THE BIPARTITE DEVELOPMENT OF MEN'S AND WOMEN'S F IELD HOCKEY IN CANADA IN THE CONTEXT OF SEPARATE INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY FEDERATIONS by JOHN McBRYDE B . E . , U n i v e r s i t y o f Q u e e n s l a n d , 1961 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Schoo l o f P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n and R e c r e a t i o n We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRIT ISH COLUMBIA J a n u a r y 1986 © John M c B r y d e , 1986 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of £j>UCA--?-/OTS £&,y> ua T'E. $TUJ>i€- S The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 ABSTRACT The purpose of t h i s thes i s was to descr ibe and exp la in the b i p a r t i t e development of men's and women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada. Because t h i s could not be done i n i s o l a t i o n from the context of separate i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey federa t ions , the thes i s was presented i n three p a r t s . In the f i r s t pa r t , the evo lu t ion of hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , i nc lud ing the formation of separate federa t ions , was descr ibed . In the second par t , an h i s t o r i c a l account of the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada was narrated . The t h i r d sec t i on descr ibed the complex i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e , and the connect ion between development i n Canada and the i n t e r n a t i o n a l context . C r i t i c a l f ac to rs and pervading in f luences which shaped the course of development, both i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y and i n Canada, were i d e n t i f i e d . The b i p a r t i t e development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada occurred i n three phases. The i n i t i a l phase represented the per iod fo l lowing the foundation of an independent women's hockey a s s o c i a t i o n i n England, a phenomenon which occurred at the same time as organized f i e l d hockey was introduced to Canada. An intermediate phase began when f i e l d hockey organ izat ions i n Canada f i r s t made contact with i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t i ons . The f i n a l phase encompassed the years of cons iderab le i n t e r a c t i o n between the Canadian assoc ia t i ons and the i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l counterparts . The most s i g n i f i c a n t fac to r i n the c r e a t i o n of separate assoc ia t i ons in Canada was the fact that the Canadian F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n and the Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n were founded at a time when the i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions were proceeding not on ly independently, but with cont ras t ing p r a c t i c e s regarding a f f i l i a t i o n and compet i t ion . i i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge those whose ass is tance made the completion of t h i s thes i s p o s s i b l e . S incere thanks are extended to the members of the thes i s committee for the i r va luable adv ice : Dr. W. Robert Morford and Dr. E r i c Broom of the School of Phys i ca l Education and Recreat ion; and Dr. Charles Humphries of the H is tory Department. In p a r t i c u l a r , the author would l i k e to convey s p e c i a l thanks to Dr. Barbara Schrodt, thes i s superv isor , whose guidance, pat ience and encouragement throughout the course of the project were g rea t l y apprec iated . Acknowledgement i s a l so made of the va luable and e n t h u s i a s t i c help rece ived from the many i n d i v i d u a l s , both w i th in Canada and from overseas, whose c o n t r i b u t i o n of resource mater ia l — through generous access to personal f i l e s and c o l l e c t i o n s , grant ing of in terv iews, or correspondence — proved i n d i s p e n s i b l e . To the numerous a r c h i v i s t s and l i b r a r i a n s , as we l l as s t a f f and volunteers of amateur sports o rgan iza t ions , who provided courteous se rv i ce and ass i s tance , the author extends h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n . Thanks are a l so due to L o r i Montgomery whose typing and word process ing s k i l l s helped to produce the f i n i s h e d t h e s i s . F i n a l l y , the wr i te r wishes to thank h i s col leagues for t h e i r encouragement and h i s w i fe , June, for her support and understanding during the severa l years required to complete t h i s t h e s i s . i i i TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I INTRODUCTION 1 Purpose of the Study 1 Review of the L i t e r a t u r e 2 J u s t i f i c a t i o n 6 De l im i ta t ions of the Study 7 L im i ta t i ons of the Study 9 Procedure 9 Organizat ion of Thes is 11 D e f i n i t i o n of Terms 12 Glossary of Abbreviat ions 15 PART I INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY 16 II EARLY HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF MODERN HOCKEY 16 Pre-Modern Hockey 16 Ancient Forms of Hockey Around the World 16 Ear l y Forms of Hockey i n the B r i t i s h I s l e s 18 Hockey i n B r i t a i n from 1750 to 1870 19 Modernizat ion of the Game of Hockey 20 The F i r s t Hockey Clubs and Matches 20 Rise and F a l l of the F i r s t Hockey Assoc ia t i on . . . . 21 Rev iva l of the Game and the Second Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n 22 E a r l y Development of Women's Hockey 24 i v CHAPTER PAGE I I I DEVELOPMENT OF HOCKEY INTERNATIONALLY TO WORLD WAR I 26 In ternat iona l Development of Men's Hockey 26 Other Home Countr ies and the F i r s t In ternat iona ls . . 26 Formation of the In ternat iona l Hockey Board 27 European Nations and Olympic Hockey 28 Internat iona l A f f i l i a t i o n s 29 Development of Women's Hockey 31 Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions 32 Internat iona l Hockey 33 Women's Hockey Around the World 33 Re la t ionsh ip Between Men's and Women's Hockey 34 IV INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY BETWEEN THE WARS: EMERGENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL FEDERATIONS 36 Men's Hockey 36 Olympic Hockey Tournaments 36 Creat ion of the Federation Internationale de Hockey 37 Rela t ionsh ip between the I .H .B . and the F . I .H 38 Women's Hockey 39 Conception and Creat ion of the In ternat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions 40 F . I . H . Women's Committee 41 In te rna t iona l Conferences and Tournaments 41 Re la t ionsh ips Between Men's and Women's In ternat iona l Federat ions 43 Jo in t Meetings of the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . . . . 43 v CHAPTER PAGE Mutual A f f i l i a t i o n and Internat iona l compet i t ion . . . 44 Summary 46 V POST-WAR RESURGENCE OF INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY: FROM WORLD WAR II TO THE LATE 1960s 48 Men's Hockey I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y 48 Creat ion of the B r i t i s h Hockey Board 48 Growth of In te rnat iona l Hockey 49 Re la t ionsh ips Between the F . I .H and the I.H.B 51 Women's Hockey I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y 52 Olympic Asp i ra t ions and In ternat iona l Competit ion . . 52 Organ izat iona l Development of the I.F.W.H.A 54 Re la t ionsh ips between the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I .H 56 Ear l y Post-War In te rac t ion 56 Creat ion of the Jo in t Consu l ta t ive Committee 57 Consu l ta t ion and Co-operat ion: 1953-1967 59 Summary 62 VI INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY FROM 1970 TO 1983: UNIFICATION OF THE FEDERATIONS 64 Men's Hockey Development 64 R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of the Organ izat iona l Structure . . . 65 World Cup and Olympic Competit ion 66 Women's Hockey Development 68 Int roduct ion of World Championships 69 Women's Hockey i n the Olympic Games 70 v i CHAPTER PAGE Re la t ionsh ips Between Men's and Women's Hockey 73 Status of Hockey at the Olympic Games 74 Divergences i n the Rules 76 Breakdown i n Re la t i onsh ips : F . I . H . and I .F.W.H.A. . . 77 Formation of the Supreme Counc i l 78 Inc lus ion of Women's Hockey i n the Olympic Games . . . 80 Funct ion of the Supreme Counc i l 82 Integrat ion of the I .F.W.H.A. i n to the F . I .H 84 PART II FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA 89 VII DEVELOPMENT OF FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA TO WORLD WAR I 89 Men's Hockey i n B r i t i s h Columbia 90 Women's Hockey i n B r i t i s h Columbia 91 Men's and Women's Hockey i n Other Parts of Canada 93 Re la t ionsh ip Between Men's and Women's Hockey 94 VIII DEVELOPMENT OF FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA DURING THE INTER-WAR PERIOD 96 Women's F i e l d Hockey 96 Vancouver F ix tures 96 School Hockey i n Vancouver 98 Vancouver Is land and I n t e r - C i t y Competit ion 100 School Hockey on Vancouver Is land 102 Women's Hockey i n Other Parts of Canada 103 Vancouver A s s o c i a t i o n and In ternat iona l A f f i l i a t i o n 104 v i i CHAPTER PAGE Men's F i e l d Hockey 106 Mainland League 106 Vancouver Is land Hockey and I n t e r - C i t y Matches . . . . 108 Aspects of Development 109 In ternat iona l Contacts 110 Re lat ionsh ips Between Men's and Women's Hockey I l l IX DEVELOPMENT OF FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA: WORLD WAR I I TO LATE 1960s 116 Women's F i e l d Hockey 117 The War Years 117 Ear l y Post-War Development 119 R e v i t a l i z a t i o n i n B r i t i s h Columbia 119 Women's F i e l d Hockey i n Other Parts of Canada . . 123 P a r t i c i p a t i o n at the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament . . . 124 Per iod of Expansion 125 Progress i n B r i t i s h Columbia 125 Developments i n Other Provinces 128 In ternat iona l Competit ion 130 Creat ion of the C.W.F.H.A 132 P r o v i n c i a l Development and Nat iona l U n i f i c a t i o n . . . 136 B r i t i s h Columbia 136 Ontar io and Quebec 140 Maritime Provinces 142 P r a i r i e Provinces 143 v i i i CHAPTER PAGE Nat ional Tournaments and Canadian Team S e l e c t i o n 145 Summary of Post-War Development 148 Men's F i e l d Hockey 149 Post War Recovery 149 Rev iva l i n B r i t i s h Columbia 149 Men's F i e l d Hockey i n Other Parts of Canada . . . 151 In te rna t iona l Competit ion 152 Per iod of Rapid Progress: 152 Expansion i n B r i t i s h Columbia 153 Development i n Other Provinces of Canada . . . . 156 I n t e r - C i t y and I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Competit ion . . . 158 Creat ion of the C . F . H . A . : In ternat iona l A f f i l i a t i o n 160 Nat ional and In ternat iona l Competit ion 165 Ear l y Development of the Nat iona l Assoc ia t i on . . . . 168 Progress i n B r i t i s h Columbia 169 Growth i n Other Provinces 169 I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Tournaments and Nat ional Championships 171 In te rna t iona l Competit ion 173 Other Aspects of Development 176 Summary of Men's Hockey Development 177 Re la t ionsh ips Between Men's and Women's Hockey 178 E a r l y Post-War Years 178 In ternat iona l Asp i ra t i ons and I n s p i r a t i o n 179 i x CHAPTER PAGE National Co-operation 180 Independent Development 182 X DEVELOPMENT OF FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA: 1970 TO 1983 185 Women's Field Hockey 185 Domestic Development 185 Seniors 185 Juniors 189 Universities 190 Provincial Championships 191 National Development 192 National Championships 192 International Competition 193 Preparation of National Team 195 Organizational Aspects 196 Men's Field Hockey 199 Domestic Development 199 Seniors 199 Juniors 202 Universities 205 Provincial Championships 205 National Development 206 National Championships 206 International Competition 207 Preparation of the National Team 209 Organizational Aspects 210 x CHAPTER PAGE Re la t ionsh ips Between Men's and Women's F i e l d Hockey . . . 212 Independent but P a r a l l e l Development 212 In te rac t ion and Jo in t Considerat ions 217 Summary 223 PART I I I CANADIAN DEVELOPMENT IN THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT . . . 224 XI DISCUSSION 224 Evo lu t ion of Hockey I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y 224 S t r u c t u r a l Ana lys i s of In ternat iona l Hockey Admin is t rat ion 227 Dynamics of the In te r -Re la t ionsh ip of In te rnat iona l Hockey Organizat ions 233 Dichotomy w i th in Men's Hockey Admin is t rat ion . . 234 Emergence of Autonomous Women's Hockey Organizat ions 235 Dichotomy w i th in Women's Hockey Admin is t rat ion . 236 Separate Development of Men's and Women's Hockey A c t i v i t i e s 237 Integrat ion of the I.F.W.H.A in to the F . I . H . . . 239 Independent Development of Men's and Women's F i e l d Hockey i n Canada i n the In ternat iona l Context 240 I n i t i a l Stage 240 Intermediate Stage 243 F i n a l Stage 245 Further Observations 251 E f f e c t s of Contrast ing Phi losophies of the I .F .W.H.A. and the F . I .H 251 x i CHAPTER PAGE Inf luence of the Olympic Games and the I.O.C 252 Role of Vancouver i n the Development of F i e l d Hockey i n Canada 253 Concluding Remarks 254 XII SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 256 Summary 256 Conclusions 261 Recommendations 264 NOTES . 265 BIBLIOGRAPHY 325 x i i A P P E N D I C E S APPENDIX PAGE A. Minutes of the Inaugural Meeting of the In ternat iona l Hockey Board, Manchester, 25 J u l y 1900 336 B. Summary of I .F .W.H.A. and F . I . H . Tournaments: 1967-1981 339 C. Correspondence Confirming the Inc lus ion of Women's Hockey as an Olympic Sport 340 D. D iscuss ion of D i f fe rences between Men's and Women's Rules, 1973 342 E. Summary of the Evo lu t ion of the Hockey Rules Board 343 F. Mainland Championships and Thomson Cup Records, G i r l s ' Grass Hockey: 1919-1940 344 G. Summary of Events Leading to the Formation of the C.W.F.H.A 345 H. Vancouver W.F.H.A. and Vancouver Is land L . F . H . A . , League Teams: 1965-66 346 I . Summary of Events Leading to the Formation of the C.F .H.A 347 J . Telegram Correspondence Confirming the Inc lus ion of the Canadian Team i n the Olympic Hockey Tournament, Tokyo, 1964 348 x i i i T A B L E S TABLE PAGE 1. Number of Countr ies A f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . : 1946-1968 50 2. Number of Countr ies i n the Olympic Hockey Tournament: 1948-1968 51 3. Number of Teams at I .F .W.H.A. Tournaments and A f f i l i a t e d Countr ies : 1953-1967 55 4. Meetings of Jo in t Consu l ta t ive Committee: 1952-1968 . . . . 60 5. Number of Teams Competing i n the Vancouver Women's F i e l d Hockey League: 1956-1963 126 6. Number of Teams i n Bridgman Cup Tournament: 1938-1962 . . . 127 7. Number of Teams and D i v i s i o n s i n Vancouver Men's F i e l d Hockey League: 1957-1964 154 8. Senior Teams Registered with C.W.F.H.A. : 1969-1982 . . . . 188 9. Senior Teams Registered with C.W.F.H.A. : 1981-82 188 10. Federal Funding, C.W.F.H.A. Programmes: 1964-1983 198 11. sen ior Teams Registered with C . F . H . A . : 1969-1980 202 12. Senior and Junior Teams Registered with C . F . H . A . : 1969-1980 203 13. Senior and Junior Teams Registered with C . F . H . A . , by Prov ince: 1980 204 14. Senior Teams Registered with C .F .H .A ./C .W.F .H .A . : 1968-1981 213 x i v F I G U R E S FIGURE PAGE 1. Comparison of Member Countr ies and Tournament Teams, I .F.W.H.A. and F . I . H . : 1971-1981 71 2. In te rna t iona l Hockey Development: 1886-1983 225 3. Number of Hockey-Playing Countr ies : 1900-1980 226 4. Conf igurat ion of In te rna t iona l Hockey Organizat ions : 1930 228 5. Conf igurat ion of In ternat iona l Hockey Organizat ions : 1948 229 6. Conf igurat ion of In te rnat iona l Hockey Organizat ions : 1970 230 7. Conf igurat ion of In te rnat iona l Hockey Organizat ions : 1975 231 8. Conf igurat ion of In te rnat iona l Hockey Organizat ions : 1983 232 9. Number of A f f i l i a t e d Countr ies and Tournament Teams, Men/Women: 1948-1976 238 10. Canadian F i e l d Hockey Development i n the In ternat iona l Context: 1895-1983 241 11. Number of Adult F i e l d Hockey Teams i n Canada, Men/Women: 1900-1980 242 12. Expansion of F i e l d Hockey i n Canada i n the In ternat iona l Context: 1900-1980 247 xv P L A T E S PLATE PAGE I. England's First International Men's Team: 1895 349 II. Vancouver Ladies' Hockey Club: 1896 350 III. Vancouver Hockey Club (Men's): 1902-3 351 IV. Vancouver High School, Thomson Cup Girls' Hockey Team: 1905-6 352 V. Canadian Women's Touring Team, I.F.W.H.A. Tournament, Sydney, Australia: 1956 353 VI. Canadian Men's Olympic Hockey Team, Tokyo: 1964 354 xv i 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Hockey, or f i e l d hockey as i t i s c a l l e d i n Canada, i s a game which has i t s o r i g i n s i n a n t i q u i t y , was modernized by the B r i t i s h i n V i c t o r i a n t imes, and i s now widely played throughout the world by both men and women. While none of these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may d i s t i n g u i s h hockey uniquely from other spor ts , there i s one feature which makes the study of t h i s game p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g , namely, the b i p a r t i t e development of men's and women's hockey, i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y and i n Canada. It i s t h i s phenomenon which a t t rac ted the author to pursue the subject fur ther as the top ic of t h i s t h e s i s . Purpose of the Study The purpose of t h i s study was to examine the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada, from i t s emergence i n the 1890s as a d i s t i n c t game, to 1983. Of p a r t i c u l a r i n te res t i n t h i s study was the phenomenon of the separate development of men's and women's f i e l d hockey, both wi th in Canada and i n the broader i n t e r n a t i o n a l context . In order to e s t a b l i s h t h i s context , i t was a l so necessary to study the b i p a r t i t e development of men's and women's hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . With in the l i m i t a t i o n s of source mater ia l a v a i l a b l e , the study inc luded: 1. A summary of the genesis of the game, and i t s evo lu t ion in to modern hockey i n the la te 1800s. 2. A ch rono log i ca l account of the development of men's and women's hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . 2 3. A chrono log ica l account of the development of men's and women's hockey i n Canada. 4. An a n a l y s i s of the circumstances instrumental i n the formation of separate men's and women's na t iona l hockey assoc ia t ions and i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey federa t ions . 5. An examination of both the common and divergent experiences encountered by men and women i n the development of the game. 6. A study of the i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p between men's and women's o rgan i za t ions . Review of the L i t e r a t u r e Compared to the more popular spor ts , there i s a dearth of wr i t ten h i s t o r i c a l mater ia l on the subject of f i e l d hockey i n Canada, and indeed of world hockey genera l l y . Probably the most use fu l i n the review of that l i t e r a t u r e which ex is ted was The Book of Hockey, ed i ted by P a t r i c k Rowley, a recognized world author i ty on the game.* Th is book was a c o l l e c t i o n of a r t i c l e s with top ics ranging from the ancient o r i g i n s of the game, through the b i r t h of formal hockey, to the development of the modern game. Wr i ters of both men's and women's hockey were represented; c lub , n a t i o n a l , and i n t e r n a t i o n a l aspects were inc luded; and numerous, wide and va r i ed perspect ives of the game were covered. Some of the a r t i c l e s were anecdotal i n nature, serv ing only to give an ins ight i n to the values assoc iated with the game; whi le others were we l l researched, or wr i t ten by persons of long-standing author i ty i n the spor t , such as the pres ident of the In ternat iona l Hockey Federat ion . Adding to the documentary value of the book were appendices g i v ing the complete and accurate 3 r e s u l t s of a l l Olympic competit ions and men's and women's i n t e r n a t i o n a l tournaments up to the date of the book's p u b l i c a t i o n . An e a r l y book wr i t ten on the game was The Complete Hockey P layer , 2 publ ished i n London i n 1909. I t s major a t t r i b u t e was that i t documented the evo lu t ion of the modern game, and the formation of the o r i g i n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , from a contemporary perspec t i ve . Contr ibut ions by recognized a u t h o r i t i e s on var ious top ics such as "the H i s to ry of the Hockey Assoc ia t ion [England]" lent credence to the tex t . Coverage of the per iod up to 1909 was a l s o enhanced by o r i g i n a l research undertaken by N e v i l l Miroy i n England. Under the t i t l e "The H is tory of Hockey", t h i s work was publ ished (commencing i n September 1980) i n s e r i a l 3 form i n Hockey D igest , o f f i c i a l news medium of the Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . While the e a r l y years i n the development of women's hockey were covered b r i e f l y i n the works of White and Miroy, the emphasis there was the evo lu t ion of hockey genera l l y , and men's hockey i n p a r t i c u l a r . A more comprehensive h i s t o r y of women's hockey was to be found i n Mar jor ie P o l l a r d ' s book, F i f t y Years of Women's Hockey, which re la ted the s tory of the founding and 4 development of the A l l England Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . The most a u t h o r i t a t i v e l i t e r a r y p iece on the women's i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan iza t ion was Janet Shaner's "The H is tory and Development of the 5 In te rnat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n s " . A 1975 master 's t h e s i s , t h i s s c h o l a r l y work documented the h i s t o r y of the women's i n t e r n a t i o n a l body. In a d d i t i o n , i t was va luable i n prov id ing some information on the i n t e r a c t i o n of the men's and women's i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan iza t ions , achieved through the v e h i c l e of a j o i n t consu l ta t i ve committee. 4 F i e l d hockey i n Canada had an even more sparse her i tage than i t s Eng l i sh forebears and i n t e r n a t i o n a l counterparts . L inda Wi l l iams ' 1967 graduating essay "The Growth and Development of Women's F i e l d Hockey i n Canada" presented a good coverage of the formation of the Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , and the development of the game during the f i ve -year 6 per iod f o l l o w i n g . The background h i s t o r y of the game i n Canada, although inc luded , was scanty and drew l a r g e l y upon an e a r l i e r p u b l i c a t i o n . The Jub i l ee Booklet , ed i ted by Florence Strachan, was produced i n 1956 by the Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on on the occas ion 7 of the ce l eb ra t i on of s i x t y years of women's hockey i n Vancouver. The booklet was a compi lat ion of a r t i c l e s cover ing severa l aspects of the h i s t o r y i i and development of the game i n Vancouver and env i rons . It e s s e n t i a l l y 1 addressed women's hockey but d id inc lude a s p e c i f i c a r t i c l e on, and numerous references to , men's hockey. Conversely, when the newly formed Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on (men's) compiled F i e l d Hockey i n Canada i n 1963, the major i ty of a r t i c l e s deal t with the h i s t o r y and development of men's f i e l d hockey, with a separate a r t i c l e b r i e f l y summarizing the progress of women's f i e l d hockey over the g in terven ing years . The men's booklet was qu i te comprehensive, and r e f l e c t e d the momentous change that was taking p lace i n Canada, both i n men's and women's f i e l d hockey, dur ing those years . The a r t i c l e s covered the h i s t o r y of the game throughout Canada, the formation of a s s o c i a t i o n s , inc lud ing the Canadian F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , and i t s a f f i l i a t i o n with the In ternat iona l Hockey Federat ion and the Canadian Olympic A s s o c i a t i o n , as we l l as the inc reas ing i n t r a - and i n t e r - n a t i o n a l compet i t ion. 5 Further mater ia l a v a i l a b l e on the game and i t s development inc luded: The Story of the A.E .W.H.A. , a s e r i e s of booklets produced by the A l l 9 England Women's Hockey Assoc ia t i on and spanning the per iod of 1895 to 1981; a b r i e f but comprehensive survey of the game i n England by Ida Webb, e n t i t l e d "Women's Hockey i n E n g l a n d " ; 1 0 and s i m i l a r works of a more s p e c i f i c nature, mostly cover ing women's hockey. A lso consu l ted , to provide a broad background, was l i t e r a t u r e of a more a l l -embrac ing and g loba l nature such as : The Oxford Companion to Sports and Games, ed i ted by John A r l o t t ; 1 1 The Olympic Games, ed i ted by K i l l a n i n and 12 13 Rodda; Sport Canadiana, ed i ted by Schrodt, Redmond and Baka; The New Encyclopedia of Sports , ed i ted by Ralph Hickok, and other sports 14 15 encyc lopedias; Henry Roxborough's One Hundred—Not Out; and Canada's Sport ing Heroes, by Wise and F i s h e r , 1 ^ to name the most prominent, as we l l as severa l theses and d i s s e r t a t i o n s on Canadian sport h i s t o r y . In order to gain fur ther ins igh t i n to subjects re levant to the study, a review of l i t e r a t u r e i n re la ted areas was conducted. On the top ic of women i n spor t , two recent p u b l i c a t i o n s , Women i n Canadian L i f e : Sports , by 17 Cochrane, Hoffman and K i n c a i d , and F a i r B a l l : Towards Sex Equa l i t y i n 18 Canadian Sport , by Ann H a l l and Dorothy Richardson, were reviewed. In the area of o rgan i za t i ona l and s o c i o l o g i c a l aspects , a r t i c l e s such as Barbara 19 Schrodt 's "Changes i n the Governance of Amateur Sport i n Canada", 20 Canadian Governments and Sport , by Broom and Baka, Richard Mor iarty s 21 "The Rise and F a l l of Sports Organ izat ions" , and "Soc ia l C lass and Voluntary Act ion i n the Admin is t rat ion of Canadian Sport" , by Hol land and 22 Gruneau, were consu l ted . For a study of the development of other 6 i n d i v i d u a l spor ts , such works as A .B . Rose's "An H i s t o r i c a l Account of 23 Canada's P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n In te rnat iona l Ice Hockey: 1948-70", S ix ty 24 Years of Canadian C r i c k e t , by J . E . H a l l and R.O. Mccul loch, Robert Bra t ton ' s "A H i s to ry of the Canadian V o l l e y b a l l Assoc ia t i on up to 1967", and s i m i l a r accounts for soccer , rugby and l ac rosse , proved to be use fu l sources. J u s t i f i c a t i o n In h i s recent a r t i c l e "Canadian Sport H i s t o r y : A C r i t i c a l Essay", the eminent Canadian sport h i s t o r i a n , Donald Morrow, observed that for the major i ty of Canadian sport h i s t o r y research, "the common bas is of methodology was n a r r a t i v e - d e s c r i p t i v e h i s t o r y . " Furthermore, he i d e n t i f i e d s i n g l e sport s tud ies as one of the four broad t o p i c a l headings which emerged from h i s 26 review of the leading journa ls i n the f i e l d . Morrow contended that "Canadian sport h i s t o r y i s s t i l l at the d e s c r i p t i v e stage of research" , with "Canadian sport h i s t o r i a n s , for the most par t , being t ra ined i n d e s c r i p t i v e research" . While he d id not foresee any change i n the next decade, ne i ther d id he consider d e s c r i p t i v e - n a r r a t i v e or descr ip t ive- themat i c h i s t o r y to be i n any way i n f e r i o r . Indeed, he s t ressed that t h i s methodology demanded the 27 a t t r i b u t e s of "meticulous research" and " l i t e r a r y s k i l l " . In an examination of over two hundred master 's theses and doctora l d i s s e r t a t i o n s on sport h i s t o r y emanating from Canadian and B r i t i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s i n the l as t f i f t e e n years , the wr i te r of t h i s thes i s d iscovered 28 that near ly o n e - f i f t h (38 out of 214) were of the s ing le - spor t type. It i s thus apparent that sport h i s t o r y theses of n a r r a t i v e - d e s c r i p t i v e genre, s p o r t - s p e c i f i c i n nature, continue to enjoy considerable favour i n t h i s academic f i e l d . 7 Although over the past two decades numerous s tud ies have been completed on the h i s t o r y of other i n d i v i d u a l games, each of which has made some con t r ibu t ion to Canada's spor t ing her i tage , a review of the l i t e r a t u r e ind ica ted that there had been no comprehensive, s c h o l a r l y h i s t o r y wr i t ten on the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada. Both from a Canadian viewpoint , and from a more g loba l perspec t ive , the study of men's and women's f i e l d hockey had many d i s t i n c t i v e features which commended i t for research . In i t s own r i g h t , f i e l d hockey was ranked as the 29 second most popular outdoor team sport i n the world ( s i x t h i n Canada). It was the second team spor t , of those c u r r e n t l y re ta ined , to be admitted to the Olympic programme. Therefore , such a study should represent a va luable c o n t r i b u t i o n to knowledge i n the f i e l d of sport h i s t o r y . More p a r t i c u l a r l y , the separate men's and women's development of t h i s sport was unusual . As an Olympic spor t , f i e l d hockey was unique i n t h i s respect . It was a l so the only team sport i n which men and women have developed separate ly , each with i t s own autonomous organ iza t ions , at na t iona l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l s . The examination of t h i s aspect should prove very use fu l from the perspect ive of sport admin i s t ra t ion . Upon cons iderat ion of the above f a c t o r s , the proposed top ic i s submitted as a worthwhile subject of study i n the f i e l d of sport h i s t o r y and sport management. De l im i ta t ions of the Study Chrono log i ca l l y , t h i s study was conf ined to the per iod from the 1890s to 1983. From the broader perspec t ive , the 1890s witnessed the formation of the f i r s t separate women's na t iona l assoc ia t ions and ushered i n the f i r s t 8 international matches for both men and women. From the Canadian viewpoint, the 1890s marked the founding of the Vancouver Hockey Club (men's) and the Vancouver Ladies' Hockey Club, the oldest known formal f i e l d hockey clubs in Canada. A logical point of termination for the study was 1983, the year in which, internationally, the men's and women's federations were amalgamated, with the Federation Internationale de Hockey (F.I.H.) absorbing the International Federation of Women's Hockey Associations (I.F.W.H.A.) into i t s organization. This thesis was limited to the construction of an historical framework and to a discussion and interpretation of events occurring within that framework. While no attempt was made to write a definitive "history of hockey", the important landmarks in the history of the game, such as the formation of the world's f i r s t national associations and of the international federations, were necessary to provide the contextual framework. The history of f i e l d hockey in Canada was studied in greater detail, with the emphasis on the development of the sport governing bodies, their a c t i v i t i e s , and their organization. Although this study was not an attempt to trace the origins and development of every club or team ever formed in Canada or internationally, those individuals, teams, clubs, competitions, and other events which were crucial to the development and organization of the game, and particularly as they were relevant to the separate development of men's and women's hockey, were studied closely, such events as the formation of Canada's national associations, their a f f i l i a t i o n with their respective international bodies, and participation in national and international competition were considered of paramount importance. 9 Limitations o£ the Study One limitation in the study of the game of f i e l d hockey in Canada was the dearth of historical material available on the subject, especially with regard to men's hockey. A further limitation was the incompleteness of records of a documentary nature (minutes, correspondence, reports and the like) especially prior to World War I. In addition, most of the individuals associated with the game in the early days, and some of those involved in the formative years of the two national associations, were deceased. Also, as f i e l d hockey has traditionally been a l i t t l e publicized sport, there was, in general, scant mention of the game in newspapers and other forms of printed communications media. These limitations indicated that, to provide adequate information for completion of the study, a multi-directional search for source material was required to collate and substantiate the data. Procedure This research was conducted using the historical method. Data collected was rigorously subjected to c r i t i c a l examination to determine i t s validity and r e l i a b i l i t y . As well as establishing the authenticity of the material, corroborative evidence was obtained, whenever possible, to ensure that i t was trustworthy. Also, in assessing the importance of material, and interpreting i t s significance, these fundamental principles of objectivity were applied. While the methodology f a l l s generally into the descriptive-narrative genre, and the subject into the single-sport category, the several unusual aspects inherent in the topic, especially the bipartite nature of the 10 development of the game, suggested areas for fur ther research, as d iscussed i n the f i n a l s e c t i o n . P r i o r to World War I I , f i e l d hockey i n Canada was conf ined almost e x c l u s i v e l y to the Vancouver and V i c t o r i a areas of B r i t i s h Columbia. Thus, as the s i t e of f i e l d hockey's ea r l y development, much of the m a t e r i a l , and most of the people assoc iated with the formative years of the game i n Canada, were to be found there . However, the author a l so v i s i t e d Toronto and Ottawa to research o r i g i n a l mater ia l on Canadian development, and t r a v e l l e d to England to obta in documents of i n t e r n a t i o n a l re levance. In a d d i t i o n to the mater ia l r e fe r red to i n the review of the l i t e r a t u r e , primary and secondary sources examined inc luded: 1. A l l i ssues of the Canadian F i e l d Hockey News (1963-1985) and World Hockey (1969-1985). 2. A sampling of other hockey p e r i o d i c a l s from severa l countr ies spanning the l as t three decades of the study. 3. Minutes, repor ts , c o n s t i t u t i o n s , correspondence, and other mater ia l per t inent to the funct ions of the re levant a s s o c i a t i o n s . 4. Other re levant documents deposited i n the fo l lowing arch ives and l i b r a r i e s : Pub l i c Archives of Canada; Vancouver C i t y Arch ives ; B.C. Sports H a l l of Fame and Museum; Vancouver Pub l i c L i b r a r y ; and U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia L i b r a r y . 5. Newspapers and journa l s , as we l l as miscel laneous newslet ters , programmes, f i x t u r e booklets , and personal scrapbooks, photographs, and other memorabil ia. 6. Interviews with those men and women whose involvement i n f i e l d hockey i n Canada, and hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , could o f f e r a va luable 11 c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h i s research . Where an interv iew was not f e a s i b l e , correspondence was s u b s t i t u t e d . Organizat ion of Thesis Th is study i s organized in to four sec t i ons : 1. In t roduct ion . 2. Narrat ive d e s c r i p t i o n of the development of men's and women's hockey, i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y and i n Canada. 3. D iscuss ion and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the game's development and the phenomenon of i t s b i p a r t i t e nature with respect to men and women. 4. Summary with conc lus ions and recommendations. The nar ra t i ve d e s c r i p t i o n , which forms the f a c t u a l framework of the study i s presented i n two p a r t s : Part I , the development of men's and women's hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y ; and. Part I I , the development of men's and women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada. Chrono log i ca l l y , the nar ra t i ve i s d iv ided in to four 30 time per iods : 1890s to World War I ; the inter-war years ; post-World War II to la te 1960s; 1970 to 1983. Within each time p e r i o d , separate accounts of the development of the game for men and the development of the game for women are presented. These separate accounts are fol lowed by an examination of the i n t e r a c t i o n between men and women, and an i n v e s t i g a t i o n in to the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the i r respect ive o rgan i za t i ona l bodies . From a review of the l i t e r a t u r e i t can be observed that , with respect to the evo lu t ion of the game, no s i n g l e volume e x i s t s i n which desc r ip t i ons of men's and women's hockey development have been treated together, much less juxtaposed. Thus, the author deemed i t necessary to present a comprehensive 12 account of the development of men's and women's hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y i n order to e s t a b l i s h the bas is on which d i s cuss ion could proceed. S i m i l a r l y , as no comprehensive h i s t o r y of the game i n Canada had prev ious ly been w r i t t e n , a chronology of f i e l d hockey i n Canada has been included as an i n t e g r a l part of t h i s study, i n producing t h i s chronology, severa l aspects of development were cons idered: the founding of c lubs ; the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of teams i n league f i x t u r e s and representat ive matches; the f o s t e r i n g of the game i n schools or i n jun ior programmes; the formation of assoc ia t ions at d i s t r i c t , p r o v i n c i a l and nat iona l l e v e l , a f f i l i a t i o n with i n t e r n a t i o n a l bodies, na t iona l championships,and i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, to l i s t the most important. At each stage of t h i s expos i t i on , the Lower Mainland of B r i t i s h Columbia (Vancouver) was regarded as the f o c a l point of 31 development, with Vancouver Is land ( V i c t o r i a ) i t s s a t e l l i t e . The r a t i o n a l e behind t h i s approach was, f i r s t l y , that these two centres were v i r t u a l l y the only areas of Canada where adult hockey was played p r i o r to the 1950s: and, secondly, that Vancouver was the l o c a t i o n at which both na t iona l assoc ia t ions had the i r i ncep t ion , and from which the nucleus of the f i r s t Canadian teams to p a r t i c i p a t e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion was s e l e c t e d . D e f i n i t i o n of Terms The terms " b i p a r t i t e " , "separate", " p a r a l l e l " , and other approximately equivalent terms, are intended to descr ibe the s i t u a t i o n which ex is ted i n f i e l d hockey whereby the men's and women's games developed i n an e s s e n t i a l l y independent manner, not only compet i t i ve ly , but o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y , and p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y . 13 The use of the terms "hockey", " f i e l d hockey", and "grass hockey" — and sometimes "ground hockey" — requires e l a b o r a t i o n . Because the establishment of the In te rnat iona l Hockey Board (the f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l body of any of the v a r i a n t s of the generic game of hockey) preceded the formation of the In te rna t iona l Ice Hockey Federat ion , and corresponding world organizat ions for r o l l e r hockey and indoor hockey, f i e l d hockey i s known i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y as "hockey". On the other hand, i n Canada, the name "hockey" usua l l y r e f e r s to i ce hockey, with the terras " f i e l d hockey" and "grass hockey" being required to i d e n t i f y the outdoor f i e l d game. Although i t has now been superseded by " f i e l d hockey", the term "grass hockey" was the o f f i c i a l name used i n B r i t i s h Columbia up u n t i l the formation of the Canadian assoc ia t ions i n the e a r l y 1960s. In t h i s t h e s i s , when the term "hockey" i s used, i t means f i e l d hockey. This convention i s adopted and genera l ly employed when the meaning i s c l e a r from the context . For instance, a mod i f i ca t ion of the game, known as "mixed hockey", r e f e r s to f i e l d hockey played by men and women together. When i t i s appropr iate from cons iderat ions of h i s t o r i c a l development, or i n cases of p o t e n t i a l ambiguity, the p re f i xed nomenclature " f i e l d hockey" or "grass hockey" i s used. During the per iod under study, severa l examples of over lap i n terminology occur: thus, some f requent ly used terms require d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . For example, although "team" and "club" were sometimes used interchangeably, a team was genera l ly regarded as the ac tua l group of p layers who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a game, whi le a c lub was the o rgan i za t iona l body which entered one or more teams i n a compet i t ion . The fact that , e s p e c i a l l y before World War I I , most c lubs f i e l d e d only one team, no doubt contr ibuted to t h i s lack of 14 d i s t i n c t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , whi le "league" usua l l y re fe r red to the competit ion amongst teams, and "assoc ia t ion" to the o v e r a l l o rgan i za t iona l body, the two terms were o f ten used synonymously. Even i n minutes, and on o f f i c i a l l e t te rhead , the t i t l e "League" appeared as f requent ly as "Assoc ia t ion" , both for the men's and women's o rgan i za t ions . The terms "match" and "game" were used interchangeably, too. However, the former usua l l y re fe r red to a more competit ive contest — an i n t e r - c i t y match between representat ive teams, as opposed to a f r i e n d l y game of mixed hockey, being an example of appropr iate usage. Other terms a l so require c l a r i f i c a t i o n . In women's hockey "women" or " lad ies" was used to d i s t i n g u i s h adul ts (p layers , teams, or c lubs) from " g i r l s " or " s c h o o l g i r l s " . The male equiva lents were "men" and " jun iors" (sometimes "schoolboys") , r e s p e c t i v e l y . In the 1970s, the term "junior" became common for younger p layers of both sexes, and the term "seniors" was concomitantly app l ied to a d u l t s . With respect to terminology genera l l y , an endeavour i s made i n t h i s thes i s to use contemporary terms wherever the meaning i s c l e a r from the context . Th is app l i es to such terms as " lad ies" for women, "rep" for representat ive , and "knock-out" for e l i m i n a t i o n , as we l l as to the t i t l e s of c lubs and a s s o c i a t i o n s . Where p o s s i b l e , the f u l l and contemporary name of a c lub or a s s o c i a t i o n i s used upon f i r s t re ference , and short forms t h e r e a f t e r . The Vancouver Lad ies ' Hockey C lub, for example, i s abbreviated to Vancouver L .H.C. a f t e r the i n i t i a l re ference; i n other cases, simply a name, such as Crusaders, i s used to re fe r to a team. 15 Glossary of Abbreviat ions A. E.W.H.A. A l l England Women's Hockey Assoc ia t i on B. C .F .H.A. B r i t i s h Columbia F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion (men's) B. C.W.F.H.F. B r i t i s h Columbia Women's F i e l d Hockey Federat ion C. F.H.A. Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on (men's) C O . A . Canadian Olympic Assoc ia t ion C.W.F.H.A. Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on F. I .H . Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey ( In ternat iona l Hockey Federat ion) G. V.W.G.H.A. Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t ion H. A. [The] Hockey Assoc ia t i on [of England] I . F.W.H.A. In ternat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions I .H .B . In ternat iona l Hockey Board ( for ru les) I .O .C . In ternat iona l Olympic Committee M.G.H.A. of B.C. Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t ion of B r i t i s h Columbia (men's) Abbreviat ions of other o rgan i za t iona l bodies ( inc lud ing var ian ts of the above) are def ined throughout the tex t . 16 P A R T I INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY CHAPTER II EARLY HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF MODERN HOCKEY Although i t has been stated that the per iod for t h i s study extends from the 1890s to 1983, i t i s appropr iate , and to some extent necessary, that a b r i e f background of the game of hockey be presented. Th is chapter c o n s i s t s , there fore , of a review of the evo lu t ion of hockey, from i t s ancient o r i g i n s to i t s modern form. Pre-Modern Hockey Ancient Forms of Hockey around the World H i s t o r i a n s are genera l ly agreed that crude s t i c k and b a l l games, from which the game of hockey i s der ived , date back severa l thousands of years . The e a r l i e s t evidence of such a game was discovered at Beni Hasan i n the N i l e V a l l e y , i n a tomb which was b u i l t c a . 2000 B.C. On the wa l l i s a drawing which dep ic ts two f i g u r e s , whose r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n i n g resembles that of p layers p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the modern " b u l l y " . 1 Further evidence of an e a r l y form of s t i c k and b a l l game played i n the western Mediterranean during the p r e - C h r i s t i a n era i s provided by a b a s - r e l i e f , d iscovered i n Athens i n 1922, i n a wa l l b u i l t dur ing the time of Themistocles, 514-449 B.C. At the base of 17 a statue are s i x a t h l e t e s , a l l ho ld ing curved s t i c k s , with two of the men 2 engaged i n an a c t i v i t y that suggests a b u l l y . There i s a l so evidence of a 3 s t i c k and b a l l game played i n Rome, and known as paganica. Several scho lars have l inked the o r i g i n s of b a l l games, i n many c i v i l i z a t i o n s throughout the world, to ancient r e l i g i o u s or f e r t i l i t y r i t e s . R i t u a l i s t i c precursors of the modern game of hockey have been discovered i n severa l parts of A s i a , i n Papua and New Guinea, and i n the Arab countr ies of 4 North A f r i c a . Forms of such games were a l so played for many centur ies by the Indians of North and South America. As e a r l y as 1646, a Spanish f r i a r w r i t i n g a h i s t o r y of Ch i l e made reference to the Indian game of c ineca which he descr ibed as being s i m i l a r to what i s now known as hockey, and amongst North American Indians, a comparable game i s reported to have been played by 5 both men and women. On the continent of Europe, there ex is ted many examples of s t i c k and b a l l games, the most prevalent of which was the game of l a sou le , a l so o r i g i n a l l y assoc iated with r e l i g i o u s occasions and played i n France during the Middle Ages.** Several a r t i f a c t s provide sport h i s t o r i a n s with v i s u a l evidence of the existence of these games: d e t a i l from a metal-cut border i n a French church dep ic ts townsmen p lay ing l a soule i n 1497; a French a l t a r c ruet , dated 1333, and now r e s i d i n g i n the Copenhagen Museum, portrays two p layers i n an orthodox b u l l y ; and a Barcelona cathedra l i n which the chance l , 1 b u i l t i n 1394, d i sp lays a game s i m i l a r to l a sou le . Disseminat ion by the Roman legions to the i r conquered nat ions , and t ranpor ta t ion in to Spain by the Moorish invaders , are among the hypotheses advanced to exp la in the 8 i n t roduc t ion of s t i c k and b a l l games i n t o Europe. 18 Ear l y Forms of Hockey i n the B r i t i s h I s l e s As i t was i n B r i t a i n that hockey took root as a formal game, i t i s t h i s r e l a t i v e l y smal l corner of the world to which a t ten t ion i s now d i r e c t e d . In h i s book The Complete Hockey P layer , publ ished i n London i n 1909, Eustace E. White dec lared that "modern hockey i s a g l o r i f i e d form of that game, played at d i f f e r e n t times and i n d i f f e r e n t countr ies under such va r i ed names as hur ley , 9 sh in ty , bandy, hoquet and caman." Apart from the French hoquet, from which the terra hockey may have der ived , a l l the other forms are from the B r i t i s h I s l e s . The game of hur ley , or h u r l i n g , i s the I r i s h v e r s i o n , to which the f i r s t reference i s assoc iated with a b a t t l e fought i n County Mayo i n 1272 B .C . ; fur ther mention was made of hur ley i n the re ign of King Catha i r Mor, who d ied i n A.D. 1 4 8 . 1 0 In Scot land, the game was known as sh in ty , with e a r l i e s t references dat ing back to the time of Alexander I (d . 1124), who seems to have given h i s roya l patronage to the game. Descr ip t ions of sh in ty , as played at a l a t e r date, were provided by Pennant i n h i s Tour of Scot land, wr i t ten i n 1 7 6 9 . 1 1 Of the many references to the game i n England s ince the twel f th century, a few se lec ted examples should s u f f i c e to fo l low i t s course. The f i r s t documentation of b a l l games appeared i n an 1174 manuscript, the Chron ic les of F i t zs tephen , which re fe r red to "London B a l l e P laye" , then a 12 popular pastime among students . Over the next few cen tu r i es , e a r l y forms of hockey were be l ieved to have been played i n the schools assoc iated with the great cathedra ls of England. There are severa l examples of e x i s t i n g s ta ined g lass windows which v e r i f y such a c t i v i t y : one, of th i r t een th century o r i g i n , set i n Canterbury Cathedra l , dep ic ts boys p lay ing s t i c k and b a l l games; another, dat ing from a century l a t e r at G loucester , shows a f i gure s t r i k i n g at 19 a b a l l with a crooked s t i c k . The s t i c k and b a l l game was prevalent i n England and Wales during the medieval per iod under the name of bandy, and became so popular i n fourteenth century England that i t i n t e r f e r e d with the p r a c t i c e of archery . Together with other games, i t was forbidden by decree, 14 under a s ta tute (ca . 1363) of King Edward I I I . One of severa l a c t i v i t i e s he ld i n conjunct ion with r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l s i n E l i zabethan times, and which l a t e r developed in to s p e c i f i c spor ts , was an embryonic form of hockey played 15 i n some Cornish towns on Ascension Day. Reference to hockey eventua l ly appeared i n Eng l i sh l i t e r a t u r e , where the famous 17th century w r i t e r , Lord Macaulay, i n desc r ib ing John Bunyan's pastimes, i s sa id to have asserted that b e l l r i ng ing and p lay ing at hockey on Sundays were Bunyan's worst v i c e s . ^ Hockey i n B r i t a i n from 1750 to 1870 During the 18th and 19th centur ies i n England, references to hockey and s i m i l a r games became more numerous. Joseph S t r u t t , i n The Sport and Pastimes of the People of England, o r i g i n a l l y produced i n 1801, re l a ted that h u r l i n g was f requent ly played by ir ishmen behind the B r i t i s h Museum i n London around 17 the year 1775. Lord Lytton was reputed to have wr i t ten i n 1853, "on the common were some young men p lay ing at hockey. That o ld- fash ioned game, now 18 very uncommon i n England, except at schools . . . ." A l so , C a s s e l ' s Popular Educator of 1867 i s sa id to have inc luded an a r t i c l e on hockey as i t 19 was played i n England. Thus i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g that hockey should have been played i n the schools and co l l eges at that t ime. Indeed, from 1750, s t a r t i n g with Eton and Winchester, the game became prominent at such i n s t i t u t i o n s . By 1850, severa l other major pub l i c schools and the Royal M i l i t a r y Col lege at Sandhurst were 20 p lay ing hockey, and i n the next few decades many more schools took up the game. For instance , Rossa l l School and Marlborough Co l l ege , descr ibed as "two of the great nurser ies of hockey", were p lay ing the i r vers ions of the game, at 20 least by 1864 and 1874 r e s p e c t i v e l y . At about mid-century, too, i t would appear that hockey was a popular sport i n the u n i v e r s i t i e s , for i t i s recorded that i n 1847, H.C. Maiden, who was at T r i n i t y Co l l ege , Cambridge, " t r i e d to 21 get up some f o o t b a l l i n preference to hockey, then i n vogue." Around the middle of the n ineteeth century, hockey was a l so gaining i n favour as a game enjoyed outs ide of the schools and u n i v e r s i t i e s . In 1859, p layers partook of the game on Wimbledon Common i n South London and, by the 1860s, i t was being played i n many par ts of England. I t s form and name were s u f f i c i e n t l y well-known that when the f i r s t games of polo were played i n 22 London i n 1869-70, t h i s new sport was re fe r red to as "hockey on horseback". Modernizat ion of the Game of Hockey During the nineteenth century i n England, l a r g e l y as a consequence of severa l important s o c i a l developments which took place at that time, sport was transformed from the var ious t r a d i t i o n a l f o l k pastimes and recreat ions to the modern forms of organized a c t i v i t i e s played around the world today. Hockey was one of the games which underwent t h i s process . The F i r s t Hockey Clubs and Matches Several c lubs i n England were instrumental i n the c r e a t i o n of the modern game of hockey. Included i n these were the Blackheath, Teddington, Richmond, Surb i ton and Wimbledon hockey c lubs , a l l from the London area . While each of these c lubs made a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n , i t i s Blackheath 21 and Teddington that can reasonably c la im to have been the f i r s t of the modern hockey c l u b s . Chrono log i ca l l y , Blackheath Hockey Club was the f i r s t ; from the informal games which had been played on the heath s ince 1840, the Blackheath 23 Hockey Club was founded i n 1861. A f u l l decade was to pass before members of the Teddington Cr i cket C lub, meeting at the end of a ra iny summer to d iscuss the p o s s i b i l i t y of p lay ing hockey, formed the Teddington Hockey Club 24 i n the autumn of 1871. The Teddington p layers "appear to have had about three years on the i r own to shape t h e i r game" before the f i r s t matches with outs ide c lubs were p layed. But by 1874, on the other s ide of the Thames, i n t e r e s t i n hockey was growing at Surb i ton and Richmond. With the help of some v i s i t i n g Teddington p l a y e r s , the Richmond Hockey Club was founded i n October 1874, and i n the autumn of that year "the f i r s t recorded game of modern hockey between two c lubs" took place when Teddington H.C. played Richmond H.C. i n the Old Deer 25 Park, Richmond. The Teddington versus Richmond game ushered i n many more encounters of an i n t e r - c l u b nature, f o r , dur ing the 1874-75 season, severa l other c lubs were formed and f i x t u r e s arranged. The h i s t o r y of the Richmond H.C. fo r that year recorded matches with The S t r o l l e r s , Hampstead, East Surrey, Upper Toot ing, and Surb i ton , i n a d d i t i o n to i t s f i x t u r e s with Teddington, for a t o t a l of 26 about a dozen games. Rise and F a l l of the F i r s t Hockey Assoc ia t i on By the end of t h i s f i r s t ac t i ve season of i n t e r - c l u b hockey f i x t u r e s , the time appeared r ipe for the formation of an o rgan i za t iona l body. With Richmond Hockey Club taking the i n i t i a t i v e , e ight c lubs met i n London on 22 16 A p r i l 1875 to form what came to be known as the f i r s t Hockey 27 A s s o c i a t i o n . Most of the c lubs played under reasonably s i m i l a r ru les which the Assoc ia t ion proposed to adopt. However, so t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t were the ru les of the Blackheath Hockey Club, that the Blackheath representat ive f e l t i t "per fec t l y use less for him to remain," thus leav ing the other seven 28 c lubs to be recorded as the founding members of the A s s o c i a t i o n . Proceeding without the Blackheath c lub , the Assoc ia t i on enjoyed severa l a c t i v e seasons, with numerous f i x t u r e s played by i t s member c l u b s . Even a match between s ides represent ing the count ies of Middlesex and Surrey took place — at Kennington Oval i n January 1876. However, i n the e a r l y 1880s, as a r e s u l t of d isputes over the ru les and i s o l a t i o n i s t elements i n some c lubs , the game gradual ly dec l i ned , and with many c lubs d isbanding, the f i r s t Hockey 29 Assoc ia t i on became moribund. Revival of the Game and the Second Hockey Association In the mid-1880s, a r e v i v a l of i n t e r e s t i n organized hockey led to another attempt to form an a s s o c i a t i o n . At the i n s t i g a t i o n of the Wimbledon Hockey Club, a meeting was c a l l e d i n London on 18 January 1886, and on that day the present Hockey Association (H.A.) was founded. The representatives of s i x London clubs, a Cambridge college, and one school attended the meeting, but l a t e r , when the rules were discussed with a view towards standardization, 30 the Blackheath Hockey Club again withdrew from the Association. Indeed, the Blackheath Club, together with several others, formed the r i v a l Hockey Union. This body was active u n t i l the mid-1890s, at which point, with most 31 clubs having defected from the union, Blackheath joined the H.A. 23 Within the next decade, the game of hockey was dest ined to embrace a l l of England, i n the Midlands, the f i r s t c lub , S o l i h u l l H . C , was formed i n 1885, with other c lubs fo l lowing over the next few years . Almondbury H . C (1886) was the f i r s t to be founded i n the north of England. The add i t i on of other c lubs scon afterwards permitted the f i r s t matches to be played there i n 32 1887, and the Northern Counties Hockey Assoc ia t ion to be formed i n 1888. As we l l as f i x t u r e s between c lubs , representat ive matches were a l so p layed, 33 the fo l lowing events demonstrating the rap id development: 1887 — f i r s t county match (Surrey v Middlesex) 1888 — f i r s t county match i n the north (Cheshire v Lancashire) 1890 — f i r s t d i v i s i o n a l match (North v South). During t h i s p e r i o d , hockey continued to f l o u r i s h i n the schools and u n i v e r s i t i e s . Numerous p u b l i c schools had taken up the game, and the i r m a t r i c u l a t i n g scho lars were cont inuing to p lay a f t e r going to u n i v e r s i t y . The Cambridge co l l eges had been ac t i ve s ince 1883, and by 1889, hockey was being played at Oxford. In 1890, f i r s t Cambridge, then Oxford, formed u n i v e r s i t y c lubs , and i n March of that year , the f i r s t "Vars i ty Match" was played at Oxford. At t h i s time, hockey as a sport was increas ing i n p r e s t i g e . I t s popu la r i t y was p a r t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e to the p r i n c i p l e s of amateurism to which the H.A. s t r i c t l y adhered. Th is appealed to the V i c t o r i a n gentleman who, i n turning to hockey, could f i n d a game "played for i t s own sake, and not for any mater ia l rewards, because cups and s h i e l d s and trophies [were] unknown i n 35 hockey . . . ." O r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y , too, the sport matured during the f i r s t decade of the existence of the H.A. By 1895, t h i s o rgan iza t ion was the governing body c o n t r o l l i n g three d i v i s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , numerous county 24 a s s o c i a t i o n s , and approximately one hundred c lubs , i n add i t i on to schools and u n i v e r s i t i e s . Thus, w i th in a quarter of a century, hockey was transformed from an informal pastime to a game with we l l -de f ined ru les and a h igh ly s t ructured organ iza t ion embracing the whole country. Ear ly Development of Women's Hockey Up to the formation of the Hockey Assoc ia t i on i n 1886, there was no record of organized hockey for women. However, i n V i c t o r i a n England, when women were Just s t a r t i n g to p a r t i c i p a t e i n spor t ing a c t i v i t i e s , "hockey as a 36 country house and ho l iday game was very fash ionab le" . From t h i s per iod appeared the f i r s t reports of V i c t o r i a n l ad ies " s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y j o i n i n g i n the „37 men s games . . . . Formal development of women's hockey as an independent game occurred between 1887 and 1890, as ind ica ted by the fo l lowing summary of events: 1887 — Hockey played at Lady Margaret H a l l and Somervi l le Co l lege , Oxford Molesey Lad ies ' Hockey Club formed i n London 1888-89 - - E a l i n g L .H.C. and Wimbledon L.H.C. (both i n Greater London) formed 1890 — A l a d i e s ' hockey c lub formed at Newnham Co l lege , Cambridge Thus, by 1890, there were three p r i va te c lubs and two u n i v e r s i t i e s p lay ing 38 women's hockey. During the e a r l y 1890s, severa l schools began to recognize hockey as a winter game. Wimbledon House School ( l a t e r Roedean School , Brighton) and 25 S t . Leonard's School (S t . Andrews) were two famous g i r l s ' schools which adopted the game. At the u n i v e r s i t i e s and i n the c lubs , women's hockey continued to f l o u r i s h ; i n 1895, the f i r s t Oxford versus Cambridge V a r s i t y match was p layed, and by 1896 there were ten c lubs p lay ing women's hockey i n England. In less than a decade from the formation of the f i r s t formal c lub , 39 women's hockey had become a f i rm ly es tab l i shed game i n England. 26 CHAPTER III DEVELOPMENT OF HOCKEY INTERNATIONALLY TO WORLD WAR I The twenty years p r i o r to World War I represented a period during which important developments took place i n the evolution of hockey. Not only did the game share with many other sports the advent of i n t e r n a t i o n a l competition, but i t also experienced a phenomenon, unique to hockey, i n which the game for women began to follow a course d i s t i n c t from that of men. Thus, the h i s t o r y of hockey from t h i s point onwards becomes two separate s t o r i e s . International Development of Men's Hockey In the period between the formation of the H.A. i n 1886, and the onset of World War I i n 1914, men's hockey developed extensively. During that time, i t expanded from a game played, for the most part, by a handful of clubs i n the London area, to a sport with adherents i n many countries around the world. Furthermore, by the end of that era, i t s competition had included not only regular i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches, but also p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Olympic Games. Other Home Countries and the F i r s t Internationals While hockey was growing apace i n England, the game was also taking root i n the other Home Countries. 1 S t a r t i n g i n 1888 i n Wales, and i n the ear l y 1890s i n Ireland and Scotland, hockey clubs were formed and matches arranged. As well as wishing to promote the game i n t h e i r own country, the Welsh were eager to e s t a b l i s h f i x t u r e s with English clubs: during the period 1890-93 i n p a r t i c u l a r , the clubs of North Wales enjoyed a strong r i v a l r y with 27 the leading Lancashire and Cheshire c l u b s . In f a c t , i t was Wales that i n s t i g a t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey compet i t ion. In 1894, although no Welsh H.A. had yet been formed, Wales requested an i n t e r n a t i o n a l match with England; but as the Hockey Assoc ia t i on considered Wales too weak, no match was played at 2 that t ime. However, whi le England had dec l ined to p lay Wales, the I r i s h were not hes i tant to do so . Consequently, on 26 January 1895, an I r i s h team t r a v e l l e d to Wales, and played a Welsh team at Rhy l . Seven weeks l a t e r , on 3 16 March 1895, I re land v i s i t e d London to p lay England. Thus, the year 1895 4 marks the occas ion of the f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey match. Once e s t a b l i s h e d , i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey competit ion qu i ck ly expanded, for i n 1896, England consented to p lay a Welsh team, and by 1898, I re land and Wales were p lay ing true i n t e r n a t i o n a l s , the Welsh H.A. having by then been formed. Scot land 's f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l match, against the I r i s h i n 1902, 5 introduced the fourth Home Country to i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey. Formation of the In te rnat iona l Hockey Board Emanating from these i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches amongst the Home Countr ies of the B r i t i s h I s l e s , and such other advances as endeavours to form a referees a s s o c i a t i o n , there came a proposal from the Hockey Assoc ia t i on to create an 6 i n t e r n a t i o n a l ru les board. Th is proposal was accepted by Ire land and Wales, and on 25 J u l y 1900, the inaugural meeting of the In ternat iona l Hockey Board took place i n Manchester. At t h i s meeting regu la t ions were drawn up and the composition of the Board was e s t a b l i s h e d , with two representat ives from England, two from Wales, two from I re land , and an a d d i t i o n a l one from England as chairman.^ It was not long before the fourth Home Country j o i n e d , for on 18 February 1902, the S c o t t i s h H.A. was admitted to the I .H .B . with an 28 ent i t lement of two representa t ives , and the f i r s t meeting of the I .H .B . with representat ives from a l l four member countr ies of the board was held on 6 May 1903. In that year , the Home Countr ies Championship was inaugurated, with every member p lay ing each other once dur ing the hockey season. This became an annual s e r i e s which, apart from the war years , continued u n t i l the 8 mid-1970s. European Nations and Olympic Hockey Even before the turn of the century, hockey was being played i n Europe, as France, Denmark, Hol land and Germany had adopted the game by 1900. While i t was usua l l y Eng l i sh p layers who introduced the game to these count r i es , Eng l i sh teams d id not p lay European teams u n t i l the ear l y 1900s, when the f i r s t Eng l i sh c lub teams t r a v e l l e d to France. Moreover, i t was not u n t i l 1906 that the f i r s t French c lub team v i s i t e d England, and as l a te as 1907 that England played France, England's f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l match with a Cont inenta l 9 na t ion . Although Eng l i sh teams had not played against European teams by 1900, there i s evidence that hockey matches invo lv ing European countr ies formed part of the f e s t i v i t i e s of that y e a r ' s P a r i s E x h i b i t i o n . A l e t t e r rece ived by the H.A. from the organizers of the E x h i b i t i o n i n v i t i n g an Eng l i sh team to a match with a French team (dec l ined by the H.A. for reasons not revealed) ind ica ted that the French were endeavouring to arrange hockey matches i n conjunct ion with the E x h i b i t i o n . However, no champion was dec lared , as each v i s i t i n g team played only the French team, and hockey i s not inc luded i n the record of sports forming part of the 1900 Olympic Games assoc iated with the Par i s 10 E x h i b i t i o n . 29 The f i r s t Olympics i n which hockey was o f f i c i a l l y included i n the programme of sports was the 1908 Games i n London. S ix count r i es , England, I re land , Scot land, Wales, Germany and France, p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s tournament. The fac t s that England defeated Ire land 8-1 i n the f i n a l to win the gold medal, and that the Home Countr ies f i l l e d the top four p laces , give some i n d i c a t i o n of the strength of B r i t i s h hockey at that time, and p a r t i c u l a r l y of the s u p e r i o r i t y of E n g l a n d . 1 1 This was to be the l as t Olympic Hockey Tournament u n t i l a f t e r World War I . A proposal that hockey should be included i n the Inter im Games planned for Athens i n 1910 was dec l i ned , the B r i t i s h Olympic Counc i l i n consu l ta t i on with the Hockey Assoc ia t i on dec id ing to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the o f f i c i a l Olympics on ly . Hockey was not inc luded i n the programme of the next Olympic Games, 12 held i n Stockholm i n 1912, because no s u i t a b l e ground could be found. In ternat iona l A f f i l i a t i o n s The In ternat iona l Hockey Board was not designed for the ro l e of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan iza t ion to which na t iona l assoc ia t ions might a f f i l i a t e , because i t was not a c o n t r o l l i n g admin is t ra t ive body. I t s so le purpose was to ensure s tandard iza t ion of the ru les by which i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, i n i t i a l l y amongst the Home Countr ies , could be conducted, and by the time of the 1908 Olympics i n London, the I .H .B . was we l l es tab l i shed and, with respect 13 to the r u l e s , was considered "the supreme author i ty i n a l l hockey matters ." Therefore , regarding o rgan iza t ion and admin i s t ra t ion , i t was the o f f i c i a l s of the H.A. who, together with the Olympic Counc i l , were responsib le for the management of the Olympic Hockey Tournament i n 1908. Furthermore, the H.A. was the dominant partner i n the I . H . B . ; whi le Scot land, I re land and Wales were e n t i t l e d to two representat ives each, England's membership va r i ed from 30 three to f i v e . When steps were taken towards the end of 1907 to formal ize the ru les and regu lat ions of the I .H .B . i n preparat ion for the 1908 Olympics, i t was the H.A. which took the i n i t i a t i v e i n c i r c u l a t i n g ru les to the other Home C o u n t r i e s . 1 4 The H.A. played a s p e c i a l ro l e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey; c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , i t was the o ldest of a l l hockey a s s o c i a t i o n s , and 15 numer ica l ly , i t was by far the s t rongest . As a r e s u l t , i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l matters, the H.A. c a r r i e d the greatest i n f luence , and i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g that , i n the absence of an o f f i c i a l world admin is t ra t ive body, the Hockey Assoc ia t ion was regarded as "the parent body of the game i n a l l the 16 wor ld ." While the I r i s h Hockey Union, the Welsh H.A., and the S c o t t i s h H.A. were autonomous nat iona l assoc ia t ions independent of England, other countr ies considered the Hockey Assoc ia t i on as the de facto governing body. C o l o n i a l and fo re ign a s s o c i a t i o n s , and even c lubs , appl ied for a f f i l i a t i o n to the H.A. i n the same way that Eng l i sh c lubs , count ies and d i v i s i o n a l assoc ia t ions had done. I n i t i a l l y , the H.A. d id not consider i t appropr iate to accept a p p l i c a t i o n s fo r a f f i l i a t i o n from na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n s . When the Canterbury (New Zealand) Hockey Club app l ied for membership i n 1901, i t was admitted as an honorary member of the H.A.; but i n 1902, when the New Zealand Hockey Assoc ia t ion requested to be a f f i l i a t e d with the H.A., i t was turned down because the H.A. considered i t improper to e lec t a na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n as an a f f i l i a t e member. However, New Zealand was accepted as an honorary member and, s i m i l a r l y , Transvaal i n 1906 and Western A u s t r a l i a i n 1907. By 1910, a f f i l i a t i o n s to the H.A. by overseas countr ies were cons idered, and a p p l i c a t i o n s from Argent ina , B r i t i s h East A f r i c a , Transvaa l , New Zealand and 17 V i c t o r i a were accepted. 31 While the B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s , and fo re ign countr ies overseas, may have considered the H.A. to be the wor ld 's governing body, i t would appear that by 1910, the Cont inenta l countr ies no longer d i d . Moreover, the countr ies of Europe, severa l of which had now formed nat iona l a s s o c i a t i o n s , recognized the need for an i n t e r n a t i o n a l admin is t ra t ive body. Fol lowing a suggestion by the Be lg ian Hockey Assoc ia t i on to inves t iga te the formation of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t i on , the Honorary Secretary of the H.A. was ins t ruc ted to d iscuss the 18 matter with French, Be lg ian and German o f f i c i a l s i n B r u s s e l s . However, although b i l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s continued between the H.A. and the countr ies of Europe, no i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey federat ion was created at t h i s t ime. Seventy years l a t e r , a s c r i be was to judge that "[the B r i t i s h ] f a i l e d to r e a l i s e the need for an i n t e r n a t i o n a l body to cont ro l a l l the aspects of a rapid ly-expanding game."^ Development of Women's Hockey It has already been narrated that , i n England, women began to p lay hockey i n a formal way during the la te 1880s and ear l y 1890s. In the l a t t e r part of t h i s pe r iod , women's hockey was a l so becoming es tab l i shed i n I re land . By the mid-1890s, the g i r l s of Alexandra Col lege i n Dubl in were p lay ing the game and, having formed a c lub , took the i n i t i a t i v e i n i n v i t i n g a team from England. Consequently, dur ing the Christmas vacat ion of 1894-95, the Newnham Col lege g i r l s v i s i t e d Dubl in for a s e r i e s of games with Alexandra Co l lege , the f i r s t women's hockey competit ion i nvo lv ing teams from d i f f e r e n t count r i es . The p o s s i b i l i t y of i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches i n s p i r e d the capta in of the Molesey Club of London to arrange a t r i a l game from which an Eng l i sh team would be se lec ted to p lay I r e l a n d . The subsequent match between an Eng l i sh and an 20 I r i s h team was played at Br ighton on 10 A p r i l 1895. 32 Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions It was i n I re land that women's hockey was f i r s t es tab l i shed on a na t iona l b a s i s , for i n 1894, the I r i s h Lad ies ' Hockey Union was formed. The E n g l i s h , however, were quick to fo l low the I r i s h example and, a f t e r the i n t e r n a t i o n a l match i n A p r i l 1895, an informal meeting was held at a Br ighton tea-shop for the purpose of e s t a b l i s h i n g a women's hockey a s s o c i a t i o n i n England. Fol lowing fur ther d i s cuss ion and correspondence, the f i r s t formal meeting of the Lad ies ' Hockey Assoc ia t i on was held at the Westminster Town H a l l , London, on 23 November 1895. By September 1896, "Ladies" had disappeared from the t i t l e of the A s s o c i a t i o n , which was thenceforth known as 21 the A l l England Women's Hockey Assoc ia t i on (A .E .W.H .A . ) . During the f i r s t decade of the existence of the A s s o c i a t i o n , women's hockey i n England expanded at every l e v e l . By 1898, county and t e r r i t o r i a l assoc ia t ions had been formed; i n that same year , severa l county matches were contested and the f i r s t t e r r i t o r i a l match. North versus South, was p layed. From ten member c lubs of the f l e d g l i n g a s s o c i a t i o n i n 1896, there were, by 1904, four t e r r i t o r i e s , t h i r t y - f o u r count ies and three hundred c lubs 22 a f f i l i a t e d with the A.E.W.H.A. Within t h i s same per iod , na t iona l bodies had been es tab l i shed for women's hockey i n Wales and Scot land . The Welsh Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ion was formed i n 1898, i n i t i a l l y as the Lad ies ' Sect ion of the men's A s s o c i a t i o n , and two years l a t e r the S c o t t i s h Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , "the l as t of the Home Countr ies to become organised" , was founded. Thus, by 1902, the year that the S c o t t i s h Hockey Assoc ia t i on for men was accepted as the fourth member of the I . H . B . , there a l so ex is ted i n the B r i t i s h I s l e s four f u l l y autonomous 23 women's hockey a s s o c i a t i o n s . 33 In ternat iona l Hockey As na t iona l assoc ia t ions for women became e s t a b l i s h e d , so too d id i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion become more formal . The f i r s t t r u l y representat ive women's i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey match took p lace i n 1896, when England played Ire land i n Dub l in . The return match i n 1897 was the f i r s t f u l l i n t e r n a t i o n a l played on Eng l i sh s o i l ; England f i r s t played Wales i n 1900; and when Scotland played i t s f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l against I re land i n 1901, a l l four Home 24 Countr ies had experienced i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey. In 1904 the concept of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ion was f i r s t mooted, the purpose foreseen being the d i s c u s s i o n of ru les and standards for games 25 amongst the four B r i t i s h a s s o c i a t i o n s . While a fur ther two decades were to pass before the concept was formal ly proposed, i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches 26 amongst the teams of the Home Countr ies continued on an annual b a s i s . Women's Hockey around the World A f ter the turn of the century, women's hockey expanded beyond the conf ines of the B r i t i s h I s l e s . By 1910, Eng l i sh teams were p lay ing c lubs from Hol land , but the ru les of Dutch hockey were so d i f f e r e n t from the Eng l i sh ru les that no representat ive matches between the two nat ions were p layed. During the per iod 1904-1914, women's hockey was known to have been played i n severa l other countr ies throughout the world, i nc lud ing Germany, Switzer land, Russ ia , U.S.A. and South A f r i c a , although these countr ies d id not p lay at an i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . A u s t r a l i a and New Zealand, however, were introduced to 27 " i n t e r n a t i o n a l " hockey when an Eng l i sh tour ing team v i s i t e d them i n 1914. Thus, by the outbreak of war, women's hockey had become a world-wide sport and, a l b e i t there i s no mention of i t i n most reference m a t e r i a l , by 28 t h i s time women's hockey had been played i n Canada for near ly two decades. 34 Re la t ionsh ip between Men's and Women's Hockey As has been re la ted above, i n the years encompassing the formation of d i s t i n c t women's hockey c lubs , women were d i s c r e e t l y j o i n i n g i n men's games. Records ind i ca te that mixed hockey continued to be played i n England and Wales 29 throughout the 1890s, and i t a l so became popular i n Scot land. When the quest ion of ru les arose at the informal meeting of Eng l i sh hockey women i n Br ighton i n 1895, i t was considered natura l that "the ru les of 30 the Hockey Assoc ia t i on . . . should be adopted." However, when the lad ies made a p p l i c a t i o n to a f f i l i a t e with the Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , they were rebuf fed , the rep ly received from the Honorary Secretary of the H.A. s t a t i n g : the Hockey Assoc ia t i on has been formed e n t i r e l y i n the i n t e r e s t s of men's c lubs , [and could not] o f f i c i a l l y recognise the existence of the new assoc iat ion .3^ As a reac t ion to t h i s , at the f i r s t formal meeting of the Lad ies ' Hockey Assoc ia t ion i n November 1895 when t h i s correspondence was read, the p r i n c i p l e was adopted that no man could hold executive o f f i c e i n any a s s o c i a t i o n 32 a f f i l i a t e d with the Lad ies ' Hockey Assoc ia t i on ( l a t e r A .E .W.H .A . ) . This ed i c t was to have long-term, world-wide r a m i f i c a t i o n s , for i n time i t was incorporated in to the p r i n c i p l e s of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t ion ; i t was a l s o inc luded i n the c o n s t i t u t i o n s of the many nat iona l assoc ia t ions which became a f f i l i a t e d to the A.E.W.H.A. and, l a t e r , the In te rnat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n s . However, although there was no a f f i l i a t i o n with the H.A. , the A.E.W.H.A. i m p l i c i t l y regarded i t s opposite number as the r u l i n g body. For the f i r s t ten years of the existence of the A.E .W.H.A. , women's games were played according to men's r u l e s , and o f ten umpired by men. Up to t h i s po in t , the only adaptat ions had been to subs t i tu te "she" for "he" and to make some 35 modi f i ca t ions concerning dress , but i n 1906, the S c o t t i s h W.H.A. introduced a s u b s t a n t i a l change i n the r u l e s , one which the Eng l i sh women fol lowed i n 1907. Th is d r a s t i c change i n one of the major ru les of the game ( p r o h i b i t i n g the hooking of s t i c k s ) severed the t a c i t a l l eg iance to the H.A., and thus d isp layed the courageous and independent nature of the women's a s s o c i a t i o n s . From t h i s time, too, the women a l so i n t e n s i f i e d the i r e f f o r t s to t r a i n the i r 33 own umpires. In s p i t e of these ru les d i f f e r e n c e s , one p r i n c i p l e which the women, who were l a r g e l y drawn from the l e i s u r e d c l a s s e s , continued to share with the men was the conf i rmat ion of amateurism. Cups and t rophies were shunned, and leagues for po ints and competit ions for p r i z e s were anathema to the women's hockey a s s o c i a t i o n s . Such p a r t i c i p a t i o n was c l a s s i f i e d as misconduct, and 34 o f f i c i a l l y discouraged by the r u l e s . Long a f t e r the formation of the A.E .W.H.A. , mixed hockey games were s t i l l p layed, and severa l mixed c lubs were founded. For some years , women's p u b l i c a t i o n s continued to pub l i sh a weekly summary of the matches of the H.A., as we l l as not i ces of important men's f i x t u r e s . Conversely, as women's hockey became more popular , men attended women's matches, and "the A l l England Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ion . . . by 1914 had become . . . recognised by the 36 CHAPTER IV INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY BETWEEN THE WARS: EMERGENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL FEDERATIONS The per iod between the two wars amounted to bare ly two decades, yet t h i s short span was dest ined to be a momentous one i n terms of world hockey o r g a n i z a t i o n . At the beginning of that e r a , there was jus t one i n t e r n a t i o n a l body, the In ternat iona l Hockey Board, at mid-term, there were three separate o rgan iza t ions , and by the end of the e r a , i t was c l e a r that t h i s was tantamount to four d i f f e r e n t e n t i t i e s . Men's Hockey Because of the devastat ion caused by World War I and the in f luenza epidemic of 1919, i t was not u n t i l the 1919-20 season that hockey c lubs began to re- form. Some c lubs had los t so many of t h e i r members that they never were r e - e s t a b l i s h e d . However, despi te such d i f f i c u l t i e s domest i ca l ly , the Olympic Games were resurrected and held i n war-torn Belgium i n 1920. Olympic Hockey Tournaments Hockey was inc luded i n the programme of the 1920 Olympics i n Antwerp, with four count r i es , England, Denmark, Belgium and France, competing i n the Tournament. England was again dominant, winning the gold medal h a n d i l y . 1 There i s no evidence to suggest that the tournament d id not proceed according to t r a d i t i o n , under the auspices of the In ternat iona l Hockey Board, inso far as the ru les and regu la t ions were concerned. However, t h i s was not to be the case at the next Olympic Games, for "the organisers of the 1924 Olympics i n 37 P a r i s decided to omit hockey, g i v ing as the major reason, that hockey, un l i ke 2 the other Olympic spor t s , had no representat ive i n t e r n a t i o n a l body." Creat ion of the Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey Fol lowing t h i s a c t i o n to preclude hockey from the 1924 Olympic Games, the representat ives of seven European countr ies — A u s t r i a , Belgium, France, Czechoslovakia , Hungary, Spain and Switzer land — met i n P a r i s on 7 January 3 1924 to found the Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey ( F . I . H . ) . This i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan iz ing body was formed without the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of any of the Home Countr ies ; even the H.A., the wor ld 's senior na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n , took no part i n the formation of the F . I . H . The reason for i t s non-attendance 4 i s not recorded i n any of the sources examined; however, i t seems that the H.A. , together with the representat ive assoc ia t ions from the other Home Countr ies , having been respons ib le a quarter of a century e a r l i e r for forming the In ternat iona l Hockey Board, "thought the F . I . H . was an upstart body and 5 usurping t h e i r author i ty over the game". Upon i t s foundation i n 1924, the F . I . H . app l ied for and received o f f i c i a l recogn i t ion from the I .O .C . as the i n t e r n a t i o n a l body c o n t r o l l i n g hockey. As such, the F . I . H . became respons ib le for the organ iza t ion of the Olympic Hockey Tournament; and concomitant ly, p a r t i c i p a t i o n of a country i n 6 the Olympics was poss ib le only through membership i n the F . I . H . The declared purpose behind the P a r i s meeting of January 1924, and the foundation of the F . I . H . , had been to secure the i n c l u s i o n of hockey in to future Olympic programmes. This was f u l f i l l e d when hockey was added to the l i s t of sports to be contested i n the Amsterdam Olympics i n 1928. Over the intervening Olympiad, four more count r i es , Denmark, Ho l land , Germany and 38 Ind ia , app l ied for membership i n the F . I . H . Thus, a t o t a l of nine teams were 7 able to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the 1928 Olympic Hockey Tournament. In 1928, for the f i r s t time, the F . I . H . assumed author i ty over the o rgan iza t ion of an Olympic hockey tournament, and a techn i ca l committee was created w i th in the F . I . H . for t h i s purpose. For the f i r s t time, too, no B r i t i s h team p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the Olympic Hockey Tournament. Rowley suggests the explanat ion for t h i s absence was that B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l s , who were respons ib le for founding the I .H .B . to administer the ru les of the game, d id g not accept the author i ty of the F . I . H . But now there were two world bodies, for the B r i t i s h s t i l l c o n t r o l l e d the In ternat iona l Hockey Board, even though, o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y , there was an i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey f edera t i on . Hockey-playing countr ies around the world acknowledged the author i ty of the I .H .B . with respect to the ru les of the 9 game, yet jo ined the F . I . H . so as to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Olympic Games. Re lat ionsh ip between the I.H.B and the F . I . H . For the per iod up u n t i l World War I I , the F . I . H . continued to cont ro l the Olympic Games Hockey Tournament, and the I .H .B . remained the guardian of 10 the r u l e s . During t h i s t ime, according to George C r o f t , Honorary Secretary to the Hockey Rules Board, "there was some dialogue between I .H .B . and F . I . H . , but not too m u c h " . 