"AS WOMEN AND AS CITIZENS": CLUBWOMEN IN VANCOUVER 1910-1928 by GILLIAN WEISS B.A.(Hons.), U n i v e r s i t y Of A d e l a i d e , 1976 M.A.(Ed-), U n i v e r s i t y Of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1979 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department Of S o c i a l And E d u c a t i o n a l S t u d i e s We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA November 1983 © G i l l i a n Weiss, 1 9 8 3 I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I a g r e e t h a t t h e L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d by t h e Head of my D e p a r t m e n t o r by h i s or h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department of Department Of S o c i a l And E d u c a t i o n a l S t u d i e s The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a 2075 Wesbrook P l a c e V a n c o u v e r , Canada V6T 1W5 D a t e : November 1983 i i A b s t r a c t In t h e t h i r t y y e a r s p r i o r t o 1910, an a c t i v e m i n o r i t y of women, not o n l y i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , but a c r o s s Canada and i n B r i t a i n and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , had i n c r e a s i n g l y u s e d t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o move o u t s i d e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s p h e r e of home and f a m i l y and i n t o a more p u b l i c and p o l i t i c a l r o l e . Con-c u r r e n t l y , t h e y d e v e l o p e d and pr o p o u n d e d a p h i l o s o p h y t o s u p p o r t t h i s move i n t o p u b l i c l i f e . I t was b a s e d on t h e n o t i o n of woman's t r a d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n o f p h y s i c a l , e m o t i o n a l and s p i r i t u a l n u r t u r e , but was w i d e n e d t o i n c l u d e n ot j u s t t h e i n d i v i d u a l home but t h e e n t i r e community. M a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t s , as t h e s e women have r e c e n t l y been t e r m e d , were d e t e r m i n e d t o use and e x t e n d t h e i r womanly s k i l l s and i n f l u e n c e t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y f o r what t h e y p e r c e i v e d t o be t h e b e t t e r m e n t of a l l . By 1910, m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t i d e o l o g y had d e v e l o p e d t o a p o i n t where p r o m o t i o n of i t s t e n e t s was no l o n g e r t h e major g o a l of o r g a n i z e d clubwomen., These women now t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o c o n v i n c i n g s o c i e t y t h a t t h e i r r o l e was not s i m p l y as a u x i l i a r y w o r k e r s i'n-reform but as f u l l p a r t n e r s ; n o t as mere h e l p e r s d i s p e n s i n g c h a r i t y t o t h o s e i n need but as c i t i z e n s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e w o r k i n g of s o c i e t y i n much b r o a d e r and de e p e r ways. In t h e e i g h t e e n y e a r s t o 1928, t h e i r a t t e n t i o n was c o n c e n t r a t e d on a t t e m p t s t o e x t e n d t h e i r c i t i z e n s h i p p owers, t o g a i n b o t h t h e r i g h t and t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n f l u e n c e l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t w o u l d i n t u r n c o n v e r t t h e g o a l s o f m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m i n t o r e a l i t y . I n t h i s t h e y a c h i e v e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of s u c c e s s . The w i n n i n g o f s u f f r a g e was f o l l o w e d by a s p a t e o f l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t gave women g r e a t e r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r own l i v e s and t h o s e of t h e i r c h i d r e n , more p e r s o n a l and f i n a n c i a l autonomy w i t h i n m a r r i a g e , t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e i r t r e a t m e n t i n t h e work w o r l d and t h a t p r o v i d e d h e a l t h and s u p p o r t f o r t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n t i m e s of need. They a l s o worked h a r d a t e d u c a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r n o n - o r g a n i z e d s i s t e r s i n p a r l i a m e n t a r y p r o c e d u r e , p u b l i c s p e a k i n g and c u r r e n t e v e n t s i n o r d e r t h a t t h e y m i g h t h a v e • t h e s k i l l and c o n f i d e n c e t o a d e q u a t e l y p l a y t h e more p u b l i c r o l e t h a t t h e y e n v i s i o n e d f o r t h e m s e l v e s . But w i t h i n a few y e a r s o f g a i n i n g t h e l e g i s l a t i o n t h e y 1 sought t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l momentum t h a t had been b u i l d i n g s i n c e t h e l a s t d e c a d e s o f t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y d i e d away and clubwomen were l e f t w i t h o u t any c l e a r c u ' t g o a l s t o p u r s u e and i n a s t a t e o f c o n f u s i o n as t o why t h e y f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s i n s u c h a p o s i t i o n . T h i s t h e s i s e x a m i n e s s i x V a n c o u v e r women's o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h i c h p l a y e d a l e a d i n g r o l e i n t h e q u e s t f o r r e f o r m i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n t h e y e a r s from 1910 t o 1928. I t c o n s i d e r s t h e s t r u c t u r e and o p e r a t i o n a l methods of each as w e l l as t h e i r s p e c i f i c r e f o r m g o a l s , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s and minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n . I t c l a r i f i e s t h e image and a s p i r a t i o n s t h a t V a n c o u v e r clubwomen had of and f o r t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e i r d u a l r o l e s as women and as c i t i z e n s . I t ex a m i n e s i n some d e t a i l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of rank and f i l e c lubmembers as w e l l as a c o r e of t h i r t y - t h r e e women who a r e i d e n t i f i e d as f o r m i n g a network of l e a d e r s h i p w i t h i n and between t h e f i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1910-1928. T a b l e of C o n t e n t s A b s t r a c t i i L i s t of T a b l e s v i L i s t of F i g u r e s v i i L i s t of A b b r e v i a t i o n s v i i i 1 "SETTING THE CONTEXT": WOMEN AND REFORM IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 1 2 "AN INVESTMENT IN CIV I C WELFARE": VANCOUVER WOMEN'S CLUBS, 1910-1928 35 3 "WOMANHOOD AND CITIZENSHIP":VANCOUVER WOMEN'S PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR ROLE 105 4 "DECISIVE ACTION AND NOT EMPTY PROMISES": WOMEN AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION 1910-28 152 5 "THE SACREDNESS OF MOTHERHOOD": MOTHERS' PENSIONS LEGISLATION, 1919-25 -.207 6 '"THE BRIGHTEST WOMEN OF OUR LAND": CHARACTERISTICS OF VANCOUVER CLUBWOMEN" 243 7 "DRESSED UP WITH NO PLACE TO GO"?: THE SUCCESS AND FAILURE OF THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY WOMEN'S MOVEMENT 279 BIBLIOGRAPHY 296 APPENDIX A: NCWC WOMEN'S PLATFORM 1920 314 APPENDIX B: MARY ELLEN SMITH'S PLATFORM 1918 317 APPENDIX C: OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS 319 v i L i s t o f T a b l e s 1. Women S c h o o l T r u s t e e s P r i o r t o 1930 i n V i c t o r i a and V a n c o u v e r i 38 2. Membership o f V i c t o r i a and V a n c o u v e r LCW 1897-1932 45 3. LCW Members who were O f f i c e r s of and D e l e g a t e s from A f f i l i a t e d S o c i e t i e s 191 0, 1915, 1920, 1925 47 4. LCW S t a n d i n g Committees 1914 51 5. UWC S t a n d i n g C o m m i t t e e s , 1911-1925 65 6. V a n c o u v e r NEL, Com m i t t e e s and C o n v e n o r s 1921 .76 7. P r o v i n c i a l NEL S t a n d i n g C o m m i t t e e s and C o n v e n o r s , 1925- 27 7 6 8. WF S t a n d i n g C o m m i t t e e s , 1917-21 .".91 9. Types o f S h a r e h o l d e r s i n Women's B u i l d i n g 1912-23 ....97 10. I n d i v i d u a l S h a r e h o l d e r s Women's B u i l d i n g 1912-23 97 11. C o r p o r a t e S h a r e h o l d e r s Women's B u i l d i n g 1912-1923 ....99 12. P e r c e n t of t h e Male and Female P o p u l a t i o n 10 Y e a r s of Age and O v e r , Employed i n G a i n f u l O c c u p a t i o n s , by P r o v i n c e s , f o r Census Y e a r s 1881-1921 172 13. Number o f Women Employed i n V a r i o u s O c c u p a t i o n s i n V a n c o u v e r , V i c t o r i a , T o r o n t o and M o n t r e a l 1921 ...176 14. P e r c e n t of t h e Female Work F o r c e i n S e l e c t e d C i t i e s and O c c u p a t i o n a l C a t e g o r i e s , 1921 177 15. P e r c e n t of t h e Female Work F o r c e i n S e l e c t e d C i t i e s and O c c u p a t i o n s , 1921 179 16. C o s t of L i v i n g C a l c u l a t i o n f o r M e r c a n t i l e ' O c c u p a t i o n s 1919 188 17. C o s t of L i v i n g C a l c u l a t i o n f o r L a u n d r y , D y e i n g and Dry C l e a n i n g O c c u p a t i o n s 1 91 9 191 18. Minimum Wage B o a r d R u l i n g s 1918-19 192 19. M o t h e r s * P e n s i o n s D e l e g a t i o n March 21, 1918 217 20. M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s D e l e g a t i o n J a n u a r y 14, 1919 221 21. Combined D e l e g a t i o n t o M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s Commission J a n u a r y 20, 1920 222 22. M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s i n S e l e c t e d P r o v i n c e s Compared 1921 231 v i i L i s t of F i g u r e s 1. L e v e l s of membership w i t h i n t h e V a n c o u v e r L o c a l C o u n c i l of Women 1914 52 2. The V a n c o u v e r Women's B u i l d i n g , 752 T h u r l o w S t . - 1928 101 3. L o c a l A r e a B o u n d a r i e s , V a n c o u v e r 262 v i i i L i s t of A b b r e v i a t i o n s BPL B r i t i s h P r o g r e s s i v e League CCF Commonwealth C o o p e r a t i v e F e d e r a t i o n CPMA C i v i l i a n P e n s i o n e d M o t h e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n HBC Hudson's Bay Company IODE I m p e r i a l O r d e r of D a u g h t e r s of t h e E m p i r e LCW L o c a l C o u n c i l of Women MWB Minimum Wage B o a r d MWL Minimum Wage League NCWC N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f Women of Canada NEL New E r a League PABC P r o v i n c i a l A r c h i v e s of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Sp. C o l l . S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s D i v i s i o n , The L i b r a r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a TLC T r a d e s and Labo u r C o u n c i l UWC U n i v e r s i t y Women's C l u b VCA V a n c o u v e r C i t y A r c h i v e s VON V i c t o r i a n O r d e r of N u r s e s WBAM Women's B e n e f i t A s s o c i a t i o n of t h e Maccabees WCB W o r k e r s ' C o m p e n s a t i o n B o a r d WCTU Woman's C h r i s t i a n Temperance U n i o n WILPF Women's I n t e r n a t i o n a l League f o r Peace and Freedom WF Women's Forum YWCA Young Women's C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n 1 C h a p t e r 1 "SETTING THE CONTEXT": WOMEN AND REFORM IN BRITISH COLUMBIA The i d e a of a Women's B u i l d i n g , a c l u b r o o m , m e e t i n g and w o r k s p a c e f o r a l l t h e women's g r o u p s i n V a n c o u v e r , was c o n c e i v e d i n 1911. From t h a t y e a r u n t i l 1927 when t h e V a n c o u v e r Women's B u i l d i n g was opened i n t h e c i t y ' s West End t o t h e accompaniment of much pomp and ceremony and a g r e a t f e e l i n g of p r i d e and a c h i e v e m e n t , h u n d r e d s of V a n c o u v e r women fr o m a v a r i e t y of women's c l u b s worked i n d e f a t i g a b l y t o r a i s e p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t h e i r g o a l , t o g a i n s u p p o r t from t h e male b u s i n e s s community and t o amass t h e t e n s of t h o u s a n d s of d o l l a r s needed t o t u r n t h e i r dream i n t o b r i c k s and m o r t a r . T h e i r B u i l d i n g was t o be a v i s i b l e s i g n o f t h e new woman of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y and her expanded r o l e i n modern s o c i e t y . W i t h i n i t s h a l l s and boardrooms t h e y w o u l d d e v e l o p t h e s t r a t e g i e s and programs by w h i c h a renewed s o c i e t y would be b u i l t - a s o c i e t y i n w h i c h j u s t i c e and e q u a l i t y f o r t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r c h i l d r e n w o u l d r e s u l t i n j u s t i c e and a b e t t e r l i f e f o r a l l . The B u i l d i n g was a decade and a h a l f i n t h e c r e a t i o n , and d u r i n g t h i s t i m e t h e campaign f o r t h e r e n e w a l of s o c i e t y was c a r r i e d on w i t h e q u a l f e r v o r . Midway t h r o u g h t h e p e r i o d t h e f e m a l e f r a n c h i s e was won and t h i s was f o l l o w e d i n r a p i d s u c c e s s i o n by a m u l t i t u d e o f o t h e r l e g i s l a t i v e r e f o r m s . I r o n i c a l l y , by 1927 when t h e B u i l d i n g was a t l a s t open and r e a d y t o house i t s busy w o r k e r s t h e y had a l r e a d y a c h i e v e d most of 2 t h e i r r e f o r m g o a l s . F o r t h e ne x t dozen y e a r s i t s t o o d , i n c r e a s i n g l y u n d e r - u t i l i z e d and e x p e n s i v e t o run w h i l e clubwomen c a s t a r o u n d a l m o s t a i m l e s s l y t o r e c a p t u r e t h e r e f o r m i s t s p i r i t and o p t i m i s m o f e a r l i e r y e a r s and a r e f o r m g o a l as c l e a r c u t and p r e s s i n g as t h a t w h i c h had m o t i v a t e d them two d e c a d e s e a r l i e r . But t h e r e was none. L i k e t h e Women's B u i l d i n g w h i c h had o u t l i v e d i t s u s e f u l n e s s by t h e t i m e i t was f i n a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e women's movement of t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s s u c c e e d e d so w e l l i n i t s e f f o r t s t o e x t e n d f e m a l e i n f l u e n c e i n t o t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e t h a t i t made c o n t i n u e d a c t i v i t y v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e . The s u c c e s s of o r g a n i z e d women i n p r o m o t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e of motherhood and t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r women t o be p u b l i c l y a c t i v e on i t s b e h a l f e n s u r e d t h a t f a m i l i a l v a l u e s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d mechanisms t o p r o t e c t them were f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n s o c i e t y , r e n d e r i n g women's own c o n t i n u e d a c t i v i t y no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y o r d e s i r a b l e . Because clubwomen a c h i e v e d t h e i r aims so e f f e c t i v e l y t h e y f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s no l o n g e r needed i n t h e i r p u b l i c r o l e . T h i s t h e s i s examines t h e a c t i v i t i e s of a g r o u p of V a n c o u v e r women's o r g a n i z a t i o n s whose members were s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h a c h i e v i n g and t h e n e x e r c i z i n g t h e i r c i t i z e n s h i p r i g h t s on b e h a l f o f women and c h i l d r e n between 1910 and 1928. B o t h b e f o r e and a f t e r t h i s e i g h t e e n y e a r p e r i o d , a m u l t i t u d e of women's o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o n c e r n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h a v a r i e t y of i s s u e s w h i c h a f f e c t e d s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l and o f t e n women and c h i l d r e n i n p a r t i c u l a r . C o n t i n u i t y b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e p e r i o d and i n 3 terms b o t h of c l u b i n v o l v e m e n t and p u b l i c a g i t a t i o n f o r r e f o r m c a n n o t be d i s c o u n t e d , but t h e s t u d y w i l l be c o n f i n e d t o t h e p e r i o d 1910-28 i n an a t t e m p t t o examine and e x p l a i n t h e v e r y s t r o n g e m p h a s i s on t h e d u a l c o n c e r n s of womanhood and c i t i z e n s h i p d u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s . The a d v a n t a g e s of s u c h a f o c u s , i n t e r m s of e n l a r g i n g our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h i s a s p e c t of t h e e a r l y women's movement w i l l , i t i s hoped, o u t w e i g h t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f u n d e r - e s t i m a t i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t i e s i n women's o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s . Many of t h e clubmembers, and some of t h e c l u b s , were a c t i v e i n t h e b a t t l e f o r s u f f r a g e but t h i s w i l l not be i n t e r p r e t e d e i t h e r as t h e major end g o a l of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , n or as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , but r a t h e r as one a c h i e v e m e n t a l o n g t h e way; an a c h i e v e m e n t t h a t f a c i l i t a t e d and i n s p i r e d f u r t h e r a c t i o n i n t h e o v e r a l l r e f o r m movement, t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l o f w h i c h was t h e improvement, even p e r f e c t i o n o f s o c i e t y , t h r o u g h t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of women i n t h e d e c i s i o n m aking and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s . A number of q u e s t i o n s i m m e d i a t e l y s p r i n g t o mind. What d i d clubwomen hope t o a c h i e v e b o t h i n ter m s of i n d i v i d u a l r e f o r m s and i n ter m s of t h e i r i m p a ct on s o c i e t y as a whole? What methods d i d t h e y use i n p u r s u i t o f t h e s e g o a l s ? What s u c c e s s e s d i d t h e y e n j o y ? Were l a r g e numbers of women i n v o l v e d o r a s m a l l s e l e c t g r o u p ? D i d t h e y work a l o n e o r d i d t h e y have t h e s u p p o r t of s o c i e t y as a whole? Why d i d t h e y r e a c h a s t a l e m a t e i n t h e m i d -1920' s from w h i c h t h e y were u n a b l e t o e x t r i c a t e t h e m s e l v e s ? The f o c u s of t h e s t u d y , and t h e r e f o r e t h e q u e s t i o n s t o be a s k e d can be n a r r o w e d and r e f i n e d by an e x a m i n a t i o n of e x i s t i n g s t u d i e s . 4 In o t h e r words, what do we a l r e a d y know about women, t h e i r ' a c t i v i t i e s , t h e i r r o l e s , t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on C a n a d i a n s o c i e t y i n th e f i r s t q u a r t e r of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ? The p o t e n t i a l and t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e s t u d y o f women i n h i s t o r i c c o n t e x t has been c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e p a s t d e c a d e . The g r o w t h of t h e modern f e m i n i s t movement and a b r o a d e n i n g of t h e b o u n d a r i e s of what i s u n d e r s t o o d by the te r m " s o c i a l h i s t o r y " have n e c e s s i t a t e d r e a s s e s s m e n t and f u r t h e r s t u d y of t h e r o l e s t h a t women have p l a y e d i n t h e deve l o p m e n t of modern s o c i e t y . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , h i s t o r y has d e a l t w i t h power - p o l i t i c a l , f i n a n c i a l , m i l i t a r y ; power t h a t was w i e l d e d p u b l i c l y and, i n a l l but a few i n s t a n c e s , by men. The "new" s o c i a l h i s t o r y , of w h i c h women's h i s t o r y i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t , has r e j e c t e d t h i s f o r m e r a p p r o a c h t o t h e p a s t and has been more c o n c e r n e d t o r e v e a l and a n a l y z e a c t i v i t i e s , e x p e r i e n c e s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t have e x i s t e d a l o n g s i d e p u b l i c power s t r u c t u r e s . R a t h e r t h a n l o o k i n g a t g o v e r n m e n t s , p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s and p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e new s o c i a l h i s t o r y and women's h i s t o r y b o t h have t u r n e d t h e i r s i g h t s t o w a r d s " t h e c a u s a l p a t t e r n s , t h e p s y c h o d y n a m i c s o f p r i v a t e p l a c e s : t h e h o u s e h o l d , t h e f a m i l y , t h e bed, t h e n u r s e r y . . . " and t o o t h e r v a r i a b l e s , o f t e n i g n o r e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l a c c o u n t s , l i k e g e n d e r , c l a s s , p r o c e s s e s of s o c i a l 5 change and p o p u l a r b e l i e f s and a t t i t u d e s . 1 In l i t t l e more t h a n a d e c a d e , C a n a d i a n and A m e r i c a n women's h i s t o r y has been e n r i c h e d by a s t i l l g r o w i n g body of b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l , h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s of i t s p r e v i o u s l y " n e g l e c t e d m a j o r i t y . " 2 E a r l y i n t e r e s t i n C a n a d i a n women's h i s t o r y c e n t r e d on women's emergence from t h e p r i v a t e s p h e r e of home and f a m i l y i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y and i n t o t h e more p u b l i c w o r l d of women's c l u b s and o r g a n i z e d r e f o r m . S m a l l , l o c a l c h u r c h g r o u p s were amongst t h e f i r s t p u b l i c women's o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e i r g o a l s d i r e c t e d o u t w a r d t o w e l f a r e and m i s s i o n a r y work i n f o r e i g n l a n d s , r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e needy c l o s e r t o home. 3 M i t c h i n s o n has c l a i m e d t h a t t h e s e women d i d not see t h e m s e l v e s as a p a r t of t h e "women's movement" w h i c h was a l r e a d y s t r o n g i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and b e g i n n i n g t o grow i n Canada. M i d d l e - c l a s s and c o n s e r v a t i v e , t h e y d i d n o t s h a r e t h e f e a r s a b o u t t h e s t a t e of t h e i r own s o c i e t y t h a t would soon m o t i v a t e o t h e r women's g r o u p s . I f t h e y d i d l i t t l e p r a c t i c a l work w i t h i n Canada, t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s p r i o r t o t h e 1880's d i d a t 1 C a r r o l S m i t h R o s e n b e r g , "The New Woman and t h e New H i s t o r y , " F e m i n i s t S t u d i e s 3:1/2 ( F a l l 1975) pp. 184-94; V e r o n i c a S t r o n g -Boag, " R a i s i n g C l i o ' s C o n s c i o u s n e s s : Women's H i s t o r y and A r c h i v e s i n Canada," A r c h i v a i a 6 (Summer 1978) pp. 70-71; E l i a n e L e s l a u S i l v e r m a n , " W r i t i n g C a n a d i a n Women's H i s t o r y , '1970-82: an H i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l A n a l y s i s , " C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l Review 63:4 (December 1982) p. 514. 2 E l i a n e S i l v e r m a n , " W r i t i n g C a n a d i a n Women's H i s t o r y , " p. 513 n o t e s t h a t a l m o s t 200 a r t i c l e s and books i n women's h i s t o r y have a p p e a r e d i n Canada i n t h e l a s t dozen y e a r s . 3 Wendy M i t c h i n s o n , " C a n a d i a n Women and C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t i e s : A S t e p Towards I n d e p e n d e n c e , " A t l a n t i s 2:2 p a r t 2 ( S p r i n g 1977) pp. 57-75. 6 l e a s t b r i n g them out of t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e home - a new e x p e r i e n c e f o r many. S h i e l d e d by t h e r e s p e c t a b i l i t y of t h e c h u r c h , t h e y were a b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s k i l l s and g a i n c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e i r own a b i l i t i e s . M i t c h i n s o n and S t r o n g - B o a g b o t h c r e d i t t h e s e e a r l y c h u r c h g r o u p s w i t h l a y i n g t h e g r o u n d work f o r t h e l a t e r p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l women's a s s o c i a t i o n s . * And p r o l i f e r a t i o n i t was, f o r by t h e 1890's, m i d d l e - c l a s s women were b a n d i n g t o g e t h e r i n u n p r e c e d e n t e d numbers t o p r e s e r v e and s t r e n g t h e n a s o c i e t y t h a t t h e y f e l t was s e r i o u s l y t h r e a t e n e d by r a p i d i m m i g r a t i o n , i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and u r b a n i z a t i o n and t h e s o c i a l p r o b l e m s w h i c h t h e s e f o r c e s were c r e a t i n g . 5 The Young Women's C h r i s t i a n O r g a n i z a t i o n (YWCA) and t h e Woman's C h r i s t i a n Temperance U n i o n (WCTU), a l r e a d y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , began t o s p r e a d a c r o s s Canada a t t h i s t i m e w i t h l o c a l , p r o v i n c i a l and n a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n s . The N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of Women of Canada (NCWC) w h i c h was t o become t h e C a n a d i a n women's r e f o r m o r g a n i z a t i o n p a r e x c e l l e n c e was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1893 and i m m e d i a t e l y began t o o r g a n i z e l o c a l C o u n c i l s a c r o s s t h e n a t i o n , * I b i d . , p. 58; V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g . " S e t t i n g t h e S t a g e : N a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n and t h e Women's Movement i n t h e l a t e N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , " i n A l i s o n P r e n t i c e and Susan Mann T r o f i m e n k o f f , e d s . , The N e g l e c t e d M a j o r i t y : E s s a y s i n C a n a d i a n Women's H i s t o r y ( T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r d , 1977), p. 87. 5 See V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , The P a r l i a m e n t of Women: The N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of Women of Canada 1893-1929 ( O t t a w a : N a t i o n a l Museums of Canada, 1976), c h . 1 . f o r a more d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e f o r c e s w h i c h p r o m p t e d women t o o r g a n i z e . 7 t o be f o l l o w e d s h o r t l y by t h e Women's I n s t i t u t e s . 6 I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e were numerous l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o n c e r n e d w i t h i m p r o v i n g c o n d i t i o n s f o r good f a m i l y l i f e , and e s t a b l i s h i n g s y s t e m s of c h i l d and f a m i l y w e l f a r e . The r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d much o f t h i s a c t i v i t y was t h e i d e o l o g y t h a t has become most commonly known as " m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m . " Not a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d p h i l o s o p h y but r a t h e r composed of a c l u s t e r of c o n n e c t e d b e l i e f s and g o a l s , m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m was g i v e n i m p e t u s by t h e g e n e r a l r e f o r m c l i m a t e of t h e C a n a d i a n p r o g r e s s i v e e r a of 1880-1929. W i t h o u t a c t u a l l y naming i t as s u c h , S t r o n g - B o a g has e f f e c t i v e l y d e s c r i b e d m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m , i t s b a s e s and i t s a i m s , i n a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e f a c t o r s w h i c h prompted C a n a d i a n women t o o r g a n i z e a t t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y . 7 One c r u c i a l f a c t o r was t i m e . To be a c t i v e o u t s i d e of t h e home r e q u i r e d f reedom from women's t r a d i t i o n a l home t a s k s . 8 The g r o w t h o f u r b a n i z a t i o n and 6 I b i d . , c h . 2; T e r r e n c e M o r r i s o n , " T h e i r P r o p e r S p h e r e : F e m i n i s m , t h e F a m i l y and C h i l d - C e n t r e d S o c i a l Reform i n O n t a r i o , 1875-1900," O n t a r i o H i s t o r y 68:1 (March 1976) pp. 45-64 and 68:2 (June 1976) pp. 65-74. Nancy Sheehan, "Temperance, t h e WCTU and E d u c a t i o n i n A l b e r t a , 1905-1930" (Ph.D. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , 1 980); Wendy M i t c h i n s o n , "The Woman's C h r i s t i a n Temperance U n i o n ; A S t u d y i n O r g a n i z a t i o n , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of Women's S t u d i e s 4 ( M a r c h / A p r i l 1981 ) pp. 143-56; C a r o l D e n n i s o n , "The Women's I n s t i t u t e s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a 1909-1946: H o u s e w i v e s 'For Home and C o u n t r y ' " (M.A. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a , 1983). 7 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t of Women, c h . 1. 8 See R u t h S c h w a r t z Cowan, "The ' I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n ' i n t h e Home: H o u s e h o l d T e c h n o l o g y and S o c i a l Change i n t h e T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y , " T e c h n o l o g y and C u l t u r e 1.7 (1976) pp. 1-23; S h e i l a Rothman, Woman's P r o p e r P l a c e : A H i s t o r y o f C h a n g i n g I d e a l s and P r a c t i c e s 1870 t o t h e P r e s e n t ( N e w Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s , 1978), pp. 14-21. J e n n i f e r S t o d d a r t and V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "...And T h i n g s Were G o i n g Wrong a t Home," A t l a n t i s 1:1 ( F a l l 1975) pp. 38-44; B a r b a r a R o b e r t s , "'A Work o f E m p i r e ' : C a n a d i a n R e f o r m e r s and B r i t i s h Female I m m i g r a t i o n , " i n L i n d a K e a l e y , e d . , A Not U n r e a s o n a b l e C l a i m : Women and Reform i n Canada, I 8 8 0 ' s - l 9 2 0 s ( T o r o n t o : The Women's'Press, 1979), pp. 185-201; 8 h o u s e h o l d t e c h n o l o g y and t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of d o m e s t i c h e l p p r o v i d e d some measure of freedom. More i m p o r t a n t l y , women who became i n v o l v e d i n r e f o r m were not t i e d down by t h e r e s p o n s i b l i t i e s of c h i l d r a i s i n g . The m a j o r i t y were e i t h e r s i n g l e or had f a m i l i e s p a s t t h e age when t h e y r e q u i r e d c o n s t a n t c a r e . E d u c a t i o n was i m p o r t a n t t o o . I n c r e a s e d e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s p r o d u c e d women w i t h t h e c o n f i d e n c e and a b i l i t y t o f u n c t i o n o u t s i d e of t h e home and w h i l e women met w i t h s t r o n g r e s i s t a n c e when t h e y t r i e d t o e n t e r t r a d i t i o n a l male p r o f e s s i o n s s u c h as m e d i c i n e and l a w , s e p a r a t e and o f t e n new p r o f e s s i o n s were opened t o them - n u r s i n g , t e a c h i n g , home e c o n o m i c s , l i b r a r y p r o f e s s i o n s , and s o c i a l s c i e n c e j o b s . 9 A l l of t h e s e new a r e a s were c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t r a d i t i o n a l f e m a l e t a s k s o f n u r t u r i n g ; an e x t e n s i o n of " m o t h e r i n g " from t h e home t o t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e . In t h i s exodus from t h e home women were e n c o u r a g e d by m a s c u l i n e m o d e l s . The p r o g r e s s i v e e r a p r o d u c e d men suc h as James L. Hughes and J o h n J . K e l s o who a l s o p r e s s e d f o r t h e s o r t of community a c t i v i t y on b e h a l f of t h e p o o r , t h e weak and t h e h e l p l e s s t h a t 9 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "Canada's Women D o c t o r s : F e m i n i s m C o n s t r a i n e d , " i n K e a l e y , A Not U n r e a s o n a b l e C l a i m , pp. 109-130; Wayne R o b e r t s , " ' R o c k i n g t h e C r a d l e f o r t h e W o r l d ' : The New Woman and M a t e r n a l F e m i n i s m , T o r o n t o , 1877-1914," K e a l e y , A Not U n r e a s o n a b l e C l a i m , pp. 27-40; M a r g a r e t G i l l e t , We Walked V e r y W a r i l y : A H i s t o r y of Women a t M c G i l l ( M o n t r e a l : Eden P r e s s Women's P u b l i c a t i o n , 1981). 9 women's c l u b s were b e g i n n i n g t o u n d e r t a k e . 1 0 R e l i g i o u s b e l i e f t o o was a f a c t o r . I n t h e mid y e a r s of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y i t i n i t i a l l y drew women from t h e i r homes and i n t o women's c l u b s . By t h e c l o s e of t h e c e n t u r y t h e r i s e of t h e s o c i a l g o s p e l movement l e d b o t h male and f e m a l e c h u r c h members t o c r u s a d e f o r a v a r i e t y of s o c i a l r e f o r m s . 1 1 F i n a l l y , s i m i l a r f a c t o r s were i n f l u e n c i n g A m e r i c a n and E u r o p e a n s o c i e t y . Through p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t s and t r a v e l , many C a n a d i a n women were aware of t h e s i t u a t i o n e l s e w h e r e and were a b l e t o r e l a t e b o t h p r o b l e m s and p r o j e c t e d s o l u t i o n s i n o t h e r s o c i e t i e s t o t h o s e i n t h e i r own. T e r r e n c e M o r r i s o n has d e a l t more s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h t h e t e n e t s and d e v e l o p m e n t of m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m t h a t r e s u l t e d from t h e g u l f between t h e s t a t e of s o c i e t y i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y and m i d d l e - c l a s s p e r c e p t i o n s of what i t c o u l d and s h o u l d be. He has a l s o i d e n t i f i e d a s e p a r a t e and i n many r e s p e c t s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f orm of f e m i n i s m - e q u a l ' r i g h t s f e m i n i s m . S u p p o r t e r s of t h i s i d e o l o g y p u r s u e d t h e g o a l , a p p a r e n t l y s i m p l e b u t i n r e a l i t y c o m p l e x , of t o t a l e q u a l i t y between men and women. By t h e e a r l y y e a r s of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y v i r t u a l l y a l l C a n a d i a n women r e f o r m e r s b e l o n g e d t o t h e f o r m e r g r o u p . They saw t h e 1 0 A whole s e p a r a t e l i t e r a t u r e e x i s t s on t h e t o p i c . F o r i n s t a n c e , see B r u c e M. C a r t e r , "James L. Hughes and t h e G o s p e l of E d u c a t i o n " (Ed.D. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o , 1966); Andrew J o n e s and L e o n a r d Rutman, In t h e C h i l d r e n ' s A i d : J . J . K e l s o and C h i l d W e l f a r e i n O n t a r i o ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1 981). T e r r e n c e M o r r i s o n , "The C h i l d and Urban S o c i a l Reform i n L a t e N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y O n t a r i o " (Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o , 1971) and N e i l S u t h e r l a n d , C h i l d r e n i n E n g l i s h C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y 1880-1920: F r a m i n g t h e T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y C o n s e n s u s ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1976) d e a l w i t h r e f o r m more g e n e r a l l y . 1 1 R i c h a r d A l l e n , The S o c i a l P a s s i o n : R e l i g i o n and S o c i a l Reform i n Canada, 1914-1928 ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1965). 