O C M C M f O C M O O C O O C M C M CO CM CM «— O « - 0 m m m ro -vf i n r\j «— -J- >r CM C M N - C M ^ O * - CM O O O O O i n O O O O O O O O O O O O O O ^ O « - O O i n O O C M C M O O O o O O O O O ^ T - c O C O C O C M O i n ^ o O O O O O O O O O O O C O ^ O O r ^ O O C M r M o O C > < > - « — ^ i ^ O O i n C O f M O O O O O O O N >*3 "O co N. > O N . C O O CM ro ro co OJ s ro m O O ^ O v O C O ^ T ' O C M -J- vj- ro f\j CM vO -O ro >o CM CM O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O r ^ N . o O « — O O o O < 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o O N r t n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o « o > o o o N . o o t n i n o o o o o o o o S S P . S £ ^ 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o v 0 o o o o u n o o ^ i n o o O O C M C M F O C M O O C O O C M C M CO CM CM «— O «— O m i n ro ro vr m I\J »- -•*•>*• M «- «- IM N> r > o o o o o o o o o o o c o ^ o o ^ o o ™ O c> «— ^ L n O O i n e o c M O O O O O O O O O O i ^ r o o ' o r O r> co s . >g eg o - J T CM IO ro CO IM N ro m O O ^ O o O to s t >«0 rvi - j - -vi* ro OJ M ^ 00<— vf i n O Q u l CO CM N N -O CO N -O fv. CO 0 0*0-0 CO vf so 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 * — O O O O O O O O O O C O N . o o o o o o o o o o m r o ic o o *d CM o o o o o Ul Ul o o o o o i n rO v » CS z> in <. ° u i CJ O < >— o o o o o 0 0 * 0 * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O O U I U I O O O O O O O O O O O O u i r**. O O CM CM rO CM m m ro r o o o o a o o O O CO o *t i n IM o o o o - o - o o o m o o m m o o o o o o o o CM CM CO C M C M * — O *— O vf vf CM <— >— IM N CM *Q CM m **t *0 *0 ro ro CM CM o vT vt O O CM CM vf ro f - ro co ro rv. rv. CM ro < < < < <. < <-ro o o co O O CO Ul CM «— CM ro *— co vf *— CM O CM O O C O t v . v T U 1 N . r O U 1 — r o r o * o * — * - C M r o * — * - CM c a s o -» — JC M dl CU CV CU M -X J i J< dl cu dl V 41 CU 41 dl dl 41 nger lucinda I HcNult, Black r Mr Mill t\ HcNult) Beery Janitel HcDoue1 Huron HcNult) Rock Ci Rock Cl Rock Cr Rock Cf fit-irk* Pr Rock Ci Rock Ci Antero Janitel Qc*h At t j 9CIIQ I 1 Rogers, Janitel — ^ 01 Cl O CO 41 41 O CJ CJ o 3 CO CM ro cu co . to § O O co — z z 3 co i I i s a t? 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O < « -u > CO <. 0 u-i CJ O < •— o o i n o o o o o o g o o o o i n i n o o o o . - * - o r o o o o o o r v . o * - o a o o o O O ^ O I O O O O O l O e O O O O N . r v . o O O O > - « — O r O O O f l O O f l O » - f l r n i n i n O o o r v - r o o o o o o Q Q m c r c a 3 v r ^ o o a o f N j r \ j a o ^ o o a o o o o j O L / i c > o ^ v r o O l PO O fl fl - I v* O N - N . r - * ~ O - O U-> CM -4" O O I s - O OJ r o fl J ) - o n 10 T- CMCM O CM CM c a o o m r o g o o o o o o o o o o g o o o o o o o * - o o o a o o g o o o o o o o o i M f * i o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o » - o o o o o i n o o o o o o o d d f l r n o ' d d o ' d o o d d o o d d d o o i n i n d ^ o d d d a r v ^ d o ' d 0 ' - 0 0 CQ U l l / l » - «— O O fl m i n N fM « 1 r O CO i n fl O l rO O r o CM m vi> v* o i o i vj- -vr rv. rv. r - i n »— v r r o o o i n o o o o o o g o o o o u i i n o o g g ' - « - S r S S a ^ S S J ^ S l T S S i S 0 . 0 . o o r ^ r o o o o o d o ' o i o m o i r o o f l f l v r v r o r v - r v . « - « - o> fl t o o i 31 1 0 2 t 2 o i PO fl 2 -J m r o M ^ CM CM o CM CM 03 _ _ o o m r o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o » - o o o o o o o o o o g g o o o o i p n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o < - o o o o o i n o o o o o o o 0 0 * 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c o i n i n r— a o O t n LT\ o j o i i n o c o i n o CM r o o K i cu m %r ^ nj IM vr vr P— rv. *— I M O O O O O C O C O O O O P V > P V . O O O O « — * - o r n o o f l o O f l O * - f l r n i n i n o o o ^ p o o o o o o o g i n i n c O v r v r o o o o c M o j o a p v . o o a o o o o i o i n C K O N . v t d 01 10 q >0 >0 - I - I O N N •— >— O - O i n 01 v? fl o rv, o m r o o ^ -o r o r o m t - r - CM CM O CM CM c o o o m r o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o v - o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o n i p o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o * - o o o o o m o o o o o o o o g f l r o o d o d o d d d d d d d o o d d i n i n o . - d d o o a r v - d o o o » - o o c o i n i n f - ^ - o o d t o u i IM r v m o c o m fl 01 m o r o CM in vr v? 01 CM 4 4 ^ N rv. f - m » - 4 10 o o i n o o o o o o o g o o O ! n i n o o o o « - « - o r n o o o o o r v . o ~ - o o o o o o o P v . o i o o o o o e o c o o o o P v . r v . o o o O ' - . - o r n o o > o o o f l O « — flroinino o o i v - m o o o o o Q O i n i n c o > r v f o o o o c M o i c d N l o d c o d CM r o o fl fl vi- vr o N- rv> f 1 - c> fl m 01 >r 01 01 c o »— o o m i o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o » - o o o o o o o o o g g g g O O C M P O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O * — o o o o o m o o o o o o o o g f l i o ) d d d d d d d d d g d o o d o o i n i n o ^ o o g o o p ~ o o g o ; - o o c o n m * - o o fl i n m 01 CM m * - o e o m f l o i r o o 10 m m v r v f o i o i >i -1 - N rv. 1 - m 1 - - i 10 S g i n o o o o o o g g o o o i n i n o o o o ^ ^ o r n o o Q O o r v . g » - q g o o g o r v . i M o o o o o c o c S o o o r v . r v . o o o o ^ ' - o r n o o f l O O f l O ^ - f l r o i n i n o o o r v t f o o d d d d d g ' i n i n d v r v t d d o o o j o i d i ^ o o a IM m o flflvtvtoN-rv. » - « - » fl i n CM vf >O O rv. O IM 10 fl fl fl r o r o r o *— CM CM e> 01 01 eo > - ' - » - > -o o m r o o o o g o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ' - g g g o o o o o o g g g g o o o i r o o o o o p o o o o o o o o o o o o o . o * - o o o o a t n o o o o o o o o o f l r o o d o d o o o o d g o d o d o o i n t n O ' - o o o o o f v ' O o o O ' - g o c o m m T— o o fl m m ru fy u i O eo i n f l o i r o o r o CM i n v r v t o i o i 4 >t f - s rv. r - u-i ^J" r o 3 3 o m v r C O « -0 > i n — fl fl 0 rv. rv. N k c o t n i n - c i ' i p i f i -rtro»-inin^»-»-f»-t n c o fl rv, * - CM S u a r o r o r o 33 0 1 g> fl ro v f O 1 o> •v CU c C CO JC CO CO C 41 ne CO CO < 41 ne CO cn c_ OJ CJ u 41 41 41 CO 41 41 c_ CO 41 3 X 3 3 3 3 41 xz 3 O O O O O O CO CO CO CO • i j O O a O O O TJ 3 CO O CJ cj •J cj CJ CO a . z < CO X X X X X X CB — CO CO — § >v 41 41 C C 01 CO U - TJ TJ 3 CU c c C c c i i er X X X X X Fehr Fehr Fehr Fehr Fehr Fehr Fost Four Four Four Four Four 441 CJ > ca < O < — g u - O > co *, § CJ O •* — cj > ca < o 1 tr < — u o < — CJ u . O cj > ca < O u o < — c j > 01 < , o u . O cj > ca o o o o o — o i n o o o o r v . o o o • o o t M - M m o o m r o c o o o o o o o o o o o H O v t c o r s - o o v r o N - — o o co — C v i O O v r c o r v . m c o o o i n m v o - — c o o o o o o O v f co co r\j K- CM . CM o N . o o o o *o m v f o v f CM CM i n >o <0 co m >f rg o i n i n CM — o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r o o o o o o o o i N . r v . v t o o o o g o o — O O O O O O O O O l i - l O — O O O O Q O r O m Q Q I M Q O O v O v O v f O O O O Q Q Q — O O O O O O O O O f ^ O O O L n O O O O r O C M O O v r O O O — — v f O c d o O O O O — m i n so o m — CM i n c o c M i n > o e o e o o - — CM O K N v f — — — c o m r o - CM — — C M r o r o c M — ^ S S S S S K , S ° 5 o o o c o c 3 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o g o o o * o o o o o o — o m o o o o t N - o o o - o o c M c M m o o r o m c o o o o o o o o o o o S ^ ? ! ^ 0 0 > ' Q N r 0 9 * 5 * " N 0 0 ^ ^ s ^ c l c > c ' l r t l A 4 , * - ' - c t ] o o o o o a . S i \ , ^ . CM CM O S - o o o o 3 m v f o v f CM CM i n >o >o co i n v f CM -o m — c o c o m CM ro ro co — co v f ro ro — — -o i n m CM l Z S 2 2 2 2 i 3 2 2 2 0 S 0 0 o o ° c 3 0 r o o o o o o o o r v . i > . v - - o o o o o o o — o o o o o o o o o m o — o o o o o o m m o o c M o o o - o - O v r o o o o o o o — o o o o o o o o o f