1 1 Indeed, there was d i ssens ion wi th in the I .H .B . i t s e l f , brought about by the a t t i t u d e of the (Engl ish) H.A. which enjoyed greater representat ion than each of the other three Home Country a s s o c i a t i o n s . As a r e s u l t of long-standing disagreements, both the S c o t t i s h H.A. and the I r i s h H.U. resigned from the Board i n 1928, and t h i s d ispute was 12 not resolved u n t i l 1931. It was recorded i n the programme of the 1976 Olympic Hockey Tournament that i n 1931 the I .H .B . made some modi f i ca t ions i n 39 consonance with broader membership; but no d e t a i l s were given as to the nature 13 of the mod i f i ca t ions , or the s tatus of membership a f t e r 1931. It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the top ic of disagreement amongst the Home Countr ies was the i n t e r n a t i o n a l funct ion of the Board as d i s t i n c t from i t s r o l e as a ru les au thor i t y . As e a r l y as 1905, the vo t ing strength of the H.A. on the Board had vetoed French representat ion , despi te the approval of Scot land and I re land . Again i n the 1930s, when the F . I . H . app l ied for representat ion on the I . H . B . , even the F . I . H . was rebuffed i n s p i t e of the support of the S c o t t i s h and I r i s h a s s o c i a t i o n s . It has been suggested that "the h i s t o r y of i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey throughout the world might we l l have been d i f f e r e n t had the Board widened i t s membership when the opportunity 14 o f f e r e d . " The inter-war per iod witnessed two more Olympics, at both of which hockey was inc luded . Due to the world-wide economic depress ion, only three teams, Ind ia , Japan and U .S .A . , p a r t i c i p a t e d i n 1932. In 1936, e leven teams competed, India defeat ing Germany 8-1 i n the f i n a l to win i t s t h i r d 15 consecutive gold medal. Olympic hockey was by now wel l e s tab l i shed , and the F . I . H . ind isputab ly i t s c o n t r o l l i n g body. Women's Hockey Although women had been p lay ing organized hockey s ince the la te 1880s, and autonomous nat iona l assoc ia t ions had been founded by the mid-1890s, i t was not u n t i l the mid-1920s that a women's i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ion was formed. 40 Conception and Creat ion of the In te rnat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions There i s evidence that the concept of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ion for women's hockey was discussed i n the e a r l y 1900s. However, Mrs. Heron-Maxwell, President of the A.E.W.H.A. from 1912, i s c red i ted with having "planted the seed" of the idea upon her retirement from o f f i c e i n 1922. At the time of Heron-Maxwell's ret i rement, severa l countr ies had es tab l i shed na t iona l women's hockey bodies: by 1902, the four Home Countr ies had independent a s s o c i a t i o n s : i n 1910, the A l l A u s t r a l i a Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ion was founded; i n January 1922, the American women met to form the United States F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n ; and i n many other countr ies throughout the world, women were 16 known to be p lay ing the game. In 1924, the opportunity arose to hold a pre l iminary meeting, on the occas ion of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l match between England and the U .S .A . , played at Merton Abbey, near London. O f f i c i a l s of the other three Home Countr ies were present at that match and, at what has sometimes been r e f e r r e d to as "the 17 Merton Tea Par ty" , the representat ives of f i v e count r i es , England, I re land , Scot land, Wales and U .S .A . , resolved to form an i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ion. 1 ** The inaugural meeting of the In te rnat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions (I .F .W.H.A .) was held i n January 1927, the eight charter members of the federat ion being A u s t r a l i a , Denmark, South A f r i c a , U.S.A, and the four 19 Home Countr ies — with a l l except Denmark Eng l i sh-speak ing . The aims of the new Federat ion inc luded "to work for un i formity of r u l e s " ; "to promote i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches"; and, perhaps even more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , "to fur ther the 20 best i n t e r e s t s of the game among women of a l l na t i ons . " Since the I .F.W.H.A. was a women's hockey o rgan i za t ion , men's hockey assoc ia t ions were 41 denied membership; furthermore, the A.E.W.H.A. p r i n c i p l e , that a l l o f f i c e r s 21 must be women, was embodied in to the c o n s t i t u t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. Thus, by 1927, just three years a f t e r the c rea t ion of the F . I . H . , a t h i r d i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey body, independent of e i the r the F . I . H . or the I . H . B . , had emerged. Within a few years , the existence of the I .F.W.H.A. was to impinge upon the funct ion ing of the F . I . H . F . I .H Women's Committee According to L . J . Quarles van U f f o r d , F . I . H . President from 1946 to 1966, the F . I . H . was designed to look a f t e r the i n t e r e s t s of young people a l l over the world, men and women a l i k e . The assoc ia t ions which comprised the 22 F . I . H . at i t s incept ion represented both men and women hockey p l a y e r s . In 1929, a Women's Committee was es tab l i shed s p e c i f i c a l l y to fos te r the game for the female hockey p layers of i t s a f f i l i a t e d count r i es , and at the time of i t s foundation, there were twelve Cont inenta l countr ies — of which Germany, Ho l land, Belgium and France were prominent — whose women's sect ions became 23 members of t h i s Committee. With the formation of the Women's Committee of the F . I . H . , there was now, de f a c t o , an a d d i t i o n a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l body, the t h i r d to be created i n a span of s i x years . Th is committee was not an autonomous e n t i t y , but i t was d i s t i n c t from the I.F.W.H.A, and i n that respect , e f f e c t i v e l y created a fourth world hockey o rgan i za t i on . In ternat iona l Conferences and Tournaments One feature of women's hockey which endured for over ha l f a century was the staging of regular conferences and tournaments i n which a l l women's hockey-playing countr ies were i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e . The I.F.W.H.A. held i t s 42 f i r s t conference i n 1930. At t h i s conference, i n Geneva, delegates of i t s various member countries met, and two e x h i b i t i o n matches were played on that 24 occasion. In keeping with one of the aims of the federation, a committee was set up to consider the r u l e s . Furthermore, i n pursuance of a second aim, i t was suggested that, i n future, at each of the proposed t r i e n n i a l 25 conferences, a tournament should be held. This l a t t e r suggestion was implemented at subsequent conferences. As e a r l y as the second Conference, held i n Copenhagen i n 1933, countries were i n v i t e d to enter teams, as well as sending delegates to the Conference. In addition to eight p a r t i c i p a t i n g countries, a team, known as the overseas XI, was formed to allow v i s i t o r s from other countries the opportunity to play i n 26 f r i e n d l y matches. When the t h i r d Conference was held i n P h i l a d e l p h i a i n 1936, again eight countries sent teams, and again an a d d i t i o n a l team was formed to allow other players to p a r t i c i p a t e . It was also i n Philadelphia that, for the f i r s t time, a l l eight founding members of the I.F.W.H.A. were 27 able to send teams to the Tournament. At t h i s time, nearly ten years a f t e r the inaugural meeting of the Federation, these eight o r i g i n a l countries were s t i l l the only members of the I.F.W.H.A. However, by the time the next conference was due to be held i n Bournemouth, England, i n September 1939, two more countries had joined; Canada (Vancouver) was accepted i n 1937 and B r i t i s h Guiana ( l a t e r Guyana) i n 1938, to 28 bring the t o t a l membership of the I.F.W.H.A. to ten. But while the number of countries a f f i l i a t e d with the I.F.W.H.A. did not increase s u b s t a n t i a l l y during the f i r s t decade of i t s existence, the number of teams and clubs within each member country c e r t a i n l y d i d . The following figures i n d i c a t e t h i s growth for England, largest of the 29 I.F.W.H.A.'s a f f i l i a t e d associations: 43 1922 — 800 c lubs and schools 1929 — 1,200 c lubs and schools 1931 — 1,400 c lubs and schools 1939 — 2,100 c lubs and schools As events t ransp i red , the Bournemouth Conference d id not take p lace , for the world was plunged in to war i n the opening days of the very month for which the Conference had been planned. Re la t ionsh ips Between Men's and Women's In ternat iona l Federat ions In the e a r l y years of t h e i r ex is tence , the two newly-formed i n t e r n a t i o n a l federa t ions , the F . I . H . and the I .F .W.H.A. , proceeded independently and without any o f f i c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . However, by 1930, t h e i r development had progressed to the point where the hold ing of a j o i n t meeting was f e l t to be mutually advantageous. Jo in t Meetings of the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . In the h i s t o r y of women's hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , 1930 was an important landmark, f o r , i n that year , the F . I . H . Women's Committee had just been formed, and the I .F.W.H.A. held i t s f i r s t conference. A f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . were twelve European a s s o c i a t i o n s , a l l of which had women members; whi le the e ight a f f i l i a t e s of the I .F.W.H.A. were, with the exception of 30 Denmark, a l l autonomous women's hockey a s s o c i a t i o n s . The s i g n i f i c a n t fac tor which led to the d e s i r a b i l i t y of s taging a j o i n t meeting between the two federat ions was a c o n f l i c t between the aims of the I .F.W.H.A. and the p r i n c i p l e s of the F . I . H . On the one hand were the important aims of the I .F.W.H.A. to fur ther the best i n t e r e s t s of the game 44 among the women of a l l na t ions , and to promote i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches; whi le on the o ther , was the p r i n c i p l e that the F . I . H . had been es tab l i shed to fos te r both men's and women's hockey, with the resu l t that i t would not permit i t s 31 members to j o i n the I .F.W.H.A. Countr ies he ld d i f f e r i n g views on the s i t u a t i o n . The a t t i t u d e of some countr ies was a r t i c u l a t e d by the President of the Deutscher Hockey Bund (Germany), who be l ieved that a l l hockey, men's and women's, should be c o n t r o l l e d by one i n t e r n a t i o n a l governing body. Conversely, one o f f i c i a l of the K.N.H.B. (Hol land) , was even reputed to have doubted the value of e i the r 32 f edera t i on . With such c o n f l i c t i n g aims, b e l i e f s and asp i ra t i ons e x i s t i n g between the two federat ions and amongst t h e i r member na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n s , i t i s c l e a r that a meeting at that time was opportune. Therefore , at the 1930 I.F.W.H.A. Conference i n Geneva, such a meeting was arranged. Here the I .F.W.H.A. C o u n c i l , together with three members of the F . I . H . , d iscussed the poss ib le amalgamation of the two federa t ions , with a view to increas ing membership. The issues were those of equal recogn i t ion of men and women, and the independence of women i n t e r n a l l y . This 1930 j o i n t meeting concluded with the observat ion that , whi le no reso lu t ions emerged from the d i s cuss ions , the sess ions had produced " f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s " . Th is i n i t i a l meeting was fol lowed by fur ther d i scuss ions i n 1931, when an I .F.W.H.A. de legat ion met with 33 o f f i c e r s of the F . I . H . i n P a r i s . Mutual A f f i l i a t i o n and In ternat iona l Competit ion Although the I .F.W.H.A. d id not achieve a l l of i t s o b j e c t i v e s , i t appears that an accord was reached regarding the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of F . I . H . countr ies i n I .F.W.H.A. Tournaments, for i t was through the F . I . H . that 45 Germany and Hol land were i n v i t e d to p lay at the Tournament held i n conjunct ion 34 with the 1933 Conference i n Copenhagen. At the 1933 Conference, and for the remainder of the decade, every e f f o r t was made to encourage the cont inenta l women to a f f i l i a t e with the I .F .W.H.A. It was reported that expectat ions were ra i sed when women's s e c t i o n a l committees began to be formed i n some European a s s o c i a t i o n s ; i n p a r t i c u l a r , the I .F.W.H.A. deserved c r e d i t for he lp ing to e s t a b l i s h a women's committee w i th in the Deutscher Hockey Bund i n 1935, Germany being regarded 35 as the strongest power i n the F . I . H . at that time. Throughout the m i d - t h i r t i e s , the reports of Miss W.A. Baumann, Hon. S e c , A .E .W.H.A. , r e f l e c t e d optimism, as hopes ran high w i th in the I .F.W.H.A. that women's sect ions of the Cont inenta l assoc ia t ions would achieve autonomy and v o l u n t a r i l y j o i n the I .F.W.H.A. In Baumann's report of 1939, however, i t was sadly regret ted that the I .F.W.H.A. was fur ther than ever from obta in ing the membership of the cont inenta l count r i es . She noted that at a recent meeting of the Women's Committee of the F . I . H . , attended by the representat ives of Belgium, France, Germany and Ho l land , a r e s o l u t i o n was passed to the e f f e c t that no country could belong to more than one i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan i za t i on , and furthermore, that the four countr ies present at the meeting dec lared the i r i n t e n t i o n to r e t a i n t h e i r a f f i l i a t i o n with the 36 F . I . H . Member nat ions of the I .F.W.H.A. lamented that the Cont inenta l countr ies never took up membership. The I .F.W.H.A. countr ies perceived that the European women were r e a l l y only sect ions of men's a s s o c i a t i o n s , anxious to b u i l d a European b loc w i th in the F . I . H . On the other hand, i t was admitted 37 that the I .F .W.F .A . was, i n e f f e c t , an Engl ish-speaking f edera t i on . Whatever may have been the under ly ing reasons, i t i s a matter of fact that 46 there was now a c l e a r dichotomy i n the o rgan i za t iona l s t ruc ture of women's hockey at the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . F i n a l l y , there i s evidence that there was an attempt to inc lude women's hockey i n the Olympics even i n these e a r l y days. In 1930, the F . I . H . made representat ions to have hockey es tab l i shed as an Olympic sport for women, but i t was recorded at that time that the I .F.W.H.A. d id not pursue the i s sue , as the Olympics were, for them, at the wrong time of the year . Several years l a t e r , the matter of Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n was again ra i sed at a 1935 I .F.W.H.A. Counc i l meeting, when a committee was formed to inves t iga te the connection between the Federat ion and the Olympics. No Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n 38 for women resu l ted from the formation of t h i s committee. Summary The inter-war years represented an event fu l per iod i n the development of i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey. The exc lus ion of hockey from the programme of sports at the P a r i s Olympic Games resu l ted i n the formation of the F . I . H . i n 1924. While acceptance of t h i s body by the I .O .C . ensured that hockey was r e - i n s t a t e d as an Olympic spor t , the F . I . H . was not success fu l i n secur ing cont ro l of the ru les of the game, or indeed, even of ga in ing representat ion on the I .H .B . Hence, there were, as e a r l y as 1924, two i n t e r n a t i o n a l bodies which remained d i s t i n c t throughout the inter-war p e r i o d . In 1927, the I .F.W.H.A. was formed to un i te autonomous women's hockey assoc ia t ions i n t o an i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t ion ; but as the assoc ia t ions of the member countr ies of the F . I . H . represented both men and women hockey p layers , the F . I . H . Women's Committee was es tab l i shed i n 1929. Thus, there were now two world organ izat ions represent ing the i n t e r e s t s of women; and although meetings between the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . were success fu l i n reso lv ing 47 that F . I . H . member countr ies could p a r t i c i p a t e i n an I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament, a decade of e f f o r t to encourage the women's sect ions from these countr ies to a f f i l i a t e with the I .F.W.H.A. proved unsuccess fu l . By the outbreak of World War I I , whi le men's hockey as an Olympic sport was f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d , attempts to inc lude women's hockey on the Olympic programme had met with f a i l u r e . Nevertheless , by then, i n the form of the I . F .W.H .A . ' s t r i e n n i a l tournaments, i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey played i n the Olympic s p i r i t had become a r e a l i t y for women. 48 CHAPTER V POST-WAR RESURGENCE OF INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY: FROM WORLD WAR II TO THE LATE 1960s Upon the conc lus ion of World War I I , dur ing which a l l formal i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y had ceased, men's and women's hockey continued to fo l low the course of b i p a r t i t e development charted dur ing the inter-war years . Men's Hockey I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y The War was not long over before na t iona l assoc ia t ions were rev ived and i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey competit ion r e - a c t i v a t e d . When the F . I . H . resumed i t s a c t i v i t i e s i n 1946, i t s membership comprised twenty-one a f f i l i a t e d c o u n t r i e s . 1 The next twenty years were s i g n i f i c a n t i n the development of men's hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , not only by v i r t u e of the large increase i n the number of countr ies which a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . dur ing t h i s per iod , but a l so as a r e s u l t of events which were u l t i m a t e l y to lead to the re -o rgan i za t ion of men's i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey admin i s t ra t i on . Creat ion of the B r i t i s h Hockey Board One event of major importance was the c r e a t i o n of a body which permitted B r i t i s h hockey p layers to p a r t i c i p a t e i n Olympic compet i t ion, f o r , up to t h i s t ime, none of the Home Countr ies was a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . Both the 1940 and 1944 Olympic Games had been cance l led because of World War I I , but when London was awarded the 1948 Olympics, the B r i t i s h were desirous of enter ing a team i n the Hockey Tournament to be held i n t h e i r own c a p i t a l . In order to be e l i g i b l e to do so, Great B r i t a i n a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . i n 49 1947. Th is was achieved through the formation of a body c a l l e d the B r i t i s h Hockey Board ( B . H . B . ) , of which the i n d i v i d u a l Home Countr ies were the const i tuent members. This s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , which i n e f f e c t created a unique two-t ier i n t e r n a t i o n a l s tatus for the B r i t i s h , was negot iated l a r g e l y 2 through the diplomacy of the President of the F . I . H . h imse l f . A record t h i r t e e n countr ies p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the Olympic Hockey Tournament of the 1948 London Games. India and Great B r i t a i n , both prev ious ly undefeated i n Olympic hockey compet i t ion, met for the f i r s t time to contest 3 the f i n a l . India won t h i s match, to capture the gold medal for the fourth 4 consecutive time, and to dismiss any doubts concerning i t s world supremacy. At subsequent Olympic Games throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Great B r i t a i n continued to compete i n the Hockey Tournament under t h i s arrangement. Outside of the Olympics, however, the B r i t i s h a l so played as i n d i v i d u a l Home 5 Countr ies , not only amongst themselves, but with other nat ions as w e l l . Growth of In te rnat iona l Hockey The twenty-year per iod fo l lowing the f i r s t post-war Olympics i n 1948 witnessed a considerable expansion of the game throughout the world. Although, with the except ion of I re land , the Home Countr ies d id not j o i n the F . I . H . as i n d i v i d u a l na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n s , many other countr ies d id become members of t h i s I .O .C . - recogn ized i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t i on . An i n d i c a t i o n of the growth of i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey may be der ived from the number of countr ies 6 a f f i l i a t e d to the F . I . H . as shown i n Table 1. It can be seen that w i th in a decade of the resumption of post-war a c t i v i t i e s , the number of member countr ies of "the F . I . H . had doubled, and by 1968, almost t r e b l e d . In a d d i t i o n , the Olympic Hockey Tournament, the prime motive i n the o r i g i n a l foundation of the F . I . H . , had at ta ined cons iderable 50 TABLE 1 NUMBER OF COUNTRIES AFFILIATED WITH THE F . I . H . : 1946-1968 Year F . I . H . Member Countr ies 1946 21 1956 43 1962 51 1968 58 pres t ige by the 1950s and 1960s. Almost i n v a r i a b l y , dur ing that per iod of two decades, e l im ina t ion competit ions or assessment of i n t e r n a t i o n a l match records were required to determine the f i n a l s ix teen countr ies for the Olympics. The number of p a r t i c i p a t i n g nat ions which a c t u a l l y competed i n the Olympic Hockey 7 Tournaments from 1948 to 1968 appears i n Table 2. Furthermore, by the 1960s, hard ly a non-Olympic year would pass without the staging of a major world tournament i nvo lv ing from eight to twelve na t ions . Regional games were a l so becoming e s t a b l i s h e d , with the quadrennial As ian Games commencing i n 1958, and the Pan American Games, a l so held every four years , s t a r t i n g i n 1967. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y , s i m i l a r advances had been made with the c r e a t i o n of committees represent ing four cont inenta l hockey g reg ions: A s i a ; A f r i c a ; Europe; and Pan-America. 51 TABLE 2 NUMBER OF COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN OLYMPIC HOCKEY TOURNAMENT: 1948-1968 Year Venue No. of Countr ies 1948 London 13 1952 H e l s i n k i 12 1956 Melbourne 12 1960 Rome 16 1964 Tokyo 15 1968 Mexico 16 Re la t ionsh ips between the F . I . H . and the I .H .B . In 1947, when the B r i t i s h Hockey Board was created to permit Great B r i t a i n to a f f i l i a t e with the F . I . H . and thereby p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Olympic Games, the r e c i p r o c a l agreement emanating from the negot ia t ions gave the F . I . H . representat ion on the In ternat iona l Hockey Board. According to Quarles van U f fo rd , President of the F . I . H . from 1946 to 1966, t h i s heralded a per iod 9 of l o y a l co-operat ion between the F . I . H . and Great B r i t a i n . At f i r s t , F . I . H . representat ion on the I .H .B . was sma l l , amounting to three out of a t o t a l of fourteen members. Gradua l ly , however, the F . I . H . increased i t s i n f luence ; i n 1957, the F . I . H . representat ion was increased to four , and by the mid-1960s the balance of representat ion was ten from the B r i t i s h Home 10 Countr ies and eight from the F . I . H . The in f luence of the F . I . H . was manifest i n forms other than numerical s trength of representa t ion . During the long per iod of separat ion of the F . I . H . and the I . H . B . , acceptance of I .H .B . ru les by the F . I . H . was l i t t l e 52 more than a t a c i t understanding. A f te r 1948, the F . I . H . and a l l of i t s member countr ies o f f i c i a l l y recognized the I .H .B . Furthermore, by 1968, i t was the F . I . H . which was empowered to set up a s p e c i a l sub-committee for ru les experimentat ion, formerly the exc lus ive preserve of the I .H .B . The s o l i d a r i t y of the I .H .B . i t s e l f a l so began to f a l t e r . In 1950, the I r i s h Hockey Union jo ined the F . I . H . as an independent member, and by 1968, when the Welsh H.A. app l ied f o r , and was granted, i n d i v i d u a l membership i n the F . I . H . , i t was c l e a r that the very existence of the I .H .B . was near ing i t s e n d . 1 1 Women's Hockey I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y I f the per iod from the end of World War II to the l a te 1960s was, for men's hockey, an era of i n t e r n a t i o n a l expansion st imulated by Olympic compet i t ion, so too was i t a time of growth for women's hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . Olympic Asp i ra t ions and In ternat iona l Competit ion The immediate post-war per iod was one of renewed Olympic asp i ra t i ons for women's hockey. There i s evidence that , as ea r l y as Ju ly 1946, e f f o r t s were under way i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . Then, on 8 August 1946, at the i n s t i g a t i o n of England, I re l and , Wales and the U .S .A . , a l e t t e r was dispatched from the I.F.W.H.A. to the I .O .C . request ing the a d d i t i o n of women's hockey to the 12 programme of the 1948 Olympic Games to be held i n London. The fo l lowing month, the I .F.W.H.A. rece ived what was descr ibed by a leading women's hockey o f f i c i a l as "the d i sappo in t ing d e c i s i o n of the In te rnat iona l Olympic Committee to exclude women's hockey" from the o f f i c i a l programme of the Olympic Games. The consequence of the I .O .C . d e c i s i o n was f a r - r e a c h i n g , and doubly so . F i r s t , t h i s rebuff contr ibuted to a negative stance soon to be taken by 53 the I .F.W.H.A. towards Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; secondly, i t i n s p i r e d the F . I . H . to propose a World F e s t i v a l of Women's Hockey to replace the Olympics. Th is World F e s t i v a l , organized by the K.N.H.B. (Holland) and staged at Amsterdam i n May 1948, was open to a l l countr ies a f f i l i a t e d with e i the r the F . I . H . or the 14 I .F .W.H.A. It i s recorded that "the Dutch women were charming hostesses" to e leven count r i es ; Ho l land, Denmark, Belgium, France, A u s t r i a , Spain, 15 England, I re l and , Scot land, Wales and the U.S.A. Thus, i t was the largest women's world tournament yet h e l d , and the most comprehensively representat ive of F . I . H . - and I . F . W . H . A . - a f f i l i a t e d na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n s . A few years l a t e r a fur ther attempt was made to introduce women's hockey in to the Olympic Games. Again, adherents of the game were to be d issappointed, for the I .O .C . decided that women's hockey would not be inc luded i n the 1952 Olympics. At the 1950 I.F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament, held i n Johannesburg, South A f r i c a , i t had been proposed that , s ince women's hockey-playing countr ies had the opportunity to attend a t r i e n n i a l conference, there was no need to press for women's hockey i n the Olympics. It was recorded that , on t h i s i s sue , "the Conference voted 16 unanimously against p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Olympic Games." Thus, with Olympic asp i ra t i ons now shat tered , and Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n re jec ted , the I .F.W.H.A. T r i e n n i a l Tournament became the mecca of i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion for women's hockey p lay ing countr ies throughout the world. The Fourth Conference and Tournament had been a long time i n coming, for the I .F.W.H.A. had been l a r g e l y i n a c t i v e from 1939 to 1946, operat ing 17 during the war years through a ske leton committee i n the U.S.A. When t h i s Fourth Conference was f i n a l l y h e l d , i n Johannesburg i n 1950, fourteen years had elapsed s ince the P h i l a d e l p h i a Conference and Tournament of 1936. Only s i x teams p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the 1950 Tournament; England, I re land , Scot land, 54 U.S.A. and South A f r i c a were the member countr ies represented, whi le 18 In ternat iona l Wanderers was the t r a d i t i o n a l composite team. From t h i s modest resumption, however, the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament gained r a p i d l y In s t rength . The F i f t h I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament, held i n Folkestone, England, i n 1953, brought together the teams of s ix teen hockey countr ies from around the wor ld . This was twice the number that had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n each of the l as t two pre-war tournaments, for both at Copenhagen i n 1933, and i n P h i l a d e lp h ia i n 1936, e ight teams had competed. Furthermore, on t h i s occas ion , there r e a l l y was a wel l -balanced representat ion from a l l corners of the ear th . P a r t i c i p a t i n g were seven nat ions from Cont inenta l Europe, four from the B r i t i s h I s l e s , and f i v e from overseas: Ind ia , U .S .A . , South A f r i c a , A u s t r a l i a and New Zealand. The I .F.W.H.A. t r u l y 19 was a g loba l o r g a n i z a t i o n . For the next two decades, the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament was to become the v e r i t a b l e Olympics of women's hockey: the code of e t h i c s , the amateur ethos, and the s p i r i t of competit ion and cameraderie were a l l true to the Olympic i d e a l s . By the 1960s, even the in ter -conference per iod had been changed to one of four years . Table 3 i nd i ca tes the popu la r i t y of the Tournament during 20 the 1950s and 1960s. Organ izat iona l Development of the I .F.W.H.A. From an o rgan i za t i ona l perspec t ive , the post-war per iod was one of susta ined growth and development. As shown i n Table 3, the number of countr ies a f f i l i a t e d with the I .F .W.H.A. increased s u b s t a n t i a l l y . Standing at ten i n 1947, i t had doubled by 1953, and t reb led to reach t h i r t y by 1967. To a large extent , t h i s increase i n membership was a t t r i b u t a b l e to the concerted e f f o r t s of the Federat ion and i t s a f f i l i a t e d assoc ia t ions to promote the game of women's hockey i n non-member c o u n t r i e s . A s p e c i a l sess ion at each 55 TABLE 3 NUMBER OF TEAMS AT I.F.W. .H.A.TOURNAMENTS 1953-1967 AND COUNTRIES AFFILIATED Year Venue No. of Teams A f f i l i a t e d Countr ies 1953 Folkestone 16 20 1956 Sydney 10 20 1959 Amsterdam 15 23 1963 Balt imore 17 26 1967 Cologne 19 30 Conference was devoted to t h i s endeavour. However, the o rgan i za t iona l s t rength of the I .F .W.H.A . , and i t s i n t e g r i t y of purpose were r e f l e c t e d i n i t s r e s o l u t i o n to accept as members only those countr ies which could provide s a t i s f a c t o r y evidence of the independence of a women's hockey s e c t i o n . For example, when the Pakistan Hockey Federat ion , which was respons ib le for men's and women's hockey i n that country, sought a f f i l i a t i o n i n 1953, i t s a p p l i c a t i o n was denied because the Pakistan Federat ion d id not comply with the 22 I . F .W.H .A . ' s cond i t ions of membership. There were severa l features of the I .F.W.H.A. Conferences and Tournaments which d i s t ingu i shed women's hockey from other sports and made manifest the non-exclus ive p a r t i c i p a t o r y nature of the event. Every member country was welcome to enter a team i n the Tournament and i n v i t e d to send a delegate to the Conference. One of the funct ions of the host country was to arrange for each of the v i s i t i n g teams a tour that inc luded matches, not only w i th in the host country i t s e l f , but a l so with I .F.W.H.A. countr ies on the route of the v i s i t i n g team. Furthermore, en thus ias t i c supporters could 56 r e g i s t e r as o f f i c i a l v i s i t o r s , and thus be inc luded as an i n t e g r a l part of the a c t i v i t i e s , i nc lud ing p r o v i s i o n for accommodation and attendance at matches, 23 meetings and s o c i a l func t ions . A l l of these fac tors combined to create an atmosphere that moved a former capta in of a p a r t i c i p a t i n g team to observe that "no one who has ever attended an IFWHA Tournament and Conference w i l l deny the 24 unique s p i r i t that p r e v a i l s " . Thus, the I . F .W.H .A . ' s dec lared aims of f u r t h e r i n g women's hockey throughout the world, and promoting f r i e n d l y competit ion were being a c t i v e l y pursued and l a r g e l y f u l f i l l e d . E f f o r t s were a l so made to standardize the r u l e s . In 1956, the Rules and Umpiring Sub-Committee recommended that the I .F.W.H.A. adopt the ru les of the Women's Hockey Board of Great B r i t a i n and I re land . Uni formity of the ru les continued to be an important issue of the 1959 Conference i n Amsterdam, where i t was passed unanimously that the C o n s t i t u t i o n be amended to provide for a code of ru les for Tournament matches and other i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i x t u r e s . F i n a l l y , at the 1967 Conference i n Leverkusen (Cologne), " i t was by unanimous agreement that the Conference set up an Independent Rules-Making Body," which 25 became the Women s In te rnat iona l Hockey Rules Board. Re la t ionsh ips Between the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . Ea r l y Post-War In te rac t ion At the 1948 Amsterdam World F e s t i v a l , the Dutch were asked to arrange a meeting between the Women's Committee of the F . I . H . , (or representat ives of Cont inenta l Assoc ia t ions present) , and delegates of the I .F .W.H.A. The an t i c ipa ted important items on the agenda were Olympic Games recogn i t i on , and 26 the d e s i r a b i l i t y of re-opening negot ia t ions with the F . I . H . The outcome of a r e s o l u t i o n to pursue further the recogn i t ion of 27 women's hockey as an Olympic sport has already been nar ra ted . On the 57 p o s i t i v e s i d e , however, d i scuss ions with the F . I . H . Women's Committee led to f r u i t f u l negot ia t ions with the President and Honorary General Secretary of the 28 F . I . H . A long-standing aim of the I .F.W.H.A. had been to embrace wi th in i t s membership the women's sect ions of the F . I . H . a s s o c i a t i o n s . In October, 1948, the I .F.W.H.A. received n o t i f i c a t i o n from the F . I . H . that permission had been granted; women's sect ions of F . I . H . member countr ies that so wished could a f f i l i a t e with the I .F.W.H.A. Even before the end of the year , the women's sec t ions of the Be lg ian and Aust r ian Hockey Assoc ia t ions had app l ied for 29 membership i n the I .F.W.H.A. and were accepted. Ever s ince the f i r s t of the Conference tournaments (Copenhagen, 1933), the F . I . H . - a f f i l i a t e d countr ies had been permitted by t h e i r federat ion and na t iona l assoc ia t ions to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the I .F .W.H.A. compet i t ions; now they could and d id a c t u a l l y a f f i l i a t e with the I .F.W.H.A. At l a s t , the way appeared open for a true world federat ion for women's hockey. Th is optimism was supported by an increase , dur ing the per iod 1948 - 1950, of eight countr ies a f f i l i a t e d to the I .F .W.H.A . , a phenomenon a t t r i b u t e d to the 30 success fu l negot ia t ions between the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . Creat ion of the Jo in t Consu l ta t ive Committee Spec ia l problems confronted the I . F .W.H .A . ' s Cont inenta l members, who were, through t h e i r j o i n t na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n s , a l so a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . When p lay ing i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches amongst themselves, they played i n accordance with the ru les approved by the F . I . H . ; but when p lay ing against I .F.W.H.A. count r i es , and i n p a r t i c u l a r , when p a r t i c i p a t i n g at an I .F.W.H.A. tournament, they were ob l iged to p lay according to the p r e v a i l i n g ru les of that f edera t i on . In 1952, those European countr ies with dual membership 58 requested that o f f i c i a l s of the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . should meet for 31 d i scuss ions aimed at r e s o l v i n g these problems. Fol lowing informal t a lks between the I .F.W.H.A. o f f i c i a l s and the F . I . H . Women's Committee i n A p r i l of that year , the Secretary General of the F . I . H . , M. Rene Frank, and the President of the I .F .W.H.A . , Miss H i l d a L i g h t , met u n o f f i c i a l l y with a view to br ing ing the two federat ions c l o s e r together. D iscuss ion centred around the phenomenon that hockey had two i n t e r n a t i o n a l federa t ions , one for men, and one for women; and, according to Frank, hockey was the only sport for which t h i s was so . It was agreed that regular contact should be es tab l i shed to reso lve p o t e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ; for example, i f there were no connection between the two federa t ions , the ru les could diverge to the 32 point of c o n s t i t u t i n g two separate games. The F . I . H . submitted that shared concerns could best be addressed through the formation of a consu l ta t i ve committee composed of delegates of both federa t ions . The Counc i l of the I .F.W.H.A. agreed with t h i s proposa l , and i n May 1953, a pre l iminary meeting of the Jo in t Consu l tat ive Committee ( J . C . C . ) took p lace . The minutes of t h i s pre l iminary meeting ou t l i ned the aims and ob jec t i ves of the Committee, which inc luded: to s t r i v e for c l ose r co-operat ion between the two federa t ions ; to secure un i formity of ru les and regu la t ions ; and to deal with quest ions a r i s i n g out of i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches. It was recorded that the I .F.W.H.A. welcomed the J . C . C . and approved i t s 33 aims. The c o n s t i t u t i o n of the J . C . C . made p r o v i s i o n for three delegates from each federa t ion , and s t i p u l a t e d that i t should meet at least once every three years . Furthermore, the F . I . H . i n v i t e d the I .F.W.H.A. to hold the key p o s i t i o n s of Chairman and Honorary Secretary of the J . C . C . for the f i r s t three-year term. H i l d a L i g h t , r e t i r i n g President of the I .F .W.H.A . , and a 59 v i s i o n a r y who had forseen the necess i ty of such a committee, was appointed the 34 f i r s t Chairman of the J . C . C . Consu l ta t ion and Co-operat ion: 1953 - 1967 On a formal b a s i s , the J . C . C . met once i n about every three years . These meetings were timed to occur dur ing the mid-term per iod of the major events of each federat ion (Olympics for the F . I . H . ; Conference and Tournament 35 for the I . F . W . H . A . ) . Table 4 revea ls t h i s aspect of J . C . C . meetings. The i n i t i a l s t ruc ture of the J . C . C . permitted three delegates from the I .F.W.H.A. and three delegates from the F . I . H . ; represent ing the F . I . H . dur ing the f i r s t three-year term were two members of the Women's Committee and the Honorary General Secretary . By 1958, the number of delegates from each federat ion had been increased to four , the Secretary of the I .H .B . ( l a t e r the In te rnat iona l Hockey Rules Board) being the fourth F . I . H . representa t ive , and 36 h i s counterpart i n women s hockey, the four th I .F.W.H.A. de legate . As wel l as consu l ta t i on through the J . C . C . , t h i s era was marked by the degree of co-operat ion and mutual respect and admirat ion which the two i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions accorded each other . An exce l lent s t a r t to t h i s atmosphere of goodwil l was the presentat ion i n 1953 of the F . I . H . ' s most p r e s t i g i o u s award, the Leautey Cup, to the I .F .W.H.A. " in recogn i t ion of i t s 37 outstanding work for the game . . . ." A fur ther i n d i c a t i o n of the co-operat ive s p i r i t was the i n v i t a t i o n extended by the F . I . H . , and accepted by the I .F .W.H.A . , for two delegates to attend the 1954 Congress of the F . I . H . In 1958, the I .F .W.H.A. requested the o f f i c e r s of the F . I . H . to encourage the women's sec t ions of t h e i r a f f i l i a t e d assoc ia t ions to apply for membership of I .F.W.H.A, a r e f l e c t i o n of improved r e l a t i o n s s ince pre-war days. Conversely, i n 1964, the I .F.W.H.A. agreed to support an a r t i c l e i n the F . I . H . 38 c o n s t i t u t i o n regarding suspension of c lubs and i n d i v i d u a l s . 60 TABLE 4 MEETINGS OF THE JOINT CONSULTATIVE COMMITEE: 1952-1968 Year F . I . H . J . C . C I .F.W.H.A. 1952 O 1953 P C 1954 1955 J 1956 O C 1957 1958 J 1959 C 1960 O 1961 J 1962 1963 C 1964 O 1965 1966 J 1967 C 1968 O O = Olympic Tournament C = Conference & Tournament J = J . C . C . Meeting P = Pre l iminary Meeting 61 As we l l as the formal meetings of the J . C . C . , by the la te 1950s, j o i n t meetings of a t echn i ca l nature were being conducted under the Committee's ausp ices . In 1958, the F . I . H . Technica l Commitee met with i t s I .F.W.H.A. counterpart to d iscuss r u l e s , for the issue of ru les was c r u c i a l . Upon the r e s o l u t i o n of t h i s problem depended the outcome of the s i n g l e most important matter, that of i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion between I .F.W.H.A. and F . I . H . c o u n t r i e s . By the time of the second meeting of the J . C . C . i n 1958, the F . I . H . expressed i t s f i rm b e l i e f that i t was time to standardize men's and women's r u l e s . F i r s t l y , however, un i formity of women's ru les was requ i red , for up u n t i l that time each country played i t s own v a r i a t i o n of the r u l e s , n e c e s s i t a t i n g adjustments when i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches were played under the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. Despite severa l meetings of the I .F .W.H.A 's Rules and Umpiring Committee i n the in terven ing per iod , when the J . C . C . met again i n 1961, the F . I . H . i n s i s t e d that the matter of ru les could not be l o g i c a l l y d iscussed u n t i l the I .F.W.H.A. es tab l i shed a body s i m i l a r to the I .H .B . — an independent committee of experts , rather than a sub-committee dependent on the dec i s ions of a conference. It came as a disappointment to the I .F.W.H.A. that the F . I . H . was not w i l l i n g to recognize the Code of Rules 40 used for I .F.W.H.A. Tournament matches, as had been hoped. At the I .F.W.H.A. Counc i l Meeting convened i n conjunct ion with the 1963 Conference he ld i n the United States , a proposal was advanced that the F . I . H . be requested, at the next meeting of the J . C . C . , to recognize the I . F .W.H .A . ' s Rules and Umpiring sub-Committee as I . F .W.H .A . ' s rules-making body. This r e s o l u t i o n was s h o r t - l i v e d , f o r , by 1965, a j o i n t meeting of the F . I . H . Technica l Committee and the I .F.W.H.A. Rules and Umpiring Sub-Commitee led to the I .F .W.H.A. C o u n c i l ' s agreeing i n p r i n c i p l e to the formation of an 62 independent rules-making body. When the J . C . C . met next i n 1966, an autonomous body, soon to be known as the Women's In te rnat iona l Hockey Rules Board (W.I .H .R .B . ) , was i n the process of being c reated . This independent rules-making body was approved unanimously by the membership of the I .F.W.H.A. at the 1967 I .F.W.H.A. Conference i n Cologne. From then on, a l l women's sec t ions of the F . I . H . which were a f f i l i a t e d with the I .F.W.H.A. had to p lay 41 to t h i s Code of Ru les . With t h i s acceptance of the c r e a t i o n of the W.I .H .R .B . , came "the dec i s ions [which standardized] the ru les of the game for l a d i e s . " 4 2 The minutes of the 1967 I .F.W.H.A. Conference revealed that t h i s advance had been achieved by the combined operat ions of i t s Sub-Committees, the fores ight of i t s o f f i c e r s , and the co-operat ive a t t i t u d e of the F . I . H . Furthermore, the J . C . C . "could con f ident l y s ta te that [ i t ] had f u l f i l l e d i n the main the aims and objects as set out i n i t s C o n s t i t u t i o n and i n the sphere 43 of achiev ing c lose r co-operat ion and d i r e c t exchange of in format ion ." Summary The quarter-century from World War II to the l a te 1960s was a time of world-wide expansion and increased competit ion both for the F . I . H . and the I .F.W.H.A. For the men, the p innac le of competit ion was the Olympic Hockey Tournament, whi le for the women, the u l t imate goal was p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament. These p a r a l l e l but separate paths were set e a r l y i n t h i s p e r i o d . Within the f i r s t f i v e post-war years , the women were f i r s t denied, then they themselves r e j e c t e d , entry i n to the Olympic Games. On the other hand, the B r i t i s h Hockey Board was created as the v e h i c l e through which the men of the B r i t i s h I s l e s could compete i n the Olympic Games. Th is a l so es tab l i shed the 63 connect ion, a l b e i t i n d i r e c t l y , between the Home Country Assoc ia t ions and the F . I . H . , and by v i r t u e of three members appointed to the I . H . B . , the F . I . H . gained representat ion on the rules-making body. While men's and women's hockey thus proceeded separate ly , the two i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions enjoyed f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s . Very ea r l y on, as a r esu l t of meetings between the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . at the 1948 Women's World F e s t i v a l , women's sect ions of F . I . H . - a f f i l i a t e d assoc ia t ions were permitted to j o i n the I .F.W.H.A. as w e l l , thus acqu i r ing dual membership. In 1953, the J . C . C . was es tab l i shed to maintain a working r e l a t i o n s h i p between the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . , e s p e c i a l l y for the benef i t of those member assoc ia t ions which were a f f i l i a t e d to both federa t ions . The major ob jec t i ve was to ensure the opportunity for i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion. Thus, the un i formity of ru les became a concern, the r e s o l u t i o n of which was made a high p r i o r i t y by the J . C . C . Towards the end of the 1960s, prospects for i t s s o l u t i o n , i n the form of the W.I .H .R .B . , appeared promising. 64 CHAPTER VI INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY FROM 1970 TO 1983: UNIFICATION OF THE FEDERATIONS At the close of the 1960s, men's and women's hockey at the international level had experienced almost a quarter of a century of independent, albeit parallel, development. But, upon the dawn of a new decade, events were about to unfold which would catapult the game, and both i t s international federations, into a fresh and tumultuous era. This fi n a l section describes that episode. The major event of the period from 1970 to 1983 was the integration of the I.F.W.H.A. into the F.I.H., a phenomenon precipitated by the inclusion of women's hockey in the Olympic Games and the accompanying reduction in the number of men's teams in the Olympic Hockey Tournament. The process of unification, which evolved over this period, i s best described after the individual developments in men's and women's hockey are f i r s t narrated. Men's Hockey Development The early part of this era was notable for several reasons: f i r s t , i t was a period of rationalization within the men's international organizational structure i t s e l f ; secondly, at this time, a World Cup hockey competition was inaugurated; and thirdly, the retention of hockey as an Olympic sport was cast in doubt. 65 R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o£ the Organ izat iona l Structure A f f i l i a t i o n of the Home Countr ies with the F . I . H . and the i n tegra t i on of the ru les governing body in to the i n f r a s t r u c t u r e of the F . I . H . was a gradual process which culminated i n the l a te 1960s and e a r l y 1970s. 1 The anomaly which ex is ted up u n t i l 1970, despi te the co-operat ive r e l a t i o n s h i p s enjoyed, was that the F . I . H . held a minor i ty p o s i t i o n i n the formulat ion and mod i f i ca t i on of the ru les of the game which i t administered world-wide. Inex t r i cab ly l inked with t h i s anomaly was the phenomenon that , although England and the other Home Countr ies secured F . I . H . a f f i l i a t i o n through the B .H.B. , t h i s was an i n d i r e c t a f f i l i a t i o n , a p p l i c a b l e , for the most p a r t , to 2 Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n . In 1948, no B r i t i s h Home Country was i n d i v i d u a l l y a f f i l i a t e d to the F . I . H . The f i r s t to apply was I re land , which was accepted i n 1950; but i t was not u n t i l 1968 that the next Home Country, Wales, sought 3 and gained a f f i l i a t i o n . The Welsh a c t i o n , however, ushered i n a per iod of t r a n s i t i o n . Two years l a t e r came the h i s t o r i c occas ion when, at a Congress i n Brusse ls on 26 September 1970, the (Engl ish) H.A. a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . So, at l a s t , the country which founded the modern game jo ined the ranks of the organ iza t ion which, by now, was recognized as the governing body of hockey. At the same meeting, the S c o t t i s h H.A. was a l so accepted, br ing ing a l l four 4 Home Countr ies , which had dominated the I .H .B . s ince 1900, i n to the F . I . H . As a resu l t of these a c t i o n s , i t was resolved that the I . H . B . , by now re-named the In te rna t iona l Hockey Rules Board ( I . H . R . B . ) should be absorbed i n t o the F . I . H . To a l low a smooth t r a n s i t i o n , i t was agreed that the ru les would remain under con t ro l of the I .H .R .B . u n t i l the end of 1971, with the F . I . H . taking over j u r i s d i c t i o n on 1 January 1972. Later i n that year the I .H .R .B . was r e - c o n s t i t u t e d as an autonomous committee w i th in the framework of the F . I . H . Thus, f i n a l l y , the body with author i ty over the ru les became an 66 i n t e g r a l part of the federat ion which c o n t r o l l e d the game throughout the wor ld . World CUP and Olympic Competit ion Over the quarter-century from the end of World War I I , i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey a c t i v i t y increased s u f f i c i e n t l y for the game to be able to support i t s own world championship. During that per iod , the a f f i l i a t e d membership of the F . I . H . v i r t u a l l y t r e b l e d , from twenty-one i n 1946 to s ix ty-one i n 1970. 6 At the same time, i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion expanded even more d r a m a t i c a l l y . It i s estimated that p r i o r to 1960, l i t t l e more that t h i r t y i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches were played i n an average year; by 1970, t h i s number had increased s i x - f o l d , for there were now four cont inenta l championships, i n a d d i t i o n to the Olympics and other major tournaments. The time was r ipe for the F . I . H . to launch i t s 7 own World Cup Tournament, the f i r s t of which was held i n Barcelona i n 1971. Although the game was burgeoning, and p res t i g ious hockey tournaments were being held throughout the world under the auspices of the F . I . H . , i t was hockey's i n c l u s i o n on the Olympic programme which had acted as the f o c a l point for i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion and provided the incent ive for nat ions to a f f i l i a t e with the F . I . H . Indeed, as the Honorary General Secretary of the F . I . H . was to remark on the occas ion of the Mexico Olympics i n 1968, "the Olympic competit ion remains the most important s ing le event of Hockey on a 8 world l e v e l . " Within two years , however, hockey's Olympic s tatus was i n jeopardy. In 1970, a move w i th in the I .O .C . to reduce the number of p a r t i c i p a n t s i n team sports prompted the President of the F . I . H . to express the fear "that hockey's 9 representat ion w i l l be reduced from 16 teams to 8 for the 1976 Olympics." The F . I . H . , i n concert with other members of the General Assembly of 67 In te rna t iona l Federat ions , r e s i s t e d the attempts of the I .O .C . to reduce the number of teams. When the I .O .C . met i n Luxembourg i n September 1971 to d i scuss the future of hockey and other team spor ts , the F . I . H . i n s i s t e d on r e t a i n i n g s ix teen teams i n the Olympics. But the outcome of the Luxembourg meetings d id not augur w e l l , as the very r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y emerged that hockey 10 might even be deleted from the Olympics. In 1972, the Munich Olympic Hockey Tournament proceeded with s ix teen teams, but despi te representat ions by the Pres ident of the F . I . H . to the I . O . C . , Munich was to be the l as t Olympics at which s ix teen men's teams took par t ; when the next Olympic Hockey Tournament was held i n Montreal i n 1976, only twelve teams were permitted to enter . By the mid-1970s, however, the c r i s i s of t o t a l expuls ion was over , and re tent ion of hockey as a sport on the Olympic programme seemed a s s u r e d . 1 1 Throughout the 1970s and i n t o the 1980s, men's hockey at the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l continued to develop. One measure of i t s progress was the s u b s t a n t i a l increase i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion prov ided, not only by the Olympic Hockey Tournament, but a l s o by the success fu l implementation of the World Cup compet i t ion, together with i t s assoc iated cont inenta l and 12 i n t e r - c o n t i n e n t a l tournaments. A fur ther i nd i ca to r of advancement was the number of na t iona l assoc ia t ions a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . , which rose from s ixty-one i n 1970 to ninety-two i n 1981, a f i f t y percent increase i n jus t over a decade. Furthermore, o rgan i za t iona l and techn i ca l matur i ty was manifest i n the planning and execut ion not only of hockey tournaments, but a l so of umpiring and coaching seminars which were conducted through F . I . H . sub-committees es tab l i shed to promote and develop these aspects of the 13 game. 68 Women's Hockey Development The per iod from 1970 to 1983 was remarkable i n the development of women's hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . Of p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e was the evo lut ion of tournaments played on a championship bas is and the i n c l u s i o n of women's hockey i n the Olympic Games. Both of these events created debate w i th in the women's hockey community i t s e l f , e s p e c i a l l y between the I .F.W.H.A. and the countr ies a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . A review of the s a l i e n t features of the preceeding per iod i s h e l p f u l i n apprec ia t ing the circumstances surrounding these events. In the immediate post-war e ra , negot ia t ions between the two federat ions resu l ted i n women's sect ions of the F . I . H . being permitted to j o i n the I .F.W.H.A. and as a consequence of t h i s , the I .F.W.H.A. membership doubled, from ten to twenty, i n the next two years . A f te r r e j e c t i o n i n the i r b id to compete i n the Olympics, the member nat ions of the I .F.W.H.A. decided unanimously to abandon t h e i r e f f o r t s towards i n c l u s i o n , and concentrated instead on the I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament, which, they f e l t , epitomized the Olympic i d e a l s . Between 1950 and 1967, s i x such tournaments were h e l d , and during that per iod 14 the I .F.W.H.A. grew s t e a d i l y i n numbers and i n s t a t u r e . By the 1970s, not only was the I .F .W.H.A. Tournament w e l l e s tab l i shed , but the number of women's hockey-playing countr ies was s u b s t a n t i a l . In 1971, when the Tournament was held i n Auckland, New Zealand, there were th i r ty - two countr ies a f f i l i a t e d with the I .F.W.H.A. and a fur ther ten countr ies known to 15 be p lay ing women's hockey. In add i t i on to the a c t i v i t i e s w i th in the I .F .W.H.A. , women's hockey i n F . I . H . - a f f i l i a t e d countr ies was a l so f l o u r i s h i n g , for at the 1970 F . I . H . Congress, the number of representat ives on the Women's Committee was increased, "because of the progress of women's hockey i n a s t i l l i nc reas ing number of c o u n t r i e s . " 1 6 In 1974, the number of 69 women's hockey-playing countr ies a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . stood at 17 twenty-two. Introduct ion of World Championships The in t roduc t ion of World Championships, a phenomenon which occurred i n women's hockey during the f i r s t h a l f of the 1970s, as shown i n Appendix B, d id not take place without considerable anguish for adherents of the o r i g i n a l I .F .W.H.A. p r i n c i p l e s . One of the bas ic ph i losophies of the I .F.W.H.A. was that i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches should be played i n a s p i r i t of f r i e n d s h i p , for the game's sake, and the schedules of matches up to 1967 r e f l e c t e d t h i s phi losophy. In f a c t , the whole s t ruc ture of the I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament was based on the concept of non-exclus ive p a r t i c i p a t i o n . A l l countr ies were i n v i t e d to attend independent of the s i z e of i t s a s s o c i a t i o n or s trength of i t s team. The format of the tournament was such that each match was a game i n i t s own r i g h t : ne i ther by a round rob in league, nor by an e l i m i n a t i o n process , were teams c l a s s i f i e d ; no winner was dec la red . Furthermore, that important and unique adjunct of the Tournament, the p r o v i s i o n made by the host country for p a r t i c i p a t i n g teams to p lay matches with other countr ies whi le t r a v e l l i n g to or from the venue, and/or to tour w i th in the host country before or a f t e r the Tournament i t s e l f might be los t i f 18 a championship phi losophy p r e v a i l e d . However, i n 1971, whi le the p r i n c i p l e s of u n r e s t r i c t e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n s t i l l a p p l i e d , the Tournament was s t ructured on championship l i n e s , an u n o f f i c i a l winner announced, and rankings 19 were acknowledged. In the e a r l y 1970s, pressure for d e c l a r i n g p lac ings — a phenomenon l a r g e l y a t t r i b u t a b l e to the inc reas ing government funding of na t iona l sports teams and, concomitant ly, the need to measure success — continued to be a p p l i e d . The t r a n s i t i o n was complete when the 1975 I.F.W.H.A. 70 Tournament i n Edinburgh, Scot land, was o f f i c i a l l y dec lared the f i r s t World 20 Hockey championship for Women. Meanwhile, the F . I . H . counterpart to the I .F.W.H.A. was moving even more r a p i d l y towards championship hockey. Not e n t i r e l y s a t i s f i e d with the "home and away" i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i x t u r e s of the f i r s t de J o s s e l i n de Jong Cup competit ion of 1970, the F . I . H . Women's Committee i n 1972 held a tournament to contest the second Cup compet i t ion. Open to a l l women's hockey-playing countr ies i n the world, whether F . I . H . - a f f i l i a t e d or not, i t was "recognised as the F . I . H . World Women's Trophy" Tournament, and the winners were declared World Champions. By the time the next competit ion was held i n 1974, the women's terminology had been made cons is tent with the men's, and the 21 competit ion was known as the F . I . H . Women's World Cup. From 1975 onwards, a l l tournaments, whether organized under the auspices of the I .F.W.H.A. or the F . I . H . , were conducted according to a championship format. Furthermore, the number of teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n these tournaments was a l so very s u b s t a n t i a l , as membership i n the two federat ions continued to increase , as shown i n 22 F igure 1. Women's Hockey i n the Olympic Games At the same time as the in t roduc t ion of championship compet i t ion, there occurred a sequence of events which led to the i n c l u s i o n of women's hockey i n the Olympic Games. A f te r World War I I , app l i ca t i ons to inc lude women's hockey i n the Olympic Games were re jec ted by the I . O . C ; but twenty years l a t e r i t was the I .O .C . which approached the i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ion expressing the des i re to have more women's events i n the Olympics. The President of the F . I . H . reported i n 1970 that whi le there were fears for the future s tatus of 71 40 No. of Member 35 Countries 30 25 I.F.W.H.A. (O) 20 F.I.H. 15 -10 5 -1970 Countries I.F.W.H.A. F.I.H. Teams —3{-=^ I.F.W.H.A. H . F.I.H. -X - 2 5 20 No. of Tournament 15 Teams 10 I.F.W.H.A. (A) 5 F.I.H. (X) 72 74 76 YEAR 78 80 82 Figure 1 A COMPARISON OF MEMBER COUNTRIES AND TOURNAMENT TEAMS I.F.W.H.A. and F.I.H. : 1971-1981 (Women Members and Teams Only) 72 men's hockey i n the Olympics, "the door appear[ed] to have opened s l i g h t l y for the p o s s i b i l i t y of women's hockey being admitted to the Games." Th is was re in fo rced dur ing the Munich Olympics i n 1972, when the I .O .C . announced that 23 s i x women's teams might be allowed to compete at Montreal i n 1976. By now, however, women's hockey a u t h o r i t i e s had ser ious misgiv ings about Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n . In 1971, an A u s t r a l i a n correspondent was to express the f e e l i n g that i t was far bet ter to continue with the I.F.W.H.A. Tournament than to enter the Olympics, and other count r i es , i nc lud ing Canada, 24 expressed s i m i l a r doubts about Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n . In England, the reac t i on was s t rong ly a r t i c u l a t e d that "a f ter the temperamental d i s p l a y s at Munich the major i ty of IFWHA members [were] content with the i r own broadly-based quadrennial world touraments," and only when the Olympics returned to become "happy encounters between young f r i e n d l y a th le tes" would i t 25 be appropriate to inc lude women's hockey. Although the matter was d iscussed at the I .F.W.H.A. meetings held i n 1972 and 1973, i t was not u n t i l September 1974 that a consensus was reached by the I .F.W.H.A. regarding the d e s i r a b i l i t y of p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the Olympics. Even at the 1974 meeting the d e c i s i o n was far from unanimous, for of the twenty-f ive countr ies rep ly ing to the prev ious ly c i r c u l a t e d p o l l (from a t o t a l membership of t h i r t y - f o u r ) , seventeen were i n favour, s i x were against and two were undecided. Moreover, of those countr ies i n favour, some expressed reservat ions , and considerable debate ensued. Many women were concerned whether the i dea l s of the I .F.W.H.A. would be maintained; but as one of the I .F.W.H.A. o f f i c e r s exp la ined, "Olympic i dea l s are the h ighest" , and i t was up to the women to ensure that they were e x h i b i t e d . It was suggested, as i t had been a quarter of a century e a r l i e r , that the I .F .W.H.A. should persuade the I .O .C . to accept the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament as the Women s Olympics. 73 Despite the fact that the issue of Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n had been decided, by a major i ty vote , at the 1974 I .F.W.H.A. meeting, the mer i ts of the case were s t i l l being d iscussed at the I .F.W.H.A. meeting of February 1975. But even as the matter was debated, a l e t t e r was being dispatched to the F . I . H . by the I .O .C . The fo l lowing month, the President of the I .F .W.H.A. received t h i s message from the Honorary General Secretary of the F . I . H . : I take pleasure i n enc los ing herewith copy of a l e t t e r of 4th. February, 1975, by which the I .O .C . informed the F . I . H . that Hockey had been added to the l i s t of those sports i n which women are allowed to compete at the Olympic Games.27 Because of the fur ther hurdle of having Women's Hockey added to the programme of a p a r t i c u l a r Olympics, i t was by now too la te for women to enter the 1976 Olympics i n Montreal . Another year was to pass before the I .O .C . wrote to the F . I . H . conf irming that s i x women's hockey teams would be 28 permitted to enter the 1980 Moscow Olympic Hockey Tournament. More than h a l f a century a f t e r the formation of the I .F.W.H.A. and the f i r s t a sp i ra t i ons by women to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Olympic Games, t h i s hope became a r e a l i t y , and i n s p i t e of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l boycott , s i x teams d id contest t h e i r f i r s t 29 Olympic hockey medals that year . Re la t ionsh ips Between Men's and Women's Hockey The per iod between 1970 and 1983 was an event fu l one i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the men's and women's i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t ions . A f te r two decades of p a r a l l e l and e s s e n t i a l l y independent progress — the men with the Olympic Games as focus, the women with the I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament — t h i s r e l a t i v e l y b r i e f span was a time of cons iderable i n t e r a c t i o n , terminat ing with the i n t e g r a t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. i n t o the F . I . H . 74 The c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p which ex is ted between the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . continued i n t o the 1970s, as a j o i n t sub-committee of the I .H .R .B . and the W.I .H.R.B. worked d i l i g e n t l y towards e s t a b l i s h i n g a common code of 30 r u l e s . In 1971, the J . C . C . reported that the Committee had completed a d ra f t of " a common set of ru les" for men and women, and progress was such 31 that hope of a f i n a l d ra f t by 1973 was expressed. So product ive was the work of j o i n t sub-committees, that the I .F.W.H.A. considered the J . C . C . to be 32 of inest imable va lue , even though only c o n s u l t a t i v e . Status of Hockey at the Olympic Games Even as these co-operat ive a c t i v i t i e s were cont inu ing , a move was taking place which would create d i f f i c u l t i e s for both federat ions i n the near fu tu re . Th is was the a c t i o n of the I .O .C . to reduce the number of teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the Olympics. However, as announced at Munich i n 1972, reduct ion i n the number of men's teams from s ix teen to twelve was accompanied by the prospect of women's hockey being inc luded i n the Olympic programme. Although the I .O .C . hoped to inc lude women's hockey i n future Olympics, many problems were foreseen for i t s i n c l u s i o n by 1976. The President of the F . I . H . enumerated some of these i n a memorandum attached to the Munich Press Release: that the I .O .C . recognized only one i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t ion , the F . I . H . ; and, that many women's assoc ia t ions belonged only to the I .F .W.H.A. , 33 which had i t s own tournament, with no winner o f f i c i a l l y dec la red . In order to apprec iate f u l l y the events which fol lowed i n the next decade, i t i s necessary to review the three perspect ives of the s i t u a t i o n which ex is ted at t h i s p o i n t : f i r s t l y , that of the I .F .W.H.A. , e s p e c i a l l y with respect to the autonomous women's assoc ia t ions a f f i l i a t e d to i t ; secondly, that of the F . I . H . as i t r e l a ted to the women's sect ions of i t s const i tuent 75 n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s ; and t h i r d l y , that of the F . I . H . as i t represented men's a s s o c i a t i o n s . The I .F.W.H.A. was a very s p e c i a l body, un l ike almost any other i n the wor ld . Not only was i t a federa t ion composed e n t i r e l y of women's a s s o c i a t i o n s , but i t embraced severa l h igh ly-va lued p r i n c i p l e s , which included the " s p i r i t of f r i endsh ip and goodwil l which pervades the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament", where "the best hockey p lay ing team i s heralded whether or not they win ." At t h i s t ime, a strong element w i th in the I .F .W.H.A. membership was not i n favour of Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n , contending that "the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament today i s . . . fa r more true to Olympic i d e a l s than i s Olympic 34 competit ion i t s e l f . " In f a c t , as has a lready been narrated , severa l years 35 were to pass before the matter was conc lus i ve l y reso lved . On the other hand, the F . I . H . - a f f i l i a t e d women's assoc ia t ions wished to compete i n tournaments where a champion was determined. In response to t h i s expressed d e s i r e , the F . I . H . had i n s t i g a t e d the Women's World Tournament i n 1972, where the winner was dec lared World Champion. Although members of both federat ions were i n v i t e d to compete, the p a r t i c i p a n t s were a l l 36 F . I . H . - a f f i l i a t e d na t ions . Unl ike the I .F .W.H.A . , for whom the concept of pre-tournament e l i m i n a t i o n was anathema, the women's countr ies a f f i l i a t e d to the F . I . H . were a c t i v e l y support ive of the i n c l u s i o n of women's hockey i n the Olympic Games. The Olympic Hockey Tournament was regarded by the men's assoc ia t ions throughout the world, a l l of which were now a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . , as the most p r e s t i g i o u s of compet i t ions, and countr ies strove to p a r t i c i p a t e . Indeed, almost f i f t y years e a r l i e r , the F . I . H . had been created to ensure hockey's p lace i n the programme. Now, the F . I . H . wished not only to safeguard 76 the men's tournament, but a l so to ensure the i n c l u s i o n of a women's hockey tournament i n the Olympics. Divergences i n the Rules Another area of concern perta ined to the ru les of p lay . At t h i s time there were severa l po ints of divergence between those of the I .F.W.H.A. and those of the F . I . H . , and although at the o f f i c i a l l e v e l both federat ions were co-operat ing , through the Jo in t Rules Committee, to e s t a b l i s h a common code, there was d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n among the membership of the I .F.W.H.A. countr ies towards the experimentation of these common r u l e s . There were three major ob ject ions from the I .F .W.H.A . : f i r s t l y , that the members of the I .F.W.H.A. were expected to experiment with the F . I . H . (men's) ru les with no r e c i p r o c a l experimentation; secondly, that some of these ru les impl ied a code of conduct which d id not ex i s t i n women's hockey and which was considered undes i rab le ; and, t h i r d l y , that the way i n which the experimentation was imposed was 37 perceived to be a u t h o r i t a r i a n . On the one hand, a task force of i n t e r n a t i o n a l p layers who had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n I .F.W.H.A. tournaments expressed concern that the character of the game would be adversely a f f e c t e d , and not be as s u i t a b l e for women p layers , i f women's ru les were a l t e r e d to compromise 38 with the men's r u l e s . But, on the other hand, a leading I.F.W.H.A. member of the Jo in t Rules Committee was persuaded i n the Tightness of common r u l e s . In a l e t t e r to the A .E .W.H.A . ' s Hockey F i e l d , she explained that the younger generation i n Europe, where mixed c lubs p r e v a i l e d , could not understand why they had to be coached to d i f f e r e n t r u l e s ; and men umpires, who helped the women cons iderab ly , had to use one set of ru les at a men's match and another at a women's. She cont inued: "The Jo in t Rules Committee has taken what i t 77 cons iders the bet ter from both sets of ru les and sometimes i t has compromised 39 . . . ." The debate continued for severa l years dur ing the mid-1970s. Breakdown i n Re la t i onsh ips ; F . I . H . and I .F .W.H.A. Controversy continued a f t e r the 1972 Munich announcement regarding the poss ib le i n c l u s i o n of women's hockey i n the Olympic Games, u n t i l , fo l lowing a dramatic d e c i s i o n by i t s Counc i l i n 1973, the F . I . H . announced that i t had decided "no longer to take in to cons idera t ion the In ternat iona l Federat ion of 40 Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n s " . The F . I . H . broke o f f r e l a t i o n s with the I .F .W.H.A . ; and the J . C . C . was d i s s o l v e d . The major reasons c i t e d for t h i s d e c i s i o n were: the f e e l i n g of the F . I . H . that i t s own Olympic p o s i t i o n was i n jeopardy; the I . F .W.H .A . ' s i n d e c i s i o n regarding Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; a des i re that a more r a t i o n a l o rgan i za t ion for women's hockey should evolve; and 41 the slowness of progress i n ru les experimentat ion. The F . I . H . statement to the I .F.W.H.A. was f i r m , but not uncompromising. I t inc luded the fo l lowing concessions: that should any women's na t iona l hockey a s s o c i a t i o n apply for membership of the F . I . H . , i t would be welcomed and admitted without being asked to withdraw from the I .F .W.H.A. ; and, that women's sect ions of F . I . H . countr ies would p lay F . I . H . ru les among themselves, but they would be author ized to p lay non-F . I .H . nat ions , the ru les of p lay to be as mutually agreed. The F . I . H . a l so expressed the wish that the I .H .R .B . and the W.I.H.R.B. continue t h e i r j o i n t 42 work towards a common set of r u l e s . The F . I . H . announcement drew strong react ions of i nd ignat ion from severa l quarters w i th in the women's hockey community. The statement was descr ibed as "o f fens ive , arrogant , s i n i s t e r " and a r e f l e c t i o n of the a t t i tude of a d i c t a t o r s h i p . The very premise that there should be one organ iza t ion and 78 not two met with oppos i t i on ; and a warning was issued that i t should be "c lear to the IFWHA that the campaign begun by the FIH statement . . . i s . . . a b id 43 for e x t i n c t i o n of the IFWHA." C e r t a i n l y , a member of one of the European assoc ia t i ons (many of which belonged to both the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . ) made the fo l lowing appeal to her co l leagues : "Refuse to make any concession 44 to the F . I . H . : keep in tac t your i d e a l , o rgan i sa t ion , r u l e s , conferences". The s i t u a t i o n was exacerbated when, severa l weeks l a t e r , at i t s meeting i n September 1973, the I .F.W.H.A. decided to dec lare i t s 1975 Tournament a Women's World Championship. Th is was perceived by the F . I . H . as a r e v e r s a l , which now resu l ted i n the existence of two World Championships for women. It led the correspondent of World Hockey, the o f f i c i a l F . I . H . magazine, to dec lare that "such a s i t u a t i o n i s jus t another reason for a new endeavour to seek a r a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n to the problem of having two i n t e r n a t i o n a l 45 federat ions governing women's hockey". As the President of the I .F.W.H.A. was to observe i n retrospect some s i x years l a t e r , " i t was a d e l i c a t e . .. 46 time . Formation of the Supreme Counci l In the months fo l lowing the separate meetings of the two i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions i n 1973, fur ther developments occurred . Rene Frank, i t s Pres ident , informed the F . I . H . Counc i l that senior o f f i c i a l s of the A u s t r a l i a n and New Zealand women's a s s o c i a t i o n s , members of the I .F.W.H.A. on ly , ind ica ted to him that they intended to propose to t h e i r members that the i r assoc ia t ions a f f i l i a t e with the F . I . H . as w e l l . Germany, one of the most powerful and i n f l u e n t i a l of the F . I . H . - a f f i l i a t e d count r i es , announced that i t could not accept two world championships, and dec l ined to enter the I . F .W.H .A . ' s 1975 Tournament. Furthermore, reported World Hockey, the 79 I .O .C . ind i ca ted that , as long as there were two federat ions c o n t r o l l i n g 47 women's hockey, i t was u n l i k e l y to be inc luded i n the Olympic programme. Apparent ly , the time had come for n e g o t i a t i o n . In December 1973, E i l e e n Hyndman, President of the I .F .W.H.A . , c i r c u l a t e d a l e t t e r to the member assoc ia t i ons of her federat ion s t a t i n g that "the p o s i t i o n of the F . I . H . with i t s 71 member countr ies as the governing body of hockey and, as such, 48 recognised by the Olympics Committee, can not be doubted"; and, i n March 1974, issued the statement: "In an e f f o r t to d i s p e l the mistrust which at present e x i s t s and to r e - e s t a b l i s h good r e l a t i o n s between the two Federat ions, the I .F.W.H.A. would welcome d i scuss ions at top l e v e l with i t s 49 counterpart ." Hyndman contended that she spoke from s t rength , as the I .F.W.H.A. had brought together women p layers from a l l over the world, from countr ies large and s m a l l , and with w e l l over twice as many p layers as the 50 women's sect ions of the F . I . H . The F . I . H . responded p o s i t i v e l y to the I . F .W.H .A . ' s i n i t i a t i v e i n suggesting a summit meeting, and accepted the o f f e r of the Netherlands Assoc ia t i on to host a round tab le conference. The meeting took place i n Baarn, Ho l land, on 8 June 1974, with three representat ives of each federat ion 51 at tend ing , and the President of the Dutch Assoc ia t i on i n the c h a i r . At the Baarn meeting, there were open d iscuss ions on areas of misunderstanding between the two federa t ions . The F . I . H . enumerated the reasons for the break i n r e l a t i o n s , which inc luded the slow progress towards a j o i n t code of ru l es and the I . F .W.H .A . ' s p o s i t i o n regarding the Olympics. According to the F . I . H . , s ince the I .O .C . had been informed that the I .F .W.H.A. was opposed to Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n , the chance of secur ing women's hockey for the 1976 Montreal Olympics had been l o s t . The I.F.W.H.A. took the opportunity to exp la in that i t had done "nothing to a f f e c t the F . I . H . 80 work i n the matter of the Olympic Games", and requested the F . I . H . to pay no a t ten t ion to i n d i v i d u a l statements, or a r t i c l e s i n women's hockey journa l s , which were "not represent ing the f e e l i n g s of the major i ty of the 52 I .F .W.H.A." Emerging from the summit meeting were the recommendations that the two federat ions form a supreme counc i l of e ight members, c o n s i s t i n g of the Pres ident , Honorary Secretary and two other members of each federa t ion ; and that each federat ion remain independent, and continue to be administered 53 by i t s own governing body. Inc lus ion of Women's Hockey i n the Olympic Games Events leading to the i n c l u s i o n of women's hockey i n the Olympics now moved r a p i d l y . When o f f i c i a l s of the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . met again i n January 1975 to d i scuss d e t a i l s of the supreme C o u n c i l , the I .F .W.H.A. had a lready decided, a l b e i t with a consensus that was far from unanimous, i n favour of Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Thus, a major top ic of the j o i n t meetings was how the women might q u a l i f y at the Olympics. At t h e i r own meeting the fo l lowing month, the I .F.W.H.A. o f f i c i a l s revealed that women's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Olympics could not be considered u n t i l the I .O .C . was s a t i s f i e d that there ex is ted a j o i n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t ruc ture which could assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; the Baarn meeting had presented the opportunity to accomplish 54 t h i s , with Moscow, 1980, the e a r l i e s t poss ib le Olympics. Even as the I .F.W.H.A. met, however, the process was already i n motion. Fol lowing the j o i n t meeting i n January, the Honorary Secretary General of the F . I . H . had wr i t ten to the I . O . C ; and on 4 February 1975, the Technica l D i rec tor of the I .O .C . r e p l i e d : Your l e t t e r of 31st January has been rece ived and . . . I have pleasure i n conf i rming to you that Hockey i s inc luded i n the Rules of the [ I . O . C ] t i t l e d " P a r t i c i p a t i o n of Women" . . . . 5 5 81 This h i s t o r i c document confirmed the i n c l u s i o n of women's hockey in to the l i s t of Olympic spor t s . Nevertheless , the I .O .C . required conf i rmat ion that there d id ex i s t a s i n g l e body under whose auspices women's hockey could be added to the programme of a p a r t i c u l a r Olympics. The Technica l D i rec tor of the I .O .C . had acknowledged reading press reports r e l a t i n g to the negot iat ions taking p lace between the F . I . H . and the I .F .W.H.A . , and wished to learn the 56 ac tua l s i t u a t i o n . Thus, on 26 A p r i l 1975, the President of the F . I . H . wrote to Lord K i l l a n i n , Pres ident of the I . O . C , informing him of the new body, the Supreme C o u n c i l , vested with a l l powers to represent men's and women's hockey at the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . In K i l l a n i n ' s r e p l y , he welcomed "the progress made i n the s i n g l e d i r e c t i o n of hockey for world and Olympic 57 Games, for men and women." Fol lowing the I . F .W.H .A . ' s acceptance of the Supreme Counc i l as the body respons ib le for a l l matters at world and Olympic l e v e l , the Supreme Counci l met for the f i r s t time on 29 November 1975, with the matter of the 58 Olympics a major item on the agenda. The President of the F . I . H . was author ized to inform the I .O .C . of the dec i s ions of the Supreme Counci l and, s p e c i f i c a l l y , to request the a d d i t i o n of women's hockey onto the programme of the 1980 Olympic Games. There now ex is ted cons iderable optimism, fo r i n an e d i t o r i a l publ ished i n World Hockey, Frank was able to w r i t e : there i s now one body at the summit to con t ro l both women's and men's hockey, and t h i s co inc ides with the wishes of the In ternat iona l Olympic Committee President Lord K i l l a n i n . Accord ing ly , nothing now appears to stand i n the way of having women's hockey inc luded i n the 1980 and subsequent Olympic Games. It i s with great confidence therefore that we await the I . O . C . ' s d e c i s i o n on t h i s matter.59 Frank d id not have long to wai t , f o r , on 8 A p r i l 1976, a l e t t e r from the I .O .C . confirmed that a women's hockey competit ion would be inc luded i n the 82 sports programme of the 1980 Olympic Games i n Moscow. F i n a l l y , the way was c l e a r for a women's Olympic Hockey Tournament. The I .O .C . announcement i n 1976, conf irming the i n c l u s i o n of women's hockey i n the Moscow Olympics, was warmly greeted by the President of the F . I . H . i n an e d i t o r i a l to World Hockey where he reported: " th i s wonderful news, for which we thank the I .O .C . . . . ;" but he a l so acknowledged the per iod of d i f f i c u l t y when he added: "for t h i s success, c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s , which appeared almost unsurmountable [ s i c ] , had f i r s t to be overcome." 