1 0 f a m i l y as a " l i f e s a v i n g i n s t i t u t i o n " and v e n t u r e d o u t s i d e of t h e home as "spokesmen f o r a new f a m i l i a l o r d e r i n s o c i e t y . " 1 2 As t h e y edged beyond d o m e s t i c i t y , t h e y sought t o p e r f o r m f o r t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y t h e same t a s k s of m o t h e r i n g and m a i n t e n a n c e t h a t t h e y p e r f o r m e d w i t h i n t h e i r own homes. A l t h o u g h t h e y used t h e word " e q u a l i t y " , t o them t h e v o t e was p r i m a r i l y a t o o l t o e n s u r e t h e s u c c e s s of t h e i r r e f o r m o b j e c t i v e s . M o r r i s o n has p o i n t e d o ut t h a t t h e b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e two t y p e s of f e m i n i s m l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e q u a l r i g h t s f e m i n i s t s made demands t h a t can j u s t l y be c l a s s e d as r a d i c a l b e c a u s e o f t h e f a r r e a c h i n g e f f e c t s t h e y w o u l d have had on s o c i e t y had t h e y been c a r r i e d o u t , w h i l e m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t s were " c o n s e r v a t i v e i n impulse"'; t h e i r demands were d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s p r e s e r v i n g and p e r f e c t i n g t h e s t a t u s quo. M o r e o v e r , t h e r a d i c a l s seem t o have been drawn from a l l l e v e l s of s o c i e t y w h i l e t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e s were l a r g e l y m i d d l e c l a s s i n b o t h s t r u c t u r e and s t y l e . 1 3 T h i s d i f f e r e n c e has a l s o been n o t e d by Wayne R o b e r t s i n a b i o g r a p h i c s t u d y of t h e e a r l y women's movement i n T o r o n t o . The t h r e e women he d e s c r i b e s as r a d i c a l s , E m i l y Stowe, A u g u s t a S t o w e - G u l l e n and F l o r a M a c d o n a l d D e n i s o n , were p r o f o u n d l y s e p a r a t e d from p r o g r e s s i v e r e f o r m e r s l i k e H e l e n MacMurchy, F l o r e n c e Gooderham H u e s t i s and C o n s t a n c e H a m i l t o n . 1 " M o r e o v e r , t h e l a t t e r were a c t i v e a t an e a r l i e r p e r i o d . One o r two of t h e T e r r e n c e M o r r i s o n , " T h e i r P r o p e r S p h e r e , " p a r t 1, p. 51. I b i d . , p a r t 2, p. 72. Wayne R o b e r t s , " S i x New Women: A G u i d e t o t h e M e n t a l Map of Women R e f o r m e r s i n T o r o n t o , " A t l a n t i s 3:3 (Autumn 1977) pp. 145-67. 11 more - a g g r e s s i v e C a n a d i a n f e m i n i s t s of t h e l a t e r p e r i o d , f o r i n s t a n c e N e l l i e M cClung i n A l b e r t a and H e l e n G r e g o r y M a c G i l l i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , m e n t i o n e d f e m a l e e q u a l i t y p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e l e g a l s e n s e b u t t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s were framed i n m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t t e r m s , and so t h e y s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . 1 5 I n a l a t e r s t u d y , R o b e r t s f a i l s t o make t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between e q u a l r i g h t s and m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m and c o n s e q u e n t l y blames " t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e of m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t a s p i r a t i o n s . . . f o r t h e u l t i m a t e l y d i s a p p o i n t i n g and l i m i t e d i d e o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l g a i n s made by t h e f i r s t s e l f c o n s c i o u s g e n e r a t i o n of women's a c t i v i s t s i n C a n a d i a n H i s t o r y . " 1 6 The s u f f r a g e campaign has been t h e f o c u s of numerous s t u d i e s b o t h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and i n Canada, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e w i n n i n g of t h e v o t e came t o be seen as c e n t r a l t o t h e e a r l y women's movement by some w r i t e r s . 1 7 T h i s r e s u l t e d from two f a c t o r s . F i r s t , some women i n t h e e a r l y women's movement came t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e v o t e would be t h e f i n a l r e f o r m t h a t t h e y w o u l d have t o f i g h t f o r . They b e l i e v e d t h a t once t h e f r a n c h i s e was 1 5 See E l s i e M a c G i l l , My Mother t h e J u d g e : A B i o g r a p h y of Judge H e l e n G r e g o r y M a c G i l l ( T o r o n t o : R y e r s o n P r e s s , 1955); N e l l i e M c C l u n g , I n Times L i k e These, 2nd e d . , w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n by V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1 972) . 1 6 Wayne R o b e r t s , " R o c k i n g t h e C r a d l e f o r t h e W o r l d , " p. 45. 1 7 The s t a n d a r d d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d i e s o f s u f f r a g e i n Canada and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e s p e c t i v e l y a r e C a t h e r i n e C l e v e r d o n , The Woman S u f f r a g e Movement i n Canada, ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1950) r e p r i n t e d i n f974 w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n by Ramsay Cook, and E l e a n o r F l e x n e r , C e n t u r y of S t r u g g l e : The Woman's R i g h t s Movement i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( M a s s a c h u s e t t s : B e l k n a p P r e s s , 1968). 1 2 t h e i r s , t h e r e f o r m and r e g e n e r a t i o n of s o c i e t y w o u l d be a s s u r e d ; woman w o u l d be man's e q u a l and would have t h e power t o l e g i s l a t e t h e w o r l d back t o r i g h t s . S e cond, some f e m i n i s t h i s t o r i a n s , s e e k i n g t o e x p l a i n t h e r e s u r g e n c e of f e m i n i s m i n r e c e n t y e a r s , and s e a r c h i n g a t t h e same t i m e f o r t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s , n a t u r a l l y d i s p l a y e d an i n t e r e s t i n t h e e a r l i e r women's movement. They t o o f o c u s s e d on t h e s u f f r a g e campaign as b e i n g t h e a r e a of women's h i s t o r y most o b v i o u s l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t day c o n c e r n s f o r e q u a l r i g h t s . Many of t h e s e s t u d i e s , however, s u f f e r e d from l i m i t a t i o n s b o t h p r a c t i c a l and c o n c e p t u a l . They t e n d e d t o a c c e p t a t f a c e v a l u e t h e c l a i m s of t h e s u f f r a g i s t s t h a t t h e v o t e w o u l d i n d e e d r e s u l t i n major s o c i e t a l change and t h e y l i m i t e d t h e i r e x a m i n a t i o n s t o t h e campaign i t s e l f , b o t h i n terms of c h r o n o l o g y and as a movement d i v o r c e d from o t h e r a s p e c t s of e v e r y d a y l i f e . Thus t h e a p p a r e n t f a i l u r e of s u f f r a g e t o a c h i e v e m a j o r changes i n s o c i e t y l e f t them a t somewhat of a l o s s . They had no way of e x p l a i n i n g how s u c h an a p p a r e n t l y v i g o r o u s and a g g r e s s i v e c ampaign had s u c h l i t t l e v i s i b l e (as f a r as t h e y were c o n c e r n e d ) r e s u l t s , . o r why t h e v i g o r and e n t h u s i a s m a p p e a r e d t o d i e so r a p i d l y ( t o t h e i r way of t h i n k i n g ) once t h e v o t e was won. The r e s u l t , i n the C a n a d i a n c o n t e x t , was a r e l i a n c e on u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , even g l i b , c o n c l u s i o n s as t o t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e " f a i l u r e " of t h e e a r l y women's movement, s u c h as " l a c k of v i s i o n " , s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d m a n i p u l a t i o n by male p o l i t i c i a n s , an undue emphasis on t h e m a t e r n a l r o l e and f a i l u r e t o d e v e l o p a 1 3 f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e of e x i s t i n g s o c i e t y . 1 8 A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s t o o , l i k e A i l e e n K r a d i t o r and W i l l i a m O ' N e i l l t e n d e d t o c r i t i c i z e A m e r i c a n women s u f f r a g i s t s f o r s h a l l o w n e s s of v i s i o n . 1 9 Each of t h e s e f a c t o r s had some im p a c t on t h e a c t i v i t i e s of o r g a n i z e d women, but none i s s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p l a i n t h e p o s t - s u f f r a g e s i t u a t i o n . P a r t of the p r o b l e m l i e s i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n of f e m i n i s m . Some f e m i n i s t h i s t o r i a n s have e q u a t e d demands f o r t h e v o t e w i t h demands f o r t o t a l e q u a l i t y and have t h e r e f o r e assumed t h a t t h e g r a n t i n g of t h e v o t e s h o u l d have r e s u l t e d i n much g r e a t e r e q u a l i t y between t h e s e x e s t h a n was a c t u a l l y t h e c a s e . B e c a use t h e y d i d not u n d e r s t a n d o r be c a u s e t h e y i g n o r e d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between m a t e r n a l and e q u a l r i g h t s f e m i n i s m t h e y l o o k e d f o r t h e wrong r e s u l t s . The ' m a j o r i t y of s u f f r a g i s t s were m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t s , s t r i v i n g t o p e r f e c t t h e e x i s t i n g s o c i e t y r a t h e r t h a n t o remake i t i n a new m o l d , t h e r e f o r e i t s h o u l d n o t be s u r p r i s i n g t h a t no r a d i c a l c h a n g e s o c c u r r e d once t h e y had won th e v o t e . More r e c e n t l y a g r o u p t h a t C a r o l B a c c h i has l a b e l l e d "new r e v i s i o n i s t s " has begun t o a r g u e t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d women w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e i r t i m e r a t h e r t h a n 1 8 L i n d a H a l e , "The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Woman S u f f r a g e Movement, 1890-1917" (M.A. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1977), p. 26; G l o r i a G e l l e r , "The Wartime E l e c t i o n s A c t of 1917 and t h e C a n a d i a n Woman's Movement," A t l a n t i s 2:1 ( F a l l 1976) pp. 105-6; C a r o l B a c c h i , " L i b e r a t i o n D e f e r r e d : t h e I d e a s of t h e E n g l i s h -C a n a d i a n S u f f r a g i s t s , 1877-1913," H i s t o i r e S o c i a l e / S o c i a l H i s t o r y 10:20 (November 1977) p. 434. 1 9 A i l e e n K r a d i t o r , The I d e a s of t h e Woman S u f f r a g e Movement (New Y o r k : C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965); W i l l i a m O ^ N e i l l , E v e r y o n e was B r a v e : a H i s t o r y of F e m i n i s m i n A m e r i c a ( C h i c a g o : Q u a d r a n g l e B o o k s , 1969). 1 4 j u d g i n g them by p r e s e n t i s t s t a n d a r d s . 2 0 Thus some s t u d i e s , l i k e B a c c h i ' s own " F i r s t Wave F e m i n i s m " a r e coming t o see s u f f r a g i s t s i n a s l i g h t l y more r a d i c a l l i g h t t h a n p r e v i o u s l y . The m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t d e s i r e " t o p r e s e r v e t h e f a m i l y a nd..not [ t o ] c h a l l e n g e t h e p r i o r i t y o f woman's m a t e r n a l f u n c t i o n " was, t h e new r e v i s i o n i s t s a r g u e , a b a s i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e move. However, t h e y a r e now coming t o see t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s t h r u s t by women r e f o r m e r s t o w a r d s a more p u b l i c r o l e i n p r e s e r v i n g t h e p r i m a c y of motherhood a s r a d i c a l b e c a u s e i t i n v o l v e d a s i g n i f i c a n t e x t e n s i o n o f women's p r e v i o u s l y a c c e p t e d r o l e . The q u e s t i o n of whether n o n - r a d i c a l change t o o k p l a c e a f t e r s u f f r a g e i s , however, a n o t h e r m a t t e r , and one t h a t has r e c e n t l y engaged t h e i n t e r e s t of a number of w r i t e r s . A decade ago, a s t u d y by t h e A m e r i c a n w r i t e r J . S t a n l e y Lemons v e n t u r e d i n t o t h e f i e l d of p o s t - s u f f r a g e r e f o r m a c t i v i t y . 2 1 I t s aim was t o i n v e s t i g a t e A m e r i c a n f e m i n i s m i n t h e 1920's, a c o n s c i o u s d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e heavy e m p h a s i s on s u f f r a g e t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d most o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y s t u d i e s . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s e s t u d i e s , C a r o l B a c c h i , " F i r s t Wave F e m i n i s m ; H i s t o r y ' s Judgement," i n Norma G r i e v e and P a t r i c i a Grimshaw, e d s . , A u s t r a l i a n Women: F e m i n i s t P e r s p e c t i v e s ( M e l b o u r n e , O x f o r d U n i v e r s t y P r e s s , 1981 ) . B a c c h i h e r s e l f has a l m o s t r e v e r s e d h e r o p i n i o n s s i n c e t h e m i d -1970' s. Her r e c e n t monograph L i b e r a t i o n D e f e r r e d ? The I d e a s o f t h e E n g l i s h - C a n a d i a n S u f f r a g i s t s , 1877-1918 ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1983) r e p r e s e n t s i m i d p o i n t between h e r p r e s e n t and f o r m e r o p i n i o n . See a l s o E l l e n D u B o i s , "The R a d i c a l i s m o f t h e Woman S u f f r a g e Movement: N o t e s Toward t h e R e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f N i n e t e e n t h - C e n t u r y F e m i n i s m , " F e m i n i s t S t u d i e s 3:1/2 ( F a l l 1975) pp. 63-71 and D u B o i s , F e m i n i s m and S u f f r a g e : The Emergence of an I n d e p e n d e n t Woman's Movement i n A m e r i c a , 1848-1869 ( I t h a c a : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1978) . J . S t a n l e y Lemons, The Woman as C i t i z e n : S o c i a l F e m i n i s m i n t h e 1920's ( U r b a n a , I l l i n o i s : U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1 9 7 3 ) . 1 5 Lemons c o n c l u d e d t h a t f e m i n i s m d i d not d i e a f t e r s u f f r a g e b u t r a t h e r t h a t m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m c o n s t i t u t e d an i m p o r t a n t l i n k i n t h e r e f o r m c h a i n from t h e P r o g r e s s i v e e r a t o t h e New D e a l . Women's a c t i v i t y , he c l a i m e d , s l o w e d i n t h e mid-1920's f o l l o w i n g t h e Supreme C o u r t d e c i s i o n w h i c h r e v e r s e d much newly e n a c t e d s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n and t h e d e f e a t of the P r o g r e s s i v e P a r t y i n t h e 1924 e l e c t i o n s . But he i d e n t i f i e d o r g a n i z e d s o c i a l f e m i n i s t s as one of t h e few segments of s o c i e t y t h a t c o n t i n u e d t o promote r e f o r m d u r i n g a p e r i o d when t h e l a r g e r P r o g r e s s i v e movement was f r a g m e n t i n g under t h e p r e s s u r e s of w o r l d - w i d e i s s u e s of war and p e a c e . Up u n t i l t h e mid 1920's, Lemons i d e n t i f i e d as h i g h a l e v e l of a c t i v i t y as i n t h e p r e - s u f f r a g e p e r i o d . I t was o n l y a f t e r t h i s t i m e , he c l a i m e d , t h a t s u c c e s s i n r e f o r m began t o e l u d e f e m i n i s t s , f o r c i n g them o n t o t h e d e f e n s i v e u n t i l t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e New D e a l . 2 2 D u r i n g t h i s l a t t e r p e r i o d , " i n s t e a d of b e i n g a b l e t o c o u n t t h e number of r e f o r m s won t h e y o f t e n had t o be s a t i s f i e d w i t h p r e v e n t i n g m i s c h i e f . " 2 3 Some r e c e n t C a n a d i a n s t u d i e s have t a k e n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h . R a t h e r t h a n s p e c i f i c a l l y f o l l o w i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s of o r g a n i z e d clubwomen i n t h e t r a d i t i o n of S t r o n g -Boag' s The P a r l i a m e n t of Women, t h e y have a p p r o a c h e d p o s t -s u f f r a g e a c t i v i t y from t h e p o i n t of v i e w of c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e s t o women's r o l e i n s o c i e t y w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n c h a n g i n g g o a l s and p r a c t i c e s and have t r a c e d t h e r a p i d r i s e of t h e c h i l d r a i s i n g 2 2 I b i d . , c h s . 7,8. 2 3 I b i d . , p. 229. 1 6 " e x p e r t " i n t h e y e a r s a f t e r t h e F i r s t W o r l d War. 2" S t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by b e h a v i o r i s m and t h e new s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , d o c t o r s , t e a c h e r s , and t h e "new p r o f e s s i o n a l s " i n f i e l d s l i k e s o c i a l w e l f a r e and p s y c h o l o g y blamed h a p h a z a r d t r a d i t i o n a l c h i l d r a i s i n g methods f o r many of s o c i e t y ' s i l l s and c l a i m e d t h a t o n l y t h e y c o u l d show m o t h e r s t h e c o r r e c t s c i e n t i f i c methods of c h i l d r a i s i n g t h a t w o u l d p r o d u c e a new g e n e r a t i o n of h e a l t h y w e l l a d j u s t e d c i t i z e n s . 2 5 "A new v i s i o n of s o c i e t y r e q u i r e d a new f a m i l y , t h e mother s u b m i s s i v e t o a n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y of o r d e r , " c l a i m s S i l v e r m a n but q u e s t i o n s w h e t h e r women's a c q u i e s c e n c e t o the demands o f t h i s new, h o m e - c e n t r e d r o l e was as g e n e r a l as i t a p p e a r e d . 2 6 A l o n g w i t h a d v i c e from p r o f e s s i o n a l s , d e s t i t u t e m o t h e r s i n t h e 1920's were i n c r e a s i n g l y o f f e r e d f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e , no l o n g e r as c h a r i t y but by t h e s t a t e , as "payment f o r s e r v i c e s r e n d e r e d " i n b r i n g i n g up f u t u r e c i t i z e n s . I n . t h e s e c o n d h a l f of the 1910's most p r o v i n c e s p a s s e d M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n l e g i s l a t i o n . S t r o n g - B o a g has n o t e d t h a t " t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s t a t e c h o s e t o V e r o n i c a Strong-Boag,. " I n t r u d e r s i n t h e N u r s e r y : C h i l d c a r e P r o f e s s i o n a l s Reshape"' t h e Y e a r s One t o f i v e , 1 920-1940," i n J o y P a r r e d . , C h i l d h o o d and F a m i l y i n C a n a d i a n H i s t o r y ( T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d & S t e w a r t , 1982), pp. 160-178; Norah L e w i s , " A d v i s i n g t h e P a r e n t s : C h i l d r e a r i n g i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n t h e I n t e r w a r Y e a r s " (Ed.D. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1980). See P a t r i c i a Rooke and R u d i S c h n e l l , " C h i l d W e l f a r e i n E n g l i s h Canada, 1920-1943," S o c i a l S e r v i c e Review 5:33 (September 1981) pp. 485-506; Rooke and S c h n e l l , "The R i s e and D e c l i n e of B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a P r o t e s t a n t C h i l d r e n ' s Homes as Woman's Domain 1850-1930," A t l a n t i s 7:2 ( S p r i n g 1982) pp. 21-35; James S t r u t h e r s , "A P r o f e s s i o n i n C r i s i s : C h a r l o t t e W h i t t o n and C a n a d i a n S o c i a l S e r v i c e i n t h e 1930's," C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v iew, 62:2 (June 1981) pp. 169-85. E l i a n e S i l v e r m a n , " W r i t i n g C a n a d i a n Women's H i s t o r y , " p. 518. 1 7 r e c o g n i z e needy f e m a l e c i t i z e n s a l m o s t s o l e l y i n t h e i r c a p a c i t y as m o t h e r s r e f l e c t e d how f a r women had y e t t o g o . " 2 7 But clubwomen's s u p p o r t o f and d e l i g h t a t t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f p e n s i o n s , i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a t l e a s t , i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y p l a c e d f a r more s t r e s s on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m a t e r n a l r o l e was b e i n g p u b l i c l y r e c o g n i s e d t h a n on t h e i s s u e o f whether o r not women were a c h i e v i n g g r e a t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e and freedom as p e r s o n s . L i k e w i s e , t h e w o r k p l a c e i n t h e 1920's was t h e t a r g e t f o r l e g i s l a t i o n , i n t h e form of minimum wages and r u d i m e n t a r y i n s p e c t i o n and c o n t r o l of f a c t o r i e s , w h i c h clubwomen p r a i s e d as an advance but w h i c h many w o r k i n g women f o u n d made l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e i r s o c i a l and economic s t a t u s . 2 8 P e r h a p s one of t h e c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h i n t h e s e a r e a s l i e s i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r c e p t i o n o f b o t h t h e p r o b l e m s and t h e s o l u t i o n s by m i d d l e - c l a s s m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t r e f o r m e r s and t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s women who were t h e o b j e c t s o f t h e fo r m e r r e f o r m V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "Canada's E a r l y E x p e r i e n c e w i t h Income S u p p l e m e n t s : The I n t r o d u c t i o n o f M o t h e r s ' A l l o w a n c e s , " A t l a n t i s 4:2 ( S p r i n g 1972) p. 43; see a l s o S t r o n g - B o a g , '"Wages f o r Housework': M o t h e r s ' A l l o w a n c e s and the B e g i n n i n g s of S o c i a l S e c u r i t y i n Canada," J o u r n a l of C a n a d i a n S t u d i e s 14:1 ( S p r i n g 1 979), pp. 24-34. See Susan Mann T r o f i m e n k o f f , "102 M u f f l e d V o i c e s : Canada's I n d u s t r i a l Women i n t h e 1880's," A t l a n t i s 3:1 (Autumn 1977) pp. 66-83; L i n d a Bohen, "Women Wo r k e r s i n O n t a r i o : A S o c i o - L e g a l H i s t o r y , " U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o F a c u l t y of Law Review 31 (Au g u s t 1973) pp. 45-74; Graham S. Lowe, " C l a s s , J o b and Gender i n t h e C a n a d i a n O f f i c e , " L a b o u r / L e T r a v a i l l e u r 10 (Autumn 1982) pp. 11-37; S t a r R o s e n t h a l , "Union M a i d s : O r g a n i z e d Women Workers i n V a n c o u v e r , 1900-1915," B C S t u d i e s 41 ( S p r i n g 1979) pp. 36-55; J e a n S a n g s t e r , "The 1907 B e l l T e l e p h o n e S t r i k e : O r g a n i z i n g Women W o r k e r s , " L a b o u r / L e T r a v a i l l e u r 3 (1978) pp. 109-30. 18 a c t i v i t y . As S t r o n g - B o a g has p o i n t e d o u t , "The a l l - t o o - f a m i l i a r h a r d s h i p s of b l u e c o l l a r l a b o u r e n e r g i z e d a new g e n e r a t i o n o f women w o r k e r s " w h i l e m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t r e f o r m e r s s i g n a l l y f a i l e d t o do s o . 2 9 The i d e a l i s m of m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m was a remnant of a p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n and w o r l d v i e w t h a t a p p e a r s t o have been u n a b l e t o a d a p t t o a c h a n g i n g s o c i a l and economic o r d e r w h i c h c r e p t upon i t unawares j u s t as i t s p r o p o n e n t s began t o f e e l t h a t t h e y were a c h i e v i n g s u c c e s s . Some A m e r i c a n s have d e a l t w i t h a t t i t u d e s t o women and t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o s o c i e t a l c h anges as p a r t o f t h e b r o a d e r s t u d y o f c h a n g i n g sex r o l e s i n t h e p a s t c e n t u r y . B a r b a r a W e l t e r ' s s t u d y of t h e " c u l t o f t r u e womanhood" s t o o d a l o n e i n t h i s f i e l d f o r n e a r l y two d e c a d e s . 3 0 L a t e r s t u d i e s c o n f i r m e d h e r f i n d i n g s t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e q u a l i t i e s t h a t came t o be seen as d e s i r a b l e i n a woman i n t h e m i d d l e of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . But i t s c h i e f weakness l a y i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t d i d not a l l o w women any a c t i v e p a r t i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e i r own r o l e ; W e l t e r saw f e m a l e r o l e s as l a r g e l y a male i m p o s i t i o n . More r e c e n t s t u d i e s have a t t e m p t e d t o a n a l y z e sex r o l e s w i t h i n a much b r o a d e r c o n t e x t . P e t e r F i l e n e i n H i m / H e r / S e l f , f o r i n s t a n c e , i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of s t u d y i n g b o t h male and f e m a l e r o l e s t o g e t h e r , p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t c h a n g e s i n r o l e were not s i m p l y a r e s u l t of s o c i e t a l change but were i n f l u e n c e d a l s o V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "The G i r l o f t h e New Day: C a n a d i a n W o r k i n g Women i n t h e 1920's," L a b o u r / L e T r a v a i l l e u r 4(1979) p.163. B a r b a r a W a l t e r , "The C u l t of T r u e Womenhood, 1820-1860," A m e r i c a n Q u a r t e r l y 18:2, p a r t 1 (Summer 1966) pp. 151-74. 1 9 by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of c h a n g i n g p e r c e p t i o n s and a c t i o n s of t h e s e x e s , t h e m s e l v e s . 3 1 Thus he s e e s t h e emphasis on a n u r t u r i n g f e m i n i n e r o l e w i t h i n t h e home as b a l a n c e d by t h e i n c r e a s i n g demands f o r a s s e r t i v e m a s c u l i n i t y w i t h i n t h e male s p h e r e o f b u s i n e s s and p u b l i c l i f e i n t h e t h i r d q u a r t e r o f t h e l a s t c e n t u r y . B u t , he m a i n t a i n s , by t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e A m e r i c a n dream of r a g s - t o - r i c h e s s u c c e s s t h r o u g h p e r s o n a l e f f o r t became i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o s s i b l e t o a t t a i n and a t e n s i o n began t o grow between t h e forme r male and f e m a l e s p h e r e s and r o l e s w h i c h , i n t u r n , became l e s s and l e s s a b l e t o answer t h e needs o f t h e s e x e s . M a l e f r u s t r a t i o n i n t h e f a c e of g r o w i n g c o r p o r a t e and b u r e a u c r a t i c s t r u c t u r e s was t o some e x t e n t p u r g e d by t h e a g g r e s s i o n of t h e F i r s t W o r l d War and t h e r e s u l t was a change i n sex r o l e s i n t h e 1920's, c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e i d e a of t h e c o m p a n i o n a t e m a r r i a g e i n w h i c h b o t h p a r t n e r s would p l a y a more e q u a l r o l e i n c r e a t i n g a p r o t e c t i v e and s u p p o r t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s . But su c h a change r e q u i r e d t i m e f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f b e l i e f s and p e r c e p t i o n s and f o r w o r k i n g o u t new d i v i s i o n s i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and t i m e was w o r k i n g a g a i n s t t h e new men and women of t h e 20's. Few, F i l e n e c l a i m s , managed t o make t h e change w i t h any s u c c e s s b e f o r e t h e sudden o n s e t of t h e g r e a t d e p r e s s i o n s e t s o c i e t y once more on i t s h e e l s and pushed c o n c e r n f o r c h a n g i n g sex r o l e s i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d ; t h e s t r u g g l e f o r s u r v i v a l was now utmost i n the 3 1 P e t e r F i l e n e , H i m / H e r / S e l f : Sex R o l e s i n Modern A m e r i c a (New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , J o v a n o v i t c h , 1974). 3 2 I b i d . , c h . 5. 20 n a t i o n ' s c o l l e c t i v e p s y c h e . 3 2 H i m / H e r / S e l f s t a n d s a l o n e i n a t t e m p t i n g t o c h a r t and e x p l a i n t h e cha n g e s i n t h e r o l e s of b o t h s e x e s ; most s t u d i e s have c o n f i n e d t h e m s e l v e s t o women's r o l e s a l o n e . C a r l D e g l e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , i d e n t i f i e s what he c a l l s a b a s i c t e n s i o n between women's r o l e s as i n d i v i d u a l s and as m o t h e r s . 3 3 The h i s t o r i c f a m i l y , he c l a i m s depended " f o r i t s e x i s t e n c e and c h a r a c t e r on women's s u b o r d i n a t i o n " and d e s p i t e a l l a t t e m p t s i n t h e p a s t c e n t u r y t o i n c r e a s e f e m a l e autonomy and e q u a l i t y he n o t e s t h a t women's l i v e s a r e s t i l l , i n t h e ma i n , shaped a r o u n d t h e f a m i l y . S h e i l a Rothman has a l s o d e a l t w i t h t h e e f f e c t of c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e s and b e l i e f s a b o u t women and t h e r o l e s t h e y p l a y i n s o c i e t y . 3 " She se e s t h e i d e o l o g y o f e d u c a t e d motherhood l e a d i n g t o p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y on t h e p a r t o f A m e r i c a n women once t h e v o t e was won. But when woman-supported l e g i s l a t i o n , s u c h as t h e T921 Shepard-Towner A c t w h i c h was i n t e n d e d t o r e d u c e t h e i n f a n t and m a t e r n a l m o r t a l i t y r a t e s , and a c t s t o c o n t r o l h o u r s and work c o n d i t i o n s , widows' p e n s i o n s and t h e l i k e d i d not d e v e l o p as a n t i c i p a t e d , she sees women s l i p p i n g back once more i n t o a p r e d o m i n a n t l y d o m e s t i c r o l e , a l b e i t a d i f f e r e n t one t o t h a t o f t h e p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n . L i k e F i l e n e , she has i d e n t i f i e d a much g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s on woman as w i f e and companion i n t h e 1920's t h a n had been t h e c a s e i n t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y . 3 3 C a r l N. D e g l e r , At Odds: Women and F a m i l y i n A m e r i c a f r o m t h e R e v o l u t i o n t o t h e P r e s e n t (New Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1980) . 3" S h e i l a Rothman, Woman's P r o p e r P l a c e , p. 177. 21 W i l l i a m C h a f e ' s s t u d y p u r p o s e l y • d e a l t w i t h t h e p e r i o d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e w i n n i n g of t h e f r a n c h i s e , i n an a t t e m p t t o c o r r e c t what D e g l e r has c a l l e d " t h e s u f f r a g e o r i e n t a t i o n o f women's r i g h t s s t u d i e s " . 3 5 C h a f e s u r v e y s women's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p o l i t i c s , i n d u s t r y , p r o f e s s i o n s and o t h e r a s p e c t s of A m e r i c a n l i f e i n o r d e r t o i d e n t i f y and a c c o u n t f o r c h a n g i n g s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l r o l e s i n t h e p o s t - s u f f r a g e p e r i o d . He c o n c l u d e s t h a t women f a i l e d t o a c h i e v e e q u a l i t y w i t h s u f f r a g e b e cause t h e y " s e r i o u s l y o v e r - e s t i m a t e d t h e im p a c t of t h e b a l l o t on t h e s t r u c t u r e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e s e x e s . " 3 6 N e v e r t h e l e s s , he does n ot see t h i s f a i l u r e as t h e end of women's p u b l i c a c t i v i t y , m e r e l y as y e t a n o t h e r f a c t o r t h a t e f f e c t e d c o n t i n u i n g change and devel o p m e n t i n women's sex r o l e s . 3 7 S t u d i e s of c h a n g i n g sex r o l e s have not p r o d u c e d a c o m p l e t e answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f what r e f o r m - m i n d e d women d i d a f t e r s u f f r a g e , n or of t h e i m p a c t t h a t t h e i r a c t i o n s , o r l a c k of them, had on t h e w i d e r s o c i e t y . But t h e y have i l l u m i n a t e d i m p o r t a n t Quoted i n E s t e l l e Freedman, "The New Woman: C h a n g i n g V i e w s of Women i n t h e 1920's," J o u r n a l of A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y 61 (September 1974) p. 392. W i l l i a m C h a f e , The A m e r i c a n Women: Her C h a n g i n g S o c i a l Economic and P o l i t i c a l R o l e s , ' 1920-1970 (New Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972). E l a i n e T y l e r May, G r e a t E x p e c t a t i o n s : M a r r i a g e and D i v o r c e i n P o s t V i c t o r i a n A m e r i c a ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1980); W i l l i a m L e a c h , T r u e Love and P e r f e c t U n i o n (New Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s , ' 1980); L o i s S c h a r f , To Work and t o Wed: Female Employment, F e m i n i s m and t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n ( W e s t p o i n t , Conn.: Greenwood P r e s s , 1973). Two r e c e n t C a n a d i a n s t u d i e s of t h e same ge n r e but d e a l i n g w i t h a much e a r l i e r t i m e p e r i o d a r e S y l v i a Van K i r k , "Many Tender T i e s " : Women i n F u r Trade S o c i e t y ( W i n n i p e g : Watson & Dwyer, 1980) and J e n n i f e r Brown, S t r a n g e r s i n B l o o d : F u r T r a d e Company F a m i l i e s i n I n d i a n C o u n t r y ( V a n c o u v e r : U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a P r e s s , 1980). 22 c o n t i n u i t i e s as w e l l as d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s between t h e end of t h e p r o g r e s s i v e e r a and t h e s t a r t of t h e modern e r a . B o t h F i l e n e and Rothman have n o t e d i m p o r t a n t changes i n e x p e c t a t i o n s , a t t i t u d e s and r o l e s i n t h e 1920's w h i c h h e l p t o e x p l a i n t h e s o r t s of a c t i v i t i e s t h a t women engaged i n as w e l l as t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e a c t i o n s . They a l s o c l a r i f y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e changes d i d not t a k e p l a c e s o l e l y i n r e l a t i o n t o women; major c h a n g e s t o o k p l a c e t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e whole of s o c i e t y , i n s t i t u t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s , i n p r i v a t e l i f e and i n p u b l i c l i f e , f o r men, women and c h i l d r e n . These A m e r i c a n s t u d i e s a r e v a l u a b l e t o C a n a d i a n h i s t o r i a n s f r om t h e p o i n t of v i e w of i n d i c a t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h as w e l l as i n i n d i c a t i n g b r o a d t r e n d s and i n f l u e n c e s i n A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y . However, t h e y must be used w i t h c a u t i o n i n t h e C a n a d i a n c o n t e x t f o r n e i t h e r s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s nor b r o a d t r e n d s were i d e n t i c a l i n t h e two c o u n t r i e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s e t - b a c k t h a t A m e r i c a n r e f o r m e r s r e c e i v e d w i t h t h e Supreme C o u r t d e c i s i o n s on l e g i s l a t i o n s u c h as t h e Shepard-Towner A c t was not p a r a l l e l e d i n Canada, n e i t h e r was t h e movement i n t h e 1920's t o w a r d changed sex r o l e s so p r o n o u n c e d . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d a t t h i s p o i n t p e r h a p s t h a t t h e d i c h o t o m y w h i c h e x i s t s between t h e F r e n c h and E n g l i s h s e c t o r s of C a n a d i a n s o c i e t y i s a l s o t o be f o u n d i n t h e w r i t i n g of t h e h i s t o r y of i t s women. T h i s i s p a r t l y due t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n c u l t u r e w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n d i f f e r i n g s i t u a t i o n s and d i f f e r i n g s e q u e n c e s of e x p e r i e n c e s f o r women i n t h e two s o c i e t i e s and makes c o m p a r i s o n s 23 between t h e two d i f f i c u l t , i f not i m p o s s i b l e . The movement by m i d d l e - c l a s s women out of t h e home a t t h e end of t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y t h a t has been t h e c e n t r e of so many E n g l i s h C a n a d i a n s t u d i e s was not so p r o n o u n c e d i n Quebec. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s e women t o o formed o r g a n i z a t i o n s , had a s p i r a t i o n s and e x p e r i e n c e d changes i n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e i r r o l e s as women, w i v e s and m o t h e r s . T h e i r e x p e r i e n c e has formed t h e b a s i s f o r a l i v e l y and e x p a n d i n g l i t e r a t u r e . The r o l e of women i n r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s has been seen as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e l i m i t e d c h o i c e s of i m m i g r a t i o n , d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e o r m a r r i a g e and c o n t i n u a l p r e g n a n c y , o f f e r i n g some measure of autonomy and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n . 