v , o o o i n o o o o i r » c M O O v r o o ' o — — ^ d o o a o o o *T IT Sfl >o o ro — CM m c o c M i n < o c o c o o — — CM o -» r-- CM v f — — — c o m r o — CM — — C M r o r o c M « -N - O O O O O K I O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O v O O O O O O — O m O O O O l N . O O O s 9 O C M C M m O O K I ' 0 C 0 O O O O O O O O O O S v f r o r > o o v f o r v . — o o c o — C M O O v f e o r v . m c o o o i n m > o - — C Q O O O O O O V T co CM rv. CM C M O S - o o o o -o cn v f O v r CM CM m -o *0 co m vTf CM -o m — C O C O M CM Kl IO CO — CO vf rO m — — >o in i n CM — o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o o o r v . r v . v f O o g o o o o — o o o o o o o o o m o — o o o o o o m m o o c M o o o > O H O v r o o o o o o o — o o o o o o o o o i v , o o o i n o o o o m c M O O v f o o o — — v f o o o o o o o ' — m m -o o m — CM m c o c M t y i ' O c o c o o - — CM O v f fv- CM v f — — — c o m r o — CM — — C M r o r o c M — r i o o o o o r o o o o o o o o o o o o g o o o o g g g g o g g g g g g g g g g • O O O o O O — o m O O O O ^ O O O v 5 o c M C M m O O r O r O e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o C O C O C M C C M C M O N - O O O O 35 i n VT o v r CM CM i n -o -o cp m v f CM vo JA — coco n N m HI co — co v f ro m — — -o m i n CM — o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o i o o g g o g g g r « - r v . v T o g g g g g g — o o o o o o o o o m o — o o o o o o r o m o o c M O O o « o > O v f o o o o o o o — o o o o o o o o o ^ o o o m o o o o r o c M O O v f g Q O — — v r o o o o o o o — m m v5 o i o — CM m e o c M m ' O c o c O o - — CM o v f r v , CM v f — — — c o m r o — CM — — C M r o r o c M — r v - o o o o g r o o o o o o o c o o o o o o o o o g g o o g g o o g g g g o g g v o o o o o o — o m o o O o r v , o o o v 5 o t M c M m o o r o r o c o o o o o o o o o o o S v f r o ^ o o v f o i v . - o o c o — c M O O v f c o r v , m c o o o m m v o — — c o o o o o o o v f co CM rv. CM C M O rv. o o o O v S m v r o v f CM CM m so *o co m v f CM -0 m — co co ro CM ro ro co — co >» ro ro — — -o i n m CM — o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o p o r o o o o o o o o r v . r v . v f o o o o o o o — o o o o o o o o o m o — o o o o o o r o m o o i N i o o o v O v D v f o o o o o o o — o o o o o o o c d o r v ! o o o i n ' o o o o r n c M O O v f o g o — — v f o o o o o o o — m m V3 o ro — CM m ao CM i n A co co o — — CM O V T S - C M v f — — — c o m r o — CM — — C M r o r o c M — co ro — ro rs. CM co ro ro o m in ro rv. — — — fl S 3 3 > 0 > 0 > 0 M M 3 f O I N J i A J <- N N . « j co ry o o m -o -o N . co oj t - f - f - t - N N N N - O N N i n t - f - ' - r O M r t 41-4) 4) 4) 41 4) 3 3 3 3 X 3 O O O O O O a a a a a o C C c c_ c_ c C O C O C C O C O C U C O — — 5 o a n a J I -g-g e u "0 — T5 —' £ C 3 3 a c a c a c a — — X X C B 3 C Q 3 4) •a c_) I— o 3 c § 3-§ § — — CM CM I— »— O O O O — CM ro ro z z z z | | | | | | | z z 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 13 ( 9 ( 9 ( 9 CO CO *- CM d d z z c. CM cu CO CO CJ c_ u CO cu cu o «— CM O) 9> z a . CM ro ro o 0 oc oc J t J C o o cu cu O O o ca z z cu cu Z z z !_ UJ UJ c_ 3 >. >» CJ CJ c_ c c_ - C cu cu >> >. >. CO cu cu X u t_ f— xz xz > > > 3 cu cu c c c CD at CO CO CO CO cu cu cu cu cu z z z z s z z X z X X 442 C3 > CO < o J 8 < o o o o o o o o o O C O O N T O O O O o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o j o j o o o o o m o o o o 3 O. - o ro «— o fl rv. _ O O O O v T o o «-- o u-i m CM CM I M I M o o fl var •o o> o i v m r . K l m CM C M I M o o >o m O O CM CM r o «— § 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 10 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 3 O O O lit o o o -vcr OJ W IM OJ o o o o o o in *•*> OJ OJ m m «— O O O O O O CO CO o o 3 o o tn o o o o CJ > CA < o CO u . O < •-e j o < •-0 > to **! 