6 1 At the second meeting of the Supreme C o u n c i l , he ld on 22 May 1976, the I .O .C . announcement was welcomed. Now i t remained only to inform the Nat ional Olympic Committees that the I .O .C . had recognized the Supreme Counci l as the governing body of world hockey, so that the i n d i v i d u a l nat ions could apply to enter the Olympic Tournament. Consequently, i n March 1977, a l e t t e r from the j o i n t s e c r e t a r i e s of the Supreme Counci l was sent out to the appropr iate Nat ional Olympic Committees. Some i n i t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s experienced by I .F.W.H.A. members i n dea l ing with t h e i r N.O.C.s were eventua l ly reso lved . In the case of the Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , for example, a s o l u t i o n was achieved through negot ia t ion with the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion (men's), r e s u l t i n g i n shared representat ion on the Canadian 62 Olympic A s s o c i a t i o n , the respect ive delegates a l t e r n a t i n g annual ly . Funct ion of the Supreme Counci l A f te r the formation of the Supreme C o u n c i l , and the subsequent i n c l u s i o n of women's hockey on the programme of the Moscow Olympics, there fol lowed an extended per iod of co-operat ion between the F . I . H . and the I .F.W.H.A. In 1978, the President of the I .F.W.H.A. applauded the harmonious r e l a t i o n s which now e x i s t e d , and reported that the two federat ions were 83 working together to cover much common ground. These common areas were: Olympic compet i t ion, mutual p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n each o t h e r ' s tournaments, and 63 j o i n t r u l e s . One of the mandates of the Supreme Counci l was the s e l e c t i o n of countr ies to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Moscow Olympics. As e a r l y as February 1977, the I .F .W.H.A. Counc i l supported the concept "of naming the top teams i n the wor ld , regard less of geographical l oca t ion" and that the teams should "be 64 se lec ted on the i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l record" . The matter of the women's competit ion was d iscussed at a Supreme Counc i l meeting i n November 1977, but no f i rm date was set for s e l e c t i o n u n t i l 1979, when i t was announced that a Counc i l meeting would be held i n February 1980 to choose the teams which would p a r t i c i p a t e . A member of the Supreme Counc i l l a t e r revealed that , dur ing t h i s pre-Olympic p e r i o d , the s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a were never made e x p l i c i t as no r e a l , ob jec t i ve c r i t e r i a were ever e s t a b l i s h e d . Th is created a f e e l i n g of uncer ta inty among the I .F.W.H.A. nat ions , and there was some d issens ion when the Olympic s e l e c t i o n s were announced. As events t ransp i red , because of the boycott , which was supported by a l l of the strongest hockey-playing nat ions , none of the countr ies se lec ted by the Supreme Counci l i n February 1980 65 competed i n the Olympics. Mutual p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n each o t h e r ' s tournaments was an i n t e r n a l matter w i th in the sport i t s e l f , and thus could be resolved by the supreme Counci l represent ing both the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . An amicable agreement was negot iated dur ing the course of severa l meetings between 1975 and 1977. That t h i s arrangement was accepted, i s supported by the entry of two e x c l u s i v e l y 66 I .F.W.H.A. countr ies at the F . I . H . European Cup the very next year . Progress with the development of a common set of r u l e s , and towards a s i n g l e j o i n t body with j u s r i s d i c t i o n over them, was continuous throughout t h i s 84 per iod . In 1975, the f i r s t common Rule Book was publ ished and, by 1979, a l l d i f f e r e n c e s i n men's and women's ru les had been e l iminated , concomitant ly, i n 1977, the j o i n t Hockey Rules Board was es tab l i shed as a f u l l committee of the F . I . H . , and on 1st January 1980 became an autonomous committee under the 6*7 j u r i s d i c t i o n of the Supreme C o u n c i l . During the per iod from 1976 to 1980, the o rgan i za t iona l s t ruc ture of the F . I . H . underwent some changes. Up u n t i l 1977, the F . I . H . Women's Committee, which was e lec ted by the Women's Congress (comprising delegates from a l l women's sect ions of F . I . H . - a f f i l i a t e d c o u n t r i e s ) , met independently of the f u l l Committee of the F . I . H . ; but by 1978, the Women's Congress ceased to e x i s t , a l l e l e c t i o n s taking p lace w i th in the Congress (men and women), and 68 the Women's Committee became a component committee of the F . I . H . This change i n s tatus of the Women's Committee was d iscussed at the next meeting of the I .F .W.H.A . , where there was concern that i f t h i s committee were d i s s o l v e d , and nat iona l assoc ia t ions d id not have e f f e c t i v e women's sec t i ons , there would no longer be any es tab l i shed contact with such a f f i l i a t e members. This s i t u a t i o n bore some relevance to an important c o n s t i t u t i o n a l cond i t i on of membership i n the I .F.W.H.A. — the s t i p u l a t i o n that there must ex i s t an e f f e c t i v e women's committee w i th in an a s s o c i a t i o n . Here appeared yet another 69 example of the loss of autonomy of women's o rgan i za t i ona l bodies. In tegrat ion of the I .F.W.H.A. i n to the F . I . H . The e a r l y 1980s witnessed the i n t e g r a t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. i n to the F . I . H . , and the f i n a l u n i f i c a t i o n of the two world bodies . This process was not devoid of d i f f i c u l t i e s , nor was i t achieved without the re luctance of a subs tan t i a l proport ion of the I .F.W.H.A. membership. Moreover, r e l a t i v e to the per iod of co-ex istence of the two federat ions s ince the i r i ncept ion , the 85 i n t e g r a t i o n phase was shor t . Indeed, to the I .F.W.H.A. membership at l a rge , the absorpt ion of t h e i r federat ion in to the F . I . H . seemed to occur suddenly, a percept ion p a r t l y due to the fact that the d e l i c a t e negot ia t ions involved at the l e v e l of the Supreme Counci l were entrusted to the O f f i c e r s of the I .F .W.H.A. , and the proceedings of c o n f i d e n t i a l meetings were not widely d isseminated. In 1979, based on the premise that each federat ion was s t i l l autonomous, the I .F.W.H.A. considered the Supreme Counci l "a s a t i s f a c t o r y 70 working r e l a t i o n s h i p " . However, even at t h i s time, at least those countr ies which were members of both the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . were aware that the two i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions were moving c lose r together, and that important dec i s ions regarding union were being made by the F . I . H . By 1980, as the course towards i n t e g r a t i o n became more c l e a r l y de f ined , there was a 71 progress ive d e t e r i o r a t i o n of r e l a t i o n s between the two federa t ions . The President of the I .F.W.H.A. explained to her membership that the circumstances which had led to worsening r e l a t i o n s perta ined to the quest ion of the impending i n t e g r a t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . , and she hoped that f r u i t f u l d i scuss ions on the i n t e g r a t i o n of the two i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions would take place at the next meeting of the Supreme C o u n c i l , set for A p r i l 72 1981. So advanced was the process that , at t h i s meeting, the F . I . H . tabled proposals which i t f e l t could lead to i n t e g r a t i o n . In these proposals , the d e t a i l s of which were to be issued to a l l member assoc ia t ions of the 73 I.F.W.H.A. before i t s June Counci l meeting, the F . I . H . o f f e red the I .F.W.H.A. representat ion on every committee. C i r c u l a t i o n of the proposals generated cons iderable d i s c u s s i o n w i th in and between member assoc ia t ions of the I .F.W.H.A. Concern was expressed whether, indeed, there was any "room for 86 negot i a t i on" , or i f the I .F.W.H.A. simply had the choice whether to accept or 74 r e j e c t , without the opportunity to o f f e r counter-proposa ls . The d i f f i c u l t dec i s i on was taken at a Counc i l meeting of the I .F.W.H.A. i n June 1981 f o r , when the F . I . H . met that September, i t s membership was informed that the terms of i n t e g r a t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. w i th in the F . I . H . "had been presented to the I .F .W.H.A. which had accepted them unanimously." The F . I . H . Counc i l then approved the scheme to complete i n t e g r a t i o n by the end of the next year . Th is i n t e g r a t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. with the F . I . H . would therefore br ing to an end the existence of the Supreme C o u n c i l , for which there was no longer any need.^~* In an e d i t o r i a l to World Hockey, Rene Frank, the President of the F . I . H . , gave pr ide of p lace to the news of i n t e g r a t i o n when he wrote: " . . . negot ia t ions are now concluded, and the i n t e g r a t i o n terms . . . have been accepted." Frank, who had been Honorary General Secretary of the F . I . H . from 1950 before taking over the presidency i n 1966, went on to say: "The importance of t h i s achievement cannot be minimized. Integrat ion has been one of the F . I . H . ' s aims for over t h i r t y years , and at l as t i t has come about." He explained that as a r e s u l t of the i n t e g r a t i o n , the I .F.W.H.A. would disappear from the scene, and from then on, a l l hockey would be managed by one s i n g l e body, the F . I . H . While expressing grat i tude that there would no longer e x i s t divergences and d i f f i c u l t i e s which had been encountered, Frank paid t r i b u t e to the great se rv i ce which the I .F.W.H.A. had rendered to hockey over a long p e r i o d . Not a l l i n women's hockey c i r l c e s perceived i n t e g r a t i o n i n such glowing terms. A hockey s c r i b e , w r i t i n g i n Hockey F i e l d , saw the absorpt ion of the I .F.W.H.A. as "the per i sh ing of a great purpose," and descr ibed the process as 77 "the u l t imate takeover" rather than "a true merger." The f e e l i n g s of 87 these women were wel l - founded. Lost now was the p a r t i c i p a t o r y ethos of the I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament; gone were the tours which formed such an i n t e g r a l part of t h i s event; no more was there the forum for teams, delegates and v i s i t o r s from a l l over the world to meet i n the t r a d i t i o n a l atmosphere of f r i endsh ip and shared a s p i r a t i o n s . Neverthe less , the act of i n t e g r a t i o n had been executed; the process needed only to be implemented. It was necessary now for members of the I .F.W.H.A. to a f f i l i a t e with the F . I . H . When the f u l l Congress met i n August 1982, one hundred and three na t iona l assoc ia t ions were a f f i l i a t e d to the F . I . H . , and i t was reported that the i n t e g r a t i o n of the I .F .W.H.A . , which had "been c a r r i e d out i n a t r u l y remarkable spor t ing s p i r i t , " was now p r a c t i c a l l y 78 complete. In A p r i l 1983, the Women's World Cup and Inter -Cont inenta l Cup competit ions were held i n Malays ia , organized j o i n t l y by the two federa t ions . 79 Af te r these Cup Tournaments, the I .F.W.H.A. formal ly ceased to e x i s t . Et ienne G l i c h i t c h , Honorary General Secretary of the F . I . H . , descr ibed t h i s momentous occas ion i n an e d i t o r i a l i n World Hockey: As had been planned, the In te rnat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions held i t s f i n a l conference, which marked i t s d i s s o l u t i o n and was the l as t act i n conf i rming i t s incorporat ion in to the F . I . H . 8 0 He saw t h i s , not as the end of a women's f edera t ion , but the s t a r t of a new era i n which women's hockey would expand i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . While adherents of the F . I . H . view may have agreed with G l i c h i t c h ' s percept ion , there were many that were saddened by the disappearance of the I .F.W.H.A. Here was the demise of a great e n t e r p r i s e , conceived through the v i s i o n of i t s p ioneers , and continued by t h e i r successors for over h a l f a century. However, i n the g loba l perspec t i ve , perhaps i t could be sa id that , a f t e r almost s i x decades of separate existence of these two great federa t ions , the game of 88 hockey could now move forward i n t o the future with a l l women and men united w i th in the one c o n t r o l l i n g body, which through shared exper t i se , experience and endeavour, would be able to f u l f i l the aims, hopes and asp i ra t i ons of both. 89 P A R T I I FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA CHAPTER VII DEVELOPMENT OF FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA TO WORLD WAR I The f i r s t hockey a s s o c i a t i o n was founded i n England i n 1875, with a set of ru les which formed the bas is of f i x t u r e matches. By the time of the c r e a t i o n of the present (Engl ish) Hockey Assoc ia t ion i n 1886, not only were the ru les d iscussed and formal ized , but they were a l s o publ ished and widely d i s t r i b u t e d . Furthermore, at t h i s time, the equipment for p lay ing the game had evolved roughly i n to i t s modern f o r m . 1 Thus, by the mid-1880s, hockey was s u f f i c i e n t l y wel l -developed to be exported; and, from t h i s time onwards, the game of modern hockey was disseminated throughout the B r i t i s h Empire. In 1885, B r i t i s h s o l d i e r s es tab l i shed the f i r s t hockey c lub i n Ind ia , and i n 1892, the f i r s t c lub was founded i n Ceylon. By the la te 1890s and ear l y 2 1900s, hockey was being played i n A u s t r a l i a , South A f r i c a and New Zealand. By 1909, the Honorary Secretary of the Hockey Assoc ia t i on was able to inc lude "the Dominion of Canada" i n h i s l i s t of countr ies which recognized the 3 H.A. as the r u l i n g body of the game. Indeed, f i e l d hockey was being played i n Canada even before the turn of the century. In the raid-1890s, as the f i r s t men's and women's i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey matches were being played i n the B r i t i s h I s l e s , and during the same per iod as the Lad ies ' Hockey Assoc ia t ion was being formed independently of i t s male counterpart , so too was the game taking root i n Vancouver, both for men and for women. 90 Men's Hockey i n B r i t i s h Columbia Men's hockey was f i r m l y es tab l i shed i n B r i t i s h Columbia before the end of the nineteenth century and continued to f l o u r i s h both i n Vancouver and V i c t o r i a u n t i l the 1914-15 season, when World War I "put an immediate stop to 4 hockey". Amongst the sports c lubs which appeared i n the Vancouver D i rec to ry for 1896 was: Vancouver Hockey Club, -Pres ident , C M Beecher Secretary , R M Fr ipp Capta in , W F K F l i n t o n 5 Inc lus ion of the hockey c lub i n t h i s d i r e c t o r y , publ ished i n March 1896, would suggest that a team had been i n existence at least for the 1895-96 season, s ince the p lay ing season i n those times extended from about October to March. One of the Vancouver Hockey C lub ' s e a r l i e s t r i v a l s was a team from V i c t o r i a , 6 against whom severa l matches were played i n the 1897-98 season. A f te r the turn of the century, men's hockey continued to be an a c t i v e l y pursued sport i n B r i t i s h Columbia, and even i n those e a r l y years , a p r o v i n c i a l championship was inaugurated, with Vancouver, V i c t o r i a , and the Esquimalt 7 Garr i son vy ing to become "Champions of B r i t i s h Columbia." In f a c t , the competit ion expanded i n 1910 when North Vancouver and James Bay entered the P r o v i n c i a l League, and for the next few years f i v e teams competed for the Challenge Cup. The North Vancouver Hockey C lub ' s f i x t u r e l i s t for the 1910-11 season ind i ca ted that a l l teams played each other twice, one match at home, 8 and one away. In men's hockey, most of the competit ion during the pre-World War I era 9 was amongst a d u l t s ; never the less , some hockey was played i n schoo ls , co l l eges and u n i v e r s i t i e s . The e a r l i e s t record of schoolboys p lay ing hockey was on 14 February 1903, at Vancouver High School , when the P r o v i n c i a l 91 Superintendent of Education granted the school a h a l f - h o l i d a y "to witness a match played between the g i r l s ' hockey team and a boys' e l e v e n . " 1 0 During the academic year 1911-12, M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y Col lege of B.C. had a "Men's Ground Hockey C lub", to which the men of the Arts C lass o s t e n s i b l y asp i red , and for some years p r i o r to World War I , hockey was a l s o played by boys at S t . M ichae l ' s U n i v e r s i t y School i n V i c t o r i a . 1 1 Women's Hockey i n B r i t i s h Columbia In the same year as the Vancouver Hockey Club and i t s o f f i c e r s were f i r s t l i s t e d i n the Vancouver C i t y D i rec to ry , the Captain of the Vancouver H.C. , W.J.K. "Po l ly" F l i n t o n , approached the "Victorian-minded" c i t i z e n s of Vancouver with a view to a l lowing t h e i r daughters to p lay the game. Thus i t 12 was that , i n 1896, the Vancouver Lad ies ' Hockey Club was founded. During the f i r s t few years a f t e r the formation of the Vancouver Lad ies ' Hockey Club, matches were arranged with the Lad ies ' Hockey Clubs of V i c t o r i a , Nanaimo, and Wel l ington, i n which the mainland team was usua l l y v i c t o r i o u s . Matches were a l so played between Vancouver Is land teams, for i n 1905, a game between the V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' Hockey Club and the Nanaimo Club was reported i n 13 the s o c i a l notes of V i c t o r i a ' s d a i l y newspaper. In the season 1902-3, a team from the Vancouver High School was formed. While the Vancouver Lad ies ' H.C. was too strong to provide competit ion for the students ' team, many exce l lent matches were played with the At lantas from New Westminster, which was i n existence by the e a r l y years of the new century. Other teams with which Vancouver High School could arrange f i x t u r e s around t h i s time were G r a n v i l l e P r i va te School and P r o v i n c i a l Normal School . When Thomson Cup matches were es tab l i shed i n severa l sports 92 between Vancouver High School and V i c t o r i a High School i n 1905-6, hockey was 14 the only sport i n which g i r l s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s compet i t ion. In 1906, the u n i v e r s i t y c l asses of the Vancouver High School and Col lege became the McG i l l U n i v e r s i t y Co l lege of B r i t i s h Columbia. By 1908-9, there was a s u f f i c i e n t number of students to form a g i r l s ' hockey team at the co l l ege and over the next few seasons, the McG i l l U n i v e r s i t y Col lege G i r l s ' Hockey Club inc luded amongst i t s opponents teams from King Edward High School , Normal School , New Westminster High School , V i c t o r i a High School , Westminster Lad ies ' Hockey Club, V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' Hockey C lub, and Uneeda C lub. C l e a r l y , dur ing t h i s pre-war e r a , there was cons iderable over lap amongst l a d i e s ' teams, co l l ege teams and school g i r l s ' teams. Th is i n t e r a c t i o n amongst teams of 15 severa l age groups continued u n t i l World War I . At the onset of war, whi le the l a d i e s ' hockey c lubs disbanded, the U n i v e r s i t y Club maintained i t s f i x t u r e s with school teams, and the competit ion 16 at co l l ege and high school l e v e l a c t u a l l y expanded. The const ruc t ion of f i v e new high schools i n Vancouver between 1908 and 1918 led to an increase i n s c h o o l g i r l hockey a c t i v i t y . For ins tance . King George High School , es tab l i shed i n 1914, had founded a g i r l s ' grass hockey team as e a r l y as 1915. Furthermore, as we l l as i n Vancouver i t s e l f . North Vancouver High School formed a team during t h i s per iod , and s c h o o l g i r l s were being introduced to grass hockey i n Burnaby where i t was taught at Kingsway West School . The Greater Vancouver High Schools competed with one another for the Mainland Championship. South Vancouver High School , the 1914-15 winner, was the f i r s t to d i sp lace King Edward High School as Vancouver's representat ive to p lay 17 against V i c t o r i a High School for the Thomson Cup. While high school g i r l s ' hockey competit ion for the Mainland Championship continued for the durat ion of the War, 1915 was the l as t of the 93 war years i n which Thomson Cup matches between Mainland and Is land teams took p lace . Then, dur ing the 1918-19 academic year , the h igh schoo ls , and the u n i v e r s i t y as w e l l , ceased to p l a y . The world was gripped by an in f luenza epidemic and the d i s r u p t i o n to mens' and l a d i e s ' hockey caused by the War now extended to the students dur ing the pandemic which fo l lowed. There i s no record of any hockey being played i n what might normally have been the 1918-19 18 season. Men's and Women's Hockey i n Other Parts of Canada Although Vancouver was dest ined to become the major centre of men's and women's f i e l d hockey i n the country, even i n the years p r i o r to World War I there had been some hockey development i n other parts of Canada. A r i v a l to Vancouver, around the turn of the century and beyond, was Vancouver Is land , with l a d i e s ' teams i n V i c t o r i a , Nanaimo and Wel l ington, men's teams from V i c t o r i a , James Bay and the Esquimalt Gar r i son , and s c h o o l g i r l s at V i c t o r i a 19 High School . In 1914, a men s grass hockey c lub was organized i n Calgary, with two teams which played at least one game i n ea r l y A p r i l of that year . An a r t i c l e i n the l o c a l newspaper which recorded the resu l t of that game a l so reported: "A Club has been proper ly organized, and games w i l l be played 20 r e g u l a r l y u n t i l the hot weather a r r i v e s . " It was around 1905 when an Eng l i sh i n s t r u c t o r at the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto introduced "Ground Hockey" to the women at Toronto 's U n i v e r s i t y Co l l ege , and two years l a t e r , the women at the U n i v e r s i t y ' s v i c t o r i a Col lege took up the spor t . However, there was no record of any games being played by 21 l o c a l women's teams, and i t would seem that i n te res t waned. There i s a l so evidence that g i r l s played hockey i n Nova Scot ia p r i o r to 1900. H a l i f a x Lad ies ' Co l l ege , founded i n 1887, made p r o v i s i o n for afternoon r e c r e a t i o n a l 94 sess ions which inc luded ground hockey, and E d g e h i l l , a p r i v a t e school for g i r l s , a l so had a ground hockey team i n the l a te 1800s. By the ear l y 1900s, ground hockey was being played at Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , which, as we l l as 22 p lay ing the p r i v a t e schoo ls , a l so competed against co l l ege teams. Although Newfoundland d id not become a province of Canada u n t i l a f t e r World War I I , i t i s worthy of note that s c h o o l g i r l s ' hockey was played there p r i o r to World War I . Eng l i sh games mistresses taught hockey at both the Church of England and the Methodist g i r l s ' co l l eges and i n t e r - s c h o o l matches 23 were played r e g u l a r l y . Re la t ionsh ip between Men's and Women's Hockey Up to the time of World War I , hockey had been played by both men and women i n severa l c i t i e s across Canada. In the smal ler cent res , the men's and women's games developed independently, but i n Vancouver and on Vancouver Is land , there was considerable i n t e r a c t i o n . While i n genera l , men's and women's f i x t u r e s were arranged separate ly , there was a good deal of mixing between men and women hockey p l a y e r s . During the ear l y days of the game i n Vancouver, a match between men's and l a d i e s ' teams would o c c a s i o n a l l y be arranged "as a s p e c i a l event", and up to the 24 outbreak of war, hockeyists he ld an Annual B a l l at the Hotel Vancouver. S im i la r matches, or games of ac tua l "mixed hockey", were a l so played on 25 Vancouver I s l and . The Vancouver High School boys versus g i r l s match of 1903, and the severa l games between the Men's and Women's Ground Hockey Clubs of McG i l l U n i v e r s i t y Co l lege of B r i t i s h Columbia during the 1911-12 season, 26 were the student counterparts of the adult events. Appearing i n the photograph of the " F i r s t Vancouver Women's Hockey Team - 1896" are two men, i d e n t i f i e d as Mr. W.J.K. F l i n t o n , and Mr. Fred Crickmay. 95 F l i n t o n , Captain of the Vancouver Hockey Club (men's) at the time, was 27 acknowledged as the founder of the Vancouver Lad ies ' Hockey C lub. But F l i n t o n and Crickmay were not the only men to promote women's hockey. The f i r s t Vancouver High School g i r l s ' hockey team of 1902-3 "owed i t s beginning 28 i n large measure to the support of Mr. Ed. O 'Ca l laghan," and teaching at the same school i n i t s formative years were A.E.W. Sault and Thomas P a t t i s o n , who coached the team and umpired the g i r l s ' games. In 1912, Pa t t i son introduced " h i t t i n g the hockey b a l l for d is tance" as the f i r s t event i n the High School Sports Meet i n which g i r l s could compete, and three years l a t e r , as f i r s t p r i n c i p a l of the new schoo l , he formed and coached the King George 29 High School g i r l s ' grass hockey team. South Vancouver High School enjoyed a ten-year era of Mainland Championships and Thomson Cup g i r l s ' grass hockey successes which began i n 1914, the team having been coached by J . T . E . Palmer, school p r i n c i p a l . Several other men were a l so ac t ive i n coaching high school g i r l s ' grass hockey teams i n l a t e r years , whi le at McG i l l U n i v e r s i t y Co l l ege , 30 one of the men on f a c u l t y umpired r e g u l a r l y . Thus, i n those f i r s t twenty years of the game i n Vancouver, while competit ion on a regular and organized bas is was, for the most par t , conducted separate ly , men's hockey and women's hockey d id not develop i n t o t a l i s o l a t i o n from one another. Considerable i n t e r a c t i o n was evident on the f i e l d i t s e l f i n the form of mixed or s p e c i a l games, i n the formation of teams at c lub and school l e v e l , i n ass is tance with coaching and umpiring, and s o c i a l l y , too. 96 CHAPTER VIII DEVELOPMENT OF FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA DURING THE INTER-WAR PERIOD In the i n t e r n a t i o n a l context , the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada took p lace i n r e l a t i v e I s o l a t i o n for the f i r s t four decades of i t s ex is tence . The 1930s, however, was a per iod of i n t e r n a t i o n a l contact for both the men's and women's a s s o c i a t i o n s . During t h i s e ra , the men asp i red to Olympic compet i t ion, and the women, to p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament. Although ne i ther a s s o c i a t i o n achieved i t s dec lared ob jec t i ve of sending a team to compete, the women were able to arrange matches of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l nature, and d i d , i n f a c t , a f f i l i a t e with t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l body. Therefore , the development of the women's game i s narrated f i r s t i n t h i s chapter . Women's F i e l d Hockey While Vancouver was not the only c i t y i n Canada where women's hockey was played during the inter-war p e r i o d , i t was the major centre of a c t i v i t y . Not only were most of the teams located there, but i t was a l so w i th in Greater Vancouver that a formal league was organized and an a s s o c i a t i o n founded — an a s s o c i a t i o n that was to become a f f i l i a t e d with the In ternat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n s . Vancouver F ix tures The re-emergence of women's hockey i n Vancouver, a f t e r World War I and the in f luenza epidemic which fo l lowed, may be gauged through the a c t i v i t i e s of the U.B.C. Women's Grass Hockey Club as recorded i n the U n i v e r s i t y ' s annual p u b l i c a t i o n , The Totem. When p lay resumed i n 1919-20, the Vancouver Lad ies ' 97 Hockey Club does not appear to have re-formed, as the only f i x t u r e s which the U.B.C. team was able to arrange l o c a l l y i n that season were against the South Vancouver teachers and the South Vancouver High School team. Even In 1922-23, the fourth a c t i v e post-war season, the U.B.C. c lub was forced "to r e l y on p r a c t i c e games with l o c a l high schools" for i t s compet i t ion . However, commencing i n 1923, there was a r e v i v a l of adult teams f o r , dur ing the 1923-24 season, the U.B.C. Women's Grass Hockey Club played matches with the Auroras (a Vancouver team) and with a team from New Westminster . 1 In the mid-twenties, adult teams of former high school p layers began to appear. In 1924, past p u p i l s of the Fa l rv iew High School of Commerce formed a team, and the next year , the e x - K i t s i l a n o Women's F i e l d Hockey Club was 2 formed. It was at t h i s time, too, that the need for a league, i n which senior teams would have a f i xed schedule, was recognized. For severa l years , The Totem reported that the prospects of such a league appeared b r i g h t , but even i n the 1926-27 season, when the U.B.C. Women's Grass Hockey Club expanded to two teams, no adult league had m a t e r i a l i z e d , and the major i ty of U .B .C . ' s games continued to be with high school teams. The Totem provided evidence that i n the 1928-29 season some type of league, a l b e i t not formal ized , was i n s t i t u t e d , as the U.B.C. c lub was reported to have entered a team i n t h i s 3 league. However, i t was not u n t i l the commencement of the 1929-30 season that , "pr imar i l y through the e f f o r t s of Mar jor ie McKay, a Women's Lower 4 Mainland League was formed, and put on a f i rm b a s i s . " In the f i r s t o f f i c i a l year of the Vancouver Women's League, s i x teams p a r t i c i p a t e d : U . B . C , V a r s i t y , Ex-South Vancouver, Ex-North Vancouver, B r i t a n n i a Grads and Normal School . Ex-South Vancouver won the competit ion i n 1929-30, and thus was the f i r s t team to have i t s name i n s c r i b e d on the Bentham Cup, emblematic of the league championship. By 1930-31, the Women's Mainland 98 League, considered experimental i n i t s inaugural year , was now regarded as 5 d e f i n i t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d , seven teams competing for the cup i n that year . In 1934-35, a f t e r years of steady growth, the Lower Mainland Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on s p l i t i n to two d i v i s i o n s , with an unprecedented t o t a l of twelve teams. 6 Fol lowing t h i s record season, there was a gradual dec l ine i n the number of teams. Several disbanded, or chose not to p a r t i c i p a t e , and only one new team, Pro-Rec, jo ined the League during the next few seasons. As a r e s u l t , by 1937-38, the League had been reduced to a s i n g l e d i v i s i o n of 7 e ight teams, a s i t u a t i o n which was to remain s tab le u n t i l World War I I . School Hockey i n Vancouver During the Inter-War per iod , g i r l s ' h igh school grass hockey continued to f l o u r i s h . In Vancouver, the 1920s witnessed the a d d i t i o n of severa l new schoo ls , and the Mainland Championship for high school g i r l s ' grass hockey resumed i n 1919-20. Thomson Cup games between Vancouver and Vancouver Is land 8 teams, r e - i n s t i t u t e d i n 1922, were d iscont inued a f t e r 1928. Of the Vancouver schoo ls , South Vancouver High School and B r i t a n n i a High School were c l e a r l y the dominant teams (See Appendix F ) , a phenomenon fur ther r e f l e c t e d by the success of ex-South Vancouver and B r i t a n n i a Grads i n the Women's League compet i t ion. Up u n t i l the m i d - t h i r t i e s , no other school had won the Mainland Championship s ince before World War I , but i n 1934-35, there emerged a new power: North Vancouver High School gained the t i t l e for the f i r s t time i n that year and, with one except ion, was champion u n t i l the 9 end of the decade. Even i n the e a r l y days of expansion of the Vancouver High School system, an o rgan iza t ion to oversee i n t e r - s c h o o l sport came i n t o being with the 10 formation of the Vancouver Inter-High School A t h l e t i c Assoc ia t i on i n 1915, 99 and from that time on, g i r l s ' h igh school hockey grew cons iderab ly . In 1923, a jun ior d i v i s i o n was formed, and by 1925, a t o t a l of e ighteen teams, drawn from ten schoo ls , competed i n the two d i v i s i o n s . In 1931, the Junior D i v i s i o n was separated in to two sec t i ons , and a year l a t e r the Intermediate D i v i s i o n was a l s o formed. By 1935, there were t h i r t y - t h r e e teams represent ing th i r t een schools p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the Mainland c o m p e t i t i o n . 1 1 Through the success fu l i n t e r - h i g h school programme, a large number of p layers were being developed. Some would proceed to the U n i v e r s i t y or the Vancouver Normal School to provide p layers for these c l u b s . It i s not s u r p r i s i n g , however, that by the mid-1920s, many of the former p u p i l s not enter ing t e r t i a r y education i n s t i t u t i o n s should want to continue to p lay for a team assoc iated with the i r o l d s choo l . Thus, i t was a na tura l extension that severa l ex-high school teams emerged i n the la te 1920s to provide competit ion for the U.B.C. and Normal School teams; when the Mainland League o f f i c i a l l y came in to existence at the end of the decade, these ex-school teams were able to form an i n t e g r a l p a r t . Th is i s r e f l e c t e d i n the composit ion of the League which, i n i t s f i r s t year , had three ex-high school teams out of a t o t a l of s i x . In 1934-35, when League membership was at i t s h ighest , e ight of the 12 twelve e n t r i e s were high school graduate teams. The importance of t h i s c lose r e l a t i o n s h i p between the high schools and the Vancouver League was immediately recognized by the Executive of the Lower Mainland Women's Grass Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . As ea r l y as 1929-30, the f i r s t season of formal league f i x t u r e s , a representat ive team was chosen from the 13 Women's A s s o c i a t i o n to p lay a team se lec ted from the schoo ls . This competit ion became an annual event and was of s u f f i c i e n t s i g n i f i c a n c e to warrant mention i n the U.B.C. C lub ' s year-end repor ts , and i n c l u s i o n i n the 100 f i r s t Report of the Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t ion to the 14 In ternat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions i n 1939. Another success fu l venture was the establishment of F i e l d Day, which was i n i t i a t e d as the resu l t of a suggestion at the 1936 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, to which Vancouver had sent a representa t ive . The f i r s t F i e l d Day was held during the 1937-38 season, and was organized on a format of shor t , f r i e n d l y matches amongst teams from the Vancouver League and the h igh schoo ls . At the second F i e l d Day, he ld on 4 March 1939, i t was reported that twenty-f ive teams turned out i n f r i e n d l y compet i t ion, p lay ing twenty-minute matches which extended over four p i t c h e s . In te rac t ion between "League" and "School" was important, for i t created a means of in t roduc ing g i r l s to the adult teams on the one hand, and a v e h i c l e for recruitment of p layers by the senior teams on the o ther . Vancouver Is land and I n t e r - C i t y Competit ion Women's hockey competit ion between Vancouver and Vancouver Is land teams resumed soon a f t e r the War. As e a r l y as the 1919-20 season, The Totem reported that a U.B.C. team t r a v e l l e d to the Is land to p lay a V i c t o r i a team, and during the 1920s, exchange matches between V i c t o r i a co l l ege and U .B . .C . 16 became an annual event. In the 1925-26 season, for example, two matches were played on a home-and-home b a s i s , as i t was recorded by the U.B.C. s c r i be that " the return game with V i c t o r i a Col lege" was the f i r s t opportunity to 17 p lay at the U n i v e r s i t y ' s own ground at Point Grey. Furthermore, women's c lub teams soon re-emerged on Vancouver I s l and . Such a c lub was reported to have been ac t i ve at Duncan, up- i s land from V i c t o r i a , i n the e a r l y twenties, and i n the 1927-28 season, U . B . C . ' s schedule 18 of f i x t u r e s inc luded a game with the V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' Team. By the end of 101 the 1920s, the l a d i e s ' c lubs on Vancouver Is land were beginning to re-form i n an organized way. The programme of the f i r s t Canadian Women's Nat ional Championships recognized 1929-30 as the date of post-war formation of the 19 V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' Grass Hockey C lub. By the mid-1930s, both V i c t o r i a and Duncan had w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d l a d i e s ' hockey c lubs which, as we l l as arranging matches with each other , competed with outs ide teams. In the 1935-36 season, for instance, the V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' Grass Hockey Club played a match against the Vancouver Reps. However, i t was the Duncan Lad ies ' Grass Hockey Club upon whom f e l l the honour of host ing and 20 p lay ing the v i s i t i n g A u s t r a l i a n team i n the autumn of 1936. The next few years witnessed a considerable increase i n organized a c t i v i t y on Vancouver I s l and . U n t i l the m i d - t h i r t i e s , the V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' Grass Hockey Club, a group of keen enthus ias ts , had few teams against which i t could match i t s s k i l l s . To redress t h i s s i t u a t i o n , Commander Montague Bridgman, husband of the c lub cap ta in , presented a trophy which could be contested each year by the teams i n the d i s t r i c t . This annual compet i t ion, the f i r s t of which took place i n 1937, a t t rac ted teams from the l o c a l high schools and p r i va te schoo ls , as we l l as the l a d i e s ' c l u b s . In the f i r s t two years of Bridgman Cup compet i t ion, the adult c lubs proved too strong for the school teams. The V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' Grass Hockey Club won the Cup i n 1937 and 1938, with Duncan Lad ies ' Grass Hockey Club c lose runners-up i n the l a t t e r 21 year . In the 1938-39 season, upon the i n s t i g a t i o n of the Vancouver A s s o c i a t i o n , an I n t e r - C i t y Tournament, known as the T r iang le League, was i n i t i a t e d . In i t s inaugural year , V i c t o r i a was to p lay Duncan on the Is land , with the winning team t r a v e l l i n g to Vancouver at Easter-t ime to p lay the premier c lub of the Lower Mainland League. V i c t o r i a duly defeated Duncan and 102 proceeded to Vancouver to p lay the Lower Mainland premiers. On Good Fr iday of 1939, General America defeated f i r s t , U .B .C . , and then, the V i c t o r i a L .G.H.C. 22 to win the I n t e r - C i t y Cup. With the advent of war i n 1939, the number of adult hockey p layers d e c l i n e d . Although correspondence passed between o f f i c i a l s of the Mainland Assoc ia t i on and the Vancouver Is land c lubs , the T r iang le League competit ion could not be continued beyond 1940. Indeed, by the 1941-42 season the l a d i e s ' 23 c lubs on the Is land had disbanded. School Hockey on Vancouver Is land As on the Lower Mainland, school hockey competit ion for g i r l s was an important cont r ibutor to the development of the game on Vancouver Is land during the Inter-War years . The V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' G.H.C. drew many of i t s ac t i ve p layers from the high schools and p r i v a t e schools i n the V i c t o r i a area, and s i m i l a r l y , the Duncan Lad ies ' G.H.C. r e c r u i t e d i t s members from the l o c a l h igh school and Queen Margaret 's School , a p r i va te school located i n the 24 d i s t r i c t . V i c t o r i a High School enjoyed the greatest p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i n t e r - c i t y s c h o o l g i r l compet i t ion . During the 1920s, t h i s school represented Vancouver Is land i n Thomson Cup matches on every occas ion , except i n the f i n a l year , 25 1927-28, when Courtenay High School ended the domination. In the 1930s, however, other schools began to extend strong oppos i t i on . When the f i r s t Bridgman Cup Tournament was contested i n 1937, Oak Bay High School f i n i s h e d runners-up to the V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' G . H . C , a c r e d i t a b l e performance cons ider ing that the tournament was played on V i c t o r i a High Schoo l ' s home grounds; and i n f a c t , Oak Bay High School won the Bridgman Trophy i n 1939-40 and 1 9 4 0 - 4 1 . 2 6 103 In a d d i t i o n to the high schoo ls , p r i v a t e schools p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s compet i t ion, Norfo lk House School and Queen Margaret 's School enter ing the f i r s t Bridgman Cup Tournament. La ter , dur ing the war years , the p r i va te schools were the strongest contenders, Queen Margaret 's School winning the 27 trophy on f i v e consecutive occasions from 1941-42 to 1945-46. Women's Hockey i n Other Parts of Canada During the inter-war years , women's hockey at the adult l e v e l was played only i n B r i t i s h Columbia; but at the student l e v e l , i t was fostered i n other provinces as w e l l . In Nova S c o t i a , the "ground hockey" played i n the pre-World War I era by co l l ege teams extended, a f t e r the War, to the u n i v e r s i t i e s . In the autumn of 1923, f i e l d hockey was re- introduced at Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , H a l i f a x , and w i th in a few years , Da lhous ie 's opponents comprised not only H a l i f a x and E d g e h i l l l a d i e s ' c o l l e g e s , but a l so H a l i f a x Academy, Acadia U n i v e r s i t y and the U n i v e r s i t y of Maine. It i s worthy of note that Dalhous ie 's match with the U n i v e r s i t y of Maine, played i n November 1925 was descr ibed as " — the f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l game i n t h i s branch of sport 28 that has ever been played i n H a l i f a x . " Competit ion amongst the co l l eges and u n i v e r s i t i e s continued u n t i l the outbreak of World War I I . Saskatchewan i s another province i n which s c h o o l g i r l s were p lay ing f i e l d hockey dur ing the inter-war years , for the students of Centra l C o l l e g i a t e I n s t i t u t e i n Regina had been p lay ing the game for two years , when, i n the autumn of 1923, t h e i r team es tab l i shed home and away games with a 29 s i m i l a r i n s t i t u t i o n i n Moose Jaw. 104 Vancouver A s s o c i a t i o n and In ternat iona l A f f i l i a t i o n The c r e a t i o n of a women's grass hockey a s s o c i a t i o n i n the Lower Mainland of B r i t i s h Columbia evolved over a per iod of severa l years . From the mid-1920s, F . J . Mayers of B r i t a n n i a High School had been urging i t s formation and, for many years , U . B . C , e s p e c i a l l y i n the l a te 1920s under the leadership of Mar jor ie McKay, had been anxious that a league should ex i s t i n which the c lub could p a r t i c i p a t e . In the 1928-29 season, an informal league was operat ing ; and, f i n a l l y , i n 1929, with Mayers as Honorary Pres ident , the Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t ion (G.V.W.G.H.A.) was organized, and the League formal i zed . Adult hockey c lubs on Vancouver Is land were re-formed i n the 1920s, and matches between s i m i l a r teams from the Lower 30 Mainland and Vancouver Is land were es tab l i shed by the mid-1930s. Up to t h i s po in t , there had been no contact with teams from outs ide B r i t i s h Columbia. However, i n 1936, there began a sequence of events which was to catapul t the Vancouver Assoc ia t i on in to the i n t e r n a t i o n a l sphere. The I.F.W.H.A Conference and Tournament of 1936 was scheduled to be held i n P h i l a d e l p h i a , Pennsylvania, and the s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s was f u l l y appreciated by the Executive of the Vancouver A s s o c i a t i o n . It was reported that there were "hopes of sending a team to Pennsylvania to take part i n the [Tournament] i n October". At the very least the Execut ive was determined to send one or two representat ives to the Conference, so as not to miss t h i s chance of a 31 l i f e t i m e . Although no team was sent to P h i l a d e l p h i a , an in t roduc t ion to i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey was achieved. The A u s t r a l i a n team, en route to P h i l a d e l p h i a , was hosted to two matches; the f i r s t of these was played at Brockton Point against a Vancouver XI on 3 October 1936, and the second two days l a t e r against the Duncan A l l - S t a r s on Vancouver I s l and . A u s t r a l i a won 105 both matches e a s i l y , but the enthusiasm that was generated as a resu l t of t h i s 32 v i s i t had l o n g - l a s t i n g b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s . So success fu l was the f u n d - r a i s i n g e f f o r t assoc iated with the v i s i t of the A u s t r a l i a n team that a l l expenses were covered, inc lud ing the cost of sending the President of the G.V.W.G.H.A. as a representat ive to the I .F.W.H.A. Conference. On her return from the Conference, the President recommended that the A s s o c i a t i o n apply to j o i n the In ternat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t i ons , and i n 1937, the Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t ion was accepted as an 33 Assoc iate Member i n to the Federat ion . Attendance at the Conference by i t s President had allowed the G.V.W.G.H.A. to e s t a b l i s h i n t e r n a t i o n a l contact . As a resu l t of d iscuss ions with the United States F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n ( U . S . F . H . A . ) , matches between C a l i f o r n i a and Vancouver teams were arranged. In A p r i l 1938, a Los Angeles team played i n Vancouver, and i n November of that year , the Vancouver Canucks paid a return v i s i t to C a l i f o r n i a . Ea r l y i n 1939, there were a l so prospects of again host ing tour ing teams from other count r i es , as the I .F.W.H.A. 34 Conference was to have been held i n England i n October of that year . Although i t was the Women's Assoc ia t i on located i n Greater Vancouver that became o f f i c i a l l y reg i s te red as Canada's a f f i l i a t e with the I .F .W.H.A. , the c lubs from Vancouver Is land were not d isregarded by the G.V.W.G.H.A. The A u s t r a l i a n team had played i n Duncan i n October 1936, even though the l o c a l members themselves f e l t i t was somewhat audacious that a c lub of eighteen p layers should i n v i t e the A u s t r a l i a n team to the Is land for a game. Several p layers from Vancouver Is land a l so jo ined the Vancouver Canucks team which 35 toured C a l i f o r n i a i n November 1938. Indeed, when the T r iang le League was set up to e s t a b l i s h i n t e r - c i t y competit ion invo lv ing V i c t o r i a , Duncan and the c lubs of the Lower Mainland League, i t was seen as a step towards extending 106 grass hockey a c t i v i t i e s i n the province of B r i t i s h Columbia, thus c rea t ing a 36 B.C. Assoc ia t i on with i t s p ivot i n the Lower Mainland. Men's F i e l d Hockey Men's f i e l d hockey was a c t i v e l y played during the inter-war years i n B r i t i s h Columbia, both i n the Lower Mainland and on Vancouver I s l and . C e r t a i n l y , by the 1930s, the Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on of B.C. had become the dominant o rgan i za t i ona l body i n the prov ince , and indeed i n a l l of Canada, and i t was from t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n that i n t e r n a t i o n a l correspondence emanated. Mainland League Although World War I and the in f luenza epidemic which fol lowed had brought a cessa t ion of a c t i v i t i e s for a per iod of f i v e p lay ing seasons, i t was not long before enthus iasts r e - s t a r t e d men's hockey i n Vancouver. As ea r l y as 1919, although i t was not poss ib le to f i e l d two f u l l teams, informal games of 37 four - or f i v e - a - s i d e were p layed. In the 1920-21 season, a competit ion with at least three teams was resumed, and a meeting of the "Mainland Grass 38 Hockey League" convened. At the time of the League's Annual General Meeting i n October 1921, the representat ives of f i v e teams, Vancouver, North Vancouver, Burnaby, R.C.M.P. and Shamrocks were present to d iscuss the schedule for the 1921-22 season; and when a U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia team f i r s t entered the League i n 1923, there were four teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g , 39 each team p lay ing the others three t imes. Throughout the mid-twenties, the League continued to comprise four or f i v e teams. Some of the stronger c lubs of e a r l i e r years , i n c lud ing R.C.M.P., had disbanded by 1925, but other teams were formed to take t h e i r p lace . For 107 example, i n the 1925-26 season, a new team, C r i c k e t e r s , jo ined the League, and a s u b s t a n t i a l increase i n membership that year enabled the U.B.C. c lub to 40 enter two teams. The l a te 1920s was a per iod of growth, both i n numbers of p a r t i c i p a t i n g teams, and i n competit ive a c t i v i t y . Expansion i n numbers culminated i n a 41 seven-team league during the 1929-30 season: and by t h i s time, as we l l as the t r a d i t i o n a l round-robin compet i t ion, the schedule now inc luded matches 42 played on a "knock-out" b a s i s . With the ' t h i r t i e s came the years of economic depress ion dur ing which, i t i s recorded, c lub fees were hard to c o l l e c t . The e f f e c t of the Depression was r e f l e c t e d i n the p lay ing s t rength , for as e a r l y as the 1930-31 season the League was reduced to s i x teams, and the next season, to f i v e . As the decade progressed, the number of teams continued to dec l ine and, for most of the remainder of that decade, only four teams p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the Mainland League 43 compet i t ion. One new team which d id emerge, however, was that of the India Hockey C lub. These hardy newcomers, descr ibed as "turbanned Sikhs [some 44 of whom] played i n bare fee t" , added a novelty to the game i n B r i t i s h Columbia when they f i r s t entered the League i n the 1933-34 season. It was not long before the India Hockey Club began to assert i t s supremacy, for t h i s team won the Challenge Cup for three consecutive seasons between 1934 and 1937, and 45 the O.B. A l l e n Cup, for the "knock out" compet i t ion, on two occas ions . As the 1930s drew to a c l o s e , men's f i e l d hockey i n the Lower Mainland of B r i t i s h Columbia showed promise of a resurgence, with the add i t i on of two 46 new c lubs i n the 1938-39 season. Any p o t e n t i a l for susta ined growth i n the number of competing teams, however, was ext inguished by the onset of war. From f i v e teams competing i n the l as t pre-war season, the League was reduced to two teams i n 1941-42. In that year , 108 i t was found i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t to f i e l d teams as the season progressed, so much so, that at the end of the f i r s t h a l f of the normal season, i t was decided to cease p l a y . 4 7 Vancouver Is land Hockey and I n t e r - C i t y Matches Men's hockey on Vancouver Is land was a l so revived soon a f t e r World War I , and remained ac t i ve throughout the inter-war p e r i o d . As e a r l y as the 1919-20 season, V i c t o r i a was able to f i e l d a strong team and, by the 1920s, an a s s o c i a t i o n known as the Vancouver Is land and Gul f Is lands Hockey Assoc ia t ion was i n ex is tence . S u f f i c i e n t teams were p lay ing i n the area to e s t a b l i s h what the executive members of the Lower Mainland Assoc ia t i on r e f e r r e d to as "the 48 V i c t o r i a League." During t h i s p e r i o d , teams were a c t i v e both i n V i c t o r i a i t s e l f and i n the neighbouring d i s t r i c t s . In the 1923-24 season, for example, The Totem reported that the newly formed U.B.C. c lub v i s i t e d the Is land to p lay a l o c a l V i c t o r i a c lub , and three seasons l a t e r , the C r i c k e t e r s c lub from Vancouver 49 arranged a match with the hockey team from Duncan. During the 1930s, a strong team was based at Shawnigan Lake School , a l so located outs ide of V i c t o r i a . P lay ing as the Opt imists Hockey Club, t h i s team t r a v e l l e d annual ly to Vancouver to compete with c lub teams from the Lower Mainland League. S i m i l a r l y , on numerous occas ions , Vancouver teams v i s i t e d Duncan and Shawnigan Lake School , as we l l as V i c t o r i a , to p lay matches with teams from Vancouver 50 I s l a n d . So popular was the competit ion among the c lubs of Vancouver Is land and the Mainland that , i n 1936, the Executive of the Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on of B.C. suggested a tournament "between V i c t o r i a , 51 Shawnigan, Duncan and l o c a l teams of the [Mainland A s s o c i a t i o n ] . " However, the matches of " p r i n c i p a l i n t e r e s t [were] the representat ive games between the Mainland and Is land Assoc ia t ions i n which home and away 52 games [were] played" annual ly . Between 1919 and 1939, regular matches 109 between Vancouver and V i c t o r i a were a t r a d i t i o n a l feature of the season's f i x t u r e l i s t . Usua l l y , V i c t o r i a v i s i t e d Vancouver i n the la te f a l l , and Vancouver t r a v e l l e d to V i c t o r i a i n the s p r i n g , to contest what were i n v a r i a b l y outstanding games between chosen representat ive teams. A t y p i c a l Vancouver representat ive team, for instance, would conta in severa l p layers from each of the c lub teams competing i n the Mainland League. The matches, and s e l e c t i o n s , were taken s u f f i c i e n t l y s e r i o u s l y to warrant t r i a l games of "Poss ib les" versus " P r o b a b l e s " . 5 3 Aspects of Development While the Lower Mainland and Vancouver Is land were the major centres of men's f i e l d hockey between the wars, the game was a l so played i n other areas of B r i t i s h Columbia. In 1929, the Secretary of the Lower Mainland League was ins t ruc ted to wr i te to Vernon and Kelowna, two c i t i e s i n the i n t e r i o r , Okanagan reg ion , of the prov ince , "to a s c e r t a i n i f games [could] be arranged 54 with the Okanagan teams during the coming season." Although a rep ly was rece ived from the Secretary of the Vernon Grass Hockey C lub, there was no 55 record of any ensuing matches between the Mainland and Okanagan teams. At that time, men's hockey was a game played predominantly by senior teams, f o r , despi te e f f o r t s by the Mainland Assoc ia t i on "to t ry and get the 56 boys i n High School in te res ted i n the game", there was no formal ized school compet i t ion . Only a few p r i v a t e schools introduced the game to boys. These inc luded S t . M ichae l ' s U n i v e r s i t y School i n V i c t o r i a , which conducted inter-house hockey both before and a f t e r World War I , and Mackie's Preparatory 57 School , near Vernon, where boys played hockey during the inter-war years . Of the U.B.C. teams of that p e r i o d , i t could be sa id that "most of the p layers 58 [had] learned t h e i r hockey s ince coming to U n i v e r s i t y . " For instance, 110 only three members of U .B .C . ' s inaugural team of the 1923-24 season had any 59 previous hockey exper ience. However, the c o n t r i b u t i o n from the pr iva te schools and from U.B.C was s u b s t a n t i a l . Many Old Macovians played for Lower Mainland c lubs , and i n one season were s u f f i c i e n t i n numbers to form an ex-Mackies team which competed i n 60 the League. Of even greater s i g n i f i c a n c e was the U.B.C. c lub which, from i t s incept ion i n 1923, always f i e l d e d at least one team i n the Lower Mainland League. Furthermore, many of i t s members continued to p lay a f t e r graduat ion, e n l i s t i n g with the "City" teams. An a d d i t i o n a l feature of the U n i v e r s i t y Club was the ac t i ve involvement of members of f a c u l t y and s t a f f , not only as p layers and coaches, but a l so as patrons, both of the U.B.C. Club and of the , ^ 6 1 League i t s e l f . In ternat iona l Contacts The inter-war per iod was one of l i t t l e contact with teams from outs ide the two major centres of the game, the Lower Mainland and Vancouver Is land , but every opportunity was taken to arrange matches where p o s s i b l e . Several games were recorded invo lv ing teams from v i s i t i n g Royal Navy sh ips , i nc lud ing 62 H.M.S. Dauntless i n 1930 and H.M.S. Or ion i n 1939. An i n v i t a t i o n was a l so extended to the Southern C a l i f o r n i a Wanderers i n 1933, "guaranteeing three 63 games on the Mainland and two games on Vancouver I s l a n d . " Although there i s no fur ther mention i n the records of any games r e s u l t i n g from t h i s i n v i t a t i o n , a match arranged between teams from Southern C a l i f o r n i a and B r i t i s h Columbia was played i n San Franc isco at the time of the Golden Gate 64 Expos i t ion i n 1939. Of a l l the business transacted during the inter-war years by the Executive of the Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t ion of B r i t i s h Columbia, none I l l was of greater i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e than t h i s extract from the Sec re ta ry ' s Report of the 1931-32 season: Having been advised that seven nat ions were enter ing grass hockey teams i n the Olympic Games [Los Ange les] , we wired Mr. Robinson at Hamilton, and subsequently, r ece iv ing no r e p l y , wrote to Ottawa. We were advised that nothing i n the way of a subsidy could be expected but that some arrangements might be made for us to enter , i f we could guarantee our e n t i r e expenses. A general canvass of the s i t u a t i o n showed that the money was not going to be forthcoming, so we r e g r e t f u l l y had to pass up the o p p o r t u n i t y . g 5 While not success fu l i n enter ing a team i n Olympic compet i t ion, the A s s o c i a t i o n d id e s t a b l i s h an " i n t e r n a t i o n a l " l i a i s o n . During the 1939-40 season, the Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on of B r i t i s h Columbia a f f i l i a t e d 66 with the Hockey Assoc ia t i on (England). Re la t ionsh ips Between Men's and Women's Hockey Between the wars, marked d i f f e rences ex is ted i n c e r t a i n areas i n the development of men's and women's f i e l d hockey. The post-war emergence of competit ive leagues i n Vancouver was one example. Whereas four or f i v e men's teams were p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a formal league by the e a r l y 1920s, i t was not u n t i l the very end of the decade, a f t e r severa l years of informal adult compet i t ion, that a women's league comprising s i x senior teams was f i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d . On the other hand, whi le there were very few schools i n the e n t i r e province of B r i t i s h Columbia at which boys had the opportunity to p lay hockey, g i r l s ' hockey i n the schools was very strong indeed, i n Vancouver and on Vancouver I s l a n d . Even i n the e a r l y 1920s, the Mainland Championships a t t rac ted teams from severa l schools and, by the m i d - t h i r t i e s , t h i r t y - t h r e e teams represent ing t h i r t e e n schools p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s compet i t ion . In other aspects the men's and women's games developed i n p a r a l l e l . During the 1930s, both assoc ia t ions sought to experience i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey 112 and to secure i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n . The women were success fu l i n arranging matches with the v i s i t i n g A u s t r a l i a n team i n 1936 and i n being accepted to the I .F.W.H.A. the fo l lowing year . The a s p i r a t i o n s of the men to p lay i n the 1932 Olympic Games were not f u l f i l l e d , but the Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on of B r i t i s h Columbia d id a f f i l i a t e with the Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n (England) at the end of the decade. Both men's and women's teams had, by then, a l so played matches i n C a l i f o r n i a . Furthermore, the considerable i n t e r a c t i o n between men and women i n the development of the game before World War I continued during the inter-war p e r i o d . Mixed hockey matches, where men and women played together i n the same teams, provided such a source of i n t e r a c t i o n . When women's hockey was i n i t s r ebu i l d ing stages, i n the years p r i o r to the formation of a senior league i n Vancouver, adult compet i t ion was made poss ib le through games of mixed hockey. In the mid-1920s i n Vancouver, for example, the Crusaders c lub staged a mixed game, and the Auroras team arranged mixed hockey matches, i n which both the men's and women's U.B.C. teams were invo lved . On Vancouver I s land , too, mixed hockey was played during the 1920s, the Staples Cup having been presented i n 1926 to fos te r compet i t ion . The Staples Cup Mixed Hockey Tournament, held on Vancouver Is land i n November 1938, a t tes ted to the continued popu la r i ty of 6*7 t h i s aspect of the game. From time to time, too, as had been the case p r i o r to World War I , men's and women's teams played matches against one another. In the 1923-24 season, the U.B.C. Women's Grass Hockey Club arranged a match with the newly-formed u n i v e r s i t y men's team. La ter , i n the 1929—30 season, The Totem reported that , i n Vancouver, the women were co-operat ing with the men 68 i n p lay ing p r a c t i c e matches. The explanat ion of t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s 113 recorded i n the minutes of an executive committee meeting of the men's a s s o c i a t i o n . The U.B.C. member of the execut ive: had been asked to a s c e r t a i n the views of the League as regards the U n i v e r s i t y Ladies Hockey Team. They des i re admittance in to our League to indulge i n regular games with the men's teams. It was decided that t h i s was not p r a c t i c a b l e , but . . . that f r i e n d l y games could be arranged between the team having a bye & the l ad ies team.59 Co-operat ive ventures at c lub and a s s o c i a t i o n l e v e l a l so extended to compet i t ion between Lower Mainland and Vancouver Is land teams. In the 1929-30 season, for instance, men and women p layers from Vancouver v i s i t e d Duncan for a mixed game. The next season, a men's and a women's team from U.B.C. t r a v e l l e d to Duncan to p lay against t h e i r respect ive counterparts , these 70 matches being fol lowed by a mixed game. It i s recorded i n the minutes of the men's Mainland Assoc ia t i on that "the League accepted the request to f i e l d a team to oppose the Women's Assoc ia t i on Representat ive Team" i n preparat ion for i t s match with the 71 v i s i t i n g A u s t r a l i a n Women's Touring Team i n 1936. indeed, at that time, i n t e r a c t i o n between the men's and women's Mainland Assoc ia t ions was such that the President of the men's Assoc ia t i on "suggested a c l o s e r co-operat ion among the two assoc ia t ions on occasions such as I n t e r - C i t y games of both leagues and 72 the l i k e . . . ." While a proposal for a j o i n t l y sponsored annual Easter tournament for men's and women's c lub teams from the Lower Mainland and Vancouver Is land d id not m a t e r i a l i z e , the women's T r iang le League appears to 73 have emanated from these d i s c u s s i o n s . Before, dur ing , and a f t e r World War I , many dedicated men gave t h e i r se rv i ces i n the development of the game for women and g i r l s . Two outstanding examples were F . J . Mayers of B r i t a n n i a High School and J . T . E . Palmer of South Vancouver High School , whose coaching and leadership guided t h e i r teams to 114 numerous successes i n the s c h o o l g i r l s ' Mainland Championships. These committed schoolteachers continued to a s s i s t the g i r l s a f t e r they had l e f t s choo l . For example, Palmer l a t e r coached the U.B.C. Women's Grass Hockey Club, and when the ex-Br i tann ia High School Team had i t s inaugural meeting i n October 1929, Mayers was asked to act as coach. Indeed, he was given c r e d i t for h i s perseverance i n urging the formation of a women's grass hockey a s s o c i a t i o n , and when the s ix-team league was eventua l ly formal ized i n the 1929-30 season, Mayers was e lec ted as the f i r s t Honorary President of the 74 A s s o c i a t i o n . But i t was Thomas P a t t i s o n who was regarded as the "mentor 75 of the Women's Grass Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " . While V i c e - P r i n c i p a l of K i t s i l a n o High School i n 1925, P a t t i s o n founded the E x - K i t s i l a n o team. Even when he r e t i r e d from teaching i n 1934, he maintained h i s i n t e r e s t i n coaching and umpiring, not only with the c lub which he had founded a decade e a r l i e r , 76 but a l so with the Vancouver Women's League. A measure of the degree to which men were involved i n a s s i s t i n g with the development of women's hockey i s ind ica ted by the observat ion that of nineteen umpires o f f i c i a t i n g at the women's F i e l d Day i n 1939, ten were men. Their con t r ibu t ion was acknowledged, not only i n honorary p o s i t i o n s on the Execut ive , but a l so i n being inc luded as honoured guests on the head table at the Annual Banquet. For instance , at such a banquet to ce lebrate the 77 conc lus ion of the 1938-39 season, four of the e ight speakers were men. The inter-war per iod was one of p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t advancement i n women's f i e l d hockey. Whereas, for the men, i t was a time when leagues and i n t e r - c i t y compet i t ion were qu i ck ly re -es tab l i shed and maintained, for the women i t was an e r a , not only of the c r e a t i o n of a formal league and the formation of an a s s o c i a t i o n , but a l so one i n which " i n t e r n a t i o n a l " competit ion 115 was experienced, and a f f i l i a t i o n with the I .F.W.H.A. achieved. Furthermore, i t was a per iod during which i n t e r a c t i o n between men's and women's c lubs and a s s o c i a t i o n s , and the ass is tance of i n d i v i d u a l s , contr ibuted towards the wel fare of both o rgan iza t ions , e s p e c i a l l y the women's. 116 CHAPTER IX DEVELOPMENT OF FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA: WORLD WAR II TO LATE 1960s For men and women a l i k e , the per iod from World War II to the l a te 1960s was a momentous one i n the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada. Domest ica l ly , not only d id the game grow apprec iab ly i n i t s es tab l i shed areas, but i t expanded to other regions, r e s u l t i n g i n na t iona l compet i t ion which brought together p layers from across the country. It was a l s o a time when Canadian teams began to p a r t i c i p a t e i n p r e s t i g i o u s i n t e r n a t i o n a l tounaments, the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament for the women, the Olympics for the men. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y , both the men's and the women's na t iona l assoc ia t ions were formed during t h i s per iod and, i n the case of the men, a f f i l i a t i o n with the i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ion was a c h i e v e d . 1 The o v e r a l l time-span examined i n t h i s chapter i s convenient ly d iv ided in to sub-per iods, each represent ing a d i s t i n c t phase of development. P a r t l y by chance, and p a r t l y because the same externa l and i n t e r n a l fac tors were operat ing , the sub-periods i n men's and women's development c o - i n c i d e . The war years themselves may be considered the i n i t i a l phase. For the women, t h i s was a time of d i f f i c u l t y i n keeping f i e l d hockey competit ion a l i v e ; for the men, i t inc luded severa l years of t o t a l dormancy of the game. The second phase comprised about ten years immediately fo l lowing the end of World War I I , at which time f i e l d hockey, which was l a r g e l y conf ined to the Greater Vancouver area , experienced a per iod of r e - b u i l d i n g and c o n s o l i d a t i o n . The t h i r d phase extended from the mid-1950s to the e a r l y 1960s, and as we l l as a dramatic increase i n the number of adult teams p lay ing i n the Vancouver area, these years witnessed the incept ion of f i e l d hockey i n many centres across 117 Canada. It was during t h i s per iod that both the men's and the women's na t iona l assoc ia t ions were created and Canadian teams f i r s t p a r t i c i p a t e d i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion . The fourth phase, encompassing the middle to l a te 1960s, saw the o rgan iza t ion of p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , and the fo rma l i za t i on of compet i t ion amongst the regions of Canada. These competit ive and o rgan i za t i ona l a c t i v i t i e s of na t iona l scope were a s s i s t e d by the advent of je t -age a i r l i n e schedules and the in t roduc t ion of government funding, phenomena of the decade of the s i x t i e s . Women's F i e l d Hockey For severa l reasons, i t i s again l o g i c a l to present f i r s t , an account of the development of women's hockey: i n i t i a l l y , because women's hockey a c t i v i t y continued throughout the war years ; next because i t was a women's team that f i r s t represented Canada i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey compet i t ion; and f i n a l l y , because, by the end of t h i s e ra , women's hockey was more widely played across Canada than was the men's game. The War Years Although the outbreak of World War II i n September 1939 led to the immediate c a n c e l l a t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament, scheduled to be held i n England that year , the War d id not have such an immediate impact 2 on the Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on s a c t i v i t i e s . Enter ing i t s 1939-40 season at that time, the League s ta r ted with nine teams, the same number as i n the previous year . As a resu l t of women j o i n i n g the armed s e r v i c e s , the Assoc ia t i on gradual ly f e l t the e f f e c t s of the War u n t i l , by 1941-42, the number of teams had decreased to f i v e . For the balance of the war years the G.V.W.G.H.A. continued to func t ion , with from f i v e to seven 118 teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the League. As only a few c lubs were able to sus ta in teams for the durat ion of the War, t h i s was a d i f f i c u l t time for the Executive of the G.V.W.G.H.A. Miss Myrne Nevison, President of the Assoc ia t i on for many of these years , was given c r e d i t for "holding-the-League 4 together" dur ing t h i s p e r i o d . During the War, g i r l s ' h igh school hockey cont inued, a t o t a l of t h i r t e e n jun ior and senior high schools p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the 1940-41 season of the Vancouver and D i s t r i c t i n t e r - h i g h school compet i t ion. These matches were played at Vancouver Park Board f i e l d s on Saturday mornings, with the stronger high schools f i e l d i n g as many as four teams; for example, North Vancouver High School entered two teams i n the Junior D i v i s i o n , and one i n each of the Intermediate and Senior D i v i s i o n s . Furthermore, throughout t h i s p e r i o d , the c lose r e l a t i o n s h i p with the Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on was maintained. The event known as " F i e l d Day", held towards the end of each season, and the annual f i x t u r e between representat ive teams from the Women's 5 Assoc ia t i on and the high schools were cont inued. On Vancouver I s l a n d , women's grass hockey c lubs remained ac t i ve during the f i r s t wartime season, 1939-40, for the V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' Grass Hockey Club not only entered a team i n the 3rd Bridgman Cup Tournament, but a l so defeated the Duncan Lad ies ' team i n the Vancouver Is land p l a y - o f f of the T r iang le League. When Pro-Rec I , winners of the Vancouver League for 1939-40, v i s i t e d V i c t o r i a , they defeated the V i c t o r i a L .G.H.C. i n the i n t e r - c i t y f i n a l . This was the las t season of the T r iang le League compet i t ion, f o r , by 1940-41, war serv i ces had taken i t s t o l l on the Vancouver Is land women's c lubs and ne i ther V i c t o r i a nor Duncan l a d i e s ' grass hockey c lubs was able to r a i s e a team that 6 season. 119 As i n Vancouver, s c h o o l g i r l hockey competit ion continued on Vancouver i s l a n d . Despite wartime d i f f i c u l t i e s such as f u e l r a t i o n i n g , the Bridgman Cup Tournament remained an annual event, a t t r a c t i n g more student teams from year to year . These were drawn from the p r i va te schools and the high schoo ls , u n t i l , s t a r t i n g i n 1941-42, V i c t o r i a Co l lege became an entrant i n the tournament. There was even an i n t e r - c i t y match between student teams during the l a t t e r part of the War, when, i n the 1943-44 season, a U.B.C. team v i s i t e d the Is land to p lay the V i c t o r i a Co l lege team. During the e a r l y War years , o f f i c e r s of the G.V.W.G.H.A. maintained i n t e r n a t i o n a l contacts by corresponding with the U .S .F .H .A . and with the I .F.W.H.A. Hopes were expressed that Vancouver might continue i t s competit ion with American teams, i nc lud ing sending a team to represent the A s s o c i a t i o n at severa l competit ions to which i t was i n v i t e d , but no matches of an 8 i n t e r n a t i o n a l nature m a t e r i a l i z e d . Ear ly Post-War Development In the ten-year per iod a f t e r the conc lus ion of World War I I , women's f i e l d hockey was revived i n severa l parts of Eastern Canada. However, u n t i l 1955, i t was only i n B r i t i s h Columbia that adult hockey was played on a regular b a s i s . R e v i t a l i z a t i o n i n B r i t i s h Columbia. Once the War was over , there was a conso l i da t i on of women's grass hockey a c t i v i t y i n B r i t i s h Columbia. The Vancouver League comprised seven teams i n the f i r s t post-War season, 1945-46, and from then u n t i l the mid-1950s, continued to maintain an average of s i x 9 teams. Forming a s tab le nucleus of the League during t h i s decade of competit ion were f i v e teams: E x - K i t s i l a n o , Ex-North Vancouver, B r i t a n n i a 120 Grads, V a r s i t y and U.B.C. The fact that three of these were ex-high school teams and the other two were u n i v e r s i t y teams ind ica ted the c lose r e l a t i o n s h i p between the high school grass hockey programme and the Women's League. Jo in ing the League, to r a i s e the number of p a r t i c i p a t i n g teams to seven i n the 1954-55 season, was U.B.C. Alumnae (Alums), which added strength and expert ise . , 10 to the compet i t ion . During the f i r s t decade fo l lowing World War I I , g i r l s ' grass hockey continued to f l o u r i s h i n the high schools of Vancouver and i t s surrounding suburbs; i n 1948, there were f o r t y - e i g h t teams from seventeen schools i n Senior , Intermediate and Junior D i v i s i o n s of the i n t e r - s c h o o l grass hockey compet i t ion. In t h i s post-war p e r i o d , John O l i v e r and Magee High Schools were c o n s i s t e n t l y strong i n a l l d i v i s i o n s , whi le Burnaby South and North Vancouver were a l so p r o m i n e n t . 1 1 Even w i th in the schoo ls , grass hockey p a r t i c i p a t i o n during the 1950s was o f fe red to g i r l s i n the form of intramural games; a t y p i c a l hockey schoo l , as we l l as enter ing teams i n each of the i n t e r - s c h o o l d i v i s i o n s , would a l s o e s t a b l i s h compet i t ion amongst houses wi th in the 12 schoo l . By t h i s t ime, the annual f i x t u r e s between representat ive teams from the Women's League and representat ive teams from the high schools had been i n existence for over twenty years , and the Play-Day event (formerly c a l l e d F i e l d Day), where representat ive high school teams played i n a s e r i e s of f r i e n d l y games with women's league teams, was we l l e s t a b l i s h e d . The Vancouver League and the high school competit ions were interdependent, with the adult p layers passing down t h e i r s k i l l s and experience to the younger g i r l s through coaching and games, and converse ly , with the school teams 13 prov id ing a major source of p layers for the Women's League. On Vancouver I s l and , i n the immediate post-war years , women's grass hockey was a c t i v e at the schools and c o l l e g e s . Matches between Vancouver and 121 V i c t o r i a high schoo ls , between Vancouver Normal School and V i c t o r i a Normal School , and between U.B.C. and V i c t o r i a Col lege were played r e g u l a r l y . In 1947, fo r instance, the school champions for Vancouver, Magee High School , v i s i t e d Vancouver Is land to contest a match with the Is land premiers, Mount 14 View School , Saanich. Furthermore, the Bridgman Cup competit ion remained an annual event, with Queen Margaret 's School , Norfo lk House School , Oak Bay High School and V i c t o r i a High School shar ing the honours between 1945-46 and 1953-54. During t h i s f i r s t post-war decade, however, there was no formal league competit ion i n V i c t o r i a . In f a c t , the f i r s t mention of a p a r t i c i p a t i n g adult c lub team appeared i n the account of the 1954-55 Bridgman Cup Tournament, where i t was recorded that "Oak Bay High defeated V i c t o r i a Ladies 15 i n the f i n a l " . As ea r l y as the f i r s t post-war season, the Executive members of the G.V.W.G.H.A. had made an e f f o r t to r e - a c t i v a t e i n t e r - c i t y competit ion between Vancouver and V i c t o r i a , through correspondence d i rec ted to V i c t o r i a Co l lege , which was known to have had an ac t i ve women's grass hockey c lub . However, the Captain of the V i c t o r i a team wrote to say that an i n t e r - c i t y grass hockey match i n the Spr ing (of 1946) would not be p o s s i b l e , as every week-end was 16 committed to Vancouver Is land hockey matches and other a c t i v i t i e s . A fur ther attempt made the fo l lowing year a l so proved unsuccess fu l , and during the la te 1940s and e a r l y 1950s, adult i n t e r - c i t y compet i t ion was conf ined to 17 informal v i s i t s . Vancouver experienced i t s f i r s t post-war competit ion of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l nature when a representat ive team from the G.V.W.G.H.A. p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a tournament staged i n conjunct ion with the U . S . F . H . A . ' s P a c i f i c North West (P.N.W.) Conference, he ld i n Por t land , Oregon, i n December 1946. Although i n v i t e d to t h i s event s ince i t s incept ion i n 1940, the 122 G.V.W.G.H.A. was unable to send teams, or even delegates , to the tournaments and conferences he ld during the war years . From 1946 onwards, however, p a r t i c i p a t i o n by Vancouver teams became an annual a c t i v i t y , not only for representat ive teams from the A s s o c i a t i o n , but for the U.B.C. c lub team as w e l l . The r e l a t i v e strength of teams from B r i t i s h Columbia was r e f l e c t e d by the fact that they were r a r e l y beaten, and o f ten won t h e i r games by large margins. For many years , the P.N.W. Conferences and assoc iated tournaments were held at Portand, Oregon, but i n the l a te 1940s, a p o l i c y of r o t a t i n g the venue 19 amongst p a r t i c i p a t i n g regions was adopted. In November 1950, when i t was Vancouver's turn to rec iprocate the h o s p i t a l i t y enjoyed over severa l years , the G.V.W.G.H.A. and U.B.C. j o i n t l y hosted the P.N.W. F i e l d Hockey Conference 20 and i t s tournament, an arrangement which was repeated i n 1955. During the per iod 1950-55, the P.N.W. Conference and i t s tournament f l o u r i s h e d . On average, s ix teen teams from Idaho, Washington and Oregon p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the tournament and, t y p i c a l l y , an a d d i t i o n a l two teams from Vancouver — a Vancouver representat ive team and a U.B.C. team — entered the Tournament. However, i n 1953, when the Conference was held i n S e a t t l e , four teams from Vancouver were entered: Vancouver Reps, the North Vancouver c lub 21 team, and two U.B.C. teams. For Vancouver p layers who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the annual P.N.W. tournaments, the event was a h i g h l i g h t of the season, but, even by the l a te 1940s, senior p layers were looking fur ther a f i e l d . In 1948 and i n 1949, a Vancouver representat ive team v i s i t e d C a l i f o r n i a to compete i n the U .S .F .H.A . Sec t iona l Tournament. Again, i n 1954, a Vancouver team t r a v e l l e d to C a l i f o r n i a , on t h i s occas ion to p a r t i c i p a t e i n a Thanksgiving tournament held 22 at Stanford U n i v e r s i t y . 123 Women's F i e l d Hockey i n other parts of Canada. Although f i e l d hockey had been played i n Toronto and Nova Sco t i a p r i o r to World War I , and indeed was a c t i v e l y pursued by the schools and co l l eges i n the H a l i f a x area between the wars, the f i r s t recorded post-World War II matches i n Eastern Canada d id not take place u n t i l 1949, when the u n i v e r s i t i e s and co l l eges of New Brunswick and Nova Sco t i a engaged i n compet i t ion. In 1950, the game was re- introduced at the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, and by 1953, f i e l d hockey was a l s o being played at 23 McMaster U n i v e r s i t y i n Hamilton. However, at t h i s time, the G.V.W.G.H.A. knew few d e t a i l s of the a c t i v i t y i n these or other parts of the country, for i t was s tated i n Canada's report to the 1953 I.F.W.H.A. Conference that " in Eastern Canada one or two U n i v e r s i t i e s teach hockey to the phys i ca l education 24 students" . In 1955, women's f i e l d hockey began to expand i n Ontar io . Two adult c lub teams were formed, reported ly made up mostly of non-Canadians, and i n that year played Toronto 's f i r s t c lub match. A l so i n 1955, Scarborough, i n the Greater Toronto area , became the f i r s t of the Ontar io school d i s t r i c t s to 25 inc lude f i e l d hockey i n i t s sports programme. Once aga in , i f the G.V.W.G.H.A. was aware of these developments, there was no mention of them i n the report to the 1956 I .F.W.H.A. Conference. Such an omission was not a t t r i b u t a b l e to any lack of i n t e r e s t d isp layed by the G.V.W.G.H.A. towards the existence of women's f i e l d hockey i n other parts of Canada, for between November 1954 and March 1955, amongst cons iderable correspondence to many parts of the wor ld , l e t t e r s were wr i t ten by the G.V.W.G.H.A. Correspondence Secretary to the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, the Un ive rs i t y of Western Ontar io , and 26 Mount A l l i s o n U n i v e r s i t y (New Brunswick). 124 P a r t i c i p a t i o n at the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament. Since 1936, i t had been an ambition of the G.V.W.G.H.A. to send a team to represent Canada at the tournament assoc iated with the I .F.W.H.A. Conference. Having become an Assoc iate Member of the I .F.W.H.A. i n 1937, the G.V.W.G.H.A. rece ived an i n v i t a t i o n to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Women's World Hockey F e s t i v a l held i n Amsterdam i n 1948, and i n the fourth I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament at 27 Johannesburg i n 1950. Canada was unable to send a team, or even a representa t ive , to these events. However, when the f i f t h I .F.W.H.A. Conference took p lace i n Folkestone, England, i n 1953, an e n t h u s i a s t i c Vancouver hockey p layer , F lorence Strachan, was on exchange teaching i n England, and although no team could be sent , Strachan represented Canada as 28 Delegate. Upon Strachan's return to Vancouver i n 1954, a meeting of the G.V.W.G.H.A. was he ld , at which her repor ts , souvenirs , and desc r ip t ions of the event gave Vancouver members a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e of the I .F .W.H.A. , i t s conference, i t s tournament, and i t s assoc iated a c t i v i t i e s . In 1983, Strachan r e c a l l e d that , when the meeting f i n i s h e d i n the e a r l y hours of the morning, the membership was i n s p i r e d with great enthusiasm. Thus, at a Spec ia l General Meeting of the G.V.W.G.H.A., he ld i n January 1955, when Canada's p a r t i c i p a t i o n at the 1956 T r i e n n i a l I .F .W.H.A. Tournament to be held i n A u s t r a l i a was 29 d iscussed , the membership voted i n the a f f i r m a t i v e . In an endeavour to ensure a t r u l y representat ive team, the G.V.W.G.H.A. dispatched l e t t e r s to a l l known women's hockey organ izat ions across Canada, informing them of i t s d e c i s i o n to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament i n 30 Sydney. The only p o s i t i v e response came from the V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' Grass Hockey C lub, which was i n v i t e d to a f f i l i a t e with the G.V.W.G.H.A. and thereby q u a l i f y for t r i a l games. When the Canadian team was f i n a l l y s e l e c t e d , a l l 125 eight a f f i l i a t e d c l u b s , seven from the Vancouver League and the V i c t o r i a L . G . H . C had at least one representa t i ve . F i n a l l y , a f t e r eighteen months of p reparat ion , the major tasks of which were f u n d - r a i s i n g , team s e l e c t i o n , 31 coaching, and p r a c t i s i n g , the team departed for A u s t r a l i a . The I .F.W.H.A. tournament took place i n Sydney, with ten countr ies competing from 23 May to 2 June 1956. However, Canada a l s o t r a v e l l e d through severa l A u s t r a l i a n s t a t e s , p lay ing numerous matches against l o c a l teams, a cher ished t r a d i t i o n of I .F.W.H.A. Tours. On much of t h i s tour , the Canadian team was accompanied by the Eng l i sh team, with whom Canada played severa l 32 e x h i b i t i o n matches. Per iod of Expansion The per iod from the mid-1950s to the e a r l y 1960s was one of rap id growth of women's f i e l d hockey, not only In the Vancouver and V i c t o r i a areas of B r i t i s h Columbia, but i n other provinces as w e l l . An increase i n numbers i n Ontar io and the Marit imes was accompanied by the formation of c lubs i n A lber ta and Quebec. Th is expansion of the game across Canada, together with regular p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, led to the formation of a na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n . Progress i n B r i t i s h Columbia. For the ten years p r i o r to 1956, the Vancouver League had remained s tab le at s i x or seven teams; but, from 1957 to 1963, as shown i n Table 5, the League experienced a steady increase which resu l ted i n a 33 doubl ing of the number of competing teams w i th in s i x years . 126 TABLE 5 NUMBER OF TEAMS COMPETING IN VANCOUVER WOMEN'S LEAGUE: 1956-1963 Season Number of Teams 1956-57 8 1958-59 9 1960-61 10 1962-63 14 This expansion, a n t i c i p a t e d as e a r l y as 1958 when the Secretary of the G.V.W.G.H.A. wrote to the Vancouver Parks Board request ing a d d i t i o n a l p i t c h e s , led to a s p l i t t i n g of the League in to d i v i s i o n s : i n the 1960-61 season, s i x teams competed i n D i v i s i o n I and four i n D i v i s i o n I I ; and i n 1962-63, the 34 League's two d i v i s i o n s each comprised seven teams. The expansion which occurred i n the Vancouver Women's League was matched by a s i m i l a r growth i n g i r l s ' hockey. E f f o r t s were begun to fos te r jun ior hockey i n the la te 1950s, when experienced p layers from the Vancouver Women's Assoc ia t i on conducted coaching sess ions and es tab l i shed teams for g i r l s i n severa l areas of Greater Vancouver. By December 1959, these a c t i v i t i e s had progressed to the stage where a proposal to form a jun ior g i r l s ' league was put forward at the Christmas General Meeting of the 35 A s s o c i a t i o n . G i r l s f i e l d hockey a l s o increased i n popu la r i t y w i th in the schoo ls , for during the ear l y 1960s, c l i n i c s for h igh school p layers and coaches were organized. One such c l i n i c was held at U .B .C . ; another was conducted i n the i n t e r i o r of B r i t i s h Columbia, where severa l jun ior high 127 schools were in t roduc ing f i e l d hockey i n t o the curr i cu lum. Whereas i n the mid-1950s, a t o t a l of twenty jun io r and senior high schools i n Greater Vancouver had entered about f o r t y - f i v e teams i n four d i v i s i o n s of the Inter-High School compet i t ion, by 1963, these f igures had reached f o r t y - t h r e e 36 schools and e ighty- three teams, a v i r t u a l doubl ing i n numbers. This s t a t i s t i c allowed the G.V.W.G.H.A. to c la im that "on the bas is of the number of students p a r t i c i p a t i n g grass hockey ranks ahead of a l l other sports at the 37 present t ime." The progress of women's f i e l d hockey on Vancouver Is land can be judged by studying p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the popular and p r e s t i g i o u s annual Bridgman Cup Tournament, i n which teams were entered from pr i va te schoo ls , from high 38 schools , from V i c t o r i a Co l l ege , and i n some years from the "Ladies ' C lubs" . TABLE 6 VANCOUVER ISLAND TEAMS IN BRIDGMAN CUP TOURNAMENT: 1938-1962 Year Number of Teams To ta l P r i va te Schools High Schools Co l lege Ladies 1938 6 2 2 - 2 1943 7 3 3 1 -1958 10 * * * * 1960 12 5 6 1 1 1962 15 6 7 1 2 * D e t a i l s not recorded. 