3 8 And t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between nuns and o r g a n i z e d g r o u p s of laywomen a t t h e end of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y and b e g i n n i n g of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y has been seen as r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e g r o w t h of a c e r t a i n measure of s o c i a l f e m i n i s m b e f o r e r e a c t i o n from t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e and p o w e r f u l c h u r c h and c l e r g y b r o u g h t t h e movement t o a h a l t a f t e r " W o r l d War O n e . 3 9 The r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n of L ' h i s t o i r e des femmes au Quebec d e p u i s q u a t r e s i e c l e s , has marked a m i l e s t o n e i n women's D a n i e l l e J u t e a u - L e e , "Les R e l i g i e u s e s du Quebec: l e u r i n f l u e n c e s u r l a v i e p r o f e s s i o n e l l e des femmes, 1908-1954," A t l a n t i s 5:2 ( S p r i n g 1980) pp. 22-33; D. Suzanne C r o s s , "The N e g l e c t e d M a j o r i t y : t h e C h a n g i n g R o l e of Women i n N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y M o n t r e a l , " i n L i n d a K e a l e y , e d . , The N e g l e c t e d M a j o r i t y , pp. 67-86; M i c h e l i n e Dumont-Johnson, "Les communautes r e l i g i e u s e s e t l a c o n d i t i o n f e m i n i n e , " R e c h e r c h e s s o c i o g r a p h i q u e s 19:1 ( j a n v i e r -a v r i l 1978) pp. 79-102. M a r t a D a n y l o w y c z , " C h a n g i n g R e l a t i o n s h i p s : Nuns and F e m i n i s m i n M o n t r e a l , 1890-1925," " H i s t o i r e S o c i a l e / S o c i a l H i s t o r y 14:28 (November 1981) pp. 213-234; M a r i e L a v i g n e , Y o l a n d e P i n a r d and J e n n i f e r S t p d d a r t , "The F e d e r a t i o n N a t i o n a l e S a i n t - J e a n - B a p t i s t e and t h e Woman's Movement i n Quebec," i n L i n d a K e a l e y , e d . , A Not U n r e a s o n a b l e C l a i m , pp. 71-88. 24 h i s t o r y , b o t h i n sc o p e and a p p r o a c h . " 0 C o v e r i n g c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s of work, r e p r o d u c t i o n , p u b l i c p o l i c y , l e g a l s t a t u s , i d e o l o g y and c u l t u r e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e l i v e s of women, t h e a u t h o r s have r e j e c t e d t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d p e r i o d i z a t i o n and i n s t e a d o r d e r e d t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e i r s t u d y a r o u n d c a t e g o r i e s t h a t r e l a t e more c l o s e l y t o women and t h e i r c h a n g i n g r o l e s w i t h i n s o c i e t y . A number of q u e s t i o n s t h e n , a r e s u g g e s t e d by t h e l i t e r a t u r e , w h i c h may be p u r s u e d t h r o u g h a s t u d y of women's r e f o r m a c t i v i t y i n t h e p e r i o d 1910-1928. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i s w e l l s u i t e d as a c a s e s t u d y f o r t h e C a n a d i a n c o n t e x t . As t h e f o u r t h p r o v i n c e t o g a i n t h e f e m a l e f r a n c h i s e i t can be seen as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e - i t was n e i t h e r a r a d i c a l l e a d e r n or a t a i l - e n d f o l l o w e r coming i n t o l i n e m e r e l y b e c a u s e s u f f r a g e was a f a i t a c c o m p l i e l s e w h e r e . The o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o w h i c h B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a women b e l o n g e d and t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y worked f o r r e f o r m were c o m p a r a b l e o r i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e a c r o s s t h e n a t i o n - t h e L o c a l C o u n c i l of Women (LCW), WCTU, Women's I n s t i t u t e s , s u f f r a g e , p o l i t i c a l and c i t i z e n s h i p s o c i e t i e s . T h r o u g h n a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n s and p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t s , women t h r o u g h o u t E n g l i s h -s p e a k i n g Canada were i n t o u c h w i t h e a c h o t h e r ' s a c t i v i t i e s and s h a r e d common g o a l s . The r e s u l t s of t h e i r a c t i v i t y i n t h e form of new l e g i s l a t i o n and w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s f o r women and c h i l d r e n 4 0 Le C o l l e c t i f C l i o , L ' H i s t o i r e des femmes au Quebec d e p u i s q u a t r e s i e c l e s , ( M o n t r e l : Les Q u i n z e , 1982). \ 25 were a l s o s i m i l a r a c r o s s t h e n a t i o n . The q u e s t i o n of m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s , e q u a l g u a r d i a n s h i p , c hanges i n d i v o r c e and m a r r i a g e l aws and minimum wages f o r women, f o r i n s t a n c e , came b e f o r e t h e l e g i s l a t u r e s of most p r o v i n c e s i n t h e 1920's. D e s p i t e t h e c l a i m s of H e l e n M a c G i l l i n 1928 t h a t " B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . . . f r o m b e i n g t h e most backward of P r o v i n c e s , t o d a y l e a d s i n s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n " , t h i s was o b v i o u s l y not t h e c a s e . " ' T h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p r o v i n c e was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e r e s t of E n g l i s h Canada, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e f i v e p r o v i n c e s west of Q uebec." 2 C o n c e n t r a t i o n on a s i n g l e c i t y w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e f a c i l i t a t e s a d e e p e r e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e m o t i v e s , methods and i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d i n r e f o r m . V a n c o u v e r ' s p o s i t i o n as t h e major u r b a n c e n t r e i n t h e p r o v i n c e ^ and t h e t h i r d l a r g e s t c i t y i n Canada a l s o a l l o w s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s t o be made i n t h e n a t i o n a l and even i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . The e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e p r o v i d e s a f a i r l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e a c c o u n t and e x p l a n a t i o n of many a s p e c t s of t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y women's movement, but some gaps e x i s t and some q u e s t i o n s have e i t h e r been answered u n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y o r r e m a i n as y e t unanswered. An e x a m i n a t i o n of a g r o u p of s i m i l a r y e t d i s t i n c t 4 1 H e l e n M a c G i l l , Laws f o r Women and C h i l d r e n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ( V i c t o r i a : n.p., 1928) p. 6. 4 2 The m a r i t i m e p r o v i n c e s and Quebec were g e n e r a l l y s l o w e r t o a c t . F o r e x a m p l e , Nova S c o t i a d i d n o t p a s s M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s l e g i s l a t i o n u n t i l 1930, Quebec d i d so i n 1937 and New B r u n s w i c k , a l t h o u g h i t had an a c t on t h e books i n 1930, d i d not a c t u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e any p e n s i o n s t i l l 1940. On t h e o t h e r hand a l l p r o v i n c e s , e x c e p t P r i n c e Edward I s l a n d and New B r u n s w i c k had women's minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n by 1920, but Nova S c o t i a and Quebec d i d not a p p o i n t r e g u l a t o r y b o a r d s u n t i l 1927 and 1930 r e s p e c t i v e l y . 26 women's c l u b s a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l o f f e r s an o p p o r t u n i t y t o f i l l some gaps and p u r s u e s u c h q u e s t i o n s . T h i s t h e s i s c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h f o u r such a r e a s . The f i r s t i s s o c i a l c l a s s and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between and w i t h i n c l a s s t h a t form t h e s t r u c t u r a l f o u n d a t i o n s of s o c i e t y . The m a j o r i t y of women i n v o l v e d i n r e f o r m have been c a t e g o r i z e d as m i d d l e c l a s s by a number o f s t u d i e s . But r e f o r m was d i r e c t e d n o t o n l y a t f a c t o r s w h i c h p r e d o m i n a n t l y a f f e c t e d m i d d l e - c l a s s women's own l i v e s but a l s o a t p r o b l e m s w h i c h e x i s t e d f o r w o r k i n g - c l a s s women. M o r r i s o n has c l a i m e d t h a t i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m " h e l p e d m i d d l e c l a s s women i n t h e f e m i n i s t movement t o r e c o n c i l e t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e i r own c l a s s i n t e r e s t i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s t a t u s quo w i t h t h e u r g i n g s o f a h u m a n i t a r i a n c o n s c i e n c e . The end r e s u l t was a form of s o c i a l a c t i o n d e s i g n e d t o a l t e r n ot s o c i e t y but s o c i e t y ' s v i c t i m s . ' " 1 3 By t h e 1920's, women s t i l l had no c l e a r and c o n c i s e p h i l o s o p h y of an e q u a l i t y t h a t w o u l d t r a n s c e n d b o t h sex and c l a s s , b u t t h e i r c o n c e r n f o r r e f o r m s s u c h as t h e minimum wage and m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s seems t o have been b a s e d on more t h a n s i m p l y a w i s h t o p r e s e r v e t h e s t a t u s quo f o r t h e m s e l v e s , a t l e a s t i n t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a c o n t e x t . Clubwomen d i d not ap p e a r c o n s c i o u s l y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between r e f o r m f o r t h e m s e l v e s and r e f o r m f o r w o r k i n g - c l a s s women, p o s s i b l y b e cause t h e y h e l d so s t r o n g l y t h e i d e a of t h e oneness o f womanhood. In o t h e r words, t h e i r b e l i e f i n t h e t e n e t s o f m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m a p p e a r s t o have " 3 T e r r e n c e M o r r i s o n , " T h e i r P r o p e r S p h e r e , " pp. 73-74. 27 been so s t r o n g t h a t i t c o u l d sometimes overcome t h e i r a wareness of c l a s s , a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y . W o r k i n g - c l a s s women t o o , from t i m e t o t i m e , f e l t a sense of t h e s i s t e r h o o d of a l l women t h a t prompted them t o e n l i s t t h e a i d of o r g i v e s u p p o r t t o m i d d l e - c l a s s clubwomen i n s p e c i f i c c a m p a i g n s . T h e i r m o t i v a t i o n f o r s e e k i n g r e f o r m s s u c h as m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s and minimum wages stemmed from t h e d e s i r e t o remove some of t h e w o r s t h a r d s h i p s of t h e i r e v e r y d a y l i v e s and t o a c h i e v e f o r t h e m s e l v e s some measure of j u s t i c e and t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o l i v e d e c e n t l y . C l a s s f a c t o r s n o r m a l l y k ept t h e two g r o u p s f a r a p a r t p h y s i c a l l y , s o c i a l l y , e c o n o m i c a l l y and i d e o l o g i c a l l y , but t h e r e was some o v e r l a p and c o - o p e r a t i o n on i s s u e s t h a t were p e r c e i v e d as i m p o r t a n t by b o t h , a l b e i t f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s . What f a c t o r s needed t o be i n o p e r a t i o n t o a l l o w t h i s c o - o p e r a t i o n ? How d i d e a c h g r o u p p e r c e i v e t h e o t h e r d u r i n g p e r i o d s when no c o - o p e r a t i o n was t a k i n g p l a c e ? Was i t o n l y a f e e l i n g o f s i s t e r h o o d t h a t b r o u g h t them t o g e t h e r o r was t h e s u p p o r t o f male p r e s s u r e g r o u p s j u s t as i m p o r t a n t and welcome? 4 4 Those s t u d i e s t h a t p l a c e t h e m a j o r i t y of women c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e f o r m as " m i d d l e - c l a s s " have t e n d e d t o l o o k l a r g e l y a t l e a d e r s r a t h e r t h a n a t rank and f i l e m embers. 4 5 Were b o t h g r o u p s i d e n t i c a l o r d i d t h e l a t t e r r e p r e s e n t a d i f f e r e n t s t r a t u m of 4 4 E s t e l l e Freedman, " S e p a r a t i s m as S t r a t e g y : Female I n s t i t u t i o n B u i l d i n g and A m e r i c a n F e m i n i s m , 1870-1930," F e m i n i s t S t u d i e s 5:3 ( F a l l 1979) p. 524. 28 s o c i e t y and d i d t h e y p e r h a p s b r i n g s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s and g o a l s to- c l u b d i r e c t e d r e f o r m ? I n t h e C a n a d i a n c o n t e x t " m i d d l e - c l a s s " i s used t o d e s c r i b e a l m o s t h a l f of t h e p o p u l a t i o n ; i t i n c l u d e s wide d i f f e r e n c e s i n economic c o n d i t i o n s , r e l i g i o n , e d u c a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s , s o c i a l s t a t u s and i n d i v i d u a l a b i l i t y . An a t t e m p t a t a more p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n or d e s c r i p t i o n of b o t h clubmembers and c l a s s would seem a p p r o p r i a t e . " 6 The s e c o n d theme f o l l o w s c l o s e l y from t h e s e l a s t q u e s t i o n s and c o n c e r n s t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e c l u b s and t h e i r methods o f w o r k i n g . S t r o n g - B o a g has shown i n h e r s t u d y of t h e NCWC b o t h t h e s t r u c t u r e i t had and t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t a r o s e from i t . LCW's i n V a n c o u v e r and V i c t o r i a were amongst ' t h e most a c t i v e r e f o r m a s s o c i a t i o n s i n t h e p r o v i n c e i n t h e se c o n d and t h i r d d e cades o f t h e c e n t u r y . A l s o of some i m p o r t a n c e , b e c a u s e of t h e i r age and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n s , were t h e WCTU, I m p e r i a l O r d e r of D a u g h t e r s of t h e Empire (IODE), YWCA and Women's I n t e r n a t i o n a l League f o r Peace and Freedom (WILPF). There were a l s o a number of s m a l l but a c t i v e l o c a l c l u b s t h a t were formed i n t h e l a t e r V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t of Women, c h . 4; C a r o l B a c c h i , L i b e r a t i o n D e f e r r e d ? p. 5; Wayne R o b e r t s , " ' R o c k i n g t h e C r a d l e f o r t h e W o r l d ' " , p. 26; Di a n n e C r o s s l e y , "The B.C. L i b e r a l P a r t y and Women's Re f o r m s , " i n B a r b a r a Latham and C a t h y K e s s , e d s . , I n Her Own R i g h t : S e l e c t e d E s s a y s on Women's H i s t o r y i n B.C." ( V i c t o r i a : Camosun C o l l e g e , 1 9 8 0 ) p~! 2 30; N e i l S u t h e r l a n d , C h i l d r e n i n E n g l i s h - C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y : F r a m i n g t h e T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y C o n s e n s u s ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , f 9 7 6 ) , p. 1 4. C a r o l D e n n i s o n , "Women's I n s t i t u t e s i n B.C.," p. 65 and E l i a n e S i l v e r m a n , " W r i t i n g C a n a d i a n Women's H i s t o r y , " p. 525, have b o t h q u e s t i o n e d t h e d e f i n i t i o n ( o r l a c k o f i t ) of t h e te r m ' m i d d l e -c l a s s ' and whe t h e r i n d e e d t h e m a j o r i t y of c l u b women were from t h i s l e v e l of s o c i e t y . 29 y e a r s of t h e s u f f r a g e campaign and a f t e r t h e v o t e was won p a r t i c u l a r l y i n V a n c o u v e r and V i c t o r i a - t h e New E r a League, t h e Woman's Forum, t h e P i o n e e r P o l i t i c a l E q u a l i t y L eague, t h e Women V o t e r s ' L eague, t h e B r i t i s h P r o g r e s s i v e League, U n i v e r s i t y Women's C l u b s , t o name a few. Each was i n d e p e n d e n t a l t h o u g h many were a f f i l i a t e d w i t h e ach o t h e r . I n t h e i r p u r s u i t o f r e f o r m , t h e s e c l u b s w o u l d most commonly p r e p a r e a r e s o l u t i o n w h i c h w o u l d t h e n be s e n t t o one o r a l l o f t h e o t h e r g r o u p s f o r d i s c u s s i o n and endorsement and f i n a l l y f o r w a r d e d t o t h e m u n i c i p a l o r p r o v i n c i a l government. T h i s w o u l d o f t e n be f o l l o w e d by a d e p u t a t i o n t o C i t y H a l l o r t o V i c t o r i a w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n from some or a l l of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I n some c a s e s i t took v e r y l i t t l e p r e s s u r e of t h i s k i n d b e f o r e l e g i s l a t i o n was p a s s e d o r b y - l a w s c h a n g e d . I n o t h e r s , c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e and o f t e n a c r i m o n i o u s d e b a t e between government and women's o r g a n i z a t i o n s was n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e any r e f o r m was f o r t h c o m i n g . S t r o n g - B o a g has p o i n t e d o ut t h e weakness o f t h i s method a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l , b e c a u s e of t h e s i z e of the NCWC, t h e wide range of i n t e r e s t s i t t r i e d t o r e p r e s e n t and t h e r i g i d i t y of i t s e x e c u t i v e s t r u c t u r e . " 7 Were t h e same p r o b l e m s a p p a r e n t a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ? C e r t a i n l y t h e f i r s t two f a c t o r s were n ot as s t r o n g . Membership numbers were o b v i o u s l y s m a l l e r and t h e r e was g r e a t e r u n i t y i n t h e sense t h a t most of t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s had s i m i l a r r e f o r m g o a l s whereas a f f i l i a t e s of NCWC r e p r e s e n t e d t h e whole s p e c t r u m of women's c l u b s . The LCW, " 7 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t o f Women, pp. 409-24. 30 of c o u r s e , a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d a wide range of c l u b s . The t h i r d f a c t o r may w e l l be i m p o r t a n t . The e x e c u t i v e s of n e a r l y a l l t h e s e c l u b s a p p e a r t o have been formed from a s i n g l e g r o u p of women. That i s , t h e names o f t h e e x e c u t i v e members a r e v e r y s i m i l a r from c l u b t o c l u b a l t h o u g h t h e a c t u a l p o s i t i o n h e l d v a r i e d . Was i t t h e c a s e t h a t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a as i n t h e n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t , a s m a l l g r o u p imposed t h e i r i d e a s on a l a r g e r c l u b membership? Or was i t t h e c a s e t h a t a g r o u p w i t h g r e a t e r l e a d e r s h i p s k i l l s , a b i l i t y o r commitment g r a v i t a t e d n a t u r a l l y i n t o p o s i t i o n s of l e a d e r s h i p ? Was t h e r i g i d i t y t h a t S t r o n g - B o a g i d e n t i f i e d , a f a c t o r i n c l u b o r g a n i z a t i o n a t t h i s l e v e l ? Was i t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s l o w i n g down of a c t i v i t y t h a t i s e v i d e n t by t h e mid-1920' s? Or was t h i s due t o o t h e r f a c t o r s , s u c h as a d i m i n u t i o n of sympathy and s u p p o r t on t h e p a r t of p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s once t h e y r e a l i z e d t h a t a women's b l o c v o t e was no t h r e a t p o l i t i c a l l y ? Was i t due s i m p l y t o a weakening of t h e s t r e n g t h o r number of r e f o r m demands i n g e n e r a l ? Or d i d a l l f a c t o r s have some e f f e c t ? A t h i r d i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t i n t h i s s t u d y i s t h a t o f p e r i o d i z a t i o n . T r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s have l o o k e d a t t h e 1920's i n two ways. I f t h e i r i n t e r e s t i s p r i m a r i l y p o l i t i c a l o r e c o n o m i c , t h e y have seen i t as a r e l a t i v e l y q u i e t i n t e r v a l between t h e two w o r l d - s h a t t e r i n g e v e n t s of t h e G r e a t War and t h e D e p r e s s i o n , o r , i f t h e y have been more s o c i a l l y o r i e n t e d t h e y have p o r t r a y e d t h e p e r i o d , o f t e n s u p e r f i c i a l l y and a l m o s t s i m p l e - m i n d e d l y as t h e J a z z Age, t h e R o a r i n g T w e n t i e s , a t i m e of p r o h i b i t i o n , F o r d s and F l a p p e r s . J o a n K e l l y - G a d o l has p o i n t e d 31 out t h a t p e r i o d s i n h i s t o r y and t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e have p r e v i o u s l y been a s s e s s e d from t h e p o i n t of v i e w of men, b u t s i g n i f i c a n t t u r n i n g p o i n t s need not have t h e same impact f o r one sex as f o r t h e o t h e r . " 8 T h e r e f o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e War and t h e D e p r e s s i o n had some im p a c t on women's r e f o r m a c t i v i t i e s , i t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o examine t h e p e r i o d o u t s i d e of t h e s e r i g i d b o u n d a r i e s i f we a r e t o u n d e r s t a n d women's h i s t o r y a n d, more p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e de v e l o p m e n t of t h e women's movement a t t h i s t ime. An o v e r - s t r o n g e m p h a s i s on s u f f r a g e Macken and most o t h e r clubwomen f a i l e d t o r e a l i z e was t h a t " c i t i z e n s h i p " u n t i l t h e n had been a male c o n c e p t . I t r e p r e s e n t e d a s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e and a method of o p e r a t i o n t h a t had p r e v i o u s l y been e n t i r e l y t h e domain of men and w h i c h was i n many ways a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e g o a l s and methods of "womanhood." The t e n e t s of m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m , as we have s e e n , h e l d t h a t many, i f not a l l of t h e p r o b l e m s of s o c i e t y stemmed from t h e f a c t t h a t u n t i l t h e n i t had been run by and l a r g e l y f o r men. The v i r t u e o f 2 U WWW, November 30, 1918, p.1 1 25 "womanhood" l a y p r e c i s e l y i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t was based on d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s and q u a l i t i e s t h a n t h e male h a l f of s o c i e t y . How t h e n c o u l d women hope t o a c h i e v e t h e i r aims i f t h e y a t t e m p t e d t o do so by means of a male model t h a t was c o n t r a r y t o so much of what t h e y s t o o d f o r ? P e r h a p s i t was f o r t u n a t e t h a t women d i d not r e c o g n i s e o r t r y t o come t o g r i p s w i t h t h i s p r o b l e m o r t h e y m i g h t n e v e r have a c h i e v e d a s i n g l e g o a l a f t e r s u f f r a g e . As i t was, t h e i r momentum c a r r i e d them f o r a f u r t h e r decade and e n a b l e d them t o g a i n a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e i r s p e c i f i c l e g i s l a t i v e g o a l s b e f o r e s u c h p h i l o s o p h i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n s combined w i t h o t h e r f a c t o r s t o b r i n g t h e i r movement t o a h a l t . I n t h e y e a r s between 1917 and 1925, women m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r l e v e l o f a c t i v i t y and m a r k e d l y i n c r e a s e d t h e i r use of t h e p u b l i c p r e s s t o b o t h j u s t i f y t h i s a c t i v i t y and t o e x h o r t o t h e r women and s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l t o j o i n o r s u p p o r t them. I t may have been t h a t once t h e y had t h e v o t e and saw t h e m s e l v e s as e q u a l w i t h men, i n t h e o r y i f not i n p r a c t i c e , women f e l t t h a t a more e q u a l use of t h e p r e s s was b o t h n e c e s s a r y and f i t t i n g . l t may a l s o have been t h a t t h e i r new r i g h t t o v o t e p e r s u a d e d male p u b l i s h e r s and e d i t o r s t o a l l o w them e a s i e r a c c e s s t o t h e p r i n t e d word. Some p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s of t h e women's movement i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and th e r e s t o f Canada have p l a c e d a heavy emphasis on t h e s u f f r a g e 1 26 campaigns as t h e movement's u l t i m a t e g o a l . 2 5 The i n c r e a s e d e f f o r t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a t l e a s t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , a f t e r s u f f r a g e show c l e a r l y t h a t t h e v o t e was o n l y one of t h e i r g o a l s , a l b e i t an i m p o r t a n t one. The s u c c e s s o f - g a i n i n g t h e v o t e gave V a n c o u v e r women even g r e a t e r i n c e n t i v e t o push f o r f u r t h e r l e g i s l a t i v e change t h o u g h i t does not ap p e a r t o have a l t e r e d t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e i r r o l e s i g n i f i c a n t l y . I n v o l v e m e n t on a v o l u n t a r y o r p a i d b a s i s i n a v a r i e t y of o c c u p a t i o n s e n g e n d e r e d by t h e war a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d t o women t h a t t h e i r s k i l l s and f e m a l e q u a l i t i e s were needed, b o t h w h i l e t h e f i g h t i n g c o n t i n u e d and a f t e r as s o c i e t y a t t e m p t e d t o r e t u r n t o n o r m a l . T h r e e main themes a r e a p p a r e n t i n women's w r i t i n g i n t h i s p e r i o d ; t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of t h e dawning "new e r a " , t h e need f o r s o l i d a r i t y amongst women, and the i m p o r t a n c e of motherhood and c l u b membership i n p r e p a r i n g women f o r f u l l c i t i z e n s h i p i n t h e w i d e r s o c i e t y . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o o v e r l o o k t h e sense of e x c i t e m e n t t h a t clubwomen f e l t o v e r t h e i r new r i g h t of s u f f r a g e . The sense of s t a n d i n g on t h e b r i n k of new p e r i o d i n w o r l d h i s t o r y was 2 5 F o r i n s t a n c e , C a t h e r i n e C l e v e r d o n , The Woman S u f f r a g e Movement, c o n s i d e r s s u f f r a g e i n t o t a l i s o l a t i o n from o t h e r r e f o r m a l t h o u g h Ramsay Cook's I n t r o d u c t i o n t a k e s a b r o a d e r v i e w ; M i c h a e l H. Cramer, " P u b l i c and P o l i t i c a l : Documents of t h e Woman S u f f r a g e Campaign i n B.C.," a l s o i g n o r e s t h e g e n e r a l r e f o r m a t m o s p h e r e of w h i c h s u f f r a g e was a p a r t ; Wayne R o b e r t s , " ' R o c k i n g t h e C r a d l e f o r t h e W o r l d ' " and L i n d a H a l e , "The BC Woman S u f f r a g e Movement," b o t h n o t e t h a t many women saw s u f f r a g e as a t o o l f o r f u r t h e r r e f o r m but n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n c e n t r a t e d on i t as an end i n i t s e l f . 1 27 f r e q u e n t l y e x p r e s s e d : "when women s h a l l come t o g e t h e r p u r e l y and s i m p l y f o r t h e good of m a n k i n d , i t w i l l be a power s u c h as t h e w o r l d has n e v e r k n o w n . " 2 6 and We a r e on t h e t h r e s h o l d of a new e r a - an e r a f u l l of p o s s i b i l i t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , and women a r e c a l l e d upon t o d a y as n e v e r b e f o r e i n h i s t o r y t o f a c e a l l added and new d u t i e s w i t h d e t e r m i n a t i o n and a b r o a d o u t l o o k . 2 7 I n t h e push t o r e t u r n t o n o r m a l i t y a f t e r t h e war some s e c t o r s of s o c i e t y o b v i o u s l y t h o u g h t t h a t women s h o u l d w i t h d r a w f r o m t h e i r e m e r g i n g p u b l i c r o l e but clubwomen d i d not a g r e e . Mary E l l e n S m i t h had much s u p p o r t when she s t a t e d c a t e g o r i c a l l y , "The d i s p o s i t i o n seems t o be t h a t women s h o u l d be w i l l i n g t o r e v e r t t o the o l d ways. That can n e v e r happen." She went on t o p o i n t out t h a t n ot o n l y had women t a k e n t h e f i r s t s t e p f o r w a r d i n t o a w i d e r p o l i t i c a l l i f e but t h a t t h e i r p r e s e n c e was a l s o b e i n g f e l t i n o t h e r w a l k s o f l i f e . D u r i n g t h e war t h e y " f i l l e d a need" and i n d o i n g so t h e y " l e a r n e d economic i n d e p e n d e n c e " and " t a u g h t t h e w o r l d t h a t b r a i n s a r e s e x l e s s . " I n c r e a s i n g l y , women were " h a v i n g e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s w i t h men i n a c q u i r i n g an e d u c a t i o n , t h u s e q u i p p i n g t h e m s e l v e s f o r l i f e ' s b a t t l e s on t h e same ter m s as men, and i n o r d e r t o make democracy d o u b l y s a f e and s u r e women must have e q u a l c h a n c e s t o c o - o p e r a t e w i t h men i n t h e c a r r y i n g on of e v e r y d a y b u s i n e s s l i f e . I t i s , she c l a i m e d , " t h e onward march of p r o g r e s s , no one's hand c a n s t a y i t . " 2 8 I n Mary E l l e n S m i t h i n t h e Sun A p r i l 27, 1919 p.11, q u o t i n g Matthew A r n o l d . B e a t r i c e E. G r e e n , who was a p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l i s t r a t h e r t h a n a clubwoman, i n Sun, J a n u a r y 25, 1920 p.3. 1 28 the words of a n o t h e r w r i t e r , " i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t woman now f o r th e f i r s t t i m e i n h i s t o r y r e c o g n i z e d as a c o - e q u a l p a r t n e r w i t h t h e new Adam, must h a s t e n t o h i s a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e b u i l d i n g of a new c i v i l i z a t i o n . " 2 9 Though t h e m a j o r i t y o f clubwomen were u n i t e d , i n t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t t h e y s t o o d on t h e b r i n k of a new p e r i o d t h e y d i d use d i f f e r e n t a r guments of d e f e n d t h e i r p o s i t i o n . These arguments r e v o l v e d a r o u n d t h e i d e a s of e q u a l i t y and of t h e s p e c i a l q u a l i t i e s of women as m o t h e r s as t h e y had done f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s . They were not m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e a l t h o u g h t h e y c o u l d have been i f f o l l o w e d t o t h e i r l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n . Women c o n t i n u e d t o use them i n r e f e r e n c e t o i n d i v i d u a l i s s u e s o r o c c a s i o n s and t o i g n o r e any p o s s i b l e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . Mary E l l e n S m i t h , f o r i n s t a n c e , t e n d e d t o r e l y l a r g e l y on t h e e q u a l i t y argument but she a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t women "would e n s u r e a s t e a d y a d v a n c e i n t h i n g s p e r t a i n i n g t o human l i f e b e c a u s e of...[woman's] i n t e r e s t i n t h e f u t u r e of the r a c e from her own womanly, m o t h e r l y s t a n d p o i n t . . . she i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f u t u r e of t h e r a c e . " 3 0 S u s i e Lane C l a r k a l s o s t r e s s e d t h e f a c t t h a t e q u a l i t y was th e major j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r woman's e x p a n d i n g r o l e . E v e r p r a c t i c a l , she had l i t t l e t i m e f o r t h o s e who o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d t h e v i r t u e s and i d e a l s of womanhood; " I t i s a l l v e r y w e l l t o Sun, November 17, 1918 p.5. A n n i e A n d e r s o n P e r r y i n t h e Sun December 1, 1918 p.1. Sun, O c t o b e r 6, 1918 p.6. 1 29 s a y , . . . t h a t women s e t t h e i d e a l s o f t h e w o r l d . What i s wanted i s i d e a l s i n a c t i o n . " She was u n c o n v i n c e d of woman's i n n a t e s u p e r i o r i t y ; " A f t e r a l l t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of women i s n e i t h e r so e x c e e d i n g l y g r e a t nor so e x c e e d i n g l y l e s s t h a n man's." 3 1 But she d i d b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a v e r a g e woman's e x p e r i e n c e e q u i p p e d h e r b e t t e r t h a n most men t o t a k e p a r t i n t h e r u n n i n g o f s o c i e t y . A l t h o u g h t h e man i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e head of t h e house, woman r e a l l y g o v e r n s . She i s t h e l a w y e r and f i n a l l y t h e j u d g e , d e c i d i n g w i s e l y a l l t h e l i t t l e i n t r i c a t e q u e s t i o n s t h a t a r i s e . She i s t h e d o c t o r and t h e n u r s e , a l l e v i a t i n g t h e p a i n and s o o t h i n g t h e s u f f e r e r . She i s t h e c o o k , t h e b a k e r , t h e m a i d , t h e d r e s s m a k e r and t h e f i r e m a n . She l o o k s a f t e r t h e c l e a n l i n e s s and t h e s a n i t a t i o n o f t h e home. The mother o c c u p i e s a l l t h e s e p o s i t i o n s i n a s i n g l e d ay, c h a n g i n g w i t h r e a d i n e s s from one a s p e c t t o a n o t h e r . Men a r e not so t r a i n e d and t h i s g r e a t g i f t of v e r s a t i l i t y w o u l d h e l p i n s o l v i n g p r e s e n t u n s a t i s f a c t o r y w o r l d c o n d i t i o n s . 3 2 T h i s t y p e of s t a t e m e n t sounds, b o t h i d e a l i s t i c and s e n t i m e n t a l by t o d a y ' s s t a n d a r d s but compared t o o t h e r comments o f t h e p e r i o d i t i s r e m a r k a b l y s t r a i g h t f o w a r d and u n e m o t i o n a l . F o r example, J e a n Macken w r o t e : t h i n k f o r a moment what an u p l i f t w o u l d be g i v e n t o g i r l h o o d and womanhood by s e t t i n g b e f o r e them from t h e f i r s t , t h e l a r g e r i d e a l , "You a r e e x p e c t e d t o q u a l i f y f o r t h e l a r g e r motherhood - Community M o t h e r h o o d . " 3 3 C l o s e l y t i e d t o t h e c o n c e p t o f woman as mother was t h e n o t i o n of woman as c o n s e r v e r , o f r e s o u r c e s , v a l u e s and i n d e e d of s o c i e t y i t s e l f . T h i s c o n c e p t was g i v e n e x t r a meaning and pr o m i n e n c e by p o s t war r e c o n s t r u c t i o n but was n o t s o l e l y a P r o v i n c e , M a r c h 21, 1921 p.8; I b i d . , F e b r u a r y 19, 1921 p.8. I b i d . , F e b r u a r y 26, 1921 p.8. WWW, O c t o b e r 14, 1922 p.3. 1 30 r e s u l t of i t . A n n i e A n d e r s o n P e r r y , one of t h e g r o w i n g number of p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l i s t s , r e c e n t l y a r r i v e d f rom t h e p r a i r i e s , w r o t e : As c o n t r a s t e d w i t h man t h e c o n s t r u c t o r , women i s t h e n a t i o n a l c o n s e r v e r . . . To be c a s t i n t h e drama o f l i f e a s a c o n s e r v e r i s , and a l w a y s has been t o assume a t once t h e p o s i t i o n of a n a t i o n a l a s s e t . . . Woman as t h e mother of t h e r a c e has a w o r l d t a s k as t h e c o n s e r v e r of human l i f e . 3 " T h i s c o n s e r v i n g r o l e , she went on t o s a y , must be made t o be f e l t i n suc h d i v e r s e a r e a s as t h e w o r l d peace movement, p u b l i c h e a l t h , c o n t r o l l e d i m m i g r a t i o n , s c i e n t i f i c f e e d i n g of f a m i l i e s , h o u s i n g , i n d u s t r i a l c o n d i t i o n s , and anywhere e l s e where woman's i n f l u e n c e m i g h t improve e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . A male w r i t e r a g r e e d w i t h h e r , a l t h o u g h i n w e l c o m i n g t h e movement of women i n t o a more p u b l i c r o l e he managed a t t h e same t i m e t o sound c o n d e s c e n d i n g . "Women a r e n a t u r a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e s , " he w r o t e , "They do not have t h e a d v e n t u r o u s s p i r i t of men, and a r e more i n c l i n e d t o c o n s e r v e what we have t h a n t o go a f t e r t h i n g s t h a t we have n o t . " P e r h a p s t h i s a t t i t u d e h e l p e d d i m i n i s h any sense of t h r e a t t h a t he f e l t a t t h e t h o u g h t of women's r a p i d l y g r o w i n g i n f l u e n c e , f o r he went on t o s a y : F a r from l o o k i n g upon t h e a d v e n t of women i n t o p o l i t i c s as a r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h i n g , i t i s r a t h e r t o be v i e w e d as e v o l u t i o n a r y . More and more t h e y a r e g o i n g t o come i n t o Government u n t i l f i n a l l y most of Government s h a l l p a s s i n t o t h e i r hands. But l e s t t h i s sound t o o t h r e a t e n i n g , he a s s u r e d h i s r e a d e r s t h a t "Woman w i l l n e v e r s u c c e e d i n b u s i n e s s , o r t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s , f o r 3" Sun, December 1, 1918 p.18. 