8 ej o < *-§ § § S g § § § S g g g ° ° g o 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 < - > 0 0 < - > « - > < - J O r o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o f l m ° ° ° ° 0 0 0 0 0 0 ° S r n o o o o o S o g g g l 5 ° ° ° * ° S ° c M ° l d ° ° d o ' ° ° v j d v ? 3 CM m CM CM i n m 0 0 1= 2 ° " g g g o o o o o o o g o o o o o o o o r n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o e o o m f - i s - f l f l c s o o d v r c s r n d r A i d d c s d c o m ^ - o o fl o fl m m k m N f l o o CM fl - O l v O O m CM CM CM i n C M C M I M I M r O «— » - « - CM C M o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ' o o o o o r o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o f l r o O O O O o O O O O O O O O O O O O O O m O O O O O I M O O O O O O O O O i n v f o o o i n d d o o o o o o i n o o o o o d r n o c o e o o O v f o o i n o o o o o o i n * -O O O v r r n c M C M v a r v T v r fl CM 0 0 m CM r o CM CM m m ' — 0 0 •— v» . — r o u . O C3 > CA <. ° fl u o < — J S 3— IS. fl fl ro •- o fl rv. « -O O O O v t O r O O o C M O O O O O O « - O f l f l O O f l O fl m i n t s . i n r v . r o m I M I M C M i n C M C M C M I M I M flOOOOOOO fl ro a O C M I M r o ^ o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o' o d d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O O O O O o c o eo d o v r v r o o 0 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 m o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 CM ro CM m o o o o o o r o 0 0 0 3 o o o o o o o o O O r O O CM CM O O O O O O « - rs . A A 0 o o 3 r o r- o fl r s . T-O v f o o 3 CM o i n 0 0 0 0 0 • - O f l f l O O f l v r f l O fl m m r s . m r v . r o CM I M CM m C M C M C M I M C M O O O O S fl P O O C M m ro — 0 > CO <. 0 u'S 1 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r o o o o o o o o o o o o o r o o o o o o o O O O O O C M O O O O O O O O O f l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 m 0 0 0 0 0 0 C M ro CM m o o o o o o o o CM i n m o o o o o o o eo eo o o o o m o o o o o o i n ^ ~ _ o r o « - r o «— CM O • v f r o CM t n r o «— 3 « - CM N . r o fl o r v . o « — C M O O f l v r o r v . r v , c o e O f l r s . < - . - r o < — C M > -c c c c c O O O O O X X X X X a a a a a 0 S § S § o 41 cj CO C J f I - C to t o IA CO CO C c —» 41 o C C C C C 0 4 J J = 3 J C T J • § " § • § • § • § 3 O — O ^ O a >v i . * - C J 41 — JC 3 XZ 41 —> cn 41 4) CO CO c c J C J I J C J C 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 4) C K f u U w eg — t= CO CO CS J C C t_ xz xz xz > > 41 cu CU CO 4) 4) l _ CO a eg cs CS 41 41 41 41 z >. t_ 41 cu *J — . JC e s— —* C * * 41 — - — 443 < o J § t. — o > CO < o < — < o I oo C J O c s > ca s tt. O < — CO > i a < o I o u - O is > ca •*. ° I -o C J o o > ca u _ o < — O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O r O O v f O O O — o o o o o o o o O v f a o v j e M r o r o o c M o o o o o o o > o o o c o c O v f O — o o o - — m o — o o o o o o — o o r v . c o c g c g r v . u i o o o o o a O ' O O f ^ c N J c N j r ^ o O ' O o ' o i n f O O r v . C M C M r v , O O O O O N . - O C M in -o m >o v3 v f -o r v . CM o CM CM r o i n v r v O m oo — v r r o r o o — rv. v r v r CM CM m — r o O O O O O O O O O O i n O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Q O O O O O O O O O O C M O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O v O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O i n m O O O O O O O O O O - O in a m >n < - ! 