128 It can be c l e a r l y seen from Table 6 that , whi le the number of teams only increased from seven to ten i n the f i f t e e n - y e a r per iod from 1943 to 1958, jus t four years l a t e r , i n 1962, the t o t a l number of Vancouver Is land teams 39 competing had r i s e n to f i f t e e n . While hockey i n the schools was growing s t e a d i l y stronger dur ing the l a te f i f t i e s and e a r l y s i x t i e s , so, too, was women's hockey becoming f i rm ly es tab l i shed on Vancouver I s l and . From the s ing le " V i c t o r i a Ladies" team which had a f f i l i a t e d with the G.V.W.G.H.A. i n the 1955-56 season, by 1958, i n t e r e s t had increased to the point where two women's teams, Mariners and Grasshoppers, could be formed to become the founding members of the V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , es tab l i shed i n that year . Within the next few years , a t h i r d women's team, Ravens L .G .H .C . , jo ined the f l e d g l i n g Assoc ia t i on ; and when, i n 1960, the P.N.W. Tournament was held at U .B .C . , the V i c t o r i a L .F .H .A . 40 was able to send a representat ive team to compete. The year 1962 marked the c r e a t i o n of a new Cowichan Lad ies ' Grass Hockey Club, which was strong enough to f i e l d two teams i n i t s f i r s t season. Together with the other women's hockey c lubs and the Un ive rs i t y of V i c t o r i a (formerly V i c t o r i a C o l l e g e ) , the V i c t o r i a Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion was able to organize a s ix-team schedule of f i x t u r e s i n the 1962-63 season; i n 1963, i n order to embrace i t s broader membership, the Assoc ia t ion was re-named 41 the Vancouver Is land Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . Developments i n Other Prov inces . The f i r s t women's f i e l d hockey c lub matches 42 i n Toronto were played i n 1955. For the next two years , c lub matches were played r e g u l a r l y between the two founding teams: Toronto Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey Club, which p r a c t i s e d at Havergal Co l lege (a g i r l s ' school) and played 43 f r i e n d l y matches with the school team; and the Nomads C lub. From 1958, 129 developments occurred r a p i d l y : i n that year , O n t a r i o ' s f i r s t women's f i e l d hockey tournament was staged i n Toronto: i n 1959, the Toronto Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n was formed: and the fo l lowing year , with three inaugural teams inc lud ing the newly-formed Beavers, the Ontar io Women's F i e l d Hockey 44 Assoc ia t i on was founded. In the ear l y 1960s, the Ontar io Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion (O.W.F.H.A.) made e f f o r t s to expand the game beyond the conf ines of the three women's c lub teams. At the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, where the game had been played i n the 1950s but had s ince lapsed, f i e l d hockey was re- introduced i n 1962 and by the end of that season, twelve intramural teams were competing. Short ly afterwards, the f i r s t i n t e r - u n i v e r s i t y match was p layed, between the Un ive rs i t y of Toronto and McMaster U n i v e r s i t y (Hamilton), and by 1964, severa l 45 other u n i v e r s i t i e s had jo ined the compet i t ion. School hockey expanded, too, when the Etobicoke and Port Cred i t School D i s t r i c t s , both i n Greater Toronto, introduced the game in to the schools i n 1960. Two years l a t e r , the A s s o c i a t i o n ' s c l i n i c s and promotion were rewarded by the in t roduc t ion of f i e l d hockey in to the curr icu lum of jun io r high schools i n the Greater Toronto 46 area . Women's f i e l d hockey was es tab l i shed i n A lber ta dur ing t h i s time, f i r s t i n Calgary and a few years l a t e r i n Edmonton. From games of mixed hockey o r i g i n a t i n g i n 1957, competit ion i n Calgary gradual ly evolved in to two separate leagues. When a women's league s ta r ted i n 1961 with two teams, Nomads and wanderers, i t operated under the auspices of the men's o rgan iza t ion ; but , by 1962, the women had formed a separate body, the Calgary 47 Ladies ' F i e l d Hockey C lub. A s i m i l a r evo lu t ion occurred i n Edmonton, where the women a l s o separated from the men i n 1962 to form the Edmonton Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey C lub. In both the 1961 and 1962 seasons, i n t e r - c i t y 130 matches between Calgary and Edmonton were arranged on a home-and-away b a s i s . In other prov inces , women's f i e l d hockey was a l so developing. Competit ion among the co l l eges and u n i v e r s i t i e s of Nova Sco t i a and New Brunswick had been i n existence for many years when the Maritimes Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on was formed In 1962 with an inaugural membership comprising four u n i v e r s i t y teams and one women's c l u b . A lso i n 1962, women's f i e l d hockey took root i n Montreal with the formation of the Vagabonds Women's F i e l d Hockey C lub. As the only women's c lub i n the prov ince , the Vagabonds represented Quebec i n tournaments, and maintained correspondence with other 49 In ternat iona l Competit ion. The la te f i f t i e s and ear l y s i x t i e s was a per iod of increased i n t e r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n by Canadians at var ious l e v e l s of compet i t ion. Teams from B r i t i s h Columbia continued to compete i n the tournament assoc iated with the P.N.W. Conference and, i n a d d i t i o n , B r i t i s h Columbia and Ontar io teams were i n v i t e d to attend the U . S . F . H . A . ' s nat iona l and reg iona l tournaments. Furthermore, Canada was represented at both I .F.W.H.A. Tournaments held during t h i s e r a . So success fu l was the P.N.W. Conference that , by 1958, the assoc iated tournament had been d iv ided in to two sec t i ons , one for co l l ege and u n i v e r s i t y teams, the other , known as the Alumnae Sec t ion , for adult teams. U.B.C. and V i c t o r i a Co l lege played i n the student s e c t i o n , whi le representat ive teams 50 from Vancouver and V i c t o r i a competed i n the Alumnae Sec t ion . The fact that a t o t a l of twenty teams p a r t i c i p a t e d when the event was hosted at U.B.C. i n 1960, g ives an i n d i c a t i o n of the popu la r i ty of the P.N.W. Conference at 51 t h i s t ime. 131 During the e a r l y 1960s, teams from Canada were a l so i n v i t e d to the U . S . F . H . A . ' s na t iona l and reg iona l tournaments. For example, i n 1960, a representat ive team from the Vancouver Assoc ia t ion was p r i v i l e g e d to attend the U.S. Nat ional Tournament held i n Berkeley, C a l i f o r n i a ; and both i n 1960 and 1961, the Northeastern Sect ion of the U .S .F .H.A . i n v i t e d two teams from 52 Ontar io to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r Thanksgiving Weekend Tournaments. The p innac le of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion for Canadian p layers was, however, the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament. Once a Canadian team had attended such an event, future p a r t i c i p a t i o n was never i n doubt; for those who had been members of the 1956 Touring Team, the t r i p was an experience of a l i f e - t i m e . Thus, i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g that , when Canada rece ived an i n v i t a t i o n to the Seventh I.F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament to be held i n Hol land i n 1959, the minutes of the meeting of the G.V.W.G.H.A. of 25 June 1957 recorded that the motion to accept was c a r r i e d . A f te r a year of p reparat ion , which inc luded f u n d - r a i s i n g , p r a c t i c e s and t r i a l games leading to team s e l e c t i o n , the Canadian team t r a v e l l e d to Europe to compete i n the 1959 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament i n Amsterdam. In add i t i on to the s i x matches i n the Tournament i t s e l f , the Canadian Touring Team played numerous games i n England and Scotland en 53 route . Again i n 1963, a Canadian team attended the I .F.W.H.A. Conference, he ld i n Bal t imore, U.S.A. As w e l l as the matches scheduled i n conjunct ion with the Conference, and games on tour of the eastern s t a t e s , the Canadian team played severa l matches i n Canada. Of p a r t i c u l a r note was a t r i angu la r competit ion i n Toronto, i n v o l v i n g the Canadian, S c o t t i s h and Ontar io teams; t h i s was the 54 f i r s t opportunity for Ontar io to compete against na t iona l oppos i t i on . 132 Creat ion of the C.W.F.H.A. A b u l l e t i n c i r c u l a t e d to the members of the G.V.W.G.H.A. , announcing a Spec ia l General Meeting of 22 March 1962, s tated that the purpose of the meeting was to d iscuss two i s s u e s : one, the formation of a Canadian women's f i e l d hockey a s s o c i a t i o n ; the other , the entry of a Canadian Touring Team i n the 1963 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament to be held i n Bal t imore, U.S.A. The c i r c u l a r dec lared that the two issues were c l o s e l y 55 r e l a t e d . In order to appreciate t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , one must review a quarter of a century of h i s t o r y of women's hockey i n Canada. In 1937, the G.V.W.G.H.A. had been accepted as an Assoc iate Member of the I .F.W.H.A. From then on, a l l correspondence from the I .F.W.H.A. was d i rec ted to the Vancouver A s s o c i a t i o n , and t h i s Assoc ia t i on alone had the r ight to send delegates to the I .F.W.H.A. Conference, or a team to i t s accompanying Tournament. Included amongst the correspondence between these two organ iza t ions , reference was made to the G.V.W.G.H.A. 's hopes to p a r t i c i p a t e i n I .F.W.H.A. a c t i v i t i e s . However, u n t i l 1953, when a delegate was able to attend the Conference i n Folkestone, the G.V.W.G.H.A. had not been able to accept the I . F .W.H .A . ' s i n v i t a t i o n s . F i n a l l y , i n 1956, a Canadian team competed i n the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament held i n Sydney, A u s t r a l i a , an 56 accomplishment repeated three years l a t e r i n Amsterdam. Both the 1956 and 1959 Canadian teams were entered by the G.V.W.G.H.A., but ne i ther team was se lec ted u n t i l l e t t e r s extending an i n v i t a t i o n to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t r i a l s had been wr i t ten to known hockey-playing centres across Canada. In 1956, the v i c t o r i a Lad ies ' Grass Hockey Club accepted t h i s i n v i t a t i o n and a f f i l i a t e d with the G.V.W.G.H.A., subsequently con t r i bu t ing the so le member from outs ide Greater Vancouver to represent Canada on e i t h e r 57 occas ion . By 1962, the G.V.W.G.H.A. , having been " in correspondence with a growing hockey league i n Ontar io" and other cent res , was we l l aware of the 133 nat iona l a s p i r a t i o n s of p layers from other parts of the country. Indeed, i t s report to the 1959 I .F.W.H.A. Conference s ta ted : " i t i s hoped that by 1963 East and West w i l l j o i n together to send a n a t i o n a l l y representat ive team 59 to the Conference to be held i n Ba l t imore ." N ineteen-s ix ty was the year i n which p o s i t i v e steps were taken to achieve t h i s o b j e c t i v e . By t h i s t ime, an Ontar io a s s o c i a t i o n had been formed, and teams from Toronto had competed i n the U . S . F . H . A . ' s Sec t iona l Tournament. As a resu l t of a l e t t e r from the U .S .F .H .A . asking i f the Toronto women would be w i l l i n g to e n t e r t a i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l teams attending the 1963 I .F.W.H.A. Tournament i n Ba l t imore, the Secretary of the O.W.F.H.A. wrote that "the Ontar io W.F.H.A. are keen to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the I .F.W.H.A. venture i n 1963 and are great ly looking forward to ac t ing as hostess to 3 v i s i t i n g t e a m s . " 6 0 Th is a c t i v i t y prompted the Ontar io Assoc ia t i on to make one of i t s severa l enqu i r ies regarding a f f i l i a t i o n with the G.V.W.G.H.A. In response, i n the f a l l of 1960, a committee was struck to inves t iga te the formation of a Canadian women's f i e l d hockey a s s o c i a t i o n : and, furthermore, the V i c t o r i a L .F .H .A . a f f i l i a t e d with the G.V.W.G.H.A. with a view to c rea t ing such a 61 nat iona l a s s o c i a t i o n . Over the next year , no s u b s t a n t i a l progress was made. However, the Vancouver Assoc ia t i on was informed by the I .F.W.H.A. that other assoc ia t ions i n Canada were request ing i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n . To these requests the In ternat iona l Federat ion had r e p l i e d that any change i n the organ iza t ion of women's hockey i n Canada — and concomitantly, the r ight to enter a team i n the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament — would have to be made through the G.V.W.G.H.A., 62 the e x i s t i n g recognized body. Then, i n January 1962, the Vancouver Assoc ia t ion received a l e t t e r from the O.W.F.H.A. request ing a f f i l i a t i o n with the G.V.W.G.H.A. for the purpose of 134 e s t a b l i s h i n g e l i g i b i l i t y for the 1963 Touring Team. Th is correspondence appears to have provided the st imulus for immediate a c t i o n : w i th in ten days of the Execut ive Meeting at which t h i s l e t t e r was read, a c i r c u l a r was sent to members of the G.V.W.G.H.A. on the subject of the formation of a Canadian a s s o c i a t i o n ; and by March 1962, a paper o u t l i n i n g a r e s o l u t i o n to create a Canadian women's f i e l d hockey a s s o c i a t i o n had been prepared. As we l l as documenting the a f f i l i a t i o n of the V i c t o r i a L .F .H .A . and a s p e c i f i c request from the O.W.F.H.A. for the formation of a Canadian a s s o c i a t i o n , the r e s o l u t i o n a l so revealed that groups i n Calgary, Edmonton, Nova S c o t i a , and Newfoundland had expressed in te res t i n a Canadian a s s o c i a t i o n , t r i a l s for Canadian teams, and re la ted matters. Another very important fac tor i n the t iming of the formation of a na t iona l o rgan iza t ion was the a v a i l a b i l i t y of government a s s i s t a n c e . The F i tness and Amateur Sport Act , passed i n 1961, 64 made federa l funding a v a i l a b l e for na t iona l sport governing bodies . Covering the per iod from the Winter General Meeting of the G.V.W.G.H.A. i n January 1962, when the formation of a Canadian a s s o c i a t i o n was formal ly proposed, to September 1962, the date set for a Spec ia l General Meeting to approve the c o n s t i t u t i o n of such an a s s o c i a t i o n , the chairman of the C o n s t i t u t i o n Committee had drawn up a demanding t ime- tab le , as shown i n Appendix G. During t h i s busy per iod for the Vancouver-based committee, cons iderable correspondence flowed across Canada, to and from Ontar io , Quebec, and the Marit imes, concerning the hopes, a s p i r a t i o n s , and purposes of a Canadian women's f i e l d hockey a s s o c i a t i o n ; and, i n a d d i t i o n , the Chairman of the C o n s t i t u t i o n Committee v i s i t e d Ontar io for d i scuss ions with an Executive 65 Member of the O.W.F.H.A. F i n a l l y , when a motion "that the Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on come i n t o existence t h i s very twenty-fourth day of September, 135 1962" was proposed at the Spec ia l General Meeting of the G.V.W.G.H.A. convened for t h i s purpose, the motion was c a r r i e d ; and the inaugural meeting of the newly-formed A s s o c i a t i o n , at which the f i r s t executive of the C.W.F.H.A. took o f f i c e , was he ld i n November 1 9 6 2 . 6 6 In her annual report over a year l a t e r , the f i r s t Pres ident , Margaret McLean, s t a t e d : I am happy to say we were success fu l i n having teams i n the Maritimes un i te to form the Marit imes Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n which jo ined with es tab l i shed assoc ia t ions i n Ontar io , Vancouver and Vancouver I s l a n d . Montreal 's only team jo ined as an a f f i l i a t e member and we s ta r ted our Nat iona l Assoc ia t i on with t h i r t y - t h r e e member teams. g-y The c rea t ion of the C.W.F.H.A. provided means by which a t r u l y representat ive team could be chosen to compete for Canada at the 1963 I .F.W.H.A. Tournament i n Ba l t imore. But t h i s i d e a l , for which many had s t r i v e d over a long p e r i o d , was not completely f u l f i l l e d . Although the Canadian team, with two from the Marit imes, contained p layers from outs ide B r i t i s h Columbia for the f i r s t t ime, there were no Ontar io p layers i n the 1963 Touring Team. On the p o s i t i v e s i d e , with the t h i r t y - t h r e e reg i s te red teams i n 1963, Canada now had s u f f i c i e n t numbers to q u a l i f y for f u l l membership of the I .F.W.H.A. Consequently, i n the ros ter of countr ies l i s t e d i n the Report of the 1963 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, the "Canadian Women's [ F i e l d ] Hockey Assoc ia t ion" was entered as a F u l l Member, a quarter of a century a f t e r the G.V.W.G.H.A. had been accepted as an Assoc iate Member. Now, at l a s t , with the formation of the C.W.F.H.A. , a v e h i c l e ex is ted through which the game could be developed n a t i o n a l l y , and to which sub-nat ional organ izat ions could a f f i l i a t e . 6 ^ 136 P r o v i n c i a l Development and Nat ional U n i f i c a t i o n With the formation of the Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion i n 1962, the game was i n a strong p o s i t i o n to develop nat ion-wide; as we l l as expanding i n es tab l i shed centres , women's f i e l d hockey was introduced in to new areas . A t r u l y na t iona l team was now a more a t ta inab le goa l , one that was achieved by br ing ing together p layers from across the country to compete at reg iona l and na t iona l tournaments. B r i t i s h Columbia. When the C.W.F.H.A. submitted i t s report to the I .F.W.H.A. Conference i n Balt imore i n 1963, i t dec lared a membership of t h i r t y - t h r e e teams, a quadrupl ing of the eight teams reg i s te red by the G.V.W.G.H.A. at the I .F.W.H.A. Conference of 1956. While the Canadian Assoc ia t i on was now a na t iona l body embracing severa l centres across the country, the r e l a t i v e l y large increase i n the number of teams was not e n t i r e l y due to these other c lubs and a s s o c i a t i o n s . With fourteen teams p lay ing i n i t s two-d iv i s ion League i n the 1962-63 season, the Vancouver Assoc ia t i on alone provided c lose to f i f t y percent of the t o t a l membership; and inc lud ing the s i x teams i n the Vancouver Is land A s s o c i a t i o n , and a team i n the okanagan, B r i t i s h Columbia contr ibuted almost two-thirds of the number of teams a f f i l i a t e d with the 70 C.W.F.H.A. U n t i l the 1965-66 season, the Vancouver and V i c t o r i a Leagues remained s tab le (see Appendix H) , but i n the second h a l f of the 1960s, the Vancouver Assoc ia t i on began to expand u n t i l , i n the autumn of 1968, eighteen teams competed i n a league which, for the f i r s t time, comprised three d i v i s i o n s , each of s i x teams. However, according to the President of the Vancouver Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , even more encouraging was the increas ing number of high school g i r l s eager to p a r t i c i p a t e on Saturdays. Such a 137 statement t e s t i f i e s to the success of a Saturday morning Junior D i v i s i o n , 71 conceived three years e a r l i e r , and inaugurated during the 1966-67 season. By the m i d - s i x t i e s f i e l d hockey i n the high schools throughout B r i t i s h Columbia had reached the point where a tournament of p r o v i n c i a l scope could be undertaken. In November 1964, a f t e r a s e r i e s of matches to determine zone winners, the f i r s t B.C. School G i r l s ' F i e l d Hockey Tournament and C l i n i c was held at U.B.C. As we l l as a two-day competit ion amongst the twelve f i n a l i s t s , a c l i n i c i nvo lv ing over f i v e hundred p a r t i c i p a n t s was held to promote the game 72 to high school p layers and coaches. so success fu l was t h i s f i r s t Tournament and C l i n i c that the a c t i v i t y became an annual event; i n i t s second year , i t was held at Vernon, i n the i n t e r i o r of B .C . , i n order to broaden p r o v i n c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n . At the t h i r d and four th annual tournaments, he ld i n V i c t o r i a and Grand Forks (another i n t e r i o r c i t y ) i n 1966 and 1967, s ix teen 73 teams competed i n the p r o v i n c i a l f i n a l s . Even though women's f i e l d hockey was expanding across Canada, the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia teams i n the P a c i f i c Northwest Conference remained strong during the mid-1960s. Despite the fact that the two tournaments, one for co l l ege and u n i v e r s i t y teams, and the other for non-co l l eg ia te teams, were now conducted under the auspices of the P.N.W. Sect ion of the U .S . F .H .A . , both tournaments were held i n B r i t i s h Columbia i n 1965. Over the f i r s t week-end i n November, U.B.C. hosted the tournament i n which "twenty-one e n t h u s i a s t i c teams from Idaho, Oregon, Washington and 74 B r i t i s h Columbia p a r t i c i p a t e d i n 35 games during the conference," and the fo l lowing weekend i n V i c t o r i a the Vancouver Is land L .F .H .A . sponsored the " P a c i f i c Northwest Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey Conference" at which s ix teen teams from Oregon, Washington, the Okanagan, Vancouver, and Vancouver Is land 75 competed. In the l a t t e r part of the 1960s, the P.N.W. Tournament began to 138 d imin ish i n importance for B r i t i s h Columbia teams, as more competit ion for senior p layers became a v a i l a b l e w i th in Canada, and as the u n i v e r s i t i e s entered the W.C . I .A .U . women's f i e l d hockey tournaments. Indeed, i t was not long 76 before i n t e r c o l l e g i a t e competit ion i n the U.S.A. was i t s e l f r e - s t r u c t u r e d . During the m i d - s i x t i e s , not only was women's f i e l d hockey i n B r i t i s h Columbia growing numer ica l ly and expanding r e g i o n a l l y , but i t was a l so maturing o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y . In 1962, when the C.W.F.H.A. came i n t o ex is tence , the Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on and the Vancouver Is land Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on jo ined the na t iona l body as separate a s s o c i a t i o n s , but by 1966, a p r o v i n c i a l o rgan iza t ion had evolved which 77 subsumed these two i n d i v i d u a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . The idea of a p r o v i n c i a l body, however, had been conceived long before the 1960s. The Tr iang le League, i nvo lv ing teams from V i c t o r i a , Duncan, and Vancouver, was i n s t i g a t e d i n 1939, with a thought i n the background, that t h i s League might be a step towards extending grass hockey a c t i v i t i e s i n the Province of B r i t i s h Columbia, thus c rea t ing a B.C. Assoc ia t i on which would have as i t s p ivot the Lower Mainland Association.-yg In 1955, when the V i c t o r i a L .G.H.C. was i n v i t e d to j o i n the G.V.W.G.H.A. i n order to q u a l i f y for t r i a l games for s e l e c t i o n to Canada's 1956 Touring Team to A u s t r a l i a , " the i r acceptance was welcomed and they became the e ighth c lub 79 of the Assoc ia t i on at t h i s t ime." Shor t ly a f t e r the return of the Canadian team from A u s t r a l i a , the Development Committee of the G.V.W.G.H.A. recommended that a p r o v i n c i a l body be es tab l i shed to fos te r hockey i n the prov ince . Although the C o n s t i t u t i o n Committee had drawn up a d ra f t c o n s t i t u t i o n for a B.C. a s s o c i a t i o n by February 1957, no fur ther progress 80 towards i t s formation was made at that time. 139 It was a f t e r the foundation of the C.W.F.H.A. that another attempt was made to form a p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n . In the F a l l of 1963, the Executive of the Vancouver Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on (V.W.F.H.A. , formerly the G.V.W.G.H.A.) , appointed a small committee to work with representat ives from the Vancouver Is land L .F .H .A . with a view to i n v e s t i g a t i n g the establishment 81 of a B.C. o r g a n i z a t i o n . However, the process of c rea t ing a B.C. a s s o c i a t i o n , which e n t a i l e d procedural f o r m a l i t i e s , such as present ing a proposal to the membership of the V .W.F .H .A . , and hold ing meetings between representat ives of the Vancouver and Vancouver Is land A s s o c i a t i o n s , was time-consuming. Consequently, i t was not u n t i l February 1966 that the p r i n c i p l e s for the establishment of the B r i t i s h Columbia Women's F i e l d Hockey Federat ion (B .C .W.F .H.F .) were r a t i f i e d by the V.W.F.H.A. and the V . I . L . F . H . A . , and a month l a t e r that the f i r s t Counc i l Meeting of the 82 B.C.W.F.H.F. was h e l d . The B .C .W.F .H.F . , based on the two major Assoc ia t ions , Vancouver and Vancouver I s l and , was h a i l e d as being the f i r s t t r u l y p r o v i n c i a l women's f i e l d hockey federat ion i n Canada. The aims of the Federat ion were two-fo ld : to act as a l i a i s o n between l o c a l assoc ia t ions and the C.W.F.H.A. ; and to promote 83 f i e l d hockey throughout B r i t i s h Columbia. Within months, the Federat ion had begun to implement p ro jec t s designed to f u l f i l these aims. In September 1966, a Coaches' Master C l i n i c , with twelve coaches i n v i t e d , was held at U .B .C . ; by November 1966, the B.C.W.F.H.F. had assumed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the School Tournament; and i n March 1967, as part of the p r o v i n c i a l F e s t i v a l of Sports , an Easter "Jamboree" was h e l d . Th is event brought together twenty-eight teams (11 senior teams; 17 school teams) from C a l i f o r n i a and A lber ta as we l l as B r i t i s h Columbia, which p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a t o t a l of n inety-n ine games. The Jamboree was conceived to enable a l l hockey p l a y e r s , 140 regardless of age and experience, to p a r t i c i p a t e i n an informal gathering of as many teams as possible for hockey, enjoyment and fri e n d s h i p . Later that year, the B.C. Federation sponsored a hockey camp at the Univ e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a , and i n the summer, under the auspices of the B.C.W.F.H.F., the 84 n a t i o n a l coach held c l i n i c s i n four centres throughout the province. Ontario and Quebec. Of the many provinces i n which women's f i e l d hockey was developing i n the mid-1960s, Ontario experienced the most rapid growth. Although the Ontario Women's F i e l d Hockey Association had been founded i n 1960, at the beginning of the 1962 season there were s t i l l only three club 85 teams and two u n i v e r s i t y teams i n act i v e competition i n Ontario. Over the next s i x years, a sub s t a n t i a l increase was to take place, both i n club and un i v e r s i t y a c t i v i t y . In 1964, the Hamilton Ladies' F i e l d Hockey Club was formed, and by 1965, the Wanderers Club had entered the Toronto League. Two years l a t e r , i n the annual tournament f i r s t staged i n 1958, Ontario could f i e l d eight teams; s i x club teams from Toronto, the Hamilton Club team, and 86 the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto team. With eight clubs registered i n Ontario i n 1968, the numbers had doubled over the short span of f i v e years; and, moreover, with the Hamilton club and several non-metropolitan u n i v e r s i t i e s competing, the game had expanded beyond the Greater Toronto area. In 1967, the Hamilton L.F.H.A. was able to host i t s f i r s t hockey tournament, with seven 87 teams from Hamilton, Toronto, and Montreal p a r t i c i p a t i n g . Student hockey was also growing. The U n i v e r s i t i e s of York (1962), Western Ontario (1963), and Waterloo (1965), had joined Toronto and McMaster to form an expanded u n i v e r s i t y competition which, with M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y of Montreal, comprised s i x teams i n 1965. Hockey i n the schools a l s o expanded when two new d i s t r i c t s , Chatham (1965) and Hawksbury (1966), each entered four 141 teams i n the school compet i t ion. The f i r s t annual Ontar io Junior Tournament, with s ix teen teams of school g i r l s from Toronto, Hamilton and Brampton, was held i n 1966; and, by 1968, the number of teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n 89 t h i s tournament had increased to twenty. Several i n i t i a t i v e s contr ibuted to development at the school l e v e l : an annual f i e l d hockey camp for coaches, inaugurated i n 1964, with as many as e ighty p a r t i c i p a n t s , mostly teachers; a student-teacher c l i n i c he ld i n conjunct ion with the 1967 Junior League to fos te r hockey i n jun ior and senior high schoo ls , as we l l as i n p r i va te schoo ls : and summer c l i n i c s , at which a t o t a l of 180 teachers were i n 90 attendance i n 1967 a lone. Vagabonds Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey Club a f f i l i a t e d with the C.W.F.H.A. upon the na t iona l body's foundat ion, and for severa l years remained the only senior 91 women's c lub i n Quebec. However, g i r l s ' hockey, with at least eight teams p lay ing as ea r l y as 1963, was introduced in to the schoo ls ; and the u n i v e r s i t i e s and co l l eges a l so formed women's f i e l d hockey teams. In 1966, for example, the M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y team competed i n Onta r io ' s schedule of 92 i n t e r - u n i v e r s i t y f i x t u r e s . Canada's centennia l year , 1967, was a year of increased a c t i v i t y . Two more teams competed at the i n t e r - c o l l e g i a t e l e v e l , and an increas ing number of schools p a r t i c i p a t e d i n league and tournament p l a y . Furthermore, a women's f i e l d hockey e x h i b i t i o n match was staged, dur ing Montreal 's World Expos i t i on , with tens of thousands of spectators being introduced to the game. For t h i s event Quebec's f i r s t representat ive s i d e , chosen from t r i a l s i nvo lv ing f i v e 93 teams, played the North East Sect ion reserve team from the U.S.A. When a second senior c lub , Pioneers L . F . H . C . , emerged from the eight-team West Is land G i r l s ' F i e l d Hockey League i n 1968, the time was r ipe for the formation of a Quebec a s s o c i a t i o n : 142 At a general meeting of the Vagabonds, held e a r l y i n 1968, i t was suggested that the time had come to form an Assoc ia t i on of our own which would take over what has now grown to be too great a task for one c l u b . Such an Assoc ia t i on would become an a u t h o r i t a t i v e v o i c e , a co -o rd ina t ing group and a respons ib le body i n the area . It would be i n a p o s i t i o n to organize t r i a l s for the s e l e c t i o n of P r o v i n c i a l teams to p lay i n the 1968 Nat ional Tournament . . . .94 A c o n s t i t u t i o n having been drawn up, the f i r s t General Meeting of the Province of Quebec Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on was held on 3 A p r i l 1968. On i t s inaugurat ion the Assoc ia t i on comprised three c lubs , Vagabonds, P ioneers , and Students, and i n June of that year , the Assoc ia t i on staged i t s f i r s t 95 Tournament, the three Quebec teams host ing two Toronto c l u b s . Maritime Prov inces . When the Marit imes Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on was formed i n 1962, there were four U n i v e r s i t y teams and one women's c lub 96 (Ha l i fax) i n the A s s o c i a t i o n . Over the next few years , whi le the H a l i f a x Club team disbanded, the number of U n i v e r s i t y teams increased, with s i x p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the I n t e r c o l l e g i a t e League by 1966. It was wi th in the high schoo ls , however, that a dramatic increase i n popu la r i t y occurred during t h i s p e r i o d . Between 1965 and 1966 a lone, the number of school teams i n Nova Sco t i a and New Brunswick increased from s ix teen to twenty-s ix , and three 97 schools were a l s o p lay ing i n Pr ince Edward Is land i n the l a t t e r year . In 1967, women's f i e l d hockey a l so became es tab l i shed i n the fourth of the Maritime prov inces , where i t was reported that "the l ad ies i n S t . John 's , Newfoundland have formed the S t . John's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on and present ly 98 have four sen ior teams and a jun ior programme for two teams." Consequently, i t was hoped that they would soon j o i n the Marit imes Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n and thus the C.W.F.H.A. The year of Canada's centennia l a l so saw the r e v i v a l of senior women's hockey i n Nova S c o t i a , when 143 the H a l i f a x Lad ies ' Team had three games with Petty O f f i c e r s Teams from Royal 99 Navy ships v i s i t i n g H a l i f a x to ce lebrate the occas ion . By 1968, each of the four Maritime provinces was s u f f i c i e n t l y developed to permit the staging of an i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l tournament. The 1968 Summer E d i t i o n of the c.F .H . News revealed that t h i s tournament, planned for September 1968 i n Truro , Nova S c o t i a , scheduled three matches between New Brunswick and Nova S c o t i a , and round rob in games invo lv ing Newfoundland, P . E . I , and another i n v i t e d t e a m . 1 0 0 P r a i r i e Prov inces . In 1962, the year i n which both the Calgary and Edmonton Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey Clubs separated from the men's o rgan i za t i on , the future of women's hockey i n A lber ta seemed b r i g h t . Over the next few years , however, both c lubs experienced d i f f i c u l t i e s . The Edmonton L .F .H .C . enjoyed only one year of formal ex is tence , disbanding i n 1963 as a resu l t of a dec l ine i n 101 membership. In 1964, the Calgary L .F .H .C . a l so disbanded, but competit ion was maintained by a women's league sponsored by three c lubs of the men's A s s o c i a t i o n . The demise of the Calgary L .F .H .C . was brought about, not because of i n s u f f i c i e n t numbers to sus ta in competit ion — as we l l as league games, Calgary played two i n t e r - c i t y matches with a v i s i t i n g Vancouver team — but because the Calgary L . F .H .C . "was c losed down i n order to form and run" a 102 proposed A lber ta a s s o c i a t i o n . E f f o r t s to create a p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n were f i n a l l y rewarded with the formation of the A lber ta Women's F i e l d Hockey 103 Assoc ia t ion i n 1965. By 1967, the A lber ta W.F.H.A. comprised four c lub teams, a l l from Calgary, i n a d d i t i o n to a team from the U n i v e r s i t y of Calgary which had entered the Ca lgary ' s C i t y League a year e a r l i e r . Attempts made to rev ive the game i n Edmonton i n 1966 led to the r e - i n s t i t u t i o n of a "Mixed League" the 144 next year , but i t was not u n t i l 1969 that the Edmonton Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion was formed.''" 0 4 Compet i t ive ly and developmental ly, 1967 was an ac t i ve year for women's hockey i n A l b e r t a . In the s p r i n g , an A lber ta team v i s i t e d Vancouver for the f i r s t t ime, where i t played matches against B.C.and C a l i f o r n i a teams. In May, the C.W.F.H.A. sponsored a coaching and umpiring c l i n i c i n the prov ince . Over the V i c t o r i a Day weekend, an eight-team Centennial Tournament i n Calgary a t t rac ted teams from B.C. and Manitoba as we l l as A l b e r t a . In the f a l l , schools i n Lethbridge and Grande P r a i r i e began to teach the game, and a f i e l d hockey course was introduced at the U n i v e r s i t y of A lber ta i n Edmonton, an 105 event which led to the formation of the U n i v e r s i t y team i n 1968. Women's f i e l d hockey i n Manitoba was nurtured i n the u n i v e r s i t i e s . In 1963, the game was introduced in to the intramural programme at the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba; the fo l lowing year , f i e l d hockey was o f fe red as a phys i ca l education course there; and, by 1966, t h i s course was compulsory for the Bachelor of Phys i ca l Education degree. By t h i s time, the game had spread to severa l other t e r t i a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s , both i n Winnipeg and i n Brandon, as we l l , 106 as to severa l schoo ls . From t h i s point onwards, competit ive hockey f l o u r i s h e d . In the 1966 season, the f i r s t c lub competit ion was played i n Manitoba, with s i x teams competing; f i v e from the co l l eges and u n i v e r s i t i e s , and one re fe r red to as the 107 "Ladies C i t y Team". In the autumn of that year , an i n v i t i a t i o n a l tournament was he ld at the U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba; of the f i v e teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g , three were from Manitoba, one from A lber ta and one from Saskatchewan. Over the next few years , women's f i e l d hockey i n Manitoba continued to develop. An annual hockey camp, which a t t rac ted as many as t h i r t y p a r t i c i p a n t s , comprising p h y s i c a l education students from the 145 Un ive rs i t y of Manitoba and teachers from the Winnipeg high schoo ls , was 108 es tab l i shed to promote the game. It was a l s o through the schools and u n i v e r s i t i e s that women's f i e l d hockey developed i n Saskatchewan. As e a r l y as 1960, the game was introduced to the p h y s i c a l educat ion programme at the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, but some years passed before the graduating students fostered the game wide ly , only two schools having s ta r ted f i e l d hockey by 1966. However, i n 1967, the game expanded; severa l more schoo ls , i nc lud ing three c o l l e g i a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s , adopted the game, and both the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan (Saskatoon), and the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan at Regina ( l a t e r the U n i v e r s i t y of Regina) entered teams i n the f i r s t Western Canadian 109 I n t e r c o l l e g i a t e f i e l d hockey compet i t ion, played at Saskatoon. Nat ional Tournaments and Canadian Team S e l e c t i o n . The Canadian Touring Teams which p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the I .F.W.H.A. Tournaments of 1956 and 1959 were not representat ive of the whole of Canada, the p layers having been drawn e n t i r e l y from B r i t i s h Columbia on both occas ions . At the 1963 Tournament, held a year a f t e r the formation of the C.W.F.H.A. , the Canadian team, although i t inc luded 110 p layers from the Marit imes, was s t i l l not t r u l y representa t ive . Indeed, the President of the C.W.F.H.A. reported that . An a p p l i c a t i o n was made for a grant i n 1963 from the Canada F i tness Counci l [Nat ional Advisory Counc i l ] to a s s i s t the Canadian Assoc ia t ion i n sending the Nat ional Team to Ba l t imore. However, the Counci l f e l t more a t ten t ion should be paid to the promotion of hockey w i th in the boundaries of Canada before such cont r ibut ions to a t r a v e l l i n g team could be approved.-^n Thus, i n 1964, plans were formulated to promote the game wi th in Canada, a Promotion Committee having been formed to achieve t h i s o b j e c t i v e . Of t h i s Committee's p lans , the President observed that "foremost [was] the idea of 146 hold ing the f i r s t Sec t iona l and Nat iona l Tournaments i n Women's f i e l d hockey 112 i n Canada." The plans envisaged a western s e c t i o n a l tournament, with teams from Vancouver, Vancouver I s land , Ca lgary , Edmonton, and the I n t e r i o r of B .C . ; and an eastern s e c t i o n a l tournament with teams from the Marit imes, Ontar io and Montreal . From each of these tournaments, two teams would be se lec ted to compete at one c e n t r a l i z e d Nat ional Tournament. F i n a l l y , from the 113 Nat ional Tournament, a Canadian Team and a Reserve Team would be s e l e c t e d . These ambitious plans came to pass. In A p r i l 1965, s i x teams (Vancouver - 3, Vancouver Is land - 2, Calgary - 1) played at U.B.C. i n the Western Sec t iona l Tournament, from which two Western Canada teams were s e l e c t e d . S i m i l a r l y , the Eastern T r i a l s , with teams from Ontar io , Quebec, and the Marit imes, were he ld to se lec t the two teams to represent Eastern 114 Canada. F i n a l l y , at Brockton Po in t , Stanley Park, i n Vancouver, over the V i c t o r i a Day weekend of 22-24 May 1965, the f i r s t Canadian Nat ional Women's F i e l d Hockey Tournament was h e l d ; and t h i s tournament, which a l so const i tu ted t r i a l s , "enabled the f i r s t t r u l y representat ive [Canadian] team to be , .,115 s e l e c t e d . In 1966, the same format of s taging Sec t iona l Tournaments and s e l e c t i n g East and West teams to compete at the Nat ional Championships was a p p l i e d . The Western Sec t iona l Tournament, with s i x teams competing, was held i n V i c t o r i a dur ing A p r i l , and the f ive-team Eastern Sec t iona l Tournament i n Toronto i n M a y . 1 1 6 The Nat iona l Tournament was held i n Toronto i n October 1966, and from t h i s event, the team to represent Canada at the 1967 I .F.W.H.A. Tournament i n Leverkusen, Germany, was s e l e c t e d . The Canadian contingent included a s u b s t a n t i a l proport ion from the East , and the p layers from Eastern 117 Canada f e l t that i t was, for the f i r s t t ime, a t r u l y na t iona l team. 147 No Canadian Tournament was held i n 1967, as the Canadian Team was p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament and assoc iated tours that year . Moreover, by t h i s time, the s t ruc ture of the Nat ional Tournament was being re-assessed . Proposals to replace the e x i s t i n g format by a s i n g l e tournament with p r o v i n c i a l representat ion gained favour with the membership, and t h i s i n i t i a t i v e corresponded with the wishes of the F i tness and Amateur Sport D i rec to ra te of the Department of Nat ional Health and Welfare, which ass i s ted 118 i n the funding of t h i s aspect of the development of women's f i e l d hockey. Consequently, i n 1968, when the t h i r d Canadian Nat ional Women's F i e l d Hockey Tournament was held i n Winnipeg, provinces p a r t i c i p a t e d for the f i r s t t ime. Although i t was, i n essence, an I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Nat iona l Championship, not a l l provinces competed i n d i v i d u a l l y , and the two strongest provinces each entered two teams. The eight competing teams were: B r i t i s h Columbia (2) ; Ontar io (2) ; A l b e r t a ; Quebec; Saskatchewan-Manitoba (combined team); and Nova 119 Sco t i a (represent ing the Mar i t imes) . B r i t i s h Columbia I won the tournament, and thus became, i n e f f e c t , Nat iona l Champions. A p lan to p lay a Canada versus U.S.A. match at the conc lus ion of the Tournament, conceived four years e a r l i e r , came to f r u i t i o n i n 1968, the U.S.A. narrowly defeat ing Canada 3-2. In 1969, i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l competit ion was enhanced when women's f i e l d hockey was inc luded i n the f i r s t Canada Summer Games, a f e d e r a l l y sponsored pro ject designed to ra i se the standard of amateur sport across the country. The Games, he ld i n H a l i f a x , Nova S c o t i a , acted as a st imulus to progress , for the project provided a tournament which was independently funded. Teams and o f f i c i a l s had the opportunity to prepare thoroughly for the event, at which a l l ten prov inces , as we l l as the two t e r r i t o r i e s , were represented. It was a 121 landmark i n the development of women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada. 148 It was i n the l a te 1960s, too, that women's u n i v e r s i t y hockey competit ion became more nat iona l i n scope. In 1967, the Western Canadian I n t e r c o l l e g i a t e A t h l e t i c Assoc ia t ion i n i t i a t e d a tournament which inc luded the u n i v e r s i t i e s of the four western prov inces . Seven teams p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s f i r s t event, held i n Saskatoon, and the next year the competit ion expanded to 122 inc lude an e ighth team. Summary of Post-War Development Between World War II and the l a te 1960s, women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada made great progress i n i t s development, not only i n terms of p a r t i c i p a t i o n and compet i t ion, but a l so with respect to i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n . In the e a r l y part of the per iod , adult p lay was l a r g e l y conf ined to B r i t i s h Columbia, where Vancouver was the only centre i n the country with a formal competit ive league. It was the G.V.W.G.H.A. which, as an assoc iate member of the I .F .W.H.A . , organized the f i r s t Canadian team to p a r t i c i p a t e at an I .F.W.H.A. Tournament. The l a te 1950s and ear l y 1960s were marked by the growth i n the number of teams i n B r i t i s h Columbia, on the one hand, and the c rea t ion of c lubs and assoc ia t ions i n Ontar io , the Marit imes, A lber ta and Quebec, on the o ther . Th is was the era i n which the Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on was founded, p a r t l y to un i f y the country for developmental purposes, but l a r g e l y with a view towards e s t a b l i s h i n g a medium through which a t r u l y representat ive na t iona l team could be se lec ted for p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n I .F.W.H.A. Tournaments and other i n t e r n a t i o n a l events. The l a t t e r ob jec t i ve was not f u l l y achieved u n t i l the f i n a l phase of t h i s p e r i o d . The m i d - s i x t i e s was a time of continued expansion i n a l l par ts of the country. By 1969, the game was es tab l i shed i n every prov ince; furthermore, the goal of a t r u l y Canadian team was, at l a s t , r e a l i z e d . 149 Men's F i e l d Hockey Post-War Recovery The decade from World War II to the mid-1950s can be considered as one of recovery from the d i s r u p t i o n caused by World War I I . It was a per iod during which men's f i e l d hockey competit ion was f i rm ly re -es tab l i shed i n B r i t i s h Columbia, and dur ing which the game began to be introduced to other par ts of Canada. Rev iva l i n B r i t i s h Columbia. For the l a s t three war years , there was no organized men's hockey i n B r i t i s h Columbia, the Vancouver League having terminated i t s a c t i v i t i e s before the end of 1942. It was not long a f t e r the cessat ion of h o s t i l i t i e s , however, that the game was rev ived , for the f i r s t post-war U.B.C. Annual, The Totem, reported: Though grass hockey was one of the f i r s t v i c t ims of the war, i t s re turn to campus t h i s year was as prompt as i t was welcome. With increased enrolment at U .B .C . , l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y was met i n forming two teams, V a r s i t y and U . B . C , and with competit ion provided by those two well-known Vancouver Squads, the Oldtimers and the East Indians, a c i t y hockey league was qu i ck ly i n s t i t u t e d . 1 2 3 The League appears not to have been deemed o f f i c i a l i n t h i s 1945-46 season, for there i s no i n s c r i p t i o n on the Challenge Cup for that year . However, for the fo l lowing season, when the Vancouver-based Mainland Grass Hockey League again comprised four teams, the Challenge Cup bears the engraving of U.B.C. as 124 League Champions. A f te r two years of post-war r e b u i l d i n g , f i e l d hockey i n Vancouver had expanded to the point where the President of the Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t ion of B .C . , B i l l Melhuish, was able to w r i t e , "there are 8 teams i n our main League, 6 intermural [ s i c ] teams p lay ing 3 times a week at the 150 U n i v e r s i t y , and a jun ior d i v i s i o n of 6 teams being formed." At U.B.C. e s p e c i a l l y , the game had grown r a p i d l y . In the f i r s t two years a f t e r the war, the U.B.C. Club entered two teams i n the League: and by the 1947-48 season, four teams — three undergraduate teams and a f a c u l t y team — were entered. These, together with four " c i t y teams", cons t i tu ted an eight-team League, which was s p l i t i n to two d i v i s i o n s . From 1948 u n t i l the mid-1950s, although the League reverted to a s i n g l e d i v i s i o n , i t continued to comprise between s i x 126 and eight teams. In the ear l y post-war years , an e f f o r t was made to introduce youngsters to the game. Commencing i n 1946, a jun ior boys' hockey programme was maintained, with teams being drawn from the U n i v e r s i t y H i l l area, North Vancouver, and S t . George's School ; games were played on Saturday mornings at U.B.C. or on North Vancouver parks . Many of these boys continued to p lay f i e l d hockey a f t e r they enro l l ed at the Un ive rs i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, thus 127 a t t e s t i n g to the success of t h i s jun ior development programme. Men's f i e l d hockey was a l so rev ived on Vancouver Is land soon a f t e r the end of World War I I . As ea r l y as the 1946-47 season, "the V a r s i t y [U.B.C. 128 team] journeyed to V i c t o r i a and beat the V i c t o r i a Co l l ege" , and for the next severa l years , U.B.C. teams continued to v i s i t Vancouver Is land to p lay c o l l e g e , school and c lub teams. However, i n t e r - c i t y hockey between Vancouver and V i c t o r i a representat ive teams took longer to r e - s t a r t . Although e f f o r t s were i n i t i a t e d i n 1946, i t was not u n t i l the 1948-49 season that two I n t e r - C i t y games were played at Shawnigan Lake School . Vancouver reta ined the O.B. A l l a n I n t e r - C i t y Cup by defeat ing the Is land eleven by 1-0 and 3-2, a f t e r two c l o s e l y fought games. Th is [marked] a r e v i v a l of I n t e r - C i t y games which were las t played i n 1 9 3 9 . 1 2 9 These games d id not hera ld i n regular competit ion between the two centres , for i t was not u n t i l the mid-1950s that fur ther i n t e r - c i t y matches were arranged. 151 Nevertheless , compet i t ion of a less formal nature d id occur; for example, dur ing the ear l y 1950s, teams of jun ior boys t r a v e l l e d from Vancouver to the 130 Is land to p lay against boys and g i r l s ' p r i va te schools there . Men's F i e l d Hockey i n Other Parts of Canada. By the mid-1950s, the game had taken root i n the province of Ontar io . Men's f i e l d hockey i n Toronto had i t s o r i g i n s i n the e a r l y 1950s, perhaps dat ing back as far as 1951. By 1954, although compet i t ion was qu i te in formal , two d i s t i n c t c lubs had emerged, Toronto F i e l d Hockey Club and Gymkhana F i e l d Hockey C lub. While Toronto F.H.C. i s genera l ly recognized as "Toronto's parent c lub" , at least one p layer of that era claimed that the Gymkhana Club, founded c a . 1952, pre-dated 131 Toronto F.H.C. The years from 1954 to 1956 were ac t i ve ones for Toronto f i e l d hockey p l a y e r s . With s u f f i c i e n t members to form three teams, two from the Toronto F.H.C. and one from Gymkhana F . H . C , i t was poss ib le to hold a competit ion descr ibed as the " F i r s t Annual Toronto In ternat iona l F i e l d Hockey Tournament", at which three Toronto teams and three U.S. teams 132 p a r t i c i p a t e d . It was a l so i n the ear l y 1950s that men's f i e l d hockey began i n Quebec. One of the e a r l i e s t adherents of the game was a team of predominantly B r i t i s h ex -pa t r i a te R o l l s Royce employees, who, by 1954, even had the i r own p lay ing f i e l d near Montrea l 's Dorval A i r p o r t . At t h i s t ime, a second c lub , comprising mostly Dutch immigrants, formed a team which played the R o l l s Royce 133 contingent on a regular b a s i s . It was i n the mid-1950s that Toronto and Montreal teams s ta r ted to p a r t i c i p a t e i n American tournaments. In f a c t , when the Toronto Club t r a v e l l e d to Ph i l ade lph ia i n 1955 to compete i n i t s f i r s t tournament i n the United 152 Sta tes , i t even won the f i n a l . Short ly afterwards, a tournament i n Rye, New York, was added to the Toronto p l a y e r s ' out-of-town f i x t u r e s , and from 1956 onwards, Montreal teams were a l so represented at Rye and P h i l a d e l p h i a . These annual tournaments were very popular amongst the c lubs from Toronto and Montreal . Indeed, the Annual Spring Tournament of the F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on of America held i n Rye, New York, became recognized as an event 135 which brought together the leading c lub s ides of Eastern Canada. In te rna t iona l Competit ion. F i f t e e n years a f t e r i t s unsuccessfu l b id to enter a team i n the 1932 Olympic Games at Los Angeles, the Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on of B r i t i s h Columbia once again d iscussed the matter. At i t s 1947 Annual General Meeting, "the Secretary was ins t ruc ted to communicate with Mr. Osborne, Olympic Representat ive of B .C . , i n the matter of a B.C. team 136 going to represent Canada i n the next and future Olympic Games . . . ." A p o s i t i v e response was not forthcoming, f o r , i n January 1948, the Executive of the Assoc ia t i on "considered the r e j e c t i o n by the C .A .A .U . of the enter ing of a Grass Hockey Team from the Mainland League to the Olympic Games t h i s 137 year . " Ensuing correspondence f a i l e d to accomplish the A s s o c i a t i o n ' s o b j e c t i v e , but d id lead to a d i s c u s s i o n of a na t iona l o rgan iza t ion at the Annual General Meeting l a t e r that year . It was recorded, however, that no dec i s ions were reached, and almost a decade was to pass before these issues were ra i sed aga in . Per iod of Rapid Progress During the l a te 1950s and the e a r l y 1960s, men's f i e l d hockey i n Canada experienced a dramatic e v o l u t i o n . From a s i n g l e eight-team league i n 153 Vancouver, and a handful of teams p lay ing i n a few other centres across the country, the game was transformed i n the span of less than a decade to one which had a na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n based on seven major cent res , i nc lud ing a m u l t i - d i v i s i o n a l Vancouver league of more than twenty teams. Furthermore, by the end of t h i s p e r i o d , not only had the nat iona l a s s o c i a t i o n a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . , but the long-nurtured ambition of enter ing a Canadian team i n Olympic competit ion had a l so been f u l f i l l e d . Expansion i n B r i t i s h Columbia. In the annals of Canadian demographic s t a t i s t i c s , 1957 stands out as a year of extremely heavy immigration; over 280,000 immigrants a r r i v e d i n Canada that year , more than double the average 139 annual f i g u r e . Th is immigration led to an expansion of the game i n severa l parts of the country, with the greatest impact f e l t i n B r i t i s h Columbia. The number of teams p lay ing f i e l d hockey i n Vancouver r e f l e c t e d t h i s phenomenon, for i t was recorded that "no great increase i n the League's number of teams occurred . . . u n t i l the 1957-58 season, when heavy immigration 140 caused a sudden surge from 8 to 13 teams." The rap id expansion continued and, by the 1958-59 season, there were eighteen teams a l together , n e c e s s i t a t i n g the c r e a t i o n of two d i v i s i o n s w i th in the league for regular Saturday afternoon f i x t u r e s — f i v e games among the ten teams of D i v i s i o n I , and four games among the e ight teams from D i v i s i o n I I , were played each 141 weekend. Although the increase i n the number of p a r t i c i p a t i n g teams never again matched the very h igh rate of the f i r s t two years of t h i s per iod , 142 the Vancouver League continued to expand, as shown i n Table 7. 154 TABLE 7 NUMBER OF TEAMS AND DIVISIONS IN MEN'S VANCOUVER LEAGUE: 1957-1964 Season Number of Teams Number of D i v i s i o n s 1956-57 8 1 1957-58 13 1 -1958-59 18 2 1959-60 18 2 1960-61 20 3 1961-62 21 3 1962-63 22 3 1963-64 22 3 The o rgan i za t iona l s t ruc ture was adapted to accommodate the growth i n membership. Some new c lubs were founded; a d d i t i o n a l teams were formed w i th in e x i s t i n g c lubs ; and i n the 1960-61 season, a t h i r d d i v i s i o n was created to e s t a b l i s h more even compet i t ion . In the ear l y 1960s, severa l c lubs were very s t rong . The Vancouver and Redbirds Clubs each f i e l d e d three teams; the Grasshoppers c lub , founded i n 1957-58 with a s i n g l e team, was able to r a i s e four teams by the 1963-64 season: and the U.B.C. Club, which averaged f i v e 143 teams between 1960 and 1964, reached a record s i x teams i n 1962-63. During t h i s per iod e f f o r t s were cont inued, p r i m a r i l y under the d i r e c t i o n of Dr. H.V. Warren, to develop jun ior boys' hockey. Several senior p l a y e r s , some of them immigrants c h i e f l y from the B r i t i s h I s l e s , responded to Warren's appeals to fos te r the game among Canadian boys. By the l a te 1950s, 155 i t was reported that one hundred young men between the ages of ten and eighteen were p lay ing r e g u l a r l y . Although there was no o f f i c i a l jun ior competit ion at t h i s time, jun ior teams began to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Vancouver League, which, up to then, had comprised only senior teams; one jun ior team 144 was entered i n the 1958-59 season, two i n the 1959-60 season. In the ear l y 1960s, increased e f f o r t s were made to promote the game amongst youngsters. During the 1960-61 season, a "Junior Hockey Co-ordinator" 145 of the B.C.G.H.A. was appointed to oversee jun ior development. Th is may have been the c a t a l y s t required to formal ize the jun ior programme because, by September 1961, s i x jun ior teams were p lay ing every week. The jun ior programme was not without i t s setbacks, however, as the Co-ordinator f requent ly reported to the Executive of the Assoc ia t i on the d i f f i c u l t i e s experienced i n r e c r u i t i n g coaches, a s i t u a t i o n which led to the disbanding of 146 some jun ior teams. While the coaching of jun io rs and t h e i r i n t e g r a t i o n in to the Men's League cont inued, the emphasis between 1962 and 1964 was on introduc ing the game in to the schoo ls . As ea r l y as February 1962, cons iderable progress was reported, with f i v e boys' teams formed by the high schools p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a league, the coaches drawn from the senior teams of the Vancouver League. At the end of the season i t was recorded that "a High School s e r i e s of games were 147 being played . . . . About s i x to e ight teams p a r t i c i p a t e d . " During t h i s p e r i o d , too, e f f o r t s were made to teach the game to undergraduates i n the U.B.C. Education Facu l ty so that , as graduates, they could disseminate i t i n the schoo ls , a concept prev ious ly implemented i n 1959, when the Pedagogues team had been formed at U.B.C. with t h i s dec lared i n t e n t i o n . In the 1963-64 season, the Assoc ia t i on planned a hockey c l i n i c which, through the t r a i n i n g of teachers and youth leaders , was intended to st imulate the game i n the h igh 156 148 schoo ls . Although t h i s venture d id not m a t e r i a l i z e , the Junior Co-ordinator "managed to get a Schools ' league s ta r ted again [that] 149 season. The l a te f i f t i e s and ear l y s i x t i e s a l so witnessed progress i n the development of men's f i e l d hockey on Vancouver I s l a n d . At the beginning of that p e r i o d , there were i n s u f f i c i e n t numbers to sus ta in a formal league. However, the game was played on a regular bas is i n the V i c t o r i a area, a major source of competit ion being matches with v i s i t i n g Vancouver c lub teams. For severa l seasons i n the la te 1950s, "Mainland teams" t r a v e l l e d to V i c t o r i a for 150 f r i e n d l y i n t e r - c l u b matches arranged on an i n v i t a t i o n a l b a s i s . By the 1960-61 season, v i s i t s to V i c t o r i a by Vancouver teams were scheduled in to the c lubs ' f i x t u r e s , and every week a team from one of Vancouver's three d i v i s i o n s 151 t r a v e l l e d to the Is land to give V i c t o r i a teams var i ed compet i t ion. During the 1961-62 season, Vancouver Is land c lubs were able to funct ion independently, for the minutes of the B.C .F .H.A . recorded that " V i c t o r i a are 152 now organised in to four teams and have t h e i r own League compet i t ions ." By the end of the season, f i v e teams p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s League: one team from the V i c t o r i a F .H .C . , two teams from the U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a , and two 153 teams from Shawnigan Lake School , a p r i v a t e school not far from V i c t o r i a . Development i n Other Provinces of Canada. Although s u f f e r i n g a set-back i n the late 1950s, men's f i e l d hockey i n Ontario was well established by the end of t h i s period. The Toronto F.H.C. and Gymkhana F.H.C. competed with one another i n l o c a l matches and continued to send strong teams to the annual tournaments i n the U.S.A. u n t i l , i n 1959, Gymkhana lo s t i t s playing f i e l d , and the Club disbanded. For the next two years, competition was severely weakened, and i t was l e f t to "the parent club", as Toronto F.H.C. was 157 regarded, to keep the game a l i v e . By 1961, however, the game had rev ived , for i n that year , a f t e r not having reg i s te red a s i n g l e v i c t o r y at the Rye Tournament during the previous two years , the Toronto team won the competit ion conv inc ing ly . In the same year , a tournament was he ld i n Toronto. As we l l as teams from Toronto and Montreal , competing at the tournament was a team from 154 Guelph, the f i r s t c i t y from outs ide Toronto, to f i e l d a team. Cred i t for t h i s achievement was a t t r i b u t e d to "those sta lwarts of the Toronto FHC who . . . . have s t r i v e n c o n s i s t e n t l y to popular ize the game i n other Ontar io 155 cen t res . " The next three years were momentous ones i n the annals of men's f i e l d hockey i n Ontar io . In the autumn of 1962, two new c lubs , Hamilton F.H.C. and Oshawa F . H . C , played t h e i r f i r s t scheduled matches. Then, a f t e r severa l years of i n a c t i v i t y . Gymkhana F . H . C re-emerged. Thus, as the season drew to 156 a c l o s e , s u f f i c i e n t teams ex i s ted to support an organized league. This compet i t ion, comprising s i x teams, was soon formal ized , for the year 1963 proved to be a mi lestone i n the h i s t o r y of F i e l d Hockey i n Ontar io . L o c a l l y , i t marked the formation of the Ontar io F i e l d Hockey Federat ion and, under i t s auspices , the success fu l inaugurat ion of the f i r s t r e g u l a r l y scheduled League competit ions i n eastern Canada. 5^-7 By 1964, a t o t a l of e ight teams a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e d ; a measure of the progress of the game was the fact that i n d i v i d u a l teams from wi th in the ranks of the Toronto F.H.C. were strong enough to break away and form separate c lubs . Montreal remained an a c t i v e centre for men's f i e l d hockey during these years . As domestic competit ion progressed from i t s formative stages i n the ear l y 1950s, the composit ion of the two o r i g i n a l teams d i v e r s i f i e d to inc lude p layers of many n a t i o n a l i t i e s . In competit ion with outs ide c lubs , the p layers p a r t i c i p a t e d under the aegis of the Montreal F i e l d Hockey C lub. Throughout 158 t h i s per iod , the Montreal F .H.C. entered tournaments i n Rye and Phi ladephia i n the U.S .A . , Toronto and Hamilton (from 1963) i n Ontar io , as we l l as those 159 hosted by the Montreal Club i t s e l f . Although f i e l d hockey had been played i n Calgary both p r i o r to World War I and between the Wars, the game was not r e - s t a r t e d there immediately a f t e r World War I I . It was not u n t i l 1957 that Ambrose Gregg assembled nine p layers for a game of mixed hockey, and i t was i n the form of mixed hockey that p layers p a r t i c i p a t e d for the f i r s t two years . From 1959 onwards, however, development was r a p i d , i n that year , there were s u f f i c i e n t numbers to e s t a b l i s h two men's teams i n Calgary, and i n 1961 the Calgary F i e l d Hockey Club organized a four-team league. By that time, too, Edmonton could f i e l d 160 two teams and Red Deer, one. E f f o r t s to develop jun ior hockey i n Calgary , begun i n the e a r l y s i x t i e s , succeeded i n producing two or three teams by 1964, whi le i n Edmonton the game was introduced in to the schools i n 1963. R e f l e c t i n g the o rgan i za t i ona l matur i ty of the game i n the prov ince , the A lber ta F i e l d Hockey Federat ion was founded i n 1 9 6 4 . 1 6 1 I n t e r - C i t y and I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Competit ion. Although hockey competit ion between Vancouver and V i c t o r i a representat ive teams had been an annual feature of the game p r i o r to World War I I , i t was some years a f t e r the War before these i n t e r - c i t y matches were r e - i n s t i t u t e d . The f i r s t post-war match was 162 played on Vancouver Is land i n A p r i l 1949. During the 1950s, whi le many games were arranged between the two centres at the c lub l e v e l , "rep" matches were in f requent . An i n d i c a t i o n of the dearth of such compet i t ion i s evident from a b u l l e t i n d i s t r i b u t e d by the Executive of the B .C .F .H.A . i n the 1960-61 season which dec lared that "there w i l l be an I n t e r - C i t y match between 159 Vancouver and Victoria in April 1961 for the Inter-City Cup, dormant for some time. The early 1960s, however, was a period of rejuvenation of inter-city hockey, with several c i t i e s participating. The Vancouver-Victoria match was the forerunner of many more, for, between 1961 and 1964, numerous inter-city matches were arranged amongst teams representing Calgary, Edmonton, Vancouver and Victoria. Some of these matches were organized on a bilateral basis, others in tournaments involving several c i t i e s . For example, in 1963, a tournament held in Vancouver included teams from a l l four centres, as well as 164 an invitational team from California. And i t could be argued that inter-city hockey was also in existence in "the East" at this time — albeit the Toronto and Montreal teams which participated annually in tournaments held in the U.S.A. and Eastern Canada from the mid-1950s onwards were organized on a club rather than a representative basis. From teams representing c i t i e s , provincial representative teams evolved, eventually leading to inter-provincial competition. However, the f i r s t provincial representative team, selected by the British Columbia Association in 1958, competed not against another province, but against the officers and crew of the Royal Navy Ship, H.M.S. Newcastle, which visited British Columbia as part of the province's centenary celebrations that 165 year. It was not unti l October 1960, when a Calgary team travelled to Vancouver, that a British Columbia representative side f i r s t played against a team from another province. Although this Calgary team was not truly representative of Alberta, the matches played were considered inter-provincial by the players participating at that time, and were taken sufficiently seriously that a selection committee was appointed to choose the B.C. 166 team. 160 By 1962, both p r o v i n c i a l teams had become representative i n nature, for when a tournament was held i n Vancouver that year to s e l e c t a team to represent the West of Canada, the p a r t i c i p a t i n g teams were referred to as B.C. 16*7 A l l Stars and Alberta A l l Stars. I n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l competition was now a r e a l i t y . In an e f f o r t to extend i t more widely, an i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l tournament, with p r o v i n c i a l teams from across Canada i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e , was planned to be held i n Vancouver i n September 1963. However, due to i n s u f f i c e n t funds, the event f a i l e d to m a t e r i a l i z e , and i t was not u n t i l 1964, when Olympic t r i a l s were held i n Vancouver, that such a tournament became Canada-wide, with players from B.C., Alberta, Ontario and Quebec. Despite the fact that not a l l teams were t r u l y p r o v i n c i a l , with Ontario and Quebec players combining to form a team c a l l e d "Eastern Canada", the competition was 168 o f f i c i a l l y r e ferred to as the I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Tournament. Creation of the C.F.H.A.: International A f f i l i a t i o n . Before the story of representative hockey competition at higher l e v e l s can be related, i t i s necessary to review organizational aspects of the game i n Canada, and i n p a r t i c u l a r , the c r e a t i o n of the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Association. In the 1950s, those f i e l d hockey bodies which had been formed existed b a s i c a l l y as club teams which arranged i n v i t a t i o n a l f i x t u r e s and p a r t i c i p a t e d i n tournaments. The exception was Vancouver, which had a s u f f i c i e n t number of teams to support a structured league with r e g u l a r l y scheduled matches. The organization of the league was administered by the Mainland Grass Hockey Association of B.C., i t s t i t l e r e f l e c t i n g the j u r i s d i c t i o n a l mandate of the 169 Association at t h i s time. However, i n 1957, the v i s i o n of the Association's Executive began to extend beyond the confines of i t s own region, f o r , i n January of that year, a meeting was held "to discuss the formation of 161 a Canadian Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on with a view to j o i n i n g the Federat ion 170 Internat iona le de Hockey." At t h i s meeting, the President and Secretary of the A s s o c i a t i o n were ins t ruc ted to i n i t i a t e correspondence with the Eastern Canadian hockey o rgan iza t ion regarding the formation of a na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n capable of represent ing the country as a whole i n a l l matters pe r ta in ing to the game. At the same time, a committee was named to review the formation of 171 such an a s s o c i a t i o n , and to d ra f t i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n . Even more revea l ing than the records of the men's January meeting were the minutes of a meeting of the Vancouver Women's A s s o c i a t i o n , held i n ea r l y February 1957, which shed fur ther l i g h t on the s i t u a t i o n : The Men's League are i n the process of s e t t i n g up a B.C. Body from which they hope to set up a Canadian Body because Toronto have such a large fo l lowing i n the Men's Grass Hockey. The men are contemplating sending a Canadian team to the Olympics i n 1960 . . . '\q2 During the fo l lowing months, there ensued considerable a c t i v i t y d i rec ted towards ach iev ing these o b j e c t i v e s . An i n i t i a l step i n the o v e r a l l process of forming a na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n was taken at the Annual General Meeting of the Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on of B .C . , held i n Vancouver on 18 September 1957, when an amendment was passed to change the name of that body to the B r i t i s h Columbia Grass Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . At t h i s A .G.M. , the membership was informed of the act ions of the Executive and i t s appointed Committee. Pre l iminary work had been done on d r a f t i n g a c o n s t i t u t i o n for a na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n . A l e t t e r had been wr i t ten to the Honorary General Secretary of the F . I . H . adv is ing him of the i n t e n t i o n to form a Canadian A s s o c i a t i o n , and submitt ing a ten ta t i ve a p p l i c a t i o n for membership i n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan i za t ion ; and to t h i s l e t t e r , the Secretary of the F . I . H . 173 had r e p l i e d , p rov id ing informat ion regarding nat iona l a s s o c i a t i o n s . Considerable correspondence with other parts of the country had a l so been 162 i n i t i a t e d to ensure that the proposed Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on would represent a l l of Canada. The general response was somewhat negat ive , and as a r e s u l t , the Secretary of the B r i t i s h Columbia Assoc ia t i on concluded that , It would appear that s ince we have about 90% of the a v a i l a b l e strength of F i e l d Hockey i n Canada r ight here i n our own A s s o c i a t i o n , we should go ahead with plans to form a Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on on our own i f we wish to move forward towards Federat ion . -^74 The President of the B.C. A s s o c i a t i o n , i n h i s report to the A .G.M. , r e i t e r a t e d the a s p i r a t i o n that Canada be represented at the 1960 Olympic Games to be he ld i n Rome. He explained that , i n order for Canada to enter a team i n the Olympic Hockey Tournament, i t was necessary to form a na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n which could then a f f i l i a t e with the In ternat iona l Hockey Federat ion , 175 membership of which was a p r e r e q u i s i t e of Olympic e l i g i b i l i t y . His statement regarding the time that i t might take to complete t h i s procedure and achieve the Olympic ambition was prophet ic when he s a i d : "This matter i s s t i l l being explored, and progress has been made but i t w i l l be we l l 176 understood that an arrangement of t h i s magnitude i s bound to take t ime." Fol lowing t h i s meeting, the Secretary , a s s i s t e d by a Committee appointed by the B .C .G.H.A. , proceeded to prepare a d ra f t c o n s t i t u t i o n for the proposed nat iona l body. A f te r a f i r s t r e v i s i o n was completed i n A p r i l 1959, the Canadian Olympic Assoc ia t i on ( C O . A . ) was informed of the A s s o c i a t i o n ' s 177 p lans . F i n a l l y , i n September 1959, the President of the B.C. Assoc ia t ion was able to report that the C o n s t i t u t i o n of the proposed Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on had been completed, and sent to the a u t h o r i t i e s concerned for approval and r a t i f i c a t i o n . He added that "when t h i s has been rece ived , the way w i l l be c l e a r for Canada to enter a hockey team for the Olympic 178 Games." However, the prospect of p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the 1960 Olympics i n Rome was no longer d i scussed . When i t was proposed that a fund be opened for 163 the purpose of a s s i s t i n g a Canadian team to the Olympic Games, the rev ised 179 goal was "perhaps to Tokyo i n 1964." Evidence of a fur ther setback to Olympic a s p i r a t i o n s was revealed i n the minutes of a meeting of the Executive of the B.C.G.H.A. held i n May 1960, when "Olympic prospects were again d iscussed i n the l i g h t of d i sappo int ing 180 news rece ived from the Hockey Federat ion [ F . I . H . ] . " Apparent ly , the c o n s t i t u t i o n of the proposed Canadian F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n was not t o t a l l y acceptable to the F . I . H . , for the meeting decided to proceed with amendments as requested by the i n t e r n a t i o n a l body. On the p o s i t i v e s i d e , i n 1960, the B.C.G.H.A. es tab l i shed contact with the Calgary F i e l d Hockey Club and the Toronto F i e l d Hockey Club, the l a t t e r of which had a l so been communicating with the F . I . H . The o f f i c e r s of the B.C.G.H.A. welcomed the i n t e r e s t expressed by these two c lubs , as they were anxious to s o l i c i t the membership 181 of at least three provinces i n the proposed na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n . The next twelve months proved to be an ac t i ve per iod i n the formation of the C .F .H .A . The B.C.G.H.A. and the Calgary F.H.C. es tab l i shed contact when the Calgary team v i s i t e d Vancouver i n October 1960 to p lay matches with B.C. representat ive teams. In the f i r s t three months of 1961, fur ther correspondence passed between the B .C .G.H.A. , the Toronto F.H.C. and the F . I . H . concerning the rev ised c o n s t i t u t i o n of the proposed Canadian F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . Then, i n A p r i l 1961, the B.C.G.H.A. Executive met again to draw up the programme for a meeting to e s t a b l i s h a Canadian A s s o c i a t i o n . It was the I n t e r - C i t i e s Tournament i n Vancouver dur ing the May long weekend which provided the opportunity for an organizatonal meeting of the 183 Canadian F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . At t h i s inaugural meeting, held on 20 May 1961, on the proposal "that the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on be 164 184 formed," the C .F .H .A . was founded. On the fo l lowing day, the f i r s t Executive Meeting of the C . F .H .A . , with Dr. Harry Warren, Pres ident , i n the c h a i r , was attended by representat ives of the Calgary F.H.C. and the Toronto 185 F . H . C , as we l l as members of the B . C G . H . A . With in the next two years , other hockey p lay ing centres jo ined the newly formed C .F .H .A . In September 1961, the President of the C .F .H.A. reported "that the members of the Assoc ia t i on now inc luded Calgary and 186 Toronto, with Montreal and Edmonton soon coming i n . " H is report a year l a t e r s tated that : "Calgary, V i c t o r i a , Montreal and Toronto are now paid-up members of the Assoc ia t i on and i t now represents approximately 500 p lay ing 187 members or over 90% of a l l hockey p layers i n the country ." F i n a l l y , i n February 1963, Hamilton F . H . C , the most recent ly formed c lub , was unanimously 188 admitted to membership i n the A s s o c i a t i o n . With the formation of the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on i n 1961, four years a f t e r correspondence had been i n i t i a t e d with the F . I . H . , at l as t the time was appropr iate for Canada to j o i n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan i za t i on . A f te r having been accepted as a p r o v i s i o n a l member of the F . I . H . i n September 189 1961, the C . F . H . A . ' s a f f i l i a t i o n with the i n t e r n a t i o n a l body became o f f i c i a l ea r l y the fo l lowing year , for as the Honorary General Secretary of the F . I . H . was to w r i t e , It was at the New De lh i Congress i n January 1962 that the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on was made a member of the In ternat iona l Hockey Federat ion . . . . Having f i r s t obtained agreement of a l l concerned, Statutes had to be drawn up and approved by the In ternat iona l Federat ion and i t was only when the C .F .H .A . had been accepted as a [ p r o v i s i o n a l ] member of the Canadian Olympic A s s o c i a t i o n , that they could at l as t j o i n the fami ly of World Hockey . . . .^QQ The C . F . H . A . ' s s tatus with the Canadian Olympic A s s o c i a t i o n had been only p r o v i s i o n a l up to t h i s po in t , but now, as a n a t i o n a l l y organized governing body of a sport on the programme of the Olympic Games, having become 165 a f f i l i a t e d as a member of the F . I . H . , the C .F .H .A . s a t i s f i e d the c r i t e r i a necessary fo r membership of the C O . A . Thus, at i t s Annual General Meeting, on 14 A p r i l 1962, the Canadian Olympic Assoc ia t i on was "pleased to accept the a p p l i c a t i o n of the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on for f u l l membership i n 191 the C O . A . " When, i n 1963, an a p p l i c a t i o n to j o i n the Canadian Amateur Sports Federat ion was s u c c e s s f u l , the C .F .H .A . could c la im to be a t r u l y representat ive na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n , as i t now comprised seven a f f i l i a t e d 192 bodies drawn from Canada's four largest prov inces . Nat ional and In ternat iona l Competit ion. Once the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion had been formal ly cons t i tu ted and accepted as a member of the F . I . H . , Canada became e l i g i b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e o f f i c i a l l y i n F . I .H . - sanc t ioned i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion. In November 1961, the C .F .H .A . approached the F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on of America (U .S .A . ) to inves t iga te the p o s s i b i l i t y of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l 193 match. With the prospect of such a match came the need for a v e h i c l e to se lec t a team to represent Canada. Up to t h i s time, c lub , c i t y , and even representat ive teams had competed i n t e r p r o v i n c i a l l y , but only between adjacent provinces — B.C. and A lber ta i n the West, Ontar io and Quebec i n the East . However, i n 1962, teams were chosen to represent the East and the West, and "then came the Canadian Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n ' s f i r s t b ig e f f o r t , the East-West game played on the Toronto c lub ground, with 11 Toronto men represent ing 194 East" . While the East was represented on t h i s occas ion by p layers drawn e n t i r e l y from the one c lub , Toronto F . H . C , the West team had been chosen from matches between B.C. and A lbe r ta teams i n a Tournament held i n Vancouver a month e a r l i e r . Thus, as we l l as being Canada's f i r s t r e a l Nat iona l 166 Championship, the 1962 East-West match const i tu ted the f i n a l t r i a l game for 195 s e l e c t i n g a Canadian Team. Fol lowing t h i s match, Canadian 'A' and 'B' teams t r a v e l l e d to the U.S.A. to p lay t h e i r American counterparts . A t o t a l of four games were p layed, of which the Americans won three . However, i n the match between the f u l l s ides of the two count r i es , Canada emerged v i c t o r i o u s , thereby winning i t s f i r s t - e v e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey match. This match was a prelude of more i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion yet to come. With hopes of Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n mind, the C .F .H .A . took steps to prepare a na t iona l team, and l a i d plans to stage an i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l tournament i n Vancouver i n September 1963. As we l l as matching teams from Eastern Canada, A l b e r t a , Vancouver Is land and Vancouver, t h i s tournament would a l so serve as t r i a l s to se lec t a Canadian team to compete at the 1964 Olympic 197 Games i n Tokyo. But events at the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l now superseded these p lans . In February 1963, the C .F .H .A . learned that three Pan American countr ies — Argent ina , U.S.A. and Canada — had app l ied to compete at Tokyo, and that , as a r e s u l t , the F . I . H . required a p l a y - o f f , to take place i n conjunct ion with a major i n t e r n a t i o n a l tournament to be held at Lyon, France, i n 198 September-October 1963. Despite the short n o t i c e , the C .F .H .A . undertook to prepare a Canadian team for t h i s compet i t ion . The daunting chal lenge of r a i s i n g $16,000, the sum necessary to fund a na t iona l team to Lyon, was faced and overcome. Fol lowing a tournament he ld i n Vancouver i n e a r l y September 1963, with teams from Calgary, Edmonton, Vancouver Is land and Vancouver competing, a Canadian team was se lec ted to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Lyon Tournament. En route to Lyon, the team assembled i n Toronto, where an East versus West match was contested and, 167 the next day, Canada played Ontar io i n a f i n a l p r a c t i c e match before going overseas. A f t e r p lay ing severa l p r a c t i c e matches i n England, the Canadian Touring Team proceeded to Lyon to compete i n i t s f i r s t major i n t e r n a t i o n a l 199 tournament. There, against the best teams i n the wor ld , Canada acqui t ted i t s e l f admirably. As Argentina had withdrawn from the Lyon Tournament, America's entry to the Olympics was to be determined from the r e s u l t s of two matches played between Canada and the U.S.A. In these a l l - impor tant games, Canada won the f i r s t and drew the second. The C .F .H .A . report of the Lyon Tournament best expressed the s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s h i s t o r i c occas ion: Wednesday, October 2nd, w i l l be marked i n Canadian f i e l d hockey c i r c l e s as the day Canada q u a l i f i e d for a berth i n the 1964 Olympic Games i n Tokyo as a r e s u l t of a 1-1 t i e with the United States. 2 oo Having won the r ight to compete i n the Tokyo Olympics, Canada s ta r ted 201 i t s team preparat ion as e a r l y as November 1963. But the path to Tokyo was not yet c l e a r ; i t was s t i l l necessary to convince the C O . A . that a f i e l d hockey team should be inc luded i n the Canadian Olympic cont ingent . At a meeting of the C O . A . i n Toronto i n e a r l y A p r i l 1964, C .F .H .A . Pres ident , Dr. Harry Warren, was i n v i t e d to present h i s A s s o c i a t i o n ' s case. His e f f o r t s d id not go unrewarded, as the C O . A . announced the d e c i s i o n that , for the f i r s t 202 time i n h i s t o r y , Canada would send a f i e l d hockey team to the Olympics. A f i n a l admin is t ra t ive hurdle was yet to be surmounted. The C .F .H .A . was required to r a i s e a C O . A . assessment of $5,000 before 15 September 1964, or the hockey team's Olympic entry would be withdrawn. Through a combination of p r i va te and corporate donations, as we l l as p layer c o n t r i b u t i o n s , the , 2 0 3 target was achieved. Now, at l a s t , the C .F .H .A . could prepare i t s team for Olympic compet i t ion. The Olympic T r i a l s to s e l e c t the Canadian team for Tokyo cons is ted of a s e r i e s of matches he ld at U.B.C. i n Ju ly 1964, with teams from 168 Eastern Canada, A lber ta and B r i t i s h Columbia competing. In August 1964, against the Japanese team return ing home from a pre-Olympic world tour , the Canadian team played two i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches, the f i r s t i n Toronto, the second i n Vancouver, "the f i r s t ever staged i n Canada between our nat iona l 205 f i e l d hockey squad and that of a tour ing s i d e . " A month l a t e r , the Canadian team competed i n the 1964 Olympics i n Tokyo, and achieved the 206 fo l lowing r e s u l t s : Canada 1 V Germany 5 Canada 0 V Hol land 5 Canada 2 V Hong Kong 1 Canada 0 V Spain 3 Canada 1 V Belgium 5 Canada 0 V India 3 Canada 1 V Malaysia 3 In h i s report, the coach rated Canada's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Games an unq u a l i f i e d success, and at the same time acknowledged the team's debt to the C.F.H.A. and i t s o f f i c i a l s , without whose support and enthusiasm Canada would 207 not have been i n Tokyo. Ear ly Development of the Nat ional Assoc ia t ion As we l l as continued growth of the game i n the provinces where i t had already been p layed, the middle to la te 1960s witnessed the in t roduc t ion of men's f i e l d hockey in to other prov inces . This was a l so a time of organ iza t iona l development, dur ing which p r o v i n c i a l assoc ia t ions became f u l l y func t iona l to the point where na t iona l competit ion was es tab l i shed on an i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l b a s i s . Furthermore, i t was an era when the C .F .H .A . assumed a leadership ro l e i n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l sphere, host ing the f i r s t Pan American 169 Games Hockey Tournament, and thereby e s t a b l i s h i n g the Olympic Q u a l i f y i n g Tournament for the Americas. Progress i n B r i t i s h Columbia. Whereas the number of teams i n the Vancouver League had r i s e n from eight i n 1957 to twenty-two i n 1962, no such dramatic increase took place over the balance of the s i x t i e s . In f a c t , severa l years were to pass before fur ther growth was recorded. Then, i n the 1966-67 season, p a r t l y as a r esu l t of jun ior p layers maturing and advancing in to senior teams, and p a r t l y due to an upsurge i n immigration, the number of teams rose from 208 twenty-two to twenty- f ive . In order to accommodate t h i s increase , the Vancouver League was s p l i t i n to f i v e d i v i s i o n s . Another important milestone was the in t roduc t ion of a formal competit ion during the summer months; i n 1965, Vancouver's Summer League, a feature dest ined to become an annual event, was s u c c e s s f u l l y l a u n c h e d . 