131 t h o s e a r e t h i n g s t h a t r e q u i r e i n i t i a t i v e and a d v e n t u r e ; but f o r good and j u s t law making she i s a d m i r a b l y s u i t e d . " 3 5 P r o b a b l y most V a n c o u v e r clubwomen wo u l d have a g r e e d w i t h h i s c o n c l u s i o n s but I s u s p e c t h i s p r e m i s e s may have r a i s e d some h a c k l e s . The s e c o n d r e c u r r i n g theme i n V a n c o u v e r women's w r i t i n g s a b o u t t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i r r o l e i n s o c i e t y was t h a t of t h e common bonds of womanhood and t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f p r e s e n t i n g a u n i f i e d f r o n t i n p u r s u i t of t h e i r g o a l s . Three d i s t i n c t p o i n t s of v i e w were a p p a r e n t . Some women s u p p o r t e d t h e i d e a of a Woman's P a r t y , a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y composed of a l l women, i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e e x i s t i n g p a r t i e s w h i c h were l a r g e l y male. O t h e r s o p t e d f o r a woman's p l a t f o r m , t h a t i s , a l e s s f o r m a l and r e s t r i c t i v e a p p a r a t u s t h a n a f u l l y f l e d g e d p a r t y , b a s e d on t h e common c o n c e r n s t h a t many women had f o r r e f o r m and l e g i s l a t i v e c h ange. T h e i r i d e a was t h a t b o t h major p a r t i e s , c o u r t i n g t h e s u p p o r t of women, wou l d i n c o r p o r a t e a l l o r p a r t of t h i s p l a t f o r m w i t h i n t h e i r own. F i n a l l y t h e r e were t h o s e who f e l t t h a t women s h o u l d f u n c t i o n as f u l l c i t i z e n s but t h a t t h e i r gender was not of paramount i m p o r t a n c e ; t h e y f e l t t h a t men and women as i n d i v i d u a l s and males and f e m a l e s as gender g r o u p s had c e r t a i n s k i l l s , a b i l i t i e s and a r e a s of i n t e r e s t and each s h o u l d do h i s or h e r p e r s o n a l b e s t f o r s o c i e t y , s e r v i n g w h e rever he or she was most e f f e c t i v e . These t h r e e p o i n t s of vi e w were not u n i q u e t o V a n c o u v e r , i n d e e d t h e l o c a l s c e n e r e f l e c t e d d i s c u s s i o n and d e b a t e t h a t was t a k i n g p l a c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d as 3 5 Dr. F r a n k Crane i n t h e Sun, J a n u a r y 5, 1925 p.8. 1 32 hundr e d s of t h o u s a n d s o f women were g r a n t e d t h e f r a n c h i s e and were f a c e d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f how t o b e s t use t h e i r new po w e r . 3 6 Those who s u p p o r t e d a Woman's P a r t y b e l i e v e d t h a t i f a l l women c o u l d be b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r w i t h i n t h e bounds o f a s i n g l e p a r t y t h e y w o u l d be i n v i n c i b l e . What t h e y d i d not seem t o r e a l i s e was t h e f a c t t h a t , w h i l e women as a g r o u p have much i n common, t h e y have j u s t as many d i f f e r e n c e s : age, e d u c a t i o n , e t h n i c i t y , r e l i g i o n , c l a s s , t o name a few. The P a n k h u r s t s and t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s i n E n g l a n d had e s t a b l i s h e d j u s t s u c h a p a r t y w i t h l i t t l e s u c c e s s . They d i d not manage t o p e r s u a d e l a r g e numbers of women t o j o i n and t h o s e who d i d were t o o m i l i t a n t t o be a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e l a r g e r number of m i d d l e - c l a s s , c o n s e r v a t i v e r e f o r m e r s . T h e i r a c t i v i t i e s d i d not e x c i t e a g r e a t d e a l of sympathy amongst o r g a n i z e d women i n E n g l a n d o r e l s e w h e r e . A r e p o r t e d a t t e m p t i n A u s t r a i l a was used as a w a r n i n g by l o c a l d e t r a c t o r s . 3 7 The W e s t e r n Women's Weekly o p e n l y u r g e d t h e f o r m a t i o n a Woman's P a r t y i n 1918, c l a i m i n g What we want i s a WOMAN'S PARTY, - e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of p o l i t i c s , - and we want i t r i g h t now... See V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t of Women, pp. 273-74 f o r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e NCWC Women's P l a t f o r m ; See C h a f e , The A m e r i c a n Woman, ch.1 and Lemons, The Woman C i t i z e n , c h . 3 . f o r t h e A m e r i c a n s c e n e and A r n o l d W h i t t i c k , Woman i n t o C i t i z e n ( A B C - C L I O : S a n t a B a r b a r a , C a l i f . , 1979), ch.6 and J o s e p h i n e Kamm, R a p i e r s and B a t t l e a x e s , (George A l l e n and Unwin: London, 1966), pp. 186-193 r e g a r d i n g B r i t a i n and E u r o p e . WWW, A p r i l 28, 1918 p.1. 1 33 I t i s our o n l y hope of becoming a power i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and i n Canada and of b r i n g i n g i n t o e f f e c t t h e measures f o r b e t t e r l e g i s l a t i o n f o r w h i c h we have so l o n g been s t r i v i n g , ( o r i g i n a l c a p i t a l s ) 3 8 Some weeks p r e v i o u s l y t h e same pa p e r had a r g u e d t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t women's p a r t i e s had f a i l e d e l s e w h e r e was no r e a s o n t o abandon them. They had been d e s t r o y e d "by p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e s " and because "women as a body f a i l e d t o s t a n d by t h e i r women." I t m a i n t a i n e d t h a t B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a women c o u l d and s h o u l d l e a r n f r om t h e s e m i s t a k e s i n f o r m i n g t h e i r own p a r t y . T h e r e a p p e a r e d t o be l i t t l e p u b l i c s u p p o r t f o r t h e i d e a , however, and a f t e r a few weeks t h e s u b j e c t was d r o p p e d and d i d not r e - s u r f a c e f o r some y e a r s . W r i t i n g i n t h e V a n c o u v e r Sun i n t h e same y e a r , A n n i e A n d e r s o n P e r r y s t a t e d , "The q u e s t i o n of whether women s h a l l go i n t o p a r t y p o l i t i c s o r form a woman's p a r t y as t h e P a n k h u r s t s have done i n E n g l a n d , i s a l s o one w h i c h s h o u l d r e c e i v e t h e most c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n f rom t h i n k i n g women. As a t e m p o r a r y means of f o c u s s i n g t h e woman's v o t e where i t may be needed t h e r e i s much t o be s a i d f o r t h e woman's p a r t y . " However, she q u a l i f i e d h e r s u p p o r t by a d d i n g , 'But t h e permanent i d e a l s h o u l d be t h e w o r k i n g of men and women s i d e by s i d e ( i n t h e f a m i l y and t h e s t a t e ) f o r t h e common g o o d . 3 9 Some s u p p o r t e r s were more adamant, i n c l u d i n g a Mr. Bolam, n e w l y e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t of t h e V a n c o u v e r R a t e p a y e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n i n 1921. W h i l e he d i d not a c t u a l l y m e n t i o n a woman's p a r t y by I b i d . Sun, December 1, 1918 p.18. 1 34 name t h i s was t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t he was s u p p o r t i n g . " I f t h e women's o r g a n i z a t i o n s of t h i s c i t y , " he s t a t e d . "would g e t t o g e t h e r i n one s t r o n g o r g a n i z a t i o n i n s t e a d o f b e i n g d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , l a r g e and s m a l l , t h e y c o u l d a c c o m p l i s h s o m e t h i n g b i g and w o r t h w h i l e . " He went on t o condemn " t h e f u t i l i t y of t h e i r w o r k i n g s e p a r a t e l y " , s a y i n g t h a t "one o r g a n i z a t i o n a d v o c a t e s a woman's c o u r t and a n o t h e r opposes i t . " A p p a r e n t l y he c o u l d n ot see t h a t a d i f f e r e n c e of o p i n i o n as g r e a t as t h i s w ould not be s o l v e d by h a v i n g a s i n g l e u m b r e l l a o r g a n i z a t i o n ; t h a t t h e m u l t i t u d e of women's g r o u p s a r o s e p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e women had d i f f e r i n g v i e w s on v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s . I n an i d e a l i s t i c v e i n , he went on t o say t h a t "women c o u l d a c h i e v e g r e a t r e s u l t s i n c h i l d w e l f a r e work, i n c l e a n i n g up c a b a r e t s , dance h a l l s and g e t t i n g good men i n t o o f f i c e i f t h e y w o u l d o n l y u n i t e t h e i r f o r c e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i r u n i t e d v o i c e a t C i t y H a l l would command t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t . " " 0 The un-named r e p o r t e r who c o n d u c t e d t h e i n t e r v i e w o b v i o u s l y a g r e e d w i t h Bolam but many women wou l d have been s k e p t i c a l . F i r s t l y , t h e y w o u l d have d o u b t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of f o r m i n g a s i n g l e o r g a n i z a t i o n even t h o u g h some may have f e l t i t was a d e s i r a b l e t h e o r y . S e c o n d l y , many would have t a k e n e x c e p t i o n t o h i s b e l i e f t h a t woman's j o b was t o g e t "good men" e l e c t e d t o c i t y c o u n c i l . Many women, s i n g l y and t h r o u g h t h e i r c l u b s d e m o n s t r a t e d q u i t e p l a i n l y t h a t w h i l e "good men" were not t o be d i s r e g a r d e d t h e r e was an e q u a l need f o r women i n s u c h p o s i t i o n s . 4 0 WWW, June 11, 1921 p.1. 135 The m a j o r i t y of clubwomen, a t l e a s t i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r s u f f r a g e was won, seemed t o s u b s c r i b e t o t h e se c o n d p o i n t o f v i e w , namely t h a t women d i d have many i n t e r e s t s and a b i l i t i e s i n common and t h a t t h e y s h o u l d make t h e most of t h e s e by w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r as much as p o s s i b l e f o r t h e common good by means of a women's p l a t f o r m w h i c h t h e y would t r y t o p e r s u a d e p o l i t i c i a n s t o e s p o u s e . The a p p r o a c h had t h e a d v a n t a g e of- a l l o w i n g women t o have a say i n t h e r u n n i n g of s o c i e t y by u s i n g t h e i r v o t e s i n f a v o u r o f c a n d i d a t e s who s u p p o r t e d t h e p l a t f o r m . They c o u l d be a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n community l i f e b ut o t h e r w i s e eschew p o l i t i c s a l t o g e t h e r i f t h e y so d e s i r e d . T h i s was i m p o r t a n t t o many women who f e l t t h a t p o l i t i c s was r a t h e r a " d i r t y " game w i t h more c o n c e r n and e f f o r t p ut i n t o g a i n i n g and k e e p i n g o f f i c e t h a n i n t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n of j u s t and s o r e l y needed l e g i s l a t i o n . " 1 The NCWC was t h e s t r o n g e s t and most i n f l u e n t i a l s u p p o r t e r of t h e i d e a of a women's p l a t f o r m and i n 1919 s t r u c k a c o m m i t t e e of members from a c r o s s Canada t o d r a f t j u s t s u c h a p l a t f o r m . " 2 Two y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y , t h e E x e c u t i v e had d e c i d e d t h a t as some women d i d i n d e e d have p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n s of g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r s t r e n g t h , i t was " u n d e s i r a b l e " t o a t t e m p t t o found a woman's p a r t y . On the o t h e r hand, i t b e l i e v e d t h a t " t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h s h o u l d demand t h e s u p p o r t of women of " 1 S u s i e Lane C l a r k s a i d t h a t some p e o p l e c l a i m e d t h a t p o l i t i c s was " d i r t y " . She blamed men f o r t h i s s t a t e of a f f a i r s . P r o v i n c e , F e b r u a r y 26, 1921 p.8. 4 2 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a was r e p r e s e n t e d by Mrs R.S. Day of b o t h ' t h e V i c t o r i a and P r o v i n c i a l LCW's. C i r c u l a r l e t t e r s r e q u e s t i n g s u g g e s t i o n s were s e n t t o a l l LCW's. NCWC Yearbook 1920, p.61. 1 36 b o t h p a r t i e s " and t h e r e f o r e t h e i d e a of a p l a t f o r m i s t o p r o v i d e a r a l l y i n g g r o u n d from w h i c h by t h e i r u n i t e d v o t e s [women] may more r a p i d l y b r i n g about t h e s o l u t i o n of t h o s e s o c i a l p r o b l e m s f o r w h i c h t e n s of t h o u s a n d s of C a n a d i a n women have been g i v i n g t h e i r e n e r g y , t i m e , and money d u r i n g t h e l a s t h a l f c e n t u r y . 4 3 The 1920 r e p o r t of t h e NCWC p l a t f o r m c o m m i t t e e r e c o g n i s e d t h e p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s t h a t w o u l d b e d e v i l a women's p a r t y s h o u l d any a t t e m p t be made t o form one and c a l l e d on women t o g i v e t h e i r s u p p o r t , r e g a r d l e s s of p a r t y , t o any MLA "who c a r r i e s t h e i r [women's] banner of r e f o r m s " . 4 4 The p l a t f o r m was of n e c e s s i t y v e r y g e n e r a l i n c o n t e n t and b a s e d on " t r u t h , h o n e s t y , p u r i t y , j u s t i c e and r i g h t e o u s n e s s " but was i d e a l a s a b a s i s f o r any p o l i t i c i a n o r p o l i t i c a l p a r t y who b e l i e v e d i n and wanted t o c o u r t t h a t e l u s i v e t h i n g t h e "woman's v o t e " (See A p p e n d i x A ) . A l t h o u g h i t r a p i d l y d i s a p p e a r e d , i t i s c l e a r t h a t i n t h e f i r s t few p r o v i n c i a l e l e c t i o n s a f t e r t h e g r a n t i n g of s u f f r a g e s u c h a woman's v o t e d i d e x i s t though i t was n e v e r as s t r o n g as some women w i s h e d and many p o l i t i c i a n s f e a r e d . Mary E l l e n S m i t h , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s f i r s t f e m a l e MLA s u c c e s s f u l l y f o u g h t her i n i t i a l c a mpaign, i n t h e 1918 by-e l e c t i o n , as an i n d e p e n d e n t . She b e l i e v e d t h a t i t was n e c e s s a r y f o r " b o t h s e x e s t o work t o g e t h e r and b r i n g about a h a p p i e r s t a t e of a f f a i r s " , but she had a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t and c o n c e r n f o r t h e a f f a i r s o f women and c h i l d r e n and was p o l i t i c a l l y a s t u t e enough t o r e a l i z e t h a t she c o u l d e x p e c t c o n s i d e r a b l e s u p p o r t 4 3 I b i d . pp. 60-61. 4 4 I b i d . , p. 62. 1 37 from women i f she r a n on a p l a t f o r m t h a t e m p h a s i z e d t h e i r p r o b l e m s . She a l s o wanted freedom t o t a k e up more g e n e r a l i s s u e s as w e l l , and so her o v e r a l l p l a t f o r m i n c l u d e d many o f t h e p o i n t s t h a t w o u l d l a t e r become a p a r t of t h e NCWC's Women's P l a t f o r m but d i d not n e g l e c t w i d e r i s s u e s s u c h as t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n r e s e t t l i n g r e t u r n e d war v e t e r a n s . " 5 (see A p p e n d i x B) " I can b e s t s e r v e t h e p e o p l e ( i f e l e c t e d ) by g o i n g t o V i c t o r i a a ' f r e e woman', d o i n g my utmost t o s e c u r e t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e l e g i s l a t i o n f o r women and c h i l d r e n , and s u p p o r t i n g t o t h e b e s t of my a b i l i t y any good measures t h a t may be i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s of t h e P r o v i n c e by whomsoever i n t r o d u c e d . " " 6 She f o u g h t h e r n e x t campaign o n l y two y e a r s l a t e r i n 1920 and i n t h i s and two s u b s e q u e n t e l e c t i o n s r a n as a L i b e r a l . She had l e a r n e d what many women were sl o w t o r e a l i s e , namely t h a t no m a t t e r how f a r from i d e a l p o l i t i c s m i g h t be, women who were s e r i o u s about c h a n g i n g and r e f o r m i n g s o c i e t y had t o do so t h r o u g h t h e e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s ; women c o u l d not r e m a i n above o r o u t s i d e p o l i t i c s but must j o i n w i t h men and work t h r o u g h t h e p a r t y s y s t e m f o r t h e i r g o a l s . T h i s t h i r d p o i n t o f v i e w , t h a t men and women were e q u a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s t a t e of s o c i e t y and must t h e r e f o r e work t o g e t h e r f o r i t s improvement, was h e a r d t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d 1910-1928. T h i s was no doubt because i t was a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n but i t was a p r a c t i c a l one a t t h a t . P e o p l e whose s p e c i f i c aims and g o a l s f o r l e g i s l a t i o n m i g h t v a r y c o u l d a t l e a s t b e g i n t h e i r e f f o r t s on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t b o t h s e x e s had an e q u a l r o l e " 5 Sun, A p r i l 27 1919, p.11 . " 6 WWW, J a n u a r y 3, 1918, p. 1 . 1 38 t o p l a y i n w h a t e v e r changes m i g h t be a c h i e v e d . The n o t i o n was used t o j u s t i f y t h e r i g h t of women t o s u f f r a g e i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e i r use of t h e v o t e once i t was won and t h e methods by w h i c h f u r t h e r r e f o r m s c o u l d be put i n t o p r a c t i c e . Thus Mrs Mary McConkey, p r e s i d e n t of t h e PPEL i n 1913, was a b l e t o c l a i m t h a t " T h i s League u r g e s t h a t as women p e r f o r m e q u a l l y w i t h men t h e d u t i e s of c i t i z e n s h i p t h e y a r e a l s o e n t i t l e d t o an e q u a l s h a r e i n i t s p r i v i l e g e s . " " 7 F i v e y e a r s l a t e r , Guy C a t h c a r t P e l t o n , e d i t o r of "A Page f o r Men" i n t h e W e s t e r n Women's Weekly, c o m p l a i n e d t h a t "One o f t h e c h i e f f a u l t s of our p r e s e n t day s y s t e m i s t h a t t h e r e i s not enough c o - o p e r a t i o n between men and women...men and women must work t o g e t h e r . L e t no woman t h i n k f o r a moment, t h a t t h e w i n n i n g of t h e f r a n c h i s e i s t h e f i n a l s t e p i n h e r e v o l u t i o n . The e n t r y of women i n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a by t h e g r a n t i n g o f t h e f r a n c h i s e i s o n l y t h e f i r s t s t e p i n t h e l a d d e r of p r o g r e s s upon w h i c h women must c l i m b b e f o r e t h e y have r e a c h e d t h e t o p and t h e y h a v e n ' t r e a c h e d t h e t o p u n t i l t h e y a r e a c c e p t e d on a f i f t y - f i f t y b a s i s by t h e men, i n a c t i n g as w e l l as i n v o t i n g . " " 8 The f o l l o w i n g y e a r , E l l a C o r e y Benson, p r o p h e s i e d t h e decay and d o w n f a l l o f " t h e R e p u b l i c i n w h i c h we a l l d w e l l , u n l e s s men and women t o g e t h e r s h a l l s h a r e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of c i t i z e n s h i p . " " 9 S u s i e Lane C l a r k was not n o t e d f o r h e r a b i l i t y t o compromise o r c o - o p e r a t e i n r e a l l i f e but she s u p p o r t e d t h e s e Women's I s s u e Sun, March 19, 1913, p.6. WWW, J u l y 20, 1918, p.9. I b i d . , F e b r u a r y 8 1919, p.9. The r e f e r e n c e t o " t h e R e p u b l i c " i s u n c l e a r . E l l a Benson C o r e y may have been an A m e r i c a n but she was l i v i n g i n V a n c o u v e r a t t h i s p e r i o d . The a r t i c l e may have been w r i t t e n f o r s y n d i c a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and s i m p l y used as a ' f i l l e r a r t i c l e ' by t h e P r o v i n c e a l t h o u g h t h i s d i d not seem t o be a common p r a c t i c e w i t h women's a r t i c l e s i n V a n c o u v e r . 1 39 v i r t u e s i n t h e o r y . She a r g u e d t h a t The g r e a t m a j o r i t y of men and women s h a r e most t h i n g s i n common and i f women's i n t e r e s t s a r e not i d e n t i c a l w i t h men's t h e y a r e a t l e a s t so i n t e r t w i n e d t h r o u g h t h e home t h a t what a f f e c t s one a f f e c t s t h e o t h e r ; t h e n i n s t e a d of d r a w i n g t h e sex l i n e and i s o l a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s women s h o u l d c o - o p e r a t e w i t h men i n t h e p o l i t i c a l w o r l d . 5 0 Even t h o s e l i k e J e a n Macken, who s t r e s s e d women's s p e c i a l r e d e m p t i v e . r o l e and u n i q u e f e m i n i n e v i r t u e s c o u l d see t h e need f o r c o - o p e r a t i o n between t h e s e x e s : woman has a r r i v e d a t t h e t i m e and p l a c e where she i s most needed as a c o - p a r t n e r w i t h man, i n t h e l a r g e r l i f e o f t h e community... Women had been g i v e n t h e v o t e , she c o n t i n u e d , b e c a u s e Man needed woman; he r e c o g n i s e d i n h e r a newer, c l e a n e r e l e m e n t i n p o l i t i c a l l i f e . He f e l t t h e a f f a i r s of t h e n a t i o n were s w a y i n g and t o p p l i n g and knew t h a t women c o u l d s t e a d y t h i n g s . 5 1 Women and men, t h e r e f o r e , must g e t on w i t h t h e j o b . Women d i d l e a r n t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t o a d a p t t h e i r demands and methods somewhat t o t h o s e of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e _ s but t h e r e was a l s o some movement from t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . A f t e r t h e d e f e a t of t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e s i n t h e e l e c t i o n s of 1 9 1 6 b o t h L i b e r a l s and C o n s e r v a t i v e s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a made e f f o r t s t o i n c l u d e i s s u e s of i m p o r t a n c e t o women i n t h e i r p l a t f o r m s . The L i b e r a l s , d e s p i t e b e i n g hampered by t h e enormous d e f i c i t i n h e r i t e d from t h e p r e v i o u s C o n s e r v a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t ' s G r e a t E a s t e r n R a i l w a y p r o j e c t , were w i l l i n g t o woo th e f e m a l e v o t e w i t h l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t was sometimes e x p e n s i v e t o P r o v i n c e , March 5, 1921 p.8. WWW, September 17, 1921 p.1. 1 40 put i n t o o p e r a t i o n , f o r example, t h e c r e a t i o n of a m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s scheme. They a l s o seemed w i l l i n g by 1920 t o a d j u s t t h e i r o v e r a l l p l a t f o r m t o i n c l u d e much of Mary E l l e n S m i t h ' s i n d e p e n d e n t p l a t f o r m of 1917. 5 2 In t h i s e l e c t i o n even t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e s p r o m i s e d t o c o n s i d e r l e g i s l a t i o n " w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of c h i l d l i f e . " 5 3 F o l l o w i n g t h e s u c c e s s f u l r e - e l e c t i o n of t h e L i b e r a l s , Mary E l l e n S m i t h was g i v e n t h e p o s i t i o n of M i n i s t e r w i t h o u t P o r t f o l i o , making h e r t h e f i r s t c a b i n e t m i n i s t e r i n t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e . T h i s was i n r e c o g n i t i o n b o t h of t h e women's i s s u e s f o r w h i c h she s t o o d , as w e l l as t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y by w h i c h she had won i n h e r V a n c o u v e r r i d i n g . However, even w i t h t h e s e c o n c e s s i o n s from t h e O l i v e r g overnment, she r e s i g n e d t h e p o s i t i o n some months l a t e r , f e e l i n g t h a t she was " i n t h e u n f o r t u n a t e p o s i t i o n of h a v i n g t o assume t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a c t s of t h e Government, w i t h o u t b e i n g i n a p o s i t i o n t o c r i t i c i z e o r a d v i s e . " 5 " F e e l i n g s i n t h e s e y e a r s o f t e n r a n h i g h a g a i n s t b o t h t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s and r e s u l t e d i n 1923 i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of a r e f o r m i s t t h i r d p a r t y . The P r o v i n c i a l P a r t y was an o u t g r o w t h of t h e U n i t e d F a r m e r s ' P a r t y but a l s o drew members from t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e s and f rom amongst r e t u r n e d s o l d i e r s . 5 5 U n l i k e t h e f a r m e r s ' p a r t i e s of J . C a s t e l l H o p k i n s , The C a n a d i a n A n n u a l Review of P u b l i c A f f a i r s , 1919 ( T o r o n t o : The A n n u a l Review P u b l i s h i n g Co. L t d . , 1920), pp. 828-34. I b i d . , p. 833. I b i d . , 1921, pp. 862-63. I b i d , 1924-25, p. 444; see a l s o M a r g a r e t Ormsby, "The U n i t e d F a r m e r s of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a : An A b o r t i v e T h i r d - p a r t y Movement," B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y 17 ( J a n u a r y - A p r i l 1953), pp. 68-73. 141 t h e P r a i r i e s a decade e a r l i e r , however, t h e P r o v i n c i a l P a r t y d i d not a c t i v e l y draw women and women's i s s u e s i n t o i t s p l a t f o r m . I f a n y t h i n g , i t s a p p e a r a n c e c a u s e d t h e two ma j o r p a r t i e s t o r e v e r t t o more t r a d i t i o n a l p l a t f o r m s i n an a t t e m p t t o r e t a i n t r a d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t . The 1924 e l e c t i o n r e s u l t e d i n o n l y a m a r g i n a l v i c t o r y f o r t h e L i b e r a l s a g a i n s t t h e combined r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of C o n s e r v a t i v e , P r o v i n c i a l and Labo u r g r o u p s i n th e l e g i s l a t u r e and women's i s s u e s were r e l e g a t e d v e r y much t o the b a c k g r o u n d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e s s i o n . The f i n a l theme t h a t V a n c o u v e r women d e a l t w i t h i n t h e i r w r i t i n g s i n v o l v e d t h e v a l u e , i n d e e d t h e n e c e s s i t y , of motherhood and c l u b membership i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e e x p e r t i s e n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e on t h e f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of c i t i z e n s h i p . M o t h e r h o o d , i t seems, was a b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t . By t h e 1920's, d e s p i t e or p e r h a p s because of t h e i n c r e a s i n g e d u c a t i o n a l and employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s o p e n i n g up f o r women, clubwomen were e m p h a s i z i n g t h e i d e a t h a t w h i l e p u b l i c motherhood was needed f o r t h e b e n e f i t of s o c i e t y as a w h o l e , i n d i v i d u a l motherhood must come f i r s t . By p u b l i c motherhood t h e y meant t h e movement of women i n t o t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d t o c i v i c and l e g i s l a t i v e m a t t e r s t h a t d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r c h i l d r e n . E t h e l Cody S t o d d a r d , a c t i v e c l u b woman and s p o r a d i c c o n t r i b u t o r t o t h e P r o v i n e e under t h e pen-name "Lady Van", t i t l e d one of h e r columns "The R e a l C a r e e r . " A p p r o v i n g l y , she t o l d t h e s t o r y of a young g i r l who had a l w a y s wanted " t o do s o m e t h i n g b i g , s o m e t h i n g t h a t would c o u n t " but who, a t t h e end 142 of a b r i l l i a n t u n i v e r s i t y c a r e e r e x p l a i n e d h e r f u t u r e p l a n s t h u s . I see m y s e l f p a c k i n g up my books and f o r g e t t i n g a g r e a t d e a l t h a t i t has t a k e n me y e a r s t o l e a r n . I see h o n o r s s u c h as t h e w o r l d g i v e s f a d i n g i n t o t h e d i s t a n c e . In t h e p l a c e of a l l t h i s I see a home - one of my own - s o m e t h i n g I have commenced t o want v e r y much... I see a husband, c h i l d r e n , and m y s e l f a g e n e r a l s l a v e but a happy one a t t h a t t o a l l of them. I see h o u s h o l d d u t i e s l o o m i n g l a r g e and t h e funny l i t t l e r o u t i n e t h a t h o u s e w i v e s g et i n t o . . . A f t e r a l l , you know, t h e r e i s n o t h i n g l i k e a home of y o u r own and I want one. Her p r o f e s s o r ( f e m a l e , m a r i t a l s t a t u s not me n t i o n e d ) c o n g r a t u l a t e d h e r ; "You have t h e r i g h t i d e a a t l a s t , S h e i l a , s t i c k t o i t . " 5 6 I t was a young, s i n g l e woman who spoke t h i s p r a i s e of home and m o t h e rhood. E t h e l Cody S t o d d a r d and t h e m a j o r i t y of women who w r o t e on o r were i n v o l v e d w i t h women's i s s u e s were m a r r i e d w i t h f a m i l i e s t h a t were a t l e a s t beyond t h e age of n e e d i n g c o n s t a n t c a r e i f not f u l l y g r o w n . 5 7 They saw t h e "new e r a " as o p e n i n g f r e s h a r e a s of i n v o l v e m e n t and i n f l u e n c e f o r women but t h i s was t o be an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e and not a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r i t . To them i t was i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t women c o u l d be m o t h e r s of young c h i l d r e n and r e s p o n s i b l e and e f f e c t i v e c i t i z e n s i n t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e a t one and t h e same t i m e . Each r o l e r e q u i r e d t o o g r e a t a commitment of t i m e and e n e r g y f o r t h e P r o v i n c e , F e b r u a r y 22, 1922 p.6. T h i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n r e l a t i o n t o m i d d l e - c l a s s young women; most clubwomen a c c e p t e d t h e f a c t t h a t w o r k i n g - c l a s s women woul d h o l d j o b s f o r t h e g r e a t e r p o r t i o n of t h e i r l i v e s and o f t e n i n i t i a t e d o r p r o v i d e d f a c i l i t i e s , s u c h as day c a r e o r employment a g e n c i e s t o h e l p them c a r r y out b o t h t h e i r m o t h e r i n g and e a r n i n g r o l e s i n an a c c e p t a b l e f a s h i o n . 1 43 a v e r a g e woman t o combine them. The m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t s o l u t i o n was l o g i c a l , i n l i g h t of t h e g r e a t e mphasis t h e s e women p l a c e d on m o t h e r h o o d ; y o u n g e r women wou l d p e r f o r m t h e l a t t e r r o l e f i r s t and o n l y t h e n move i n t o t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e . Thus t h e y w o u l d have t h e p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n o f w o r k i n g i n b o t h s p h e r e s as w e l l as making a d o u b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o s o c i e t y . T h i s a t t i t u d e was b u t t r e s s e d by t h e a f t e r m a t h of t h e war. More and more young women were moving i n t o t h e w o r k f o r c e and w h i l e t h e m a j o r i t y o n l y worked u n t i l m a r r i a g e , many, w i t h t h e i r i n c r e a s e d e d u c a t i o n and j o b s k i l l s , seemed s e t t o make l i f e l o n g c a r e e r s f o r t h e m s e l v e s . That t h e y m i g h t c h o o s e t o f o r e g o motherhood a l t o g e t h e r , o r a t t e m p t t o j u g g l e b o t h r o l e s a t t h e expense of t h e i r m o t h e r i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , was a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t d i d n o t a p p e a l t o t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n of clubwomen. The m a s s i v e l o s s of young manhood and t h e s o c i a l d i s r u p t i o n c a u s e d by t h e war made i t even more i m p e r a t i v e i n t h e i r minds t h a t t h e younger g e n e r a t i o n s e t t l e down i m m e d i a t e l y t o r e s p o n s i b l e p a r e n t h o o d f o r t h e s t a b i l i t y of s o c i e t y as a w h o l e . 5 8 M r s . B e r t h a K. L a n d e s , p r e s i d e n t of t h e S e a t t l e C i t y C o u n c i l , v i s i t e d V a n c o u v e r i n 1925 t o speak t o clubwomen. A p r e s s a r t i c l e r e p o r t e d By t h e end of t h e 1920's many clubwomen were d i s c u s s i n g t h e p r o s and c o n s of e u g e n i c s but a t t h i s s l i g h t l y e a r l i e r p e r i o d t h e i r r e f e r e n c e s t o modern and s c i e n t i f i c m otherhood r e f e r r e d more t o a c o n c e r n f o r a d v a n c e s i n h e a l t h c a r e , s a n i t a t i o n , f e e d i n g and t h e d e v e l o p i n g f i e l d o.f p s y c h o l o g y . 1 44 t h a t t h e r e i s no p r o f e s s i o n i n h e r o p i n i o n t h a t compares w i t h t h a t o f w i f e , mother and home-maker. She s a y s t h a t h a v i n g f u l f i l l e d h e r o b l i g a t i o n s t o h e r c h i l d r e n she now has t i m e t o do t h i n g s o u t s i d e h er home w i t h o u t n e g l e c t i n g i t o r her husba n d . I n her work i n t h e C i t y C o u n c i l she i s m e r e l y c a r r y i n g on a l a r g e r h o u s e k e e p i n g - f o r w h i c h h e r t h i r t y - o n e y e a r s as a home-maker has [ s i c ] q u a l i f i e d h e r . 5 9 A n o t h e r a r t i c l e c i t e d t h e " p a t i e n t p l a n n i n g , h a r d work, s t e a d y a p p l i c a t i o n even t h r o u g h w e a r i n e s s " t h a t was r e q u i r e d f o r motherhood as t h e r e a s o n "why t h e m i d d l e aged and o l d e r women of t o d a y a r e p r a c t i c a l , c a p a b l e b u s i n e s s women and r e f o r m e r s . " 6 0 W h i l e t h e y r a r e l y m e n t i o n e d i t i n t h e i r p u b l i c w r i t i n g s , i t was a l s o o b v i o u s t h a t clubwomen b e l i e v e d t h a t w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e of motherhood b e h i n d h er and t h e new f i e l d o f " i n t e l l i g i e n t c i t i z e n s h i p " or " p u b l i c motherhood" b e f o r e h e r t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e f o r any woman was v i a women's c l u b s . The e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n and p u b l i c s p e a k i n g w o u l d a c t as a t y p e o f f i n i s h i n g s c h o o l f o r t h e new woman c i t i z e n ; " i t i s i n a good c l u b w h i c h does c o n s t r u c t i v e work t h a t a woman f i t s h e r s e l f f o r p u b l i c l i f e o r o f f i c e . " 6 1 I t w o u l d a l s o p r o v i d e t h e s u p p o r t and b a c k i n g needed f o r e f f e c t i v e e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e w i d e r s o c i e t y . I n th e s h o r t t e r m c l u b s w o u l d a s s i s t w i t h g a i n i n g s p e c i f i c r e f o r m s and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on t h e b o d i e s t h a t formed and e n a c t e d p u b l i c p o l i c y ; i n t h e l o n g r u n t h e y w o u l d a c t t o m o b i l i z e t h e f e m a l e h a l f of s o c i e t y t h a t was now p e r c e i v e d as b e g i n n i n g t o t a k e on P r o v i n c e , March 26, 1925 p.12. WWW, December 31, 1921 p.10. Mrs B e r t h a Landes i n t h e Sun, A p r i l 4, 1925 p.6. 