'V! r°. ip. :£ £ £ c o — v r ro r o O — N . — v f v f CM CM m — r o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o g o o o o o o o o o o o i M o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ' o o o o o s o o o o e o o o o o o o o o o o m i n o o o o o o o o o o - O in o in in — v r o o o r o r o CM O o v f i n rv. — CM o o CM v r r o — r o r o — r o m CM O o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o a o g g o o g g g g g g r o g v f g g g - - o o o o o o o o O v r o o - o c M r o r o o c M O O O O O O O v 3 0 0 c o c j O v f O — o o o d a o ' d d a - - o o ^ B Q Q ^ ^ ° ° ° ° ° ° l i £ ° ^ % % ~ a & a ° a ^ ^ ° l n £ 2 3 2 2 o in c o — v f io r o O — rv. — v r v f CM CM in >— ro e s > o o o o o o o o o o - o o o o e o o o o o o o o o o o • O i n o m m — v r o o o r v . — CM o o CM v f r o — § o o o vf m m CM o rv. rv, o ro in in ro in ro in — — — m m o < O O o ro CO oo H O O O N . v r o r o r O v 5 ro — — m — — m r o — rv. rv. CM co o vf O vf o — r o 3 -C9 l_ o 01 CO — — CO TJ c . CO cu CO o 9 JcC C J J* so CU 01 CO oi c co — m C CO c_ —. u at u cu c — * • CO -x xz JC n o c j O C T ! O — o co co oc x oc i a J i 01 01 JCC 01 cu 01 c >- l _ c w u *-* 01 ca TJ — 3 xz 3 c . z at ai o o o u 3 cn CJ CJ X x < CU cu c c cu c c CO CU cu cu at ca 3 xz a> c c c C J 3 CO CO CO < -» -1 X C J o 01 s CO J Z C J cu 1 S T : c c- ca • o xz — TJ C I- 0> 01 c. >. cu o -M o CO U C O CB >> >. QC CO CO X — CO 01 c — * <-• — • C C CO C e o aa a. N O W si c3 w w 3 co cn C- C J O . C U U C O •— o c u c u c * — o c a x c o c o c a c o — ~ > 3 S •— — U U C C J C J X C O X 01 "2 01 CO CO C X xz xz co c. a C J C J > . 3 3 01 O c oa oa o u- c c i— • j g 8 S S J CO CO X X X o o C J eu X X X X u J i — C O O I C O C U C O —. —. —. —. —• —. —• w tn ca ca ca c_ v — — — — — c — _ _ ca z 5 cu cu o» oi - -X X X X X X X X Z Z Z Z O O 3 C S u c_ c_ 01 CU 41 J C 444 cj > to < o >o fl o o L o PO o N. m o ro « - ro ro co fl CM CM CM CM CO o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O r O O O O O I v T l A O O O O O O O LO LO -vf in ro o vT 0> LO 0 0 0 < O N . O O O O ro « - *-o co vr o o o o o vr 0 > at < o 0 1 St < — CJ > ca < o u . O < — CJ > ca < o I CO CJ o < — r ^ n n n a o o o c O v r o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o g g g o o g o S o o o o o o o o S v r o o o o o o o d o d d o d d d d r v l o l d d d d d g o d o g o o o g g o o o o o o o o o o P - -§ § § § g § § § S R 5 5 § § S § S n § S § § § ^ •3 CO S -O Ol CM JM CM •» » 1ft PO a» O O vr o o o o o o o o o c o v r o o o o o o o o o g g g o g o o o g g o g g o o o o O O O O O O O O O K V T O O O O O O O O O C D O O O O Q d d d d d d d d d r ^ o t o d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d o o o o o o o p -O O C M O O J v O O O o ? i n < co S S 5 X po in ol » - « - < - — in rn ro vr o o m > CO u . O P s r v - o o v r o r o r o v o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o flfloo>-orOvrcooroooooivrinoooooooooin o r o o i n i n v r o < - d d o f l P s o d o o ' d o d o o o v r - - o i n ro «— « - vr LO ro O co vr i o L o r o O N . r o ro r- ro ro co •O CM oi oi oj CM LO LO i o rovT O < o rv. o o < «-< J > CO < o I fl u- o < ~-vr o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o d o d o ' fl u i vr i n rn ro o o o o o o o o in o o Pv. o o o CM O Ol fl O O m CM .— o o o o o o o o o o o o O O O O CO o o o o rv. r v . r v . o o fl fl o o o o o o o o o o d d o o o t o d vr O O vT O O O 3 c O O L n r o o r v . r o o r o o i n i r i v r o * -r * c> r o f r n n e o CM in r o O m CO O fl CM CM CM CM v T O l O fO O O fl ro o o o o o fl o i n ro fl co r u o f l « - v r v r f l c O v r i n v r C M r v - v O f M ^ v T O T — i CM Pv .— CM .— vT • " 4 N - 0 » - i " C M c y < N I 0 * " » - < - i -O oi to fl oi ro rv. oi r v . v r « — o i m m f l f l f l z o u c c o o X X ca o s s U L . U * * U 01 01 CO CO CO J C J C J C C C CO CO CO o° O* 3 a 3 -l -J 0 01 oi v cs 3 3 3 ? U. U. l«V QC < JC JC JC JC JC JC JC JC Jd. CO 01 01 Ol u 01 01 01 01 01 c > 01 01 01 Ol 01 01 01 01 01 < L. t_ c c_ t- l _ t- c u 01 u u CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ 01 Cv* C u CJ cj CJ CJ cj cj CJ CJ CO CO 5 o o o o o o o o -1 OC oc oc oc oc cc ec oc oc 0. c o cd 4 — — CJ p-O u u c to a . a . J C L . CO C CO § U l *-< — CO JZ O T J c c • co j = o « - c M P O v r u i f l P v . c o o c 0 O O — C J Z 5 "Z Z zt x— 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 $ CO CO — . C Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z L U *"< *•» C OCS od L U 01 CD L U t - < « . < i . * . * . * . 