2 0 ^ During t h i s per iod , l i t t l e change occurred i n the game on Vancouver Is land , as the League, f i r s t formed i n the 1961-62 season, maintained i t s membership at four teams. For most of these seasons, as we l l as p lay ing i n the i r own l o c a l c lub f i x t u r e s , the Vancouver Is land p layers entered a representat ive team i n the Vancouver League. However, because of the d i s p a r i t y i n the standard of hockey between the two cent res , matches between V i c t o r i a and a f u l l representat ive team from Vancouver were not played on a 210 regular b a s i s . Growth i n Other Prov inces . Ea r l y i n t h i s pe r iod , the Ontar io F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion (O .F .H .A . ) was o f f i c i a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d , and recognized by the C .F .H .A . Thus, Toronto F.H.C. and Hamilton F . H . C , o r i g i n a l l y a f f i l i a t e d d i r e c t l y to the na t iona l body, now became members of the O.F .H.A. along with 170 more recent ly formed Ontar io c l u b s . In 1965, f i v e c lubs f i e l d i n g a t o t a l of e ight teams were p lay ing r e g u l a r l y , and by 1968, the t o t a l number of teams i n the Ontar io A s s o c i a t i o n , i nc lud ing s i x at the jun io r l e v e l , was approaching - 211 twenty. Men's f i e l d hockey developed apprec iably i n Quebec dur ing t h i s p e r i o d . Although boast ing f o r t y - f i v e members, the game i n 1965 was s t i l l played under the aegis of a s i n g l e c lub , the Montreal F.H.C. A landmark year was 1966 when, not only was the Montreal F.H.C. able to f i e l d two teams, but a l so a new c lub , Ambassadors F .H .C . , was formed, and plans were l a i d to e s t a b l i s h a Montreal league. In that year , too, Quebec was able to send a representat ive p r o v i n c i a l team to compete at the I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Tournament i n Vancouver. By 1968, development had advanced to the stage where, at the A.G.M. of the Montreal F . H . C , d i scuss ions took p lace to p lan the formation of the Quebec F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . In 1969, Quebec became the f i f t h province to 212 a f f i l i a t e with the C .F .H .A . Only a modest increase was recorded during t h i s time i n the numbers p lay ing f i e l d hockey i n A l b e r t a . From f i v e teams reg i s te red the previous season, the Calgary League expanded to s i x teams i n 1965, and remained s tab le at t h i s l e v e l throughout the p e r i o d . Meanwhile, i n Edmonton, two senior teams and a jun ior team were reported to be p lay ing r e g u l a r l y on the campus of the U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , and the game was s u f f i c i e n t l y strong there that 213 I n t e r - C i t y games with Calgary could be arranged. F i e l d hockey gained a foothold i n Manitoba during t h i s p e r i o d . As ea r l y as 1964, the game was introduced to jun io rs through coaching c l i n i c s ; and a fur ther s e r i e s of c l i n i c s was conducted i n conjunct ion with the 1965 I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Tournament, staged i n Winnipeg. The impetus provided by t h i s tournament and the 1967 Pan American Games, a l so held i n Winnipeg, produced a 171 s u f f i c i e n t number of p layers to f i e l d two men's teams i n 1967. In f a c t , such was the progress of the game, that the Manitoba F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on was formed i n 1967. At the completion of the A s s o c i a t i o n ' s f i r s t f u l l year in 1968, the Pres ident reported a very ac t i ve season. Manitoba p a r t i c i p a t e d for the f i r s t time i n the I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l (Senior) Tournament, and having fostered compet i t ion for i t s own j u n i o r s , hosted Canada's f i r s t 214 I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Junior Tournament. The f i r s t record of men's f i e l d hockey i n Saskatchewan appeared i n the J u l y 1966 e d i t i o n of the Canadian F i e l d Hockey News, where i t was reported that i n t e r e s t i n f i e l d hockey was becoming evident i n Regina, and plans were under way to form a team there . By the end of the 1966 season, not only had a team been formed i n Regina, but a Saskatchewan p r o v i n c i a l team had competed i n the I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Tournament held i n Vancouver that September. Hopes were h igh for continued development of the game at the new U n i v e r s i t y i n Regina and i n the schoo ls , but w i th in a year i n te res t had waned, and the game i n 215 Saskatchewan lapsed. Th is was a per iod when every endeavour was made to introduce the game to new areas. In March 1965, the C . F . H . News reported that the former Secretary of the Ontar io F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on had moved to Nova S c o t i a , and that he would "s tar t F i e l d Hockey i n Nova Scot ia" towards which h i s 216 col leagues wished him every success . However, there was no record of any men's f i e l d hockey a c t i v i t y i n Nova Sco t i a i n the 1960s. I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Tournaments and Nat iona l Championships. The in t roduc t ion of i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l tournaments and n a t i o n a l championships was an evo lut ionary process which was formal ized during t h i s p e r i o d . From 1960 onwards, i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l matches were played i n Canada. On severa l occasions these 172 matches took p lace wi th in a tournament format at which c i t y teams such as Vancouver, or reg iona l teams such as Eastern Canada, p a r t i c i p a t e d . Furthermore, the East versus West games of 1962 and 1963 cons t i tu ted a form of na t iona l championship. But i t was not u n t i l May 1965, when the C .F .H .A . staged a tournament i n Winnipeg, that a true i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l tournament was h e l d . Th is was the f i r s t compet i t ion i n which a l l the p a r t i c i p a t i n g teams were p r o v i n c i a l representat ive s i d e s . Furthermore, the three competing prov inces , Ontar io , A lber ta and B r i t i s h Columbia, had by now formed p r o v i n c i a l 217 a s s o c i a t i o n s , a l l of which were a f f i l i a t e d with the C .F .H .A . From t h i s time onwards, development occurred r a p i d l y . In September 1966, when the I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Tournament was held i n Vancouver, the event was o f f i c i a l l y descr ibed as the Canadian Championships. P a r t i c i p a t i n g were p r o v i n c i a l representat ive teams from Ontar io , A l b e r t a , Quebec, Saskatchewan and B r i t i s h Columbia and, i n a d d i t i o n , a second B.C. s ide was entered to br ing 218 the number of teams to s i x . No Canadian Championship was held i n 1967, as the Pan American Games i n Winnipeg extended to capac i ty the resources of the C .F .H .A . By the time the next tournament was held i n Toronto i n 1968, the format was adjusted to permit two championships to be staged. The Open Championship a t t rac ted se lec t teams from f i v e provinces — B.C . , Ontar io , A l b e r t a , Quebec and Manitoba — whi le a second championship, for p layers e l i g i b l e to represent Canada i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, was a two-team event, as only B.C. and Ontar io were capable of f i e l d i n g a 219 team. Nineteen s i x t y - e i g h t was a l so a memorable year at the jun ior l e v e l , as "the f i r s t I n t e r p r o v i n c i a l Under 16 Tournament to be played i n 220 Canada was he ld i n Winnipeg" i n June 1968. The three provinces competing 221 at t h i s tournament were Ontar io , Manitoba and B r i t i s h Columbia. 173 Internat iona l Compet i t ion. The Pan American Games Hockey Tournament formed an i n t e g r a l part of Canada's i n t e r n a t i o n a l involvement during t h i s p e r i o d . Many years before f i e l d hockey became one of the sports played at the Pan American Games, Canadian hockey enthus iasts had expressed an in te res t i n the formation of a Pan American f i e l d hockey f edera t i on . In 1960, before the founding of the C . F . H . A . , the Pres ident and Honorary Secretary of the B.C. Assoc ia t i on met with the V ice-Pres ident of the F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion of America to d iscuss a "suggested C o n s t i t u t i o n for the formation of a Pan American F i e l d Hockey 222 A s s o c i a t i o n . " In a d d i t i o n , i t was an ambition of Tony Boyd, the C . F . H . A . ' s f i r s t Secretary-Treasurer , to have f i e l d hockey inc luded i n the Pan 223 American Games. He made pub l i c t h i s a s p i r a t i o n i n 1963 when he wrote i n F i e l d Hockey i n Canada: "One of our next major tasks i s to attempt to have F i e l d Hockey inc luded i n the program of the Pan American Games. Our opportunity might a r i s e i f Winnipeg i s se lec ted as the host c i t y i n 224 1967." cons iderable optimism was generated when the Canadian hockey community was advised that , dur ing i t s 1963 Games, the Pan American Sports Organizat ion (P .A .S .O . ) had announced that Winnipeg was se lec ted as the s i t e for the 1967 Games, and that f i e l d hockey would be added to the agenda for the f i r s t t ime. It was soon learned, however, that f i e l d hockey's i n c l u s i o n was not automatic, for although the P .A .S .O. had added f i e l d hockey to the l i s t of recognized spor t s , the Pan American Games Organiz ing Soc iety i n Winnipeg had yet to inc lude i t i n the ac tua l programme. According to the D i rec tor of the Soc ie ty , f i e l d hockey was one of the twenty-six approved spor ts , from which twenty were to be chosen; thus, i t was p o s s i b l e , but by no means d e f i n i t e , 225 that f i e l d hockey would be inc luded . As e a r l y as May 1963, the C .F .H .A . had been informed that i t was f i r s t necessary to secure s ignatures from f i v e p a r t i c i p a t i n g count r i es , and the 174 Secretary had been ins t ruc ted to take appropr iate a c t i o n . When, i n January 1965, i t was reported that l im i ted progress had been made i n r e c r u i t i n g countr ies w i l l i n g to make a commitment to p a r t i c i p a t e i n a Pan American hockey tournament, the C .F .H .A . decided to wr i te to a l l countr ies where hockey was p layed, to obta in conf i rmat ion that they would take 227 p a r t . At the same time, i t was a l so resolved that the F . I . H . should be requested to dec lare the Pan American Games the q u a l i f y i n g tournament for the 228 Olympics. Considerable progress was made during the next few months. By June 1965, whi le some assoc ia t ions had yet to obta in conf i rmat ion from t h e i r Nat iona l Olympic Committees, a commitment to p a r t i c i p a t e had been expressed by approximately ten count r i es . Success was achieved i n August 1965, for then the Secretary of the C .F .H .A . was able to repor t : that a chairman of the f i e l d hockey sec t i on of the Pan American Games had been appointed; that a c i r c u l a r l e t t e r had been sent to a l l hockey p lay ing countr ies i n the Americas i n v i t i n g them to the Games; and, that the hockey tournament would be the 229 o f f i c i a l Olympic p l a y - o f f for the one p lace a l l o c a t e d to the Americas. Minutes, correspondence and reports a t tes t to the considerable e f f o r t that was involved over the next two years to ensure the smooth funct ion ing of the 1967 Pan American Games Hockey Tournament. The organ iza t ion of the event i t s e l f , the f o r m a l i t i e s assoc iated with the p a r t i c i p a t i n g count r ies , and the preparat ion of the Canadian team, were a l l demanding tasks . But the goal had been achieved, and the f i r s t Pan American Hockey Tournament was held under the 230 auspices of the F . I . H . with eight countr ies p a r t i c i p a t i n g . Once Canada had s u c c e s s f u l l y competed at the 1964 Olympic Games, i t became the aim of the C .F .H.A. to enter a team i n the 1968 Olympic Hockey Tournament, and towards t h i s end plans were formulated i n e a r l y 1965. 175 Although i t was sometimes necessary to modify s p e c i f i c p ro jec ts — for example, a Commonwealth hockey tournament, planned to be held i n London i n 1966, was cance l l ed — the Canadian team fol lowed the course of the o r i g i n a l programme c l o s e l y . From the I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Tournament held i n Winnipeg i n May 1965, a Canadian team was se lec ted to p a r t i c i p a t e i n an i n t e r n a t i o n a l tournament held i n Jamaica i n September-October of that year . This tournament, at which Canada played matches against Jamaica, B r i t i s h Guiana ( l a t e r Guyana), and Argent ina , was perceived as a forerunner of the Pan 231 American Games, now confirmed. Because of the c a n c e l l a t i o n of the Commonwealth Hockey Tournament, the Canadian team d id not experience any i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion i n 1966. However, i n September 1966, an I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Tournament held i n Vancouver served a l so as t r i a l s to se lec t a na t iona l squad from which a Canadian team would be s e l e c t e d . The fo l lowing pro jec ts formed part of the programme o u t l i n e d by the Nat ional Coach under the 232 capt ion "steps to Mexico C i t y " : 1967 May Tour to Europe inc lud ing Internat iona l Tournament, Madr i d . 1967 J u l y Pan American Games Hockey Tournament, Winnipeg 1968 October Olympic Games, Mexico Canada's p a r t i c i p a t i o n at the Madrid Tournament i n May 1967, with f u l l i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches against top European teams, as we l l as against Mexico, provided the na t iona l team with f i r s t - c l a s s competit ion p r i o r to the Pan American Games. At the f i r s t Pan American Games Hockey Tournament, held i n Winnipeg dur ing July-August 1967, eight countr ies from North and South America took p a r t . Canada, although completing the seven-game round-robin s e r i e s undefeated, l os t both the s e m i - f i n a l and bronze medal matches, to f i n i s h 176 fourth i n the Tournament; thus, Canada f a i l e d to q u a l i f y for the 1968 Olympic 233 Games i n Mexico C i t y . In May 1968, a Canadian team embarked on a f i ve -count ry tour of the Caribbean, on which i t played s i x f u l l i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches. Because Canada had been named t h i r d reserve for the Mexico Olympics, a Canadian Olympic team was announced i n the summer of 1968; but t h i s team had the opportunity to p lay only one i n t e r n a t i o n a l match, against the v i s i t i n g Japanese Olympic Team i n 234 Vancouver i n August 1968, and d id not compete i n the Mexico Olympics. Other Aspects of Development. Throughout the mid-1960s, the promotion of jun io rs w i th in the c lub system, as we l l as attempts to fos ter the game i n schools and u n i v e r s i t i e s , remained an important aspect of men's f i e l d hockey development i n Canada. In Vancouver, always a strong centre of jun ior hockey, four teams played r e g u l a r l y i n a jun ior league during the 1965-66 season. At t h i s time, too, jun ior teams ex i s ted i n other parts of B r i t i s h Columbia and i n neighbouring A l b e r t a . Over Easter 1966, a B.C. jun ior tournament was held i n Vancouver, with nine teams from Vancouver and Vancouver Is land competing i n two d i v i s i o n s . From t h i s event, two jun io r representat ive teams, one under-19 and one under-16, were se lec ted to t r a v e l to Calgary i n May 1966 to play the 235 f i r s t i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l matches held i n Canada at the jun ior l e v e l . Over the next few years , jun io r competit ion extended to other parts of the country . In 1967, jun ior teams were es tab l i shed i n Manitoba, and a s ix-team jun ior league was formed i n Ontar io . By 1968, a l l four provinces could f i e l d a jun io r representat ive team, and although A lbe r ta withdrew i t s entry , the f i r s t I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Junior Tournament was held i n Winnipeg i n June of that year , with teams from Ontar io , Manitoba and B r i t i s h Columbia 236 competing. 177 While many of the jun ior f i e l d hockey teams i n existence during the m i d - s i x t i e s were fostered by c l u b s , severa l were assoc iated with schoo ls . In B r i t i s h Columbia, two leading p r i v a t e schools — S t . George's School i n Vancouver and Shawnigan Lake School on Vancouver Is land — had adopted the game and, from time to time, one or more of the pub l i c schools could r a i s e a team. Some of the jun io r teams i n Calgary and other centres across the 237 country were a l so school-based. Although competit ion was i n i t i a l l y r e s t r i c t e d to p a r t i c i p a t i o n with other l o c a l c lubs , severa l u n i v e r s i t i e s f i e l d e d teams. The U n i v e r s i t y of A lber ta at Calgary ( l a t e r the U n i v e r s i t y of Calgary) and V i c t o r i a Co l lege ( l a t e r the U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a ) , were e a r l y add i t ions to the leagues i n the i r respect ive cent res ; U.B.C. had competed i n the Vancouver League s ince 1923, and the U n i v e r s i t y of A lber ta i n Edmonton could assemble a team by 1963. I t was not u n t i l 1966, however, when U.B.C. played a number of matches with the U n i v e r s i t y of A lber ta at Ca lgary , that i n t e r - u n i v e r s i t y competit ion 238 of an i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l nature f i r s t took p l a c e . Summary of Men's Hockey Development In the quarter-century between World War II and the la te 1960s, men's f i e l d hockey i n Canada experienced remarkable progress . Development occurred , not only i n the domestic expansion of the game a l l across the country, but i n na t iona l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion as w e l l . Leagues f l o u r i s h e d , i n t e r - c i t y and i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l competit ion expanded, and nat iona l championships at senior and jun ior l e v e l were inaugurated. Most s i g n i f i c a n t l y , however, was the c r e a t i o n of a na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n , the C . F .H .A . , i t s a f f i l i a t i o n with the F . I . H . and the C O . A . , and the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of a Canadian team i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, e s p e c i a l l y the 178 Olympic Games and Pan American Games Hockey Tournaments. O rgan i za t i ona l l y , too, the game matured, and by the l a te 1960s, f i v e provinces had es tab l i shed assoc ia t ions which were a f f i l i a t e d with the C .F .H .A . Re la t ionsh ips Between Men's and Women's Hockey In the per iod from World War I I to the la te 1960s, whi le some facets of the two organ izat ions fol lowed separate courses, many aspects of men's and women's hockey programmes operated i n p a r a l l e l and a l so enjoyed benef i t s der ived from mutual support . Ear ly Post-War Years In Vancouver, the only centre i n Canada with an ac t i ve league during t h i s per iod , the Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on continued to rece ive support i n areas of coaching, umpiring and sponsorship, by such men as Thomas P a t t i s o n , whose c o n t r i b u t i o n was acknowledged through i n v i t a t i o n s to attend 239 Annual General Meetings, banquets, and s i m i l a r func t ions . converse ly , women ass i s ted i n the development of jun ior boys' hockey; for example, two members of the North Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Club a s s i s t e d Dr. Harry Warren i n coaching a North Shore boys' team to p a r t i c i a t e i n jun ior compet i t ion, and p r i v a t e g i r l s ' schools on Vancouver Is land r e g u l a r l y hosted 240 Warren s teams. During the 1950s, i n t e r a c t i o n between the men's and women's organ izat ions increased . As we l l as co-operat ive a c t i v i t i e s at jun ior and school l e v e l , mixed hockey matches were played i n Vancouver and other parts of B r i t i s h Columbia. In 1955, for instance, a mixed team from Vancouver played matches at Pent ic ton and Vernon i n the Okanagan V a l l e y , and i n the mid-1950s 179 men's and women's teams t r a v e l l e d together to p lay matches on Vancouver T 1 A 2 4 1 I s l a n d . In te rna t iona l Asp i ra t i ons and I n s p i r a t i o n In the mid-1950s, a strong co-operat ive s p i r i t ex i s ted between the men's and women's Assoc ia t ions i n Vancouver. When an i n v i t a t i o n was extended for the G.V.W.G.H.A. to send a team to represent Canada at the 1956 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament i n Sydney, i t was Dr. Harry Warren, Honorary President of the Women's A s s o c i a t i o n , who exhorted the women to accept . Furthermore, i t was Warren who secured a f i f t y percent discount on the a i r - f a r e to A u s t r a l i a and 242 encouraged the team i n fund- ra i s ing e f f o r t s genera l l y . When the G.V.W.G.H.A. came to prepare a team to represent Canada, i t was acknowledged that "through the kindness and i n t e r e s t of the men's Hockey Assoc ia t i on i n 243 Vancouver a S e l e c t i o n Committee and a Coach were secured . . . ." The men's Assoc ia t i on a l s o provided oppos i t ion for p r a c t i c e matches, supported s o c i a l and f u n d - r a i s i n g funct ions , and made a donation towards the 244 venture. The la te 1950s to e a r l y 1960s was a per iod of great advancement i n men's f i e l d hockey i n Canada, and i t was i n the ear l y part of t h i s era that the men der ived i n s p i r a t i o n from the women. The ass is tance rendered by members of the men's Assoc ia t i on to the G.V.W.G.H.A. i n encouraging and r e a l i z i n g i t s ambition of sending a team to represent Canada at the 1956 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament i n Sydney, A u s t r a l i a , was widely acknowledged. However, i t has not been recognized that the c a t a l y s t which spurred the men's Assoc ia t ion on to i t s u l t i m a t e l y success fu l b id to compete i n the Olympic Games came, at least i n pa r t , from the Women's Assoc ia t i on and the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the Canadian women's team i n the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament. On 180 congratu la t ing the G.V.W.G.H.A. on the departure of i t s Touring Team to A u s t r a l i a , the President of the Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on of B.C. (men's) observed that t h i s i n i t i a l break in to i n t e r n a t i o n a l p lay should act as 245 a st imulus "for others of us in te res ted i n Hockey." A f te r i t s re turn from A u s t r a l i a , the Canadian women's team, as a gesture of apprec ia t i on , i n v i t e d a team from the men's A s s o c i a t i o n to a match. Th is we l l - repor ted event, which took p lace on 5 January 1957, provided fur ther impetus to the men's Assoc ia t i on f o r , at the end of that month, an Executive meeting was c a l l e d to d iscuss the formation of a Canadian men's 246 grass hockey a s s o c i a t i o n , with a view to j o i n i n g the F . I . H . With respect to i n t e r n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s , these co-operat ive ventures between the two organ izat ions cont inued. In 1958, as part of i t s preparat ions for the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament to be held i n Amsterdam the fo l lowing year , the G.V.W.G.H.A. appointed a man to the s e l e c t i o n committee; the Assoc ia t i on a l s o requested the men's Assoc ia t i on to a s s i s t by support ing a s o c i a l funct ion to r a i s e funds, and by assembling a team to p lay a match against the women's 247 Canadian Touring Team. Nat ional Co-operat ion At t h i s t ime, i n t e r a c t i o n extended to the committee l e v e l . In 1957, when both the men's and women's Assoc ia t ions were endeavouring to broaden the scope of t h e i r o rgan iza t ions , steps were taken to ensure that t h i s task was approached c o - o p e r a t i v e l y . At a meeting of the Executive of the G.V.W.G.H.A., i t was recommended "that a Committee of three from the Women's and three from the Men's Leagues set up a c o n s t i t u t i o n to be on a p a r a l l e l with one 248 another." A f t e r funct ion ing for severa l months, t h i s committee appears to have disbanded, and although some years were to pass before a women's 181 c o n s t i t u t i o n committee was r e - a c t i v a t e d , the men's c o n s t i t u t i o n committees, both p r o v i n c i a l and n a t i o n a l , continued to operate. At the l o c a l l e v e l i n Vancouver, these co-operat ive e f f o r t s a l so p r e v a i l e d , as substant iated by severa l examples. In 1957, the Redbirds (men's) Club of Vancouver was author ized to ra i se a mixed team and arrange a 249 game i n V i c t o r i a with a Vancouver Is land mixed team. During that year , meetings took p lace between representat ives of the men's and women's Assoc ia t ions "regarding proposals for j o i n t e x h i b i t i o n games to be staged 250 around Easter , 1958, i n ce lebraton of B . C . ' s Centennial year , " and i n 1958, plans were l a i d to ce lebrate the opening of a new hockey f i e l d at U.B.C. by staging a "double header", i nvo lv ing teams from the men's and women's 251 leagues. By the la te 1950s, mixed hockey matches had become an annual t r a d i t i o n , and j o i n t dances and s o c i a l funct ions were f requent ly h e l d . Youngsters, too, benef i t ted from t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n , as jun ior boys' teams 252 played r e g u l a r l y against g i r l s ' h igh school teams. The c lose t i e s between men's and women's organ izat ions extended to parts of the country outs ide Vancouver. In V i c t o r i a , mixed hockey helped sus ta in the game dur ing the m i d - f i f t i e s . F i e l d hockey was revived i n Calgary i n the form of mixed hockey when Ambrose Gregg assembled a group of men and women to p lay the game i n 1957, and for severa l years , mixed hockey was the 253 only source of p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Although separate men's and women's leagues had been es tab l i shed i n A lber ta by 1961, when the women's Club experienced d i f f i c u l t i e s i n 1964, i t was reported that "the lad ies have disbanded the Calgary Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey Club, and three of the men's c lubs 254 . . . have agreed to sponsor l ad ies teams." A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n occurred during the e a r l y 1960s i n Edmonton, where men's and women's teams were a l so mutual ly support ive i n these formative years . Meanwhile, i n Ontar io , mixed 182 hockey was played during the 1960s; indeed, women's hockey i n Hamilton was nurtured with the ass is tance of the men's c lub which, e a r l y i n 1963, expressed 255 i t s i n t e n t i o n "to develop a l a d i e s ' team." There were instances , however, where d i f f e rences arose between the men's and women's bodies . One such d i f f e rence was the problem of ground markings, as the ru les of the game were not the same for men's and women's hockey at that t ime. This resu l ted i n considerable correspondence with the Vancouver Board of Parks and Recreat ion, but as long as f i e l d s were shared, i t 256 remained an issue that could not e a s i l y be reso lved . A fur ther example of an occas ion where the rapport between the two organizatons was not so harmonious was revealed at an Executive meeting of the B .C .F .H.A. i n February 1962, when the Secretary was d i rec ted to make a s u i t a b l e rep ly to the Women's Assoc ia t i on i n regard to a press report that , i t was s a i d , " b e l i t t l e [ d ] 257 women's hockey." Genera l ly , however, dur ing the per iod from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s, the r e l a t i o n s h i p was one of mutual co-operat ion . A f te r the two nat iona l Assoc ia t ions had been formed, even though each was a d i s t i n c t o rgan iza t iona l e n t i t y , a c o r d i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ex is ted between the two f o r , i n 1963, i t was recorded that : At present the C .F .H .A . has no formal a f f i l i a t i o n with the Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , however c lose l i a i s o n i s maintained and perhaps i n a few years time a c l ose r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d . Independent Development By 1965, both the men's and women's bodies had formed the i r own nat iona l assoc ia t i ons which were a f f i l i a t e d with t h e i r respect ive i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t ions , and both had entered teams i n t h e i r most p res t i g ious i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ions, the Olympic Games and the I .F.W.H.A. 183 Tournament. Organizationally, competitively, and i n many aspects of development, the two bodies operated separately, for the most part, during t h i s period. This phenomenon was p a r t i c u l a r l y evident i n B.C. where, by the mid-1960s, the s o c i a l functions which had been a feature of the 1950s and early 1960s had become less frequent. Indeed, instead of the t r a d i t i o n a l A p r i l dance run j o i n t l y by the two Associations i n e a r l i e r years, the Executive of the B.C.F.H.A. favoured the holding of a "Stag" i n that month of 1965. S i m i l a r l y , although a dance was held the following year, there i s no mention, i n the report of the function, of any o f f i c i a l involvement by the 259 women's Association. However, although separate i n most respects, the two organizations s t i l l provided support and i n s p i r a t i o n for each other at various l e v e l s of p a r t i c i p a t i o n . A most successful s c h o o l g i r l s ' tournament and c l i n i c , held at U.B.C. i n November 1964, and involving twelve schools and over 700 g i r l s , prompted the President of the C.F.H.A. to draw att e n t i o n i n h i s Annual Report 260 to t h i s "splendid challenge to our C.F.H.A." Over the next few years, an attempt was made by the men's Association to meet t h i s challenge, and considerable success was achieved i n junior development, a l b e i t not to a 261 s i g n i f i c a n t extent through the schools. Despite the apparent reduction i n i n t e r a c t i o n between men's and women's associations, there was s t i l l considerable evidence of co-operative a c t i v i t i e s during the l a t t e r h a l f of the s i x t i e s . For example, i n 1965, when the C.F.H.A. was considering the chartering of a f l i g h t to the proposed Commonwealth Tournament i n London i n A p r i l 1966, the Women's Association expressed i n t e r e s t i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g . Also, during these years, mixed hockey was s t i l l played i n Calgary, by now on a more formal basis, for the Gregg 262 S h i e l d . Furthermore, even i n the l a t t e r part of t h i s period, men 184 remained prominent i n the development of women's hockey. Instances of the i r involvement were reported i n B .C . , Ontar io , and Nova S c o t i a , not only i n coaching g i r l s ' and women's teams, but a l so i n organ iz ing school tournaments. As a f i n a l example, towards the end of the per iod , the Women's Assoc ia t ion i n Toronto was i n v i t e d to j o i n the men's Assoc ia t i on i n acqu i r ing p lay ing f a c i l i t i e s at Sunnybrook Park, a co-operat ive venture which g rea t l y benef i t ted 263 the development of both bodies for years to come. At least one f i e l d hockey p layer at t h i s time be l ieved that the men's and women's na t iona l organ izat ions should u n i t e . A member of Montrea l 's Vagabonds Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey Club was prompted to wr i te to the Ed i to r of the Canadian F i e l d Hockey News i n 1967: "the time has come for the women and the men to j o i n together 264 i n one Canadian F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " . The o v e r a l l per iod from World War II to the la te s i x t i e s was a time of great advancement i n the development of both men's and women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada. Club teams p r o l i f e r a t e d , p r o v i n c i a l representat ive teams were s e l e c t e d , and nat iona l tournaments h e l d . Both organ izat ions formed nat iona l assoc ia t ions and engaged i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion during these years . To a great extent , development took p lace separate ly , although l a rge ly i n p a r a l l e l . Throughout these years , however, there was considerable i n t e r a c t i o n and co-operat ion . Mixed hockey, and the s o c i a l aspects surrounding i t , played an important part i n i n i t i a t i n g or sus ta in ing the game i n severa l areas; and, at other t imes, o rgan i za t i ona l support was inva luable i n maintaining con t inu i t y of development. F i n a l l y , with respect to i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, mutual i n s p i r a t i o n and ass is tance played a s i g n i f i c a n t part i n the r e a l i z a t i o n of these ambit ions, both for men and for women. 185 CHAPTER X DEVELOPMENT OF FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA: 1970 TO 1983 In the 1960s, under the auspices of the C .F .H.A. and the C.W.F.H.A. , the game of f i e l d hockey expanded to embrace a l l of Canada. As the 1970s approached, the two organ izat ions could a n t i c i p a t e the new decade with optimism of continued growth and expansion, as we l l as increased nat iona l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion. Women's F i e l d Hockey During t h i s l as t per iod under study, the C.W.F.H.A. was dest ined to make i t s mark on the i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey community; i n p a r t i c u l a r , by host ing the I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament, and by the success of i t s nat iona l team i n World Championship compet i t ion. These events d id not begin to take p lace , however, u n t i l the l a t t e r part of the 1970s. On the other hand, the whole of t h i s per iod i s notable for i t s continuous domestic development, which i s thus narrated f i r s t . Domestic Development It was dur ing the 1960s and e a r l y 1970s that women's f i e l d hockey assoc ia t ions were es tab l i shed i n every prov ince . Through these bodies, the game was to grow nation-wide at both senior and jun ior l e v e l . Sen iors . Although women's f i e l d hockey had developed cons iderably i n a l l provinces of Canada during the 1960s, B r i t i s h Columbia was s t i l l c l e a r l y the foremost prov ince , with the Vancouver Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on having 186 the greatest number of adult teams. In the 1969-70 season, for example, of a Canadian t o t a l of just over f i f t y reg i s te red senior c lub teams, twenty-six were from B r i t i s h Columbia. The Vancouver League, f i e l d i n g eighteen teams from three s ix-team d i v i s i o n s , was e a s i l y the biggest c o n t r i b u t o r . 1 Throughout the sevent ies and i n t o the ear l y e i g h t i e s , the number of teams i n B r i t i s h Columbia increased s t e a d i l y . Even by the 1971-72 season, the Vancouver Assoc ia t i on had inc luded a fourth d i v i s i o n i n i t s league schedule to accommodate more than twenty teams, and the Vancouver Is land Lad ies ' F i e l d 2 Hockey Assoc ia t ion expanded to two d i v i s i o n s with a t o t a l of e leven teams. A l s o , i t was dur ing t h i s per iod , i n the Greater Vancouver suburb of Burnaby, that a separate a s s o c i a t i o n was formed; from a s ix-team competi t ion i n 1969, the Burnaby League grew to fourteen teams i n the 1981-82 season. A l together , by 1983, there were about s i x t y reg i s te red senior teams i n B r i t i s h Columbia, 3 more than double the number at the beginning of t h i s p e r i o d . Next to B r i t i s h Columbia, Ontar io maintained the greatest number of c lub teams, centred l a r g e l y i n the Greater Toronto area , and numbering eight i n 1969. Even by 1970, the competit ion had expanded to inc lude twelve teams, three of which were from Hamilton, whi le four were drawn from the u n i v e r s i t i e s . The number of Ontar io teams continued to increase , with a t o t a l 4 of twenty-three reg i s te red i n 1982. Another province which experienced rap id growth was A lber ta where, from only f i v e i n 1969, the number of teams rose to eleven i n 1971, approximately equa l ly d iv ided between Calgary and Edmonton. Through the mid-sevent ies , the league competit ion grew stronger i n both c i t i e s , reaching a t o t a l of nineteen A lber ta teams reg i s te red with the C.W.F.H.A. i n 1978. From t h i s po in t , however, c o i n c i d i n g with an exodus of e l i t e p layers and able admin is t ra tors , the number of teams i n Edmonton dec l i ned ; consequently, of the t h i r t e e n 187 reg i s te red teams i n A lber ta i n 1982, most were from Calgary, which had been 5 able to maintain a strong league compet i t ion . The number of senior teams i n Quebec rose from three i n 1968, the year of the foundation of the P.Q.W.F.H.A. , to almost t reb le by 1974, when an eight-team league was f l o u r i s h i n g i n Montreal . Cont r ibut ing to t h i s strong compet i t ion was the Ottawa F i e l d Hockey C lub, founded i n March 1969, whose l a d i e s ' s e c t i o n , the V a l i a n t s , entered two teams i n the League during t h i s p e r i o d . In l a t e r years , p a r t l y as a r e s u l t of Ottawa becoming a region wi th in the Ontar io A s s o c i a t i o n , the number of Quebec senior teams reg i s te red with the C.W.F.H.A. d e c l i n e d , to stand at f i v e i n 1982. 6 Other provinces were a l so able to sus ta in senior teams of a c lub nature. In Nova S c o t i a , as e a r l y as 1969, the H a l i f a x Lad ies ' F .H.C. e x i s t e d , and by 1972 women's hockey i n the H a l i f a x area had expanded in to a f ive-team Metropol i tan Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey League. S i m i l a r l y , by the la te 1960s, a senior women's c lub was formed i n Winnipeg, and i n 1972, the Winnipeg Lad ies ' F .H.C. and a c lub team from Brandon p a r t i c i p a t e d with Un ive rs i t y teams i n a f ive-team Manitoba compet i t ion. On the other hand, i n New Brunswick, Saskatchewan, Newfoundland and Pr ince Edward Is land , senior teams reg i s te red with the C.W.F.H.A. usua l l y only numbered two or three, and were l a rge ly based 7 on u n i v e r s i t y c lubs or representat ive teams. The f igures i n Table 8 revea l that , although the rate of increase i n numbers of teams was not constant i n a l l prov inces , the o v e r a l l growth of senior women's teams p lay ing f i e l d hockey i n Canada during the per iod from the 8 l a te 1960s to 1983 was reasonably steady. Furthermore, as shown i n Table 9, women's f i e l d hockey was played i n every province of Canada, a l b e i t 9 only B r i t i s h Columbia, Ontar io and A lber ta had more than a handful of teams. 188 TABLE 8 SENIOR TEAMS REGISTERED WITH THE C.W.F.H.A. : 1969 - 1982 Year B.C. Ontar io A lber ta Canada 1969 26 8 5 54 1974 33 17 12 77 1978 50 22 19 103 1982 56 23 13 115 TABLE 9 C.W.F.H.A. - REGISTERED SENIOR TEAMS: 1981-82 Province Number of Teams Newfoundland 3 Pr ince Edward Is land 2 Nova Sco t i a 4 New Brunswick 3 Quebec 5 Ontar io 23 Manitoba 4 Saskatchewan 2 A lber ta 13 B r i t i s h Columbia 56 Canada 115 189 Moreover, the extent of the increase was s u b s t a n t i a l , amounting to more than a doubl ing between 1969 and 1982. The c o n t r i b u t i o n of each of the major prov inces , i nc lud ing B r i t i s h Columbia, which c o n s i s t e n t l y provided about h a l f the t o t a l number of teams, i s a l s o demonstrated. C l e a r l y , t h i s was a per iod of susta ined domestic development of women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada. Several f ac to rs were instrumental i n maintaining t h i s steady growth. Immigration of women from Great B r i t a i n and other hockey-playing countr ies continued to be of s i g n i f i c a n c e dur ing t h i s p e r i o d . Government funding provided unprecedented f i n a n c i a l support towards both e l i t e and developmental programmes. In a d d i t i o n , women's f i e l d hockey bene f i t ted from the o v e r a l l s o c i e t a l trend towards increased women's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n post -schoo l spor t ing a c t i v i t i e s . J u n i o r s . Senior teams contr ibuted only a r e l a t i v e l y small proport ion of the t o t a l number of female f i e l d hockey p layers i n Canada. Very large numbers of g i r l s and young women played r e g u l a r l y every year in j u n i o r , school and u n i v e r s i t y compet i t ion, and the number of teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g continued to increase between 1970 and 1 9 8 3 . 1 1 Several c lubs and assoc ia t ions across the country promoted jun ior compet i t ion. Greater Vancouver was an area of cons iderable a c t i v i t y . Commencing i n the mid-1960s, the Burnaby Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on fostered jun io r g i r l s ' teams, f i f t e e n by 1969. Within a few years , s i m i l a r assoc ia t ions had been formed i n the three neighbouring suburbs of Coquitlam, De l ta , and West Vancouver, and by 1973, these assoc ia t ions f i e l d e d seventy-s ix teams i n four age d i v i s i o n s ranging from under-eleven to o v e r - f i f t e e n . In other prov inces , although the number of teams was small by comparison, jun ior development was a l so taking p l a c e . In Calgary , a jun ior league was s ta r ted i n 190 the summer of 1971; and i n 1972, the Ottawa c lub , just three years a f t e r i t s 12 formation, supported two jun ior g i r l s teams. In genera l , though, i t was through the schools that f i e l d hockey for g i r l s continued to develop. Again, i t was B r i t i s h Columbia which led the way. At the f i f t h annual B.C. School G i r l s ' F i e l d Hockey Championship i n 1968, the s ix teen zone f i n a l i s t s were drawn from over one hundred teams competing i n reg iona l tournaments, and i n 1978, a second echelon competit ion comprising e ight f i n a l i s t s was e s t a b l i s h e d . In Ontar io , as e a r l y as 1969, th i r ty -one teams competed i n a s c h o o l g i r l s ' tournament; four years l a t e r t h i s 13 number had grown to f i f t y - t h r e e . Substant ia l numbers of high school teams were a l so p lay ing i n the Marit imes, with New Brunswick, Nova Sco t i a and Pr ince Edward Is land r a i s i n g a t o t a l of twenty-three i n 1970. By 1978, New Brunswick 14 alone could f i e l d twelve teams at a high school jamboree. The December 1974 e d i t i o n of the Quebec Federat ion 's newsletter reported a high school 15 tournament with ten p a r t i c i p a t i n g schools i n that prov ince . Meanwhile i n the P r a i r i e s , Calgary schools f i e l d e d nine teams i n 1972, and i n 1978, Manitoba held i t s f i r s t o f f i c i a l High School Tournament with twelve schools 16 competing. As an i n d i c a t i o n of the extent of the game at the school l e v e l dur ing t h i s p e r i o d , the Canadian Federat ion of P r o v i n c i a l School A t h l e t i c Assoc ia t ions reported that over 10,000 g i r l s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n high school f i e l d 17 hockey leagues across Canada i n 1976-77. U n i v e r s i t i e s . U n i v e r s i t y hockey a l so remained strong during t h i s p e r i o d . Fol lowing a long-estab l i shed t r a d i t i o n , the A t l a n t i c Women's Col leges maintained an a c t i v e competit ion of i n t e r l o c k i n g matches i nvo lv ing f i v e u n i v e r s i t i e s from Nova Sco t i a and New Brunswick. In Ontar io , the i n t e r - u n i v e r s i t y competit ion grew u n t i l , i n 1973, t h i r t e e n teams were able to 191 p a r t i c i p a t e i n a u n i v e r s i t y tournament. The Western Canadian I n t e r c o l l e g i a t e A t h l e t i c A s s o c i a t i o n ' s tournament, embracing the u n i v e r s i t i e s of the four western Prov inces , continued to t h r i v e . Although the format changed s l i g h t l y over the years , women's i n t e r - u n i v e r s i t y f i e l d hockey compet i t ion f l o u r i s h e d i n a l l regions of Canada throughout the 1970s. When the f i r s t Canadian i n t e r - u n i v e r s i t y tournament was held at U.B.C. i n 1975, the p a r t i c i p a t i n g teams represented every region of Canada. Th is competit ion 19 expanded, and grew i n c r e a s i n g l y p res t i g ious over time. P r o v i n c i a l Championships. During the 1970s, the domestic competit ive programme wi th in the provinces expanded beyond the l o c a l leagues and informal i n t e r - c i t y games. In 1972, the B.C.W.F.H.F. held i t s f i r s t annual p r o v i n c i a l tournament, i n which teams represent ing the Vancouver, Burnaby and Vancouver Is land Assoc ia t ions competed. A year l a t e r , A lber ta i n i t i a t e d an annual p r o v i n c i a l tournament; and by 1979, Ontar io had created reg ions , ten of which 20 were able to f i e l d representat ive teams. A lso towards the end of the decade, p r o v i n c i a l summer games were i n s t i g a t e d , with f i e l d hockey inc luded on the ros ter of spor t s . In 1977, s i x women's teams competed i n the Ontar io Summer Games; and i n 1978, under-21 teams from each of eight zones were 21 permitted to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the B.C. Summer Games. Later , s i m i l a r competit ions were es tab l i shed i n other prov inces . At an even more bas ic developmental l e v e l were the f e s t i v a l s known as Jamborees, the f i r s t of these taking place i n B r i t i s h Columbia i n the la te 1960s. By the 1970s, over f i f t y teams from severa l provinces and s t a t e s , across a wide range of age and a b i l i t y , p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s annual event. Indeed, i n 1972, the Jamboree was already s u f f i c i e n t l y well-known to inc lude a team from A u s t r a l i a , i n add i t i on 22 to other v i s i t o r s from C a l i f o r n i a , Oregon and A l b e r t a . 192 Nat ional Development During the 1970s and ear l y 1980s, with na t iona l and p r o v i n c i a l assoc ia t ions f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d , women's f i e l d hockey enjoyed a per iod of s u b s t a n t i a l progress at the na t iona l l e v e l . This development was r e f l e c t e d i n the advancement of na t iona l championships, the improvement i n standard of p l ayers , coaches and o f f i c i a l s , and Canada's success fu l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion. Nat ional Championships. The p r i n c i p l e of a na t iona l tournament s t ructured to permit competit ion amongst p r o v i n c i a l representat ive teams, f i r s t adopted i n 1968, was continued at the 1969 Canada Summer Games, where a l l provinces were represented. However, for severa l years the trend towards p r o v i n c i a l teams was in te r rupted , as , i n order to q u a l i f y for federa l grants , the competing teams had to be se lec ted on a reg iona l b a s i s . In 1970, for instance , the regions were B r i t i s h Columbia, the P r a i r i e s , Ontario/Quebec, and the 23 Marit imes. This reg iona l format was not very popular , e s p e c i a l l y with the A lber ta A s s o c i a t i o n , which was endeavouring to develop a strong p r o v i n c i a l team. Thus, i n 1971, when the Tournament was held i n Ca lgary , a compromise was reached whereby p r o v i n c i a l representat ive teams were dec lared reg iona l winners; Nova S c o t i a , for instance , under the name A t l a n t i c , represented the Marit imes; and, i n add i t i on to the P r a i r i e s team from Manitoba, A lber ta was able to enter a p r o v i n c i a l team. The 1972 Tournament i n Montreal saw a return to funding based on p r o v i n c i a l representat ive teams, and eight provinces were able to compete. Then, i n 1973, fo r the f i r s t time, a l l ten provinces were present at the Nat ional Tournament, and with few except ions, t h i s continued to be the case. 193 By the mid-sevent ies , women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada had developed to the point where Nat iona l under-age tournaments could be susta ined . The f i r s t such compet i t ion , the Nat ional Junior Tournament for g i r l s under the age of n ineteen, was he ld i n Toronto i n 1974, with e ight provinces competing. Th is a l so became an annual event, with the number of p a r t i c i p a t i n g provinces ranging from f i v e to ten . In 1978, under-23 reg iona l competit ions were introduced, F reder i c ton and Calgary host ing the f i r s t Canada East and Canada West Tournaments r e s p e c t i v e l y . A l l ten prov inces , four i n the West and s i x i n 25 the East , competed. The Canada Summer Games Women's F i e l d Hockey Tournaments have, quadrenn ia l ly , provided the equivalent of an i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l championship. At the f i r s t tournament, i n 1969, a l l provinces and t e r r i t o r i e s were represented at what was, i n e f f e c t , a senior na t iona l championship. In 1973, as we l l as cond i t ions of e l i g i b i l i t y re l a ted to c i t i z e n s h i p and res idency, the tournament was r e s t r i c t e d to p layers under the age of twenty-one, and age l i m i t s or other r e s t r i c t i o n s were app l ied at subsequent Canada Games tournaments . 2 6 Internat iona l Competit ion. Since 1956, Canada had been represented at I .F.W.H.A. Tournaments, but between these events, the Canadian team d id not have the opportunity to p lay many i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches. Even before 1970, i n order to address t h i s s i t u a t i o n , the C.W.F.H.A. es tab l i shed c lose r r e l a t i o n s h i p s with the U .S .F .H.A . and, for severa l years , i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches were he ld i n conjunct ion with na t iona l tournaments, the f i r s t i n 1968. In 1969, staged i n conjunct ion with the U . S . F . H . A . ' s Nat ional Tournament he ld i n Amherst, Canada played the U.S.A. and an I r i s h tour ing 194 team; and, r e c i p r o c a l l y , the U.S.A. played Canada a f t e r the conc lus ion of the 27 1970 Canadian Nat iona l Tournament i n Hamilton. A f te r 1971, when the team represent ing Canada at the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament i n New Zealand played ten i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches, Canada's competit ive programme began to expand. Since Canada had been accepted as host for the 1979 I .F.W.H.A. Tournament, and s ince I .F.W.H.A. tournaments were evo lv ing in to World Championships, i t was necessary for the Canadian team to obta in more i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion. Consequently, between 1971 and the 1975 I .F.W.H.A. Tournament i n Scot land, as we l l as p lay ing matches against the U.S.A. and A u s t r a l i a , the Canadian team toured Great B r i t a i n (1973), and i n v i t e d England to p a r t i c i p a t e i n a cross-Canada tour (1974) during which a t o t a l of seven i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches were p layed. Then, at the 1975 I .F.W.H.A. Tournament, Canada played eight matches, i n add i t i on to two f u l l 28 i n t e r n a t i o n a l games on tour . Canada's i n t e r n a t i o n a l programme, which had been s t e a d i l y inc reas ing during the f i r s t h a l f of the 1970s, now i n t e n s i f i e d . Over the next two years , from a combination of na t iona l team v i s i t s and overseas tours , the Canadian team played almost twenty i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches. Th is inc luded a three-match s e r i e s with Mexico, played i n Vancouver i n J u l y 1978 and won by Canada, to determine the North American country q u a l i f y i n g to enter the t h i r d Women's World Cup. Within the next twelve months, the Canadian team p a r t i c i p a t e d i n two major i n t e r n a t i o n a l tournaments, the F . I . H . World Cup, held i n Madrid i n September 1978, and the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament, staged i n Vancouver i n August 1979. In these p r e s t i g i o u s tournaments, both conducted i n a championship format, Canada placed f i f t h and e ighth r e s p e c t i v e l y . From 1979 onwards, the na t iona l team programme expanded to inc lude severa l i n t e r n a t i o n a l tours or 195 tournaments every year, and culminated i n a second place f i n i s h i n the World 29 Cup i n Malaysia i n 1983. Preparation of National Team. During the 1970s, the Canadian team programme, as well as expanding to include increased match p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a l s o incorporated more intensive preparation for i n t e r n a t i o n a l competition. In order to achieve t h i s , modifications to the e x i s t i n g structure were required. In 1969, the C.W.F.H.A. had not appointed a national coach, and even i n the earl y 1970s, no comprehensive national team t r a i n i n g programme had been formulated. S e l e c t i o n to the Canadian team which played i n the 1971 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament i n New Zealand was conducted through t r i a l s held i n conjunction with the National Tournament, and although the Touring Team assembled for a ten-day t r a i n i n g camp i n Vancouver before i t s departure for New Zealand, the coach d i d not accompany the team on tour. Furthermore, there was some d i s p a r i t y amongst the atti t u d e s of the players at that time regarding the importance of winning, a factor which was to assume greater s i g n i f i c a n c e 30 i n world competitions. After the 1971 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament, the C.W.F.H.A. began to implement changes. As well as expanding the Canadian team's i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i x t u r e s , the planning and administration of the national team programme was also undertaken more s e r i o u s l y . A permanent committee of selecto r s was established at once, and i n 1974, the Canadian Team Development Committee (C.T.D.C.) was formed to administer the a c t i v i t i e s of the national team, including i t s s e l e c t i o n , * . 31 preparation, and competition. By t h i s time, the national team programme had become a top p r i o r i t y of the C.W.F.H.A. The 1974 Canadian team was the f i r s t to be coached by a Canadian, rather than an overseas coach r e c r u i t e d on a short-term assignment. 196 In 1975 and 1976. the C .T .D .C . adopted procedures designed to prepare the team for ser ious i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, i nc lud ing the s e l e c t i o n of squads, in ter im t r a i n i n g camps, and f i n a l t r i a l s ; and, by 1977, a four-year na t iona l team development p lan had been formulated, the na t iona l coach was re-appointed for an extended tenure, and p layers were expected to make long-term commitments. Thus, the foundation was l a i d for the in tens ive competit ion necessary for the Canadian team to acquit i t s e l f c r e d i t a b l y i n the 1978 World Cup and the 1979 World Championship. As a resu l t of t h i s thorough preparat ion at a l l l e v e l s - p l a y i n g , t r a i n i n g , coaching and admin is t ra t ion - the Canadian Nat ional Team improved from a ranking of f i f t e e n t h i n 1975 to a second place 32 f i n i s h i n the 1983 Women's World Cup. Organ izat iona l Aspects Th is per iod witnessed a r e f i n i n g of the o rgan i za t iona l s t ruc ture of women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada. When, i n 1971, the Maritimes Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion was disbanded to a l low the four A t l a n t i c provinces to e s t a b l i s h separate bodies, a l l ten provinces had a women's f i e l d hockey a s s o c i a t i o n . It was i n t h i s p e r i o d , too, that some o rgan i za t iona l r e - s t r u c t u r i n g occurred wi th in the prov inces . In 1970, the Edmonton c lub broadened i t s mandate and formed the Northern A lber ta W.F.H.A. which a f f i l i a t e d with the A lber ta W.F.H.A. By 1974, Ontar io had decent ra l i zed to become a federat ion of reg iona l hockey a s s o c i a t i o n s ; for example, the Ottawa Club now formed the bas is of a reg iona l sub-assoc ia t ion w i th in the j u r i s d i c a t i o n of the Ontar io Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . The B r i t i s h Columbia F i e l d Hockey Federat ion , from i t s incept ion an umbrel la body for l o c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , by 1976 encompassed three l o c a l assoc ia t ions and s i x 33 a f f i l i a t e d reg iona l sub-assoc ia t ions . 197 The composit ion of the Executive of the C.W.F.H.A. i t s e l f underwent a transformation i n the ear l y part of t h i s p e r i o d . For the f i r s t f i v e years a f t e r i t s foundation i n 1962, the C.W.F.H.A. e lec ted i t s executive o f f i c e r s from B r i t i s h Columbia, other assoc ia t ions being represented by proxy. In 1967, when i t was intended that the Executive should move to Eastern Canada, no province or region was i n a p o s i t i o n to accept t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as the i r own organ izat ions demanded a l l a v a i l a b l e personnel . However, i n October 1968, the Annual General Meeting of the C.W.F.H.A. was held i n Winnipeg i n conjunct ion with the Nat ional Tournament i n order to al low representat ives from across the country to at tend. At t h i s meeting the members of the C.W.F.H.A. Executive were "e lected from coast to coas t , " with e f f e c t from the 1st January 1969. Thus, the Canadian body i t s e l f entered a new era of t r u l y 34 na t iona l representat ion . At t h i s time, too, the C.W.F.H.A. moved towards becoming an incorporated s o c i e t y . I n i t i a t e d i n 1967 at the i n s t i g a t i o n of the federa l government's F i tness and Amateur Sport D i r e c t o r a t e , the process was not complete for severa l years , as considerable d i s c u s s i o n and debate took place before the mechanics of vot ing to accept the c o n s t i t u t i o n could occur . With a c o n s t i t u t i o n based on i n d i v i d u a l membership, the a r t i c l e s of incorporat ion were enacted and passed by the D i rec to rs i n September 1970, and then the fo l lowing month, the C.W.F.H.A. became a l e g a l l y incorporated body. Soon afterwards, however, the bas is of r e g i s t r a t i o n with the C.W.F.H.A. changed from i n d i v i d u a l membership to team membership, which was found eas ie r to . . . 3 5 administer . In other areas too, the C.W.F.H.A. advanced cons iderab ly , f o r , as we l l as the preparat ion of the na t iona l team, other facets of development were addressed s e r i o u s l y . In 1971, the C.W.F.H.A. appointed a coaching 198 co-ord inator to oversee the development of coaches and for the next few years , the coaching committee was very a c t i v e . In co-operat ion with the Coaching A s s o c i a t i o n of Canada, work was begun i n 1972 on the formal c e r t i f i c a t i o n of coaches. This c e r t i f i c a t i o n programme was given high p r i o r i t y by the C.W.F.H.A. over the next severa l years , and the dut ies of na t iona l coaches appointed by the Assoc ia t i on inc luded the c e r t i f i c a t i o n of coaches as an important element. Furthermore, the numerous meetings held by the Coaching C e r t i f i c a t i o n committee, the large number of courses and c l i n i c s conducted, and the hundreds of coaches r e c e i v i n g t h e i r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , a t tes t to the 36 ser iousness with which the C.W.F.H.A. undertook t h i s endeavour. Another phenomenon of t h i s per iod was the s u b s t a n t i a l increase i n government f i n a n c i a l support . Table 10 demonstrates the dramatic increase i n 37 federa l funding towards C.W.F.H.A. programmes over a twenty-year span. TABLE 10 FEDERAL FUNDING: C.W.F.H.A. PROGRAMMES 1964-1983 F i s c a l Year Federal Funding ($) 1964 - 65 6,000 1974 - 75 100,000 1982 - 83 400,000 In a d d i t i o n , ass is tance i n the form of g r a n t s - i n - a i d became ava i l ab le to student a th le tes i n the 1970-71 f i s c a l year , and, i n 1978, under the Game Plan Ath lete Ass is tance Programme, these were extended to inc lude a l l members of the na t iona l squad. Furthermore, funding a l so increased at the p r o v i n c i a l 199 level at this time; the Ontario W.F.H.A.'s grant, for example, rose from $2,500.00 in 1972 to $30,000.00 in 1974, and similarly, the British Columbia 38 W.F.H.F.'s grant rose from $25,000 in 1978-79 to $95,000 in 1982-83. Men's Field Hockey The 1970s and early 1980s were years of continued progress in Canadian men's f i e l d hockey. Having entered the international arena in the 1960s, the national team competed in an increasing number of international matches throughout the 1970s, culminating in i t s participation in the Montreal Olympic Games in 1976 and the World Cup in 1978. However, this period was also one of substantial domestic development as the game grew in i t s established centres, and expanded into new areas. Domestic Development By the end of the 1960s, five provinces, British Columbia, Ontario, Alberta, Manitoba and Quebec, had formed men's f i e l d hockey associations, and in each of these provinces, the increase in numbers of teams continued into the seventies. Concurrently, the game expanded into other provinces; f i r s t Nova Scotia, then New Brunswick (albeit temporarily), and later a revived Saskatchewan, established teams, formed associations, and a f f i l i a t e d with the C.F.H.A. It was during this period, too, that the endeavour to introduce f i e l d hockey to boys was fi n a l l y reflected in the number of participating teams. By the early 1980s, the game had become well established across the country at both senior and junior levels. Seniors. Although several provinces experienced a greater proportionate increase in senior teams, British Columbia continued to contribute the largest 200 actua l number dur ing t h i s p e r i o d . As we l l as maintaining a moderate rate of o v e r a l l growth, the B .C .F .H.A. succeeded i n promoting the game throughout the prov ince . In the 1968-69 season, men's f i e l d hockey was s t i l l conf ined to two cent res : Vancouver, with twenty-f ive teams p lay ing i n four d i v i s i o n s ; and Vancouver I s l a n d , where a four-team league operated i n the V i c t o r i a area . By the 1978-79 season, the Vancouver League comprised twenty-eight teams and the Vancouver Is land League, e igh t . Furthermore, i n the l a te 1970s, three regions i n the i n t e r i o r of the province were able to f i e l d senior teams, which, i n 1980, r a i sed to t h i r t y - n i n e the number of teams reg i s te red i n B r i t i s h 39 Columbia. While B r i t i s h Columbia's dramatic growth had taken place i n the la te f i f t i e s and e a r l y s i x t i e s , other provinces experienced the i r expansion i n the l a te s i x t i e s and e a r l y sevent ies . Even though Onta r io ' s league had undergone a recent spurt to stand at fourteen teams i n two d i v i s i o n s i n 1969, t h i s growth was sustained for severa l more years , the Ontar io League reaching a 40 t o t a l of twenty-six teams i n 1973 before numbers l e v e l l e d o f f . Neighbouring Quebec, which had only three teams i n 1966, expanded to a high of seven i n the e a r l y 1970s. Quebec a c t u a l l y su f fe red a dec l ine i n the next few years , with only four teams reg i s te red with the C .F .H .A . i n 1980. Quebec's dec l ine was p a r t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e to the fact that the Outaouais F i e l d Hockey Club, which entered two teams i n the Montreal League i n the ear l y sevent ies , l a t e r jo ined the Ontar io F.H.A. and p a r t i c i p a t e d i n i t s Toronto-based 41 League. In the context of Ontar io and Quebec, the Outaouais F.H.C. deserves fur ther mention. Founded i n 1969, the Club could support as many as four teams i n l o c a l competit ion even i n the ear l y 1970s. In 1980, a f t e r Outaouais had spawned severa l other c lubs , t h i s competit ion evolved in to a 42 s ix-team Ottawa League. 201 A lbe r ta and Manitoba a l so experienced growth at t h i s t ime. Between 1969 and 1971, the Calgary League was transformed from a s i n g l e s ix-team competi t ion in to two d i v i s i o n s of four teams, whi le Edmonton expanded from one team to three . Expansion continued throughout the decade, not only i n Calgary and Edmonton but a l so i n other cent res , u n t i l , i n 1980, a t o t a l of s ix teen A lber ta teams were reg i s te red with the C .F .H .A . Meanwhile, i n Manitoba, although there were, from the l a te s i x t i e s , s u f f i c i e n t p layers to form two or three teams for informal compet i t ion, i t was as la te as 1977 that a four-team league began o p e r a t i n g . 4 3 Organized men's f i e l d hockey i n the maritime provinces had i t s s t a r t i n the e a r l y 1970s. In 1971, not only was a men's league es tab l i shed i n Nova S c o t i a , but on two occasions that year a New Brunswick team played a team from Nova S c o t i a . While the New Brunswick team was ac t i ve for only a few years , the game i n Nova Sco t i a was f i rm ly e s t a b l i s h e d , with f i v e senior teams 44 reported i n 1973, and four teams reg i s te red i n 1980. It was not u n t i l 1979 that senior men's f i e l d hockey competit ion was rev ived i n Saskatchewan, with a c lub based i n Saskatoon. Soon afterwards, Regina a l so formed a c lub , and i n June 1980, Saskatchewan's f i r s t i n t e r - c i t y match was played i n Regina. By 1982, tournaments i nvo lv ing the Saskatoon team, the Regina team, and up to three teams from Manitoba, were being he ld on 45 a regular b a s i s . The pat tern of growth of men's f i e l d hockey i n Canada, and i n the major 46 prov inces , i s demonstrated i n Table 11. As can be observed, most of t h i s increase occurred i n the ear ly sevent ies . Furthermore, the major con t r ibu t ion came from Ontar io , A l b e r t a , and the other developing prov inces , whi le B r i t i s h Columbia's growth-rate averaged jus t one team per year throughout the 1970s. 202 TABLE 11 SENIOR TEAMS REGISTERED WITH THE C . F . H . A . : 1969 - 1980 Year Major Provinces Canada B.C. Ontar io A lber ta 1969 29 14 7 59 1973 33 26 12 86 1980 39 27 16 95 J u n i o r s . Domest ica l ly , jun ior development was the major achievement of t h i s p e r i o d . Up u n t i l the l a te 1960s, the number of jun ior teams i n Canada was smal l r e l a t i v e to the number of senior teams i n the country. For instance, i n 1968, the two most developed f i e l d hockey prov inces , B r i t i s h Columbia and Ontar io , reported only seven teams each at jun ior l e v e l , whi le A lber ta and newly-formed Manitoba had even fewer. As i n men's hockey a decade e a r l i e r , i t was B r i t i s h Columbia which took the lead i n jun ior expansion. At the 1969 B.C. Junior Tournament, twelve teams p a r t i c i p a t e d , and a year l a t e r , twenty-six teams competed i n three age d i v i s i o n s . As we l l as competit ions of a tournament nature, a league s t ruc ture was created and, i n 1972, t h i r t y teams 47 were p lay ing r e g u l a r l y i n the Lower Mainland Junior League. In the e a r l y 1970s, other provinces a l so expanded, as Edmonton, Ottawa and Montreal jo ined Vancouver, Ca lgary , Winnipeg and Toronto i n f o s t e r i n g jun io r teams. The 48 Outaouais F . H . C , for example, supported three jun ior teams i n 1972. Throughout the 1970s, and in to the '80s, jun ior development cont inued. Edmonton was success fu l with i t s programme, con t r ibu t ing t h i r t e e n of A l b e r t a ' s twenty jun ior teams i n 1977. Vancouver's Junior League expanded to four age 203 d i v i s i o n s to accommodate over t h i r t y teams, and the Vancouver Is land F i e l d 49 Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n ' s jun ior schedule inc luded s ix teen teams i n 1980. In f a c t , j un io r expansion reached i t s peak that year with 104 teams reg i s te red with the C .F .H .A . The rates of development of jun ior f i e l d hockey i n Canada, and the growth i n number of teams r e l a t i v e to sen io rs , can be observed from 50 Table 12: TABLE 12 C .F .H .A . SENIOR AND JUNIOR TEAMS: 1969 - 1980 Year Senior Teams Junior Teams 1969 59 25 1973 86 60 1980 95 104 Table 13 shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of senior and jun io r teams by province fo r 1980, the year i n which domestic development reached i t s z e n i t h . From Table 12, i t i s c l e a r l y demonstrated that the rate of jun ior expansion great ly exceeded that of the s e n i o r s ; so much so that , by 1980, there were a c t u a l l y more jun ior than senior teams reg i s te red with the C .F .H .A . On the other hand, as revealed i n Table 13, i t was only i n the three major provinces of B r i t i s h Columbia, Ontar io and A lber ta that jun ior teams had 51 been es tab l i shed i n s u b s t a n t i a l numbers. 204 TABLE 13 C .F .H .A . - REGISTERED SENIOR AND JUNIOR TEAMS: 1980 Province Senior Junior B.C. 39 52 A lber ta 16 17 Saskatchewan 2 0 Manitoba 3 3 Ontar io 27 28 Quebec 4 4 Nova Sco t i a 4 0 Canada 95 104 The schools played a r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t part i n the promotion of men's f i e l d hockey i n Canada. V i r t u a l l y a l l of the jun ior teams reg i s te red with the C .F .H .A . were based on senior c lubs w i th in a community, o r , i n the case of smal ler prov inces , fostered d i r e c t l y by the p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n . From time to time, a team may have been centred around a p a r t i c u l a r schoo l , for example U n i v e r s i t y H i l l School i n Vancouver, but there was no sustained boys' f i e l d hockey competit ion w i th in the pub l i c school system anywhere i n Canada. However, as an exception to the general r u l e , severa l p r i va te schools i n B r i t i s h Columbia incorporated f i e l d hockey for boys i n to t h e i r games curr i cu lum. S t . George's School i n Vancouver and Shawnigan Lake School and Brentwood School on Vancouver Is land maintained strong f i e l d hockey programmes, and i n t e r - s c h o o l competit ion amongst these three schools was i n 5 2 existence for many years . 205 U n i v e r s i t i e s . With in the u n i v e r s i t i e s , men's f i e l d hockey developed gradual ly dur ing t h i s p e r i o d . The number of teams that the U.B.C. Club entered annual ly i n the Vancouver F i e l d Hockey League averaged three, with the a d d i t i o n of an Under-21 team i n the jun ior d i v i s i o n , when that age category was es tab l i shed i n the l a te 1970s; and both the U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a and the U n i v e r s i t y of Calgary c o n s i s t e n t l y f i e l d e d teams i n t h e i r respect ive c i t y leagues. I n t e r - u n i v e r s i t y competit ion was a l so arranged, matches between the Un ive rs i t y of V i c t o r i a and U.B.C. becoming an annual event by the mid-1970s; and, on one occas ion i n 1969, the U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a t r a v e l l e d to Calgary to p lay the U n i v e r s i t y of Calgary i n a s e r i e s of games. Simon Fraser U n i v e r s i t y f i e l d e d a team for the f i r s t time i n 1977, p a r t i c i p a t i n g with the U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a and the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia i n a f ive-team tournament at U.B.C. C .F .H .A . records ind i ca te that f i e l d hockey was a l so played at severa l other 53 u n i v e r s i t i e s across the country, but not on a long-term b a s i s . P r o v i n c i a l Championships. During the l a t t e r part of t h i s p e r i o d , domestic development progressed to the stage where i n t r a - p r o v i n c i a l competit ion could be sustained on a formal b a s i s . In previous years , major centres , such as Vancouver and V i c t o r i a i n B r i t i s h Columbia, Calgary and Edmonton i n A l b e r t a , and Ottawa and Toronto i n Ontar io , had played i n t e r - c i t y matches; but, i n the 1970s, p r o v i n c i a l assoc ia t ions began to form reg iona l sub-assoc iat ions and organize i n t r a - p r o v i n c i a l compet i t ion. In 1977, the Ontar io F.H.A. created f i v e regions and, i n the same year , f i v e c i t i e s were designated as reg ional centres i n A l b e r t a ; i n 1978, men's f i e l d hockey was inc luded i n the B.C. Summer Games, which embraced eight regions of the prov ince; and, soon a f t e r , 54 i t was added to Summer Games programmes i n other prov inces . 206 Nat ional Development While d i f f u s i o n of the game wi th in the provinces contr ibuted to a wider p a r t i c i p a t i o n at a rudimentary l e v e l , of greater s i g n i f i c a n c e i n the progress of Canadian men's f i e l d hockey o v e r a l l was the evo lu t ion of na t iona l championships and the success of the na t iona l team i n a c o n t i n u a l l y expanding programme of i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion. Nat ional Championships. Between 1970 and 1983, the Nat ional Championships played an important part i n the development of the game wi th in Canada. Annual na t iona l championships of an i n t e r - p r o v l n c i a l nature began i n 1965 and, by 1970, f i v e prov inces , B r i t i s h Columbia, A l b e r t a , Manitoba, Ontar io and Quebec, a l l competed r e g u l a r l y . In 1971, the Nova Sco t i a p r o v i n c i a l team p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the Tournament for the f i r s t time; and, i n 1973, New Brunswick's only c lub was able to enter a team, to r a i s e the number of competing provinces to a record high of seven. New Brunswick d id not send a team to any subsequent championships, so i t was not u n t i l 1980, when a Saskatchewan team re-emerged a f t e r fourteen years ' absence, that seven provinces again p a r t i c i p a t e d at the 55 Canadian Championships. The s tory of Canadian men's championships and i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l tournaments d id not end with the s e n i o r s . Fol lowing the f i r s t Junior Nat ional Tournament held i n Winnipeg i n 1968, a s i m i l a r event was arranged for the same venue the next year ; and seven teams represent ing four provinces were assembled. With only three matches p layed, heavy r a i n forced the abandonment of the 1969 Tournament, and as a r e s u l t , for the next few years , i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l competit ion for jun io rs adopted a more reg iona l approach. For example, i n 1970, f i v e jun io r teams competed i n Calgary , one team each from A lbe r ta and Manitoba, and three teams from B r i t i s h Columbia - Vancouver, 207 Cast legar and Vancouver I s l and . With in a few years , t h i s reg iona l tournament for jun io rs had been d iv ided in to two ca tegor ies , under-17 and under-14. In 1974, B r i t i s h Columbia, A l b e r t a , and Manitoba entered a t o t a l of f i v e teams i n each age d i v i s i o n of what was descr ibed as the f i r s t Western Canadian Junior Tournament. Moreover, 1974 a l so saw the r e v i v a l of a jun ior na t iona l tournament. The Junior Olympics was i n s t i g a t e d , an event at which the under-17 c lub champions of each province competed, with B r i t i s h Columbia, Ontar io , Quebec and Nova Sco t i a represented at the f i r s t tournament. In subsequent years , A l b e r t a , Manitoba and Saskatchewan a l s o entered teams, and the tournament became more t r u l y na t iona l i n scope, cont inuing u n t i l 1977 when 57 sponsorship was withdrawn. By then, however, jun ior hockey i n Canada had developed to the point where an under-21 na t iona l championship could be inaugurated. At the f i r s t such tournament, held i n Vancouver i n 1978, a l l s i x es tab l i shed provinces sent the i r representat ive teams to compete. This competit ion remained an annual event, with a seventh prov ince , Saskatchewan, 58 able to enter a team by 1982. In ternat iona l Competit ion. Th is per iod witnessed a surge i n Canada's i n t e r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a phenomenon p r e c i p i t a t e d by Montreal 's success fu l b id to host the 1976 Olympic Games. Enter ing the 1970s, however, the Canadian team was s u f f e r i n g from a dearth of i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion. P r i o r to 1971, Canada had not played a s i n g l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l match for over two years . Only when i t toured Europe i n preparat ion for the Pan American Games of that year d id the Canadian team re-appear on the i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey 59 scene. At the Pan American Games Hockey Tournament, held i n Colombia, Canada f i n i s h e d t h i r d to take the bronze medals; but as only the top two countr ies 208 from the Americas q u a l i f i e d for the 1972 Olympic Games i n Munich, Canada was once again a reserve na t ion . In f a c t , apart from the 1971 Pan American Games, i n the f i v e - y e a r span from June 1968 to May 1973, the Canadian team played only s i x i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches. However, i n 1973, the team began to prepare for the 1976 Montreal Olympics, i n which Canada, as host na t ion , was assured 60 of a p l a c e . Commencing with a tour of Great B r i t a i n , the team embarked on an in tens ive programme of match preparat ion which inc luded severa l p r e s t i g i o u s i n t e r n a t i o n a l tournaments, amongst which was the 1975 Pan American Games Hockey Tournament, where Canada f i n i s h e d second. In the thirty-month per iod preceding the 1976 Olympics, the Canadian team played approximately f o r t y i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches, many against the wor ld 's leading hockey-playing na t ions . When, a f t e r a gap of twelve years , the Canadian team competed i n i t s second Olympic hockey tournament, t h i s time i n i t s home country, Canada 61 f i n i s h e d a c r e d i t a b l e tenth . Even a f t e r the Olympics the programme continued and i n the next three years , i n add i t i on to severa l other events, Canada competed i n the fo l lowing 62 major i n t e r n a t i o n a l tournaments: September 1977 Inter -Cont inenta l Cup Rome March 1978 World Cup Buenos A i res A p r i l 1979 Esanda 10-Nation Tourney Perth J u l y 1979 Pan American Games Puerto Rico It was dur ing t h i s per iod that Canada played i n the World Cup Tournament for the f i r s t time; and, i n so doing, defeated Ind ia , re ign ing 63 world champions. 209 Af ter t h i s accomplishment, some time was to pass before the Canadian team returned to the highest echelon of world compet i t ion . A s i l v e r medal at the 1979 Pan American Games, and a n in th place f i n i s h i n the 1981 Inter -Cont inenta l Cup f a i l e d to gain Canada entry to the 1980 Olympic and 1982 World Cup compet i t ions . Not u n t i l August 1983, when the team won i t s f i r s t gold medal at the Pan American Games Hockey Tournament, d id Canada q u a l i f y for 64 another world championship, the 1984 Olympic Games i n Los Angeles. Preparat ion of the Nat iona l Team. Canada's entry i n to the highest c a l i b r e of i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey competit ion was accompanied by a more p ro fess iona l approach to the preparat ion of the na t iona l team. From 1968 to 1970, the Canadian men's team was v i r t u a l l y dormant, but with the Pan American Games scheduled for 1971, in tens ive p r a c t i c e was begun e a r l y i n that year to prepare Canada for t h i s event, which a l so served as the q u a l i f y i n g tournament for the 1972 Olympic Games. Although Canada d id not q u a l i f y for those Olympics, t h i s was the beginning of a new era for the na t iona l team. On the p r a c t i c e f i e l d , young p layers were being coached i n t e n s i v e l y ; camps were organized to provide t r a i n i n g and p r a c t i c e matches for a se lec t squad, and competit ion was arranged with v i s i t i n g overseas tour ing teams of high standard. What was re fe r red to as "a new generat ion of young Canadian p layers" was being prepared for 65 wor ld-c lass events. At the same time, development was occurr ing at the admin is t ra t ive l e v e l . In 1971, an o v e r a l l s t rategy was formulated for the preparat ion of the na t iona l team, inc lud ing a second echelon, or Canada 'B' concept, for a s p i r i n g younger p l a y e r s . Later that year , a f i ve -year p lan was produced, which inc luded a programme designed to prepare a Canadian team for the 1976 Olympic Games. The C . F . H . A . ' s P layer Development Committee was then es tab l i shed to 210 implement t h i s plan. Subsequently, i n September 1973, a committee to administer the Canadian team was formed. Known as the National Team Management Committee (N.T.M.C.), i t was responsible for co-ordinating a l l aspects of national team preparation, including tours and tournaments, national t r a i n i n g centres, and assistant national coaches. As the national and i n t e r n a t i o n a l commitments of the Canadian team i n t e n s i f i e d , p r i o r to and beyond the Olympic Games, so too d i d the administrative r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of the N.T.M.C. expand. In due course i t was also given r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f or the administration of a junior national team, which f i r s t entered world 66 competition i n 1978. Organizational Aspects From an organizational perspective, the seventies and e a r l y e i g h t i e s were years of gradual maturation. The C.F.H.A. ended the 1960s with f i v e a f f i l i a t e d p r o v i n c i a l associations — B r i t i s h Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec. In 1971, the Nova S c o t i a Men's F i e l d Hockey Association was founded and admitted to the C.F.H.A.; and i n 1973, New Brunswick, by r e g i s t e r i n g the Fredericton Unicorns F i e l d Hockey Club, became e n t i t l e d to a representative on the Board of Control of the C.F.H.A. Despite competing i n the Canadian Championships only once, i n 1973, New Brunswick continued to send a delegate to the C.F.H.A.'s Board meetings u n t i l 1975, a f t e r which the club became defunct. I t was not u n t i l 1979 that men's clubs i n Saskatchewan were again formed, and the Saskatchewan F i e l d Hockey Association became a f f i l i a t e d 67 with the national a s s o c i a t i o n i n 1980. Within the provinces, too, an evolutionary process was taking place. Even when the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Association was founded i n 1961, several provinces had more than one centre i n which f i e l d hockey was played: 211 Vancouver and V i c t o r i a i n B r i t i s h Columbia; Calgary and Edmonton i n A l b e r t a ; Toronto and Hamilton i n Ontar io . However, dur ing the 1970s, the number of these centres increased, and reg iona l sub-assoc iat ions were created; for example, the Vancouver F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on and the Vancouver Is land F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on became member assoc ia t ions of the B .C .F .H .A . , and the F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on of Calgary and the Northern A lber ta Men's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n were reg iona l member assoc ia t ions w i th in the A lber ta F i e l d Hockey Federat ion . At t h i s time, Ontar io and Quebec were a l so d iv ided in to reg ions . Toronto, Hamilton, and Ottawa, for instance , became the centres for reg iona l assoc ia t ions a f f i l i a t e d with the Ontar io F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n ; and, s i m i l a r l y , executive committees were appointed to administer the four a c t i v e 68 reg iona l assoc ia t ions of the Quebec F i e l d Hockey Federat ion . I t was a l s o i n the 1970s that the C .F .H .A . i t s e l f achieved one of i t s e a r l i e s t o rgan i za t i ona l o b j e c t i v e s . When the C .F .H .A . was formed i n 1961, the nucleus of i t s executive was based i n Vancouver, but i t was intended that Toronto, the second major centre of men's f i e l d hockey i n Canada, should become the headquarters for the Executive a f t e r f i v e years . However, i t was not u n t i l 1977 that the s ta te of f i e l d hockey i n Ontar io was such that a Toronto-based Executive of the C .F .H .A . could be nominated and e l e c t e d . Then, i n 1980, i n accordance with the o r i g i n a l p lan to a l t e r n a t e , the Executive 69 centre returned to Vancouver. The t e c h n i c a l development of men's f i e l d hockey i n Canada progressed throughout the 1970s. By 1971, the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Umpires Assoc ia t ion had formed an Execut ive , a Technica l Committee and an Examinations Sub-Committee, and had f i f t e e n umpires q u a l i f i e d at na t iona l l e v e l or h igher . By 1980, over seventy Canadian umpires had been awarded nat iona l badges, and seven were on the ac t i ve l i s t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y accred i ted umpires. With 212 respect to the t r a i n i n g and c e r t i f i c a t i o n of coaches, the C .F .H .A . qu i ck l y i d e n t i f i e d the need for a Technica l D i rec tor to co-ord inate t h i s funct ion and, i n 1972, made unsuccessful representat ions to Sport Canada to support such a p o s i t i o n . Nevertheless , the C .F .H .A . created a Technica l Development Committee, which f i r s t met with the Coaching Assoc ia t ion of Canada i n 1974 and, by 1977, coaching mater ia ls had been developed and the f i r s t c e r t i f i c a t i o n courses conducted. F i n a l l y , i n 1983, a l l three l e v e l s of the 70 programme were completed. Men's f i e l d hockey was one body to benef i t from increased government support of amateur sport dur ing t h i s per iod , and i n 1973, the C .F .H.A. became incorporated i n order to be e l i g i b l e to rece ive federa l funding. From an annual grant averaging $10,000 i n the la te 1960s, the federa l government's c o n t r i b u t i o n to the C . F . H . A . ' s p r o j e c t s , i nc lud ing a th le te ass i s tance , rose to almost $80,000 i n the 1973-74 f i s c a l year . As programmes expanded, and techn i ca l s t a f f were a l so r e c r u i t e d , t h i s con t r ibu t ion continued to increase u n t i l , i n the e a r l y 1980s, t o t a l funding was i n the order of $200,000. 