1 45 i t s l o n g d e n i e d p u b l i c r o l e i n l i f e . I n summary t h e n , t h e l a r g e l y m i d d l e - c l a s s , m i d d l e - a g e d , m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t clubwomen of V a n c o u v e r , l i k e t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s a c r o s s Canada and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , p r opounded a p h i l o s o p h y t h a t was a t once i d e a l i s t i c and p r a c t i c a l . The p h i l o s o p h y i t s e l f had been i n e x i s t e n c e f o r h a l f a c e n t u r y or more and had a l r e a d y p r ompted e f f o r t s t o a c h i e v e some of t h e r e f o r m s t h a t clubwomen d e s i r e d . T h e i r e n t h u s i a s m was e n c o u r a g e d by a f e e l i n g t h a t s u c c e s s was f i n a l l y c l o s e a t hand and because of t h i s t h e y were a b l e t o i g n o r e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e were c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l b a s e s . P r a c t i c a l works were more i m p o r t a n t t o them t h a n t h e o r y so t h e y were c o n t e n t t o use s n i p p e t s of m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t p h i l o s o p h y t o s u p p o r t s p e c i f i c a c t i o n s o r p o i n t s o f vi e w on a v e r y p i e c e m e a l b a s i s . Thus t h e y had no d i f f i c u l t y i n t e r n a l i z i n g s u c h o p p o s i n g n o t i o n s as t h e i d e a t h a t men and women were i n h e r e n t l y d i f f e r e n t w i t h c a p a c i t i e s f o r f u l f i l l i n g d i f f e r e n t r o l e s and t h e i d e a t h a t men had made s u c h a mess of t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s p h e r e t h a t women were needed t o p u t t h i n g s r i g h t ; o r t h a t motherhood was a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r any k i n d of i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e p u b l i c a r e n a but c o u l d be embarked upon w i t h l i t t l e more than n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t as g u i d a n c e ; o r t h a t a l l women s h a r e d a common o u t l o o k by v i r t u e of t h e i r g e n d e r , w h i l e i g n o r i n g d i f f e r e n c e s of o p i n i o n amongst t h e m s e l v e s and t h e v e r y wide gap t h a t e x i s t e d between t h e i r own m i d d l e - c l a s s o u t l o o k and g o a l s and t h o s e of t h e i r w o r k i n g - c l a s s s i s t e r s . 1 46 But i f t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y was o v e r l y i d e a l i s t i c and p o o r l y c o n c e i v e d , i t n e v e r t h l e s s s e r v e d them w e l l i n t h e s h o r t t e r m i n t h a t i t was based on v a l u e s t h a t were w i d e l y h e l d , i n a g e n e r a l manner, t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y . At i t s c o r e was t h e c o n c e p t of motherhood w h i c h was i m p o s s i b l e t o d i s c o u n t . One m i g h t , and many d i d , a r g u e a g a i n s t e q u a l i t y f o r women, but i n t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o n t e x t p a r t i c u l a r l y , i t was, and s t i l l i s , v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o a r g u e a g a i n s t motherhood. Many of t h e r e f o r m s t h a t t h e s e women sought were d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h c h i l d r e n ; t h e r e m a i n d e r i n v o l v e d women's r i g h t s and a b i l i t i e s t o p l a y a r o l e i n d e f e n d i n g and p r o t e c t i n g t h e m s e l v e s and t h e r e b y t h e i r c h i l d r e n . By l i n k i n g womanhood and motherhood w i t h c i t i z e n s h i p women r e f o r m e r s p l a c e d t h e m s e l v e s i n a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n . They r e t a i n e d t h i s s t r e n g t h w h i l e t h e y t h e m s e l v e s r e m a i n e d a c t i v e , but because t h e y were so i s s u e - o r i e n t e d t h e y w a s t e d l i t t l e t h o u g h t on what would o c c u r i n t h e f u t u r e when t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l r e f o r m g o a l s had been a c h i e v e d . I f t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t h i s p r o b l e m a t a l l i t was t o assume t h a t t h e younger g e n e r a t i o n of women woul d f o l l o w i n t h e i r f o o t s t e p s and t a k e up c l u b work and m o n i t o r and improve s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s once t h e i r own c h i l d r e n were o f f t h e i r hands. T h i s was not t o be, but some clubwomen d i d not u n d e r s t a n d t h a t younger women had a d i f f e r e n t o u t l o o k o r d i f f e r e n t g o a l s from t h e m s e l v e s . O t h e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y e x p r e s s e d m i s g i v i n g s . I o.ften wonder i f t h e g i r l s who a r e t o d a y r a i s e d i n such a d i f f e r e n t atmosphere - i n many homes t h e c h i e f t h i n g i s t o g i v e them an e a s i e r t i m e t h a n mother had -freedom from r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , f rom t o i l , w i t h p l e n t y of amusement - w i l l t h e y become t h e e f f i c i e n t u s e f u l 147 women t h e i r m o t h e r s a r e ? 6 2 The o l d have t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e young a r e f r i v o l o u s and f a l l below t h e s t a n d a r d of p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n s ; was t h i s j u s t a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e ? In t h e c a s e of young women r e a c h i n g m a t u r i t y i n t h e 1920's and t h e i r m o t h e r s ' g e n e r a t i o n a t th e peak of t h e i r c l u b l i f e t h e r e was more t h a n j u s t a g e n e r a t i o n a l t i m e d i f f e r e n c e . The former were women of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w h i l e t h e l a t t e r , modern and p r o g r e s s i v e as t h e y m i g h t c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s , had t h e i r r o o t s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Between t h e two l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t g u l f c r e a t e d by r a p i d g r o w t h i n i n d u s t r y , s c i e n c e , t e c h n o l o g y and c o m m u n i c a t i o n s and t h e d e v a s t a t i o n of t h e war t o end a l l w a r s. A b r i g h t new w o r l d l a y ahead f o r t h e younger g e n e r a t i o n , a w o r l d i n w h i c h women had t h e v o t e , and v a s t l y i n c r e a s e d a c c e s s t o e d u c a t i o n and j o b s o u t s i d e t h e home, a w o r l d from w h i c h many of t h e i n j u s t i c e s t o w a r d s women and c h i l d r e n had " been removed, a w o r l d i n w h i c h t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d and weak were i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g c a r e d f o r by t h e i n c i p i e n t w e l f a r e s t a t e . Changed s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , mores and a s p i r a t i o n s i n t h e 1920's c a l l e d on the e d u c a t e d , c o n c e r n e d young women of t h e p e r i o d t o be c o m p a n i o n a t e w i v e s and s c i e n t i f i c homemakers and mothers r a t h e r than r e f o r m e r s . 6 3 6 2 WWW, December 31, 1921 p.10. 1 48 The e f f o r t s o f t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n o f women had been b a s i c a l l y d i r e c t e d t o s h o r i n g up and p r e s e r v i n g t h e i r s o c i e t y , t o b a n i s h i n g some of t h e s u p e r f i c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s and i n j u s t i c e s w i t h o u t a l t e r i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n s . T h e i r aim had n e v e r been a r a d i c a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g of s o c i e t y . T h e i r a c t i o n s had r e s u l t e d i n some changes i n r e g a r d t o t h e p o s i t i o n of women and c h i l d r e n but the b a s i c p a t r i a r c h a l s t r u c t u r e r e m a i n e d unchanged and w i t h i n i t the r o l e of woman as mother f i r s t and as i n d i v i d u a l o n l y a v e r y p oor s e c o n d , r e m a i n e d unchanged a l s o . What had chang e d by t h e 1920's, however, were b o t h s o c i e t y i t s e l f and t h e p e r c e p t i o n of how t h e r o l e of mother s h o u l d be p l a y e d . T h i s change i n i d e o l o g y had l i t t l e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e r e f o r m s a c h i e v e d by t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n of women but was r a t h e r a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e changes o c c u r i n g i n w e s t e r n s o c i e t y as i n d u s t r i a l e x p a n s i o n r e n d e r e d b o t h p r o d u c t i o n and t h e s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r of work more and more r o u t i n i z e d and monotonous and as urba n r a t h e r t h a t r u r a l l i v i n g became t h e norm. The d e v e l o p i n g consumer c u l t u r e p r e s e n t e d i t s e l f as a r e a l m i n w h i c h c o m p e n s a t o r y g r a t i f i c a t i o n and e x c i t e m e n t m i g h t be had. The new c u l t u r e s t i l l c a u g h t women i n t h e r o l e of motherhood but f o r them c o n s u m p t i o n was i n c r e a s i n g l y l i n k e d t o t h e i r e d u c a t i v e f u n c t i o n t o i m p l y a way f o r t h e i r d a u g h t e r s t o do b e t t e r . Through c o n s u m p t i o n 6 3 See V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , " I n t r u d e r s i n t h e N u r s e r y , " and Norah L e w i s , " A d v i s i n g t h e P a r e n t s , " f o r c h a n g i n g v i e w s on motherhood and c h i l d r a i s i n g ; see a l s o P e t e r F i l e n e , H i m / H e r / S e l f , pp. 162-68 and S h e i l a Rothman, Woman's P r o p e r P l a c e , pp 177-88 f o r d i s c u s s i o n of c o m p a s s i o n a t e m a r r i a g e and t h e g l o r i f i c a t i o n of r o m a n t i c l o v e i n t h i s p e r i o d . 149 women c o u l d p r o c u r e f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n . . . 1 i f e l o n g s e c u r i t y and h a p p i n e s s . . . 6 " By making use of modern a p p l i a n c e s , p r o c e s s e d f o o d s , new c l e a n i n g a g e n t s , and f o l l o w i n g t h e a d v i c e of p r o f e s s i o n a l n c h i l d c a r e and home e c o n o m i c s e x p e r t s , y o u nger women were e n c o u r a g e d t o g r a d u a t e t o an i d e o l o g y w h i c h s u s t a i n e d t h e p a t r i a r c h a l home and a n c h o r e d them f i r m l y w i t h i n i t . T h e i r m o t h e r s had h e l d an image of t h e i r r o l e w h i c h had d e v e l o p e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y , o f t h e n e c e s s i t y t o s t e p o u t s i d e t h e home t o p r o t e c t i t . The g e n e r a t i o n s g r o w i n g t o m a t u r i t y i n t h e 1920's and a f t e r were c o n d i t i o n e d t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n , t h r o u g h p r o f e s s i o n a l and s c i e n t i f i c a d v i c e from d o c t o r s , n u r s e s and c h i l d p s y c h o l o g i s t s , and t h r o u g h a d v e r t i s i n g by t h e p r o d u c e r s of e v e r y p r o d u c t t h a t was c o n c e i v a b l y d e s i r a b l e i n t h e home, t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r r o l e l a y not i n t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e but w i t h i n t h e i r own homes as " a d m i n i s t r a t o r [ s ] and e n t e r p r i s e r [ s ] i n t h e b u s i n e s s of l i v i n g " ( o r i g i n a l i t a l i c s ) . 6 5 I n t h e 1920's s u c h a t t i t u d e s and i d e a s were o n l y j u s t b e g i n n i n g t o c o a l e s c e . The G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n and t h e Second W o r l d War w o u l d f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h e n and e x t e n d them t o a degee o n l y dreamed ab o u t i n t h e 1920's. N e v e r t h l e s s even a t t h i s p e r i o d t h e i r s t r e n g t h was s u f f i c i e n t t o a l t e r t h e p e r c e p t i o n and S t u a r t Ewen, C a p t a i n s o f C o n s c i o u s n e s s : A d v e r t i s i n g and t h e S o c i a l R o o t s of the Consumer C u l t u r e (New Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l Book Co., 1976), p.175. I b i d . , p. 168. 1 50 a s p i r a t i o n s of t h e younger g e n e r a t i o n of women t o s u c h an e x t e n t t h a t t h e p a t h t h e y f o l l o w e d i n c a r r y i n g o u t t h e i r r o l e as mo t h e r s was e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t t o t h a t of t h e p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n . The aims of b o t h g e n e r a t i o n s were no doubt s i m i l a r i n t h a t t h e y b o t h s t r o v e t o do what t h e y saw as b e s t f o r t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r c h i l d r e n b u t t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s of wha^was b o t h n e c e s s a r y and d e s i r a b l e were v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t . To have f o l l o w e d i n t h e i r m o t h e r s ' f o o t s t e p s i n p u r s u i t of r e f o r m may w e l l have seemed a l m o s t l i k e a d e r e l i c t i o n of t h e i r own m a t e r n a l d u t i e s t o t h e s e younger women. By t h e 1920's, t h e r e f o r m i m p e t u s i n V a n c o u v e r and e l s e w h e r e was b e g i n n i n g t o weaken a l t h o u g h t h i s was not a p p a r e n t t o clubwomen a t t h e t i m e . I n d e e d , t h e s i x y e a r s between 1917 and 1923 were marked by t h e a c h i e v e m e n t i n r a p i d s u c c e s s i o n of many of t h e s o c i a l and l e g i s l a t i v e g o a l s t h a t women had been w o r k i n g t o w a r d s f o r many y e a r s . Once t h e s e were a t t a i n e d , however, t h e r e seemed t o be l i t t l e c o n s e n s u s as t o what s h o u l d be done n e x t . W i t h no s p e c i f i c c ampaigns t o draw them t o g e t h e r , women began t o l o s e t h e sense o f s o l i d a r i t y w h i c h had been t e n u o u s a t the b e s t of t i m e s , and t o work i n t h e i r s e p a r a t e c l u b s on p r o j e c t s of n a r r o w e r i n t e r e s t . T h i s f r a g m e n t a t i o n of e f f o r t , w h i c h l e d t o l e s s e f f e c t i v e and l e s s s p e c t a c u l a r r e s u l t s , c o n t r i b u t e d t o f u r t h e r l o s s of momentum. Because m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t clubwomen were i s s u e - o r i e n t e d r a t h e r t h a n t r u l y . i d e o l o g i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d , b e c a u s e t h e y m i s u n d e r s t o o d o r o v e r - e s t i m a t e d t h e u n i t y t h a t t h e i r common gender c o u l d c r e a t e , and because c h a n g i n g s o c i e t a l g o a l s drew younger women i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n , clubwomen had 151 nowhere t o go once t h e i r i mmediate g o a l s had been a t t a i n e d . 6 6 The amount of l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t t h e y managed t o i n f l u e n c e b e f o r e t h i s p e r i o d of q u i e s c e n c e , however, was c o n s i d e r a b l e and f a r -r e a c h i n g i n i t s e f f e c t s and w i l l be examined i n some d e t a i l i n th e n e x t c h a p t e r . 6 6 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t of Women, pp. 394-98, makes t h e same p o i n t r e g a r d i n g t h e NCWC a t t h i s t i m e . 1 52 C h a p t e r 4 "DECISIVE ACTION AND NOT EMPTY PROMISES": WOMEN AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION 1910-28.. When H e l e n M a c G i l l p u b l i s h e d t h e f o u r t h e d i t i o n of Laws f o r Women and C h i l d r e n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n 1928 she p r o u d l y c l a i m e d , W i t h t h e p a s s a g e of t h e S u f f r a g e Referendum, t h e s u b s e q u e n t r e p e a l of t h a t a c t and t h e b r i n g i n g down of t h e Women's F r a n c h i s e A c t as a Government measure i n 1917,...the s t r u g g l e f o r t h e e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t of t h e women of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , c a r r i e d on f o r t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s , came t o a v i c t o r i o u s c l o s e . U n t i l women had t h e v o t e t h e y had no means of i m p r e s s i n g t h e i r v i e w s upon t h e l e g i s l a t o r s o r of w r i t i n g t h e i r i d e a l s i n t o t h e s t a t u t e books of t h e P r o v i n c e . The b e l i e f o f t h e s u f f r a g i s t s t h a t t h e b a l l o t i s t h e p r o p e r and o n l y e f f e c t i v e means of e x p r e s s i n g p u b l i c o p i n i o n has been amply d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e c a s e of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , w h i c h , from b e i n g t h e most backward of P r o v i n c e s , t o d a y l e a d s i n s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n . 1 Her c l a i m t h a t B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a was now a l e a d e r i n r e g a r d t o l e g i s l a t i o n was not s t r i c t l y a c c u r a t e , f o r t h e p r a i r i e p r o v i n c e s i n p a r t i c u l a r had a l s o been making s i m i l a r c h anges i n t h e i r s t a t u t e s , but she was c o r r e c t i n p o i n t i n g out t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t amount of s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n had been e n a c t e d d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s d e c a d e . Some of t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n was not d e s i r e d or s u p p o r t e d s o l e l y by clubwomen. F o r i n s t a n c e , the. q u e s t i o n of p r o h i b i t i o n i n v o l v e d l a r g e s e c t o r s of t h e community and b o t h men and women from s e c u l a r and c h u r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s worked e i t h e r f o r or H e l e n M a c G i l l , Laws f o r Women and C h i l d r e n , pp. 5-6. 1 53 a g a i n s t i t . O t h e r l e g i s l a t i o n was welcomed by clubwomen but not a c t i v e l y p u r s u e d by them, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e Workmen's C o m p e n s a t i o n A c t of 1916 and t h e Ol d - a g e P e n s i o n A c t of 1926-27. T h i s c h a p t e r r e v i e w s t h e s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n e n a c t e d between 1910 and 1928 t h a t p a r t i c u l a r l y drew t h e a t t e n t i o n and s u p p o r t of clubwomen and examines t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s and a t t i t u d e s w i t h s p e c i f i c - r e f e r e n c e " t o a s i n g l e a r e a , minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n f o r women. T h i s a c t has been c h o s e n f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F i r s t , i t was one of t h e e a r l i e s t l a w s w h i c h women demanded a f t e r t h e w i n n i n g of s u f f r a g e . Second, i t a f f e c t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t number of women who, under n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , had l i t t l e o r no c o n t a c t w i t h clubwomen t h e m s e l v e s , d e m o n s t r a t i n g clubwomen's d e s i r e t o i n f l u e n c e a l l of s o c i e t y and not j u s t t h e i r own s e c t o r . T h i r d , i t was c o n s i d e r e d by b o t h clubwomen and w o r k i n g women t o be a "maj o r " p i e c e of l e g i s l a t i v e r e f o r m . They b e l i e v e d i t would s i g n i f i c a n t l y i m p r o v e . s o c i e t y as a whole as w e l l as b e n e f i t t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s . A s e c o n d "major" r e f o r m , t h e M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s A c t i s d e a l t w i t h s e p a r a t e l y i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r . Many of t h e new la w s had been demanded by women s i n c e t h e up s u r g e of c l u b a c t i v i t y i n 1910. But u n l i k e m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s and t h e minimum wage t h e s e o t h e r p i e c e s of l e g i s l a t i o n d i d not i n v o l v e new and r e l a t i v e l y u n t r i e d s p h e r e s of i n v o l v e m e n t f o r government. A number of t h e new s t a t u t e s s e r v e d s i m p l y t o update s e c t i o n s of p r o v i n c i a l law t h a t were based on B r i t i s h law of 1858 and w h i c h were v e r y o ut of d a t e compared t o c u r r e n t B r i t i s h law as w e l l as t o t h a t of o t h e r p r o v i n c e s . Most of t h e s e changes were a c h i e v e d by means of c o n t i n u e d p e t i t i o n i n g and s u b m i s s i o n 1 54 of r e s o l u t i o n s t o t h e government by women's c l u b s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e LCW, UWC, NEL and WF, t h r o u g h t h e i r l a ws c o m m i t t e e s but i t must a l s o be borne i n mind t h a t t h e L i b e r a l government was p r e d i s p o s e d t o e n a c t much of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n . F u r t h e r , w h i l e t h e r e was not a l w a y s a c t i v e s u p p o r t from t h e community a t l a r g e t h e r e was l i t t l e o r no a c t i v e o p p o s i t i o n f o r much of t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n f o r women and c h i l d r e n . The b i t t e r and f r u s t r a t i n g b a t t l e s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e e a r l i e r s u f f r a g e campaign d i d not a t t e n d t h e p a s s a g e of t h e s e l a t e r l a w s . Even t h e c o n t i n u i n g d e b a t e and l e g i s l a t i o n on p r o h i b i t i o n had l o s t much of i t s e a r l i e r s t i n g by t h i s t i m e . W o r k i n g i n a more or l e s s c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e , t h e f i r s t l e g i s l a t i o n s o u g h t and o b t a i n e d by women a f t e r t h e p a s s a g e of th e Woman S u f f r a g e A c t 1916 was t h e M u n i c i p a l A c t Amendment A c t 1917 ( c h . 45) w h i c h d e l e t e d t h e word "male" from t h e p r e v i o u s a c t a n d t h e r e b y a l l o w e d women t o run f o r t h e p o s i t i o n s o f Mayor, A l d e r m a n , Reeve, and C o u n c i l l o r on t h e same b a s i s as men. T h i s d i d not mean however, t h a t women c o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y v o t e i n m u n i c i p a l e l e c t i o n s . E l i g i b i l i t y v a r i e d w i d e l y d e p e n d i n g on whether t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y was r u r a l o r u r b a n and whether o r not i t had i t s own c h a r t e r . I n 1922, under t h e J u r y Amendment A c t ( c h . 38) women became e l i g i b l e t o s e r v e on j u r i e s a l t h o u g h , u n l i k e men, t h e y were not o b l i g e d t o do s o . The E q u a l G u a r d i a n s h i p of I n f a n t s A c t 1917 ( c h . 27) was a p i e c e of l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t had l o n g been s o u g h t . H e l e n M a c G i l l c a s t i g a t e d t h e e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n r e g a r d i n g c u s t o d y as "a r e l i c 1 55 of o l d Roman law r e m a i n i n g embedded i n E n g l i s h law as i t came t o u s . " 2 C e r t a i n l y , i n r e s p e c t t o g u a r d i a n s h i p and c u s t o d y , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a l a g g e d b e h i n d many C a n a d i a n p r o v i n c e s u n t i l 1917. 3 The new a c t made a husband and w i f e l i v i n g t o g e t h e r j o i n t g u a r d i a n s of t h e i r m i nor c h i l d r e n w i t h e q u a l powers. The J u v e n i l e C o u r t A c t 1918 ( c h . 20) p r o v i d e d f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c o u r t s f o r d e a l i n g w i t h c h i l d r e n under t h e J u v e n i l e D e l i n q u e n t s A c t of Canada 1908. The f e d e r a l law was d e s i g n e d t o be im p l e m e n t e d p i e c e m e a l o n l y a f t e r p r o v i n c e s and m u n i c i p a l i t i e s had met c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s and t h e r e f o r e a d v o c a t e s had t o p e r s u a d e each community t o t a k e a c t i o n . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , r e s p o n s e was s l o w . In B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a by 1910, o n l y V i c t o r i a and V a n c o u v e r had e s t a b l i s h e d c o u r t s and even t w e l v e y e a r s l a t e r t h e r e were o n l y " t h r e e o r f o u r " c o u r t s i n t h e whole p r o v i n c e . 4 J u v e n i l e c o u r t s had j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r c h i l d r e n below t h e age of e i g h t e e n y e a r s of age who had p r e v i o u s l y been b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e r e g u l a r P o l i c e C o u r t . They were r e q u i r e d by f e d e r a l o r d e r - i n - c o u n c i l t o have a b r o a d backup s y s t e m i n c l u d i n g a p r o p e r t e m p o r a r y d e t e n t i o n home, an i n d u s t r i a l s c h o o l , s p e c i a l l y a p p o i n t e d j u d g e s as w e l l as p r o b a t i o n s t a f f and a J u v e n i l e C o u r t C ommittee. The whole p u r p o s e of the c o u r t s r e v o l v e d a r o u n d t h e i d e a t h a t t h e i r f u n c t i o n was not punishment 2 I b i d . p.9. 3 C o n s t a n c e B. B a c k h o u s e , " S h i f t i n g P a t t e r n s i n N i n e t e e n t h - C e n t u r y C a n a d i a n C u s t o d y Laws," i n D a v i d H. F l a h e r t y e d . , E s s a y s i n t h e H i s t o r y o f C a n a d i a n Law ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1 981), pp. 238-39. 4 N e i l S u t h e r l a n d , C h i l d r e n i n E n g l i s h - C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y , pp. 125-26. 1 56 but t r e a t m e n t , t h a t e ach c a s e r e q u i r e d p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h a t s u p e r v i s e d p r o b a t i o n was e s s e n t i a l t o r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and t h a t c h i l d r e n s h o u l d not be i n c a r c e r a t e d w i t h a d u l t s . 5 The p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n of 1918 s p e l l e d o ut t h e c o u r t s ' f u n c t i o n and p a r a m e t e r s more c l e a r l y and p r o v i d e d f o r th e a p p o i n t m e n t of women as j u d g e s upon t h e same ter m s as men. H e l e n M a c G i l l was t h e f i r s t woman a p p o i n t e d i n t h e p r o v i n c e i n 1918 and s e r v e d c o n t i n u o u s l y , e x c e p t f o r a p e r i o d between 1929 and 1935 when t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e government r e f u s e d t o r e a p p o i n t h e r , u n t i l h e r r e t i r e m e n t i n 1945. 6 The c a r e of n e g l e c t e d , dependent and d e l i n q u e n t c h i l d r e n was w i d e n e d i n scope under t h e I n f a n t s ' A c t Amendent A c t s of 1918 ( c h . 3 6 ) , 1919 ( c h . 3 5 ) , 1922 ( c h . 3 l ) and 1923 ( c h . 2 4 ) . They e n a b l e d t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of. N e g l e c t e d C h i l d r e n , i n c o n c e r t w i t h C h i l d r e n ' s A i d S o c i e t i e s , t o b e t t e r s u p e r v i s e , f i n a n c e and c o n t r o l homes and i n s t i t u t i o n s where c h i l d r e n were k e p t , i n c l u d i n g f o s t e r homes. Amendments were a l s o made t o t h e I n d u s t r i a l S c h o o l A c t 1918 ( c h . 35) f o r boys and t h e I n d u s t r i a l Home f o r G i r l s A c t 1918 ( c h . 34) w h i c h e n a b l e d a c t i o n by t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of N e g l e c t e d C h i l d r e n , h i s agent o r P r o b a t i o n o f f i c e r s t o s e c u r e c h i l d r e n b e i n g c o n f i n e d t o e i t h e r t h e I n d u s t r i a l S c h o o l or Home. I t a l s o f o r c e d m u n i c i p a l i t i e s t o bear t h e c o s t of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e i r own b o u n d a r i e s , H e l e n M a c G i l l , The J u v e n i l e C o u r t i n Canada: O r i g i n , U n d e r l y i n g P r i n c i p l e s , G o v e r n i n g L e g i s l a t i o n , and P r a c t i c e ( O t t a w a : C a n a d i a n C o u n c i l on C h i l d W e l f a r e , 1 925) , p.33. E l s i e M a c G i l l , My Moth e r t h e J u d g e , p. 239. 157 i n c l u d i n g t h e expense of c o n v e y a n c e t o s c h o o l . The Subnormal Boys' S c h o o l A c t 1920 ( c h . 86) p r o v i d e d f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a s c h o o l f o r s u b - n o r m a l boys w i t h a v i e w t o m e n t a l h e a l t h improvement, e d u c a t i o n , i n d u s t r i a l t r a i n i n g and m o r a l r e c l a m a t i o n . The p o s i t i o n of d e s e r t e d w i v e s and widows was i m p r o v e d by amendments t o t h e t h e D e s e r t e d Wives M a i n t e n a n c e A c t 1919 ( c h . 19) and t h e p a s s a g e of t h e T e s t a t o r ' s F a m i l y M a i n t e n a n c e A c t 1920 ( c h . 9 4 ) . The f o r m e r a l l o w e d a w i f e t o sue f o r s u p p o r t f o r h e r s e l f and her c h i l d r e n w i t h o u t r e q u i r i n g h er t o l i v e a p a r t from h e r husband w h i l e t h e l a t t e r , w h i c h had been on t h e agendas of women's c l u b law c o m m i t t e e s f o r a l m o s t a d e c a d e , a b o l i s h e d t h e r i g h t of a man t o w i l l h i s e n t i r e e s t a t e away from h i s w i f e and c h i l d r e n . Under t h e o l d l a w , t h e c h i l d r e n had been a b l e t o sue f o r a s h a r e i n t h e e s t a t e i f t h i s happened, but not t h e w i f e . Under t h e new law t h e c o u r t c o u l d o r d e r p r o v i s i o n f o r a l l d e p e n d e n t s i f a w i l l was made l e a v i n g e i t h e r spouse o r t h e c h i l d r e n w i t h o u t a d e q u a t e s u p p o r t . 7 I n t h e c a s e of a husband d y i n g i n t e s t a t e t h e widow r e c e i v e d a g r e a t e r s h a r e i n the e s t a t e t h a n p r e v i o u s l y . 7 H e l e n M a c G i l l , Laws f o r Women and C h i l d r e n , p. 38; w h i l e most of E n g l i s h Canada h e l d s i m i l a r v i e w s a t t h i s t i m e Quebec was s t i l l v e r y much g o v e r n e d by t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s t o woman's r o l e w i t h i n m a r r i a g e . I t was n o t u n t i l 1929 t h a t o f f i c i a l d i s c u s s i o n was begun, a f t e r y e a r s o f l o b b y i n g by o r g a n i z e d women, and even l o n g e r b e f o r e l e g i s l a t i v e changes were made. See J e n n i f e r S t o d d a r t , "Quebec's L e g a l E l i t e L o o k s a t Women's R i g h t s : The D o r i a n Commision 1929-31," i n D a v i d H. F l a h e r t y e d . , E s s a y s i n th e H i s t o r y of C a n a d i a n Law, pp. 3 23-57. 1 58 U n t i l 1919 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a had no l e g i s l a t i o n p r o t e c t i n g t h e age of m a r r i a g e w h i c h g r e a t l y c o n c e r n e d many clubwomen. Under t h e 1917 E q u a l G u a r d i a n s h i p of I n f a n t s A c t , t h e mothe r ' s c o n s e n t f o r m a r r i a g e of boys and g i r l s between t w e l v e and f o u r t e e n but under t w e n t y - o n e y e a r s of age was r e q u i r e d . But t h e l o w e r age l i m i t f o r m a r r i a g e was not s e t by any s t a t u t e and some l e g a l a u t h o r i t i e s h e l d t h a t t h e p r o v i n c e s c o u l d n o t , t h e r e f o r e , r a i s e t h e age l i m i t f o r m a r r i a g e . O t h e r p r o v i n c e s , however, had s o l v e d t h e p r o b l e m by f i x i n g an age l i m i t below w h i c h i t was u n l a w f u l t o i s s u e a m a r r i a g e l i c e n c e o r s o l e m n i z e a m a r r i a g e . The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M a r r i a g e A c t Amendment A c t 1919 ( c h . 52) a l s o f o l l o w e d t h i s r o u t e , making i t u n l a w f u l t o s o l e m n i z e a m a r r i a g e f o r p e r s o n s under s i x t e e n y e a r s of age u n l e s s i n a c o u r t ' s o p i n i o n i t was e x p e d i e n t and i n t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s of a l l t h e p a r t i e s . Subsequent m a r r i a g e was a l s o h e l d t o l e g i t i m i z e c h i l d r e n b o r n o ut of w e d l o c k . An e f f o r t t o c h e c k t h e r a v a g e s of " t h a t most a w f u l of s o c i a l d i s e a s e s " was made under t h e V e n e r e a l D i s e a s e P r e v e n t i o n A c t 1919 ( c h . 8 8 ) . V e n e r e a l d i s e a s e was made r e p o r t a b l e , t r e a t m e n t was f u r n i s h e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h o s p i t a l s r e c e i v i n g s t a t e a i d w h i c h were r e q u i r e d t o make p r o v i s i o n s f o r s u c h t r e a t m e n t , and s e c r e c y was r e q u i r e d from a l l o f f i c i a l s t o p r o t e c t t h o s e b e i n g t r e a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y m a r r i e d women i n f e c t e d by t h e i r h u s b a n d s . At t h e same t i m e , t h e s a l e and a d v e r t i s i n g of d r u g s and m e d i c i n e s f o r t h e suppo s e d t r e a t m e n t of v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e was banned and o n l y q u a l i f i e d m e d i c a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s were a l l o w e d t o g i v e t r e a t m e n t . 1 59 In t h e f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t s of p u b l i c h e a l t h , t h e R e g i s t e r e d N u r s e s A c t of 1918 (ch.37) e s t a b l i s h e d u n i f o r m c o u r s e s of h o s p i t a l t e a c h i n g and e x a m i n a t i o n and p e r m i t t e d o n l y g r a d u a t e s of s u c h c o u r s e s t o use t h e l e t t e r s R.N. a f t e r t h e i r names. Amendments t o t h e P u b l i c S c h o o l s A c t 1920 ( c h . 82) a l s o p r o v i d e d f o r d e n t a l and n u r s i n g s e r v i c e s " i f deemed a d v i s a b l e by t h e [ s c h o o l ] B o a r d " w i t h f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e b e i n g p r o v i d e d by t h e government. 8 The l a c k o f p r o t e c t i o n f o r a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n had been under d i s c u s s i o n f o r some y e a r s i n c h i l d w e l f a r e and women's c l u b c i r c l e s . P r i o r t o t h e new a c t a d o p t i o n c o n s i s t e d of a "f o r m of i n d e n t u r e under w h i c h t h e f a m i l y r i g h t s of t h e y o u n g s t e r i n v o l v e d had t o be l a i d o u t l e g a l l y . " 9 Under t h e A d o p t i o n A c t 1920 ( c h . 2) and s u b s e q u e n t amendments i n 1921 ( c h . 1) and 1922 ( c h . 3) f o r m a l a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e c o u r t now had t o be made by t h o s e w i s h i n g t o adopt a c h i l d and, i n t h e c a s e of c h i l d r e n o v e r t w e l v e y e a r s of age, t h e c h i l d ' s own c o n s e n t was r e q u i r e d . A b e l i e f t h a t women r e q u i r e d some s p e c i a l p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t s i t u a t i o n s o r i n d i v i d u a l s i n s o c i e t y was i m p l i e d i n much of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n of t h e p e r i o d . The f a c t t h a t o t h e r l e g i s l a t i o n was b e i n g e n a c t e d a t t h e same t i m e w i t h t h e p u r p o s e 8 See N e i l S u t h e r l a n d , C h i l d r e n i n E n g l i s h - C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y , pp. 39-55 and N o r a h L e w i s , " A d v i s i n g t h e P a r e n t s , " ch.5 f o r d i s c u s s i o n of s c h o o l h e a l t h s e r v i c e s . 9 N e i l S u t h e r l a n d , C h i l d r e n i n E n g l i s h - C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y , pp.10,240; see a l s o R i c h a r d B. S p l a n e , S o c i a l W e l f a r e i n O n t a r i o 1791-1893: A St u d y of P u b l i c W e l f a r e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1965), pp. 265-63. 1 60 of g i v i n g women e q u a l i t y , u n d e r l i n e s t h e i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w h i c h p e r m e a t e d m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t t h o u g h t and w h i c h were r e f l e c t e d t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y i n t h i s e r a . Two a c t s a c t u a l l y i n c l u d e d t h e word " p r o t e c t i o n " i n t h e i r t i t l e s . The M a t e r n i t y P r o t e c t i o n A c t 1921 ( c h . 