1 - v . * . i i c : 01 (I 01 01 C c — — — — . — c_ * J W u u oi O cp ctl a—' — o W W C C T J S W T J T J T J C J C J C J U C J C J C J I J I J C CO 10 —• 2 T J C C C « J w «J I J Sv. -— C C k > 8 J C Q C Q Q < Q Q C Q C Q t Q ! Q c Q 0 e j { Q C k C k C k C k C k c c o c a e a e c c c c c c c c c c e c o c e c c c c c 445 > CO < O J £ < — 13 > ca u> o < o I CO CJ O < >-> CO < o I IS. u . O C3 > CO < O CJ O < «-CO > c a "S 3 u . CK < «-CS > CO < o • fl c j O < — o > CO < o 1 \£> < — cs > CO <, o i n CJ O 1 5 2 2 ; ^ 2 2 2 i T , 0 0 0 0 0 ° < - > < - > < w o o o o r v . o Q t M C M o « - o o o o r v . o o o o r v . O C O c M O O v J F v . o o o AJ O CO O CO Q r v K 1 r ~ - 0 - < > C > r ~ ' - » N> O in m « - v r i n IM m •- n m n a m oj 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 c s o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r v - o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o o o o o g m o o o o o g o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o t o f l o o o o o o o o o CM m o v r po fl r n c M O O O i n o r n Pv. o o n o i N N i n " - ^ - m m m i M K i v r »- m CM ! 2 2 i £ r C l £ § S C S S S S S 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 ^ c > 9 ™ o ' 0 . - o o o o r « . o o o o r ~ . c 3 e o n j o o - a i v . o c s § c t i o 3 0 § S S 0 0 ° ° ° S K 2 3 S 3 8 b R R i S S i ^^s 2 J; « « - « - CM o o o o o o o o o o o o g o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r v . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o g o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o s f l o o o o o o o o o i M m o s i fo fl m c M o o o m o m rv. o o r n » - i M c M i M i n «- m m in CM m v r ~- m CM c o o o i n o g g g g o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o f v . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 K . O C O C M O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O m O O O O O O O O O S ^ c o o o c o c o g o o o o o o o o o o o o o o i n o o o o e g f l o o o o o o o o CM O 00 o co fl m i M o o o i n o i o rv. o o i n i n - - v r m CM . - . - r n m m r u m - v r ^ m CM O O O O O O O i n O O O O O O O O O O O O O r v . O O C M C M O v - O O O O r v . 0 0 0 0 O O O O O O O r * . O O O O O O O O O O O O O f l O C Q C M C M O r v . v r O O O f l O e > 0 0 O m O g O O O m o O O O O O O O O O O O O P O C K c M v r v r O . — P v . O O O f l f l p n O O S - - & 3 X S 2 r . i n M > » > N r - O i v . c o m CM CM CM m m r - 10 M ^ v i o ca "— m r\i » - «— CM o o g c > i n g g g i n o o o o o o o o o o o o o N . o o c M i M O > - o o o o r v . o o o o rv. O ' CO ( M O O f l r v . o O O O O O O O O O O O O f l O C 0 C M C M O r v . v r O O O f l O C > O O CM o co o eo o r v . m r v . i > o > o > N . > - o rv. co m m • » i n CM m , - r-> CM • - • - m co - m n i o g g g g g g o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r - o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o o o o o g m o g o o g g o o o o o o o o o o d d d o m g d o o o f l o o o o o o o o o CM in o v r m fl m c M O o o i n O r n rv. o o m CM CM CM m . - - v p f i m m c M P A v r po CM a g i > i n g g g i n o o o o o o o o o o o o o N . o g i M c M g < - o o g g r v . o g g o P - . o c o r M O O f l N . o o o o o o o o o o o o o f l o a o c M c M O P v . v r o o o f l o > o o S C M O 3 ° 3 S O 0 0 0 0 0 ° ° ° ° m i n v - v r i n i M m m CM «— ^ n o »- m CM « - r - « - CM g g g o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o g o o o o o o o o K - o g o o o o g o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o o d o o o o o d o o d o d o d m d o d d c d f l d d o c M m o v r m fl r n c M O O o m O P O r * o o m »— fM CM r y i n »— .— r o m r o r u r O v r po CM 3 3 < - < - < - — — < - C M . - > - f l < < - < C M t n PO CM fl « -rv. t pv. v r Pv. CK m PO IM < CM «— N S IM N "~ 9> > 3 S O t - » a> • - IM - • • • • K X O C C C C O C B X 11 1 i — —< u u u 01 C « 1 S c CO 3 CO • - t - CM n i CO C J J C J C J C 41 41 CD 41 tw U C J C J U U 01 01 CO CD c c c o -» l U Z — J C O JZ JZ JZ • r j u . u t . u : — c u 3 0 x u> O o O w | v w Z Z t/1 C 01 C C CO CJ 01 U — — C CS CO i c a c o c o i o c o S u u w w O U S _ U k . U C v . 