71 P r o v i n c i a l grants , although smal ler i n magnitude, fol lowed a s i m i l a r t rend. Re la t ionsh ips Between Men's and Women's F i e l d Hockey Independent but P a r a l l e l Development In genera l , the development of men's and women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada from the ear l y 1970s fol lowed independent but, i n many areas, p a r a l l e l paths . As can be observed from Table 14, both the number of men's and the number of women's teams increased s u b s t a n t i a l l y dur ing t h i s fourteen-year span, men's f i e l d hockey exper ienc ing i t s biggest increment i n the f i r s t f i v e years , whi le the women's game maintained a more uniform growth p a t t e r n . In B r i t i s h 213 TABLE 14 SENIOR TEAMS REGISTERED WITH THE C.F .H.A ./C.W.F .H.A.: 1968-1981 Year CANADA B.C. Men Women Men Women 1968/69 59 52 29 24 1973/74 86 77 33 33 1980/81 95 103 39 55 Columbia e s p e c i a l l y , women's f i e l d hockey demonstrated a more sustained growth 72 than the men's game. One area i n p a r t i c u l a r where men's and women's f i e l d hockey d id not fo l low the same course was i n the development of younger p l a y e r s . Whereas i n every province hundreds of g i r l s were being introduced to f i e l d hockey i n the schools annual ly , only a handful of schoo ls , v i r t u a l l y a l l p r i v a t e , o f fe red f i e l d hockey for boys. Consequently, women's f i e l d hockey became a major u n i v e r s i t y sport dur ing t h i s p e r i o d , whi le only a few u n i v e r s i t i e s were able to form a men's f i e l d hockey team. On the other hand, a strong jun ior boy's programme was developed through the c lub system, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n B r i t i s h Columbia and A l b e r t a . The f o s t e r i n g of jun ior g i r l s ' c lub teams, whi le important, was r e l a t i v e l y less s i g n i f i c a n t i n the development of women's f i e l d hockey; p r o v i n c i a l women's assoc ia t ions t y p i c a l l y dec lared very few jun ior 73 teams, t o t a l l i n g only f i f t e e n i n 1974 and eighteen i n 1977, for example. Before 1970, both the C.W.F.H.A. and the C .F .H .A . had es tab l i shed nat iona l tournaments. For the next few years , these passed through a t r a n s i t i o n a l phase, the women's tournament inc lud ing reg iona l teams, the men's 214 tournament permi t t ing more than one team from the host prov ince . However, by 1973, both Nat iona l Championships had become s t r i c t l y i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l i n format. While from that year onwards, with few except ions, the C.W.F.H.A. championships inc luded a l l ten p r o v i n c i a l teams, the men's na t iona l championships were never attended by more than seven prov inces . The C.W.F.H.A. bene f i t ted from p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the quadrennial Canada Summer Games, which, from 1973 onwards, were held i n add i t i on to na t iona l championships. These Games played no part i n the development of men's f i e l d hockey. Although the C .F .H.A. i n v a r i a b l y app l ied for admission to the Canada 74 Summer Games, i t s a p p l i c a t i o n was c o n s i s t e n t l y r e j e c t e d . Both na t iona l teams experienced a dearth of i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches during the ear l y part of t h i s p e r i o d , but with 1971 the year of an I .F.W.H.A. Tournament and a Pan American Games compet i t ion, the i n t e r n a t i o n a l programme of both assoc ia t ions was r e v i t a l i z e d . The women's na t iona l team remained ac t i ve for the next few years i n preparat ion for the 1975 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament which, by then, had been dec lared a world championship. However, the men's na t iona l team experienced an even greater surge of a c t i v i t y , i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of the Montreal Olympic Games i n 1976. By the l a te 1970s, the women's team's i n t e r n a t i o n a l programme expanded s i m i l a r l y , with the approach of the 1979 I .F.W.H.A. Tournament i n Vancouver, and the i n c l u s i o n of women's 75 hockey i n the 1980 Olympics. The coaching, s e l e c t i o n and match preparat ion of the na t iona l teams underwent a transformation during the 1970s, becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y soph is t i ca ted and i n t e n s i v e . For the men's team, t h i s phenomenon began i n the ear l y 1970s, and for the women's team, the mid-sevent ies , r e f l e c t i n g the r e l a t i v e t iming of the Montreal Olympics and the Vancouver I .F.W.H.A. Tournament. The admin is t ra t ive i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e to support the programme was 215 a l s o developed at that time, the N.T.M.C. (men) and C .T .D .C . (women) being "76 created i n 1973 and 1974 r e s p e c t i v e l y . During the formative years of both na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n s , and the ear l y days of Canadian team p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, a large number of members, i nc lud ing e l i t e p l ayers , were immigrants. Th is created a d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n with respect to the s e l e c t i o n of na t iona l teams and representat ion at na t iona l tournaments. A l l through the 1960s t h i s matter of e l i g i b i l i t y , r e l a ted to c i t i z e n s h i p and res idency, remained unresolved. In women's hockey, the matter was f i e r c e l y debated, and voted upon by the membership on severa l occas ions . Even i n the ear l y 1970s, the top ic was s t i l l d iscussed as the time approached for s e l e c t i o n of the women's Canadian team for I .F.W.H.A. tournaments. In men's hockey, a s p e c i a l s e r i e s of matches was arranged between " e l i g i b l e " teams from Ontar io and B r i t i s h Columbia to determine which province would form the nucleus of the na t iona l team. These "closed" championships were held i n 1968, Olympic Year, and 1970, the year immediately preceeding the Pan American Games. By the mid-1970s, as s u b s t a n t i a l numbers of Canadian-born men and women p layers at ta ined the age and c a l i b r e of p lay to compete i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, the problem began to d im in i sh . F i n a l l y , i t was the in f luence of externa l f ac to rs which reso lved the issue completely . F . I . H . e l i g i b i l i t y ru les for p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Olympic Games, World Cup and q u a l i f y i n g tournaments required c i t i z e n s h i p s t a t u s . Thus, by the mid-1970s for the men, and 1978 for the women, Canadian 77 c i t i z e n s h i p became mandatory for s e l e c t i o n . The ear l y 1970s saw a cont inuat ion of the fo rma l i za t i on of p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , a phenomenon due, at least i n pa r t , to the increased a v a i l a b i l i t y of p r o v i n c i a l government grants to amateur sports o rgan iza t ions . The Nova S c o t i a Men's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on a f f i l i a t e d with the C.F .H.A i n 216 1971, and the Maritime provinces formed separate women's assoc ia t ions that same year . Later i n the 1970s, the stronger provinces fol lowed the lead of B r i t i s h Columbia and began to form reg iona l sub-assoc ia t ions , and to arrange 78 i n t e r - r e g i o n a l competit ion i n the form of summer games tournaments. At the executive l e v e l , advances were made during t h i s p e r i o d . For example, as ea r l y as 1969, the C.W.F.H.A. began to e l ec t i t s executive o f f i c e r s from across the country. This i n i t i a l l y presented communication d i f f i c u l t i e s ; however, once f i e l d hockey became a P r i o r i t y I sport i n 1970, with funding for executive t r a v e l one of the bene f i t s of t h i s s ta tus , the problem was overcome, as the Board of D i rec to rs was able to meet twice annual ly . S i m i l a r l y , although the C .F .H .A . had always maintained a working quorum of i t s executive i n one centre , i t became p r a c t i c a b l e to e lec t severa l 79 executive members from other reg ions . From 1971 onwards, f e d e r a l , and l a t e r p r o v i n c i a l , government funding of executive and techn i ca l d i r e c t o r s r e l i e v e d volunteers of a s u b s t a n t i a l work-load, and permitted the implementation of the expanding programmes of competit ion and development that took p lace during the sevent ies and in to the e i g h t i e s . In order to q u a l i f y for these funds, i t was necessary for the na t iona l assoc ia t ions to become l e g a l l y incorporated . Th is fo rmal i ty was 80 concluded by the C.W.F.H.A. i n 1971, and two years l a t e r by the C .F .H .A . Coaching development and c e r t i f i c a t i o n was a high p r i o r i t y for both assoc ia t ions dur ing the 1970s. The C.W.F.H.A. took the i n i t i a t i v e as ea r l y as 1972, by subscr ib ing to the C . A . C . ' s coaching c e r t i f i c a t i o n programme, and i n 1974, the C .F .H .A . held I ts f i r s t meeting with the C .A .C . By the end of the 1970s, both assoc ia t ions were conducting courses and c e r t i f y i n g coaches, with 81 the C.W.F.H.A. severa l years i n advance of the C .F .H .A . i n t h i s endeavour. 217 Government funding for amateur sport increased g rea t l y dur ing t h i s per iod , both the C .F .H .A . and the C.W.F.H.A. being s u b s t a n t i a l b e n e f i c i a r i e s . Pres idents of both Assoc ia t ions were p a r t i c u l a r l y cognizant of t h i s increase , which was more than t e n - f o l d i n the space of a decade, and endeavoured to 82 maximize i t s e f f ec t i veness i n the development of the spor t . In te rac t ion and Jo in t Considerat ions Throughout the h i s t o r y of f i e l d hockey i n Canada, there were numerous occasions when mixed hockey played an important part i n the formative stages of the development of the game. Th is was no less so during the per iod from 1970 to 1983. In 1970, the year before formal men's f i e l d hockey was played i n Nova S c o t i a , a "Metro Mixed F i e l d Hockey League", wi th four teams competing, was conducted on the H a l i f a x Commons. S i m i l a r l y , mixed hockey played i n the e a r l y 1970s i n F reder i c ton led to the formation of a men's f i e l d hockey c lub i n 1971 i n New Brunswick, and the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of a p r o v i n c i a l team i n the 1973 Canadian Championships. Mixed hockey was a l so instrumental i n the r e v i v a l of men's f i e l d hockey i n Saskatchewan i n 1979, again, the women 83 having preceded the men i n the development of f i e l d hockey i n the prov ince . Not only at the p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l , but at the c lub l e v e l as w e l l , mixed hockey was a fac tor i n the development of the game. F i e l d hockey i n Ottawa began with a game of mixed hockey played i n 1968, and, from i t s ea r l y days, the Outaouais F.H.C. was always a strong mixed c lub . Even where the game was we l l e s t a b l i s h e d , mixed c lubs appeared. The Jokers F i e l d Hockey Club of Vancouver, formed i n the mid-1960s s o l e l y as a men's c lub , was quick to u t i l i z e mixed hockey as a means of r e c r u i t i n g women's teams. In 1967, the c lub conducted the f i r s t of i t s annual mixed tournaments, and f i f t e e n years 218 l a t e r , four women's teams and f i v e men's teams represented the c lub i n the i r 84 respec t ive Vancouver leagues. In te rac t ion between men's and women's teams a l so occurred at j o i n t l y conducted tournaments and f e s t i v a l s , and these annual events were held i n severa l centres across the country for many years . A p a r t i c u l a r l y popular and p r e s t i g i o u s one was the Ontar io Maple Leaf Tournament which o r ig ina ted i n 1969 as the O a k v i l l e F i e l d Hockey C lub ' s i n v i t a t i o n a l tournament, on ly men's teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n that f i r s t year . The fo l lowing year , a women's tournament was conducted nearby, and i n 1972, the men's and women's tournaments were held on the same grounds. By the mid-1970s, the event, by then c a l l e d the Maple Leaf Tournament and conducted under the auspices of the p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , a t t rac ted over f o r t y men's and women's teams. Numerous other examples of mixed hockey and of jo in t ly -conducted men's and women's competit ion could be c i t e d i n centres as d iverse as Terrace and Pr ince Rupert i n B r i t i s h Columbia, Banff and Red Deer i n A l b e r t a , Laval and Montreal i n ^ u 85 Quebec. However, o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y , i t was Quebec that became the f i r s t province i n which the men and women amalgamated to form a j o i n t p r o v i n c i a l f i e l d hockey a s s o c i a t i o n . I n i t i a t e d i n 1970 to meet the Quebec Government's funding requirements of one governing body per spor t , the formulat ion of a c o n s t i t u t i o n took some time to complete before the Province of Quebec F i e l d Hockey Federat ion came i n t o existence i n 1972. Almost ten years l a t e r , the men's and women's assoc ia t ions i n Ontar io uni ted to form a s i n g l e plenary body. In May 1981, a f t e r eighteen months of negot ia t i on , F i e l d Hockey Ontar io was created as an umbrel la o rgan iza t ion to the O.F .H.A. and the O.W.F.H.A. When men's f i e l d hockey was rev ived i n Saskatchewan i n 1979, no separate men's 219 assoc ia t i on was formed; ra ther , the men simply integrated with the e x i s t i n g 86 women's body, to create a j o i n t "Saskatchewan F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " . As we l l as the more e f f e c t i v e deployment of vo lunteers , the benef i t s to these j o i n t p r o v i n c i a l assoc ia t ions were s u b s t a n t i a l and immediate. Not only was funding increased, but admin is t ra t ive and techn ica l personnel were supported by the government. As e a r l y as 1973, the P .Q .F .H .F . was able to appoint a funded techn ica l person, and i n 1983, F i e l d Hockey Ontar io employed severa l admin is t ra t ive and techn i ca l s t a f f . For a three-month per iod i n 1980, the Saskatchewan F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on h i r e d a f u l l - t i m e Technica l D i rec tor to a s s i s t i n l o c a l development. His dut ies included the preparat ion of the men's and women's p r o v i n c i a l representat ive teams, as we l l as the f o s t e r i n g of the game at an elementary l e v e l . Even i n provinces where men's and women's f i e l d hockey assoc ia t ions were separate e n t i t i e s , co-operat ive e f f o r t s were made to secure support for techn i ca l s t a f f . Manitoba and Nova S c o t i a , among others , by co -ord ina t ing app l i ca t i ons for government funding, were success fu l 87 i n such j o i n t ventures . Co-operat ion between men and women i n f i e l d hockey extended to the coaching and managing of c lub and p r o v i n c i a l teams. Numerous women's c lub teams were coached or managed by men, and for severa l years the Vancouver Is land men's team was managed by a woman. Throughout the 1970s, almost every p r o v i n c i a l women's a s s o c i a t i o n appointed a male coach on at least one occas ion , and beginning i n 1981, the Saskatchewan men's senior team appeared at the Canadian Nat iona l Championships with women as coach and manager. Only i n the mid-1950s, when the f i r s t Canadian women's team to p a r t i c i p a t e i n an I .F.W.H.A. Tournament was coached by a man, was e i ther na t iona l team coached 88 by a member of the opposite sex. 220 At the o rgan i za t i ona l l e v e l of i n t e r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , co-operat ion was evident between the C .F .H .A . and the C.W.F.H.A. In the mid-1970s, when the C.W.F.H.A. sought membership i n the Canadian Olympic Assoc ia t i on ( C O . A . ) i n order to be e l i g i b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the 1980 Olympic Games, d i f f i c u l t i e s were encountered as a r e s u l t of the C . O . A . ' s p o l i c y of recogniz ing only one nat iona l body for each spor t . For over a decade, the C .F .H .A . had been a member of the C O . A . , i t s r i gh t to membership d e r i v i n g from i t s recogn i t ion by the F . I . H . as the na t iona l body for f i e l d hockey i n Canada. Correspondence between the Pres ident of the C.W.F.H.A. and the I .F.W.H.A. dur ing 1976 and 1977 ind i ca ted that , desp i te the fact that the I .O .C . recognized the existence of the Supreme Counci l ( I . F . W . H . A . / F . I . H ) , and had thus agreed that Nat ional Olympic Committees were to accept women's hockey assoc ia t ions as members, the C.W.F.H.A. continued to experience d i f f i c u l t i e s i n ga in ing membership i n the C O . A . The matter was amicably resolved by negot ia t ions between the Pres idents of the C.W.F.H.A. and C . F . H . A . , and by the time of the Moscow Olympics i n 1980, an agreement had been reached whereby the f i e l d hockey representat ive on the C O . A . would a l te rna te annual ly between the two a s s o c i a t i o n s . The C O . A . not only accepted t h i s arrangement, but expressed s a t i s f a c t i o n that such an agreement had been reached wi th in the 89 sport i t s e l f . In A p r i l 1970, f i e l d hockey was named a P r i o r i t y I sport by the M in is ter of Nat ional Health and Welfare. Th is new status e n t i t l e d f i e l d hockey to o f f i c e space at a new sports admin is t ra t ive centre i n Ottawa, funding for na t iona l championships and i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ions, executive 90 t r a v e l , and a s t ipend to employ a f u l l - t i m e executive d i r e c t o r . Th is was to prove a most s i g n i f i c a n t event i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p and i n t e r a c t i o n between the C.W.F.H.A. and the C . F . H . A . , as i t necess i ta ted the 221 c rea t ion of a j o i n t body, the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Counci l ( C . F . H . C . ) . The terms of reference of t h i s new body s tated that the C .F .H .C . would "provide l i a i s o n between the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion and the Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , on the one hand, and governmental agencies i n 91 Ottawa, on the o ther . " The se rv i ces of the executive d i r e c t o r and the f a c i l i t i e s of the na t iona l o f f i c e were to prove ind i spens ib le i n administer ing the expanding operat ions of the two growing a s s o c i a t i o n s . The C .F .H .C . was most e f f e c t i v e i n guiding and monitor ing these func t ions . The C .F .H .C . was not a body with the mandate to i n i t i a t e j o i n t a c t i v i t i e s . Successive C .F .H .A . Pres idents f e l t that greater co-operat ive e f f o r t s i n t e c h n i c a l and developmental areas could have been achieved through the medium of the C .F .H .C . However, i t was perceived by the C.W.F.H.A. that such pro jec ts could prove d i s r u p t i v e to i t s own a c t i v i t i e s , which were progress ing very we l l at that t ime. Nevertheless , i n January 1977, a j o i n t C .W.F.H.A./C.F .H.A. planning seminar was held to inves t iga te areas of common endeavour. From t h i s seminar, numerous working committees were set up to address the areas i d e n t i f i e d . According to one member of the C . F . H . C , very few of these committees c a r r i e d out t h e i r designated tasks and i t was severa l years before a fur ther combined enterpr i se was attempted. Eventua l ly , a second j o i n t a c t i v i t y was conducted i n December 1980. At the i n s t i g a t i o n of the C.W.F.H.A. , a na t iona l coaching seminar was held to which i n t e r n a t i o n a l coaches and severa l coaches from the C .F .H .A . were i n v i t e d as we l l as numerous C.W.F.H.A. coaches from across Canada. Th is seminar was reported to have been 92 a success, which augured we l l for the future of j o i n t p r o j e c t s . The management and c i r c u l a t i o n of the Canadian F i e l d Hockey News ( C F . H . News) was one of the funct ions of the C . F . H . C , much of the mechanics of producing i t being delegated to the Executive D i r e c t o r . The 222 C .F .H . News was o r i g i n a l l y publ ished by the C .F .H .A . as a medium of communication with i t s membership and var ious agencies, the f i r s t i ssue appearing i n March 1964. In 1966, items of C.W.F.H.A. news were included i n i t s contents and the fo l lowing year the magazine's c i r c u l a t i o n secretary was appointed from the C.W.F.H.A. The l a s t p u b l i c a t i o n to be produced s o l e l y by the C .F .H .A . was the Summer 1971 e d i t i o n , subsequent issues being publ ished under the aegis of the C .F .H .C . In 1974, the C.W.F.H.A. decided to d iscont inue i t s sec t i on i n the C . F . H . News. However, i n the fo l lowing i s sue , i t was announced that at i t s A .G .M. , the C.W.F.H.A. had voted to resume p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the C . F . H . News once i t had resolved a method for f inanc ing i t s assessment. In f a c t , only three e d i t i o n s were publ ished i n which no 93 women's sec t i on appeared i n the magazine. Once more c i t i n g f inances as the main reason, the C.W.F.H.A. again decided to d iscont inue i t s involvement i n the C . F .H . News i n 1981. The Ed i to r observed that t h i s d e c i s i o n went "against the trend being set i n Saskatchewan and Ontar io (and i n other sports) 94 of j o i n t a s s o c i a t i o n s " ; and, i n a l e t t e r to the E d i t o r , the President of Saskatchewan, a j o i n t a s s o c i a t i o n , perceived the ac t ion as a backward s tep . Thereaf ter , the C .F .H .A . continued to pub l i sh the magazine alone, endeavouring 95 to inc lude major items of women's hockey news. A fur ther issue which created controversy during t h i s per iod , as much w i th in the ranks of the C.W.F.H.A. as between the two a s s o c i a t i o n s , was that of male membership i n the C.W.F.H.A. At i t s A.G.M. i n November 1972, the C.W.F.H.A. passed a motion l i m i t i n g the membership of men to honorary s ta tus , whereby men would not be e l i g i b l e to hold e i the r e lec ted or appointed o f f i c e i n the C.W.F.H.A. , and a l so made the d e c i s i o n not to pay the t r a v e l l i n g costs 96 of male coaches and t r a i n e r s to attend women s na t iona l championships. The debate on the motions was reported to have been " l i v e l y , a l b e i t somewhat 223 b i t t e r " , and the decision drew concerned comment from diverse sources for 97 several subsequent issues of the C.F.H. News. Summary By 1983, both national associations had experienced a period of sustained growth marked by development at many levels within Canada, expansion of international competition, and increased maturity i n administration. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, as manifested by the success of mixed clubs, the advent of j o i n t p r ovincial associations, some shared programmes, and common membership i n national and international bodies, men's and women's f i e l d hockey organizations began to draw closer together. 224 P A R T I I I CANADIAN DEVELOPMENT IN THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT CHAPTER XI DISCUSSION Upon examining the data presented i n the preceding chapters , severa l po ints emerge r e l a t i v e to the evo lu t ion o£ hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada, and the r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n t e r n a t i o n a l events and progress of the game i n Canada. The most important observat ions are i d e n t i f i e d and d iscussed i n t h i s s e c t i o n . Paramount was the f i nd ing that the b i p a r t i t e development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada cannot be explained without reference to the evo lu t ion of hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . Indeed, i t i s i n e x t r i c a b l y l inked to the i n t e r n a t i o n a l context . Thus, t h i s sec t i on i s presented f i r s t . Evo lu t ion of Hockey I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y The separate nature of i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey organ izat ions was not the r e l a t i v e l y simple matter of one federa t ion for men, and another for women. For most of the per iod under study, there were three i n t e r n a t i o n a l bodies; one which perta ined e n t i r e l y to men, one which was e x c l u s i v e l y for women, and one to which both men and women were a f f i l i a t e d . A chrono log ica l diagram of the evo lu t ion of i n t e r n a t i o n a l organ izat ions (Figure 2) and a graph represent ing the expansion of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n s (Figure 3) demonstrate the complexity of t h i s phenomenon. 1 1880 I.H.B. x H.A. x— LADIES' H.A. A.E.W.H.A. B.H.B. 1900 1920 r-1940 1960 I I.F.W.H X F.I.H.(W) 1980 F.I.H. Figure 2 INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY DEVELOPMENT 1886-1983 226 100" - -100 90 — - -90 80- -60 - -50 - -40 - -30 - -2 0 - -NO. OF HOCKEY PLAYING COUNTRIES • Men's Hockey (Total) A F.I.H. - affiliated ® Women's Hockey (Total) • Women's Autonomous © I.F.W.H.A. - affiliated only ® I.F.W.H.A. - affiliated (Total) - -70 - -60 1980 Figure 3 NUMBER OF HOCKEY-PLAYING COUNTRIES : 1900-1980 227 S t r u c t u r a l Ana lys i s of In te rnat iona l Hockey Admin is t rat ion In the i n t e r e s t s of greater c l a r i t y , a s t r u c t u r a l ana lys i s of the development of i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey admin is t ra t ion i s presented before the dynamics of the evo lu t ion of the severa l i n t e r n a t i o n a l organizat ions and the i r i n t e r a c t i o n i s exp la ined . In the evo lu t ion of i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey admin i s t ra t ion , severa l c r i t i c a l per iods of t r a n s i t i o n can be recognized. These are i d e n t i f i e d , and the contemporaneous o rgan i za t iona l conf igurat ions represented d iagrammatical ly , i n F igures 4-8. By 1930, a l l International hockey organ izat ions had been formed, as ind ica ted i n F igure 4. In the admin is t ra t ion of men's hockey, there ex is ted two bodies, the In te rnat iona l Hockey Board, of which the Hockey Assoc ia t i on was the dominant member, and the Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey. In women's hockey, autonomous nat iona l assoc ia t ions were members of the In ternat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions , whi le the women's sect ions of the Cont inenta l assoc ia t ions were a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . Thus, i t i s c l e a r that dichotomies e x i s t e d , both w i th in the men's s t r u c t u r e , and wi th in the women's, with the F . I . H . the one body to which both men and women were a f f i l i a t e d . No change i n o rgan i za t i ona l s t ruc ture occurred u n t i l 1947, when the B r i t i s h Hockey Board a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . , and concomitantly, the F . I . H . gained representat ion on the I .H .B . The next year , F . I . H . women' sect ions were permitted to become members of the I .F .W.H.A. , thereby obta in ing dual a f f i l i a t i o n . F igure 5 i l l u s t r a t e s the degree of complexity of the o rgan i za t iona l i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p which ex i s ted i n 1948. In 1970, the las t of the Home Countr ies jo ined the F . I . H . , and the I .H .B . was absorbed as the new ru les committee of the F . I . H . Thus, as demonstrated i n F igure 6, the men's dichotomy had been reso lved . Here, i t can 228 Men I.O.C. Women Commonwealth Countries affiliated with H.A. F.I.H. F.I.H. Women's Committee Continental Associations Men's Associations other countries e.g. India Women's Sections Denmark Home Countries Commonwealth Countries U.S.A. Figure 4 CONFIGURATION OF INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY ORGANIZATIONS IN 1930 Men Women I.O.C. I.H.B. F.I.H. F.I.H. Women's Committee I.F.W.H.A. Home Country Associations Figure 5 CONFIGURATION OF INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY ORGANIZATIONS IN 1948 Men I.O.C. Women J .C.C. F.I.H. Rules Board Autonomous Committee F.I.H. Women's Committee Mixed Associations Women's Sections Including H.A. & other home countries I.F.W.H.A. Autonomous Women's Associations Figure 6 CONFIGURATION OF INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY ORGANIZATIONS IN 1970 Men I.O.C. Women SUPREME COUNCIL Men's Associations F.I.H. F.I.H. Women's Committee i Mixed Associations Women's Sections Figure 7 I.F.W.H.A. Women's Associations CONFIGURATION OF INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY ORGANIZATIONS IN 1975 232 I.O.C. Men's Technical Committee F.I.H. Men and Women on all other committees Women's Technical Committee H.R.B. / \ Men's Associations Mixed Associations Men and Women Women's Associations (45) (40) (22) Figure 8 CONFIGURATION OF INTERNATIONAL HOCKEY ORGANIZATIONS IN 1983 (1981 Figures) 233 a l so be seen that not only were there s t i l l two women's o rgan i za t iona l bodies at the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , but a s u b s t a n t i a l number of women's sect ions of mixed na t iona l assoc ia t ions had a l l eg iance to both federa t ions . The Jo in t Consu l ta t ive Committee ex is ted to minimize p o t e n t i a l problems which t h i s s i t u a t i o n might present . F igure 7 shows the o rgan i za t iona l s t ruc ture during the per iod of t r a n s i t i o n towards i n t e g r a t i o n , where the Supreme Counc i l of the F . I . H . and the I .F.W.H.A. was created to permit member assoc ia t ions of the I .F.W.H.A. to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Olympic Games. As can be seen by comparing Figure 7 with F igure 6, the formation of the Supreme Counc i l was not accompanied by any reduct ion i n the complexity of the r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i th in the women's o rgan i za t i ona l s t r u c t u r e . The f i n a l o rgan i za t iona l s t ruc ture of the F . I . H . a f t e r i n t e g r a t i o n i s represented i n F igure 8. Here, a l l assoc ia t ions have become a f f i l i a t e d to the F . I . H . , with the F . I .H Women's Techn ica l Committee a ves t ige of the Women's Committee. Thus, although dichotomies s t i l l ex i s ted at the na t iona l l e v e l i n many count r ies , a r a t i o n a l o rgan i za t i ona l s t ruc ture had f i n a l l y evolved at the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . Dynamics of the In te r -Re la t ionsh ip of In te rnat iona l Hockey Organizat ions A d i s cuss ion of the dynamics of the i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p of i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey organ izat ions i s best presented i n f i v e p a r t s , which fo l low i n l o g i c a l sequence: the c r e a t i o n and r e s o l u t i o n of the dichotomy w i th in men's hockey admin i s t ra t ion ; the emergence of autonomous women's hockey o rgan iza t ions ; the dichotomy w i th in women's hockey admin is t ra t ion ; the separate development of men's and women's hockey a c t i v i t i e s ; and the process of i n t e g r a t i o n of the I .F .W.H.A. i n t o the F . I . H . 234 Dichotomy w i th in Men's Hockey Admin is t ra t ion . The ra i son d ' e t re for the formation of the F . I . H . was the d e c i s i o n on the part of the Internat iona l Hockey Board not to extend i t s mandate beyond that of a ru les a u t h o r i t y . From a present-day perspec t ive , i t can be seen that the opportunity ex is ted for the Home Country Assoc ia t i ons , p a r t i c u l a r l y the H.A., to transform the I .H .B . i n to an i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan i za t iona l body during the e a r l y part of the century. Not on ly would the Cont inenta l countr ies have been anxious to j o i n such a body, but so a l so would the c o l o n i a l countr ies of the B r i t i s h Empire and Commonwealth which a f f i l i a t e d with the H.A. at that time. In h inds ight , i t could be sa id that a chance was l o s t , and s i x t y years were to pass before a s i n g l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l body pres ided over men's hockey. A major con t r i bu t ing fac tor i n the founding of the F . I . H . was the des i re for the European countr ies to p a r t i c i p a t e i n an Olympic Hockey Tournament, and indeed, t h i s was the incent ive for i t s c r e a t i o n . Thus, i t i s c l e a r that , by the mid-1920s, the Olympic Games were regarded by most men's hockey-playing nat ions as the wor ld 's premier tournament. In f a c t , over the balance of the inter-war p e r i o d , many count r i es , some of them from outs ide 2 Europe, jo ined the F . I . H . i n order to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Olympic Games. The r e s o l u t i o n of the dichotomy i n men's hockey had i t s o r i g i n s i n the p res t ige which the Olympic Hockey Tournament had engendered by 1948. It was the des i re to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Olympics i t was host ing which induced the H.A. to reconsider i t s i nsu la r p o s i t i o n , and that of the other Home Countr ies , i n world hockey. The a f f i l i a t i o n of the s p e c i a l l y created B r i t i s h Hockey Board to the F . I . H . , and the r e c i p r o c a l F . I . H . representat ion on the I . H . B . , was s t i l l only a compromise. The c r u c i a l fac tor i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the F . I . H . and the I .H .B . was the a t t i t u d e of the Home Countr ies , as i n d i v i d u a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , towards membership i n the F . I . H . The c a t a l y s t which 235 crystallized the entry of the H.A. was the planned inauguration of the F.I.H. World Cup in 1971, and the European Cup Tournament preceding i t . The Home Countries were eager to participate in these competitions as separate nations. Thus, in 1970, when England and Scotland joined the F.I.H. and the I.H.B. was absorbed into i t , the long period of dichotomy in men's hockey came 3 to an end. Emergence of Autonomous Women's Hockey Organizations. There can be l i t t l e doubt that the c r i t i c a l event which set the course of men's and women's hockey along independent paths was the 1895 refusal of the H.A. to accept the women's application for a f f i l i a t i o n . For example, adoption of the men's rules for a f u l l decade after the separate foundation of the A.E.W.H.A. suggests that, had the women been admitted into the H.A., some form of mixed association could have resulted. Hockey might not, therefore, have created this situation of separate men's and women's national associations, unique in modern sport. However, the implication of such a rejection must be set in the social context of the period. This was an age of women's emancipation in England, especially of the class which played hockey. Thus, here was an opportunity for the women to demonstrate their independence in the f i e l d of sport which women were just entering. Their determination to do so is supported by the edict prohibiting men from holding office in their association. So successful was the A.E.W.H.A in establishing hockey for women and gi r l s that hockey came to be considered a 4 women s game. The influence of England on the other Home Countries was substantial. Therefore, i t is not surprising that, although Wales formed i t s f i r s t national organization as the Ladies' Section of the men's Association, within a few years, the Welsh Women's Hockey Association had been created. Furthermore, as 236 England led the world i n sport genera l ly at that time, women's hockey assoc ia t ions a l so came in to existence i n other Engl ish-speaking count r i es . When the I .F.W.H.A. was founded i n the mid-1920s, the time was r ipe for such a f e d e r a t i o n . Not only had the Home Countr ies been competing for near ly t h i r t y years , but autonomous women's hockey assoc ia t ions formed i n A u s t r a l i a , South A f r i c a and the U .S .A . , had a lready played matches with England. Again, s o c i e t a l f ac to rs were favourable . At that time, the quadrennial Women's World Games had already been e s t a b l i s h e d , and some women's events were even being 5 admitted in to the Olympic Games. Dichotomy wi th in Women's Hockey Admin i s t ra t ion . Had the I .F.W.H.A. been the only federat ion to which women's hockey p lay ing nat ions a f f i l i a t e d , the I .F.W.H.A. might never have had to i n te rac t d i r e c t l y with men's hockey o rgan iza t ions . However, when the F . I . H . was founded, the European nat iona l assoc ia t ions which comprised i t had Women's Sect ions which were not autonomous. When the F . I . H . Women's Committee was formed i n 1929, t h i s c reated , i n e f f e c t , a second women's i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ion — one which was an i n t e g r a l part of the men's o r g a n i z a t i o n . It was the existence of t h i s Committee, and the Cont inenta l countr ies which were members of i t , that u l t i m a t e l y led to the i n t e g r a t i o n of the I.F.W.H.A in to the F . I . H . i n 1983. A c r u c i a l d e c i s i o n taken by the leading F . I . H . - a f f i l i a t e d countr ies i n the l a te t h i r t i e s to remain i n the F . I . H . confirmed the status quo. This was a d i sappo int ing blow to the I.F.W.H.A, whose o f f i c e r s had hoped the Cont inenta l women would j o i n them. Had the sport emerged from World War II with a s ing le u n i f i e d women's federat ion embracing a l l hockey p lay ing nat ions , the course of events would sure ly have been very d i f f e r e n t . Even when an F . I .H . - I . F .W.H .A . agreement was reached i n 1948 to permit F . I . H . - a f f i l i a t e d women's sect ions to 237 become members of the I.F.W.H.A, these sections did not withdraw from membership of the F.I.H. Influences within the mixed associations, of which they were a part, were too strong. Thus, the dichotomy in international women's hockey organizations remained unresolved. 6 Separate Development of Men's and Women's Hockey Activities . The period from 1948 to 1972 represented the high point in the separate endeavours of the men's and women's international hockey communities. The major factor which sustained the disjunction of the I.F.W.H.A. and the F.I.H at this time was the exclusion by the I.O.C. of women's hockey from the Olympic Games. It was because of this rebuff that the women resolved to determine their own destiny by creating a tournament which would surpass the Olympics in i t s ideal of friendly competition among nations. The I.F.W.H.A. philosophy was one of non-exclusive participation and i t facilitated the entry of countries into i t s membership and i t s tournaments. The success of the Conferences and Tournaments strengthened the I.F.W.H.A. and encouraged the independence of i t s member associations. On the other hand, in men's hockey, the Olympic Tournament was so prestigious that, because of the limit in the number of countries permitted to enter, elimination procedures were required to decide the fin a l competitors. Thus, long before the advent of the World Cup Tournament and the several levels of qualifying competitions associated with i t , men had come to accept 7 the principle of elimination, anathema to the I.F.W.H.A. Figure 9 superimposes on the graph of men's and women's international a f f i l i a t i o n s the number of teams participating in the Olympic Games and the I.F.W.H.A. Tournaments. The I.F.W.H.A.'s higher proportionate representation 8 is clearly demonstrated. YEAR Figure 9 NUMBER OF AFFILIATED COUNTRIES AND TOURNAMENT TEAMS OLYMPIC TOURNAMENT (MEN) / I.F.W.H.A. TOURNAMENT (WOMEN) 1948-1976 239 Integrat ion of the I .F.W.H.A. i n to the F . I . H . The event which resu l ted i n the 1983 i n t e g r a t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. i n to the F . I . H . was the d e c i s i o n of the I .O .C . to inc lude women's hockey i n the Olympic Games. Th is move fol lowed the trend at that time to add more women's events to the Olympic r o s t e r . The s i t u a t i o n was made more d e l i c a t e by the fact that team sports had recent ly been i n jeopardy, a fac tor which a f fec ted the men's most revered compet i t ion. However, without the existence of a s u b s t a n t i a l number of women's hockey-playing countr ies with F . I . H . a l l e g i a n c e , there would have been no need for the I .F .W.H.A. to i n te r face with the F . I . H . I f the I .O .C . had remained unre lent ing i n i t s p r i n c i p l e of recogniz ing only one body to represent hockey, given the strong f e e l i n g s of I.F.W.H.A.-member countr ies at that time, the I .F.W.H.A. might we l l have continued to shun Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n . At the very l e a s t , i f the I .F.W.H.A. had been the so le federat ion represent ing women's hockey, and the equivalent of the Supreme Counci l had been formed to achieve entry i n to the Olympics, then i n t h i s w r i t e r ' s op in ion , the I .F.W.H.A. would sure ly have i n s i s t e d on t r u l y equal par tnersh ip . Although the F . I . H . and the I .F.W.H.A. reta ined the i r i n d i v i d u a l autonomies i n the Supreme C o u n c i l , there i s no doubt that the F . I . H . was the stronger par tner . Not only were a greater number of countr ies a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . , both men's assoc ia t ions and mixed a s s o c i a t i o n s , but the F . I . H . was the body recognized by the I .O .C . By the time i n t e g r a t i o n was imminent, women's hockey i n the Olympics was a r e a l i t y , and the p layers of most countr ies wished to compete i n that p r e s t i g i o u s event. Thus, i t would seem probable that the reason for the apparently sudden turn of events which led to i n t e g r a t i o n was the judgment by the F . I . H . , whose top o f f i c i a l s had long sought union, that the time was opportune to achieve t h i s o b j e c t i v e . With the women now competing i n world championship hockey, not only amongst 240 F.I.H.-member count r i es , but w i th in the I .F.W.H.A. i t s e l f , the case for perpetuat ing I .F.W.H.A. Tournaments was weakened, as the nature of women's competi t ive hockey was moving inexorably c l ose r to the men's. Independent Development of Men's and Women's F i e l d Hockey i n Canada i n the In ternat iona l Context As the b i p a r t i t e development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada was d i r e c t l y re l a ted to the i n t e r n a t i o n a l context , i t can be considered to have occurred i n severa l phases. The i n i t i a l stage was the per iod between 1895 and the 1930s, when the phenomenon of separate assoc ia t ions i n the Home Countr ies was the dominant i n f luence . An intermediate stage encompassed the e a r l y years of i n t e r a c t i o n with the i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions and member a s s o c i a t i o n s . The f i n a l stage can be sa id to have begun with the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of Canadian teams i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion and the c r e a t i o n of na t iona l assoc ia t ions a f f i l i a t e d with the i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t ions . Th is f i n a l stage was one of cons iderable i n t e r a c t i o n between the Canadian and i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan iza t ions . In F igure 10 the main events are i d e n t i f i e d i n chrono log ica l sequence, whi le i n F igure 11 the growth i n the number of teams i s represented geograph ica l ly . I n i t i a l Stage of Independent Development In the 1890s, when England and the other Home Countr ies formed independent hockey a s s o c i a t i o n s , women's hockey began to be perceived as a game d i s t i n c t from men's hockey. In f a c t , i n many count r i es , i nc lud ing Canada, hockey came to be regarded as a women's game. Furthermore, many hundreds of g i r l s ' schools i n B r i t a i n inc luded hockey as an i n t e g r a l part of t h e i r games curr i cu lum. As B r i t a i n at t h i s time was the vanguard i n sport and O = Olympic Games • = I.F.W.H.A. Tournament Vancouver Hockey Club * A (B.C.) (B.C.G.H.A.) F.I.H. (1924) x 1890 I I - 1 * -I 1900 1910 Vancouver Ladies' H.C. —I (B.C.)* M.G.H.A. 1 » . 1920 I.F.W.H.A. (Ontario) (Quebec) B.C.F.H.A. * f(Alberta) C.F.H.A. 1960 (Maritimes) 1 (Alberta) * C.W.F.H.A. Figure 10 CANADIAN FIELD HOCKEY DEVELOPMENT IN THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT 1895-1983 242 Figure 11 NUMBER OF ADULT FIELD HOCKEY TEAMS IN CANADA MEN'S AND WOMEN'S : 1900-1980 243 educat ion, t h i s became a model which was adopted elsewhere, e s p e c i a l l y w i th in the E m p i r e . 9 Thus, i t should not be s u r p r i s i n g that , when the f i r s t men's and women's hockey c lubs were es tab l i shed i n B r i t i s h Columbia, they were organized independently of one another. Furthermore, i t would be expected that one of the games for g i r l s to be introduced e a r l y i n to the schools might be hockey. The i n t e r a c t i o n which took place i n the form of mixed games and other s o c i a l events i s more l i k e l y to have been an importat ion of the country house a c t i v i t i e s popular i n B r i t a i n i n the 1890s and 1900s. That men's f i e l d hockey was rev ived i n B r i t i s h Columbia soon a f t e r the end of World War I was a l so to be expected, as v igorous competit ion for men was regarded as not only acceptable but admirable. The absence of a formal women's league for the f i r s t post-war decade, given the large number of g i r l s ' schools p lay ing hockey, requi res fur ther exp lanat ion . Up to that time, outs ide of schoo l , young women were not encouraged to p a r t i c i p a t e i n strenuous p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y . Furthermore, to a large extent , women turned to men for leadership i n sport — and, indeed, many men, both w i th in the men's Assoc ia t i on and outs ide , a s s i s t e d with coaching and o f f i c i a t i n g g i r l s ' teams. As the twenties progressed, women's sport i n Canada began to enjoy greater prominence. In f a c t , the per iod from the mid-1920s to the mid-1930s has been 10 descr ibed as "the Golden Age of sports a c t i v i t y for Canadian women". Th is phenomenon, coupled with the e f f o r t s of a woman obvious ly endowed with high leadership q u a l i t i e s , ensured that a league was e s t a b l i s h e d . Intermediate Stage of Independent Development Though many fac tors Inf luenced the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada from the 1930s onwards, none was more powerful i n maintaining the 244 b i p a r t i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p of the men's and women's organ izat ions than i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e i r respect ive i n t e r n a t i o n a l counterparts . The e f f e c t of t h i s was most pronounced with the women's o rgan iza t ion because of the greater i n i t i a l contact . The phi losophy of the I .F.W.H.A. and i t s member countr ies was immediately apparent, and the e f f e c t on the Vancouver Assoc ia t i on was pronounced. The admission of the G.V.W.G.H.A. i n to the I .F.W.H.A. c l e a r l y demonstrated the p r i n c i p l e of acceptance and p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. Whether the I .F.W.H.A. had any misgiv ings about accept ing in to i t s membership an a s s o c i a t i o n that was not a na t iona l body i s unknown. It i s more probable that i t s main concern was to ensure that women hockey p layers i n Canada would have access to i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s through the medium of the Vancouver Assoc ia t ion — then the only such o rgan i za t i ona l e n t i t y i n the country. At the same time, the s p i r i t of s e l f - r e l i a n c e and independence encouraged by the I .F.W.H.A. was soon adopted by the Vancouver A s s o c i a t i o n , f o r , at t h i s time was the f i r s t record of a women's umpiring a s s o c i a t i o n and of coaching sess ions arranged by women i n s t r u c t o r s . 1 1 Thus, t h i s marked the beginning of a new era for Canadian women's hockey. From then on, the G.V.W.G.H.A., and l a t e r , women's assoc ia t ions elsewhere i n Canada, a c t i v e l y 12 promoted the development of women coaches and o f f i c i a l s . Unl ike the inter-war p e r i o d , where much of the coaching and o f f i c i a t i n g of women's hockey was performed by men, the post-war years witnessed an i n c r e a s i n g l y large proport ion of women involved i n these aspects of the game. Later , co-ord inated by the C.W.F.H.A. , and ass i s ted by government funding, these a c t i v i t i e s were developed to the point where the women's programmes surpassed those of the men. Although the ear l y years of i n t e r a c t i o n between the men's Assoc ia t ion and i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l counterparts d id not produce any tangib le r e s u l t s , i t i s 245 t h i s very feature which i s s i g n i f i c a n t . In 1932, f i n a n c i a l cons t ra in ts prevented the Assoc ia t i on from pursuing the matter of p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Los Angeles Olympics beyond the point of enquiry . However, i n 1948, when a fur ther attempt at Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n was made, i t became Immediately obvious that many d i f f i c u l t i e s would have to be surmounted before Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n was p o s s i b l e . The process was competit ive and s e l e c t i v e rather than f a c i l i t a t i v e and p a r t i c i p a t o r y , and thus, i n contrast to the I .F.W.H.A. p r i n c i p l e . F i n a l Stage of Independent Development The most dynamic per iod i n the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada for both men and women, domest ica l ly and i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , was from the mid-1950s to the l a te 1960s. These years witnessed the dramatic expansion i n the Vancouver Leagues, the establishment of c lubs and leagues i n other centres across Canada, and the advent of i n t e r - c i t y and i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l compet i t ion . It was i n t h i s domestic context that the formation of the two na t iona l assoc ia t ions was made p o s s i b l e . However, the most important fac to r con t r ibu t ing to the b i p a r t i t e nature of these developments was the i n t e r a c t i o n of the Canadian organ izat ions with t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l counterparts , and the s i t u a t i o n which ex i s ted i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . During the 1950s and 1960s, the I . F .W.H .A . ' s s ta r was at i t s z e n i t h . I t s Conferences and Tournaments reached new heights i n numbers of p a r t i c i p a n t s and member c o u n t r i e s . I t s p r i n c i p l e s of independence and non-exclus ive p a r t i c i p a t i o n were w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d . For over t h i r t y women's hockey-playing countr ies throughout the world, the I .F.W.H.A. and i t s a c t i v i t i e s provided a source of encouragement and i n s p i r a t i o n . At the same time, these were a l so golden years for men's hockey. The Olympic Hockey Tournament was ind isputab ly 246 the most pres t i g i o u s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l competitions to which a l l nations aspired. Thus, at t h i s c r i t i c a l stage i n Canadian development, given that the men's and women's organizations were already proceeding i n an e s s e n t i a l l y independent way, t h i s factor made i t c e r t a i n that two separate national associations would be formed. Furthermore, i t also ensured that the re l a t i o n s h i p s of the two Canadian Associations with t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l counterparts would take separate paths, and the nature of t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l competition follow d i f f e r e n t models. Figure 12 i l l u s t r a t e s the phenomenon that the formation of the two Canadian Associations occurred at a time of 13 rapid expansion domestically and independent a c t i v i t y i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . S i m i l a r l y , when the two national associations began to draw together i n the l a t t e r 1970s and early 1980s, many of the operative forces emanated from the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n . By t h i s time, the C.W.F.H.A. had resolved the controversy of Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n and wished to enter the 1980 Olympic Games. As t h i s required a p p l i c a t i o n through the CO.A., i t became necessary for the C.W.F.H.A. to in t e r a c t with the C.F.H.A. and negotiate j o i n t representation. When the C.W.F.H.A. joined the F.I.H. i n 1978, the two national associations were now members of the same i n t e r n a t i o n a l federation. Indeed, when in t e g r a t i o n of the F.I.H. and the I.F.W.H.A. took place, the two Canadian Associations shared t h i s s i n g l e body as t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l organization. Furthermore, the competitive aspirations of men and women by the 1980s were the same: the Olympic games and the World Cup. F i n a l l y , when two members of the C.W.F.H.A. were appointed to F.I.H. Committees, the i n t e r a c t i o n between senior o f f i c e r s of each a s s o c i a t i o n increased accordingly. So powerful was the i n t e r n a t i o n a l influence during the formative period of the two national associations that even the circumstances under which the Figure 12 EXPANSION OF FIELD HOCKEY IN CANADA IN THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT 1900 - 1980 248 n a t i o n a l bodies were founded r e f l e c t e d the d i f f e rences i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the Canadian organ izat ions and t h e i r respect ive i n t e r n a t i o n a l bodies. For the men, the formation of a na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n was a cond i t ion of a f f i l i a t i n g with the F . I . H . , and of ga in ing membership of the C O . A . , through which access to the Olympics might be gained. In t h i s context , whi le i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n and Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n were the i n s p i r a t i o n a l c a t a l y s t s , the domestic expansion of the game throughout Canada which accompanied these endeavours was abso lute ly e s s e n t i a l and was therefore the determining fac tor i n achiev ing f edera t i on . Conversely, although the G.V.W.G.H.A. 's membership i n the I .F.W.H.A. ensured that a team from the Assoc ia t ion would be e n t i t l e d to p a r t i c i p a t e i n future tournaments, there was no requirement that such a team need be representat ive of the whole country, nor that a Canadian Assoc ia t i on be formed. Nevertheless , the G.V.W.G.H.A. made every e f f o r t to ensure that other hockey-playing centres were extended an i n v i t a t i o n to a f f i l i a t e with the G.V.W.G.H.A. and nominate p layers for s e l e c t i o n . As the game developed, the f e e l i n g grew both wi th in the G.V.W.G.H.A. and amongst other organ izat ions forming across the country, that i t was no longer s a t i s f a c t o r y for Canada to be a f f i l i a t e d to i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ion through one l o c a l a s s o c i a t i o n . It was t h i s fac tor which created the impetus for forming a women's na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n . Here, i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n and compet i t ion had already been achieved. It was domestic concerns such as representat ion on the organ iza t ion and equa l i t y of opportunity i n n a t i o n a l team s e l e c t i o n that were important elements i n the founding of the C.W.F.H.A. As we l l as the issue of team s e l e c t i o n , the existence of a na t iona l body to become e l i g i b l e for government funding to a s s i s t the team to attend the tournament was a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c e n t i v e . In fact ne i ther was achieved i n 1963, as there were no p layers from Ontar io , and the 249 condi t ions of funding were such that i t had to be d i rec ted to domestic programmes. Perhaps i t might be regarded as i r o n i c that the c loses t i n t e r a c t i o n between the men's and women's Assoc ia t ions i n Canada occurred just p r i o r to the time when the b i p a r t i t e nature of development began to increase i n s t rength . It was i n the mid-1950s that mutual co-operat ion and admirat ion appears to have been at i t s h ighest . Again, i t was the r e l a t i o n s h i p of the two Canadian organ izat ions with t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l contexts which caused t h i s to occur . The determining fac tor was the r e s o l u t i o n of the G.V.W.G.H.A. to attend the I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament i n Sydney, A u s t r a l i a . There i s convinc ing evidence that the men were g rea t l y i n s p i r e d by the success fu l endeavour of the women to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s event. The two Assoc ia t ions shared many a c t i v i t i e s — coaching and s e l e c t i o n , f u n d - r a i s i n g , s o c i a l funct ions , p r a c t i c e and e x h i b i t i o n matches — before and a f t e r the tour . The fact that both the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament and the Olympic Hockey Tournament were held i n A u s t r a l i a may have enhanced the i n s p i r a t i o n a l e f f e c t on the men's A s s o c i a t i o n . Other aspects of domestic development were a f fec ted by the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the Canadian and i n t e r n a t i o n a l contexts , i n d i r e c t l y i f not d i r e c t l y . The formation of two separate na t iona l assoc ia t ions v i r t u a l l y ensured that men's and women's p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , when e s t a b l i s h e d , would be founded separate ly and independently, and a f f i l i a t e with t h e i r respect ive na t iona l o rgan iza t ions . Th is came to pass, with the except ion of Saskatchewan. In 1979, when the men i n that province became organized p r o v i n c i a l l y , they a f f i l i a t e d with the women's body to form a j o i n t a s s o c i a t i o n . Obviously , by t h i s t ime, forces were operat ing i n the d i r e c t i o n of u n i f i c a t i o n rather than separat ion , jus t as they were i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . 250 In the l i g h t of the independent paths of the two assoc ia t ions during the 1960s and ear l y 1970s, i t may appear remarkable that so many aspects evolved so c l o s e l y i n p a r a l l e l . From the expansion of the game i n a l l i t s f a c e t s , to the c r e a t i o n of na t iona l and p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , progress was almost completely synchronous. However, i t must be borne i n mind that , even apart from the i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n , many externa l f ac to rs were common to both. The a r r i v a l of s u b s t a n t i a l numbers of immigrants from hockey-playing count r i es , techno log ica l advances such as the advent of j e t a i r l i n e t r a v e l , and the involvement of government agencies i n spor t , a f f ec ted both organ izat ions i n s i m i l a r ways. Another s t r i k i n g feature , common to both the men and the women, was that na t iona l assoc ia t ions were formed before most of the hockey-playing centres had es tab l i shed p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . When the C.F.H.A was founded i n May 1961, only B r i t i s h Columbia had organized a p r o v i n c i a l body; and when the C.W.F.H.A. was founded the next year , Ontar io alone had formed a p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n . A l l other centres a f f i l i l a t e d as reg iona l assoc ia t ions or as c l u b s . This pragmatic approach, d i c ta ted by the circumstances of the times, f a c i l i t a t e d the establishment of the nat iona l bodies . The men and women instrumental i n formulat ing the requirements of federat ion were more concerned with ach iev ing t h i s ob jec t i ve than with e s t a b l i s h i n g what might, i n h inds ight , appear to have been a more l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . Thus, the formation of the B.C.W.F.H.F. a f t e r the forming of the C.W.F.H.A. was a consequence of the r e l a t i v e importance of those two 15 developments i n the context of the fac tors operat ive at the time. During the 1970s, domestic forces began to draw the two nat iona l assoc ia t ions c l o s e r together. The formation of the C .F .H .C . was the resu l t of increased government involvement i n amateur spor t . S i m i l a r l y , the merger of 251 p r o v i n c i a l assoc ia t ions i n severa l provinces was d i r e c t l y re l a ted to government funding requirements. However, even these phenomena may be explained i n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l context — not i n the hockey community alone, but i n the broader f i e l d of amateur sport throughout the wor ld . The federa l government's response to the evo lu t ion of world events was to p lay an i n c r e a s i n g l y ac t i ve ro l e i n support ing amateur sports o rgan i za t ions . Further Observations E f f e c t s of Contrast ing Ph i losophies of the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . on Canadian Development The d i f f e rence i n ph i losophies of the two i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions , e s p e c i a l l y with respect to a f f i l i a t i o n and compet i t ion, had many repercuss ions . Whereas the G.V.W.G.H.A. was r e a d i l y accepted in to the I .F.W.H.A. soon a f t e r app ly ing , f i v e years of admin is t ra t ive and o rgan i za t iona l e f f o r t by the men's Assoc ia t i on were required before a na t iona l body which s a t i s f i e d the requirements of the F . I . H . and the C O . A . could be formed. Furthermore, even though, by 1964, the C .F .H.A. had met a l l requirements of e l i g i b i l i t y and s u c c e s s f u l l y entered a team i n the Tokyo Olympics, there was no guarantee that Canada would p a r t i c i p a t e i n future Olympics; i t was always necessary to q u a l i f y . On the other hand, the Canadian women's teams were welcomed by the I .F.W.H.A. and automat ica l ly allowed to p a r t i c i p a t e ; even i f a team could not a f f o r d to enter , delegates were encouraged to attend and s p e c i a l p r o v i s i o n was made for o f f i c i a l v i s i t o r s . The Canadian team and i t s o f f i c i a l s were always assured of i n c l u s i o n . Th is had an e f f e c t on the development of men's and women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada. From i t s f i r s t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n an I .F.W.H.A. Tournament i n 1956, the G.V.W.G.H.A. , and l a t e r the C.W.F.H.A. , could p lan with c e r t a i n t y i t s 252 i n t e r n a t i o n a l programme and re la ted domestic a c t i v i t i e s . Conversely, the C .F .H .A . could never be c e r t a i n of e l i t e compet i t ion, as success at q u a l i f y i n g tournaments was a p r e - r e q u i s i t e of attending major events. Furthermore, u n t i l the in t roduc t ion of f e s t i v a l , or non-championship, hockey i n the la te 1970s, men's a c t i v i t i e s tended to be formed almost e x c l u s i v e l y along competit ive l i n e s . While the women a l so played many tournaments of t h i s nature, great importance was placed on p a r t i c i p a t o r y events such as the Play Day and the Jamboree, where teams of d i f f e r e n t ages and l e v e l s of a b i l i t y were matched against one another. In t h i s context , the P a c i f i c Northwest Conference and Tournament played i t s p a r t . Despite the fact that the standard of hockey was not h igh , Vancouver teams regarded the enjoyable p a r t i c i p a t i o n as a h i g h l i g h t of the season. Although i t was modelled on the U.S. system for co l l ege women's spor ts , the P.N.W. Conference and Tournament bore a remarkable resemblance to the I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament, and the ethos of 16 p a r t i c i p a t i o n and s e l f - r e l i a n c e was abundant. Inf luence of the Olympic Games and the I .O .C . That the Olympic Games and the a c t i v i t i e s of the I .O .C . played a s i g n i f i c a n t ro l e i n the evo lu t ion of i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey i s i nd i spu tab le . As e a r l y as 1908, the London Olympic Hockey Tournament was a notable event. Indeed, i n 1924, the exc lus ion of hockey from the P a r i s Olympic Games was the c r i t i c a l fac tor which led to the formation of the F . I . H . Furthermore, i n the inter-war years , the in f luence of the Olympic Games was f e l t by the I .F.W.H.A. which endeavoured to have women's hockey inc luded on the ros ter of Olympic spor t s . C e r t a i n l y , a f t e r World War I I , the Olympic Games played a c r u c i a l part i n the eventual u n i f i c a t i o n of men's hockey organ iza t ions , and at the same time, r e j e c t i o n by the I .O .C . i n the la te 1940s set the I .F.W.H.A. on a 253 separate and independent course. Finally, in the 1970s, the I.O.C. decision to admit women's hockey into the Olympic programme was the determining factor which led to the integration of the two federations. In Canada, too, the prestige of the Olympic Games was an important factor in the development of the game, particular of men's hockey. I n i t i a l l y a source of disappointment that participation was not possible in 1932 and 1948, by the mid-1950s the prospect of entering a Canadian team in the Olympic Games Hockey Tournament was a powerful stimulus in the formation of the C.F.H.A. and in the promotion of national and international competition. Even after Canada's successful entry into the Tokyo Olympics, the Olympic Games, and i t s qualifying tournament, the Pan American Games, remained strong incentives in the C.F.H.A.'s national team programme. After 1976, when the Women's Olympic Hockey Tournament was assured, participation at the Olympic Games became an aspiration of the C.W.F.H.A. and i t s actions were influenced by i t . In 1978, the C.W.F.H.A. became the f i r s t of I.F.W.H.A.'s autonomous national associations to a f f i l i a t e with the F.I.H., and at around the same time, i t negotiated with the C.F.H.A. shared membership in the CO.A. Role of Vancouver in the Development of Field Hockey in Canada An observer of the progress of f i e l d hockey in Canada could not f a i l to notice the part that British Columbia, and in particular Vancouver, played in it s development. It was in British Columbia that organized clubs were f i r s t founded and formal leagues established; indeed, from the f i r s t scheduled matches in British Columbia, sixty years were to pass before a league was formed in any other province. It was in Vancouver that international competition was f i r s t experienced and contact made with international federations. Vancouver was the site of the earliest inter-clty and 254 i n t e r - p r o v i n c i a l matches, and the venue of the f i r s t na t iona l tournaments. But perhaps most s i g n i f i c a n t l y , Vancouver was the f o c a l point i n the formation of the two nat iona l assoc ia t ions and provided the nucleus of the f i r s t teams to represent Canada i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion. F i n a l l y , i n 1979, Vancouver was host to the l as t true I .F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament. Consider ing a l l these f a c t o r s , there i s no doubt that Vancouver assumed the c e n t r a l ro l e i n the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada, both for men and for women. Concluding Remarks "For I d ip t i n to the fu ture . Far as human eye could see ." Tennyson. Given that the b i p a r t i t e development of men's and women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada was the resu l t of forces emanating from the i n t e r n a t i o n a l context , and that i n the e a r l y 1980s, i n t e g r a t i o n was achieved at the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , then i t may be i n e v i t a b l e that , before long, the two nat iona l bodies w i l l amalgamate. Th is may come about i n any of severa l ways, each inf luenced by g loba l f o r ces . For example, the F . I . H . may decree that a country can be represented by only one na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n . This would be a l o g i c a l c o r o l l a r y to the I .O .C . p r i n c i p l e of accept ing only one i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t ion . Thus, the quest ion regarding nat iona l u n i f i c a t i o n would seem to be not whether, but when. However, to those concerned with the welfare of the spor t , the v i t a l quest ion is. how. How can i n t e g r a t i o n best be achieved i n such a way as to maximize the bene f i t s to both the C.W.F.H.A. and the C .F .H .A . and minimize any problems that are an i n e v i t a b l e consequence of a change of s tatus? F i r s t l y , i t must be recognized that t h i s can best be achieved from 255 w i t h i n . To await the a p p l i c a t i o n of externa l forces would impair the process of se l f -de te rmina t ion by i n d i v i d u a l s i n the organ izat ions to e s t a b l i s h optimum cond i t ions w i th in union. That the remaining separate p r o v i n c i a l assoc ia t ions would merge, or be forced to merge, i s a l so a l o g i c a l sequel to a u n i f i e d na t iona l body. For these p r o v i n c i a l assoc ia t ions to in tegrate with one another i n a random way, and then to be ass imi la ted i n fragmented fashion in to the na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n would not be conducive to ach iev ing the i d e a l s o l u t i o n . Therefore , i t i s c l e a r that the i n t e g r a t i o n of the C .F .H .A . and the C.W.F.H.A. should be accompanied by the simultaneous amalgamation of p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , and the complete u n i f i c a t i o n of men's and women's f i e l d hockey throughout Canada. As the i n t e r n a t i o n a l forces are operat ive throughout the wor ld , and the Canadian experience i s but one example of t h e i r mani festat ions , then the i n t e g r a t i o n of separate na t iona l assoc ia t ions i n other countr ies a l so appears i n e v i t a b l e . Again, how long i t takes w i l l depend on the t iming of i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i r e c t i v e s , and on the cond i t ions w i th in the country — the s tatus of amateur sport genera l l y , and more p a r t i c u l a r l y , the forces e x i s t i n g w i th in the hockey community i t s e l f . In South A f r i c a , whose women's a s s o c i a t i o n was once one of the powers i n the I .F .W.H.A . , a form of union was 17 achieved even before the i n t e g r a t i o n of the I .F.W.H.A. i n to the F . I . H . 18 Countr ies such as A u s t r a l i a are a l so moving towards amalgamation. Although i t i s unthinkable to many, the chances are h igh that the A l l England Women's Hockey Assoc ia t i on w i l l not ce lebrate i t s centenary i n 1995 as an autonomous a s s o c i a t i o n . But who would have imagined i n 1971, when the I .F.W.H.A. was at the height of i t s success, that a decade l a t e r , i t would not ex i s t except as a part of an integrated F . I .H .? 256 CHAPTER XII SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The purpose of t h i s thes i s was to examine the b i p a r t i t e development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada. It was found that t h i s could be explained only i n the context of the evo lu t ion of hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . In the f i r s t part of the n a r r a t i o n , the i n t e r n a t i o n a l progress of the game was recounted. The formation of men's na t iona l assoc ia t ions i n the Home Countr ies of the B r i t i s h I s l e s , together with the advent of i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches, was accompanied by the emergence of women's c l u b s . When these c lubs i n England formed an a s s o c i a t i o n to p a r t i c i p a t e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, they app l ied to the (men's) Hockey Assoc ia t i on request ing a f f i l i a t i o n . The r e j e c t i o n of t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n set the course of women's hockey along an independent path from the men's, not only i n Great B r i t a i n , but i n Engl ish-speaking countr ies throughout the wor ld . As i n t e r n a t i o n a l bodies were formed, the s i t u a t i o n became more complex than simply one o rgan iza t ion for men and another for women. F i r s t , the In te rnat iona l Hockey Board was formed i n 1900 to administer the ru les of the game for men. In t h i s respect , the Board performed i t s func t ion , i n i t i a l l y i n the regu la t ion of the matches amongst the Home Countr ies , and l a t e r i n maintaining un i formity of ru les i n competit ion invo lv ing other count r i es , i nc lud ing the 1908 Olympic Hockey Tournament. However, desp i te the fact that European nat ions expressed the need for an i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan iza t ion which they could j o i n , and overseas countr ies a f f i l i a t e d with the Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , the In te rnat iona l Hockey Board d id not extend i t s mandate and 257 assume the r o l e of a governing body. Therefore, when the In ternat iona l Olympic Committee excluded hockey from the P a r i s Olympics, o s t e n s i b l y because hockey d id not have a c o n t r o l l i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan i za t ion , the Federat ion In ternat iona le de Hockey was formed i n 1924. The F . I . H . , which comprised European nat ions whose assoc ia t ions represented both men and women, gained recogn i t ion by the In ternat iona l Olympic Committee and was success fu l i n having hockey r e - i n s t a t e d i n the Olympic Games by 1928. A s i m i l a r development a l so occurred i n women's hockey. In 1927, the In te rnat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions was formed by autonomous women's na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n s , and two years l a t e r , the Women's Committee of the Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey was c reated . This Committee comprised the women's sec t ions of mixed a s s o c i a t i o n s , which d id not wish to d i s a f f i l i a t e from the F . I . H . to j o i n the I .F.W.H.A. Thus, there now e x i s t e d , i n e f f e c t , two i n t e r n a t i o n a l organ izat ions for women as we l l as two for men. Many years were to pass before t h i s complex o rgan iza t iona l con f igura t ion evolved in to a more r a t i o n a l admin is t ra t ive s t r u c t u r e . The dichotomy w i th in the men's i n t e r n a t i o n a l organ izat ions was the f i r s t to be reso lved . When the B r i t i s h Hockey Board, a p lenary body represent ing the Home Country Assoc ia t ions for the purpose of Olympic e l i g i b i l i t y , a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . i n 1947, the F . I . H . concomitantly gained membership on the I .H .B . The proport ionate representat ion of t h i s membership increased over the years , as d id the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the F . I . H . and the Home Countr ies , which gradual ly a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . as i n d i v i d u a l na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n s . In 1970, when the Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , together with the S c o t t i s h H.A. , jo ined the F . I . H . , the I .H .B . was ass imi la ted i n t o the i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ion as i t s ru les committee. 258 However, there was a long per iod of divergence between the men's and women's hockey o rgan i za t ions . In 1950, the I .F.W.H.A. was excluded from, then i t s e l f r e j e c t e d , Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; then i n 1972, the I .O .C . sought to inc lude women's hockey i n the Olympic Games. During the in terven ing per iod , men's and women's hockey organ izat ions fol lowed independent and very d i f f e r e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l paths. The I.F.W.H.A. Conference and Tournament p laced great importance on the broadest poss ib le p a r t i c i p a t i o n and a l s o de-emphasized winning. Indeed, dur ing t h i s per iod , the I .F.W.H.A. welcomed i n t o i t s membership the women's sect ions of Cont inenta l a s s o c i a t i o n s , a l b e i t on the bas i s of dual a f f i l i a t i o n . Conversely, the F . I . H . he ld the Olympic Hockey Tournament, which required a process of e l i m i n a t i o n to l i m i t e n t r i e s , as i t s most p res t i g ious event. From 1972 onwards, the I .F.W.H.A. and the F . I . H . began to draw together. A f te r the I .F.W.H.A. had resolved the controversy of championship competit ion and Olympic p a r t i c i p a t i o n , the Supreme Counc i l was formed to f a c i l i t a t e the entry of the I .F.W.H.A. countr ies i n to the Olympic Games. F i n a l l y , i n 1981, the I .F.W.H.A. accepted the terms of i n t e g r a t i o n presented by the F . I . H . and was formal ly absorbed in to the F . I . H . i n 1983. In the second part of t h i s examination of f i e l d hockey, the development of the game i n Canada i s descr ibed . The f i r s t hockey c lubs i n Canada were formed i n B r i t i s h Columbia i n the mid-1890s. By the turn of the century, there were s u f f i c i e n t teams i n Vancouver and V i c t o r i a to sus ta in organized competit ion for both men and women. G i r l s ' f i e l d hockey was a l so introduced i n t o the schools around t h i s t ime. Although adult hockey was in ter rupted by World War I , men's league and i n t e r - c i t y competit ion resumed soon a f t e r h o s t i l i t i e s ended. On the other hand, a f u l l decade was to pass before a women's a s s o c i a t i o n was formed and a formal league c reated . However, once the 259 league was i n s t i t u t e d , the c lose a s s o c i a t i o n fostered between i t and the very strong school programme ensured that both would f l o u r i s h . Another feature of f i e l d hockey i n Canada was that , u n t i l the ear l y 1950s, apart from i t s presence i n g i r l s ' schools and c o l l e g e s , the game was hard ly played outs ide of B r i t i s h Columbia. It was towards the end of the inter-war per iod that f i e l d hockey organ izat ions i n Canada experienced the i r f i r s t contact with the game at the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . In 1936, the A u s t r a l i a n Women's Touring Team v i s i t e d Vancouver and Vancouver Is land and played a match i n each of the two cent res . Furthermore, the President of the Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on attended that y e a r ' s I .F .W.H.A. Conference, and the G.V.W.G.H.A. was accepted as an Assoc iate member of the I .F.W.H.A. i n 1937. The men, however, were less success fu l i n gaining a f f i l i a t i o n with the i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan i za t i on , or of exper iencing i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion, i n s p i t e of e f f o r t s i n both 1932 and 1948. From the mid-1950s onwards, f i e l d hockey i n Canada began to expand, both for men and for women, not on ly i n Vancouver, but across the country as w e l l . I t was at t h i s time that Canadian teams began to enter i n t e r n a t i o n a l compet i t ion . In 1956, the G.V.W.G.H.A. sent a Canadian team to the I .F.W.H.A. Tournament i n Sydney, A u s t r a l i a . Th is i nsp i red the men's Assoc ia t ion to renew i t s e f f o r t s towards i n t e r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , with the Rome Olympics as i t s aim. The formation of the Canadian F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , a p r e - r e q u i s i t e of a f f i l i a t i o n with the F . I . H . and membership i n the Canadian Olympic A s s o c i a t i o n , took many years to achieve, and i t was not u n t i l 1964 that a Canadian team played i n the Olympics. The Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on was a l so formed i n the ear l y 1960s to f a c i l i t a t e more equi tab le representat ion from other women's 260 f i e l d hockey organizations throughout the country. Once the two national bodies had been formed, domestic development followed separate, a l b e i t p a r a l l e l paths. Furthermore, the i n t e r n a t i o n a l competitive experiences of the two Associations were a l s o separate, and p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t . A continuation of domestic development within Canada was accompanied by an expansion of i n t e r n a t i o n a l competition during the 1970s. For the men, t h i s included the 1976 Olympic Games and the 1978 World Cup Tournament. For the women, t h i s comprised the 1975 and 1979 I.F.W.H.A. World Championships, as well as the 1978 Women's World Cup competition. During t h i s period, both associations a l s o embarked on c e r t i f i c a t i o n programmes for coaches and o f f i c i a l s . Moreover, with the C.F.H.A. and C.W.F.H.A. forming the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Council, with p r o v i n c i a l organizations amalgamating i n t o mixed associations, with j o i n t representation on the CO.A., and with other areas of shared membership and p a r t i c i p a t i o n , the two national organizations began to draw together. The t h i r d s ection i s an attempt to explain the phenomenon of Canada's b i p a r t i t e development. It was demonstrated that the i n i t i a l impetus for separate organizations emanated from the independent course taken by women's hockey i n England and the other Home Countries, which resulted i n the recognition i n the English-speaking world that women's hockey was d i s t i n c t from men's. Later, when Canada's f i e l d hockey organizations f i r s t made contact with t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l counterparts, the d i f f e r e n t philosophies towards a f f i l i a t i o n and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l competition reinforced the separate development of men's and women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada. It was shown that the f i f t e e n years from the mid-1950s onwards was p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h i s respect. These c r i t i c a l years i n the development of f i e l d 261 hockey i n Canada were a l s o the years of greatest separat ion i n the courses taken by the i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t ions . Although men's and women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada b a s i c a l l y continued to develop along separate paths during the 1970s, i t was revealed that many in f luences — most der ived from i n t e r n a t i o n a l sources — began to p u l l the two organ izat ions c l ose r together. The major fac to rs which were instrumental i n determining the course of events were the r e f u s a l of the H.A. to accept the a f f i l i a t i o n of the women's a s s o c i a t i o n , the unwi l l ingness of the I .H .B . to extend i t s ro l e to inc lude the funct ion of an o rgan i za t iona l governing body, the re luctance of the women's sect ions of Cont inenta l countr ies to d i s a f f i l i a t e from the F . I . H . and j o i n the I .F.W.H.A. e x c l u s i v e l y , and the p res t ige of the Olympic Games together with the act ions of the I .O .C . towards p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Games. A l l of these i n t e r n a t i o n a l occurrences d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y a f fec ted the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada and shaped i t s b i p a r t i t e nature. Conclusions From an ana lys i s of the events which t ransp i red i n the evo lu t ion of hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , and the development of the game i n Canada, the fo l lowing conc lus ions have been drawn: 1. The b i p a r t i t e development of men's and women's f i e l d hockey i n Canada cannot be explained i n i s o l a t i o n from the evo lu t ion of hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , because the major fac to rs con t r ibu t ing towards the c rea t ion of separate organ izat ions i n Canada emanated from the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n . 2. The i n t e r n a t i o n a l in f luences a f f e c t i n g the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada can be i d e n t i f i e d as having emerged i n three stages. The f i r s t 262 stage began with the formation of an independent women's hockey a s s o c i a t i o n i n England from which women's hockey came to be regarded as a game d i s t i n c t from men's hockey, e s p e c i a l l y throughout the Engl ish-speaking wor ld . An intermediate stage t ransp i red when the Canadian organ izat ions made i n i t i a l contact with the i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions and t h e i r member count r i es . The t h i r d and f i n a l stage represented the per iod of cons iderable i n t e r a c t i o n between the Canadian assoc ia t ions and t h e i r respect ive i n t e r n a t i o n a l f edera t ions . 3. The formation of separate na t iona l f i e l d hockey assoc ia t ions i n Canada was ensured by the evo lut ionary s ta te of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions at the time the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on and the Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion were e s t a b l i s h e d . During the per iod of rap id expansion of f i e l d hockey i n Canada which made federat ion p o s s i b l e , the i n t e r n a t i o n a l organ izat ions were at t h e i r point of greatest divergence and independent a c t i v i t y . 4. The existence of the Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey's Women's Committee represent ing the women's sect ions of Cont inenta l assoc ia t ions was one of the important f ac to rs which perpetuated the dichotomy i n the o rgan i za t iona l s t ruc ture of women's hockey at the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , and which f a c i l i t a t e d the f i n a l i n t e g r a t i o n of the In te rnat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions i n to the Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey. 5. The ac t ions of the Hockey Assoc ia t i on played a s i g n i f i c a n t part i n c rea t ing the separate development of men's and women's hockey. I t s dec i s i on to re jec t the a p p l i c a t i o n of the women's a s s o c i a t i o n fo r a f f i l i a t i o n was the 263 c r i t i c a l event which led to the independent course of women's hockey in t e rnat iona1 ly . 