37) p r o h i b i t e d t h e employment of women f o r s i x weeks f o l l o w i n g c o n f i n e m e n t and gave them t h e r i g h t t o l e a v e work, w i t h o u t f o r f e i t i n g t h e i r j o b s , i f - t h e y p r o d u c e d a m e d i c a l c e r t i f i c a t e s t a t i n g t h a t c o n f i n e m e n t was p r o b a b l e w i t h i n s i x weeks. Women n u r s i n g c h i l d r e n were a l l o w e d h a l f an hour t w i c e d a i l y d u r i n g w o r k i n g h o u r s f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . T h i s was c l e a r l y a v e r y p r a c t i c a l law from t h e . p o i n t of v i e w of t h e h e a l t h and s a f e t y of t h e mother and c h i l d b u t t o some women, f o r c e d t o g i v e up s i x weeks' wages, i t may not have been so welcome. The p r o t e c t i o n o f women from t h e f o r c e s o f i m m o r a l i t y was d e a l t w i t h by t h e Women's and G i r l s ' P r o t e c t i o n A c t 1923 ( c h . 76) w h i c h p r e v e n t e d b o t h w h i t e and I n d i a n women from w o r k i n g i n any p l a c e where t h e p o l i c e c o n s i d e r e d t h e i r m o r a l s m i g h t be i n d a n g e r . T h i s law was d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o p r e v e n t women w o r k i n g f o r O r i e n t a l s but c o u l d be e x t e n d e d t o ' c o v e r any e t h n i c g r o u p o r s i t u a t i o n . Most clubwomen, as w e l l as many of the g e n e r a l p u b l i c were s t r o n g l y a n t i - O r i e n t a l but o t h e r r a c e s a l s o came i n f o r c r i t i c i s m as a t h r e a t t o m o r a l s o r p u b l i c w e l f a r e . F o r i n s t a n c e , Mrs H.B. F o s t e r of t h e NEL c o n t e n d e d t h a t most A s i a n - o w n e d shops were " q u i t e r e s p e c t a b l e and c l e a n - Greek 161 s t o r e s were p r o b a b l y w o r s e . " 1 0 Under t h e P a r e n t s ' M a i n t e n a n c e A c t .1922 ( c h . 57) d e s t i t u t e and i n f i r m p a r e n t s were a b l e t o a p p l y t o have t h e i r a d u l t c h i l d r e n show c a u s e why t h e y s h o u l d not c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r s u p p o r t . T h i s law was e v i d e n t l y e n a c t e d b e c a u s e " I t was u n f o r t u n a t e l y t r u e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a t h a t t h e p a r e n t s of t h e w e l l - t o - d o have been i n Poor Houses or O l d P e o p l e ' s Homes, s u p p o r t e d by p u b l i c t a x e s , w h i l e t h o s e who s h o u l d n a t u r a l l y c o n t r i b u t e r e f u s e d any o b l i g a t i o n . " 1 1 L e g a l o b l i g a t i o n t o k i n was a l s o s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e C h i l d r e n of U n m a r r i e d P a r e n t s A c t 1922 ( c h . 9) w h i c h made t h e f a t h e r of an i l l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d f i n a n c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i t s s u p p o r t and m a i n t e n a n c e u n t i l i t r e a c h e d s i x t e e n y e a r s of age. He m i g h t a l s o be r e q u i r e d t o s u p p o r t t h e mother i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e b i r t h and t o pay m e d i c a l and o t h e r c o n t i n g e n t e x p e n s e s . A l t h o u g h t h e a c t was p a s s e d n o t h i n g was done t o improve t h e m a c h i n e r y of e n f o r c e m e n t so many men were s t i l l a b l e t o e s c a p e t h e i r r e s p o n s i b l i 1 i t i e s . The b u l k of t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n , as can be seen from t h e d a t e s of t h e a c t s , was p a s s e d l a r g e l y between 1919 and 1923. Between 1 924 and 1928, when t h e L i b e r a l government was . d e f e a t e d by t h e 1 0 P r o v i n c e , J a n u a r y 20, 1922 p.11. In the p r e v i o u s y e a r t h e NEL had a c c e p t e d t h e p l a t f o r m of t h e A s i a t i c E x c l u s i o n League w h i c h was p r e s e n t i n g c a n d i d a t e s f o r t h e c i v i c e l e c t i o n . The League r e q u e s t e d a l l NEL members t o c e a s e d e a l i n g w i t h C h i n e s e l a u n d r i e s and c o r n e r s t o r e s , P r o v i n c e , September 9, 1921 p.10. The WF a l s o d i s c u s s e d s u g g e s t i o n s t h a t d e f i n i t e s t e p s be t a k e n " t o d e a l w i t h t h e o r i e n t a l q u e s t i o n . " P r o v i n c e , September 16, 1921, p.8. 1 1 H e l e n M a c G i l l , Laws f o r Women and C h i l d r e n , p.43. 1 62 C o n s e r v a t i v e s , v e r y l i t t l e new s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n a t a l l was i n t r o d u c e d and o n l y m inor amendments were made t o e x i s t i n g l a w s . The m a j o r e x c e p t i o n was t h e Old-age P e n s i o n A c t 1926-27 but w h i l e clubwomen s u p p o r t e d t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n t h e y engaged i n no a c t i v e l o b b y i n g on i t s b e h a l f . The p u b l i c campaign f o r a minimum wage f o r w o r k i n g women g o t under way w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a Minimum Wage League (MWL) a t a p u b l i c m e e t i n g on O c t o b e r 25, 1 9 1 7 . 1 2 U n l i k e t h e a g i t a t i o n f o r most o t h e r l e g i s l a t i o n f o r women, t h e i n i t i a t i v e came l a r g e l y from w o r k i n g women t h e m s e l v e s . H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e , t h e p o l i t i c a l l y a s t u t e s e c r e t a r y of t h e V a n c o u v e r T r a d e s and L a b o r C o u n c i l was f o u n d i n g p r e s i d e n t o f MWL. E x p l a i n i n g t h e League's aims t o clubwomen, however, she r e f l e c t e d t h e i r own b e l i e f i n the n e c e s s i t y f o r women t o use t h e i r c i t i z e n s h i p r i g h t s t o improve t h e i r own l i v e s . She s t a t e d t h a t , The f o r m a t i o n of a minimum wage l e a g u e i s t h e n a t u r a l outcome o f t h e r e c e n t e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t of women by t h e e l e c t o r a t e of B.C. D u r i n g t h e campaign f o r woman s u f f r a g e i t was g e n e r a l l y c o n c e d e d t h a t among o t h e r r e a s o n s , t h e need f o r t h e power of t h e v o t e of t h e women was t o o b t a i n c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c l e g i s l a t i o n f o r women, and minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n was one of t h e s p e c i f i c p i e c e s r e f e r r e d t o . She went on t o e x p l a i n t h a t , members [ o f MWL] a r e w a g e - e a r n i n g , s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g women, u n i t e d t o g e t h e r f o r t h e p u r p o s e of o b t a i n i n g e nactment of a law t h a t w i l l e n s u r e t o t h e w o r k i n g woman a wage t h a t i s ba s e d upon t h e c o s t of l i v i n g , and whose r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o g e t h e r w i t h d e l e g a t e s from o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i l l t a k e up t h e m a t t e r w i t h t h e 1 2 P r o v i n c e , O c t o b e r 26, 1917 p.8. 163 g o v e r n m e n t . . . . L i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y i s e x p e c t e d i n o b t a i n i n g s u c h l e g i s l a t i o n , f o r t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c as w e l l as p r o g r e s s i v e l e g i s l a t o r s i s most f a v o u r a b l e . 1 3 H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e was q u i t e r i g h t when she s a i d t h a t t h e r e was much g e n e r a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e i d e a of a minimum wage f o r women. As she n o t e d , r e f o r m - m i n d e d women, from t h e m i d d l e c l a s s a s w e l l as t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s , were r e a d y and w i l l i n g to. p r e s s f o r a l l k i n d s o f s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n now t h a t t h e y had won t h e v o t e . Those l i k e G u t t e r i d g e h e r s e l f , whose p r i m a r y i n t e r e s t was i n l a b o r and s o c i a l i s t i s s u e s , were i n f a v o u r on t h e gro u n d s t h a t s u c h law woul d p r o v i d e a t l e a s t some improvement i n h o u r s and c o n d i t i o n s f o r women w o r k e r s . O t h e r s , l i k e clubwomen, whose main a i m was t o p r o t e c t an i d e a l i z e d n o t i o n of womanhood as w e l l a s i n d i v i d u a l w o r k e r s , c o u l d s u p p o r t i t a l s o . To them, t h e p r e s e n c e of women i n t h e w o r k f o r c e c r e a t e d p r o b l e m s o f c l e a n l i n e s s , m o r a l i t y and h e a l t h f o r f u t u r e m o t h e r s and l e g i s l a t i o n was one of t h e ways o f p a r t i a l l y c o m b a t i n g t h i s menace t o s o c i e t y . 1 " Many w o r k i n g women t h e m s e l v e s a ppear t o have h e l d s i m i l a r n o t i o n s t o m i d d l e - c l a s s r e f o r m e r s r e g a r d i n g t h e f a m i l y i d e a l t h o u g h t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i n c o m b i n i n g t h e 1 3 WWW, J a n u a r y 10, 1918 p.9. 1* J u l i e W h i t e , Women and U n i o n s ( T o r o n t o : C a n a d i a n A d v i s o r y C o u n c i l on t h e S t a t u s of Women, 1980), pp. 2-3; Joan S a n g s t e r , "The 1907 B e l l T e l e p h o n e S t r i k e : O r g a n i z i n g Women W o r k e r s , " L a b o u r / L e T r a v a i l l e u r 3(1978) p. 123; B r y a n D. P a l m e r , W o r k i n g C l a s s E x p e r i e n c e : The R i s e and R e c o n s t i t u t i o n of C a n a d i a n L a b o u r , 1800-1980 ( T o r o n t o : B u t t e r w o r t h & Co., 1983), pp. 197-98. 1 64 s p h e r e s o f work and f a m i l y was c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t . 1 5 M a l e u n i o n i s t s were a m b i v a l e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o b l e m o f w o r k i n g women d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e y l e n t s u p p o r t t o o r g a n i z e d a c t i o n by w o r k i n g women but on t h e whole t h e y p e r c e i v e d women i n t h e w o r k f o r c e as a t h r e a t t o t h e i r own j o b s and wages and t e n d e d t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e i s s u e by s t r e s s i n g women's p r i m a r y r o l e as w i f e and mother i n a s i m i l a r manner t o m i d d l e - c l a s s r e f o r m e r s . 1 6 The q u e s t f o r a minimum wage i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a was not a m a t t e r t h e y took up on t h e i r own a c c o u n t b u t on t h e o t h e r hand t h e y d i d not a c t i v e l y oppose i t and some l a b o r l e a d e r s and u n i o n s d i d g i v e a m i n i m a l amount of s u p p o r t t o t h e camp a i g n . Government was a l s o r e a d y t o c o n s i d e r l e g i s l a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g b o t h women and l a b o r a t t h i s t i m e . In B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e L i b e r a l government, w h i c h had won t h e e l e c t i o n o f 1916 i n p a r t t h r o u g h i t s s u p p o r t of woman s u f f r a g e , was a n x i o u s t o r e t a i n women's v o t e s by i n t r o d u c i n g l e g i s l a t i o n d e s i r e d by women r e f o r m e r s . The s e c o n d decade of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y was a p e r i o d of r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h f o r l a b o u r and a v a r i e t y of l e g i s l a t i o n was b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d and e n a c t e d a c r o s s Canada, o f t e n w i t h t h e t a c i t 1 5 J o a n S a n g s t e r , "The 1907 B e l l T e l e p h o n e S t r i k e " , p. 129; see a l s o Wayne R o b e r t s , Honest Womanhood: F e m i n i s m , F e m i n i n i t y and C l a s s C o n s c i o u s n e s s amongst T o r o n t o W o r k i n g Women 1893-1914 ( T o r o n t o : Hogtown P r e s s , 1977). 1 6 J u l i e W h i t e , Women and U n i o n s , pp. 15-16; Joa n S a n g s t e r , "The 1907 B e l l T e l e p h o n e S t r i k e " , p. 126-127; M a r i e C a m p b e l l , " S e x i s m i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a T r a d e U n i o n s , 1900-1920," pp. 168-69, 180-82; S t a r R o s e n t h a l , . " U n i o n M a i d s : O r g a n i z e d Women Workers i n V a n c o u v e r 1900-1915," BC S t u d i e s 4 1 ( S p r i n g 1979), pp. 36-55. 1 65 hope on t h e p a r t of government and e m p l o y e r s t h a t i t w o u l d f o r e s t a l l f u r t h e r a g i t a t i o n and demands from o r g a n i z e d l a b o r , r a t h e r t h a n w i t h any r e a l i n t e n t i o n of major r e f o r m . ' 7 The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Workmen's C o m p e n s a t i o n A c t of 1916, w h i l e not s p e c i f i c a l l y d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s women, o r s u p p o r t e d p u b l i c l y t o any d e g r e e by them, had b r o k e n new g r o u n d p r o v i n c i a l l y i n i n i t i a t i n g s t a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n an a r e a t h a t had been p r e v i o u s l y r e s t r i c t e d t o e m p l o y e r and employee. Most d i s c u s s i o n o f l a b o r l e g i s l a t i o n was i n r e f e r e n c e t o male w o r k e r s but t h e i d e a of a minimum wage was i n i t i a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o women. T h e r e were two r e a s o n s f o r t h i s . F i r s t , women and g i r l s were seen as t h e most e x p l o i t e d g r o u p i n t h e l a b o r f o r c e and t h e r e f o r e f i t s u b j e c t s f o r i m m e d i a t e l e g i s l a t i o n . 1 8 Second, men w i t h t h e i r l a r g e r and more e f f e c t i v e u n i o n s t r u c t u r e , were e x p e c t e d t o b a r g a i n d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e i r e m p l o y e r s f o r i m p r o v e d wages and c o n d i t i o n s . 1 9 H a r o l d F. U n d e r h i l l , "Labor L e g i s l a t i o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , " (Ph.D t h e s i s , UBC, 1930), p. 139; See a l s o D e n n i s G u e s t , The Emergence of S o c i a l S e c u r i t y i n C a n a d a ( V a n c o u v e r : U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a P r e s s , 1980), p.73; James S t r u t h e r s , No F a u l t of T h e i r Own, pp. 22-23; P a u l C r a v e n , "An I m p a r t i a l U mpire": I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s and t h e C a n a d i a n S t a t e 1900-191 1 ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1980) , pp~! 100-101; P a u l A. P h i l l i p s , No Power G r e a t e r : A C e n t u r y of L a b o r i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ( V a n c o u v e r : B.C. F e d e r a t i o n of L a b o r Boag F o u n d a t i o n , 1967), pp. 68-71; A l v i n F i n k e l , B u s i n e s s and S o c i a l Reform i n t h e T h i r t i e s ( T o r o n t o : James Lorimer"! 1979) pp. 81 ,83. O r i e n t a l m a l es were o f t e n f a r more b a d l y e x p l o i t e d but t h e i r low wages were not seen as a t h r e a t t o t h e i r m o r a l i t y w h i c h many C a n a d i a n s c o n s i d e r e d was d u b i o u s a l r e a d y . Some s e c t i o n s of t h e community d i d see t h e i r p r e s e n c e as a t h r e a t t o t h e m o r a l i t y o f o t h e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o young g i r l s whom t h e y e m p l o y e d . D e n n i s G u e s t , The Emergence of S o c i a l S e c u r i t y , p. 73. 1 66 I n t e r e s t i n i m p r o v i n g c o n d i t i o n s f o r w o r k i n g 'women was not l i m i t e d t o t h e p r o v i n c e . As w i t h much s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n p a s s e d l o c a l l y i n t h e p e r i o d , i t r e f l e c t e d l e g i s l a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d . B r i t a i n , A u s t r a l i a , New Z e a l a n d and t h e A m e r i c a n s t a t e s o f M a s s a c h u s e t s , W a s h i n g t o n , Oregon and C a l i f o r n i a a l l had f e m a l e minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n of some s o r t by 1 9 1 7 . 2 0 M a n i t o b a , t h e f i r s t C a n a d i a n p r o v i n c e t o t a k e up t h e m a t t e r , p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n a f f e c t i n g women i n 1918. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a f o l l o w e d some months a f t e r ; O n t a r i o j o i n e d them i n 1920 and A l b e r t a i n 1 9 2 2 . 2 1 The o s t e n s i b l e t h e o r y b e h i n d t h e c o n c e p t of a minimum wage, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Minimum Wage B o a r d (MWB) w h i c h was s e t up under t h e new a c t i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r i t s passage on A p r i l 23, 1918, was t h a t "no p e r s o n o r c l a s s has a r i g h t t o make money a t ...the expense of t h e h e a l t h o r w e l l - b e i n g o f any o t h e r p e r s o n o r c l a s s , and t h e community has a r i g h t t o be p r o t e c t e d f rom economic c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h c a n n o t e x i s t w i t h o u t d e t r i m e n t t o a l l . " 2 2 Clubwomen e x t e n d e d t h i s r a t i o n a l e somewhat; t h e y were c o n c e r n e d w i t h f a r more t h a n j u s t t h e economic c o n d i t i o n s f a c i n g many women, and more i m p o r t a n t l y , young g i r l s . The r i s k t o m o r a l i t y p o s e d by j o b s w h i c h p a i d a l e s s t h a n l i v i n g wage was a t t h e head of t h e i r c o n c e r n s . F o r many women u n a b l e t o e a r n 2 0 I b i d . ; see a l s o C o l o n i s t , March 26, 1918 p.3. 2 1 M a n i t o b a . S t a t u t e s 1918, ( c h . 3 8 ) ; B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S t a t u t e s 1918, ( c h . 5 6 ) ; O n t a r i o . S t a t u t e s 1920, ( c h . 8 7 ) ; A l b e r t a . S t a t u t e s 1922, ( c h . 8 1 ) . 2 2 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 1919, R e p o r t of t h e Minimum Wage B o a r d of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , p. H58 ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as F i r s t R e p o r t MWB). 1 67 s u f f i c i e n t wages p r o s t i t u t i o n was v i r t u a l l y t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e . 2 3 But as members of t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s , and v e r y p o s s i b l y w i v e s , s i s t e r s o r m o t h e r s of e m p l o y e r s , clubwomen a l s o saw minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n as b e n e f i c i a l t o i n d u s t r y . They b e l i e v e d t h a t "a minimum wage i m p l i e s e f f i c i e n t s e r v i c e " and were c o n v i n c e d t h a t w o r k e r s p r o t e c t e d by wage l e g i s l a t i o n w ould imp r o v e t h e i r p r o d u c t i v i t y . Thus t h e e m p l o y e r ' s b u s i n e s s " w i l l r e c e i v e a f a r g r e a t e r i m p e t u s when b a c k e d by t h e p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t o f h i s employees t h a n i t does w i t h a l a r g e s t a f f of i n e f f i c i e n t , u n i n t e r e s t e d e m p l o y e e s . I n c r e a s e d pay and i n c r e a s e d e f f i c i e n c y i s , so t o s p e a k , t h e watchword of t h e women of t h e c i t y t o d a y . " 2 " They were a l s o f i n a n c i a l l y on t h e s i d e of t h e e m p l o y e r s , a t l e a s t i n .the s e n s e t h a t t h e y d i d not w i s h t o i n c r e a s e wage c o s t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y . T h i s a t t i t u d e was p r o b a b l y b o l s t e r e d t o o by t h e i r i g n o r a n c e of t h e c o s t of l i v i n g f o r w o r k i n g g i r l s a t l e a s t i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s b e f o r e t h e y t o o k up t h e campaign f u l l y . G i v i n g e v i d e n c e t o t h e C o m m i s s i o n on L a b o r See L o r i R o t e n b u r g , "The Wayward Work e r ; T o r o n t o ' s P r o s t i t u t e a t t h e T u r n o f t h e C e n t u r y , " i n J a n i c e A c t o n , Penny G o l d s m i t h and B o n n i e S h e p a r d , e d s . , Women a t Work i n O n t a r i o 1850-1930, pp. 33-71 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of m i d d l e - c l a s s a t t i t u d e s t o p r o s t i t u t i o n as w e l l as t h o s e of t h e g i r l s t h e m s e l v e s . R o t e n b u r g c l a i m s t h a t d o m e s t i c w o r k e r s were t h e most l i k e l y t o t u r n t o p r o s t i t u t i o n i n t i m e s of p a r t i c u l a r need but i t w o u l d seem a l i k e l y a l t e r n a t i v e f o r young g i r l s i n o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s who were p a i d w e l l below a l i v i n g wage. M o r e o v e r , t h e p r o b l e m and t h e a t t i t u d e s were not l i m i t e d t o T o r o n t o . See Rebecca C o u l t e r , "The W o r k i n g Young of Edmonton, 1921-31," i n J o y P a r r , e d . , C h i l d h o o d and F a m i l y i n C a n a d i a n H i s t o r y ( T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1982), pp. 143, 152-53. WWW, M a r c h 7, 1918 p.1. 1 68 i n 1914, Mrs W.Forbes McDonald of t h e V a n c o u v e r LCW s a i d " i f we a r e g o i n g t o d e a l w i t h t h i s q u e s t i o n , we must l o o k a t i t from b o t h s i d e s , t h e e m p l o y e r ' s s i d e as w e l l as t h e e mployee's s i d e " and s t a t e d t h a t f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e LCW had l o w e r e d i t s recommended minimum wage from $7.50 t o $ 5 . 0 0 . 2 5 Once t h e MWL had been formed clubwomen soon put t h e i r own l o b b y i n g mechanisms t o work t o o b t a i n l e g i s l a t i o n . The f i r s t a n n u a l r e p o r t of t h e MWB m e n t i o n s a d e l e g a t i o n t o t h e government r e g a r d i n g t h e minimun wage i n 1917. I t was s u p p o s e d l y composed of " v a r i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t e r e s t e d i n r e f o r m and s o c i a l e c o n o m i c s , p r i n c i p a l l y t h o s e c o n s i s t i n g of women." 2 6 I c a n f i n d no e v i d e n c e of t h i s i n LCW, UWC, NEL, o r WF r e c o r d s a l t h o u g h i n t h a t y e a r t h e UWC d i d l i s t t h e p r o c u r i n g of a minimum wage f o r g i r l s as one of t h e p r o j e c t s of i t s S o c i a l S e r v i c e s s e c t i o n . 2 7 The r e p o r t may have s i m p l y c o n f u s e d d a t e s f o r i n e a r l y 1918 a combined d e l e g a t i o n d i d i n d e e d p l a n t o meet w i t h t h e government and r e q u e s t t h e - l e g i s l a t i o n . L e d by t h e MWL and H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e , i t i n c l u d e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from V a n c o u v e r LCW, NEL, WF and t h e R e t a i l Employees A s s o c i a t i o n . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e UWC was not r e p r e s e n t e d . I n V i c t o r i a t h e V a n c o u v e r d e l e g a t e s were t o j o i n w i t h a l o c a l g r o u p w h i c h i n c l u d e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e B.C. F e d e r a t i o n of L a b o r , t h e T r a d e s and L a b o r C o u n c i l , the R e t a i l E m p l o y e e s ' A s s o c i a t i o n and t h e LCW. They t h e n p l a n n e d t o Quoted i n M a r i e C a m p b e l l , " S e x i s m i n B.C. T rade U n i o n s , " p. 177. F i r s t R e p o r t MWB., p. H58. UWC M i n u t e s , Box 1, 1916-24, September 8, 1917. 169 meet w i t h Mary E l l e n S m i t h who had i n c l u d e d t h e minimum wage f o r women i n h e r e l e c t i o n p l a t f o r m t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r . F i n a l l y .they p l a n n e d t o i n t e r v i e w t h e e x e c u t i v e c o u n c i l of t h e g o v e r n m e n t . 2 8 They had been promised- t h e " s y m p a t h e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n " of A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l J.W. F a r r i s " w h i c h we t a k e f o r g r a n t e d as b e i n g e q u i v a l e n t t o s a y i n g t h a t he w i l l s u p p o r t t h e p r o p o s e d l e g i s l a t i o n . And as women a r e l o o k i n g f o r d e c i s i v e a c t i o n and not empty p r o m i s e s t h e r e i s e v e r y r e a s o n t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r l a d i e s i n q u e s t i o n w i l l p r e s s t h e i r c a s e home t o a c o n c l u s i o n . " 2 9 T h e i r o p t i m i s m was r e w a r d e d when, on M a r c h 22, F a r r i s d i d i n d e e d b r i n g down a B i l l t o f i x a minimum wage f o r women. I t was i n t r o d u c e d as a government measure s i n c e a number of MLA's had p u b l i c l y a d v o c a t e d s u c h l e g i s l a t i o n , but F a r r i s n o t e d t h a t Mary E l l e n S m i t h had had a g r e a t d e a l t o do w i t h i t . 3 0 O n l y f o u r days l a t e r , Mary E l l e n S m i t h was a b l e t o move t h e s e c o n d r e a d i n g and t h e A c t was a s s e n t e d t o on A p r i l 23, 1918. T h e r e was no o p p o s i t i o n a t a l l t o t h e B i l l i n t h e l e g i s l a t u r e ; d e b a t e c e n t r e d s o l e l y on t h e s cope and i n f l u e n c e of t h e p r o p o s e d l a w . J . J . W e a r t ( L i b e r a l , S o u t h V a n c o u v e r ) w i s h e d t o see a t l e a s t one woman on t h e p r o p o s e d Minimum Wage B o a r d , "as i n W a s h i n g t o n " s t a t e , and a l o w e r i n g of t h e p r o p o s e d age l i m i t of e i g h t e e n y e a r s so t h a t v e r y young g i r l s who were o f t e n most p o o r l y p a i d would r e c e i v e some p r o t e c t i o n . M . W i l s o n ( L i b e r a l , R o s s l a n d ) a g r e e d w i t h t h e P r o v i n c e , March 2, 1918 p.8. WWW, March 7, 1918 p.1; t h e WWW r e p o r t e d t h a t as i t went t o p r e s s t h e d e l e g a t i o n was "on t h e way t o V i c t o r i a " f o r t h e m e e t i n g . I t n e v e r d i d r e p o r t t h a t t h e m e e t i n g had t a k e n p l a c e but t h i s was p r e s u m a b l y t h e c a s e . C o l o n i s t , March 23, 1918 p.5. 1 70 i d e a o f a woman b o a r d member but a l s o w i s h e d t o see on t h e b o a r d someone who had an i n t i m a t e knowledge of " L a b o r and i t s p r o b l e m s . " 3 1 G.G.McGeer ( L i b e r a l , Richmond) l a u d e d t h e B i l l as o p e n i n g up "a new a r e a , as t h e p r i n c i p l e of i t was on b e h a l f of a c l a s s w h i c h r e q u i r e d a t t e n t i o n t h e y [ s i c ] had n o t h i t h e r t o r e c e i v e d " . I t was v e r y a d v a n c e d t h i n k i n g , he m a i n t a i n e d , and h i s o n l y c r i t i c i s m was t h a t i t d i d not go f a r enough. He w o u l d have p r e f e r r e d t h a t t h e a c t be a b l e t o r e g u l a t e c o n d i t i o n s as w e l l as w a g e s . 3 2 Some of t h e s e r e c o m m e d a t i o n s were w r i t t e n i n t o t h e a c t b e f o r e i t was p a s s e d , w h i l e o t h e r s came i n l a t e r amendments. I n i t i a l l y , t h e a c t p r o v i d e d f o r a t h r e e p e r s o n , u n p a i d b o a r d . The Deputy M i n i s t e r of L a b o r was t o be c h a i r m a n and t h e o t h e r two, one of whom was t o be a woman, were t o be a p p o i n t e d a t t h e L i e u t e n a n t - G o v e r n o r ' s p l e a s u r e . I t was t h e f i r s t s u c h b o a r d i n Canada; even t h o u g h two o t h e r p r o v i n c e s had l e g i s l a t i o n t h e y d i d not use b o a r d s t o s e t wage l i m i t s . 3 3 H e l e n M a c G i l l was th e f i r s t woman a p p o i n t e e a l o n g w i t h Thomas M a t t h e w s , l a t e of th e V a n c o u v e r s c h o o l b o a r d and Deputy M i n i s t e r o f L a b o r J . D % M c N i v e n . The b o a r d ' s d u t y was t o a s c e r t a i n t h e wages p a i d t o women i n v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i e s , d e t e r m i n e t h e c o s t o f l i v i n g r e l a t i v e t o each i n d u s t r y and t h e n t o s e t a minimum wage a f t e r c o n f e r r i n g w i t h b o t h e m p l o y e r s and e m p l o y e e s . F o r women who were p h y s i c a l l y d e f e c t i v e o r who were a p p r e n t i c e s a l o w e r t h a n minimum wage c o u l d be s e t , and farm l a b o r e r s , d o m e s t i c w o r k e r s I b i d . , March 26, 1918 p.3. I b i d . , A p r i l 4, 1918 p.5. E l s i e M a c G i l l , My Mother t h e J u d g e , p.159. 171 and f r u i t p i c k e r s were s p e c i f i c a l l y e x c l u d e d from t h e a c t . The minimum wage was i n t e n d e d t o a f f e c t women o v e r t h e age of e i g h t e e n y e a r s but t h e b o a r d was g i v e n t h e power t o i n v e s t i g a t e and r u l e on wages f o r g i r l s below t h i s age i f i t so d e s i r e d . P e n a l t i e s f o r i n f r a c t i o n s , once a minimum wage had been s e t , r a n g e d from $25 t o $ 1 0 0 . 3 4 How many women came under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e newly c r e a t e d MWB and what t y p e s of work were t h e employed a t ? The movement of women i n t o t h e w o r k f o r c e had i n c r e a s e d s t e a d i l y s i n c e t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y and t h e sudden r i s e i n numbers d u r i n g t h e war c r e a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e r n , b o t h f o r t h e sake of t h e women t h e m s e l v e s and f o r t h e s a f e t y of male j o b s once s e r v i c e m e n began t o r e t u r n . No f i g u r e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r 1918, t h e y e a r t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Minimum Wage B o a r d was e s t a b l i s h e d , so t h e 1921 Census of Canada has been used on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t w h i l e f i g u r e s a r e not e x a c t t h e y w i l l i n d i c a t e t r e n d s and p r o p o r t i o n s t h a t a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o b t a i n e d t h r e e y e a r s b e f o r e . T a b l e 12 shows t h e s t e a d y i n c r e a s e i n f e m a l e employment a c r o s s t h e n a t i o n s i n c e t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y . 3 4 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S t a t u t e s . 1918 c h . 56. 1 72 N e v e r t h e l e s s , by 1921, women s t i l l r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of t h e w o r k f o r c e , p r o b a b l y l e s s t h a n a q u a r t e r . 3 5 T a b l e 12 P e r c e n t of t h e Ma l e and Female P o p u l a t i o n • 10 Y e a r s of Age and Over, Employed i n G a i n f u l O c c u p a t i o n s , by P r o v i n c e s , f o r Census Y e a r s 1881-1921 P r o v i n c e 18S n 1 9C )1 19 1 1 92 11 Male Fern. M ale Fern. M ale Fern. M a l e Fern. Canada 7 6 . 7 1 1 1 . 0 7 7 4 . 19 12 . 01 7 9 . 5 4 1 4 . 3 1 7 7 . 5 2 1 5 . 2 7 P r . E. I s l a n d 7 7 . 2 3 9 . 8 3 7 5 . 8 8 8 . 8 2 7 5 . 9 0 1 0 . 7 3 7 7 . 2 2 1 1 . 8 6 Nova S c o t i a 7 7 . 9 9 1 3 . 2 0 7 6 . 2 4 1 0 . 6 0 7 7 . 14 1 3 . 1 7 7 6 . 2 8 1 4 . 5 3 New B r u n s w i c k 7 7 . 0 8 1 1 . 3 8 7 6 . 6 8 1 1 . 2 0 7 5 . 8 3 1 2 . 7 3 7 5 . 8 2 1 3 . 88 Quebec 7 4 . 3 0 9 . 8 4 7 2 . 4 2 1 2 . 8 5 7 4 . 8 7 1 4 . 0 8 7 4 . 4 4 16 .01 O n t a r i o 7 7 . 3 0 1 1 . 7 2 7 4 . 5 0 1 2 . 6 0 8 0 . 1 5 1 5 . 8 9 7 8 . 7 0 1 6 . 9 5 Mani t o b a 8 0 . 5 7 9 . 0 9 7 4 . 6 0 1 0 . 3 9 8 0 . 8 5 1 4 . 8 5 7 6 . 8 7 1 4 . 9 8 S a s k a t c h e w a n 6 7 . 5 9 4 . 0 4 6 9 . 12 6 . 0 2 8 5 . 5 0 9 . 5 2 8 0 . 8 6 1 0 . 5 6 A l b e r t a 6 7 . 5 9 4 . 0 4 6 9 . 1 2 6 . 0 2 8 3 . 59 1 1 . 0 8 7 9 . 3 4 1 1 . 24 B r . C o l u m b i a 8 3 . 4 5 1 1 . 7 0 7 7 . 5 3 9 . 5 8 8 6 . 6 6 15 . 31 8 0 . 5 7 14 .21 S o u r c e : Census o f Canada 1921 v o l 4. An a s s e s s m e n t of how many women worked i n V a n c o u v e r and j u s t what j o b s t h e y h e l d i s d i f f i c u l t . The two o b v i o u s s o u r c e s , c t h e 1921 c e n s u s and s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e 35 T e r r y Copp, The Anatomy of P o v e r t y : The C o n d i t i o n o f t h e W o r k i n g C l a s s i n M o n t r e a l , 1 8 7 9 - 1 929 (Toronto": M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1 9 7 9 ) , p.44 e s t i m a t e s t h a t women made up 2 0% of t h e w o r k f o r c e a t t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y and 2 5 % i n 1 9 2 1 . He u s e s t h e f i g u r e of 6 0 , 0 2 7 women w o r k e r s ( p r e s u m a b l y i n M o n t r e a l ) but t h e page t h a t he c i t e s , v o l . 3 p. 2 6 4 , s a y s t h e number was 4 9 , 6 4 2 . economic d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e p r o v i n c e b o t h have m a j o r w e a k n e s s e s . The c e n s u s a p p e a r s t o have used two d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f f i g u r e s t o c a l c u l a t e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n and numbers g a i n f u l l y o c c u p i e d i n s p e c i f i c c i t i e s . Thus we a r e f a c e d w i t h two t o t a l s of t h e f e m a l e w o r k f o r c e i n V a n c o u v e r i n 1921, 8173 and 9694. The f o r m e r f i g u r e has been used i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n . 3 6 The a c c u r a c y of b o t h f i g u r e s i s q u e s t i o n a b l e b e c a u s e many women, w o r k i n g f o r pay i n t h e i r own homes, wou l d l i k e l y have been m i s s e d i n t h e c e n s u s . M o r e o v e r , t h i s was t h e f i r s t C a n a d i a n c e n s u s i n w h i c h women's work was i n c l u d e d i n suc h a d e t a i l e d manner and methods of a s s e s s m e n t may w e l l have been l e s s t h a n c o m p r e h e n s i v e . Most s t u d i e s d e a l i n g w i t h c o m m e r c i a l , m e r c a n t i l e and i n d u s t r i a l g r o w t h i n Canada g e n e r a l l y , o r more s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , h a r d l y m e n t i o n women w o r k e r s a t a l l . 3 7 T h i s i s p a r t l y due t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t e n d e n c y of h i s t o r i a n s t o o v e r l o o k o r i g n o r e women i n t h e i r r e s e a r c h and w r i t i n g and i s a l s o a The f i r s t f i g u r e i s from v o l . 3 p.386 and t h e s e c o n d from v o l . 4 p . x l v i i i . T h e r e i s no e x p l a n a t i o n as t o how o r why two d i f f e r e n t f i g u r e s were u s e d . I n a l l l i k e l i h o o d n e i t h e r i s v e r y a c c u r a t e but f i g u r e s from e a c h volume have been used s e p a r a t e l y i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t w h i l e t h e y may n o t g i v e a c c u r a t e t o t a l s t h e p r o p o r t i o n of women i n t h e v a r i o u s p r o v i n c e s , c i t i e s and o c c u p a t i o n s i s p r o b a b l y r e a s o n a b l y c o r r e c t . When c e n s u s f i g u r e s d i f f e r g r e a t l y from f i g u r e s from o t h e r s o u r c e s t h e f a c t i s n o t e d but no a t t e m p t i s made t o show w h i c h m i g h t be t h e more a c c u r a t e . F o r i n s t a n c e , T e r r y Copp, The Anatomy of P o v e r t y , d e v o t e s one c h a p t e r t o women's work; M i c h a e l J . P i v a , The C o n d i t i o n o f t h e W o r k i n g C l a s s i n T o r o n t o , 1900-1929 ( O t t a w a : U n i v e r s i t y of Ottawa P r e s s , 1979) m e n t i o n s women o n l y i n p a s s i n g ; T i m o t h y A. Dunn, "Work, C l a s s and E d u c a t i o n : V o c a t i o n a l i s m i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s P u b l i c S c h o o l s , 1900-1929," (M.A. t h e s i s , UBC, 1978) m e n t i o n s women o n l y i n r e g a r d t o t h e i n c r e a s e d a v a i l a b i l i t y of c l e r i c a l j o b s ; E l e a n o r B a r t l e t t , " R e a l Wages and t h e S t a n d a r d of L i v i n g i n V a n c o u v e r , 1901-1929," B.C. S t u d i e s no. 51 (Autumn 1981) pp. 3-63, c o n s i d e r s o n l y male wage e a r n e r s . 174 r e s u l t of t h e b e l i e f t h a t women were a t b e s t o n l y s e c o n d a r y w a g e - e a r n e r s i n a f a m i l y and t h e r e f o r e u n i m p o r t a n t i n t h e o v e r a l l scheme o f t h i n g s . T h i s a t t i t u d e c o m p l e t e l y d i s m i s s e s t h e f a c t t h a t many women f o r a t l e a s t some p a r t of t h e i r l i v e s were s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s r a t h e r t h a n members of an economic f a m i l y u n i t . 