9 o W W — 0 . v v . J S J S j S J S J 3 j 3 ^ J C J C 0 I C D 0 I O I 0 l 0 I U w w C O C O t O 4 I I O 3 3 2S 2 3 2 cj u o r o c D c o c o c o c o u T J w j _ j _ co 41 at O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O t O C O c a e j v l 4 I J _ — < c c c c < i c c x x i c i l C [ C i c < i > i r i i i i « v i i i i > i v i i r > « - CM cs d CO CD ca cn 446 c o ..'8. < — < o I co u o < — < o > at < O u o < — < o u. O er > at < o •o u o J 8 < o I m o o O O O O O O O ^ - N - P S - O O O O O O O O O O O O O ^ — o o o o o o o o o o o o o O i n c O C O c O O O N . M Q > 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - r - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o c M r o m c M O O o c p c o ^ o ^ Q o o o o o o o o o o o t n co o > » r o o o o o o o o o c o m i/t IA r\j ^ O vr *™ co o 5^ N . «— o , M M P r l O ^ f f f MQ «— f\l «— tr-O r 0 O O O O O m O m O O O O O O O O O O O O O > # O O O O O O O O O O O O O O r O O O O O O C O O C M O O O O O O O O O O O O O v T O O O O O O O O O O O O O O m O O m O O O i n * — m m O O O O O O O O O O O > * - # o O O O O O O O O O O O ro N- «- N >o O ( \ l t A O O O CD CM «— Oi -i— (M <- CO CO o o o o o o o ^ r ^ f ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o ^ o o o o o o o g o g O o o o i ^ c o c o c o o o r ^ s o ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o * -o r J r o r o r \ i o o o ^ c d « rO ro ro >0 — - - - - - - -o « - CM £ « -o r o o o o o o m o m o o o o o o o o o o o o o ^ r o o o o o o o o o o o o o O r O O O O O O C O O O J O O O O O O O O O O O O O ^ O O O O O O O O O O O O O O r O O O / > o o o i n ^ i n i ^ ro K. (M >0 > nj i n O O o cO CM o o o o o o o o o o o o o ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o o o o c o < o > o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ^ - o o o o o o o o o o o o o O r o o o n o o o c o c o ^ ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o i n c o o - - * o o o o o o o o o c o ro N- »— o >r co t> ^ N- «— 0> r\j *— rsj <-—<-— «— >o •— CM ^ - «— o o o o o o o * - o m o o o o o o o o o o o o o % r o o o o o o o o o o o o o O t n c O C O c O O O r s . o r s i O O O O O O O O O O ' 0 0 0 ^ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o c M r n r o c M O O O ^ u ^ ^ i n i n o o o o o o o o o o o ^ r ' - . r o o o o o o o o o o o o m i n i n (M i n o o o co ro ro ro >0 «- « - nj «- oa co « -S < 2 2 2 2 2 S r " h - N * 0 0 0 0 0 0 ° o o o o o O ' - o o o o o o o o o o o o o ° . t r . * a t ? ^ ° . Q . ^ ^ o ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ^ - o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r M r o r o « M O O O ^ c p c o ^ ^ o o o o o o o o o o o i n c o o > r o o o o o o o o o c o UJ I" iJJ ?J — OH >T r - 0 0 5^ N- «— O r o r o f O H ) T- —- *— M$ «•— t>j - r o o o o o o o o o o o o o O r O O O O O O C Q O f M O O O O O O O O O O O O O N T O O O O O O O O O O O O O o r o o o L r t o o o m ^ - m m o o o o o o o o o o o s f ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o fO P» »— CM <0 O CM i n O O o co CM » - CM CM «— co co O O O O O O O * — N - N . O O O O O O O O O O O O O - ^ - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o m c o c o c o o o N - - o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o « - o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r M i ^ r o ( M o ' o o ^ c d c d > o ^ o o o o o o o m i n i n (M .j— o co 0 * * 0 N - <-— O ro ro ro >0 «— >0 «- ru <— «— o ro o o o o o r o o i n o o o o o o o o o o o o o ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r o o o o o o c o o r M o o o o o o o o o o o o o ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r o o o i n o o o i n ^ i n i n o o o ' o o o o o o o o ^ - ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o ro S- N vO O- N i n O O O CO 0 ro >o m >o o — — — O — ro (M CM o CO n i r j m 3 8 c 3 U S — 3 41 s s s 41 41 41 41 X X X X c c c c 41 41 41 41 > > > > 41 41 41 41 41 CO TJ TJ 3 3 < IM ro «* i n -o o i— Q C o *-* 41 § "3 «1 o g _ 41 — ^ —* vt Ut n i l u s 10 • • N M - I » u — I M J * C CO • • • • C J CS • • 41 O O O O w C - O O — Z Z Z Z CO Z X C — a 01 ca co co — a a o a . c c e c c e s _ C C C C U C 0 C 0 4 l 4 l > . O O - ' > > > > u — — C . U C U < t « I I t L > • >> 0 _ Q . Q . O _ * ^ * J * J * - » * ^ co co ca coc/ic/ic/ic/icrtoouocnh-i— i— o TJ co 41 CO 41 41 3 g j . w 41 i £ 447 u J 8. < — o o i n o r o o e o o o o r v - c M r o o e o c o o o r v - o r o o e O v r f— ro o r » o o rv. ea o o co S ? 2 2 S r ; l 0 i , , P O l ' , o - - o r O v T O O O v O > O N . N . u - t C M O O O O O O C D C M F V . U I Q O « - O vr » o - o u - i o c > u " i o e M o o o o , f l r * i - - . o » - i n s r « - f > ' 0 < O r - ( M M N 13 > CO < o u '8. < «-O O N - O O O O O O O 0 0 * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O O O O O O S - O O O O O O o o o m o o m o o o o o o o i/> u n N . o o O O O sO cO «— IC 3 O CM O O CO O O O O v f CM r o i — «— o o o o o o CJ > CS < o I CO u . o < - -*( co cj o < <-> CO < o I r v . u - O < — c j > cn < o I r v . CJ O < <— c j > CO < o I o u _ O < <-CJ > ca < o I o CJ O < «— 1 IO u . O CJ > CO CJ O < •-S 2 i v ? S — 9 S i 2 S 2 ^ S 5 0 2 0 ° N . h o i o i m o i o o o o o a O 0 f c ? ; s ° s s 0 ' 0 ' ° 2 g ! ; c 5 ° 0 ° • ~ r o -— r o - - - - ro t - ' < - > o o o o o o o o o r v . o o o o o o 0 0 u » > ! C t ; 0 2 ^ 0 o o o ' o i o v * o o d d c M o d e o o d c 3 c 3 d o o o g 4) a a m N 4 o o o o vr vr vr ° 0 — -O CM CM rO « - « -c 3 o i o o r o o c o c > o o o r v , c p c o o o o o r v , r o i o i n O i n O O O o g O o r v . i M r o o c c S c o o o O v 9 c c ) r O v T O a a K ^ c > ^ o c O v r o o a a o c M r v . i i v o o a > O L r i c > c > i n c > c M o a o a r v . r o o S . O »— o vf o v" i ro -— «— o — mvr — Jo — K I T . " - r O - O - O — C M C M C M « o Q O v » o o i v . o o o o o < 3 o < 3 v 3 0 0 o g o r v . g o g g o o - - i r - l L o i o i v ^ d o - o o d o c i d i o v r o o o g c M g g c o a o o a o o S » 8 ? 3 C M 1 " * - 5 5 g o o o v, v, vr § 8 S 3 5 § S S § § § U S 3 i § § 5 3 C S S S 8 g 3 g § = d f c s i s ° S v 5 d d ° 2 g v ; c 5 ° ° 0 ' 3 ^ 5 g " I O — — r O - O v O — I M C M C M i - - i c - - i o o v r o o r - . o o o o o o o g g g g o g g r v . g g g g g g O o i o O — O O v 3 0 0 0 0 Q O O O O O O l o O c 5 i n c J O C 3 c 3 0 0 S S o - o c B o in s 4 o o o o v r v r v r * * J 7 2 CM CM ro — — o o i o o r o o c o c > o o o r - c t a c o o o o o r v . r o m i o o i r i g g g g g o o r C c M r o o S S o o o - o c a o ' o ^ o r o o e o v r o o o n i M i v ^ i n d d d ^ 5 g ^2 S S " * 2 5 3 5 — CM S S § § S § ^ § § v 3 8 § § § 8 § § § § § § d d i n ' i o r ^ d d v o d o ' d d d i o v r d o o - Q o cd o i n rv. -o p o o O vT vT vT CO — *5 CM CM ro «— f « . O «— l O O O r o i M r O o O C O C V I C O O O v r v T O - — O C M r o r o c M < — — C M - — — v r v r m - -vf o C M c M c o - - o o - - c M r o v r C O C M C M O O v T v O - - — C M C M C M C M — — CM vr « - « - r- ro ro ro ro — -o rv. rv. c> CM CM - S . - i - S . - S . s s § s CO CO CO CO c c 2 c -s -s -s -s o eu cj >. . s l-» CO C CO — u 3 c c 3 CO T J CU O Z O) c o. u O O CO 3. 3 cu L_ C J c -< CO —• a> cu J J C JCC J £ « 0 cu CS CS cu U U U C J C J C J C C C a a a J C Z J Z . f i cu cu — U w JCC u c o ca c j a CM s. • cu o cu z c/> Z <— CM T J T J cs ca cu cu T » T J CS CO CU CO CO 0) c r - i - 31 3 « ac ac ce ac — —• T J T J • 10 CO 1 3 3 3 3 CU T J E co co 3 3 CO CO cu o > > T J T J T J fc> « CS CO CO di CO CO CO CO CU CO CO CU CO cU Vj _ _ _ _ _ _ 3 3 3 3 3 i— CM ro vf d d d d z z z z c c c c c c cu CU CO eg CD CO C *-* 4 J **• . _ ,— v— — . v— , _ , XZ XZ XZ xz 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 < i