6. The re luctance of the Hockey Assoc ia t i on to accept fo re ign countr ies as members of the In te rnat iona l Hockey Board contr ibuted to the complex o rgan i za t i ona l s t ruc ture of i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey. The subsequent r e f u s a l of the In te rna t iona l Hockey Board to extend i t s mandate beyond that of a ru les author i ty es tab l i shed the cond i t ions w i th in which the Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey was founded. 7. The pres t ige of the Olympic Games and the ac t ions of the In te rnat iona l Olympic Committee played a determining ro l e i n the evo lu t ion of hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , and i n the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada. The c r u c i a l events i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the men's and women's i n t e r n a t i o n a l federat ions were the exc lus ion of women's hockey from the Olympics post-World War I I , and the i n c l u s i o n of women's hockey on to the Olympic roster i n the 1970s. The former a c t i o n led to the per iod of greatest separat ion of the In ternat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions and the Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey, and the l a t t e r to t h e i r u l t imate i n t e g r a t i o n . 8. B r i t i s h Columbia was the foremost province i n the development of f i e l d hockey i n Canada. In p a r t i c u l a r , Vancouver played a v i t a l part i n a l l aspects of the development of the game, both for men and for women. From the foundation of c lubs i n the mid-1890s, through the establishment of formal leagues, to the c r e a t i o n of na t iona l assoc ia t ions and the formation of Canada's f i r s t na t iona l teams, the c e n t r a l ro l e of Vancouver cannot be d isputed . 264 Recommendat ions In order to examine and explain the phenomenon of the b i p a r t i t e development of f i e l d hockey i n Canda within i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l context, i t was f i r s t necessary to construct a f a c t u a l framework. As t h i s encompassed a broad scope, i t was not possible, both from consideration of time and access to material, to study every facet i n depth. During the course of i n v e s t i g a t i o n , however, several topics commended themselves for further research. 1. There have been few in-depth studies i n t o the development of f i e l d hockey i n s p e c i f i c regions of Canada. In t h i s respect, there i s p o t e n t i a l for expanding upon the comprehensive account presented i n t h i s t h e s i s . 2. A more complete i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the Federation Internationale de Hockey and the International Federation of Women's Hockey Associations i s warranted, and would be of great value to students of sport h i s t o r y . 3. The Olympic Games, and the ro l e of the International Olympic Committee, played a s i g n i f i c a n t part i n the development of hockey i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . Research i n t o the impact of the International Olympic Committee on other sports may prove useful to administrators as well as sport h i s t o r i a n s . 4. E s p e c i a l l y with the int e g r a t i o n of the International Federation of Women's Hockey Associations and the Federation Internationale de Hockey, the rationa l e for the existence of separate national associations i n Canada i s weakened. From a sport management perspective, further analysis i s required to determine whether amalgamation i s a f e a s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e and, i f so, to formulate the optimum course of action to achieve i t . 265 NOTES CHAPTER I 1 P a t r i c k Rowley, e d . , The Book of Hockey (London: MacDonald and Co . , 1964). 2 Eustace E. White, The Complete Hockey P layer (London: Methuen and Co . , 1909). 3 N e v i l l Miroy, e d . , "The H i s to ry of Hockey", Hockey Digest (London: L i f e l i n e ) , O f f i c i a l Journal of the Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . 4 Mar jor ie P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years of Women's Hockey (Letchworth, England: S t . Chr istopher Press , 1946). 5 Janet Shaner, "The H i s to ry of the Development of the In ternat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n s " , unpublished M.S. t h e s i s , Smith Co l l ege , U .S .A . , 1975. 6 L inda Wi l l i ams , "The Growth and Development of Women's F i e l d Hockey i n Canada", unpublished B .P .E . graduating essay, The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1967. 7 F lorence Strachan, e d . . J u b i l e e Booklet ( F i e l d Hockey Jub i l ee Booklet , 1896-1956), (Vancouver: Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , 1956). 8 A.D. Boyd, comp., F i e l d Hockey i n Canada (Vancouver: Canadian F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , March 1963). 9 Melvyn Pignon, The Story of the A.E .W.H.A. , 1965-1981, (London: A.E .W.H.A. , n . d . ) ; Mar jor ie P o l l a r d , A l l England Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n : The Story of the F i r s t Seventy Years, 1895-1965 (London: A.E .W.H.A. , n . d . ) . 1 0 Ida Webb, "Women's Hockey i n England", paper presented at 4th In ternat iona l HISPA Seminar, Leuven, Belgium, A p r i l 1975. 1 1 John A r l o t t , e d . , The Oxford Companion to Sports and Games (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press , 1975). 1 2 Lord K i l l a n i n and John Rodda, e d s . , The Olympic Games: 80 years of people, events, and records (London: B a r r i e and Jenk ins , 1976). 1 3 Barbara Schrodt, Gerald Redmond, Richard Baka, e d s . . Sport Canadiana (Edmonton: Executive Sport Pub l i ca t ions L t d . , 1980). 1 4 Ralph Hickok, e d . , New Encyclopedia of Sports (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co . , 1977). 1 5 Henry Roxborough, One Hundred — Not Out: The Story of Nineteenth-Century Canadian Sport (Toronto: Ryerson Press , 1966). 266 Notes to pages 5-6 1 6 S . F . Wise and Douglas F i s h e r , Canada's Sport ing Heroes (Don M i l l s , Ontar io : General Pub l i sh ing Co. L t d . , 1974). 1 7 Jean Cochrane, Abby Hoffman. Pat K i n c a i d , Women i n Canadian L i f e : Sports (Toronto: F i tzhenry and Whiteside L t d . , 1977). 1 8 M. Ann H a l l and Dorothy A. Richardson, F a i r B a l l : Towards Sex Equa l i t y i n Canadian Sport . Canadian Advisory Counci l on the s tatus of Women, 1982. 1 9 Barbara Schrodt, "Changes i n the Governance of Amateur Sport i n Canada", Canadian Journa l of the H i s to ry of Sport , 14, No. 1 (May 1983). 2 0 E. Broom and R. Baka, Canadian Governments and Sport (Calgary: U n i v e r s i t y of Ca lgary , 1979), CAHPER Sociology of Sport Monograph S e r i e s . ^A Richard Mor iar ty , "The Rise and F a l l of Sport Organizat ions" , Ac t ion (Ottawa: Canadian Counc i l on Ch i ld ren and Youth) 3, No. 1 (1983). " R.G. Hol lands and R.S. Gruneau, "Soc ia l C lass and Voluntary Act ion i n the Admin is t rat ion of Canadian Sport" , Working Papers i n the S o c i o l o g i c a l Study of Sports and L e i s u r e , Queen's U n i v e r s i t y , 2, No. 3 (1979). 2 3 A .B . Rose, "An H i s t o r i c a l Account of Canada's P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n In ternat iona l Ice Hockey: 1948-70", unpublished M.A. t h e s i s , The U n i v e r s i t y of Western Ontar io , 1976. 2 4 J . E . H a l l and R.O. Mccul loch, S i x t y Years of Canadian c r i c k e t (Toronto: Bryant, 1895). 2 5 Robert D. Brat ton , "A H i s to ry of the Canadian V o l l e y b a l l Assoc ia t i on up to 1967", mimeographed paper, Ca lgary , n .d . 2 6 Donald Morrow, "Canadian Sport H i s t o r y : A C r i t i c a l Essay", Journal o f Sport H i s t o r y , 10, No. 1 (1983), pp. 69-72. 2 1 I b i d . , pp. 73-75. 2 8 B r ian T .P . Mutimer, "Canadian Graduating Essays, Theses and D i s s e r t a t i o n s Re la t ing to the H is tory and Ph i l i sophy of Sport , Phys i ca l Educat ion, and Recreat ion ," compiled for the H is tory of Sport and Phys i ca l A c t i v i t y Committee, and the Ph i l i sophy of Sport and Phys i ca l A c i t i v i t y Committee of the Canadian Assoc ia t i on for Hea l th , Phys i ca l Education and Recreat ion, S t . F ranc is Xavier U n i v e r s i t y , May 1980; R.w. cox, comp., "Theses and D i s s e r t a t i o n s on the H i s to ry of Sport , Phys i ca l Educat ion, Recreat ion and Dance Approved for Higher Degrees and Advanced Diplomas i n B r i t i s h U n i v e r s i t i e s 1900-1981," B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l Centre for the H is tory of Sport , Phys i ca l Education and Recreat ion, U n i v e r s i t y of L i v e r p o o l , Occasional P u b l i c a t i o n No. 1, March 1982. 267 Notes to pages 7-17 z y Wise and F i s h e r , p. 27. or) J U In order to provide a background to the subject , a chapter on the ear l y h i s t o r y of the game and i t s evo lu t ion in to modern hockey i s inc luded . 3 1 Both i n t h i s study, and i n the documentary mater ia l which supports i t , the Lower Mainland was a l so re fe r red to as Vancouver (or Greater Vancouver), and Vancouver Is land as V i c t o r i a . CHAPTER II 1 David Morgan, "Hockey 4,000 Years O l d , " The Book of Hockey, pp. 11-12. The "bul ly" was the means by which, u n t i l very r e c e n t l y , the b a l l was introduced i n t o p lay between two opponents. Some controversy e x i s t s amongst sport h i s t o r i a n s as to whether the object depicted i n the pa in t ing i s a b a l l , rather than a hoop; however, whatever the object may be, the i l l u s t r a t i o n i s widely accepted as the e a r l i e s t recorded form of hockey. 2 Rene Frank, "Or ig ins and H i s to ry of Hockey," Olympic Teams, -ed. Andres Merce Vare la (Barcelona: Pub l i cac iones Reunidas, 1968), p; 3; H. A. H a r r i s , Sport i n Greece and Rome (London: Thames and Hudson, 1972), pp. 100-102. 3 H a r r i s , pp. 79,90. 4 U r i e l S i m r i , "The Re l ig ious and Magical Funct ion of B a l l Games i n Var ious C u l t u r e s , " unpublished E .E .D. t h e s i s , West V i r g i n i a U n i v e r s i t y , 1966; Robert W. Henderson, B a l l , Bat and Bishop (New York: Rockport Press , I n c . , 1947). 5 Alonso de O v a l l e , H i s t o r i a de C h i l e , as c i t e d by P a t r i c k Rowley, e d . , World Hockey (Brusse l s : Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey, 1970) I, No. 5 (June-July 1970), p. 62; A l i c e Cheska, "Ba l l Game P a r t i c i p a t i o n of North American Indian Women", Her Story i n Sport : A H i s t o r i c a l Anthology of Women i n Sports , Reet Howell , ed . (West Po in t , N.Y.: Le isure Press , 1982), pp. 21-22. 6 The name l a soule i s the generic term for a game which took var ious forms; l a soule was played with a leather-covered b a l l , s t u f f e d with hemp or wool, which teams of men would attempt to d r i ve by hand, foot or s t i c k towards the opponents' g o a l . When the b a l l was prope l led by the foot , the game was re fe r red to as l a soule au p i e d , whi le the s t i c k games were c a l l e d shouler a l a crosse and jeu de m a i l . Wi l l i am J . Baker, Sports i n the Western World (Totowa, N . J . : Rowman and L i t t l e f i e l d , 1982), p. 46; N e v i l l Miroy, "The H is tory of Hockey", Hockey D igest , 8, No. 3 (December 1980), p. 8. 7 Henderson, pp. 39-46; Morgan, pp. 14-15; "Hockey i n H i s to ry" , World Hockey, 45 (December 1982), p. 30. 8 Morgan, p. 14; Henderson, pp. 32-33. 268 Notes to pages 18-21 9 White, p. 1. 1 0 Miroy, 8, No. 1 (September 1980), p. 52; White, p . l . H Morgan, p. 15. 12 John D. Gray, "Hockey", How Did Sports Begin?, ed . R. Brasch, (London: Longman, 1972), p. 107; F.P. Magoun, J r . , History of Football from the Beginning to 1871, n . p . , Cologne, 1938. There i s no mention of a s t i c k i n F i t zs tephen ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of the game. However, John Stow i n h i s Survey of London, w r i t t e n i n 1598, i n s e r t s baston ( s t i c k ) i n t o h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n d i c a t i n g that , at least by the s ix teenth century, some form of c l u b - b a l l or hockey was i n ex is tence . 13 Morgan, p. 14. 1 4 Miroy, 8, No. 3 (December 1980), p. 10. 1 5 Dennis B r a i l s f o r d , Sport and Soc ie ty (London: Routledge and Kegan Pau l , 1969), p. 57. 1 6 White, p. 4. 1 7 Joseph S t r u t t , The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England (London: Thomas Tegg and Son, 1834), p. 99. 18 Morgan, pp. 15-16. 1 9 Miroy, 10, No. 1 (September 1982), p. 45. 2 0 Miroy: 8, No. 6 (Summer 1981), p. 13; 9, No. 3 (December 1981), p. 40; 8, No. 4 (January 1981), pp. 15-18; 11, No. 2 (Oct./Nov. 1983), pp. 38-39. 2 1 P h i l i p Goodhart and Chr istopher Chataway, War Without Weapons (London: W.H. A l l e n , 1968), p. 28. 2 2 White, p. 5; Miroy, 8, No. 6 (Summer 1981), p. 13. 2 3 Miroy, 8. No. 5 (March 1981), p. 14. In 1861, the c lub was formed as a hockey and f o o t b a l l c l u b . Attempts by the hockey p layers to conf ine the i r a c t i v i t i e s s o l e l y to hockey were begun i n 1862, but i t was not u n t i l October 1864 that the Blackheath Hockey Club became a separate e n t i t y . 2 4 M.K. Howells, A Centenary o f Modern Hockey, 1871-1971 (London: The Oyez Press L t d . , 1971), p. 9. 269 Notes to pages 21-25 25 Howells, pp. i v , 9 ; M.L. Pearce, corap., Richmond Hockey C lub: A H i s t o r y (London: C .F . Denyer, 1974), pp. 2-4. Howells c la ims 24 October 1874 as the date of t h i s h i s t o r i c match. Pearce s ta tes that the f i r s t "competit ive" match took place on 7 November 1874, with the e a r l i e r game r e f e r r e d to as a " f r i e n d l y " . 2 6 Pearce, pp. 5-6. 2 7 Pearce, p. 6; Miroy, 9, No. 1 (Sept. 1981), p. 14. 2 8 Richmond and Twickenham Times, 24 A p r i l 1875, as c i t e d by Howells, p. 14. These c lubs were: Richmond, Teddington, Surb i ton , Sutton, East Surrey, Upper Toot ing , and The S t r o l l e r s . The d i f f e rences between the Blackheath game and the game adopted by the Hockey Assoc ia t i on were s u b s t a n t i a l . They included the dimensions of the f i e l d , the s i z e of the goa l , the method of s c o r i n g , the number of p layers per team, the texture of the b a l l , and the s t y l e of p l a y . See Miroy: 8, No. 5 (March 1981), p. 15; 8, No. 6 (Summer 1981), p. 15; 9, No. 1 (Sept. 1981), p. 14, and Howells, pp. 7-9. 2 9 Pearce, pp. 8-9. 3 0 Howells, p. 17; Miroy, 9, No. 1 (Sept. 1981), p. 15. The London c lubs represented were Wimbledon, Molesey, Teddington, Surb i ton , E a l i n g , and Blackheath. A l so i n attendance were T r i n i t y Co l lege , Cambridge, and E l i o t P lace School , Blackheath. 3 1 Miroy: 9, No. 1 (Sept. 1981), p. 17; 9, No. 2 (Oct./Nov. 1981), p. 8. 3 2 Miroy, 9, No. 4 (Jan./Feb. 1982), pp. 39-43. 3 3 I b i d . ; White, p. 14. 3 4 Miroy, 11, No. 2 (Oct./Nov. 1983). pp. 38-39. 3 5 White, p. 12. 36 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, p. 4. 3 7 Melvyn Hickey, Hockey for Women (London: Nicholas Kaye L imi ted , 1962), p. 16. 38 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, pp. 3-4. 3 9 I b i d . , pp. 4-5,34. Notes to pages 26-29 CHAPTER I I I 1 During t h i s period of B r i t i s h imperial expansion, the i n d i v i d u a l countries of the B r i t i s h I s l e s , namely, England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales, were often referred to as the Home Countries. The term has been retained i n sporting c i r c l e s . 2 Miroy, 9, No. 6 (Summer 1982), pp. 53-55. 3 Miroy, 10, No. 1 (Sept. 1982), pp. 44-47. 4 Which of these two games may be claimed as the f i r s t t r u l y i n t e r n a t i o n a l match i s subject to debate. The Ireland v. Wales match was ch r o n o l o g i c a l l y the f i r s t , but the Welsh team at Rhyl was not a t r u l y representative one, nor did the Welsh H.A. a c t u a l l y e x i s t at that time. On the other hand, at London, both the English and I r i s h teams were representative, and both countries had formally constituted national associations. 5 Miroy: 9, No. 6 (Summer 1982), pp. 53-55; 9, No. 5 (Mar./Apr. 1982) , pp. 50-54. The I r i s h Hockey Union was formed i n 1893, the Welsh H.A. i n 1897, and the S c o t t i s h H.A. i n 1901. See also, Miroy: 9, No. 2 (Oct./Nov. 1981), pp. 8-13; 10 No. 1 (Sept. 1982), pp. 44-47; 11, No. 3 (Dec. 1983), pp. 40-42. 6 P h i l i p C o l l i n s , "History of the Hockey Association," The Complete Hockey Player, pp. 16-17. 7 Minutes of the f i r s t Meeting of the International Hockey Board, Manchester, 25 J u l y 1900, included i n personal correspondence to the author from George C r o f t , Honorary Secretary, Hockey Rules Board, 11 January 1984. This board has been v a r i o u s l y known as the International Rules Board (I.R.B.); International Hockey Board (I.H.B.); and the International Hockey Rules Board (I.H.R.B.). For the period 1900-1966, i t w i l l be referred to i n t h i s thesis as the I.H.B. For the minutes of the inaugural meeting of the I.H.B., see Appendix A. 8 Miroy: 9, No. 5 (Mar./Apr. 1982), pp. 50-54; 10, No. 2 (Oct./Nov. 1982), pp. 36-39; 10, No. 5 (March 1983), pp. 58-64. 9 Howells, p. 39; Varela, pp. 31-61; Miroy: 10, No. 6 (Summer 1983) , p. 56; 12, No. 3 (Dec. 1984), p. 47. 1 0 W. S o l i s C , The Origins of Olympic Sports, as c i t e d i n " H i s t o r i c a l Review", the O f f i c i a l Hockey Programme of the Olympic Games, Mexico C i t y , 1968, n.p.; C o l l i n s , p. 17; K i l l a n i n and Rodda. 1 1 Miroy, 10, No. 6 (Summer 1983), p. 57. Notes to pages 29-33 1 2 Miroy, 11 No. 4 (Jan./Feb. 1984), pp. 27-29. In f a c t , the proposed 1910 Olympic Games i n Athens were never h e l d . 1 3 Miroy, 9, No. 5 (Mar./Apr. 1982), p. 52. 1 4 Miroy, 10, No. 5 (March 1983), pp. 63-64. 1 5 X J In 1909, the approximate number of c lubs a f f i l i a t e d to the var ious unions and assoc ia t ions i n the B r i t i s h I s l e s was 900, as fo l lows England — 700; I re land — 100; Wales — 60; Scotland - - 40. See White, p. 11. 16 C o l l i n s , p. 19. 1 7 Miroy: 10, No. 5 (March 1983), p. 61; 11, No. 4 (Jan./Feb. 1984), p. 28. 1 8 Miroy, 11, No. 4 (Jan./Feb. 1984), p. 29. 1 9 "How Did It S t a r t ? " , Souvenir Programme, Esanda World Hockey Tournament, Per th , A u s t r a l i a , 1979, p. 11. 2 0 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, pp. 4-5. This was not considered a true i n t e r n a t i o n a l match, as ne i ther s ide was f u l l y representa t ive . The members of the team from I re land , for example, were a l l from Alexandra Co l l ege . The f i r s t representat ive i n t e r n a t i o n a l match took place when England played Ire land i n 1896. See Miroy, 9, No. 1 (Sept. 1981), p. 18 2 1 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, pp. 4-5 ,7 . 22 I b i d . , pp. 7-10. 2 3 I b i d ; Miroy, 9, No. 6 (Summer 1982), p. 54; Jean Ca lder , e d . . The S c o t t i s h Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n : 75th Anniversary Book, 1900-1975 (Edinburgh: Lindsay & Co. L t d . , 1975), p. 5. 24 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, pp. 6 ,7 ,54; Ca lder , p. 6. 2 5 Mar jor ie P o l l a r d , e d . , H i l d a M. L i g h t : Her L i f e and Times (London: A l l England Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , 1972), p. 42. 2 6 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, pp. 53-54. 2 7 I b i d . , p. 19. 2 8 I n f r a . , pp. 89-95. Notes to pages 34-38 2 9 Supra . , pp. 24-25; Miroy, 9, No. 4 (Jan./Feb. 1982), p. 40; Ca lder , p. 5. The terra mixed hockey r e f e r s to the game where men and women p lay together i n the same team. By the ear l y 1900s, mixed hockey c lubs were a l s o f l o u r i s h i n g on the Continent of Europe. L u c i l l e Eaton H i l l , e d . , A t h l e t i c s and Out-Door Sports for Women (New York: The Macmillan Co . , 1903), p. 208. 3 0 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, pp. 5-6. 3 1 I b i d . 32 33 I b i d . I b i d . , p. 15; Ca lder , p. 6. 3 4 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, p. 16. 3 5 Miroy: 11, No. 3 (Dec. 1983), p. 40; 9, No. 1 (Sept. 1981), p. 18; P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years , p. 9. CHAPTER IV 1 Rowley, The Book of Hockey, p. 200. 2 P a t r i c k Rowley, "50 Years for Hockey", World Hockey, 5, No. 2 ( Ju ly -Sept . 1974), p. 20. 3 L . J . Quarles van U f f o r d , "The Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey", The Book of Hockey, pp. 26-27. 4 R.L. Hol lands , "Hockey", The Olympic Games, p. 113; Rowley, "50 Years", p. 20. 5 Le t ter to the author from P a t r i c k Rowley, i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey correspondent, London, 2 March 1984. 6 Minutes of the I .F.W.H.A. Counc i l Meeting, 8-9 February 1975, pp. 42-43. [Publ i c Archives of Canada, MG 28 I 376, V o l . 72, F i l e 5 ] . [Hereafter P u b l i c Archives of Canada, MG 28 I 376, w i l l be abbreviated to P . A . C . ] . 7 Rowley, "50 Years", p. 20; Quarles van U f f o r d , p. 27; Rowley, The Book of Hockey, p. 201. 8 Rowley, "50 Years" , p. 21; Rowley, "The H i s to ry of Olympic Hockey (1908-1960)", The Book of Hockey, p. 53. 9 Le t te r from P a t r i c k Rowley. 273 Notes to pages 38-42 1 0 Ernest Wal l , "Men's Hockey i n Scot land" , 75th Anniversary Souvenir Programme: Scottish Hockey Association, 1901-1976, Edinburgh, 1976, p. 26. H Le t te r from George C r o f t . 1 2 Wa l l , p. 26. 1 3 Programme of the Olympic Hockey Tournament, Montreal , 1976. 1 4 Wa l l , p. 26. 1 5 Rowley, The Book of Hockey, pp. 201-2. 1 6 P o l l a r d , H i l d a M. L i g h t , p. 42; "Diamond J u b i l e e , 1910-1970", A l l A u s t r a l i a Women's Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , Per th , 1970, p. 1; Betty Shel lenberger , " F i e l d Hockey - Women", The Encyclopaedia of Sports, e d . , Frank G. Menke and Suzanne Treat , 5th rev . ed. (New York: A .S . Barnes & Co . , 1975) p. 379. 1 7 H i l d a M. L i g h t , "World Hockey 1967: The Story of the Federat ing of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t i ons" , Hockey F i e l d (A.E.W.H.A. O f f i c i a l J o u r n a l ) , 54, No. 8 (14 Jan . 1967), p. 122. 1 8 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, p. 35. 1 9 I b i d . 2 0 P o l l a r d , H i l d a M. L i g h t , p. 42; P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, p. 35. 2 1 Shaner, pp. 8,15. 2 2 Quarles van U f f o r d , p. 28; Rowley, "50 Years", p. 20. 2 3 Quarles van U f fo rd , p. 28; Shaner, p. 14; "Hockey and Olympism", Olympic Review '84 (October 1984), B u l l e t i n No. 204, p. 813. 2 4 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, pp. 36-37. 2 5 P o l l a r d , H i l d a M. L i g h t , p. 43. 2 6 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, p. 36. In 1933, the p a r t i c i p a t i n g countr ies were: England, Scot land, I re land , Wales, Ho l land , Germany, U .S .A . , Denmark. 2 7 I b i d . In 1936, the p a r t i c i p a t i n g countr ies were: England, Scot land, I r e l a n d , Wales, A u s t r a l i a , Denmark, South A f r i c a , U.S.A. 2 8 Report of the Fourth T r i e n n i a l Conference, I .F .W.H.A . , Johannesburg, 1950, p. 21. Canada and B r i t i s h Guiana were accepted as Assoc iate Members. 2 9 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, pp. 33-34. 274 Notes to pages 43-49 3 0 Supra, p. 40; Shaner, p. 14. 3 1 Supra, p. 41; Shaner, p. 14. 3 2 Shaner, p. 16. 3 3 I b i d . , pp. 23-24. 3 4 I b i d . , p. 31. 3 5 P o l l a r d , H i l d a M. L i g h t , p. 43; P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, pp. 35-36. 3 6 P o l l a r d , H i l d a M. L i g h t , pp. 43-44; P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, pp. 34-36. 3 7 I b i d . 3 8 Shaner, pp. 20,26; The F . I . H . requested of the I .O .C . that hockey continue as an Olympic spor t , as part of the Olympic Games, but that the tournament be played during the hockey season. The request was re fused . CHAPTER V 1 "Hockey's great debt to Quarles van U f fo rd" , World Hockey, 2, No. 5 (Oct./Dec. 1971), p. 62. 2 Quarles van U f fo rd , p. 27; V a r e l a , p. 44; Rowley, "50 Years", p. 21. 3 P a t r i c k Rowley, "The H i s to ry of Olympic Hockey", p. 56. P r i o r to 1948, hockey had been played at only f i v e Olympic Games. In 1908 and 1920, England won the gold medals, but soon afterwards, the B r i t i s h Home Countr ies withdrew from Olympic hockey compet i t ion . India f i r s t entered a team i n the Olympic Hockey Tournament i n 1928, and won the gold medal i n that year , and again i n 1932 and 1936. Thus, i n 1948, the only two countr ies that had won Olympic gold medals i n hockey had never before met i n an Olympic Hockey Tournament. 4 Rowley, The Book of Hockey, p. 202. ^ Representat ive Great B r i t a i n teams a l so p a r t i c i p a t e d i n tournaments outs ide of the Olympic Games; for example, an e igh t -na t ion tournament held i n Hamburg i n 1965. 6 "Quarles van U f fo rd" , World Hockey, 2, No. 5 (Oct./Dec. 1971). p. 62; The Hockey C i r c l e , Souvenir Issue, Olympic Preview, Melbourne, 1956, p. 9; Boyd, pp. 3 ,5; V a r e l a , pp. 15-18. 275 Notes to pages 50-54 7 Rowley, The Book of Hockey, pp. 202-6; V a r e l a , p. 18. Only at Rome (1960) and Mexico (1968) d id s ix teen countr ies a c t u a l l y compete. At other tournaments, var ious forms of p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n , such as the Hungarian inc ident i n 1956, led to the last-minute withdrawal of some teams. 8 "Record of Major In ternat iona l Tournaments", World Hockey, 5, No. 2 ( Ju ly -Sept . 1974), p. 24; V a r e l a , p. 18. 9 Quarles van U f f o r d , p. 27. In f a c t , Quarles van Uf ford acknowledged the author i ty of the Board when he s tated that the I .H .B . was "the only o rgan i sa t ion empowered to lay down and amend r u l e s " . 1 0 I b i d . ; Miroy, 10, No. 2 (Oct./Nov. 1982), p. 37. In 1948. the I .H .B . comprised the fo l lowing representa t i ves : England 5; Scot land 2; I re land 2; Wales 2; F . I . H . 3. 1 1 Et ienne G l i c h i t c h , "Rules — the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of a l l nat ions" , World Hockey, 1, No. 5 (June/July 1970), p. 54; Et ienne G l i c h i t c h , "New Experimental Rules" , Canadian F i e l d Hockey News (C .F .H . News). 5, No. 1 (Spring 1968), pp. 6-7; Wa l l , p. 26; Le t te r from P a t r i c k Rowley. 1 2 Le t te r from Gertrude Hopper, In ternat iona l Correspondent, U .S .F .H .A . , to Myrne Nevison, Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 16 J u l y 1946. This l e t t e r informed the G.V.W.G.H.A. that an a p p l i c a t i o n was being made to inc lude women's hockey i n the Olympic Games. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . Minutes of the I .F.W.H.A. Counc i l Meeting, 26 November 1947. [In the f i l e s of Florence Strachan-Petersen] . Le t te r from E. de J o s s e l i n de Jong, F . I . H . Women's Committee, to Miss Hammerton, former Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 14 August 1947. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 14 15 I b i d . Report of the 1950 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 20. Ca lder , p. 8. 1 6 Report of the 1950 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 18. 1 7 Minutes of the I .F.W.H.A. Counc i l Meeting, 26 November 1947. The 1939 Bournemouth Conference, and the 1942 Conference planned to be he ld i n A u s t r a l i a , met the same war-time fa te as the 1940 and 1944 Olympics; and England's o f f e r to host the f i r s t post-war Conference was a l so withdrawn because of the e f f e c t s of the War. 18 Report of the 1950 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, pp. 46-47. 1 9 Report of the F i f t h T r i e n n i a l Conference of the I .F .W.H.A . , Folkestone, England, 1953, p. 44. 276 Notes to pages 54-59 20 C o l l a t e d from Reports of I .F .W.H.A. Conferences, 1953-1967. 2 1 I b i d . ; Report of the 1950 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 21. 2 2 Report of the 1953 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, pp. 18,63. The Pakistan Hockey Federat ion had not organized a separate women's s e c t i o n , a cond i t i on of membership of the I .F .W.H.A. , as decreed i n i t s C o n s t i t u t i o n . 2 3 Reports of the I .F.W.H.A. Conferences, 1950-1967. 2 4 Melvyn Pignon, "Problems Ahead", Hockey F i e l d , 60, No. 2 (30 September 1972), p. 23. 2 5 Report of the S ix th T r i e n n i a l Conference of the I .F .W.H.A . , Sydney, A u s t r a l i a , 1956, p. 12; Report of the Seventh T r i e n n i a l Conference of the I .F .W.H.A. , Amsterdam, Hol land, 1959, p. 15; Report of the Ninth Conference of the I .F .W.H.A. , Leverkusen and Cologne, Germany, 1967, p. 5. 2 6 Le t te r from Helen Armf ie ld , Hon. Treasurer , I .F .W.H.A . , to Myrne Nevison, Past Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1 March 1948. [Petersen f i l e s ] . 2 7 Supra . , pp. 52-53. 2 8 P o l l a r d , H i l d a M. L i g h t , pp. 44-45. 2 9 Report of the 1950 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 21; Le t ter from S.C. Hof fa , P res ident , I .F .W.H.A . , to Myrne Nevison, Past Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A., 28 December 1948. [Petersen f i l e s ] . 30 P o l l a r d , H i l d a M. L i g h t , pp. 44-45; Shaner, p. 42. 3 1 Report of the 1953 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 23. 3 2 Minutes of the I .F.W.H.A. Counc i l Meeting, 27 September 1952. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 3 3 Report of the 1953 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, pp. 15-16,23. The I.F.W.H.A. conveyed the fo l lowing r e s o l u t i o n to the F . I . H . : "That t h i s Conference of the In te rnat iona l Federat ion of Women's Hockey Assoc ia t ions welcomes the formation of a Jo in t Consu l ta t ive Committee of the two Federat ions and accepts the proposed C o n s t i t u t i o n as s l i g h t l y amended. It subscr ibes wholeheartedly to the aims and objects and t r u s t s that the Committee w i l l be the means of secur ing c lose co-operat ion between the two bodies ." 3 4 I b i d . ; Shaner, pp. 44-45; P o l l a r d , H i l d a M. L i g h t , p. 48. 3 5 Reports of the I .F.W.H.A. Conferences, 1953-1967; Shaner, pp. 47,201-2. 277 Notes to pages 59-66 3 6 Shaner, pp. 201-2; Le t te r from George C r o f t . 3 7 Report of the 1956 I .F.W.H.A. conference, p. 11. Th is ac t i on by the F . I . H . a c t u a l l y broke t r a d i t i o n , as the Cup was normally awarded to a member a s s o c i a t i o n of the F . I . H . 3 8 Minutes of the I .F.W.H.A. Counc i l Meeting, 2 October 1954. [Petersen f i l e s ] ; Minutes of the second meeting of the J . C . C , 9 March 1958. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Report of the 1967 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 29. 3 9 Report of the 1967 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 13. As e a r l y as 1950, the President of the I .F .W.H.A. , Miss H i l d a L ight (who, i n 1953 became the f i r s t Chairman of the J . C . C ) , r e a l i z i n g the s i g n i f i c a n c e of r u l e s , had i n s t i g a t e d d iscuss ions between the Women's Hockey Board of Great B r i t a i n and Ire land and the I .H .B . for co -ord ina t ing the ru les of men's and women's hockey. P o l l a r d , H i l d a M. L i g h t , p. 47. 4 0 Report of the 1950 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 14; Report of the 1959 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 13; Report of the E ighth Conference of the I .F .W.H.A. , Goucher Co l l ege , Towson, Maryland, U .S .A . , 1963, p. 18. 4 1 Report of the 1963 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 17; Report from the J . C . C . Meeting, 7 May 1966, as c i t e d i n the Report of the 1967 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 18: Report of the 1967 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 5. P o l l a r d , H i l d a M. L i g h t , p. 47. 4 2 Et ienne G l i c h i t c h , "Review of the In ternat iona l Hockey Federat ion during 1967 and 1968", i n Olympic Teams, p. 9. 4 3 Report from the J . C . C . Meeting, 7 May 1966, as c i t e d i n the Report of the 1967 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 18. CHAPTER VI 1 "La F . I . H . des i re in tegrer le Hockey Rules Board", Hockey Mondial (World Hockey), 1, No. 1 (June-July 1969), p. 5. 2 Supra, pp. 48-52. 3 Le t ter from P a t r i c k Rowley. 4 "Rene Frank re -e lec ted President of the F . I . H . " , "Milestone i n Hockey H i s to ry" , and "I .H .R .B . to be replaced i n 1972", World Hockey, 1, No. 7 (Oct .-Dec. 1970), pp. 92-93. 5 I b i d . ; Rene G. Frank, "Looking to the fu ture" , World Hockey, 3, No. 2 (Apr .-Aug. 1972), p. 16. In 1966, the name of the ru les-govern ing I .H.B. was changed to the In ternat iona l Hockey Rules Board to co-ord inate the terminology i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of the formation of the women's In ternat iona l Hockey Rules Board. 278 Notes to pages 66-67 ° "Milestone i n Hockey H i s to ry" , p. 93. 7 P a t r i c k Rowley, " E d i t o r i a l " , World Hockey, 1, No. 4 (March-May 1970), p. 41; " F i r s t World Cup O f f i c i a l s " , and "Facts and F igures" , World Hockey, 2, No. 4 (Aug.-Sept. 1971), p. 44. 8 G l i c h i t c h , Olympic Teams, p. 13. 9 "More, or less hockey i n the Olympics?", World Hockey, 1, No. 4 (March-May 1970), p. 42. 1 0 "More F . I . H . News", World Hockey, 1, No. 7 (Oct . -Dec. 1970), p. 93. Le t te r from Peter P o r r i t t , C .F .H .A . delegate to F . I . H . , to John Chapman, Pres ident , C . F . H . A . , 5 November 1971. [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C . , V o l . 43, n . f . ] . Because of the in-camera nature of I .O .C . d i s cuss ions , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to determine exact ly what t r a n s p i r e d . However, the very d i s t i n c t impression at that time was that the tenure of team spor ts , i nc lud ing hockey, was precar ious ; interv iew with Peter P o r r i t , F . I . H . Counc i l member, Vancouver, 29 May 1983. See a l s o Jean M. Le iper , "The In ternat iona l Olympic Committee: I t s Structure and Funct ion, Past and Present Problems, and Future Chal lenges", The Modern Olympics, e d . , Peter J . Graham and Horst Ueberhorst (West Po in t , N.Y.: Le isure Press , 1976), p. 57; Jean M. Le iper , "The In ternat iona l Olympic Committee: The Pursu i t of Olympism, 1894-1970", unpublished Ph.D. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , 1976. 1 1 " F . I . H . News i n B r i e f " , World Hockey: 3, No. 1 (Jan.-March 1972), p. 6; Rene G. Frank, "Looking to the fu ture" , p. 16; The Hockey C i r c l e , 26, No. 5 (Olympic Review Issue, 1976), pp. 4 ,9 . The reduct ion i n the number of men's teams from s ix teen to twelve was i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of the i n c l u s i o n of a s ix-team women's compet i t ion. Interview with Peter P o r r i t t . 12 The World Cup Tournament i s a competit ion at which the top twelve teams i n the world v i e for supremacy. At t h i s event, teams are d iv ided equ i tab ly , by v i r t u e of seeding, i n t o two pools of s i x . Then, by means of a combination of round-robin and e l i m i n a t i o n compet i t ion, a winner i s dec ided. In f a c t , the process permits the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of teams for a l l twelve p o s i t i o n s . Q u a l i f i c a t i o n for the World Cup Tournament i s a l so decided on a competit ive b a s i s . Apart from a number of teams (approximately s i x ) which gain automatic entry by v i r t u e of t h e i r p lac ings at the previous World Cup Tournament, countr ies must q u a l i f y by f i n i s h i n g i n the top echelon (the balance of twelve) at a pre l iminary tournament, the Inter -Cont inenta l Cup, the format of which i s i d e n t i c a l to that of the World Cup. Teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the In ter -Cont inenta l Cup are determined from q u a l i f y i n g tournaments w i th in each cont inenta l zone. Up to 1983, there were f i v e World Cup Tournaments (Barcelona, 1971; Amsterdam, 1973; Kuala Lumpur, 1975; Buenos A i r e s , 1978; Bombay, 1982) and two Inter -Cont inenta l Cup competit ions (Rome, 1977; Kuala Lumpur, 1981). 279 Notes to pages 67-72 1 3 R.G. Frank, "Editorial", World Hockey, 41-42 (July 1981), p. 3; "F.I.H. Meetings in Buenos Aires", and "9th International Umpires' Conference", World Hockey, 33 (June 1978), pp. 16-17. 1 4 Supra, pp. 52-56. 1 5 Report of the Tenth Conference of the I.F.W.H.A., Auckland, New Zealand, 1971, pp. 9-11,32,33. 1 6 "F.I.H. Women's Committee", World Hockey, 1, No. 7 (Oct.-Dec. 1970), p. 98. 1 7 Etienne Glichitch, "Seeking a rational organisation for women's hockey", World Hockey, 4, No. 3 (Oct.-Dec. 1973), p. 98. 18 Reports of the I.F.W.H.A. Conferences, 1950-1967. 1 9 Report of the 1971 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, pp. 59-60. The following extract from "Problems Ahead" written i n 1972 by Melvyn Pignon, then a recently r e t i r e d English i n t e r n a t i o n a l player, juxtaposes the two sentiments e x i s t i n g at that time: ". . .there has been a strong f e e l i n g amongst our players today that at the end of our i n t e r n a t i o n a l tournaments held, l i k e the Olympics, every four years, i t should be more cl e a r cut who came out on top, who was the winner . . . ."; "But t h i s i s strongly against the p r i n c i p l e s of the I.F.W.H.A. which have always been that the Tournaments, together with the accompanying Conferences, were for the promotion of good r e l a t i o n s h i p , through hockey, between countries . . . ." Hockey F i e l d , 60, No. 2 (30 September 1972), p. 23. 2 u Ruby Robinson, "Scotland Staged Outstanding Event", The Hockey C i r c l e , October-November 1975, p. 10; l e t t e r to the author from Toni Widdop, President, C.W.F.H.A, 1970-72, Thunder Bay, 1 June 1983. (Enclosed was a l e t t e r from Toni Widdop to Jean Calder, President, S c o t t i s h W.H.A., 30 May 1974). 2 1 "Another World t i l e for Netherlands", World Hockey, 3, No. 2 (April-Aug. 1972), p. 28; Rene G. Frank, " E d i t o r i a l " , World Hockey, 2, No. 2 (April-May 1971), p. 14; "New World Competition Launched", World Hockey, 2, No. 2 (April-May 1971), p. 25; Pa t r i c k Rowley, " T h r i l l i n g f i n i s h to 1st Women's World Cup", World Hockey, 4, No. 4 (Jan.-March 1974), p. 111. The 1972 Tournament was c a l l e d the Women's World Trophy competition. 2 2 Reports of the I.F.W.H.A. Conferences, 1971-1979; World Hockey: 1974-1981. 2 3 "More, or less hockey i n the Olympics?", p. 42; Press release, Munich Olympic Games, 1972. [C.F.H.A. f i l e s , P.A.C., V o l . 72, f i l e 2]. 280 Notes to pages 72-75 2 4 "Olympic Women's Hockey", World Hockey, 2, No. 1 (Jan.-March 1971), p. 13. "A B r i e f " , by the Ontar io Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n ' s Task Force of In ternat iona l P layers , presented to C.W.F.H.A. Board of D i r e c t o r s ' Meeting, 12 & 13 May 1973. 2 5 Nancy Tomkins, " F . I . H . go on the warpath", Hockey F i e l d , 61, No. 9 (3 February 1973), p. 148; Marjor ie P o l l a r d , "As I see i t " , Hockey F i e l d , 60, No. 2 (30 September 1972), p. 21. 2 6 Reports of the Counc i l Meetings, I .F .W.H.A. : 23-24 September 1972, presented at A .G .M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 24-26 November 1972 [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C . , V o l . 3, n . f . ] ; 14-15 September 1974 by the Pres ident , C.W.F.H.A. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C . , V o l . 72, f i l e 4 ] ; 8-9 February 1975, by the Chairman, Tours Committee, C.W.F.H.A. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C . , V o l . 76, n . f . ] . See a l so "I .F .W.H.A. turn-about: Decide on World Championships s t a r t i n g i n 1975", World Hockey, 4, No. 3 (Oct . -Dec. 1973), p. 108. 2 7 Le t te r from the Honorary General Secretary , F . I . H . , to the Pres ident , I .F .W.H.A . , 24 March 1975. [From the personal f i l e s of P a t r i c i a C larke , I .F .W.H.A. member of the Supreme C o u n c i l , 1975-1979, Vancouver]. See a l so Appendix C. 2 8 I .F .W.H.A. Report on the Meeting of the Supreme Counci l ( I . F . W . H . A . / F . I . H . ) , 26 February 1977. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C . , V o l . 97, n . f . ] . 2 9 "Moscow: Match Resu l t s" , World Hockey, 40 (Dec. 1980), p. 9. 3 0 Supra, pp. 59-62. 3 1 "Common Set of Rules" , World Hockey, 2, No. 3 (June-July 1971), p. 37. 3 2 Report of the 1971 I.W.F.H.A. Conference, pp. 31-32. 3 3 Minutes of the Counci l Meeting, I .F .W.H.A. , 8-9 February 1975. Press Release from Munich, 1972. "Women's Sec t ion" , World Hockey, 4, No. 1 (Apr i l - June 1973), p. 70. 3 4 Ontar io W.F.H.A. B r i e f . 3 5 By the time of the 1975 I.F.W.H.A. Conference he ld i n Edinburgh, there were "only 5 votes aga inst , with 56 f o r , the p r i n c i p l e that women's hockey be inc luded i n the Olympics." Hockey F i e l d , 64, No. 1 (18 September 1976), p. 3. 3 6 "World Women's Trophy", World Hockey, 3, No. 2 (Apr i l -Aug . 1972), p. 28. 281 Notes to pages 76-79 J ' Hockey F i e l d : 60, No. 1 to 63, No. 14 (1972-1976). The r e s u l t s of a vote regarding the acceptance of the experimental r u l e s , taken at a meeting of the W.I.H.R.B. held i n Glasgow on 13 September 1974, were as fo l l ows : Rule Change For Against Penalty Stroke 22 4 Push- in 17 7 O f f s i d e (2, not 3) 25 1 Corners (halfway) 17 8 Hockey F i e l d , 62, No. 10 (15 February 1975), p. 143. A d i s c u s s i o n of the d i f f e rences between the two codes of ru les i s presented i n Appendix D. 3 8 Ontar io W.F.H.A. B r i e f . 3 9 K. Weatherhead, "Joint Rules? Yes . " , Hockey F i e l d , 60, No. 10 (17 February 1973), p. 162. 4 0 "Women's hockey — F . I . H . decides ' to go i t s own way'", World Hockey, 4, No. 3 (Oct . -Dec. 1973), p. 97. This d e c i s i o n was taken at the F . I . H . meetings held during the second World Cup i n Amsterdam, 24 August -2 September, 1973. 4 1 I b i d . ; Shaner, pp. 130-31; Minutes of the F . I .H ./I .F .W.H.A . d i s c u s s i o n s , Baarn, Netherlands, 8 June 1974. [Clarke f i l e s ] . 4 2 G l i c h i t c h , "Seeking a r a t i o n a l o rgan i sa t ion" , pp. 97-98. 4 3 Marjor ie P o l l a r d , "Frank Speaking", and Nancy Tomkin, "Leadership Questioned", Hockey F i e l d , 61, No. 9 (2 February 1974), pp. 150-51. 4 4 c . Laboureau, " 'Frank' Speaking, Again" , Hockey F i e l d , 61, No. 11 (2 March 1974), p. 189. 4 5 "I .F .W.H.A. turn-about", p. 108. 4 6 Report of the Twelfth Conference of the I .F .W.H.A. , Vancouver, Canada, 1979, p. 39. 4 7 "FIH - IFWHA summit meeting to be held at Amsterdam i n June", World Hockey, 4. No. 4 (Jan.-March 1974), p. 109. 4 8 "Extract from Le t te r Sent to I .F.W.H.A. Member Assoc ia t ions from the Pres ident , Mrs. E i l e e n Hyndman", Hockey F i e l d , 61, No. 8 (19 January 1974), p. 130. 49 "pin - IFWHA summit meeting", p. 109. 282 Notes to pages 79-83 5 0 I b i d . In a 1974 i ssue of Hockey F i e l d , t h i s p o s i t i o n was explained as fo l l ows : "A comparison of the hockey strengths of the teams shows that , with the exception of the Netherlands and Germany, the great hockey p lay ing nat ions - A u s t r a l i a , England, I re l and , New Zealand, Scot land, South A f r i c a and Wales - are IFWHA members on ly . Add to these Canada and the United States and i t can be seen that the loss to the IFWHA would be far l ess i f the FIH sect ions withdrew than would be the loss i n f i rm competit ion to the FIH nat ions should they separate ." Nancy Tomkins, " F . I . H . go on the Warpath", Hockey F i e l d , 61, No. 9 (2 February 1974), p. 148. "Hockey summit meeting held i n Netherlands", World Hockey, 5, No. 1 (Apr i l - June 1974), p. 3. 5 2 Minutes of the F . I .H ./I .F .W.H.A . d i scuss ions he ld at Baarn, Netherlands, 8 June 1974. [Clarke f i l e s ] . 5 3 "Hockey summit i n Netherlands", p. 3. 5 4 Minutes of the Counci l Meeting, I .F .W.H.A. , 8-9 February 1975. 5 5 Le t te r from H.R. Banks, Technica l D i r e c t o r , I . O . C . , to Etienne G l i c h i t c h , Honorary General Secretary , F . I . H . , 4 February 1975. [Clarke f i l e s ] . See a l so Appendix C. 56 I b i d . Le t ter from Lord K i l l a n i n , President I . O . C , to Rene Frank, Pres ident , F . I . H . , 8 May 1975. [Clarke f i l e s ] . 5 8 " F . I . H . meetings i n B russe l s" , World Hockey, 24 (October 1975), p. 13; I .F.W.H.A. Report on Supreme Counc i l Meeting of 29 November 1975. [Clarke f i l e s ] . 5 9 "News from the Pres ident" , World Hockey, 25 (March 1976), p. 3. 6 0 I .F .W.H.A. Report on Supreme Counci l Meeting of 22 May 1976. [Clarke f i l e s ] . 6 1 " E d i t o r i a l " , World Hockey, 26 (June 1976), p. 3. ^ 2 I .F .W.H.A. Report on Supreme Counci l Meeting of 22 May 1976; Report of the 1979 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 40; Interview with Simon Twist , President C . F . H . A . , 1977-1980, Toronto, 14 November 1983. 6 3 E i l e e n Hyndman, "Message", World Hockey, 32 (March 1978), p. 5. 6 4 "Teams for Olympic Games", Hockey F i e l d , 64, No. 9 (26 February 1977), p. 139. 283 Notes to pages 83-86 6 5 World Hockey: 31 (Dec. 1977), p. 18; 37 (Nov.-Dec. 1979), p. 10. Interview with P a t r i c i a C la rke , Vancouver, 27 February 1984. [Personal f i l e s of P a t r i c i a C l a r k e . ] The countr ies se lec ted by the Supreme Counci l to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the 1980 Women's Olympic Hockey Tournament i n Moscow were: Germany, Great B r i t a i n , Netherlands, New Zealand, U .S .A . , U .S .S .R . ; Reserves: A u s t r a l i a ; Argent ina; Belgium, Japan, Canada, I n d i a . World Hockey, 38 ( A p r i l 1980), p. 5. There was the percept ion that i n the s e l e c t i o n r a t i o n a l e , some recogn i t ion of g loba l representat ion had been taken in to account. This was a long-standing phi losophy of the F . I . H . i n the case of Olympic Games, but was contrary to the dec lared p o l i c y on t h i s occas ion . World Hockey, 40 (Dec. 1980), p. 9. 6 6 I .F.W.H.A. Report on Supreme Counc i l Meeting of 29 November 1975; I.F.W.H.A. Report on Supreme Counc i l Meeting of 22 May 1976; "Supreme C o u n c i l " , World Hockey, 26 (June 1976), p. 14; "Supreme C o u n c i l " , World Hockey, 29 (Apri l-May 1977), p. 12; Rene G. Frank, " E d i t o r i a l " , World Hockey, 33 (June 1978), p. 3. 6 7 Le t te r from George C r o f t ; Minutes of the Counc i l Meeting, F . I . H . , 10-13 March 1977. [ P . A . C . , V o l . 70, n . f . ] ; World Hockey, 35 ( A p r i l 1979), p. 3. See Appendix E for a more complete chronology. 6 8 " F . I . H . Meetings i n Brusse l s" , World Hockey, 31 (Dec. 1977), p. 7; " F . I . H . Meetins i n Buenos A i r e s " , World Hockey, 33 (June 1978), p. 16. The Women's Techn ica l Committee, which p a r a l l e l l e d the Men's Technica l Committee, became respons ib le for the admin is t ra t ion of i n t e r n a t i o n a l competit ion for women, other component committees, on which both men and women were e l i g i b l e to serve, were those for Coaching, Press , Youth, and s i m i l a r func t ions . 6 9 Minutes of the I.F.W.H.A. meeting of 9 March 1978, with Report on Supreme Counci l Meeting of 12 November 1977. [Schrodt f i l e s ] ; Report of the 1979 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 52. 7 0 Report of the 1979 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 21. 7 1 C i r c u l a r from Susan N e l l l , P res ident , C .W.F.H.A. , to membership of C.W.F.H.A. , 14 August 1980. [Schrodt f i l e s ] . 7 2 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, I .F .W.H.A . , 18 March 1981. [Clarke f i l e s ] . 7 3 "Important Not ice" from Margot Stewart, Honorary General Secretary of I .F .W.H.A . , to member count r i es , 4 May 1981. [Clarke f i l e s ] . 7 4 L e t t e r , Susan N e i l l , P res ident , C .W.F.H.A. , to Margot Stewart, Honorary General Secretary of I .F .W.H.A . , 28 May 1981. [Clarke f i l e s ] . 7 5 " F . I . H . News: Counc i l " , World Hockey, 43 (Dec. 1981), p. 8. 284 Notes to pages 86-90 7 6 R.G. Frank, " E d i t o r i a l " , World Hockey, 43 (Dec. 1981), p. 3. 1 1 "Communication: the e s s e n t i a l t o o l " . Hockey F i e l d , 70, No. 1 (25 Sept. 1982), p. 22. 7 8 R.G. Frank, " E d i t o r i a l " , World Hockey, 45 (Dec. 1982), p. 3. 7 9 I b i d . 80 Etienne G l i c h i t c h , " E d i t o r i a l " , World Hockey, 46 (June 1983), p. 2. CHAPTER VII 1 Miroy, 9, No. 1 (Sept. 1981), pp. 14-18; Howells, pp. i v , 29-31; C o l l i n s , p. 13. 2 White, p. 12. 3 C o l l i n s , p. 19. 4 Ross L o r t , "Ear ly H igh l i gh ts of Men's Hockey", J u b i l e e Booklet , p. 17. 5 Vancouver D i rec to ry , 1896 (The Vancouver C i t y D i rec to ry , March 1896), (Vancouver: Hodgson & Co . , 1896),p. 23. F l i n t o n ' s i n i t i a l s appear elsewhere as W.J.K. 6 The Province (Vancouver), Monday 11 A p r i l 1898. 7 Photograph of the Vancouver Hockey Club, 1902-3. [B.C. Sport H a l l of Fame and Museum, P a c i f i c Nat ional E x h i b i t i o n , Vancouver]. 8 P.H. M o r r i s . "Sports", B r i t i s h Columbia, Henry J . Boam, ed. (London: S e l l s L t d . , 1912), pp. 465-66; The Spectator (The Lonsdale Spectator , North Vancouver): November 1910. p. 7; December 1910, p. 7; January 1911, p. 7. The Challenge Cup bears the i n s c r i p t i o n : "Presented to the B r i t i s h Columbia Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on by the O f f i c e r s and Patrons of the North Vancouver Hockey Club, 1911." The engraving on the Cup records that North Vancouver was the f i r s t winner of the Challenge Cup i n 1911-12. In 1985, the Challenge Cup was s t i l l being contested, and awarded to the premier team i n the f i r s t D i v i s i o n of the Vancouver F i e l d Hockey League. 9 As we l l as these regular f i x t u r e s between c lubs of the Lower Mainland and those of Vancouver I s l and , a match between V i c t o r i a and S e a t t l e was played i n Sea t t l e i n 1907. I t has been proposed that t h i s match "may we l l have been the f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i e l d hockey match i n North America." L o r t , p. 17; E r i c Donegani, "A B r i e f H i s to ry of Hockey i n Canada", Canadian F i e l d Hockey News, 13, No. 2 (Summer 1976), p. 3. (Hereafter , the Canadian F i e l d Hockey News i s re fe r red to as the C .F .H . News). 285 Notes to pages 91-93 1 0 K.A. Waites, e d . . The F i r s t F i f t y Years (Vancouver High Schools: 1890-1940), n . p . , p. 35. 1 1 Annual, M c G i l l Un ive rs i t y Co l lege of B r i t i s h Columbia ( l a t e r U . B . C ) , 1911-12, pp. 53,73; H.V. Warren, "Junior F i e l d Hockey i n B r i t i s h Columbia", F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 22. 1 2 F lorence Strachan, "History of Women's F i e l d Hockey i n Vancouver", Jub i l ee Booklet , p. 5. 1 3 I b i d . See a l so The D a i l y Co lon i s t ( V i c t o r i a ) , Sunday 21 May 1972, p. 15. (Under the heading "Soc ia l Notes from 1905"). 1 4 The boys' sports were Rugby and B a s k e t b a l l . It was not u n t i l 1912-13 that G i r l s ' Basketba l l was added. As of 1909-10, Vancouver High School was renamed King Edward High School as other high schools were being es tab l i shed throughout the c i t y . The f i r s t of these were B r i t a n n i a High School , founded In 1908-9, and South Vancouver High School , es tab l i shed i n 1913. Barbara Schrodt, "High School Hockey - Then and Now", J u b i l e e Booklet , p. 11; The F i r s t F i f t y Years, pp. 132,135,154-55. 1 5 The F i r s t F i f t y Years, p. 47; Annual (McGi l l U n i v e r s i t y co l l ege of B r i t i s h Columbia): 1910-11, pp. 17,18,61; 1911-12, p. 45. 1 6 Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 5; Annual (Un ivers i ty of B r i t i s h Columbia): 1915-16, pp. 69-70; 1916-17, pp. 79-81; 1917-18, p. 96. In 1915, M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y Col lege of B r i t i s h Columbia became the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia. Canada Year Book: 1980-81, S t a t i s t i c s Canada (Ottawa: M in i s te r of Supply and Serv ices Canada, 1981), p. 215. 1 7 Photograph, King George High School g i r l s ' hockey team, taken at Brockton Po in t , 1915. [Vancouver P u b l i c L i b r a r y : H i s t o r i c a l Photos D i v i s i o n , V . P . L . #30791]; J u b i l e e Booklet , p. 18; The F i r s t F i f t y Years, pp. 135,154. 1® I b i d . The Thomson Cup compet i t ion was a l so re fe r red to as the P r o v i n c i a l Grass Hockey Championship. Schrodt, p. 11; Annual (Un ivers i ty of B r i t i s h Columbia): 1918-19; 1919-20, p. 82. The F i r s t F i f t y Years, p. 154. 1 9 Supra, pp. 89-94. 2 0 Calgary A lber tan , 7 A p r i l 1914, as c i t e d i n Mary Ann Wasylynchuk, "The Development of Women's F i e l d Hockey i n A l b e r t a " , unpublished M.A. t h e s i s . U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , 1975, p. 13. 2 1 A . E . Marie Parkes, The Development of Women's A t h l e t i c s at the U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto, as c i t e d i n "A H is tory of Women's Sport i n Canada p r i o r to World War I" , unpublished M.A. t h e s i s . U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , 1968, p. 166. 286 Notes to pages 94-98 2 2 Le t te r to the author from Peta-Jane Temple, former C.W.F.H.A. h i s t o r i a n , 5 January 1984. 2 3 Interview with Agnes S t ra t ton (former p u p i l , c a . 1911-1914, of Bishop Spencer Co l l ege , S t . John 's , Newfoundland), Vancouver, 16 November 1984. 2 4 Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 5. 2 5 Interview with Rosemary Penn, former C.W.F.H.A. sport h i s t o r i a n , V i c t o r i a , 3 A p r i l 1983. 2 6 Supra, pp. 90-91. 2 7 Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", pp. 5,7; Supra, p. 91. Interview with Joan McQueen, daughter of Fred Crickmay of the Vancouver Hockey Club, Vancouver, 24 October 1983. 2 8 The F i r s t F i f t y Years, pp. 45,132. 2 9 I b i d . , pp. 136,103. Photograph, King George High School g i r l s ' hockey team. 3 0 Schrodt, "High School Hockey", pp. 11,18; Annual (McGi l l U n i v e r s i t y Co l lege of B r i t i s h Columbia), 1910-11, pp. 17,18,62. CHAPTER VIII 1 The Totem (Annual of the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia): 1919-20, p. 81; 1922-23, p. 122; 1923-24, p. 116. From 1925-26 onwards, the Annual of the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia was captioned The Totem. Here ina f te r , the t i t l e The Totem has been adopted for a l l e d i t i o n s of the U.B.C. Annual. 2 Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 5. 3 The Totem: 1924-25. p. 97; 1925-26, p. 117; 1926-27, pp. 119-25; 1928-29, pp. 156-57. 4 The Totem: 1927-28. p. 131; 1928-29, pp. 156-57; 1929-30, pp. 160-61; 1930-31, pp. 189-90. Mar jor ie McKay was ac t i ve with the U.B.C. c lub from 1927 to 1931, and was a l so a d r i v i n g force i n the c r e a t i o n of a formal league. In 1930-31, her f i n a l year as a student at u n i v e r s i t y , she was President of the Lower Mainland Women's Grass Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n . 5 Cather ine Horn, e d . , The B u l l y Of f (The O f f i c i a l Organ of the Lower Mainland Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on of B r i t i s h Columbia), 1, No. 1 ( A p r i l 1939), p. 5. [Mimeographed p u b l i c a t i o n i n the f i l e s of the G.V.W.G.H.A. , B.C. Sport H a l l of Fame and Museum, P .N .E . , Vancouver]. A l l future references to The B u l l y Of f are to t h i s one e d i t i o n . Notes to pages 98-101 6 Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 6. The 1934-35 League teams were: Ex-South Vancouver; B r i t a n n i a Grads; E x - K i t s i l a n o ; North Vancouver Grads; Ex-Magee; Ex-Normal; South Vancouver A t h l e t i c s ; Ex-South Burnaby: Grandview Grads; Normal; U.B.C. and V a r s i t y . Report of the Secretary to the G.V.W.G.H.A., 1934-35. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 7 The B u l l y O f f , pp. 2,16; Year ly Report of the G.V.W.G.H.A., 1935-36; Sec re ta ry ' s Report, G.V.W.G.H.A., 5 A p r i l 1940. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; The Totem: 1935-36, p. I l l ; 1938-39, p. 203; 1939-40, p. 170. Teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the league were: 1937-38 season: General America; B r i t a n n i a Grads; E x - K i t s i l a n o ; Grandview Grads; Pro-Rec; North Vancouver; U.B.C. and V a r s i t y . 1939-40 season: Pro-Rec I ; General America; B r i t a n n i a Grads; U . B . C ; Ex-Burnaby; Pro-Rec I I ; Pro-Rec I I I ; and E x - K i t s i l a n o . 8 The F i r s t F i f t y Years, pp. 113-128,135,154-56. During t h i s per iod , the Vancouver and D i s t r i c t Inter-High School A t h l e t i c Assoc ia t i on Grass Hockey League Championship was re fe r red to as the Mainland Championship for g i r l s ' grass hockey. 9 The F i r s t F i f t y Years, pp. 154-56. 10 i b i d . , p. 137. This body was i n i t i a l l y named the Vancouver Inter-School Sports A s s o c i a t i o n . 1 1 Schrodt, "High School Hockey", p. 12. 1 2 Supra, pp. 97-98. See a l s o , Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 6. 1 3 The B u l l y O f f , p. 5; The Totem, 1929-30, pp. 160-61. 1 4 The Totem: 1929-30 to 1939-40; F i r s t Report of the G.V.W.G.H.A. to the I .F .W.H.A . , 23 January 1939. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 1 5 I b i d ; The B u l l y O f f , p. 22; Le t te r from E. Spencer, Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A. to F. Davies, Vancouver Inter-High School A t h l e t i c A s s o c i a t i o n , 12 September 1939. 1 6 The Totem: 1919-20 to 1928-29. 1 7 The Totem, 1925-26, p. 117. 1 8 W. Dawson-Thomas, "A Le t te r from Duncan", The B u l l y O f f , p. 18; The Totem, 1927-28, p. 131. 1 9 "H is tory of Hockey i n Canada", Programme of the F i r s t Nat iona l Tournament and Conference, C .W.F.H.A. , Vancouver, B .C . , 1965. 288 Notes to pages 101-105 ^ u Duncan Lad ies ' Grass Hockey Club was a branch of the Cowichan Cr i cke t and Sports C lub, and was sometimes c a l l e d the Cowichan Lad ies ' Grass Hockey C lub. Dawson-Thomas, p. 18; Year ly Report of the G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1935-36; Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 6. 2 1 H i s to ry of the Bridgman Trophy ( n . p . , [ v i c t o r i a , 1963]). 2 2 Dawson-Thomas, p. 18; S h i e l a Swi f t , " V i c t o r i a " , The B u l l y O f f , p. 19; "The Easter Tournament", The B u l l y O f f , p. 23. 2 3 An account of the 1940 competit ion was inc luded i n the Report of the Secretary of the G.V.W.G.H.A.: "The Pro-Rec I team as winners of our League t r a v e l l e d to V i c t o r i a to p lay for the t i t l e of the T r iang le League. V i c t o r i a Ladies had won t h e i r game with Duncan, and our Pro-Rec team came home with the Bentham cup." Report of the Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A., 5 A p r i l 1940. Le t te r from S h e i l a Mof fa t t , Secretary , V i c t o r i a L . G . H . C , to E l l a Spencer, Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A., 21 February 1941. Dawson-Thomas, pp. 18-19. The F i r s t F i f t y Years, pp. 154-55. H i s to ry of the Bridgman Trophy, n.p. I b i d . z ° Dalhousie Gazette (student newspaper of Dalhousie U n i v e r s i t y , H a l i f a x , Nova S c o t i a ) , 19 November 1925, as c i t e d i n a l e t t e r to the author from L i s a Timpf, C.W.F.H.A. h i s t o r i a n , H a l i f a x , 20 February 1984. 2 9 School Annual, Centra l C o l l e g i a t e I n s t i t u t e , Regina, Saskatchewan, as excerpted and contained i n a l e t t e r of 23 A p r i l 1970, from I .A . Culham, P r i n c i p a l , to the E d i t o r , C . F . H . News. C . F .H . News, 7, No. 2 (Summer 1970), p. 52. 3 0 Supra, pp. 97-98,100-102; "Highl ights i n the H is tory of our A s s o c i a t i o n " , The B u l l y O f f , p. 5. The o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s f i r s t name was the Lower Mainland Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on of B r i t i s h Columbia. 3 1 Year ly Report of the G.V.W.G.H.A., 1935-36. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 3 2 Strachan, "Honor! et V i r t u t i " , Jub i l ee Booklet , p. 3; Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", pp. 5-6. 33 - v i s i t of the A u s t r a l i a n Women's Hockey Team: October 1936." [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 6; Strachan, "The In ternat iona l Federat ion" , Jub i l ee Booklet , p. 24; Shaner, p. 195. 289 Notes to pages 105-107 3 4 F i r s t Report. G.V.W.G.H.A. to I .F.W.H.A. 3 5 Dawson-Thomas, pp. 18-19. 3 6 Report of the Honorary Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1938-39. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 3 7 L o r t , p. 17. 3 8 Minutes of the Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t ion of B r i t i s h Columbia for the 1920-21 season. The ac tua l entry i n the minute book i s "Meeting of the Mainland Grass Hockey League held at 816 Cred i t Foncier B ldg . Feb. 1920." However, the heading at the top, which i s page 1 of the Minute Book, i s "Season 1920-21," which would suggest the date was a c t u a l l y Feb. 1921. The next season recorded i s 1921-22, where dates are cons is tent w i t h i n . 3 9 Minutes of the A .G .M. , Mainland Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on of B.C. (M.G.H.A. of B . C . ) , 10 October 1921 [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; The Totem, 1923-24, p. 110. 4 0 Minutes of the A.G.M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 25 September 1925. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; The Totem, 1925-26, p. 108. 4 1 Minutes of the Committee Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 15 J u l y 1930. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; An entry i n the minutes documents the League Standings for the 1929-30 season: CLUB P W D L G.F. G.A. P t s . Vancouver 14 12 0 2 83 25 24 Crusaders 14 11 0 3 85 14 22 C r i c k e t e r s 12 8 1 3 25 21 17 V a r s i t y 14 6 1 7 22 30 13 Incogs 13 4 2 7 31 40 10 B .C .E . R ly . 12 1 1 10 12 62 3 U.B.C. 11 0 1 10 9 75 1 42 T n e Totem, 1926-27. p. 112; F ix ture Card, Mainland Grass Hockey League of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1930-31 season [from the p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n of Dr. Harry V. Warren, Vancouver]. 4 3 Char les V. Sands, " B r i t i s h Columbia F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " , F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 13; Sec re ta ry ' s Report to the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B.C. , 24 September 1931; Sec re ta ry ' s Report to the A.G.M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 1931-32, 29 September 1932; Minutes of the M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 1932 to 1938. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 4 4 Sands, p. 13. 290 Notes to pages 107-109 4 5 Minutes of the A .G.M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 20 September 1933. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; F i e l d Hockey In Canada, p. 19. Interview with Marjor ie C laxton , daughter of George Melhuish, Pres ident , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 1934-37, Vancouver, 24 October 1983. 4 6 "Men's Hockey", The B u l l y O f f , p. 20. 4 7 Minutes of the M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 1941-42, n .d . [This minute cons i s t s of a sheet of paper inser ted in to the minute book]. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 4 8 The Totem, 1924-25, p. 86. An i n s c r i p t i o n on the back of a photograph of the V i c t o r i a team of 1919-20 records the scores : At V i c t o r i a : V i c t o r i a 2 - Vancouver 1; At Vancouver: V i c t o r i a 3 - Vancouver 2 [ F i l e s of the C . F . H . A . , Nat ional O f f i c e , Ottawa]; Minutes of an (Executive) Committee Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 12 October 1925; Minutes of the Committee Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 30 September 1929. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 4 9 The Totem, 1923-24, p. 110; Minutes of the Committee Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 4 January 1927. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . The Duncan team played as the hockey s e c t i o n of the Cowichan Cr i cket and Sports C lub. Dawson-Thomas, p. 18. 5 0 Sec re ta ry ' s Report to the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A of B .C . , 23 September 1935; Sec re ta ry ' s Report to the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A of B .C . , 10 September 1937. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 5 1 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 2 October 1936. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 5 2 "Men's Hockey", p. 20. 53 Sands, p. 13. Newspaper c l i p p i n g s , n . p . , n .d . [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . The Mainland and Vancouver Is land representat ive teams contested the O.B. A l l e n Cup, sometimes c a l l e d the I n t e r - C i t i e s Cup. 5 4 Minutes of the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 19 September 1929. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . There i s a l so evidence that men's hockey was played i n Calgary between the Wars. "Calgary F i e l d Hockey c lub" , F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 24. 5 5 S e c r e t a r y ' s Report to the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 15 August 1930. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 5 6 Minutes of the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 23 September 1926. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 5 7 in terv iew with Dr. Harry V. Warren, Pres ident , C . F . H . A . , 1961-64, Vancouver, 5 December 1983. 291 Notes to pages 109-113 5 8 The Totem, 1936-37, p. 124. 5 9 Interview with Harry Warren. 6 0 Sec re ta ry ' s Report to the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 23 September 1941. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . Mackies, or Old Macovians, was a team of former p u p i l s from Vernon Preparatory School , Vernon, B .C . , of which Rev. A .C . Mackie was founding headmaster. Jean Barman, Growing Up B r i t i s h in B r i t i s h Columbia: Boys in P r i va te School (Vancouver: U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia Press , 1984), p. 192. 6 1 The Totem, 1923 to 1939; Minutes of the Meetings of the M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 1923 to 1939. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 6 2 Minutes of the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 15 August 1930; Sec re ta ry ' s Report to the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A of B .C . , 19 September 1939. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 6 3 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 13 February 1933. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 6 4 Sec re ta ry ' s Report to the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A of B .C . , 19 September 1939. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 6 5 S e c r e t a r y ' s Report (dated 26 September 1932) to the A.G.M. , M.G.H.A of B .C . , 29 September 1932. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . M.M. Robinson was Honorary Secretary of the Canadian Olympic Committee and Honorary Manager of the 1932 Canadian Olympic Team. Canada at the Xth Olympiad, p. 19, as c i t e d i n a l e t t e r to the author from Jack Lynch, Techn ica l D i r e c t o r , Canadian Olympic A s s o c i a t i o n , 14 January 1986. 6 6 Secre tary -Treasurer ' s Report to , and Minutes o f , A .G .M. , M.G.H.A of B .C . , 25 September 1940. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 6 7 L o r t , p. 17; Interview with Harry Warren; Sport Canadiana, p. 65; Dawson-Thomas, p. 18. 68 The Totem: 1923-24, p. 116; 1929-30, pp. 160-61. 6 9 Minutes of the Committee Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 30 September 1929. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 70 The Totem: 1929-30, pp. 160-61; 1930-31, pp. 174-75. 7 1 Minutes of the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 21 September 1936. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 7 2 I b i d . 292 Notes to pages 113-118 / J Minutes of the Executive Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 2 October 1936. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 7 4 The F i r s t F i f t y Years, p. 135; The Totem, 1931-32, pp. 168-69; The B u l l y O f f , p. 17; Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 5. 7 5 Minutes of the A.G.M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 21 September 1936. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 7 6 Strachan, "Honori et V i r t u t i " , p. 3; Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 5. The Thomas P a t t i s o n Trophy, from the 1957-58 season awarded annual ly to the winners of the f i r s t d i v i s i o n of the Vancouver League, was named a f t e r him i n recogn i t ion of h i s many years of s e r v i c e . F i t t i n g l y , E x - K i t s i l a n o was the f i r s t team to win the Trophy. 7 7 F i e l d Day Programme, G.V.W.G.H.A. , 25 February 1939. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . Banquet Agenda, G.V.W.G.H.A., 25 A p r i l 1939. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . CHAPTER IX 1 I n f r a , p. 164. 2 P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years, p. 37. 3 The Totem: 1938-39, pp. 203,215; 1941-42, p. 176. See a l so Report of F i r s t Hal f of Season Standings, Women's Grass Hockey League, 1939-40. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; L e t t e r , Angela Brocking, In ternat iona l Correspondence Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A. , to Anne Townsend, Hon. Secretary , I .F .W.H.A . , 18 March 1948. [In the personal f i l e s of F lorence Strachan-Petersen] . 4 Those c lubs on record as having maintained teams dur ing the war years were U.B.C. and E x - K i t s i l a n o High School . B r i t a n n i a Grads may a l so have done so, but records are incomplete. The Totem: 1939-40 to 1945-46. See a l so Report of the Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1947-48. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 5 Le t te r from E l l a Spencer, Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A. , to A l i c e Beaman, E d i t o r , The Eagle , U .S .F .H .A . , 9 September 1940. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Interview with Moira R e r r i e , Canadian team, 1956 and 1959, North Vancouver, 6 December 1983; Reports of the Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A., 5 A p r i l 1940 and 1 A p r i l 1941. See a l so l e t t e r from Margaret McLean, Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A. , to Hortense Warne, Chairman, Inter-High School Grass Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , 12 December 1946. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 6 H i s to ry o f the Bridgman Trophy; Report of the Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 5 A p r i l 1940; Report of the Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1 A p r i l 1941; Le t te r from S h e i l a M o f f i t t , Secretary , V i c t o r i a L .G .H .C . , to E l l a Spencer, Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 21 February 1941. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 293 Notes to pages 119-122 7 H i s to ry of the Bridgman Trophy; The Totem, 1943-44, n .p . 8 Le t ter from G.V.W.G.H.A. to Anne Townsend, Honorary General Secretary , I .F .W.H.A . , 8 March 1940. [Petersen f i l e s ] ; Le t te r from E l l a Spencer to A l i c e Beaman; Report of the Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1 A p r i l 1941. 9 League Schedule of the G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1945-46; Report of the Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1947-48. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Report of the 1953 T r i e n n i a l Conference. I .F .W.H.A. , p. 30. 1 0 League Schedule of the G.V.W.G.H.A., 1946-47. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Report of the Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1947-48; Vancouver Sun, 4 A p r i l 1955. 1 1 Schrodt, "High School Hockey", pp. 12,15. 1 2 Vancouver Technica l School , a large but not p a r t i c u l a r l y strong hockey schoo l , entered four teams i n i n t e r - s c h o o l matches, and a l so promoted games amongst teams from four houses. Grass Hockey Handbook, Vancouver Technica l School , [1950s]. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 1 3 Schrodt, "High School Hockey", pp. 11-16. 1 4 Interview with F lorence Strachan-Petersen, former Canadian p layer and Executive member, Burnaby, 9 December 1983; The Totem: 1945-46, p. 228; 1946-47, p. 144; 1947-48, p. 135; Magee High School Annual, 1947, p. 78. [Schrodt f i l e s ] . 1 5 H i s to ry of the Bridgman Trophy; Interview with Florence Strachan-Petersen. 1 6 Le t te r from J . E . O l i v e r , Capta in , V i c t o r i a Co l lege Team, to Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A., 2 February 1946. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 1 7 Report of the Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1947-48; Interview with Moira R e r r i e , former Canadian p layer and Execut ive member, North Vancouver, 6 December 1983. 1 8 Le t ter from Margaret McLean, Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A., to Sports E d i t o r , Vancouver Prov ince , 29 October 1947. [Petersen f i l e s ] ; Report of the Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1947-48. 1 9 Minutes of the Counci l Meeting, P a c i f i c Northwest F i e l d Hockey Conference, 12 November 1949. [Petersen f i l e s ] . 2 0 Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 9; The Totem, 1950-51, p. 114-15. 294 Notes to pages 122-125 2 1 Report, P.N.W. F i e l d Hockey Conference, Eugene, Oregon, 14-16 November 1952. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Resu l ts , P.N.W. F i e l d Hockey Conference, S e a t t l e , Washington, 1953. [Petersen f i l e s ] . 2 2 Interview with Moira R e r r i e ; Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 9; The Totem, 1954-55, p. 94. 2 3 Supra . , pp. 93-94,103; Wi l l i ams, pp. 11,29; In 1951, the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto team was accepted for A l l i e d Membership i n the U .S .F .H .A . In correspondence with the President of the G.V.W.G.H.A. , the Executive Secretary of the U.S .F .H.A . enclosed a l e t t e r she had wr i t ten on 10 October 1951 to Zerada S lack, School of Phys i ca l and Health Educat ion, U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, which s tated that the "Un ivers i ty of Toronto i s the f i r s t such member and we hope that i t w i l l continue u n t i l such time as your country has a na t iona l a s s o c i a t i o n . " ; Le t te r from Dorothy F r a n k l i n , Executive Secretary , U .S .F .H .A . , to Margaret MacLean, Past Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A., 13 October 1951. [Petersen f i l e s ] . 2 4 Report of the 1953 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 30. 2 5 Wi l l i ams , pp. 11,29. 2 6 Report of the 1956 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, pp. 26-27; Correspondence, G.V.W.G.H.A. , November 1954- March 1955. [Petersen f i l e s ] . These l e t t e r s were wr i t ten to determine i f there were any other hockey-playing centres i n Canada wishing to a f f i l i a t e with the G.V.W.G.H.A., i n order that t h e i r members may be e l i g i b l e for s e l e c t i o n i n the Canadian team p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the 1956 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament. V i c t o r i a L.G.H.A. d id a f f i l i a t e with the G.V.W.G.H.A. I n f r a , p. 124. 2 7 Supra, p. 105; Le t te r from E. de J o s s e l i n de Jong, Pres ident , Women's Committee, Royal Netherlands Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , to Miss E. Hammerton, Executive member, G.V.W.G.H.A. , 14 August 1947. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Correspondence, G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1949. [Petersen f i l e s ] . 2 8 Strachan, "The In ternat iona l Federat ion" , Jub i l ee Booklet , p. 24. " Interview with Florence Strachan-Petersen; "Canadian Touring Team", Jub i l ee Booklet , pp. 28-31. 3 0 G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ; Petersen f i l e s . 3 * Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", p. 9; "Canadian Touring Team", pp. 28-31; The Totem, 1955-56. p. 98; Report of the 1956 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 26; interv iew with Moira R e r r i e . 295 Notes to pages 125-129 3 2 Report of the 1956 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, pp. 8-9,37,46-50. Canada's r e s u l t s i n the 1956 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament were as fo l lows: Canada 1 V Scot land 1 Canada 0 V A u s t r a l i a 2 Canada 0 V Ire land 3 Canada 0 V England 2 Canada 2 V New Zealand 4 Canada 3 V Netherlands 0 3 3 Reports of the G.V.W.G.H.A., 1956 63. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . See a l s o The Totem, 1956-1963, and G.V.W.G.H.A. reports to I .F.W.H.A. Conferences, 1956-1963. 3 4 Le t ter from the Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A., to Vancouver Board of Parks and Recreat ion, 12 May 1958. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; The Totem, 1960-61, pp. 292-93; "Vancouver Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " , F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 30. 3 5 Report of the 1959 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 26; Interview with Moira R e r r i e ; Minutes of the Christmas General Meeting, G.V.W.G.H.A. , 2 December 1959. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 3 6 Report of the 1963 I .F .W.H.A. Conference, p. 40; Schrodt, pp. 11-16; Report of the 1953 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 30. 3 7 "Vancouver Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " , F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 30. During the ear l y 1960s, the t r a n s i t i o n i n terminology from "grass" hockey to " f i e l d " hockey was taking p l a c e . 3 8 H i s to ry o f the Bridgman Trophy. 3 9 I b i d . 4 0 Supra, p. 124; Interview with P a t r i c i a C la rke , Pres ident , C .W.F.H.A. , 1965-1968, Vancouver, 27 February 1984. 4 1 Interview with P a t r i c i a C la rke . 4 2 Sport Canadiana, p. 65. 4 3 Le t ter to the author from Frances Onions, former member of Toronto Lad ies ' F . H . C , 3 February 1984. 4 4 Programme, Nat ional Tournament and Conference, C .W.F.H.A. , Vancouver, 22-24 May 1965. [In the personal f i l e s of Char lo t te Warren]; " O f f i c i a l News from Eastern Canada", Hockey F i e l d , 47, No. 15 (23 A p r i l 1960), p. 287. 296 Notes to pages 129-133 4 5 Interview with Marina van der Merwe, Nat ional Coach. C.W.F.H.A. , 1976-present, Toronto, 16 November 1983. 4 6 Wi l l i ams , p. 32; Report of the 1963 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 40. 4 7 Wasylynchuk, pp. 13-14; "Calgary F i e l d Hockey C lub" , F i e l d Hockey in Canada, pp. 24-25. The Calgary Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey Club was founded on 18 A p r i l 1962. In f a c t , the o r i g i n a l o rgan i za t i ona l body formed i n Calgary, named the Calgary Mixed F i e l d Hockey Club, was founded on 23 February 1957 with Amby Gregg as Pres ident . Herb S u r p l i s , e d . , Now There Was an A t h l e t e : Amateur Sports in Calgary (Calgary: Century Calgary P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1975), pp. 3,10,11. 4 8 Wasylynchuk, p. 18; "Calgary F i e l d Hockey C lub", p. 25; D.N. Radford, "Edmonton F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " , F i e l d Hockey in Canada, p. 29. 4 9 Wi l l i ams , pp. 24,26. "Province of Quebec Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " , C.F.H. News, 5, No. 2 (Summer 1968), pp. 45-46. 5 0 The Totem, 1956-57 to 1963-64. See a l so Program of the P.N.W. F i e l d Hockey Conference and Tournament, 1958. [Petersen f i l e s ] . In t h i s s e c t i o n , i n t e r n a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n inc luded competit ion between teams from Canada and the U.S.A. at sub-nat ional l e v e l , for example, c lub and u n i v e r s i t y . 5 1 The Totem, 1960-61, pp. 292-93. 5 2 Report of the 1963 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 40. 53 interv iew with F lorence Strachan-Petersen; Interview with Moira R e r r i e ; Minutes of Meeting, G.V.W.G.H.A. , 25 June 1957. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Report of the 1959 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, pp. 37-38. 5 4 Report of the 1963 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, pp. 39,40,63,71-73; Interview with Marina van der Merwe. 5 5 C i r c u l a r to members, G.V.W.G.H.A. , [1962], [In the personal f i l e s of Barbara Schrodt: C.W.F.H.A. C o n s t i t u t i o n f i l e ] . 5 6 Supra, pp. 105,124-25,130-31; C o n s t i t u t i o n of the I .F .W.H.A. , i n the Report of the 1959 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 60; Le t te r from Angela Brocking, In ternat iona l Correspondence Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A., to Anne Townsend, Honorary General Secretary , I .F .W.H.A . , 18 March 1948. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 5 7 Supra, pp. 124-25. 5 8 Report of the 1959 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 26. 297 Notes to pages 133-137 5 9 I b i d . 6 0 Hockey F i e l d : 47, No. 12 (12 March 1960), p. 244: 47, No. 15 (23 A p r i l 1960), p. 287. 6 1 Reso lut ion to create a Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 22 March 1962. C i r c u l a r from Barbara Schrodt, Chairman, Committee to Invesigate Formation of a Canadian A s s o c i a t i o n , to members of G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1 February 1962. [Schrodt f i l e s : C.W.F.H.A. Cons t i tu t i on f i l e ] 6 2 Wi l l i ams , pp. 17-18. 6 3 I b i d . Th is l e t t e r from Ontar io was read at the Meeting of the G.V.W.G.H.A. , Vancouver, 23 January 1962. [Schrodt f i l e s ] . 6 4 C i r c u l a r from Barbara Schrodt to G.V.W.G.H.A., 1 February 1962. Reso lut ion to create a Canadian a s s o c i a t i o n ; Interview with P a t r i c i a C la rke . 6 5 Le t ter from Barbara Schrodt, Chairman, C o n s t i t u t i o n Committee, to S h i r l e y Rushton, Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A., 11 May 1962; Wi l l i ams , pp. 18-19; Correspondence, f i l e s of Barbara Schrodt, Chairman of C.W.F.H.A. Cons t i tu t i on Committee, 1960-62. 6 6 Wi l l i ams , p. 20; "Annual Report of the Pres ident , C .W.F.H.A." , C . F .H . News, 1, No. 2 (Ju ly 1964). pp. 10-11. 6 7 "Annual Report of the Pres ident , C .W.F.H.A." , C . F . H . News, 1. No. 2 (Ju ly 1964), pp. 10-11. 6 8 Report of the 1963 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 40. Although there were no p layers from Ontar io i n the 1963 Canadian Touring Team, one of the delegates attending the Conference was from Ontar io . 6 9 I b i d . , pp. 7,40,99. Countr ies with under twenty reg i s te red teams were granted only Assoc iate Membership of the I.F.W.H.A. 70 Supra, pp. 125-28,135. 7 1 Barbara Whidden, "V.W.F.H.A. Promotes Hockey with New League S t ruc ture" , C . F . H . News, 5, No. 3 ( F a l l 1968), p. 47; Hockeye Gazette ( O f f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n of the B .C .W.F .H .F . ) , 1965-66. [Schrodt f i l e s ] . 7 2 W i l l i ams , pp. 37-38. A measure of t h i s broader p r o v i n c i a l representat ion i s ind ica ted by the region of o r i g i n of the f i f t e e n teams competing: Vancouver Is land 4; Vancouver 4; Fraser V a l l e y 1; West Kootenay 1; and Okanagan 5. Lorna Lang, "Vernon Tourney Promotes Hockey", C . F . H . News, 3, No. 1 (March 1966), pp. 18-21; The o r i g i n a l t i t l e for the school tournament was the "B.C. Inter-School I n v i t a t i o n a l F i e l d Hockey Tournament and C l i n i c " . Both p u b l i c schools and p r i v a t e schools were welcome to enter . Interview with Char lo t te Warren, former C.W.F.H.A. Promotions Chairman, West Vancouver, 14 November 1985. 298 Notes to pages 137-140 7 3 Hockeye Gazette , 1965-66; Ann Greenwood, "Third Annual B.C. School G i r l s ' F i e l d Hockey Tournament and C l i n i c " , C . F . H . News, 4, No. 1 ( A p r i l 1967), pp. 23-25; Mike J . S t i d w e l l , "Grand Forks Promotes F i e l d Hockey", C . F . H . News, 4, No. 4 (Winter 1967), pp. 34-35. 7 4 Diane Oswald, "U.B.C. Scene of C o l l e g i a t e Tournament", C . F .H . News, 3, No. 1 (March 1966), pp. 21-22. 7 5 B i s Whitby, "Sixteen Teams Attend V i c t o r i a Conference", C . F .H . News, 3, No. 1 (March 1966), p. 22. 7 6 Interview with Mar i l yn Pomfret, Women's A t h l e t i c D i r e c t o r , U .B .C . , Vancouver, 31 January 1984. I n f r a , p. 148; Betty Spears and Richard Swanson, H i s to ry of Sport and P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t y i n the United States (Dubuque, Iowa: Wi l l i am Brown, 1978), p. 283. 7 7 Supra, p. 135. 7 8 Strachan, "Women's Hockey i n Vancouver", Jub i l ee Booklet , p. 8. 7 9 I b i d . , p. 9. 8 0 Minutes of Executive Meeting, G.V.W.G.H.A., 5 February 1957. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 8 1 C i r c u l a r to membership, V .W.F .H .A . , 12 January 1964. [Schrodt f i l e s ] . 8 2 Barbara Schrodt, Committee Chairman, "Proposal for Establishment of a B.C. Organ izat ion" . [Schrodt f i l e s ] : C i r c u l a r , from Committee for Organizat ion of B.C. Assoc ia t i on to membership of V.W.F.H.A. and V . I . L . F . H . A . , 10 January 1966. [Schrodt f i l e s ] ; Minutes of Premier Counc i l Meeting, B .C .W.F .H.F . , 12 March 1966, [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 8 3 P r e s i d e n t ' s Report to A .G .M. , B .C .W.F .H.F . , 19 A p r i l 1975. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Madeline Gemmill, "Formation Report", C . F .H . News, 3, No. 2 (Ju ly 1966), pp. 28-29. Upon i t s formation, the B.C.W.F.H.F. comprised twenty-f ive a f f i l i a t e d teams and one assoc ia te member (Okanagan). 8 4 Hockeye Gazette 1965-66; Wi l l i ams, p. 40; Lorra ine Logan, "B.C. Women's F i e l d Hockey Jamboree", C . F . H . News, 4, No. 1 ( A p r i l 1967), p. 23; Lorra ine Logan, "Over 300 P layers P a r t i c i p a t e i n Jamboree", C . F .H . News, 4, NO. 2 (Summer 1967), pp. 27-28. 8 5 In 1962, the three Ontar io Clubs were Toronto Lad ies , Nomads, and Beavers; the two u n i v e r s i t y teams were Toronto and McMaster. Interview with Marina van der Merwe. 299 Notes to pages 140-143 8 6 Wi l l i ams , p. 29. Interview with Susan N e i l l , P res ident , C.W.F.H.A. , 1975-1983, Ottawa, 22 November 1983. 8 7 "O.W.F.H.A. Completes Successfu l Spr ing Season", C . F . H . News, 5, No. 2 (Summer 1968), pp. 47-48; Bery l Newton, "Hamilton Holds F i r s t Hockey Tournament", C . F . H . News, 4, No. 2 (Summer 1967), pp. 29-30. 8 8 Wi l l i ams , p. 29; Interview with Marina van der Merwe. 8 9 Sue J a r r e t t , " F i r s t Annual Junior Tournament i n Ontar io" , C . F . H . News, 4, No. 1 ( A p r i l 1967), pp. 26-27. 9 0 Wi l l i ams, p. 30; June C o l l a r d , "Ontario Sponsors Teacher-Student C l i n i c " , C . F . H . News, 4, No. 4 (Winter 1967), p. 29. 9 1 Supra, pp. 130,135. 9 2 Wi l l i ams , p. 26; "P.Q.W.F.H.A. Formed", C . F .H . News, 5, No. 2 (Summer 1968), pp. 45-46; Interview with Marina van der Merwe. 9 3 "P.Q.W.F.H.A. Formed", pp. 45-46; V. Joan Webb, " F i e l d Hockey at Expo? O u i ! " , C . F .H . News, 4, No. 2 (Summer 1967), pp. 31-32. 9 4 "P.Q.W.F.H.A. Formed", pp. 45-46. 9 5 I b i d . 9 6 Wi l l iams, p. 24. 9 7 Dorothy G. Walker, " F i e l d Hockey News from the Marit imes", C . F .H . News, 4, No. 1 ( A p r i l 1967), pp. 28-29; Wi l l i ams, p. 25. 9 8 "News from the Prov inces : Mar i t imes", C . F . H . News, 4, No. 4 (Winter 1967), p. 28. 99 I b i d . , p. 29, 1 0 0 Lorra ine Thurrott and Dorothy G. Walker, "Maritime Tournament", C . F .H . News, 5, No. 2 (Summer 1968), p. 43. 1 0 1 Wasylynchuk, pp. 99,100. 