3 8 I t i s a l s o due i n p a r t t o t h e f a c t t h a t much of women's p a i d work t o o k p l a c e o u t s i d e o f t h e l a r g e i n d u s t r i e s t h a t u s u a l l y form t h e f o c u s of economic s t u d i e s ; w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e t e x t i l e and garment i n d u s t r i e s women t e n d e d t o work i n s m a l l , s e x - s e g r e g a t e d , u n o r g a n i s e d g r o u p s t h a t a r e e a s i l y i g n o r e d by s c h o l a r s i n t e n t upon b r o a d economic t r e n d s and l a r g e g r o u p s w i t h i n t h e w o r k f o r c e . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c a s e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a where t h e economic base was and s t i l l i s v e r y much dependent on t h e . r e s o u r c e i n d u s t r i e s of m i n i n g , f o r e s t r y , f i s h i n g and t h e e x p o r t o f t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e s e i n d u s t r i e s t o w o r l d m a r k e t s . These i n d u s t r i e s were not of t h e t y p e t o employ f e m a l e l a b o r t o any marked e x t e n t , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e salmon c a n n i n g i n d u s t r y w h i c h d i d employ numbers o f women on a s e a s o n a l b a s i s . The m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l l y e m ployed l a r g e numbers of women, t e x t i l e and garment m a k i n g , were n e v e r of s i g n i f i c a n c e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a as t h e y were i n O n t a r i o and Quebec c i t i e s . T h i s i s c e r t a i n l y t h e a t t i t u d e of Copp, P i v a and B a r t l e t t . See J a n i c e A c t o n , Penny G o l d s m i t h and B o n n i e S h e p a r d , Women a t Work i n O n t a r i o ; Wayne R o b e r t s , Honest Womanhood: F e m i n i s m , F e m i n i n i t y and C l a s s C o n s c i o u s n e s s Among T o r o n t o W o r k i n g Women 1893-1914 ( T o r o n t o : Hogtown P r e s s , 1976) and some of t h e a r t i c l e s i n A l i s o n P r e n t i c e and Susan T r o f i m e n k o f f e d s . , The N e g l e c t e d M a j o r i t y , f o r women-centered s t u d i e s of women's work. 175 T a b l e 13 shows 7.90% of w o r k i n g women i n V a n c o u v e r and 6.35% i n V i c t o r i a as b e i n g engaged i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g o c c u p a t i o n s w h i l e T o r o n t o and M o n t r e a l , w i t h t h e i r l a r g e t e x t i l e and garment i n d u s t r i e s employed 24.70% and 37.29% o f t h e f e m a l e w o r k f o r c e r e s p e c t i v e l y i n t h e s e o c c u p a t i o n s . C a m p b e l l l i s t s V a n c o u v e r women's o c c u p a t i o n s i n t h e f i r s t two d e c a d e s of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y as " d o m e s t i c s , l a u n d r e s s e s , chambermaids, garment makers, m i l l i n e r s , t e l e p h o n e o p e r a t o r s , c i g a r makers, w a i t r e s s e s , b o o k b i n d e r s , shop a s s i s t a n t s , candy makers, f i s h p l a n t w o r k e r s , c o o k s , as w e l l as n u r s e s , t e a c h e r s and c l e r i c a l w o r k e r s " . 3 9 T a b l e 13 s u p p o r t s h e r s t a t e m e n t , showing p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e ( w h i c h i n c l u d e s d o m e s t i c s , l a u n d r e s s e s , chambermaids, w a i t r e s s e s and c o o k s ) , p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e ( t e a c h e r s and n u r s e s ) , c l e r i c a l work, commerce (shop a s s i s t a n t s ) , and t r a n s p o r t ( l a r g e l y composed of t e l e p h o n e and t e l e g r a p h o p e r a t o r s ) as e m p l o y i n g t h e l a r g e s t numbers of women. T a b l e 14 shows p e r c e n t a g e s of some of t h e d a t a i n T a b l e 13 w h i c h i n d i c a t e t h a t i n V a n c o u v e r and V i c t o r i a t h e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s of p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e , p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e , c l e r i c a l work and commerce a c c o u n t e d f o r 85.29% and 88.76% of t h e f e m a l e w o r k f o r c e r e s p e c t i v e l y . By c o n t r a s t i n h e a v i l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d T o r o n t o and 3 9 M a r i e C a m p b e l l , " S e x i s m i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a T r a d e U n i o n s , " p. 169. C a m p b e l l ' s d a t a a p p e a r s t o have been t a k e n l a r g e l y from t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L a b o r G a z e t t e . 176 M o n t r e a l 70.13% and 57.56% were so employed. The a d d i t i o n of the m a n u f a c t u r i n g . s e c t o r , however, b r i n g s a l l f o u r c i t i e s t o a r o u g h l y e q u a l p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e f i v e c a t e g o r i e s a c c o u n t i n g f o r T a b l e 13 Number of Women Employed i n V a r i o u s O c c u p a t i o n s i n V a n c o u v e r , V i c t o r i a , T o r o n t o and M o n t r e a l 1921 O c c u p a t i o n Van. % V i c . q. T o r . % Mon. % A g r i c u l t u r e 4 0.05 3 0.01 1 7 0.03 M a n u f a c t u r e 646 7.90 1 52 6.35 1 3202 24.70 18501 37.29 T r a n s p o r t 515 6.30 1 1 3 4.72 2567 4.80 2054 4.15 C o n s t r u c t i o n 3 0.04 1 4 0.03 2 0.01 Commerce 962 1 1 .78 319 13.33 6605 12.36 4452 8.97 C l e r i c a l 2397 29.38 548 22.90 1 5757 29.48 1 0500 21.15 M e s s e n g e r s 15 0 . 1 8 69 0.13 72 0.15 U n s p e c i f i e d 20 0.24 4 0.17 1 1 9 0.22 428 0.86 S e r v i c e , P e r s . 2259 27.64 803 33. 56 10615 1 9.86 1 0549 21 .25 S e r v i c e , P r o f . 1352 1 6. 54 454 19.97 4504 8.43 3067 6\ 1 9 T o t a l 8173 2393 53452 49642 S o u r c e : Census of Canada 1921 V o l . 4. r o u g h l y 94% of a l l women w o r k e r s . V a n c o u v e r and V i c t o r i a t h e n , had a s m a l l number of fe m a l e f a c t o r y e m p l o y e e s , were r o u g h l y e q u a l t o t h e two e a s t e r n c i t i e s i n r e g a r d t o p e r c e n t a g e of women i n c l e r i c a l and c o m m e r c i a l j o b s but had a c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e of women employed i n p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e s . V i c t o r i a , as the s e a t of government, mig h t be e x p e c t e d t o have had a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of f e m a l e c l e r i c a l w o r k e r s but t h i s was not t h e c a s e . I f t h e s u b - c a t e g o r i e s of p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e 1 77 a r e examined, as i n T a b l e 15, i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t w h i l e t h e e a s t e r n c i t i e s had a l o w e r p e r c e n t a g e of women i n p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e a f a r g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of them were s e r v a n t s , c o o k s , a t t e n d a n t s and charwomen w h i l e i n t h e w e s t e r n c i t i e s t h e g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n were w a i t r e s s e s , l a u n d r y w o r k e r s o r h o u s e k e e p e r s . W a i t r e s s e s and l a u n d r y w o r k e r s t e n d e d t o have more d e f i n i t e j o b d e s c r i p t i o n s t h a n t h e o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s , t h e y worked i n a b u s i n e s s r a t h e r t h a n f o r an i n d i v i d u a l and were p r o b a b l y more e a s i l y o r g a n i z e d by a u n i o n t h o u g h t h e y may not have a c t u a l l y been s o . I n V a n c o u v e r , however, a t l e a s t some women l a u n d r y T a b l e 14 P e r c e n t of t h e Female Work F o r c e i n S e l e c t e d C i t i e s and O c c u p a t i o n a l C a t e g o r i e s , 1921 V a n c o u v e r V i c t o r i a T o r o n t o M o n t r e a l P e r s o n a l S e r v i c e 27.64 33.56 1 9.86 2 1.25 P r o f e s s i o n a l S e r v i c e 1 6. 54 18.97 8.43 6.19 C l e r i c a l 29.33 22.90 29. 48 21.15 Commerce 1 1 .78 13.33 12.36 8.97 Sub T o t a l 85.29 88.76 70.13 57.56 M a n u f a c t u r i n g 7.90 6.35 24.90 37.29 T o t a l 93.19 95.11 94.83 94.85 S o u r c e : Census of Canada 1921 v o l . 4 ( p e r c e n t a g e s c a l c u l a t e d by a u t h o r ) . w o r k e r s b e l o n g e d t o t h e male L a u n d r y W o r k e r s ' U n i o n and a W a i t r e s s e s ' U n i o n had been e s t a b l i s h e d as e a r l y as 1905. C a m p b e l l a l s o n o t e s t h a t women were a b l e t o j o i n t h e H o t e l and R e s t a u r a n t E m ployees' U n i o n , and m e n t i o n s t h e e x i s t e n c e of a R e t a i l C l e r k s ' U n i o n . " 0 T a b l e 15 P e r c e n t of the Female Work F o r c e i n S e l e c t e d C i t i e s and O c c u p a t i o n s , 1921 V a n c o u v e r V i c t o r i a T o r o n t o M o n t r e a l D o m e s t i c S e r v i c e A t t e n d a n t s 3.31 3.86 5.58 5.06 Charwomen 2.17 2.31 5.24 9.26 Cooks 4.29 4.63 6.96 5.89 H o u s e k e e p e r s 14.31 23. 15 1 1 .54 6.37 L a u n d r y W o r k e r s 7.75 10.03 3.78 2.96 S e r v a n t s 46.90 37. 1 9 56.72 62.67 W a i t r e s s e s 1 5.25 12.50 8.11 5.61 O t h e r 6.02 6.33 2.07 2.18 P r o f e s s i o n a l S e r v i c e E d u c a t i o n 49.41 51 .32 47.83 52.88 H e a l t h 38.31 38.55 28.77 32.28 L i t e r a r y 2.00 2.86 3.69 1 .57 R e l i g i o u s 2.96 1 .76 < 5.27 2.48 O t h e r 7.32 5.51 14.44 10.79 S o u r c e : Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 4 ( p e r c e n t a g e s c a l c u l a t e d by a u t h o r ) . 1 79 The c a t e g o r i e s of work t h a t were c o n s i d e r e d by t h e MWB when i t began t o s e t wage l e v e l s f o r women w o r k e r s i n 1919 i n d i c a t e s t h e j o b s i n w h i c h pay was l o w e s t and c o n d i t i o n s most e x p l o i t a t i v e . A l t h o u g h t h e y a r e d i v i d e d i n a d i f f e r e n t manner t o t h e c a t e g o r i e s l i s t e d i n T a b l e 14, t h e o c c u p a t i o n s t h a t drew t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e MWB were t h o s e i n w h i c h t h e m a j o r i t y of women were employed w i t h t h e s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n of p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e w h i c h , by i t s n a t u r e d i d not c o n c e r n t h e MWB."1 The n i n e c a t e g o r i e s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e t h e wide v a r i e t y of j o b s t h a t were subsumed under t h e b r o a d h e a d i n g s o f t h e c e n s u s . I n t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e MWB d e a l t w i t h them t h e y were: (1) The m e r c a n t i l e i n d u s t r y , w h i c h c o v e r e d a l l b u s i n e s s e s engaged i n t h e s a l e , p u r c h a s e o r d i s t r i b u t i o n of goods o r m e r c h a n d i s e , i n c l u d i n g s a l e s and w r a p p i n g c l e r k s , as w e l l as c h e c k e r s , s t o c k m a r k e r s , o r w o r k e r s i n m a i l o r d e r rooms." 2 T h i s a r e a was an i m p o r t a n t one f o r women of b o t h t h e m i d d l e and w o r k i n g c l a s s e s . From t h e 1880's on i n a l l l a r g e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c i t i e s d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e s grew and expanded t o c a t e r t o m i d d l e -c l a s s c u s t o m e r s who had t h e t i m e and money t o d e v o t e t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y f a s h i o n a b l e o c c u p a t i o n of c o n s u m e r i s m . The g r o w t h of t h e i n d u s t r y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y opened up numerous j o b s . f o r I b i d . , pp. 170, 173. See V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "The G i r l of t h e New Day: C a n a d i a n W o r k i n g Women i n t h e 1920's", L a b o u r / L e T r a v a i l l e u r 4 (1979) pp. 137-52 and Le C o l l e c t i f C l i o , L ' H i s t o i r e des Femmes au Quebec, pp. 265-84. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S e s s i o n a l p a p e r s 1920, R e p o r t o f t h e Minimum Wage B o a r d o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . ("Hereafter c i t e d as Second R e p o r t MWB), p. K80. 180 u n s k i l l e d and s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k i n g g i r l s . " 3 R e t u r n s t o t h e MWB fro m t h e i n d u s t r y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e were a t l e a s t 2043 V a n c o u v e r employees i n t h i s a r e a i n 1920."" (2) The l a u n d r y , c l e a n i n g and d y e i n g i n d u s t r i e s . The f i r s t c a t e g o r y o c c u p i e d 159 V a n c o u v e r women w h i l e o n l y t w e l v e were employed i n the se c o n d and t h i r d . T h i s was p e r h a p s because t h e l a t t e r two o c c u p a t i o n s r e q u i r e d more t r a i n i n g a n d / o r s k i l l . A l s o t h e wages were h i g h e r i n t h e s e two i n d u s t r i e s w i t h 75% of women r e c e i v i n g more t h a n t h e minimum wage even b e f o r e i t was s e t . " 5 (3) P u b l i c h o u s e k e e p i n g o c c u p a t i o n s i n c l u d e d t h e work of w a i t r e s s e s , h o u s e k e e p e r s , c l e a n e r s , c o o k s and h e l p e r s i n any p l a c e t h a t s e r v e d f o o d t o t h e p u b l i c as w e l l chambermaids i n h o t e l s and l o d g i n g h o u s e s and e l e v a t o r o p e r a t o r s . " 6 D o m e s t i c w o r k e r s of a l l t y p e s i n p r i v a t e homes were e x c l u d e d . The c a t e g o r y was t h e t h i r d l a r g e s t amongst women w o r k e r s i n V a n c o u v e r w i t h 868 f e m a l e e m p l o y e e s . " 7 (4) O f f i c e o c c u p a t i o n s i n c l u d e d s t e n o g r a p h e r s , b o o k k e e p e r s , o p e r a t o r s of a l l b u s i n e s s m a c h i n e s and a l l k i n d s of c l e r i c a l h e l p e r s . " 8 T h i s was a n o t h e r a r e a of work t h a t opened up t o women a t t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y w i t h t h e mass p r o d u c t i o n of o f f i c e m a c h i n e r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e t y p e w r i t e r , and t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n of See S h e i l a Rothman, Woman's P r o p e r P l a c e , pp. 18-21, 52-56 f o r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e g r o w t h of t h i s o c c u p a t i o n . F i r s t R e p o r t MWB, p. H65. I b i d . , pp. H65-66; Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 3, p.390.' Second R e p o r t MWB, p. K81. Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 3, p.390. Second R e p o r t MWB, p. K81 . 181 b u s i n e s s p r a c t i s e s and methods w h i c h a l l but e l i m i n a t e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l male c l e r k . A c a r e e r h i e r a r c h y f o r male employees d e v e l o p e d f o r c i n g women t o t a k e o v e r t h e l o w e s t r a t e d and p a i d c l e r i c a l p o s i t i o n s . " 9 A l t h o u g h t h e work was p o o r l y p a i d and t h e i r s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e o f f i c e t h e l o w e s t , t h i s was a r e l a t i v e l y a t t r a c t i v e j o b f o r women w i t h s u f f i c i e n t e d u c a t i o n , b e i n g c l e a n , l i g h t , r e s p e c t a b l e and much p r e f e r a b l e -to shop o r f a c t o r y work. In V a n c o u v e r 2397 women worked i n p r i v a t e o f f i c e s w i t h a f u r t h e r 179 i n p u b l i c s e r v i c e p o s i t i o n s . 5 0 (5) The m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y i n c l u d e d t h e work of f e m a l e s "engaged i n t h e ma k i n g , p r e p a r i n g , a l t e r i n g , r e p a i r i n g , o r n a m e n t i n g , p r i n t i n g , f i n i s h i n g , p a c k i n g , a s s e m b l i n g t h e p a r t s o f , and a d a p t i n g f o r use or s a l e any a r t i c l e o r commodity, b u t e x c e p t i n g f i s h , f r u i t and v e g e t a b l e d r y i n g , c a n n i n g , p r e s e r v i n g o r p a c k i n g . " 5 1 I n c l u d e d were C a m p b e l l ' s garment makers, m i l l i n e r s , c i g a r makers, b o o k b i n d e r s , and candy makers as w e l l as s e v e r a l dozen o t h e r s p e c i f i c o c c u p a t i o n s . I n a l l , 646 women were employed i n V a n c o u v e r f a c t o r i e s . 5 2 Graham S.Lowe, " C l a s s , J o b and Gender i n t h e C a n a d i a n O f f i c e , " L a b o u r / L e T r a v a i l l e u r 10 (Autumn 1982) pp. 15-19, a l s o "Women Work and t h e O f f i c e : The F e m i n i z a t i o n of C l e r i c a l O c c u p a t i o n s i n Canada, 1901-193 1," C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y 5 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , pp. 376-78; S h e i l a Rothman, Woman's P r o p e r P l a c e , pp. 48-50. Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 3, p.392. Second R e p o r t MWB, p. K82. Of t h e 646 women l i s t e d 370 d i d a c t u a l l y work a t j o b s r e l a t e d t o t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 3, p.386. 182 (6) P e r s o n a l s e r v i c e i n c l u d e d t h e work of f e m a l e s employed i n " m a n i c u r i n g , h a i r d r e s s i n g , b a r b e r i n g , and o t h e r work of l i k e n a t u r e , or employed as a t t e n d a n t s a t s h o o t i n g g a l l e r i e s and o t h e r p u b l i c p l a c e s of amusement, g a r a g e s and g a s o l e n e [ s i c ] s e r v i c e s t a t i o n s , o r as d r i v e r s o f motor c a r s and o t h e r v e h i c l e s . " The c e n s u s l i s t s o n l y t w e n t y t h e a t r e e m p l o y e e s , t h r e e p l e a s u r e r e s o r t employees and t h i r t y - s i x b a r b e r s and h a i r d r e s s e r s i n t h i s c a t e g o r y i n V a n c o u v e r . 5 3 (7) T e l e p h o n e and t e l e g r a p h o c c u p a t i o n s i n c l u d e d t h e work of " a l l p e r s o n s employed i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s , s w i t c h b o a r d s , and o t h e r m e c h a n i c a l a p p l i a n c e s used i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t e l e p h o n e and t e l e g r a p h y . " The c e n s u s l i s t s 481 f e m a l e t e l e p h o n e o p e r a t o r s and 26 t e l e g r a p h o p e r a t o r s . 5 " (8) The f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y was composed of t h e work of " f e m a l e s engaged i n t h e w a s h i n g , p r e p a r i n g , p r e s e r v i n g , d r y i n g , c u r i n g , s m o k i n g , p a c k i n g , o r o t h e r w i s e a d a p t i n g f o r s a l e o r u s e , o r f o r s h i p m e n t , any k i n d of f i s h e x c e p t i n t h e c a s e of canned f i s h . " The c e n s u s l i s t s none of t h e s e o c c u p a t i o n s i n V a n c o u v e r u n l e s s t h e y a r e i n c l u d e d under t h e u n e x p l a i n e d h e a d i n g " f o o d " w h i c h p r o v i d e d o n l y seven j o b s . 5 5 The m a j o r i t y of j o b s would have been i n c o a s t a l towns o t h e r t h a n V a n c o u v e r . Second R e p o r t MWB, p.K82; Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 3, p.390. Second R e p o r t MWB, p.K82-83; Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 3, p.380,388. Second R e p o r t MWB, p.K83; Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 3, p.386. 183 (9) The f r u i t and v e g e t a b l e i n d u s t r i e s i n c l u d e d t h e work of women engaged i n " c a n n i n g , p r e s e r v i n g , d r y i n g , p a c k i n g , o r o t h e r w i s e a d a p t i n g f o r s a l e or u s e , any k i n d of f r u i t o r v e g e t a b l e . " The c e n s u s l i s t s o n l y f o u r t e e n f r u i t and v e g e t a b l e c a n n e r s and f a c t o r y w o r k e r s i n V a n c o u v e r . 5 6 The m a j o r i t y of w o r k e r s w o u l d have l i v e d and worked i n t h e c o u n t r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e Okanagan V a l l e y , and many were p r o b a b l y members of e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s . The c e n s u s d a t e , June 21, p r o b a b l y a f f e c t e d t h e number o f women r e c o r d e d i n t h i s o c c u p a t i o n . A t t h i s t i m e of the y e a r t h e main h a r v e s t may not have y e t begun. The MWB d e c i s i o n s t h e n , c o v e r e d a l l of C a m p b e l l ' s l i s t e d o c c u p a t i o n s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t e a c h i n g and n u r s i n g . Between them, t h e s e two c a t e g o r i e s i n c l u d e d a l a r g e number o f women. In 1921 t h e r e were 2139 women t e a c h e r s i n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s of t h e p r o v i n c e and 654 i n t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e s c h o o l s of V a n c o u v e r . T h e r e were a l s o 511 n u r s e s i n t h e c i t y a t t h a t t i m e . 5 7 N e i t h e r g r o u p was w e l l p a i d but t h e i r payment was a s a l a r y r a t h e r t h a n a wage so n e i t h e r was c o n s i d e r e d by t h e MWB. M o r e o v e r , t h e y were p a i d on t h e b a s i s of t h e c e r t i f i c a t i o n t h e y g a i n e d a f t e r a s p e c i f i c p e r i o d of t r a i n i n g and t h e r e f o r e , u n l i k e new employees l e a r n i n g j o b s k i l l s o r t r a d e s , were not s u b j e c t t o d i s m i s s a l when t h e y r e a c h e d a c e r t a i n l e v e l of a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o r a c e r t a i n age w h i c h was o f t e n t h e c a s e i n o t h e r f e m a l e o c c u p a t i o n s . Thus, t h o u g h many women i n t h e s e g r o u p s were under t h e age of e i g h t e e n 5 6 Second R e p o r t MWB, p.K84; Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 3, p.388. 5 7 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . A n n u a l R e p o r t of t h e P u b l i c S c h o o l s , 1920-21 p.F16; Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 3, p.390. 184 t h e y had some measure of p r o t e c t i o n . The f i r s t f o r m a l m e e t i n g of t h e MWB was h e l d i n V a n c o u v e r on A u g u s t 1, 1918 w i t h H e l e n M a c G i l l t a k i n g on t h e t e m p o r a r y and u n p a i d j o b of s e c r e t a r y , " u n t i l a permanent o f f i c e r s h o u l d be r e q u i r e d " . A t t h i s m e e t i n g the c h a i r m a n J.D.McNiven " s u b m i t t e d s u g g e s t i o n s f o r forms of i n q u i r y i n r e g a r d t o wage s c h e d u l e s t h e n b e i n g p a i d . " 5 8 I n h e r r o l e as s e c r e t a r y " V e r s a t i l e H e l e n was t h e member who drew up t h e f o r m s , t h e f i r s t of t h e i r k i n d i n Canada, and who s u p e r i n t e n d e d t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and summation t h a t summer." 5 9 W h i l e t h e b o a r d was w a i t i n g f o r t h e r e t u r n of a l l t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i t a c c e p t e d an i n v i t a t i o n f rom t h e W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e minimum wage b o a r d , known as t h e I n d u s t r i a l W e l f a r e C o m m i s s i o n , t o a t t e n d a War Emergency C o n f e r e n c e a t O l y m p i a , and f o l l o w e d t h i s by v i s i t s t o t h e Oregon and C a l i f o r n i a C o m m i s s i o n s . 6 0 Thus, by t h e t i m e i t was r e a d y t o d e a l w i t h t h e m e r c a n t i l e o c c u p a t i o n s , t h e f i r s t s e c t o r of i n d u s t r y f o r w h i c h i t w o u l d s e t a minimum wage, t h e b o a r d was f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e minimum wage s i t u a t i o n a l o n g t h e west c o a s t of t h e USA. F i r s t R e p o r t MWB, p.H59. E l s i e M a c G i l l , My Mother t h e J u d g e , p.160. T h i s a u t o m a t i c a d o p t i o n of sex r o l e s , w h i c h i s so s t r o n g l y d e c r i e d by c o n t e m p o r a r y f e m i n i s t s , i s i n d i c a t i v e of t h e m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t o u t l o o k . R a t h e r t h a n r e s e n t i n g t h e f a c t t h a t s h e , as a woman, had t o t a k e t h e i d e a s and s u g g e s t i o n s of men and t h e n do t h e a c t u a l work t h a t w o u l d put them i n t o a c t i o n , H e l e n M a c G i l l , and p r o b a b l y most o t h e r clubwomen, saw t h i s as an a r e a i n w h i c h t h e i r f e m i n i n e s k i l l s were a d i s t i n c t improvement t o the s i t u a t i o n . C e r t a i n l y , i t must have a p p e a r e d t o them t h a t t h e mere f a c t t h a t t h e y were b e i n g a l l o w e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e a t a l l was a g r e a t s t e p f o r w a r d . F i r s t R e p o r t MWB, p.H59. 185 R e p l i e s t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s s e n t out o v e r summer i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e minimum wage i n t h e m e r c a n t i l e o c c u p a t i o n s , was as low as $4.00 per week. Under t h e new a c t t h e b o a r d was a u t h o r i z e d t o c a l l a p u b l i c m e e t i n g o r c o n f e r e n c e t o a s c e r t a i n e x a c t l y what c o n s t i t u t e d a l i v i n g wage f o r women i n t h e s e j o b s . The f i r s t c o n f e r e n c e was s c h e d u l e d f o r November 13, 1918 but was p o s t p o n e d b e cause of t h e ' f l u e p i d e m i c w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n a ban on a l l p u b l i c g a t h e r i n g s . In t h e meantime t h e b o a r d h e l d two s m a l l e r p u b l i c m e e t i n g s , one i n V a n c o u v e r and one i n V i c t o r i a , t o e x p l a i n t h e a c t and t h e b e n e f i t s i t hoped w o u l d a c r u e t o w o r k i n g women. The f i r s t a n n u a l r e p o r t n o t e s t h a t "One of t h e most g r a t i f y i n g f e a t u r e s of t h e s e two m e e t i n g s was t h e i n t e r e s t d i s p l a y e d by t h e women's o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t h e w e l f a r e of t h e i r s i s t e r s , a l l t h e most i m p o r t a n t a s s o c i a t i o n s a u t h o r i z i n g t h e i r p r e s i d e n t s o r o t h e r o f f i c e r s t o t a k e s e a t s upon t h e p l a t f o r m and t o e x p r e s s sympathy i n t h e p r o p o s e d C o n f e r e n c e . " 6 1 The C o n f e r e n c e i t s e l f was run on t h e l i n e s of a s m a l l c o m m i s s i o n w i t h n i n e members a p p o i n t e d by t h e b o a r d t o a c c e p t e v i d e n c e from t h e p u b l i c . As r e q u i r e d by t h e a c t , t h r e e members, a Mrs S u t t o n and t h e M i s s e s Dunbar and H o w att, r e p r e s e n t e d t h e e m p l o y e e s . R e p r e s e n t i n g t h e e m p l o y e r s were Mr. R.W. Wood, Mr. T.H. L o c k y e r , manager of t h e Hudson's Bay Company, and Mr C h r i s S p e n c e r , owner of a n o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e . The " d i s i n t e r e s t e d p u b l i c " was r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e Rev. W i l l i a m O ' B o y l e , M i s s H.G.Stewart of t h e V i c t o r i a C h i l d W e l f a r e I b i d . , p.H60. 1 86 A s s o c i a t i o n and Mrs M a r g a r e t G r i f f i n a p r o m i n e n t member of t h e V a n c o u v e r LCW and a number of o t h e r c l u b s . Mrs G r i f f i n , was t a k e n i l l a t t h e l a s t moment and was r e p l a c e d by S u s i e Lane C l a r k . Amongst t h o s e who gave e v i d e n c e were H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e and members of t h e R e t a i l C l e r k s ' A s s o c i a t i o n . The method by w h i c h t h e b o a r d s e t a b o u t a s c e r t a i n i n g a minimum wage was p e r h a p s d e m o c r a t i c but r a t h e r u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d . Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were s e n t t o employees r e q u e s t i n g t h e i r e s t i m a t e s of v a r i o u s i t e m s of l i v i n g e x p e n s e s . The b o a r d c o n s i d e r e d t h a t i n t h i s way i t w o u l d o b t a i n " a f a i r e s t i m a t e of t h e amount r e q u i r e d y e a r l y by a p r u d e n t , s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g woman ... i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n h e r s e l f i n r e a s o n a b l e c o m f o r t . " 6 2 (See T a b l e 16) The a v e r a g e wage t h u s c a l c u l a t e d was $16.81 p e r week. The t o t a l number of e s t i m a t e s r e c e i v e d by t h e b o a r d f o r any g i v e n i t e m r a n g e d from t h i r t e e n ( f o r i n s u r a n c e w h i c h was p r e s u m a b l y not a p r i o r i t y expense among w o r k i n g women) t o t w e n t y - n i n e ( f o r v a r i o u s i t e m s of c l o t h i n g ) . T h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a 1% r e s p o n s e f r o m t h e 2043 women whom t h e b o a r d e s t i m a t e d were employed i n m e r c a t i l e o c c u p a t i o n s i n 1919. No s i n g l e r e a s o n f o r t h i s p o o r r e s p o n s e i s e v i d e n t and t h e b o a r d d i d not comment on i t a t a l l . 6 2 I b i d . , p.H61 . 1 87 T a b l e 16 C o s t of L i v i n g C a l c u l a t i o n f o r M e r c a n t i l e O c c u p a t i o n s 1 9 1 9 No. o f A v e r a g e A n n u a l C o s t of Each Item E s t i m a t e s 20. M e a l s $245.95 20. Room 109.70 29. Shoes and r u b b e r s 25.60 29. R e p a i r i n g shoes 4.02 29. S t o c k i n g s 7.20 28. Underwear ' 10.44 28. P e t t i c o a t s 8.03 29. S u i t 37.33 29. Coat 29.80 28. D r e s s e s and a p r o n s 33.43 29. S h i r t - w a i s t s 14.88 28. H a n d k e r c h i e f s 2.30 27. S k i r t s 12.46 28. N i g h t - g o w n s 7.00 29. C o r s e t s 7.35 27. C o r s e t - w a i s t s 4.52 29. G l o v e s 5.64 24. Neckwear 3.57 29. H a t s 19.20 29. U m b r e l l a 3.22 26. Kimono 4.88 21 . R a i n c o a t 13.51 20. R e p a i r of c l o t h i n g 5.55 23. L a u n d r y 23,20 28. M e d i c i n e and d e n t i s t r y 18.98 28. S t r e e t - c a r f a r e 44.13 25. Newspapers and m a g a z i n e s 6.31 28. S t a t i o n e r y and p o s t a g e 7.65 16. A s s o c i a t i o n dues 5.97 13. I n s u r a n c e 12.82 27. V a c a t i o n e x p e n s e s 29.82 24. Amusements f 17.30 28. C h u r c h and o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s 16.25 24. I n c i d e n t a l s 16.14 T o t a l f o r y e a r $874 . 1 5 A v e r a g e , $16 . 8 1 p e r week. S o u r c e : B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s , 1919, R e p o r t of Minimum Wage B o a r d pp.H61-62 188 Women may have been s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h e methods of c o l l e c t i n g t h e d a t a o r t h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s t h a t the d e c i s i o n of t h e b o a r d m i g h t have on t h e i r l i v e s o r t h e y may have been i n c a p a b l e of i t e m i z i n g e x p e n d i t u r e i n s u c h a d e t a i l e d way. V e r y few, i f any, w o r k e r s l i v i n g on t h e edge of p o v e r t y would have b u d g e t e d on a a n n u a l b a s i s . They wou l d have much more l i k e l y bought i t e m s as t h e y needed and c o u l d a f f o r d them. At any r a t e , t h e e s t i m a t e s were p r e s e n t e d t o t h e p u b l i c h e a r i n g a t w h i c h f u r t h e r i n p u t was r e c e i v e d from any i n t e r e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l s and t h e n t h e MWB and t h e n i n e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s went i n t o c o n f e r e n c e . A f t e r s e v e r a l h o u r s of " f r a n k and f u l l d i s c u s s i o n " i n w h i c h "good f e e l i n g and r e s t r a i n t was shown on a l l s i d e s " d e s p i t e t h e "many c o n t e n t i o u s m a t t e r s " w h i c h a r o s e , t h e c o n f e r e n c e a r r i v e d a t a f i g u r e of $12.75 per week as t h e minimum n e c e s s a r y f o r a d e c e n t l i f e . However, Mrs S u t t o n e x p r e s s e d h e r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e p r o c e e d i n g s and/or outcome by r e f u s i n g t o s i g n t h e recommendation w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e was not as c a l m and c o n c i l i a t o r y as t h e m i n u t e s s t a t e . The c h o i c e of $12.75 as a minimum wage i l l u s t r a t e s v e r y c l e a r l y t h e f a c t t h a t the whole p r o c e s s was a c a s e of a t h e o r e t i c a l s o l u t i o n t o p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m . H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d , however i n a c c u r a t e l y , t h a t $16 a week was n e c e s s a r y f o r a l i v i n g wage, t h e b o a r d c o u l d h a r d l y have j u s t i f i e d i n any p r a c t i c a l s e n s e , s e t t i n g a wage 25% l o w e r t h a n t h i s sum. The e v e n t u a l d e c i s i o n r e p r e s e n t e d more of a d e a d l o c k t h a n a c o m promise; H e l e n M a c G i l l n o t e d t h a t t h e " Employees were h o p i n g f o r $18 a week and t h i n k i n g t h a t $16 m i g h t do w h i l e e m p l o y e r s 189 c o n s i d e r e d $5 was f a i r and $6 l i b e r a l . " 6 3 The b o a r d managed t o walk a l i n e midway between t h e two. Two weeks a f t e r i t s f i r s t d e c i s i o n t h e MWB h e l d a f u r t h e r c o n f e r e n c e , t h i s t i m e on t h e l a u n d r y , c l e a n i n g and d y e i n g o c c u p a t i o n s . The same p r o c e s s was f o l l o w e d r e s u l t i n g i n a recomended $13.50 minimun wage per week. (See T a b l e 17). Two i n t e r e s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e e s t i m a t e s of t h e s e w o r k e r s and t h o s e of t h e m e r c a n t i l e w o r k e r s a r e t h o s e f o r meals and rooms, m e d i c i n e and d e n t i s t r y . P o s s i b l y women i n m e r c a n t i l e j o b s l i v e d i n more e x p e n s i v e s e c t i o n s of t h e c i t y and hence p a i d h i g h e r r e n t . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n w o u l d be s u p p o r t e d by t h e i d e a t h a t shop work was somehow more " r e f i n e d " t h a n l a u n d r y work. L i k e w i s e shop g i r l s , h a v i n g t o ap p e a r i n t h e p u b l i c e y e , m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y be e x p e c t e d t o spend more on c o r s e t s t h a n l a u n d r y w o r k e r s . Why t h e l a t t e r p a i d more f o r m e d i c i n e and d e n t i s t r y t h a n t h e f o r m e r i s n o t c l e a r u n l e s s i t was b e c a u s e t h e i r w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s were l e s s h e a l t h y and r e s u l t e d i n more s i c k n e s s . W i t h o u t c o n s i d e r a b l y more d a t a on t h e s e women, ^ t h e i r j o b s and l i f e s t y l e s , no s t r o n g i n f e r e n c e s a r e p o s s i b l e . The d i f f e r e n c e s i n e s t i m a t e s m i g h t s i m p l y be e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y were b a s e d on o p i n i o n r a t h e r t h a n on c a r e f u l l y v e r i f i e d f a c t . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r t h e b o a r d a r r a n g e d c o n f e r e n c e s on an a d d i t i o n a l seven o c c u p a t i o n s and a c c e p t e d t h e i r r ecommendations on minimum wage l e v e l s (See T a b l e 1 8 ). 6 3 H e l e n M a c G i l l , q u o t e d i n H a r o l d U n d e r h i l l , "Labor L e g i s l a t i o n i n B.C.", p.141. 1 90 T a b l e 17 C o s t of L i v i n g C a l c u l a t i o n f o r L a u n d r y , D y e i n g and Dry C l e a n i n g O c c u p a t i o n s 1919 No. of E s t i m a t e s A v e r a g e A n n u a l C o s t of Each I t e m 37. M e a l s and room $354. 54 34. Shoes and r u b b e r s 23.72 35. R e p a i r i n g shoes 6.47 35. S t o c k i n g s 7.62 34. Underwear 8.43 35. P e t t i c o a t s 7.07 35. S u i t 32.59 35. Coat 26.03 34. D r e s s e s and a p r o n s 19.75 32. S h i r t - w a i s t s 14.71 35. S k i r t s 15.43 31. H a n d k e r c h i e f s 2.29 36. N i g h t - g o w n s 5.50 34. C o r s e t s 4.17 34. C o r s e t - w a i s t s 5.94 35. G l o v e s 4.65 26. Neckwear 5.86 35. H a t s 13.98 35. U m b r e l l a 2.98 29. Kimono 4.65 31 . R a i n c o a t 12.35 22. R e p a i r of c l o t h i n g 5.57 24. L a u n d r y 20.48 30. M e d i c i n e and d e n t i s t r y 27.46 33. S t r e e t - c a r f a r e 30.09 26. Newspapers and m a g a z i n e s 7.84 32. S t a t i o n e r y and p o s t a g e 5.79 18. A s s o c i a t i o n dues 8.75 26. I n s u r a n c e 15.05 24. V a c a t i o n e x p e n s e s 33.96 28. Amusements 13.97 34. C h u r c h and o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s 11.27 24. I n c i d e n t a l s 13.56 T o t a l f o r y e a r $772. 