102 VF ie ld Hockey Assoc ia t i on of Calgary", C . F .H . News, 1, No. 1 (March 1964), p. 6; "Three of the men's c lubs , Blue Streaks , Phoenix, and Saracens have agreed to sponsor l ad ies teams"; " F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n of Calgary", C . F . H . News, 1, No. 2 (Ju ly 1964), p. 3. These two matches were the f i r s t of an i n t e r p r o v i n c i a l nature for the Calgary women. C e c i l y Woods and Pam L i l l y w h i t e , "Calgary Lad ies ' F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " , Now There Was an A t h l e t e , p. 11. In f a c t , before d isbanding, the Calgary L .F .H .C . jo ined the C.W.F.H.A. Wasylynchuk, p. 15. 300 Notes to pages 143-147 1 0 3 Wasylynchuk, p. 23. 1 0 4 I b i d . , pp. 30-31; Wi l l i ams, p. 34; Interview with Susan N e i l l . 1 0 5 Wi l l i ams , p. 35; Wasylynchuk, pp. 31-33; Interview with Susan N e i l l . 1 0 6 Wi l l i ams, pp. 31,32. 1 0 7 I b i d . 1 0 8 Bonnie Benson, "A F i r s t for the Mid-West", C . F .H . News, 3, No. 4 (December 1966), pp. 21-22; Bunny Keeley, "Second Annual F i e l d Hockey Camp", C . F . H . News, 4, No. 4 (Winter 1967), p. 31. 1 0 9 Wi l l i ams, p. 33; Lee M. Morr ison, "U. of S . , Saskatoon, Wins F i r s t I n t e r c o l l e g i a t e F i e l d Hockey Tournament", C . F .H . News, 4, No. 4 (Winter 1967), pp. 32-34. 1 1 0 Supra, pp. 132,135. 1 1 1 Margaret McLean, "Annual Report of the President [C .W.F .H .A . ] " , C . F .H . News, 1, No. 2 (Ju ly 1964), p. 12. 1 1 2 I b i d . ^ 3 C h r i s t i n e H.B. Grant, "Promotion of F i e l d Hockey i n Canada: May Report", C . F .H . News, 1, No. 2 (Ju ly 1964), pp. 13-14. 1 1 4 Vancouver Sun, 13 A p r i l 1965; Interview with Marina van der Merwe. H 5 Programme, Canadian Nat iona l Women's F i e l d Hockey Tournament, Vancouver, 1965; Gwen Brockman, "C.W.F.H.A. Holds F i r s t Nat ional Tournament", C . F .H . News, 2. No. 2 (Ju ly 1965), pp. 10-11. 116 T h e s i x teams competing at the Western Sec t iona l Tournament were: Vancouver (2) : Vancouver Is land (2) ; Ca lgary; and Wanderers; Vancouver I was the strongest team. Rosemary Penn, "The Western Sec t iona l Tournament 1966", C . F . H . News, 3, No. 2 (Ju ly 1966), pp. 21-24; The f i v e teams p a r t i c i p a t i n g at the Eastern T r i a l s were: Ontar io (3) ; Montreal ; and Mar i t imes. Ontar io I was the strongest team. Anna Marchand, "The Eastern Sec t iona l Tournament 1966", C . F . H . News, 3, No. 2 (Ju ly 1966), pp. 24-26. 11 7 Report of the 1967 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 37; Interview with Marina van der Merwe. 11 8 W i l l i ams , p. 44; Interview with P a t r i c i a C la rke . 301 Notes to pages 147-151 1 1 9 R i t a Murray and Diana Hughes, "Third Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey Tournament", C . F . H . News, 5, No. 3 ( F a l l 1968), p. 26. The 1968 Tournament was descr ibed i n the o f f i c i a l report as the I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Championships. * 2 0 I b i d . , pp. 27-29. The Tournament was a l so re fe r red to as the Th i rd Canadian Women's F i e l d Hockey Nat ional Championship. 1 2 1 Reports, C . F . H . News: 5, No. 1 (Spring 1968) to 6, No. 3 ( F a l l 1969). The Tournament was won by B r i t i s h Columbia, with New Brunswick second, and Ontar io t h i r d . 1 2 2 Lee Morr ison, "U. of S. Wins Tournament", C . F . H . News, 4, No. 4 (Winter 1967), pp. 32-33. 1 2 3 The Totem: 1945-46, p. 229. Oldt imers was the name of the team f i e l d e d by the Vancouver Club i n the 1945-46 season. 1 2 4 The Challenge Cup. 1 2 5 Le t ter from W.H. Melhuish, President M.G.H.A. of B .C . , to Robert Osborne, D i rec tor of Men's A t h l e t i c s , U .B .C . , 10 December 1947. [ F i l e s of the B . C . F . H . A . ] . *2^ The Totem, 1946-47, pp. 142-43; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , Vancouver, 7 October 1947. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . The Totem, 1947-48, p. 143; Minutes of the M.G.H.A. of B .C . . 1948-1955. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . By the 1946-47 season, a f u l l intramural men's f i e l d hockey programme was a l so operat ing on the U.B.C. campus. 1 2 7 Interview with Harry Warren; Interview with Peter Buckland, Pres ident , C . F .H .A . , 1973-77, Vancouver, 8 December 1983. 1 2 8 Report of the Secretary to the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 16 September 1947. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 2 9 Report of the Secretary to the A .G.M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 16 September 1949. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 3 0 J u b i l e e Booklet , p. 19; interv iew with Harry Warren. 131 -Toronto F i e l d Hockey Club", F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 26; Interview with Alan Raphael, Ontar io and Canadian p layer , Toronto, 16 November 1983; Interview with Richard Chopping, Ontar io and Canadian p l a y e r , Toronto, 16 November 1983; Interview with Derr i ck Anderson, Ontar io and Canadian p layer , Toronto, 15 November 1983. Le t te r to the author from Malcolm Rimmer, Pres ident , Toronto F . H . C , 1982-84, Toronto, 16 September 1983. 302 Notes to pages 151-155 1 3 2 Interview with Tony Boyd, Secretary , C . F . H . A . , 1961-63, West Vancouver, 19 December 1983; Newspaper c l i p p i n g s , n . p . , n .d . [In the personal f i l e s of Tony Boyd, Toronto p layer , 1954-56.] 1 3 3 Interview with V i c t o r Warren, Pres ident , C . F . H . A . , 1980-present, West Vancouver, 14 November 1985; Le t ter to the author from Ryan B o l s i u s , Montreal F . H . C , 14 February 1984. 1 3 4 Interview with Alan Raphael; Newspaper c l i p p i n g , n . p . , [ P h i l a d e l p h i a ] , 6 December [1954 or 1955]. [In the personal f i l e s of Tony Boyd, Toronto p layer , 1954-56.] 1 3 ^ Interview with Tony Boyd; Le t te r from Ryan B o l s i u s ; "Toronto F i e l d Hockey C lub", F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 26. 1 3 6 Minutes of the A .G.M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 16 September 1947. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 3 7 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 8 January 1948. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] , 1 3 8 Minutes of the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 20 September 1948. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 3 9 Canada Year Book: 1978-79, S t a t i s t i c s Canada (Ottawa: M in i s te r of Supply and Serv ices Canada, 1979), Table 4.56 (Immigrant A r r i v a l s , 1949-1975). In 1957, a s u b s t a n t i a l proport ion of t o t a l immigrants to Canada emanated from the B r i t i s h I s l e s and other es tab l i shed hockey countr ies of Europe, e . g . Hol land and Germany. 1 4 0 Sands, p. 15. 1 4 1 Vancouver Prov ince , 29 October 1958. 1 4 2 Minutes of the M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 1956-1964; and numerous miscel laneous sources . [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 4 3 I b i d . 1 4 4 Minutes of the A .G.M. , B .C .G.H.A. , 17 September 1958; Interview with Tony Boyd; Vancouver Sun, 19 December 1959; Report of the President to the A .G.M. , B .C .G .H.A . , 23 September 1959. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 4 ^ Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 4 January 1961. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 303 Notes to pages 155-158 1 4 6 Report of the President to the A.G.M. , B .C .G.H.A. , 13 September 1961. At t h i s meeting the name of the Assoc ia t ion was changed from the B.C.G.H.A. to the B.C .F .H.A . [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 20 January 1960. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 4 7 Report of the Secretary to the A.G.M. , B .C .F .H .A . , 18 September 1963. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 Aft Sands, p. 16; Vancouver Sun, 19 December 1959; Vancouver Prov ince , 9 November 1963. 1 4 9 Report of the President to the A.G.M. , B .C .F .H.A, 1 A p r i l 1964. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 5 0 Report of the Secretary to the A.G.M. , B .C .G.H.A. , 23 September 1959. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 30 November 1960. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 5 1 Report of the President to the A.G.M, B .C .F .H.A, 13 September 1961. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; Sands, p. 16. 1 5 2 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .F .H .A . , 22 February 1962. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 153 -Vancouver Is land F i e l d Hockey, 1963-64", C.F.H. News, 1. No. 1 (March 1964), p. 2. 154 "Toronto F i e l d Hockey C lub", Field Hockey in Canada, pp. 26-27; Record of Toronto Tournament, 26 June 1961. [In the f i l e s of the Toronto F . H . C . ] . 155 "Toronto F i e l d Hockey C lub", F i e l d Hockey in Canada, pp. 26-27. 156 j b i d . 1 5 7 "Ontario F i e l d Hockey Federat ion" , C.F.H. News, 1, No. 1 (March 1964), p. 8. 158 -Toronto F i e l d Hockey C lub" , C.F.H. News, 1, No. 2 (Ju ly 1964), p. 5; Interview with Simon Twist ; Ookpiks F . H . C , which had broken away from Toronto F.H.C. a year e a r l i e r , Toronto Rangers, formerly Gymkhana, as wel l as Toronto F.H.C. and Hamilton F.H.C. were the strong c lubs i n 1964. 1 5 9 Le t te r from Ryan B o l s i u s . Montreal F i e l d Hockey Club, Montreal Grass Hockey Club and Montreal F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion were t i t l e s used to descr ibe the team or combination of teams from Montreal dur ing the 1950s and 1960s. "Ontario F i e l d Hockey Federat ion" , pp. 8-9; "Toronto F i e l d Hockey Club", C.F.H. News, pp. 4-5; "Hamilton Caps Successfu l Season", C.F.H. News, 1, No. 3 (December 1964), pp. 20-21; Field Hockey In Canada, p. 4; F i l e s of the Toronto F.H.C. 304 Notes to pages 158-161 1 6 0 Programme, Canadian F i e l d Hockey Championships, Ca lgary , 1975. [In the f i l e s of the C . F .H .A . , P . A . C . , V o l . 112, n . f . ] ; Interview with Simon Twist; "Calgary F i e l d Hockey Club", F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 24. By March 1964, the Calgary F.H.C. had changed i t s name to the F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t ion of Ca lgary . C . F . H . News, 1, No. 1 (March 1964), p. 6. 1 6 1 Radford, p. 29; Le t ter from Alex Hoos, Calgary F.H.C. to Harry Warren, Pres ident , C . F . H . A . , 20 August 1964. [Harry Warren C o l l e c t i o n ] ; Le t ter from Peter Vander P y l , A lber ta F i e l d Hockey Federat ion , to Harry Warren, Pres ident , C . F . H . A . , 5 August 1964. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . 1 6 2 Report of the Secretary to the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 16 September 1949. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 6 3 B u l l e t i n to membership, B .C .G.H.A. , 3 December 1960. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 6 4 Report of the President to the A .G.M. , B .C .F .H .A . , 13 September 1961. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; Sands, p. 17; " F i e l d Hockey i n Ca lgary" , C . F .H . News, 1, No. 2, (Ju ly 1964), p. 3; Vancouver Prov ince , 29 August 1963; Vancouver Prov ince , 3 September 1963. 1 6 5 Minutes of the Execut ive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 29 May 1958. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 6 6 Report of the Secretary to the A .G .M. , B.C.G.H.A, 29 September 1960; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 30 November 1960. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; Interview with Simon Twist; Interview with V i c t o r Warren. 167 Vancouver Newspaper [Sun or Province] c l i p p i n g s , [August 1962]. [Vancouver Pub l i c L i b r a r y , Main Branch]. 1 6 8 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 24 May 1963. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] ; "Vancouver Hosts Hockey T r i a l s " , C . F . H . News, 1, No. 2 (Ju ly 1964), p. 10; Report of the Secretary-Treasurer , C . F . H . A . , 18 November 1964. [Harry Warren C o l l e c t i o n ] ; "Olympic F i e l d Hockey T r i a l s A t t rac t 52 of Canada's Best" , C . F .H . News, 1, No. 3 (December 1964), pp. 1-2. 1 6 9 Minutes of the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 18 September 1957. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s . ] Minutes of the Execut ive Meeting, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 30 January 1957. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s . ] 1 7 1 I b i d . 1 7 2 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, G.V.W.G.H.A., 5 February 1957. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 305 Notes to pages 161-163 1 7 3 Minutes of the A.G.M. , M.G.H.A. of B of the Secretary to the A.G.M. , M.G.H.A. of B of Meeting of C .F .H .A . Committee, M.G.H.A. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; Le t ter from R.G. Frank, M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 28 August 1957 [Reference to t h i s l e t t e r i n the personal f i l e s of Tony Boyd]. C . 18 September 1957; Report C , 18 September 1957; Minutes of B .C . , 25 J u l y 1957. Hon. Gen. S e c , F . I . H . , to 1 7 4 Report of the Secretary to the A.G.M. 18 September 1957. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 7 5 Report of the President to the A.G.M. 18 September 1957. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . M.G.H.A. Of B.C. M.G.H.A. of B.C. 176 I b i d . 1 7 7 Report of the Secretary to the A .G .M. , B .C .G.H.A. , 17 September 1958; Minutes of the C .F .H .A . C o n s t i t u t i o n Committee Meetings of 5 March 1959 and 2 A p r i l 1959 (In the minute book of the B .C .G .H .A . ) . [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; Le t te r from B.C.G.H.A. to Kenneth Farmer, Secretary , C O . A . , 2 June 1959. [Reference to t h i s l e t t e r , with p r e c i s of i t s contents , i n the personal f i l e s of Tony Boyd]. 1 7 8 Report of the President to the A.G.M. , B .C .G.H.A. , 23 September 1959. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . A more complete summary of the t ransact ions of the Executive i n the formation of the C.F .H.A i s inc luded i n Appendix I . 1 7 9 Minutes of the Execut ive Meeting, [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . B .C .G.H.A. , 30 September 1959. 1 8 0 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B.C.G.H.A. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 12 May 1960. 1 8 1 I b i d ; Le t te r from the Secretary , Toronto F.H.C. to Rene Frank, Hon. Gen. Secretary , F . I . H . , 28 J u l y 1960; F . I . H . to Toronto F . H . C , 18 November 1960; Toronto F.H.C. to F . I . H . , 7 December 1960; Toronto F.H.C. to B .C .G.H.A. , 7 December 1960. [ F i l e s of the Toronto F . H . C , Toronto] ; Interview with Simon Twist . 1 8 2 Minutes of the Execut ive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 7 October 1960. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; Le t te r from the B.C.G.H.A. to the Toronto F . H . C , 29 January 1961; Le t te r from Toronto F.H.C. to B .C .G.H.A. , 24 February 1961; F . I . H . to Toronto F . H . C , 7 March 1961. [ F i l e s of the Toronto F .H .C . , Toronto] ; Minutes of the Committee Meeting, B .C .G .H.A . , 16 A p r i l 1961. [In the personal f i l e s of Tony Boyd, Pres ident , B .C .G.H.A. , 1960-62]. 306 Notes to pages 163-166 1 8 3 Interview with Simon Twist ; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 22 February 1961. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . I t was decided at t h i s Executive Meeting that an i n t e r - c i t y tournament should be conducted over the long weekend i n May and accord ing ly the Secretary was ins t ruc ted to wr i te to Calgary and Edmonton. 1 8 4 Minutes of the Inaugural Meeting of the C . F . H . A . , West Vancouver, 20 May 1961. [ F i l e s of the Toronto F . H . C . ] . 1 8 5 Minutes of the f i r s t Executive Meeting of the C . F . H . A . , Un ive rs i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 21 May 1961. [ F i l e s of the Toronto F . H . C . ] . 1 8 6 Minutes of the A.G.M. , B .C .F .H .A . , 13 September 1961. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 8 7 Report of the President to the A.G.M. , B .C .F .H .A . , 6 September 1962. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 8 8 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 12 February 1963. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . 1 8 9 Report of the President to the A.G.M. , B .C .F .H .A . , 13 September 1961. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 1 9 0 Rene G. Frank, "Message: F . I . H . " , F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 3. 1 9 1 James W o r r a l l , "Message: C .O.A ." , F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 5. 1 9 2 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 24 May 1963. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . The Canadian Amateur Sports Federat ion was an umbrella o rgan iza t ion which in terac ted with federa l government agencies on behalf of amateur spor t . At t h i s time (1963), the C .F .H .A . i t s e l f comprised the fo l lowing member assoc ia t ions and c l u b s : B .C .F .H .A . , Toronto F .H .C . , Calgary F . H . C , Montreal F . H . C , V i c t o r i a and D i s t r i c t F .H.A. , Edmonton F .H.A. , Hamilton F.H.C. F i e l d Hockey i n Canada. 1 9 3 Le t te r from the C .F .H .A . to the F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on of America ( U . S . A . ) , November 1961. [ F i l e s of the Toronto F . H . C . ] . In May 1960, the B.C.G.H.A. rece ived i n v i t a t i o n s to send teams to compete i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y i n tournaments i n New York and Buenos A i r e s . At t h i s t ime, i t was not poss ib le for a Canadian team to enter . Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 12 May 1960. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 194 « T o r o n t o F i e l d Hockey Club", F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 21. West won by a score of 3-2. 1 9 5 Supra, pp. 159-60. 307 Notes to pages 166-168 1 9 6 F i e l d Hockey In Canada, p. 8. In i t s f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l hockey match, played i n Rye, New York, on 21 October 1962, Canada defeated the U.S.A. by a score of 1-0. 1 9 7 C i r c u l a r from C .F .H .A . Executive to members of the A s s o c i a t i o n , 10 January 1963. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . 1 9 8 Minutes of the Execut ive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 12 February 1963; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 24 May 1963. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . 1 9 9 Report, "Olympic P l a y - o f f s and Internat ion Tournament, 1963", C . F . H . A . , Vancouver, 14 November 1963. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . Argentina withdrew from the Lyons Tournament. Canada won the f i r s t game against the U.S.A. 2-0, and drew the second 1-1. Report of the Secretary to the A.G.M. , B. C . F . H . A . , 18 September 1963. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . L ions Gate Times, 27 September 1963. The match r e s u l t s were: West d. East 4-1; Canada d . Ontar io 3-0. [Boyd f i l e s ] . 2 0 0 Report, "Olympic P l a y - o f f s and Internat ion Tournament, 1963", C. F .H .A . , Vancouver, 14 November 1963. 2 0 1 Vancouver Sun, 13 November 1963. The f i r s t record of Canada's Olympic preparat ion was a p r a c t i c e match, descr ibed as an e x h i b i t i o n game for Canada's Olympic f i e l d hockey hopefu ls , played against the V a r s i t y team at U.B.C. i n November 1963. 2 0 2 Vancouver Sun, 7 A p r i l 1964. The President of the C O . A . , A. Sidney Dawes, d id not consider f i e l d hockey to be a s u i t a b l e sport for Canadian men to p a r t i c i p a t e i n at the Olympic Games. [Interview with Harry Warren]. So anxiously a n t i c i p a t e d was the outcome of the C O . A . meeting, that a telegram from the B.C .F .H.A . to Warren, dated 4 A p r i l 1964, contained a s i n g l e word "congratu lat ions" . Telegram from B.C .F .H.A . i n Vancouver, to Harry Warren i n Toronto, 4 A p r i l 1964. See a l so Appendix J . The e f f o r t s of the C .F .H.A. inc luded an appeal to the C O . A . from a Member of Par l iament. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . 2 0 3 Le t ter from C O . A . to Harry Warren, Pres ident , C . F .H .A . , 1 June 1964; Interview with Harry Warren. 2 0 4 O f f i c i a l Programme, Canadian F i e l d Hockey Olympic T r i a l s , 1-4 J u l y 1964. "Olympic F i e l d Hockey T r i a l s A t t r a c t 52 of Canada's Best" , pp. 1-2. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . 2 0 5 "Japan Scores Double Win", C . F . H . News, 1, No. 3 (December 1964), p. 3. On Saturday 22 August i n Toronto and Sunday 23 August i n Vancouver, Canada played Japan. 308 Notes to pages 168-170 206 -Canada's Olympic Matches". C.F.H. News, 1, No. 3 (December 1964), pp. 7-10. In practice matches, Canada recorded wins over Rhodesia, 1-0, and Holland, 2-1. Michael J. Wheaton, "Team Manager and Coach Reports to the Canadian Olympic Committee", C.F.H. News, 1, No. 3 (December 1964), pp. 11-12. 2 0 8 Statistics Canada Catalogue 91-208, Annual 1980-81 (Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1982), p. 41. (International and Inter-Provincial Migration in Canada, 1961-62 to 1975-76); Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B.C.F.H.A., 13 September 1966. [B.C.F.H.A. f i l e s ] ; "B.C.F.H.A. League Standings", C.F.H. News, 4, No. 4 (Winter 1967), p. 15. 2 0 9 Harold M. Wright, "President's Report for 1965", C.F.H. News, 2, No. 3 (October 1965), p. 4. 2 1 0 "Island Hockey Prospects Bright", C.F.H. News, 1, No. 3 (December 1964) , p. 23. The four teams playing in the Vancouver Island League in the 1964-65 season were: Victoria Club; University of Victoria; Shawnigan Lake School Masters; and Shawnigan Lake School Boys. Jack Dickens, "Island School Boys Enthusiastic", C.F.H. News, 2, No. 4 (December 1965), pp. 7-8. In the only Inter-City match of the 1964-65 season Vancouver defeated Victoria 6-0. Report of the Secretary to the A.G.M.,, B.C.F.H.A., 29 March 1965. [B.C.F.H.A. f i l e s ] . Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C.F.H.A., 9 March 1965. [Harry Warren Collection]; Harold Wright, "President's Report for 1965", p. 3; Interview with Simon Twist; Ontario F.H.A.'s 1968 League standings: Toronto I; Ookpiks I; Rangers; Hamilton I; Wanderers; Ookpiks II; Toronto II; Hamilton II; Orenda. Oshawa, Guelph and Hawker Siddeley, were additional teams which played on a less formal basis. [Newsletter, f i l e s of the Toronto F.H.C, Toronto]. 2 1 2 "New Montreal F.H.C. Formed", C.F.H. News, 2, No. 3 (October 1965) , pp. 14-15; Peter Buckland, "Hockey on Upswing in Quebec", C.F.H. News, 3, No. 2 (July 1966), pp. 16-17; "Montreal F.H.A. plans for 1966-67", C.F.H. News, 3, No. 3 (October 1966), pp. 17-19; Interview with Peter Buckland; "M.G.H.C. Highlights", C.F.H. News, 5, No. 2 (Summer 1968), p. 33; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C.F.H.A., 27 June 1968. [Harry Warren collection]. 213 Fred De Wiel, "Calgary Season Underway", C.F.H. News, 2, No. 2 (July 1965), p. 13; Fred De Wiel, "Broom's Boys Score Near Sweep in Cowtown", C.F.H. News, 3, No. 2 (July 1966), pp. 13-14; Peter Vander Pyl, "Field Hockey in Full Swing in Edmonton", C.F.H. News. 2, No. 2 (July 1965), p. 14. 309 Notes to pages 171-173 2 1 4 "Hockey Catching on in Manitoba", C.F.H. News, 3, No. 3 (October 1966), p. 16; Interview with Peter Buckland; H.G. Evans, "Manitoba Association Formed", C.F.H. News, 4, No. 3 (Autumn 1967), pp. 22-23; Peter Porritt, "Manitoba Completes First Full Season", C.F.H. News, 5, No. 3 (Fall 1968), p. 21. 2 1 5 "Hockey Team Possibility for Regina", C.F.H. News, 3, No. 2 (July 1966), p. 14; Vancouver Sun, 1 September 1966, reproduced in C.F.H. News, 3, No. 3 (October 1966), n.p.; "Regina Report", C.F.H. News, 4, No. 3 (Autumn 1967), p. 22. 216 C.F.H. News, 2, No. 1 (March 1965), p. 22. 2 1 7 Eric Broom, "Inter-Provincial Tournament", C.F.H. News, 2, No. 2 (July 1965), pp. 4-7; Although a B.C.G.H.A. existed as early as 1911 (Challenge Cup), the Association was re-constituted in 1957. Minutes of the A.G.M., B.C.G.H.A., 18 September 1957. [B.C.F.H.A. f i l e s ] ; The Alberta Field Hockey Federation was formed in 1964. Letter from Peter Vander Pyl, A.F.H.A to C.F.H.A., 5 August 1964. [Harry Warren collection]; The Ontario Field Hockey Association was formally constituted in 1964. C.F.H. News, 2, No. 1 (March 1965), p. 4. Ontario won the tournament, with Alberta and B.C. finishing second and third respectively. Broom, "Inter-Provincial Tournament", p. 5. 218 p eter (English) Buckland, "Ontario Takes Canadian Championships", C.F.H. News, 3, No. 3 (October 1966), pp. 7-11. The championship was won by Ontario, who defeated B.C. by a score of 1-0 in the f i n a l . Ibid. 2 1 9 Toronto Daily Star, 3 September 1968, reproduced in C.F.H. News, 5, No. 3 (Fall 1968), n.p. B.C. won the open Championship from Ontario while the "eligibles" Championship was shared after B.C. and Ontario played two drawn games. The purpose of the Championship for eligible players was to determine the province from which the nucleus of the Canadian team would be drawn for future international competition. 2 2 0 J.R. Kellett, "First Ever Inter-Provincial Junior Tournament", C.F.H. News, 5, No. 2 (Summer 1968), p. 24. 2 2 1 Ibid., p. 25. At the end of a double round-robin competition, Ontario emerged victors. Alberta, which had originally planned to attend, withdrew i t s entry before the commencement of the Tournament. 2 2 2 Report of the President to the A.G.M., B.C.G.H.A., 29 September 1960. [B.C.F.H.A. f i l e s ] 2 2 3 Interview with Tony Boyd. 2 2 4 Boyd, Field Hockey In Canada, p. 21. 310 Notes to pages 173-176 2 2 5 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .F .H .A . , 23 A p r i l 1963. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; Newspaper c l i p p i n g s , n . p . , n .d . [Boyd f i l e s ] ; Le t ter from James Daly, Execut ive D i r e c t o r , 1967 Pan American Games Soc ie ty , to C y r i l Hayes, V i c e Pres ident , C . F . H . A . , 24 June 1964. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . 2 2 6 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 24 May 1963. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . 2 2 7 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 19 January 1965. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . 2 2 8 I b i d . The C .F .H .A . p u b l i c l y expressed the hope "that the p l a y - o f f to represent North and South American i n the 1968 Olympics w i l l be held i n conjunct ion with the Pan-American Games i n Winnipeg i n 1967". Lee M. Wright, "F i e ld Hockey i n Canada", C . F . H . News, 2, No. 1 (March 1965), p. 15. 2 2 9 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F .H .A . , 18 June 1965; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 31 August 1965. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . 230 Warren B e l l , "Canadian Pan American Games Hockey D iary" , C . F . H . News, 4, No. 3 (Autumn 1967), pp. 3-12. 2 3 * Interview with Harry Warren; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 20 May 1965; "Along the Tournament T r a i l " , C . F .H . News, 2, No. 1 (March 1965), pp. 2-3; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 18 June 1965. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] ; E r i c Broom, "Canadians Return From Jamaica F e s t i v a l " , C . F .H . News, 2, No. 3 (October 1965), pp. 7-8. 232 E r i c Broom, "Operation Pan-Am", C . F .H . News, 3, No. 1 (March 1966), pp. 4-5. 2 3 3 Duncan MacKenzie, "Madrid T r i p Prep for Canadian Squad", C .F .H . News, 4, No. 2 (Summer 1967), pp. 8-15; B e l l , pp. 3-12; The f i r s t Pan American Hockey Tournament was held i n Winnipeg from 24 J u l y to 3 August 1967. Argentina won the e igh t -na t ion tournament and thus q u a l i f i e d for the 1968 Olympic Games. Canada f i n i s h e d four th . 2 3 4 John McBryde, "Canadian Nat ional Hockey Team: 1968 Caribbean Tour", C . F .H . News, 5, No. 2 (Summer 1968), pp. 8-14; "1968 Canadian Olympic F i e l d Hockey Team", C . F . H . News, 5, No. 2 (Summer 1968), p. 28; John McBryde, "Test Match — Canada vs Japan", C . F .H . News, 5, No. 3 ( F a l l 1968), pp. 16-17. 2 3 5 J .R . K e l l e t t , "Junior Hockey Expanding", C . F . H . News, 3, No. 2 (Ju ly 1966), pp. 11-13; Report of the Pres ident , C . F . H . A . , 18 November 1964; Minutes of the Execut ive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 9 March 1965; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 20 May 1965. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] ; Minutes of the Execut ive Meeting, B .C .F .H .A . , 2 May 1966. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; K e l l e t t , "Junior Hockey Expanding", pp. 11-13. 311 Notes to pages 176-180 2 3 6 Peter P o r r i t t . "Manitoba Completes F i r s t F u l l Season", p. 21; "Best Year Ever Seen for Junior Hockey", C . F . H . News, 4, No. 2 (Summer 1967), p. 20; J .R . K e l l e t t , " F i r s t Ever I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Junior Tournament", pp. 24-25. 2 3 7 K e l l e t t , "Junior Hockey Expanding", p. 12; Fred de Wie l , "Calgar ians win but l ose" , C . F .H . News, 4, No. 2 (Summer 1967), p. 19. 2 3 8 Supra, pp. 106,156; "Calgary F i e l d Hockey C lub", p. 24; Radford, p. 29; E r i c Broom, " F i e l d Hockey", Record ( O f f i c i a l P u b l i c a t i o n of the C . O . A . ) , June 1966, p. 4; U n i v e r s i t i e s w i th in the same province had played each other p r i o r to 1966. For example, U.B.C. defeated V i c t o r i a Co l lege ( l a t e r U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a ) 5-3 i n 1946. Minutes of the A .G .M. , M.G.H.A. of B .C . , 16 September 1947. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 2 3 9 Report of the Pres ident , G.V.W.G.H.A. , 1947-48; The Totem: 1939-40, p. 170; 1945-46, p. 228. See a l so l e t t e r from R. B e l l - I r v i n g to E. Spencer, Secretary , G.V.W.G.H.A., 27 March 1941; Le t ter from T. P a t t i s o n to E. Spencer, 28 March 1941; Annual Banquet Agenda, G.V.W.G.H.A., 1949. [Let ters and Agenda i n the f i l e s of G .V .W.G.H.A .] . 2 4 ^ interv iew with Harry Warren. 2 4 * Recorded as "Summer Tours, 1955", i n the Minute Book of the B .C .F .H .A . , May 1955. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 2 4 2 "Canadian Touring Team", J u b i l e e Booklet , p. 29; Interview with Moira R e r r i e . 2 4 3 Report of the 1956 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 27. 2 4 4 Interview with Florence Strachan-Petersen; Interview with Moira R e r r i e ; "Canadian Touring Team", p. 29. 2 4 5 The Dr ibb le r (G.V.W.G.H.A. Newslet ter) , June 1956, p. 4. [Petersen f i l e s ] . 2 4 6 Minutes of the Execut ive Meeting, B .C .G .H.A . , 17 October 1957. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; Vancouver Prov ince , 7 January 1957. Th is match was accompanied by a men's match, Canada v Rest of the World. Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 30 January 1957; Report of the President to the A .G.M. , B .C .G.H.A. , 18 September 1957. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 2 4 7 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, G.V.W.G.H.A., 24 May 1958. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 30 October 1958. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 3 Notes to pages 180-183 2 4 8 Minutes of the Execut ive Meeting, G.V.W.G.H.A., 5 February 1957. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 2 4 9 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 2 October 1957. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 2 5 0 Report of the Secretary to the A.G.M. , B .C .G.H.A. , 18 September 1957. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 2 5 1 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 27 August 1958. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 2 5 2 Interview with Tony Boyd; Minutes of Meetings of the G.V.W.G.H.A., 1957- 1959. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] ; Minutes of Meetings of the B.C .G.H.A. , 1958- 1960. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] ; Vancouver Sun, 19 December 1959; Interview with Harry Warren. 2 5 3 Interview with P a t r i c i a C la rke ; "Calgary F i e l d Hockey C lub", p. 24 254 »Fi e id Hockey Assoc ia t i on of Ca lgary" , C . F . H . News, 1, No. 1 (March 1964), p. 6. 2 5 5 Interview with Susan N e i l l ; Interview with Simon Twist; "Hamilton F i e l d Hockey C lub" , F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 28. 2 5 6 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .G.H.A. , 4 December 1958; Minutes of the A .G .M. , B .C .G .H.A . , 23 September 1959. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 2 5 7 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .F .H .A . , 22 February 1962. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 2 5 8 F i e l d Hockey i n Canada, p. 20. 2 5 9 Supra, pp. 135,164,167-68; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .F .H .A . , 6 A p r i l 1965; Minutes of the Executive Meeting, B .C .F .H .A . , 2 May 1966. [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 2 6 0 Report of the Pres ident , C . F . H . A . , 18 November 1964. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] . See a l s o C . F .H . News, 1. No. 3 (Dec. 1964), p. 17. 2 6 1 Supra, pp. 155,176-77. 2 ^ 2 Minutes of the Executive Meeting, C . F .H .A . , 9 March 1965. [Harry Warren c o l l e c t i o n ] ; Fred De W i e l , "Calgary Winds Up 1966 Season", C . F . H . News, 3, No. 4 (December 1966), p. 5. The Gregg Sh ie ld was donated by the post-World War II founder of hockey i n Calgary , Ambrose Gregg. 313 Notes to pages 184-187 Mike S t i d w e l l , "Grand Forks Promotes F i e l d Hockey", C . F . H . News, 4, No. 4 (Winter 1967), p. 34; Diane Hayden, "M.W.F.H.A. Tournament", C . F .H . News, 5, No. 3 ( F a l l 1968), p. 41; Sue Fountain, "O.W.F.H.A. Junior Sect ion Report: S p r i n g - F a l l 1967", C . F .H . News, 4, No. 4 (Winter 1967), p. 30; Interview with Simon Twist . 2 6 4 " Le t ' s Hear I t " , C . F . H . News, 4. No. 4 (Winter 1967), p. 1. (Let ter to the Ed i to r from Dorothy M i l l a n , Vagabonds L . F . H . C ) . CHAPTER X 1 Minutes of the A .G .M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 9-10 October 1970. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C . , MG 28 I 376, V o l . 1, n . f . ] . The D r i b b l e r , Christmas 1969 (V.W.F.H.A. News le t ter) . [Schrodt f i l e s ] . C.W.F.H.A. Newsletter , November 1969. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P .A.C . V o l . 2, n . f . ] . C.W.F.H.A. Newsletter , A p r i l 1970 [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 5, n . f . ] . 2 Barbara Lockyer and A l i s o n Fordyce, "1971-72 P r e s i d e n t ' s and V i c e - P r e s i d e n t ' s Report", C . F . H . News, 9, No. 1 (Spring 1972), pp. 21-23; "Mariners and P i r a t e s Capture League T i t l e s " , C . F .H . News, 9, No. 2 (Summer 1972), p. 53. 3 Jacquie Pope, "Burnaby Women's F i e l d Hockey League", C . F .H . News, 6, No. 4 (Winter 1969-70), p. 51. B.C.W.F.H.F. Ma i l i ng L i s t s , 1981-82 and 1982-83. [ F i l e s of the B .C .W.F .H.F . , Sport B .C . , Vancouver]. 4 O.W.F.H.A. Newsletter No. 1, 1971. [ F i l e s of F i e l d Hockey Ontar io , Toronto] . Memorandum, Executive D i r e c t o r , c . F . H . C , to P r o v i n c i a l Pres idents , C .W.F.H.A. , 12 A p r i l 1983. [ F i l e s of the Executive D i r e c t o r , C . F . H . C , Ottawa]. 5 C.W.F.H.A. Newsletter , November 1969; Minutes of the A.G.M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 9-10 October 1970; Wasylynchuk, pp. 62-76; Minutes of the A .G .M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 10-11 March 1979. [Schrodt f i l e s ] . Memorandum, Executive D i r e c t o r , C . F . H . C , to P r o v i n c i a l P res idents , C .W.F.H.A. , 12 A p r i l 1983; Interview with Susan N e i l l . 6 "P.Q.W.F.H.A. Formed", C . F . H . News, 5, No. 2 (Summer 1968), pp. 45-46; Scoop, December 1974 (Pub l i ca t i on of P . Q . F . H . F . ) . [ C . F . H . C f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 3, n . f . ] ; Jane Edwards, "And from Quebec", C . F . H . News, 9, No. 3 ( F a l l 1972), pp. 43-45; "Ten Years of F i e l d Hockey i n the Nat ional C a p i t a l Region", Outaouais F . H . C , September 1979. [In the personal f i l e s of Denys Cooper]; Minutes of the A .G .M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 10-11 March 1979; Memorandum, Execut ive D i r e c t o r , C . F . H . C , to P r o v i n c i a l P res idents , C .W.F.H.A. , 12 A p r i l 1983. 314 Notes to pages 187-190 ' The B u l l y , J u l y 1979 (Pub l i ca t i on o£ the N .S .W.F .H .A . ) . [ C . F . H . C . , f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 119, n . f . ] ; "Giml i F i e l d Hockey Camp, 1969", C . F .H . News, 6, No. 3 ( F a l l 1969), pp. 48-49; Carolyn Burfoot , "Happenings from Manitoba", C . F . H . News, 9, No. 3 ( F a l l 1972), p. 47; R e g i s t r a t i o n documentation, C .W.F.H.A. , 1969-1983. Some of the f igures i n Table 8 are est imates . 8 C.W.F.H.A. Newsletter , A p r i l 1970. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C . , V o l . 5, n . f . ] ; Report of the Executive D i rec to r to C.W.F.H.A. , 8 November 1976. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C . , V o l . 73, f i l e 7 ] ; Minutes of the A .G .M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 10-11 March 1979; Memorandum of the Executive D i r e c t o r , C . F . H . C , to P r o v i n c i a l P res idents , C .W.F.H.A. , 12 A p r i l 1983. * Memorandum of the Executive D i r e c t o r , C . F . H . C , to P r o v i n c i a l P res idents , C .W.F.H.A. , 12 A p r i l 1983. 1 0 Canada Year Book: 1978-79, Table 4.56; I n f r a , pp. 198-99. While the hockey-playing immigrants i n many provinces were mostly from Great B r i t a i n , O n t a r i o ' s Leagues bene f i t ted s u b s t a n t i a l l y from an i n f l u x of p layers from Goa, East A f r i c a , and the Caribbean. 1 1 The term "senior" i s app l ied to adu l t , or open compet i t ion, whi le " junior" genera l ly r e f e r s to a category where an age (or impl ied age, such as w i th in schools) l i m i t a t i o n i s imposed. In the l a te 1970s, the upper echelon was standardized i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y at Under-21, but p r i o r to that i t was much less c l e a r l y de f ined . Junior age d i v i s i o n s are fur ther s t r a t i f i e d below Under-21, for example, Under-18, Under-16, and so on. In the context of t h i s s e c t i o n , s ince school compet i t ion played a large part at jun ior l e v e l , u n i v e r s i t y hockey i s t reated as the f i n a l stage of development w i th in academic i n s t i t u t i o n s . However, u n i v e r s i t y teams entered i n an open league are considered to be senior c lub teams. 1 2 Pope, p. 51; Pat Forbers , "Junior Hockey", C . F . H . News, 10, No. 3 [1973-74], pp. 25-26; Wasylynchuk, p. 75; "Ten Years of Hockey i n the Nat ional C a p i t a l " . 1 3 Jane Swan, " F i f t h Annual G i r l s Inter-School F i e l d Hockey Tournament and C l i n i c " , C . F . H . News, 5, No. 4 (Winter 1968-69), pp. 41-42; O l i ve Gilmour, "B.C. Secondary S c h o o l g i r l s F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " , C . F . H . News, 15, No. 3 (December 1978), p. 20; O.W.F.H.A. Newsletter, 1969. [ F i e l d Hockey Ontar io f i l e s ] ; "News from Ontar io" , C . F .H . News, 10, No. 4 [1974], p. 28. 1 4 Marit imes W.F.H.A. Newsletter , V o l . 4 ( A p r i l 1970). [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 1, n . f . ] ; "High School Jamboree," C . F .H . News, 15, No. 3 (December 1978), p. 20. Scoop, December 1974. 315 Notes to pages 190-194 1 6 Wasylynchuk, p. 75; "Manitoba P r o v i n c i a l High School Tournament", C . F .H . News, 15, No. 3 (December 1978), p. 21. 1 7 Janet Bever ley, "Junior Development - A Planned Approach", C . F .H . News, 16, No. 1 (Ju ly 1979), p. 36. 1 8 "Maritimes Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " , C . F . H . News, 6, No. 1 (Spring 1969), p. 46; "News from Ontar io" , p. 28. 1 9 Wasylynchuk, p. 34; Interview with Mar i lyn Pomfret. 2 0 Report of the President to the A .G.M. , B .C .W.F .H.F . , 15 A p r i l 1973. [Schrodt f i l e s ] ; Wasylynchuk, p. 108; Ontar io W.F.H.A. Newsletter , 1979. [ F i e l d Hockey Ontar io f i l e s ] . 2 1 "The Prov inces : Ontar io" , C . F .H . News, 14, No. 3 (December 1977), p. 19: "The Prov inces : B r i t i s h Columbia", C . F . H . News, 15, No. 1 (May 1978), p. 33. 2 2 Interview with Moira R e r r i e ; O l i v e Gilmour, "90 Teams P a r t i c i p a t e i n B. C. F e s t i v a l of Sport Hockey Jamboree", C . F . H . News, 9, No. 2 (Summer 1972), p. 49. 2 3 Interview with P a t r i c i a C larke ; Gina Napier , "1970 C.W.F.H.A. Nat ional Tournament", C . F . H . News, 7, No. 3 ( F a l l 1970), pp^ 21-25. 2 4 Interview with Susan N e i l l (Pres ident , A lber ta W.F.H.A. , 1971-1973); C. W.F.H.A. Nat ional Tournament Guidance Manual, [1972-73], [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P .A .C . , V o l . 2, n . f . ] ; Programme, C.W.F.H.A. Senior Nat ional Tournament, V i c t o r i a , 1982; C.W.F.H.A. Tournament P o l i c y and Organ izat iona l Manual. (Revised D r a f t , No. 2) , January 1983. [ F i l e s of the B . C . W . F . H . F . ] . 2 5 "Gold for the B r i t i s h Columbia G i r l s " C . F . H . News. 11, No. 3 [1974], pp. 26-28; C.W.F.H.A. Tournament P o l i c y and Organ izat iona l Manual (Revised D r a f t , No. 2 ) , January 1983; "Nat iona l : Western Under-23 Tournament; Eastern Under-23 Tournament", C . F . H . News, 15, No. 2 (September 1978), p. 10. 2 6 Dorothy H a l l a s , "1969 Canada Games - F i e l d Hockey for Women," C . F .H . News, 6, No. 3 ( F a l l 1969), pp. 28-39; Barbara H a r r i s , "1973 Canada Summer Games F i e l d Hockey", C . F . H . News, 9, No. 4 (Winter 1972-73), pp. 19-20; "Summer Games F i e l d Hockey", C . F . H . News, 14, No. 3 (December 1977), p. 8. 2 7 "Canadian Team Wins One, Loses One at U.S. Nat ional Tournament", C . F .H . News, 6, No. 4 (Winter 1969-70), p. 31; Napier , pp. 21-24. 316 Notes to pages 194-198 2 8 Joyce H a r r i s , "The 1971 Canadian Touring Team", C . F .H . News, 8, Nos. 3 & 4 (Fa l l -Winter 1971-72), pp. 32-58; Report of the 1971 I.F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 35; Interview with Marina van der Merwe; Dorothy Asuma, "Great B r i t a i n Tour ," C . F .H . News, 9, No. 4 (Winter 1972-73), p. 31; Jenny John, "1975 Women's World Championships", C . F .H . News. 12, No. 4/13, No. 1 (Winter-Spring 1975-76), pp. 2-3. 2 9 "Results of Scot land 's women's Tour of Canada", C . F .H . News, 14, No. 2 (September 1977), p. 31; " I n t e r n a t i o n a l : C.W.F.H.A. Tour, Kiwi E d i t i o n ; Th i rd Women's World Cup; Canada-Mexico World Cup Q u a l i f y i n g Matches", C . F .H . News, 15, No. 2 (September 1978), pp. 4-5; Jean-Claude P a r i s , "World Cup", World Hockey, 34 (November 1978), pp. 6-10; "I .F .W.H.A. 12th Tournament Resu l t s" , C . F . H . News, 17, No. 1 ( A p r i l 1980), pp. 7-9; Report of the 12th I .F.W.H.A. Conference, Vancouver, 1979, pp. 45-48; Nancy Tomkins, "Netherlands undisputed Women's World Champions," World Hockey, 46 (June 1983), pp. 24-27. 3 0 The D r i b b l e r , Christmas 1969; C . F .H . News, 7, No. 3 ( F a l l 1970), p. 24; Dorothy Asuma, "From the Tours Corner", C . F .H . News, 8, No. 2 (Summer 1971), pp. 35-38; Interview with Marina van der Merwe (Canadian team member, 1971). 3 * F i l e s of the Canadian Team Development Committee, C.W.F.H.A. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 76, n . f . ] . 3 2 I b i d . ; Interview with Susan N e i l l ; Minutes C . T . D . C Meeting, 10-11 October 1977; interv iew with Marina van der Merwe; P a r i s , p. 8; "I .F .W.H.A. 12th Tournament Resu l t s" , p. 7; Tomkins, "Netherlands World Champions", p. 27. 3 3 "Nova Sco t i a Women's F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " , C . F .H . News, 8, No. 2 (Summer 1971), p. 45; C.W.F.H.A. Handbook and D i rec to ry , 1972; Wasylynchuk, p. 105; Report to the I .F.W.H.A. from Jan Va l l ance , Pres ident , C .W.F.H.A. , September 1974. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 72, f i l e 4 ] ; "Ten Years of Hockey i n the Nat iona l C a p i t a l " ; C.W.F.H.A. Handbook and D i rec to ry , 1976. 3 4 Interview with P a t r i c i a C larke ; P a t r i c i a C la rke , "Pres ident ' s Report 1968", C . F .H . News, 5, No. 3 ( F a l l 1968), pp. 24-25; "C.W.F.H.A. Executive -Who Are They?", C . F . H . News, 7, No. .1 (Spring 1970), p. 32. 3^ Toni Proyer , "Report on Incorporat ion" , C . F .H . News, 6, No. 4, (Winter 1969-70), p. 16; Minutes of the A .G .M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 9-10 October 1970; Interview with P a t r i c i a C la rke . 3 6 Report of the 1971 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 46; Minutes of the A .G.M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 13 November 1971; Minutes of the A .G .M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 25-26 November 1972. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 72, n . f . ] ; Interview with Susan N e i l l ; Report to the I .F.W.H.A. from C.W.F.H.A. Pres ident , September 1974; F i l e s of the C.W.F.H.A. [ P . A . C . ] . 317 Notes to pages 198-201 3 7 Minutes, Annual Counc i l Meeting, C .W.F.H.A. , 22 May 1965. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C . , V o l . 1, n . f . ] ; Report of the Finance Chairman to Board of D i rec to rs Meeting, C .W.F.H.A. , 24-26 October 1975 [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , [ P . A . C . , V o l . 72, f i l e 6 ] ; Interview with Susan N e i l l . F igures i n Table 10 are approximate. 3 8 Memorandum, Executive D i rec tor to Counc i l Members, C . F . H . C , 2 June 1972. [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 67, f i l e 1 ] ; "Game Plan Ath le te Ass is tance Program", C . F .H . News, 15, No. 2 (September 1978), pp. 16-17; The Canadian Women's Team was not e l i g i b l e for Game Plan Ath le te Ass is tance u n t i l 1978, when the C.W.F.H.A. a f f i l i a t e d with the F . I . H . and app l ied to enter the 1980 Olympics. "The Prov inces" , C . F . H . News, 15, No. 1 (May 1978), pp. 33-34; "O.W.F.H.A. P res iden t ' s Report", i n Hockey Ontar io Magazine, No. 3, 1974 [ F i e l d Hockey Ontar io f i l e s ] , i n 1983, funding for F i e l d Hockey Ontar io was i n the order of $150,000; by t h i s time the men's and women's Assoc ia t i ons , 0 .F .H .A . and O.W.F.H.A. had amalgamated. Author 's v i s i t to F i e l d Hockey Ontar io , Sport Ontar io o f f i c e , Toronto, 17 November 1983. F igures are approximate. For B.C. f i gures see B.C.W.F.H.F. f i l e s . 3 9 "B .C .F .H .A . Reports A c t i v i t i e s " , C . F . H . News, 5, No. 4 (Winter 1968-69), p. 11; Minutes of the A .G .M. , C . F . H . A . , 28 October 1979 [Personal f i l e s of the author] ; Executive D i r e c t o r ' s Report to the Board of Contro l Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 25-27 September 1981; Vancouver F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , Autumn League Schedule, 1978. [Author 's f i l e s ] . 4 0 Rod Andrews, " F i e l d Hockey i n Ontar io Having Good Year", C . F .H . News, 6, No. 2 (Summer 1969), p. 38; Minutes of the A .G .M. , C . F . H . A . , 28 September 1973 [Author's f i l e s ] ; Executive D i r e c t o r ' s Report to the Board of Contro l Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 1981. 4 1 C . F .H . News, 6, No. 2 (Summer 1969), p. 92; Montreal League Standings, 1971 Season [Cooper f i l e s ] ; Executive D i r e c t o r ' s Report to the Board of Contro l Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 1981. 4 2 "Ten Years of Hockey i n the Nat ional C a p i t a l " ; Interview with Denys Cooper, V i c e Pres ident , C . F . H . A . , and Executive Member, Outaouais F . H . C , Ottawa, 20 November 1983. From 1969 to 1971, the Outaouais Club ex is ted as two separate bodies, the Ottawa-Hull F . H . C (men) and Ottawa V a l i a n t s L .F .H .C . (women). 4 3 David Fry , "Jaguars Again League Champions", C . F . H . News, 6, No. 3 ( F a l l 1969), pp. 17-18; Fred De W i e l , "Calgary-Edmonton", C . F .H . News, 8, No. 2 (Summer 1971), pp. 25-26; "News from the Prov inces : A l b e r t a " , C . F .H . News, 10, No. 1 [1973], p. 21; "The Prov inces : Manitoba", C . F .H . News, 14, No. 2 (September 1977), p. 18; Execut ive D i r e c t o r ' s Report to the Board of Con t ro l , C . F . H . A . , 1981. 318 Notes to pages 201-205 4 4 Memorandum, Executive D i rec to r to Board of C o n t r o l , C . F . H . A . , 22 June 1972 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 67, f i l e 1 ] . L e t t e r , Ron Lees, Pres ident , New Brunswick Unicorns F.H.C. to John Chapman, Pres ident , C .F .H .A . , 3 A p r i l 1972 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 45, n . f . ] ; Minutes of the A .G .M. , C . F . H . A . , 1973; Executive D i r e c t o r ' s Report to the Board of Contro l Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 1981. 4 5 "Expansion i n t o Saskatchewan", C . F .H . News, 16, No. 1 (Ju ly 1979), p. 24; The Fa lcons , August 1980, Saskatchewan F.H.C. Newsletter [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 112, n . f . ] ; "Provinces: Saskatchewan", C . F . H . News, 19, No. 2 (October 1982), p. 12. 4 6 "B .C .F .H .A . Reports A c t i v i t i e s " , p. 11; Andrews, p. 38; C . F .H . News, 6, No. 2 (Summer 1969), p. 92; Fry , pp. 17-18; Minutes of the A.G.M. , C . F . H . A . , 1973; Executive D i r e c t o r ' s Report to the Board of Contro l Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 1981. Some f i gures i n Table 11 are est imates . 4 7 "Ontario Jun ior Team Se lec ted" , C . F . H . News, 5, No. 1 (Spring 1968), pp. 20-21; Ke i th Newton, "B.C. Jun ior Tournament Success fu l " , C . F . H . News, 5, No. 2 (Summer 1968), pp. 29-30; Jurgen Lankau, "Big B.C. Jun ior Tourney S p i r i t e d Sucess", C . F . H . News, 6, No. 2 (Summer 1969), p. 23; Jurgen Lankau, Report on B.C. Jun io rs , 1970 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 43, n . f . ] ; B.C.W.F.H.A. Report to the Board of Con t ro l , C . F . H . A . , 12 May 1972 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 45, n . f . ] . 4 8 "Ten Years of Hockey i n Nat ional C a p i t a l " , p. 3. 4 9 Minutes of the Board of Contro l Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 23-24 A p r i l 1977 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 70, n . f . ] ; Executive D i r e c t o r ' s Report to the Board of C o n t r o l , C . F . H . A . , 1981; Hockey Book, Vancouver Is land F.H.A. Junior Teams, 1980 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 112, n . f . ] . 5 0 Minutes of the A .G .M. , C . F . H . A . , 1973; Execut ive D i r e c t o r ' s Report to the Board of C o n t r o l , C . F . H . A . , 1981; Summary of R e g i s t r a t i o n s , C . F .H .A . , 1968-81. [Cooper f i l e s ] . Some f i gures i n Table 12 are est imates . 51 Execut ive D i r e c t o r ' s Report to the Board of C o n t r o l , C . F .H .A . , 1981. 5 2 Ke i th Newton, "B.C. Jun ior Tournament Success fu l " , pp. 29-30; "B.C. Junior Tournaments", C . F . H . News, 9, No. 4 (Winter 1972-73), p. 14; Interview with Mike Smith, Hockey Master, S t . George's School , Vancouver, 25 May 1983. 5 3 Coaches' Reports, U . B . C F . H . C , 1975-1983 [Author 's f i l e s ] ; "Un ivers i ty of V i c t o r i a Makes a Calgary V i s i t " , C . F .H . News, 6, No. 2 (Summer 1969), pp. 34-35; "The Prov inces: B r i t i s h Columbia", C . F . H . News, 14, No. 1 ( A p r i l 1977), p. 19. 319 Notes to pages 205-208 5 4 "The Prov inces: Ontar io ; A l b e r t a ; Nova S c o t i a " , C . F .H . News, 14, No. 1 ( A p r i l 1977), p. 22; Le t ter from David Johannson, F i e l d Hockey D i r e c t o r , B. C. Summer Games, to Club S e c r e t a r i e s , Vancouver F .H.A. , 27 March 1978 [B .C .F .H .A . f i l e s ] . 5 5 Reports on Nat ional Championships, C . F .H .A . , C . F .H . News, 1965 to 1970. U n t i l 1972, the host province was permitted to enter a second team. Doug Skinner, "1971 Canadian Championships Great Success", C . F . H . News, 8, Nos. 3 & 4 (Fa l l -Winter 1971-72), pp. 10-11,14; Peter (Eng.) Buckland, "Canadian Championships 1973", C . F . H . News, 10, No. 2 [1973], pp. 8-11; "Canadian Men's Senior Nat ional Championships [1980]", C . F . H . News, 18, No. 1 (January 1981), pp. 7-10. 5 6 J .R . K e l l e t t , "Canadian Junior Tournament Report, Winnipeg, 1969", C. F .H. News, 6, No. 2 (Summer 1969), pp. 9-10; Jim Por ter ; "Calgary Hosts I n t e r p r o v i n c i a l Jun ior Tourney", C . F . H . News, 7, No. 2 (Summer 1970), pp. 16-17. 5 7 Mike V e r t i g a n , "The Western Canadian I n v i t a t i o n a l Jun ior Tournament", C . F . H . News, 11, No. 3 [1974], pp. 20-21; Denys Cooper, "Canadian Junior Olympics Tournament for Boys, 1974," C . F . H . News, 11, No. 3 [1974], pp. 16-17; Denys Coooper, "Canadian Junior Olympics Tournament for Boys, Toronto, 1975", C . F .H . News, 12, Nos. 2 & 3 [1975], p. 28; Denys Coooper, "C .F .H.A. Junior Olympics Tournament, Winnipeg, 1976", C . F .H . News, 13. No. 3 ( F a l l 1976), pp. 11-12. 5 8 "C .F .H.A. Junior (U-21) Championships, J u l y 1978", C . F .H . News, 15, No. 3 (December 1978), p. 17; Tobias F i s h e r , "Canadian Junior Championships [1982]", C . F .H . News, 19, No. 2 (October 1982), pp. 8-9. The provinces represented at the 1978 Under-21 Nat ional Championships were: B r i t i s h Columbia, A l b e r t a , Manitoba, Ontar io , Quebec and Nova S c o t i a . 5 9 John McBryde, "Canada i n Europe - May 1971", C . F .H . News, 8, No. 2 (Summer 1971), pp. 4-10. 6 0 " F i e l d Hockey Report", o f f i c i a l Report of Canada's P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the 6th Pan American Games, C a l i , Colombia, 1971, (Pan American Games Committee of Canada), pp. 72-75; Summary of Canada's In ternat iona l Matches, 1962-1984, compiled by P a t r i c k Rowley and John McBryde, 1984. [Author's f i l e s ] . 61 Reg Plummer, "The Canadian Tour of England and Wales", C . F .H . News, 10, No. 1 [1973], pp. 14-16; Summary of Canada's In te rnat iona l Matches; "1976 Olympic Hockey Tournament Resu l t s" , C . F .H . News, 13, No. 3 ( F a l l 1976), p. 7. 6 2 Summary of Canada's In te rnat iona l Matches. In a per iod of 25 months, J u l y 1977 to J u l y 1979, i n c l u s i v e , the Canadian team played a t o t a l of 54 i n t e r n a t i o n a l matches. 320 Notes to pages 208-213 6 3 J . C . P a r i s , "The World Cup's 55 Matches Day by Day", World Hockey, 33 (June 1978), p. 8. 6 4 "Pan American Games - Puerto R ico" , C . F . H . News, 17, No. 1 ( A p r i l 1980), pp. 10-12; Minutes of the Nat ional Team Management Committee, C . F . H . A . : 13 January 1983; 27 J u l y 1983 [Author 's f i l e s ] ; "Canada Wins Pan Am Go ld" , C . F . H . News, 20, No. 1 (May 1984), pp. 3-4. 6 5 E r r o l Har t ley , "C .F .H.A. Nat ional Squad: A Progress Report", C . F . H . News, 10, No. 2 [1973], pp. 14-16; "Comments on Teams at the Chr i s tchurch In ternat iona l Tournament", C . F .H . News, 10, No. 4 [1974], p. 14. 6 6 Minutes of the Execut ive Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 30 March 1971 and 10 June 1971 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 69, n . f . ] ; John Chapman, "A View of the C .F .H .A . i n 1971-72", P r e s i d e n t ' s Report to the C . F . H . A . , October 1971 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 43, n . f . ] ; Report of the Ontar io F.H.A. to Board of C o n t r o l , C . F .H .A . , 24 A p r i l 1972 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 45, n . f . ] ; Minutes of the A .G .M. , C . F . H . A . , 1973; Minutes of the Nat ional Team Management Committee, C . F . H . A . , 1976-1983 [Author 's f i l e s ] . 6 7 Dennis Bayley, "Quebec to Form Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n " , C . F . H . News, 5, No. 4 (Winter 1968-69), p. 18; "Around the Cont inents : Americas", World Hockey, 2, No. 5 (Oct .-Dec. 1971), p. 72; C .F .H .A . Handbook and D i rec to ry , 1973; Minutes of the Board of Contro l Meeting, C . F .H .A . , 3-4 May 1975 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 46, n . f . ] ; C .F .H .A . Handbook and D i rec to ry , 1980. 6 8 C .F .H .A . Handbook and D i rec to ry , 1978. For many years , the Vancouver F i e l d Hockey League was conducted d i r e c t l y under the auspices of the B .C .F .H.A. It was not u n t i l the e a r l y 1970s that the Vancouver F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on was c o n s t i t u t e d . C . F .H . News, 8, No. 2 (Summer 1971), pp. 22-24. ^ 9 Interview with Harry Warren; Interview with Simon Twist; Minutes of the A .G.M. , C . F . H . A . , 26 October 1980 [Author's f i l e s ] . 7 0 C .F .H .A . Handbook and D i r e c t o r y : 1972, 1980; Minutes of the Board of Contro l Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 28-30 September 1973; [Author 's f i l e s ] ; Minutes of the Board of Contro l Meeting, C . F . H . A . , 23-24 A p r i l 1977 [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 70, n . f . ] : Nat iona l Coaching C e r t i f i c a t i o n Programme, C e r t i f i c a t e #CC8000, 28 A p r i l 1983 [Author 's f i l e s ] . Sport Canada was formerly c a l l e d the F i tness and Amateur Sport D i r e c t o r a t e . 7 1 F i l e s of the C . F . H . A . , 1965-1969 [ P . A . C . ] ; Executive D i r e c t o r ' s Report of 24 September 1973 to the Board of C o n t r o l , C . F . H . A . , [C .F .H .A . f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 72, f i l e 4 ] ; Interview with V i c t o r Warren. The Game Plan Ath lete Ass is tance Programme commenced cont r ibut ions to the Canadian Team i n 1973-74. 72 Data for Table 14 der ived from same sources as Tables 8 and 11. 321 Notes to pages 213-218 73 I b i d . Supra, pp. 192-93,206-7; Interview with V i c t o r Warren. No reasons for r e j e c t i o n of men's f i e l d hockey from the Canada Summer Games were included i n o f f i c a l documentation. 7 5 Supra, pp. 193-95,207-9. 7 6 Supra, pp. 195-96,209-10. 7 7 "Lets Hear I t " , C . F . H . News, 6, No. 3 ( F a l l 1969), p. 21 (Let ter to the Ed i to r from Dorothy M i l l a n , Quebec); Toronto D a i l y S ta r , 3 September 1968, as reproduced C .F .H . News, 5, No. 3 ( F a l l 1968) n . p . ; Malcolm McGregor, "The I n t e r - P r o v i n c i a l Championship, 1970," C . F . H . News, 7. No. 3 ( F a l l 1970), pp. 1-3,6-7. Interview with P a t r i c i a C larke ; Interview with V i c t o r Warren; Interview with Char lo t te Warren. 7 8 Supra, pp. 191,196,205,210-11. 7 9 I n f r a , pp. 220-21, for explanat ion of P r i o r i t y I s ta tus ; Interview with P a t r i c i a C larke ; Interview with Simon Twist . 8 0 Interview with Susan N e i l l ; Interview with V i c t o r Warren; Supra, p. 197; Minutes of the Board of Contro l Meeting, C . F .H .A . , 28-30 September 1973. 8 1 Supra, pp. 197-98, 211-12. 8 2 Interview with Susan N e i l l ; Interview with Simon Twist . 8 3 "Metro Mixed F i e l d Hockey League", C . F . H . News, 7, No. , 2 (Summer 1970), p. 37; L e t t e r , Pres ident , New Brunswick Unicorns F.H.C. to Pres ident , C . F .H .A . , 3 A p r i l 1972; The Fa lcons, August 1980. 8 4 Interview with Denys Cooper; Janet Dale, "Hawks Take Jokers ' Mixed Tournament", C . F . H . News, 6. No. 3 ( F a l l 1969), p. 17. In the mid-1970s Jokers F.H.C. a f f i l i a t e d with the Vancouver Rowing Club as i t s Hockey Sec t ion ; B.C.W.F.H.F. Ma i l i ng L i s t , 1982-83; Vancouver F.H.A. League Schedule, 1982-83. [Author 's f i l e s ] . 8 5 Bob Steenhoff , "Oakv i l le Tournament Great Success", C . F . H . News, 7, No. 2 (Summer 1970), pp. 19-23; Rhona Lawrence, "P.Q. News from the O a k v i l l e Tournament", C . F .H . News, 9, No. , 2 (Summer 1972), p. 40; Merv Gaynor, "Ontario Maple Leaf Tournament, Toronto, 1975", C . F . H . News, 12, Nos. 2 & 3 [1975], pp. 30-31; C . F . H . News: 1970-1983. Interview with Michael Burke, V i ce Pres ident , C . F . H . A . , 1974-present, Toronto, 15 November 1983. 322 Notes to pages 219-222 8 6 "Women's Hockey i n Quebec", C . F . H . News, 10, No. 3, [1973], pp. 18-19; Interview with Denys Cooper; "Provinces: A l b e r t a ; Saskatchewan; Ontar io" , C .F .H . News, 18, No. 3 (August 1981), p. 11; C .F .H.A./C.W.F.H.A. Handbook and D i r e c t o r y , 1980. 8 7 V i s i t by the author to F i e l d Hockey Ontar io O f f i c e , Sport Ontar io , Toronto, 17 November 1983; P .Q .F .H .F . Information Sheet, 26 November 1973 [ F i e l d Hockey Ontar io f i l e s ] ; The Fa lcons , August 1980; C . F . H . News, 11, No. 2 [1974], pp. 15-16. 8 8 B.C.W.F.H.F. Ma i l i ng L i s t s : 1978-1983. Interview with Cra ig Wi lson, Executive Member, Vancouver Is land F .H.A. , Vancouver, 21 J u l y 1984; "Provinces: Saskatchewan", C . F .H . News, 18, No. 3 (August 1981), p. 11; F i l e s of the C.W.F.H.A. : 1970-1980; C . F . H . News: 1970-1980; J u b i l e e Booklet . 8 9 Minutes of the A .G.M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 19-20 March 1977 [C.W.F.H.A. f i l e s , P . A . C , V o l . 73, f i l e 8 ] ; Le t te r from Harold Wright, Pres ident , C O . A . to Susan N e i l l , P res ident , C .W.F.H.A. , 20 May 1975; Le t ter from Susan N e i l l , Pres ident , C .W.F.H.A. , to Harold Wright, Pres ident , C O . A . , 30 January 1976; L e t t e r , C O . A . to Susan N e i l l , 18 March 1976; Le t ter from Susan N e i l l , Pres ident , C .W.F.H.A. , to K. Watkins, Hon. Secretary , I .F .W.H.A . , 29 October 1976; Le t te r from Susan N e i l l to E la ine Hyndman, Pres ident , I .F .W.H.A. , 24 March 1977 [Clarke f i l e s ] ; Minutes of the A .G .M. , C .W.F.H.A. , 10-11 March 1979 [Schrodt f i l e s ] ; Interview with Susan N e i l l ; Interview with Simon Twist . 9 0 V a l e r i e Proyer , "Pres ident ' s Report: 1970", C . F . H . News, 7, No. 4 (Winter 1970-71), pp. 41-43. 9 1 " F i e ld Hockey Canada: Terms of Reference", C . F . H . News, 7, No. 4 (Winter 1970-71), p. 1. The C .F .H .C . was o r i g i n a l l y known as F i e l d Hockey Canada. 9 2 Interview with Peter Buckland; Interview with Simon Twist ; Interview with Susan N e i l l ; "Counci l i n A c t i o n " , C . F . H . News, 14, No. 1 ( A p r i l 1977), p. 8; Interview with Denys Cooper; John McBryde, "National Coaching Symposium", C . F .H . News, 18, No. 2 (May 1981), p. 24. 93 " F i e l d Hockey i n Canada: Terms of Reference", p. 1; Interview with E r i c Donegani, Execut ive D i r e c t o r , C . F . H . C , 1971-78, North Vancouver, 18 A p r i l 1983; C . F . H . News: 1964-1972; "C.W.F.H.A. P u l l s out of C . F .H . News", C . F .H . News, 11, No. 3 [1974], p. 2; "The Executive D i rec tor Reports: Canadian F i e l d Hockey News", C . F . H . News, 11, No. 4 [1975], p. 1. 9 4 Tobias F i s h e r , " E d i t o r i a l " , C . F . H . News, 18, No. 3 (August 1981), p. 2. 323 Notes to pages 222-237 y o " L e t t e r s " . C . F .H . News, 18, No. 3 (August 1981), p. 3 (Let ter to the E d i t o r from Tim Muzyka, Pres ident , Saskatchewan F . H . A . ) ; C . F . H . News: 1982-1985. 9 6 "Quebec Report", C . F . H . News. 9, No. 4 (Winter 1972-73), pp. 16-17. 9 7 Char lo t te Warren, "Hol ier Than Thou A t t i tude Must Cease: Double Standards Damaging Image of C.W.F.H.A." , C . F .H . News, 10, No. 1 [1973], pp. 24-25; Ke i th Newton, "Second C lass C i t i z e n s h i p " C . F . H . News, 10, No. 4 [1974], pp. 2-3; Sandra West, "To the E d i t o r " , C . F .H . News, 11, No. 1 [1974], p. 6. CHAPTER XI 1 "Hockey and Olympism", pp. 807-38; World Hockey: 1969-1985; I .F.W.H.A. Reports: 1950-1979; P o l l a r d , F i f t y Years; Rowley, The Book of Hockey. S.H. Shove l l e r , Hockey (London: George A l l e n and Unwin L t d , 1922), pp. 22-23,192; Minutes of the F . I . H . Meeting, 10-13 September 1981. The minutes of t h i s meeting a l so document the t o t a l number of men's, women's and mixed nat iona l assoc ia t ions e x i s t i n g i n 1981 — see Figure 8. 2 In 1921, the H.A. withdrew from the B r i t i s h Olympic A s s o c i a t i o n . R.L. Hol lands , "Hockey", The Olympic Games, p. 113. Furthermore, at t h i s time the I .O .C . was i n s i s t i n g that each sport have an i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r o l l i n g a u t h o r i t y . A r l o t t , p. 484. See a l so "Hockey and Olympism", pp. 807-38. 3 An e a r l i e r attempt (during the inter-war per iod) towards F . I . H . representat ion on the I .H .B . had f a i l e d , despi te support for the F . I . H . from Scotland and I r e l a n d . Wa l l , p. 26. See a l s o , "Milestone i n hockey h i s t o r y " . World Hockey, 1, No. 7 (Oct . -Dec. 1970), p. 93. 4 S h e i l a F l e t che r , "The Making and Breaking of a Female T r a d i t i o n : Women's Phys i ca l Education i n England 1880-1980", The B r i t i s h Journal of Sports H i s t o r y , 2, No. 1 (May 1985), pp. 29-31; Roberta J . Park, "Sport, Gender and Soc iety i n a T r a n s a t l a n t i c V i c t o r i a n Perspect ive" , The B r i t i s h Journal o f Sports H i s t o r y , 2, No. 1 (May 1985), pp. 21-23; " F i e l d Hockey as a Women's spor t" , Out ing, 45 (January 1905), pp. 475-79, as c i t e d i n Park, p. 28. 5 Mary H. Leigh and Therese M. Bonin, "The Pioneer ing Role of Madame A l i c e M i l l i a t and the FSFI i n E s t a b l i s h i n g In ternat iona l Track and F i e l d Competit ion for Women", Journa l o f Sport H i s t o r y , 4, No. 1 (Spring 1977), pp. 72-83. 6 Supra, pp. 40-43,54-56. 324 Notes to pages 237-255 7 The F . I . H . d id not r e a d i l y accept the e l im ina t ion p r i n c i p l e . In the 1950s, the F . I . H . unsuccess fu l l y t r i e d to have rescinded the I .O.C . ru le l i m i t i n g the number of teams i n the Olympic Hockey Tournament to s ix teen as i t considered the ru le contrary to the Olympic i d e a l . Rowley, "The H is tory of Olympic Hockey", pp. 58-59. 8 "Hockey and Olympism", pp. 807-38. World Hockey: 1969-1985; I .F.W.H.A. Reports: 1950-1979; Rowley, The Book of Hockey. 9 Park, pp. 5-28: E l l e n W. Gerber, Innovators and I n s t i t u t i o n s i n P h y s i c a l Education ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : Lea & Febiger , 1971), pp. 228-231; E. McCrone, "Play Up! P lay Up! and p lay the game! Sport at the la te V i c t o r i a n G i r l s ' Pub l i c School" , Journal o f B r i t i s h S tud ies , 23, No. 2 (1984), pp. 106-34. At t h i s time, there ex is ted the percept ion that men had the exper t i se and a b i l i t y to coach and o f f i c i a t e women's sport but not v i ce v e r s a . 1 0 Cochrane et a l . , p. 35. 1 1 E l l a Spencer, "Vancouver Umpiring Assoc ia t i on Report", The B u l l y O f f , p. 21; Mary Underwood, "Umpiring i n C a l i f o r n i a " , The B u l l y O f f , p. 9; Sec re ta ry ' s Report to the G.V.W.G.H.A. for 1938-39 season, 25 A p r i l 1939. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 1 2 "The F i e l d Day", The B u l l y O f f , p. 22; P r e s i d e n t ' s Report to the G.V.W.G.H.A., 23 January 1939. [G.V.W.G.H.A. f i l e s ] . 13 F igure 12 has been der ived by juxtaposing Figure 3 and Figure 11. 1 4 Supra, pp. 179-80; Another fac tor which contr ibuted to the asp i ra t i ons of the men to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the Olympic Games was the v i s i t to Vancouver of one of Great B r i t a i n ' s outstanding Olympic p layers , John Conroy. Conroy played i n Vancouver for severa l months before cont inu ing to England on h i s return from the Melbourne Olympics. Interview with V i c t o r Warren. 15 For a more complete d i s cuss ion of the occurrence of t h i s phenomenon i n the admin is t ra t ion of sport genera l l y , see Schrodt, "Changes i n the Governance of Amateur Sport i n Canada", p. 9. 1 6 Betty Spears and Richard Swanson, H i s to ry of Sport and Phys i ca l A c t i v i t y i n the United States (Dubuque, Iowa: Wi l l i am Brown, 1978), p. 283. 1 7 Report of the 1979 I .F.W.H.A. Conference, p. 21. 1 8 The Hockey C i r c l e : 1976-1985. 325 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Annual. M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y Co l lege of B r i t i s h Columbia ( l a t e r the Un ive rs i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia), 1910-11 to 1913-14. Annual. U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1915-16 to 1924-25. A r l o t t , John, ed. The Oxford Companion to Sports and Games. London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press , 1975. 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[Greater Vancouver Women's Grass Hockey Assoc ia t i on f i l e s ] . World Hockey. O f f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n of the Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey, 1969-1985. 336 APPENDIX A Minutes of the Inaugural Meeting of the International Hockey Board Manchester 25 July 1900 J _ - _ _ . .,, w — ^ - • « _ -£ . c ? iZoi^ e^ O ~££-*-<_^ ,A^.^2 /Lc^-e^-6-<>--S, / AC 338 flu. S ^ o | W cC ^ ft*? % J&y **1 fa 339 APPENDIX B Summary of I.F.W.H.A. and F.I.H. Tournaments: 1967-1981 Evolution of Championships and Declaration of World Champions 1967 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament non-championship (no winner declared) 1970 1st de Josselin de Jong Cup (F.I.H.) home and away (winner declared) 1971 I.F.W.H.A. Tournament championship format (unofficial winner) 1972 1st F.I.H. Women's World Trophy championship (winner declared) 1974 1st F.I.H. Women's World Cup championship (winner declared) 1975 1st I.F.W.H.A. World Championship championship (winner declared) 1976 2nd F.I.H. Women's World Cup championship (winner declared) 1978 3rd F.I.H. Women's World Cup championship (winner declared) 1979 2nd I.F.W.H.A. World Championship championship (winner declared) 1981 4th F.I.H. Women's World Cup championship (winner declared) Note: in 1971, although the format of the I.F.W.H.A. tournament permitted a winner to be determined and rankings established, no World Champion was declared. Sources: Reports of I.F.W.H.A. Conferences, 1967-1979. World Hockey, 1970-1981. 342 APPENDIX D Discussion of Differences between Men's and Women's Rules 7973 HOCKEY FIELD 3rd February, 1973 JOINT RULES — PROGRESS OR PREPOSTEROUS? Dear Editor,—Following my letter in Hockey Field N o . 8, page 126, I set out below the whole range of differences in the men's and women's Codes of Rules, and with the exception of matters like dress or flagposts, they are: (1> Offside By far the most important rule change introduced in September/October, 1972, in the men's game was to alter the offside rule from 3 defenders to 2 with the rest of the rule unchanged. The women's rule remains unchanged at 3 opponents. Reaction is favourable to the change in the men's game since it has opened up the game and made it more attractive. (2) 16-yard free-hit In the men's game any infringement which attracts a free-hit against the attacker 16 yards or less from the defending goal-line is dealt with by a 16-yard hit-out and need not ever be taken from within the circle. (The defending X I may choose, however, to take it from lesser range to a quick hit-out.) Besides distance gained for the non-offending side, this means that an inadvertent 'sticks' would not need to be penalised by a penalty corner, a harsh penalty for the offence—and that defenders need never be embar-rassed by that most awkward of 'advantages', a free-hit for them at or around their own corner flag. In the women's code, of course, a foul in the circle must be taken from the circle and any other free-hit taken where the offence occurred. (3) Push-in as opposed to Roll-in Instead of the roll-in the men use a push-in where the ball went out. A s in the free-hit everyone must be 5 yards from the push. This rule has been less than an unqualified success and the obstructions which can arise need little comment. (4) Penalty-stroke as opposed to the Penalty-bully The penalty-stroke will be familiar to most either from the Munich Olympics or from women's indoor hockey. The penalty is awarded for the same offences as the bully and is taken like a penalty-kick in football by any attacker 8 yds. from goal may push, flick or scoop (but not hit, or drive) the ball. The award is defended by the opposing goalkeeper (not the offending player, necessarily) who has the full goalkeeping privileges avail-able except that he may not move on or from his goal-line until the stroke is taken. As in a penalty-bully, any infringement by the defender results in a goal being awarded and all other players remain behind the 25-yard line. Unlike the penalty-bully there is no question of playing on once the stroke is saved or hits the wood-work. This rule has proved effective and popular in the men's game and is a source of interest to most women players I have talked to on the matter. I understand, too, that the rule is under test by the women's associations to see if it is suitable as it stands or with slight modifications (e.g. is the 8-yard distance too short for the rather less acrobatic women's 'keepers?). Despite the apparent massive advantage of the taker it is remarkable how many strokes are saved or missed. (5) Lifting the free-hit This was a measure specifically adopted by the ladies' legislators and attracts varying opinions and some dis-cussion. It is at all times prohibited in the men's game 3rd February, 1973 because it is regarded as inherently likely to lead to dangerous play, and it is, of course, subject to certain restrictions in the women's code. Nevertheless, it has distinguished advocates as an additional item of ingenuity (e.g. Miss Catherine Clarke, Scottish ' A ' Register Umpire) as well as diverse critics. I have seen it cleverly and competently used and have also seen it go unpenalised when used like a rugby 'up and under', that is where an unfortunate receiver of the ball has to await its hitting the ground (directly or via a hand-stop) while the opponents bear down on her. (6) Defending at corners Unlike the women's game, the defenders, other than the 6 allowed on the goal-line, must retire to the halfway line—not the 25 yd. line. This effectively removes the possibility of the non-goal-line defenders assisting the defence except in a belated and secondary capacity. It is, after all , only 9 yds. from the 25 yd. line to the 16 yd. line as against the 16 yds. the others wil l prob-ably have to travel. With the increasing incidence of hand-stopped .corners this is a further factor to consider. As a side issue, it makes the umpiring of corners more manageable since the non-supervising umpire can assist by ensuring that all defenders are behind the halfway line and she would still be in a well-sighted position for offside decisions. The men changed from the proviso for the 25-yd. line because the pace of their game effectively devalued the worth of the corner award and the change produced more goals as it probably would with the ladies. (7) Ordering off or temporary suspension It was this rule which particularly made the Hockey Field contributors see red. Both the men's and the women's rules stipulate'that a player may be sent off for rough play, possibly after a warning, if the umpire .considers it appropriate. In the men's rules there is a further provision allow-ing (but not compelling) the umpire temporarily to suspend a player and then allow him back, if appropriate. This provision was designed to make the punishment fit the crime and has proved valuable where, for ex-ample, a man has momentarily lost his temper and control—possibly after being painfully struck by a ball or stick, inadvertently or otherwise. On purely logical grounds it is difficult to see how the more severe penalty can be accepted in the women's rules but the lesser rejected, especially when the point is made that women offend seldom, if ever, in these extreme terms. Summary I have set down these rule divergencies in some detail because it would be unfair to condemn them on the basis of incomplete information. I am well aware of the hostility to the men's rules which arises from men's patronising attitude and I dis-associate myself from that. Lastly, rules when made have to cater for all—no matter the standard of their discipline and training— and many will be less controlled than British players. A l l the evidence I have heard or seen of rules-makers is that they want the best for a great game and are determined to deal with those who would spoil it, hence the unpleasant sanctions. Hugh G. Stewart (Sec. Men's Hockey Section, Cartha Athletic Club), 79 Dundrennan Rd., Battlefield, Glasgow. 343 APPENDIX E SUMMARY OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE HOCKEY RULES BOARD 1975 — Agreement reached at a meeting of the I .H.R.B./W.I .H.R.B. sub-committee on a common set of r u l e s . Rule book pub l i shed . (Considered a landmark i n the development of the game). 1977 - F . I . H . conf i rmat ion given that the j o i n t Hockey Rules Board w i l l be a f u l l committee of the F . I . H . 1978 — I .F .W.H.A. President reported to membership that Rules Boards are working harmoniously. — Draft c o n s t i t u t i o n of the j o i n t Hockey Rules Board formulated. H.R.B. to have a l l power over the r u l e s . 1979 — A l l d i f f e rences i n men's and women's ru les e l im inated . — Last meeting of the I .H .R .B . (formed i n 1900), held on 10 March 1979. — Men and women to serve as members of the H.R.B. appointed by the Supreme Counci l i n October. 1980 — H.R.B. granted status of an autonomous committee, under the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the Supreme C o u n c i l , on 1 January 1980. Sources: Minutes of Meetings of I .F .W.H.A . , F . I . H . , and Supreme Counc i l , 1975-1980. World Hockey, 1975-1980. 344 APPENDIX F MAINLAND CHAMPIONSHIP AND THOMSON CUP RECORDS HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS' GRASS HOCKEY 1919 - 1940 Season Mainland Champion Is land Representative Thomson Cup Score 1919- 20 South Vancouver H.S. 1920- 21 South Vancouver H.S. 1921- 22 South Vancouver H.S. 1922- 23 B r i t a n n i a H.S. 1923- 24 B r i t a n n i a H.S. 1924- 25 B r i t a n n i a H.S. 1925- 26 South Vancouver H.S. 1926- 27 South Vancouver H.S. 1927- 28 B r i t a n n i a H.S. 1928- 29 B r i t a n n i a H.S. 1929- 30 John O l i v e r H.S. 1930- 31 John O l i v e r H.S. 1931- 32 John O l i v e r H.S. 1932- 33 John O l i v e r H.S. 1933- 34 B r i t a n n i a H.S. 1934- 35 North Vancouver H.S. 1935- 36 B r i t a n n i a H.S. 1936- 37 North Vancouver H.S. 1937- 38 North Vancouver H.S. 1938- 39 North Vancouver H.S. Grandview Commerce 1939- 40 North Vancouver H.S. V i c t o r i a H V i c t o r i a H V i c t o r i a H V i c t o r i a H V i c t o r i a H Courtenay H.S. 3-1 3- 0 0- 2 4- 0 1- 1 8-0 Notes: 1. Thomson Cup games were d iscont inued i n 1928. 2. South Vancouver High School was re-named John O l i v e r High School . The 1927-28 season was the only occas ion i n which V i c t o r i a High School d id not represent Vancouver Is land from the incept ion of Thomson Cup competit ion i n 1905. Source: K.A. Waites, e d . , The F i r s t F i f t y Years, (Vancouver High Schools: 1890-1940), n . p . , pp. 154-156. 345 APPENDIX G EVENTS LEADING TO THE FORMATION OF THE C.W.F.H.A. 23 January 1962 1 February 1962 22 March 1962 15 May 1962 10 June 1962 25 June 1962 15 August 1962 24 September 1962 Winter General Meeting of G.V.W.G.H.A. to discuss formation of a Canadian Association. C i r c u l a r to members of G.V.W.G.H.A. from B. Schrodt, Chairman, Committee to Investigate Formation of a Canadian Association. Special General Meeting of G.V.W.G.H.A. to discuss r e s o l u t i o n c i r c u l a r i z e d . Target date for f i r s t draft of c o n s t i t u t i o n to be sent to executives of V i c t o r i a , Vancouver and Ontario associations. Requested date for return of f i r s t d r a f t . Proposed date for p r i n t i n g of second dra f t to Executive Of G.V.W.G.H.A. Proposed date for draf t c o n s t i t u t i o n to a l l members of G.V.W.G.H.A. Date set for Special General Meeting of G.V.W.G.H.A., at which C.W.F.H.A. to come in t o being and approved c o n s t i t u t i o n to take e f f e c t . Source: Schrodt f i l e s . 346 APPENDIX H VANCOUVER AND VANCOUVER ISLAND WOMEN'S TEAMS 1965-66 Vancouver D i v i s i o n I B r i t a n n i a Cubs B r i t a n n i a T igers King Edward K i t s i l a n o North Vancouver U.B.C. D i v i s i o n II B r i t a n n i a Chipmunks Burnaby S t r i d e r s King Edward II Green Gophers North Vancouver II North Vancouver I I I Ex-Thompson U.B.C. II V i c t o r i a Oak Bay Greyhounds I Oak Bay Greyhounds II Grasshoppers Mariners I Mariners II U. V i c t o r i a I U. V i c t o r i a II Cowichan Ladies Note: These are the names as l i s t e d i n the B.C.W.F.H.F. Hockeye Gazette, 1965-66. In former years , the K i t s i l a n o team was more commonly re fe r red to as E x - K i t s i l a n o , U . B . C . ' s f i r s t team, i n D i v i s i o n I , as V a r s i t y , and U .B .C . ' s second team, i n D i v i s i o n I I , as U.B.C. Source: Hockeye Gazette , 1965-66. 347 APPENDIX I DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FORMATION OF THE CANADIAN FIELD HOCKEY ASSOCIATION 1957 - 1959 October 1957 A l e t t e r was rece ived by the B.C.G.H.A. from a B r i t i s h Olympic p layer In England which "int imated that no stumbling block remained other than our own organ iza t ion i n the way of formation of a Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on — and Federat ion ." September 1958 The Secretary of the B.C.G.H.A. reported that he had done fur ther study towards d r a f t i n g a c o n s t i t u t i o n of the proposed Canadian F i e l d Hockey A s s o c i a t i o n , which he expected would be f i n i s h e d and approved by the end of the year . Upon complet ion, "we can proceed with the formation of the Canadian Assoc ia t ion and when t h i s i s done, the way w i l l be c l e a r for recogn i t ion by the Federat ion Internat iona le de Hockey at B r u s s e l s . " January 1959 The B.C.G.H.A. made reference to correspondence with Quarles Van U f f o r d , President of the F . I . H . who, together with Rene Frank, the Honorary General Secretary of the F . I . H . , advised them regarding F . I . H . requirements. February 1959 The Executive of the B.C.G.H.A. set up a four-man Committee to r e f i n e the c o n s t i t u t i o n of the proposed Canadian A s s o c i a t i o n . Copies of the d ra f t c o n s t i t u t i o n were d i s t r i b u t e d to each member of t h i s Committee. A p r i l 1959 Fol lowing a working meeting i n March, the Cons t i tu t i on Committee met again on 2 A p r i l 1959, and the Secretary of the B.C.G.H.A. was able to report that the f i r s t r e v i s i o n of the Canadian F i e l d Hockey Assoc ia t i on C o n s t i t u t i o n was f i n a l l y completed at t h i s meeting. June 1959 A l e t t e r was wr i t ten to the Honorary Secretary of the Canadian Olympic Assoc ia t i on informing him that the c o n s t i t u t i o n had been prepared and would be forwarded when complete. September 1959 The C o n s t i t u t i o n of the proposed C .F .H.A. was completed, p r in ted and bound. The President of the B.C.G.H.A. reported that i t would now be sent to the a u t h o r i t i e s concerned for approval and r a t i f i c a t i o n , adding "when t h i s has been rece ived , the way w i l l be c l e a r for Canada to enter a hockey team for the Olympic Games". Source: F i l e s of the B .C .F .H .A . , 1957-59. APPENDIX J Telegram Corresondence Confirming the Inclusions of the Canadian Team in the Olympic Hockey Tournament Tokyo, 1964 GaModuuiffaufic •ntbsfiBiigtlmiAonlB'tlMdatstoilSTANDARDTIMBuplancraiigiii. Time of ncdptU STANDARD TIMB at ptooe destfandoa' VRA RNA099 9^ T E L E " ftM W r > 0 N T 4 7 0 3 P M "* MRS HARRY V WARREN 1816 WESTERfc ^ R W Y VANCOUVER 8 BC CA88272 SIXTEEN MEN PLUS COACH OR MANAGER GO TO TOKYO HARRY I flllnc Umt thown In tba diiU Una U L O C A L TIMS at place of origin. l i m a of receipt U L O C A L TIME i t plac* of destination.** V R A 2 1 2 1 S B a F D V A N C O U V E R BC 4 7 3 0 P P S T "' ;!p' 7 7 .„ • 3 DR H V M T t R E N s R O Y A L YORK H O T E L TORONTO ONT s C O N G R A T U L A T I O N S s B-.C.M-.G.H.L. 349 Plate I KNCI.AND'S FIRST INTKKNATIONAL i'KAM (18(»5) I. I'. I I A K V K V ( U M I'IKK), J . I'. S K D I M I N ( l l AI.I'-HACK), K. K . I I A K D M A N (KI'.II WI.N'(i), T. (i. I1UCHANAN ( K I L . I I T WIN). ) , W. It, U A K C H A K I ) (<;oAI.), J . K. A K N O L I ) ( l . E I T WiNCi) II. IV. I IMi A l l . (l.EKT WlNCi) , K. I.. CI .AI ' I IAM ( n A l . K - l t A C K ) , S. C l l K I S T o l ' I I E H S O N ( C A I T . , CENTKu), W. N. K l . K T C H E K (H A L P - H A C K ) . E . II. N A S H (I'KBS. H.A.) II. S. S M I T H (HACK), K. T R K K A S ( H A C K ) England's First International Men's Team 7895 (Hockey Digest, Vol. 10, No. 1, Sept. 1982) 350 Plate II B a c k R o w ( l e f t t o r i g h t ) : M r s . E t h e l T a y l o r , M i s s W e l s h ( M r s . B e t t s ) , * M i s s M a d i l a i n P h i l p o t ( M r s . M o r r i s ) , M i s s M a u d B a u e r , M i s s F l o N e v i l S m i t h , M i s s H e l e n B o u l t b e e . F r o n t R o w ( l e f t t o r i g h t ) : * M i s s K a t h l e e n S u l l e y ( M r s . T a y l o r ) , M i s s M a b e l B o u l t , M i s s M a b e l P h i l p o t , M r s . M i n n i e B o u l t b e e ( M r s . C . J o h n s o n ) , M r s . J o h n B u r n s . S t a n d i n g : M r . W . J . K . F l i n t o n ( p o p u l a r l y k n o w n a s " P o l l y " ) , * M r . F r e d C r i c k m a y . * I n d i c a t e s o n l y l i v i n g m e m b e r s . Vancouver Ladies' Hockey Club 1896 (Jubilee Booklet, G.V.W.G.H.A., 1956) Plate III Vancouver Hockey Club (Men's) 7902 - 3 (B.C. Sports Hall of Fame and Museum, Vancouver) Plate IV F I R S T T H O M S O N C U P G R A S S H O C K E Y T E A M , 1906. Back row: M r . A . E . \ Y . Sault, Miss Mabel McKeen, Pearl Morton, M r . Thomas A . Pattison. Second row: Dora Carlisle, H i l d a Fraser, Kathleen Dyke, Katie McNeely, Peggy Rose. Front row: Frances Stone, Jean M c E w a n , Laura Wade, Hazel Mcl.eod,' Fiance's McKeen . Flossie Mullov. Vancouver High School Thomson Cup Girls' Hockey Team 1905 - 6 (The First Fifty Years: Vancouver High Schools, 1890-1940) PLATE V Back Row (L to R): Doreen Armour (Alums), Shirley Topley (Kits), Berta Whittle (UBC), Pat Manson (Brits), Barbara Wilson (Kits), Heather Glover (NorVan) Captain, Margaret McLean (Brits), Vice-captain. Middle Row (L to F): Lil Beauregard (Kits), Betty Best (UBC), Florence Strachan (Kits), Moira Rerrie (NorVan), Reneth MacKay (Brits), Audree Rees (Alums). Front Row (L to R): Mr. Floris Vos, Coach; Pam Edens (Vic), Lucille van Hees (Tech), Dr. Lila Scott (Alums) Manager-delegate. Canadian Women's Touring Team I.F.W.H.A. Tournament, Sydney Australia, 1956 (Jubilee Booklet, G.V.W.G.H.A., 1956) 354 Plate VI Standing: L. to R.: M. Wheaton (Coach), R. Aldridge (Captain), I. Johnston, P. VanderPyl, D. Anderson, A. Boyd, G. Heidinger, P. Buckland, G. Ronan. Kneeling: L. to R.: V. Warren, J. Young (Vice Captain), A. Raphael, R. Chopping, P. Ruttle! H. Preston, A. Yeomans, L. Wright. Canadian Men's Olympic Hockey Team Tokyo, 1964 (C.F.H. News, Vol. 20, No. 2, July 1984) "Proposed Vehicle Loading of Long-Span Bridges", in Journal of the Structural Division, American Society of C i v i l Engineers. Vol. 106, No. ST4, April 1980, pp. 915-32. (Co-authored with Peter G. Buckland, Frank P.D. Navin and Jim V. Zidek.) "The P r e d i c t i o n of U l t imate Track and F i e l d Performance: Past , Present and Future" , i n Proceedings o f the F . I . S . U . Conference — Un ivers iade '83 In A s s o c i a t i o n with the Xth H . I . S . P . A . Conference, ed . Sandra K e r e l i u k . Edmonton, A l b e r t a , Canada, J u l y 1983, pp. 498-515. (Co-authored with Robert W. Schutz . ) "Economic Comparison o f Types o f P l a y i n g F i e l d s : A r t i f i c i a l Tur f versus Natura l Grass" , i n F i n a l Report : 32nd Annual T r a i n i n g I n s t i t u t e — 1984, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Northwest Parks and Recreat ion A s s o c i a t i o n (Vancouver Board of Parks and R e c r e a t i o n ) , Vancouver, B .C . , Canada, 12-14 September 1984, pp. 2-6. "From Natura l to A r t i f i c i a l T u r f " , i n Coaching Review (Ottawa: Coaching A s s o c i a t i o n of Canada, 1983), March/Apr i l 1983, pp. 42-44.