52 A v e r a g e , $14.85 p e r week. S o u r c e : B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s , 1919, R e p o r t of Minimum Wage B o a r d , pp.H63. 191 T a b l e 18 Minimum Wage B o a r d R u l i n g s 1918-19 •Date o f C o n f e r e n c e and" O c c u p a t i o n C o n s i d e r e d C o n f e r e e s R e p r e s e n t i n g t h e P u b l i c Min imum Wage M e r c a n t i l e O c c u p a t i o n s V a n c o u v e r . Dec 4, 1916 Rev. W i l l i a m B o y l e M i s s H.G. S t e w a r t * S u s i e Lane C l a r k * $ 12.7 5 L a u n d r y , C l e a n i n g & D y e i n g O c c u p a t i o n s . V i c t o r i a . Dec 18, 1918 Rev. R. C o n n e l l Mrs F.C. Saunders M i s s H.G. S t e w a r t $13.50 P u b l i c H o u s e k e e p i n g O c c u p a t i o n s V a n c o u v e r . May 28, 1919 Rev. Dr. W h i t t i n g t o n Mrs M.G. G r a v e s Mrs J e a n n e A R o b b i n s $14.00 O f f i c e O c c u p a t i o n s New W e s t m i n s t e r . June 4, 1919 Rev. R.W. H i b b e r t Mrs T.A. B a r n a r d * Mrs J e n n i e S m i t h * $15.00 M a n u f a c t u r i n g I n d u s t r y V a n c o u v e r . June 18, 1919 C a p t . C.A. W h i t t a k e r Mrs W.A. McConkey* Mrs W.A. C l a r k * $14.00 P e r s o n a l S e r v i c e O c c u p a t i o n s V i c t o r i a . J u l y 3, 1919 A r c h d e a c o n F.C.C. H e a t h c o t e M i s s B e r t h a Winn* M i s s N.M. M c K i l l i c a n * $14.25 T e l e p h o n e and T e l e g r a p h O c c u p a t i o n s V a n c o u v e r June 17, 1919 Rev. J.W. Weatherdon Mrs M a r i e McNaughton* Mrs H.G. T a y l o r * $15.00 F i s h i n g I n d u s t r y V a n c o u v e r . December 11, 1919 Rev. A.E. Cooke Mrs M.I. N o r t o n * Mrs John F o r r e s t e r * Mrs P a u l S m i t h * $15.50 F r u i t and V e g e t a b l e I n d u s t r y K e l o w n a . Dec 17, 1919 P r o f e s s o r E. Odium Mrs P a u l S m i t h Mrs M.S. C l e l a n d $14.00 *Women w i t h c l u b a f f i l i a t i o n s S o u r c e : Second r e p o r t , MWB. pp.K80-84. 1 92 Because minimum wages were ba s e d upon t he c o s t of l i v i n g , e a c h d e c i s i o n d u r i n g t h e y e a r s e t s t a n d a r d s a l i t t l e h i g h e r t o o f f s e t e s c a l a t i n g c o s t s . The l o w e r r a t e s i n t h e f r u i t and v e g e t a b l e i n d u s t r y r e f l e c t t h e s l i g h t l y l o w e r c o s t i n v o l v e d i n l i v i n g o u t s i d e of an urb a n a r e a . I t was i n t e n d e d t h a t a l l t h e minimum wage o r d e r s w o u l d be r e v i e w e d from t i m e t o t i m e and b r o u g h t i n t o l i n e w i t h t h e c o s t of l i v i n g . No s u c h r e v i e w s took p l a c e b e f o r e 1925, however. By t h e end of 1919 t h e m a j o r i t y of o c c u p a t i o n s i n w h i c h s i g n i f i c a n t numbers of women were employed had been b r o u g h t under t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e a c t . Women o u t s i d e t h e s e o c c u p a t i o n s s t i l l had no p r o t e c t i o n from e x p l o i t i o n , however, and as t h e a c t s p e c i f i c a l l y e x c l u d e d d o m e s t i c w o r k e r s , t h i s meant t h a t many women were s t i l l w i t h o u t t h e d u b i o u s p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e a c t . I t i s i r o n i c t h a t i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d some of t h e clubwomen who s u p p o r t e d t h e i d e a of a minimum wage were t h e m s e l v e s e m p l o y e r s of d o m e s t i c w o r k e r s . T h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e minimum wage b o a r d e n c o u r a g e d any of t h e s e clubwomen t o c a l l f o r some r e g u l a t i o n of t h i s s e c t o r of t h e w o r k f o r c e . Though t h e m a j o r i t y o f clubwomen e x p r e s s e d g e n u i n e c o n c e r n f o r t h e w e l f a r e of t h o s e who were l e s s f o r t u n a t e than t h e m s e l v e s i t was e v i d e n t t h a t t h e r e were e l e m e n t s b o t h of s e l f - i n t e r e s t and p a t r o n a g e i n t h e i r m o t i v e s . The g u l f between them and w o r k i n g c l a s s women was f a r t o o wide t o a l l o w r e a l empathy and t h e i r l i v e s were so d i f f e r e n t t h a t t h e r e was not a l w a y s a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the p r o b l e m s . W h i l e clubwomen were w i l l i n g t o o f f e r sympathy and a l i m i t e d amount of h e l p t h e r e was no d e s i r e 1 93 t o see t h e g u l f d e m o l i s h e d or even n a r r o w e d . 6 " T h e i r a c t i v i t i e s were d e s i g n e d t o s h o r e up and s t a b i l i z e s o c i e t y r a t h e r t h a n t o change i t i n any s i g n i f i c a n t manner. H e l e n M a c G i l l was s t r o n g l y c a s t i g a t e d by t h e BC F e d e r a t i o n i s t f o r her p a r t i n t h e wage d e c i s i o n s . When a s k e d how young g i r l s e a r n i n g below the minimum wage wou l d s u r v i v e she a n s w e r e d t h a t t h e y "would have p a r e n t s t o h e l p them" but when a s k e d about g i r l s w i t h o u t p a r e n t s she was u n a b l e t o a n s w e r . 6 5 Copp has s t a t e d t h a t "Minimun wage l a w s were not i n t e n d e d t o r a i s e o v e r a l l wage r a t e s ; i n d e e d i n p r a c t i s e t h e i r e f f e c t was r a t h e r t o p r o v i d e a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r low wages", Guest a g r e e s t h a t t h e new l a w s " d i d l i t t l e t o a s s u r e t h a t w o r k e r s w o u l d be l i f t e d out of p o v e r t y " and S t r o n g - B o a g has n o t e d t h a t l e g i s l a t i o n of t h e p e r i o d o n l y s e r v e d t o p e r p e t u a t e "women's m a r g i n a l s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e p a i d l a b o u r f o r c e . " 6 6 A l l t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s c o n t a i n much t r u t h . The v e r y a c c e p t a n c e of t h e n o t i o n of a minimum wage a l m o s t a u t o m a t i c a l l y e n s u r e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of women woul d not r e c e i v e much more t h a n t h e l e g a l l y s e t sum. A r a d i c a l change i n t h e p o s i t i o n and wages of w o r k i n g women w o u l d H e l e n Le n s k y j - , "A ' S e r v a n t P r o b l e m ' " pp. 6-8; J e n n i f e r S t o d d a r t and V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "... And T h i n g s were G o i n g Wrong a t Home," A t l a n t i s 1:1 ( F a l l 1975) pp. 38-39; see a l s o B a r b a r a R o b e r t s , "'A Work of E m p i r e ' : C a n a d i a n R e f o r m e r s and B r i t i s h Female I m m i g r a t i o n , " i n L i n d a K e a l e y , e d . , A Not U n r e a s o n a b l e C l a i m , pp. 185-201; M a r i l y n B a r b e r , "The Women O n t a r i o Welcomed: Immigrant D o m e s t i c s f o r O n t a r i o Homes 1870-1930," O n t a r i o H i s t o r y 72:3 (September 1980) pp. 148-72. BC F e d e r a t i o n i s t , June 20, 1919 p.2. T e r r y Copp, The Anatomy of P o v e r t y , p.48; D a v i d G u e s t , The Emergence of S o c i a l W e l f a r e , p.73; V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "Canada's E a r l y E x p e r i e n c e w i t h Income S u p p l e m e n t s , " p. 40. 1 94 have r e q u i r e d r a d i c a l changes t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y . P r o m o t e r s , of l e g i s l a t i o n l i k e t h e minimum wage law c o n s i d e r e d i t p r o g r e s s i v e b u t i t was b a s i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e and t h e r e f o r e was bound t o do l i t t l e more t h a n m a r g i n a l l y improve t h e s t a t u s quo." A c o m p a r i s o n of m i d d l e and w o r k i n g - c l a s s a t t i t u d e s t o t h e e f f e c t s of t h e minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n i n d i c a t e s how f a r a p a r t t h e two s e c t i o n s o f t h e community r e m a i n e d b o t h p h y s i c a l l y and p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y . Clubwomen were q u i t e c o n t e n t w i t h t h e way t h e l e g i s l a t i o n was w o r k i n g as w e l l as w i t h t h e i n p u t t h e y had i n t o t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e MWB. T a b l e 18 i n d i c a t e s t h a t of t h e t w e n t y - e i g h t p e r s o n s a p p o i n t e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e p u b l i c i n d e l i b e r a t i o n s on minimum wages, n i n e t e e n were women. Of t h e s e , t w e l v e (two of whom were a p p o i n t e d t w i c e ) had v e r y s t r o n g c l u b t i e s . The r e m a i n i n g f i v e may or may n o t have had some c o n n e c t i o n w i t h c l u b s ; t h e y were c e r t a i n l y n ot w e l l known i n V a n c o u v e r f o r c l u b a c t i v i t i e s . H e l e n M a c G i l l , as c h a i r m a n o f t h e b o a r d on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s and as a r e g u l a r member t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e t i m e , gave f u r t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o clubwomen. The l a c k o f comment and f u r t h e r demands by t h e s e women b o t h i n t h e p r e s s and a t t h e i r c l u b m e e t i n g s once t h e a c t had been p u t i n t o a c t i o n i n d i c a t e s - t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h i t s r e s u l t s . Had t h e y been d i s s a t i s f i e d , t h e i r d i s a p p r o v a l w o u l d have been h e a r d as i t was i n t h e c a s e of t h e M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s A c t w h i c h i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r . A f t e r 1918, c l u b r e c o r d s a r e a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y d e v o i d of any m e n t i o n of minimum wages. Clubwomen were v e r y c o n c e r n e d a f t e r t h i s d a t e w i t h o t h e r m a t t e r s b u t i t seems t h a t t h e y h o n e s t l y b e l i e v e d i n t h e r a t h e r n a i v e t h e o r y t h a t h e l d t h a t 1 95 p o v e r t y c o u l d i n d e e d be v a n q u i s h e d , a t l e a s t f o r t h o s e who were w i l l i n g and a b l e t o work, by s i m p l y r a i s i n g minimum wage l e v e l s . A y e a r a f t e r t h e l e g i s l a t i o n was p a s s e d an a r t i c l e i n t h e women's s e c t i o n of t h e Sun c l a i m e d t h a t " i t s w o r k i n g s have a f f e c t e d t h e wages of 10,500 women i n t h e p r o v i n c e " . T h i s was t r u e i n so f a r as t h a t number of women may have been w o r k i n g a t j o b s t h a t were i n c l u d e d under t h e b o a r d ' s j u r i s d i c t i o n but o n l y a v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n had l i k e l y r e c e i v e d any i n c r e a s e i n pay. However t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e e f f e c t was l a r g e l y b e n e f i c i a l was i m p l i e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g comment, " W h i l e t h e o p e r a t i o n s of t h e B o a r d i n i t s e a r l y s t a g e s , l i k e a l l g r e a t r e f o r m s , work a c e r t a i n amount of h a r d s h i p on a c o m p a r a t i v e l y few i n e f f i c i e n t s , s o c i a l s e r v i c e w o r k e r s and o t h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n p u b l i c w e l f a r e d e c l a r e t h a t i t w i l l i n e v i t a b l y r e s u l t i n t h e g r e a t e s t good t o t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r , " 6 7 I n 1920, when t h e a c t was two y e a r s o l d , t h e WWW l a u d e d i t as "An A c t That Has A c c o m p l i s h e d Wonders", and " t h e most n o t a b l e p i e c e of lawmaking t h a t has been a c c o m p l i s h e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s . " The w r i t e r went on t o say t h a t , so p r o m p t l y and so f a i t h f u l l y have i t s p r o v i s i o n s been a d m i n i s t e r e d t h a t i t has a l r e a d y g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s under w h i c h t h o u s a n d s of women work and l i v e . B r i e f l y , t h e A c t has more t h a n t r e b l e d t h e wages of some of our more p o o r l y p a i d women w o r k e r s , w h i l e i t s companion measure, t h e Minimum Wage Amendment A c t , p a s s e d on t h e i n i t i a t i v e of Mr F a r r i s i n 1919, has by ' a s w i f t s t r o k e b r o u g h t down t h e w o r k i n g h o u r s , i n some 6 7 Sun, Augus t 14, 1920 p.4; The T h i r d A n n u a l R e p o r t of the MWB, 1.921 n o t e s t h a t t h e number of women under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e b o a r d was o n l y 9809 but i t i s not c l e a r whether t h i s i n d i c a t e s a d r o p i n t h e number of w o r k i n g women or s i m p l y a d i f f e r e n t method of c a l c u l a t i o n . C e r t a i n l y by 1921 many more men had r e t u r n e d from t h e war but i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t many of them wou l d have r e p l a c e d women i n t h e s e low p a y i n g j o b s . 1 96 c a s e s , as many as 70 p e r week t o a maximum of f o r t y e i g h t . 6 8 W h i l e t h i s was p r o b a b l y t r u e i n a few c a s e s , t h e a c t by no means a b o l i s h e d a l l low wages. The s e c o n d p i e c e of l e g i s l a t i o n had been p a s s e d on March 29, 1919, m a i n l y as a r e s u l t o f t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t some e m p l o y e r s were a t t e m p t i n g t o a v o i d p a y i n g a h i g h e r r a t e by s i m p l y r e q u i r i n g women t o work l o n g e r h o u r s f o r t h e i r minimum wage. Y e t a n o t h e r way of c i r c u m v e n t i n g t h e new law was t o employ a g r e a t e r number of g i r l s who were under e i g h t e e n y e a r s o f age or who c o u l d be c l a s s i f i e d as a p p r e n t i c e s and t h e r e f o r e p a i d l e s s . These g i r l s w o u l d t h e n be f i r e d when t h e y r e a c h e d t h e i r e i g h t e e n t h b i r t h d a y . T h i s s i t u a t i o n o c c u r r e d a l s o . i n Edmonton a n d ' p r o b a b l y i n a l l o t h e r c i t i e s . 6 9 F u r t h e r l e g i s l a t i o n i n A p r i l 1921 c l o s e d t h i s l o o p - h o l e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 7 0 The Minimum Wage B o a r d was a l s o p l e a s e d w i t h r e s u l t s . I n i t s f i r s t a n n u a l r e p o r t i t n o t e d . . . t h e g e n e r a l improvemment shown i n not o n l y wages but i n h o u r s of employment.... t h e r e t u r n s show a d i s t i n c t r i s e i n t h e wages of t h e whole body of women w o r k e r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Lower wages have been r a i s e d , and, c o n t r a r y t o a l l p r e d i c t i o n , a d v a n c e s i n h i g h e r wages a r e p l a i n l y i n d i c a t e d . . . i n t h e m e r c a n t i l e i n d u s t r y t h e r e t u r n s a p p e a r t o i n d i c a t e more t h a n t w i c e t h e number of a d u l t women r e c e i v i n g t h e h i g h e s t s a l a r i e s ($25 a week o r o v e r ) i n 1920 t h a n i n 1 9 1 9 . 7 1 WWW, A u g u s t 14, 1910 p.1. See R e becca C o u l t e r , "Working Young of Edmonton," pp.154-55. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 1919, c h . 6 1 ; 1921, ch.40. T h i r d R e p o r t MWB, 1921, p.F57. 1 97 On t h e f a c e of i t wages seemed t o show a d e c i d e d improvement. The s e n t e n c e t h a t r e f e r s t o t h e d o u b l i n g of t h e number of women i n t h e h i g h e s t wage b r a c k e t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e n c o u r a g i n g u n t i l a c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n i s made. T h i s i n - i t s e l f i s n o t e a s y b e c a u s e t h e r e p o r t c o n t a i n e d no s t a t i s t i c a l t a b l e s a t a l l . However, t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r ' s r e p o r t d i d c o n t a i n a l i m i t e d number o f t a b l e s and t h e s e , I s u s p e c t , were t h e f i g u r e s r e f e r r e d t o . I n any c a s e t h e y s e r v e as a good i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e way t h e b o a r d i n t e r p r e t e d s t a t i s t i c s . They i n d i c a t e t h a t between 1918 and 1919 t h e r e was i n d e e d a near d o u b l i n g of t h e number of women i n m e r c a n t i l e o c c u p a t i o n s e a r n i n g $25 a week or more. In 1918, tw e n t y - o n e women out of 1129 i n t h a t t y p e of work were i n t h e h i g h e s t b r a c k e t , o r 1.86% of t h e t o t a l . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r f o r t y women e a r n e d $25 o r more but t h e t o t a l had now r i s e n t o 1428 so t h e p e r c e n t a g e was not much h i g h e r - 2.80% t o be e x a c t . 7 2 I n t h a t t w e l v e month p e r i o d t h e r e was a 1% i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of w o r k e r s i n t h e h i g h e s t wage b r a c k e t . And t h i s made no a l l o w a n c e f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o s t of l i v i n g i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g t h e y e a r nor f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e women were not t h e ones l i v i n g on t h e p o v e r t y l i n e i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . A l t h o u g h t h e i r wages c o u l d by no means be c o n s i d e r e d g e n e r o u s t h e y were not f a c e d w i t h t h e same p r o b l e m s as women e a r n i n g $10 or $12 a week or p e r h a p s even l e s s . I n t h e 1920 r e p o r t t h e b o a r d d i d n o t e t h a t t h e a v e r a g e w e e k l y wage f o r women e i g h t e e n y e a r s and. o v e r r o s e from $12.77 i n 1918 t o $14.67 i n 1919 and f o r 7 2 Second R e p o r t MWB, 1920, p.K97. 1 98 g i r l s under e i g h t e e n from $7.80 i n 1918 t o $9.73 i n 1919, i n c r e a s e s r e s p e c t i v e l y of 16.44% and 24.74%. But even a 25% i n c r e a s e i s not v e r y h e l p f u l t o a g i r l who i s s t i l l e a r n i n g l e s s t h a n a l i v i n g wage. The b o a r d m i g h t a l s o have p o i n t e d o ut t h a t i n 1918, 736 women out of t h e 1129 (65.19%) e a r n e d t h e minimum wage or l e s s w h i l e i n 1919 o n l y 628 o u t of 1428 (43.97%) were i n t h i s m i s e r a b l e p o s i t i o n . I t w o u l d seem t h e n t h a t t h e new l e g i s l a t i o n d i d l e a d t o a s m a l l i n c r e a s e i n wages, but b e c a u s e some young g i r l s had been r e c e i v i n g s u c h a b y s m a l l y low wages t o b e g i n w i t h , much p o v e r t y amongst w o r k i n g women r e m a i n e d . A t any r a t e t h e b o a r d , and much of m i d d l e - c l a s s s o c i e t y , whose o n l y c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s e w o r k i n g women and g i r l s was i n d i r e c t , seemed s a t i s f i e d t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t s t r i d e s had been make. E m p l o y e r s , t o o , d i d not seem u n d u l y u p s e t by t h e l e g i s l a t i o n . Some i n d i v i d u a l e m p l o y e r s may have been a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d f i n a n c i a l l y but n e i t h e r b e f o r e nor a f t e r t h e a c t came i n t o b e i n g d i d t h e y p r e s e n t a combined l o b b y t o t h e government i n an a t t e m p t t o e f f e c t s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r a t i o n s t o t h e new l a w s . E l s i e M a c G i l l r e p o r t s " c r i e s of r u i n a t i o n " from "some e m p l o y e r s " p r i o r t o t h e f i r s t e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a minimum wage r a t e , but t h e y d i d not a t t e m p t t o a l t e r o r p r e v e n t t h e b o a r d ' s 199 a c t i o n s . 7 3 The t h i r d a n n u a l R e p o r t of t h e b o a r d n o t e s t h a t t o w a r d s t h e end of 1920 forms were s e n t t o e m p l o y e r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o v i n c e w h i c h , amongst o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , r e q u e s t e d o p i n i o n on t h e w o r k i n g of t h e new law and a s k e d f o r s u g g e s t e d c h a n g e s . R e p l i e s , t h e R e p o r t n o t e s , were r e c o v e r e d from 1 9 3 9 f i r m s and a l l b u t a v e r y s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e t o o k a d v a n t a g e of t h e i n v i t a t i o n f o r an e x p r e s s i o n of o p i n i o n . The b o a r d d e s i r e s t o deduce fr o m t h i s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of e m p l o y e r s a r e i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e r e g u l a t i o n s , as i t i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of human n a t u r e t o c r i t i c i z e o r f i n d f a u l t whenever the o p p o r t u n i t y a r i s e s , but p r a i s e o r commendation i s not as f r e e l y g i v e n . . . i n many c a s e s t h e c r i t i c i s m was of a c o n s t r u c t i v e n a t u r e . 7 4 Absence of p r o t e s t from t h e e m p l o y e r s may have come about f o r a number of r e a s o n s . F i r s t , a l t h o u g h women were moving more and more i n t o t h e w o r k f o r c e , t h e y s t i l l c o n s t i t u t e d o n l y a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l w o r k f o r c e and t h e r e f o r e t h e s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n t h e i r wages may not have made a v e r y g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e t o e m p l o y e r s on t h e w h o l e . Second, as Guest has / / n o t e d , i t was offten e a s y f o r e m p l o y e r s t o c i r c u m v e n t t h e r e g u l a t i o n s i n a number of w a y s . 7 5 They c o u l d r e p l a c e women w i t h low p a i d male l a b o r . T h i s o c c u r r e d e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l a u n d r y o c c u p a t i o n s where male o r i e n t a l w o r k e r s were commonly f o u n d . These men were not p r o t e c t e d by any l e g i s l a t i o n and no s e c t o r of H a r o l d U n d e r h i l l , "Labor L e g i s l a t i o n i n B.C.," pp. 138-39 s u g g e s t s t h a t many e m p l o y e r s were i n f a v o u r of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . N e i t h e r Copp nor P i v a m e n t i o n t h e a t t i t u d e s of M o n t r e a l and Quebec e m p l o y e r s , but t h e f a c t t h a t minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n i n Quebec was p a s s e d i n 1919 but not a c t e d upon u n t i l 1928 s u g g e s t s t h a t e m p l o y e r s may have h e l p e d t o h o l d up i m p l e m e n t a t i o n f o r n e a r l y a deca d e . T h i r d R e p o r t MWB, 1921, p . F 6 l . D a v i d G u e s t , The Emergence of S o c i a l W e l f a r e , p.74. 2C0 t h e community was c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s or r a t e s of p a y . 7 6 E m p l o y e r s c o u l d a l s o r e q u i r e l o n g e r h o u r s of work f o r t h e minimum r a t e u n t i l t h e law was t i g h t e n e d i n 1919. They c o u l d a l s o q u i t e l e g a l l y r e q u i r e a h i g h e r s t a n d a r d of work from t h e i r e mployees - t h e " e f f i c i e n c y " t h a t clubwomen and e m p l o y e r s spoke o f . 7 7 The l a c k of a d e q u a t e i n s p e c t i o n t o e n f o r c e t h e l a w , even a f t e r l o o p h o l e s had been e l i m i n a t e d , made e v a s i o n c o m p a r a t i v e l y e a s y . F i n k e l and P almer have shown how economic and p o l i t i c a l e x p e d i e n c y r a t h e r t h a n i d e a l s of s o c i a l j u s t i c e came t o be of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t o b o t h government and c a p i t a l i s t s i n t h e f i r s t two d ecades of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . L i m i t e d l e g i s l a t i o n was seen by some p o l i t i c i a n s and e m p l o y e r s as a means of p r e v e n t i n g f u r t h e r l a b o r u n r e s t . Lack of o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e women's minimum wage law by e m p l o y e r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a may have been prompted by s u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . 7 8 But i f clubwomen, t h e MWB and most e m p l o y e r s were p l e a s e d o r a t l e a s t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e l a w , many w o r k e r s were n o t . H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e , as b u s i n e s s a g e n t f o r t h e n e w l y formed Women R e t a i l S t o r e Employees' U n i o n , was n o t c o m p l e t e l y p l e a s e d when t h e f i r s t minimum wage d e c i s i o n t o a f f e c t h e r u n i o n was handed 7 6 See r e s o l u t i o n s e n t t o A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l by t h e A s s o c i a t e d B o a r d of T r a d e of V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . R e e l 137 F i l e M-269-3, 1 9 1 9-23-24, p.5. ( u n d a t e d p r o b a b l y 1919) ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as B.C. A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l ) The r e s o l u t i o n p r o t e s t e d t h a t l a u n d r i e s e m p l o y i n g women a t t h e l e g a l minimum r a t e s were " u n a b l e t o compete w i t h l a u n d r i e s e m p l o y i n g c h eap a l i e n male l a b o u r " ( p r e s u m a b l y C h i n e s e ) . 7 7 Sun, December 6, 1918 p.3. 7 8 A l v i n F i n k e l , B u s i n e s s and S o c i a l R e f o r m, p.83; B r y a n D. P a l m e r , W o r k i n g C l a s s E x p e r i e n c e , pp. 136-38. 201 down i n December 1 9 18. She a p p r o v e d t h e p r i n c i p l e but was d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e t e r m s , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e wage s h o u l d be " a t l e a s t $15..or a t t h e v e r y minimum $14.50." She was a l s o c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e age l i m i t of e i g h t e e n y e a r s was t o o h i g h b e c a u s e " t h e s e t t i n g of t h e age a t 18 woul d l e a d t o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t g i r l s o v e r 18 i n f a v o r of t h o s e f r o m 15 t o 18...and c o n s e q u e n t l y o l d e r women more l i k e l y i n need of work w o u l d s u f f e r . " M o r e o v e r , she p o i n t e d o ut t h a t t h e award would a f f e c t l e s s t h a n 50% of s t o r e e m p l o y e e s as t h e r e s t a l r e a d y r e c e i v e d more t h a n t h e s e t minimum. F i n a l l y , she a c c u s e d t h e government of u s i n g t h e Minimum Wage A c t s i m p l y t o " c u r r y f a v o r " w i t h t h e l a b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n t o e f f e c t r e a l change. In d e f e n s e of t h i s c h a r g e she p o i n t e d out t h a t t h e r e was no l a b o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on t h e MWB and i m p l i e d t h a t j u s t i c e w ould n e v e r be done u n t i l t h i s was a l t e r e d . 7 9 The L a u n d r y W o r k e r s ' U n i o n was a l s o d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e award c o v e r i n g i t s s e c t o r when i t was announced i n l a t e 1918. I t c o m p l a i n e d of s c a n d a l o u s l y low r a t e s of pay, no l i m i t s on t h e numbers of young g i r l s employed compared t o s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , and no l i m i t a t i o n i n t h e h o u r s of w o r k . 8 0 The U n i o n had j u s t waged a d i f f i c u l t s t r i k e i n w h i c h p a r t i c i p a n t s had l o s t t h e i r j o b s . A f t e r t h e s t r i k e was o v e r t h e MWB made i t s recommendations on f e m a l e wage r a t e s w i t h o u t c o n s u l t i n g t h e U n i o n w h i c h was b o t h Sun, December 6, 1918 p.3. E r n e s t L e v y , s e c r e t a r y o f t h e L a u n d r y W o r k e r s ' U n i o n ( L o c a l 37) t o t h e A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l , March 14 1919, B.C. A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l R e e l 137 F i l e M-269-3 p.9. PABC. 202 o f f e n d e d a t b e i n g i g n o r e d and a n g r y because, i t f e l t t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n r e - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e low wages and po o r c o n d i t i o n s t h a t o b t a i n e d b e f o r e t h e s t r i k e . 8 1 Even i f t h e y were d i s s a t i s f i e d and, as was a p p a r e n t i n many c a s e s , u n j u s t l y t r e a t e d , women w o r k e r s on t h e whole d i d not c o m p l a i n , a t l e a s t not l o n g and l o u d enough f o r t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s t o have been r e c o r d e d . T h i s was n o t a new phenomenon nor was i t l i m i t e d t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 8 2 H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e a t t r i b u t e d t h i s t o t h e f a c t t h a t women, i n t h e m e r c a n t i l e o c c u p a t i o n s a t l e a s t , were " t o o p r o u d t o make known t h e i r u n f o r t u n a t e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . . . They wanted t h e p u b l i c who v i e w e d them from t h e f r o n t of t h e i r c o u n t e r s t o t h i n k t h a t a l l was w e l l w i t h t h e m . . . i t was p r i d e t h a t h e l d them back from s e c u r i n g more p a y . " 8 3 A f t e r a few i n i t i a l o u t b u r s t s o r g a n i z e d l a b o r , b o t h male and f e m a l e , a p p e a r e d t o a c c e p t t h e minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n w h e ther o r not t h e y f e l t i t was b e n f i c i a l . The MWL c o n t i n u e d t o e x i s t , c h a n g i n g i t s name t o Women's I n d u s t r i a l U n i o n and Minimum Wage League i n J u l y 1918, " t o show i t s e n l a r g e d s c o p e " and i t s p u r p o s e of w o r k i n g " f o r b e t t e r c o n d i t i o n s f o r women i n u n s k i l l e d M a r i e C a m p b e l l , " S e x i s m i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a T r a d e U n i o n s , " p. 1 80. See Susan T r o f i m e n k o f f , "102 M u f f l e d V o i c e s : Canada's I n d u s t r i a l Women i n t h e 1810's," A t l a n t i s , 3:1 (Aug u s t 1977) pp. 68-83. T r o f i m e n k o f f n o t e s t h e d i f f i c u l t y of g e t t i n g women w o r k e r s t o app e a r b e f o r e t h e Commission on C a p i t a l and L a b o r and t h e even g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y o f g e t t i n g them t o v o i c e t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s f o r f e a r o f l o s i n g t h e i r j o b s . See a l s o S t a r R o s e n t h a l , "Union M a i d s : O r g a n i z e d Women Workers i n V a n c o u v e r , 1900-1915," pp.36-55. Sun, December 6, 1918 p.3. 203 l a b o r . " 8 " I t made o c c a s i o n a l p u b l i c p r o t e s t s and i n 1922-23, when f u r t h e r amendments were p r o p o s e d t o t h e a c t , i t e n l i s t e d t h e a i d of t h e UWC. The UWC, i n t u r n , p e r s u a d e d seven o t h e r unnamed o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o send r e s o l u t i o n s t o t h e A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l and l o c a l M L A ' s . 8 5 The p r o p o s e d amendments c o n c e r n e d c h a n g i n g t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e b o a r d t o i n c l u d e two r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s • of t h e e m p l o y e r s and two of t h e e m p l o y e e s . The MWL and t h e e i g h t c l u b s a g r e e d t h a t s u c h a change wo u l d " p r a c t i c a l l y a b o l i s h t h e good of t h e A c t and w o u l d be i n j u r i o u s t o women w o r k e r s " and t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n s were a p p a r e n t l y s u c c e s s f u l as no amendments were made. 8 6 T h i s f i n a l p i e c e of a c t i v i t y by clubwomen u n d e r l i n e s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y d i d b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i n i t i a l l e g i s l a t i o n was s a t i s f a c t o r y . They were a b l e t o c o n t i n u e i n t h i s b e l i e f b e c a u s e so few, i f any, of them had a c t u a l c o n t a c t w i t h women who worked i n poor c o n d i t i o n s f o r i n a d e q u a t e wages i n a r e a s t h a t came under t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e MWB. They were o n l y aware of t h e p r o b l e m s i n a t h e o r e t i c a l and not a p r a c t i c a l s e n s e , t h e r e f o r e a s o l u t i o n b ased more on t h e o r y t h a n p r a c t i c a l i t y seemed t o them t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y . The f a c t t h a t t h e y showed some c o n c e r n f o r t h e i r w o r k i n g - c l a s s s i s t e r s and were w i l l i n g t o s u p p o r t them i n a c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e i r own m i d d l e - c l a s s c l u b s y s t e m was i m p o r t a n t , but b o t h t h e i r a c t i o n s and the outcomes o n l y s e r v e t o e m p h a s i z e t h e " Sun, J u l y 6, 1918 p.4. 5 UWC M i n u t e s . Box 1, November 11, 1922. 6 H a r o l d U n d e r h i l l , "Labor L e g i s l a t i o n i n B.C.," p.144; UWC M i n u t e s , Box 1 O c t o b e r 13, 1923. 204 d i s t a n c e t h a t e x i s t e d between t h e two c l a s s e s . Combined a c t i o n d i d s e r v e t o b u i l d b r i d g e s but i t d i d not do away w i t h t h e d i v i s i o n . Nor, i n d e e d was i t i n t e n d e d t o . The u n d e r l y i n g m o t i v e f o r m i d d l e - c l a s s clubwomen's i n v o l v e m e n t i n s o c i a l r e f o r m was th e d e s i r e t o make use of t h e i r p e c u l i a r l y f e m i n i n e a t t r i b u t e s and s k i l l s t o b u t t r e s s and improve a m i d d l e - c l a s s way of l i f e . J u s t as t h e y d i d not l o o k f o r e q u a l i t y between t h e m s e l v e s and men, n e i t h e r d i d t h e y seek e q u a l i t y between t h e c l a s s e s . They were c o n c e r n e d t o do away w i t h g r o s s e x p l o i t a t i o n of w o r k i n g women because t h e y saw i t as d e g r a d i n g and d a n g e r o u s t o t h e m o r a l as w e l l as t h e p h y s i c a l h e a l t h o f t h e community as a whole r a t h e r t h a n j u s t t o w o r k i n g women as i n d i v i d u a l s . As mothers o r f u t u r e m others of w o r k e r s t h e s e women needed t o be p r o t e c t e d . B a s i c h u m a n i t a r i a n s e n t i m e n t a l s o d e c r e e d t h a t a m i n i m a l e f f o r t be made t o remove t h e w o r s t of c o n d i t i o n s but f u r t h e r t h a n t h i s clubwomen were not c o n c e r n e d o r p r e p a r e d t o go. M o r e o v e r , b e c a u s e t h e y so r a r e l y came i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h w o r k i n g women on a p e r s o n a l b a s i s , t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r p r o b l e m s was t h e o r e t i c a l or i d e a l i s t i c r a t h e r t h a n p r a c t i c a l and i t seemed t o them t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l s o l u t i o n s s u c h as s i m p l y c h a n g i n g l e g i s l a t i o n was a l l t h a t was r e q u i r e d t o e l i m i n a t e t h e p r o b l e m s a l t o g e t h e r . T h e i r m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t i c b e l i e f s d i d p o i n t t o w a r d t h e e x i s t e n c e of a c o m m o n a l i t y o r s i s t e r h o o d amongst women w h i c h , i f f o l l o w e d t o t h e i r l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n , m i g h t have g e n e r a t e d more empathy and a d e s i r e f o r g r e a t e r r e f o r m . But as we saw i n C h a p t e r 3 t h e r e were many c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m w h i c h clubwomen a v o i d e d by s i m p l y i g n o r i n g . The f a c t 205 t h a t l e g i s l a t i o n was p a s s e d w h i c h r a i s e d t h e wages of some of t h e most p o o r l y p a i d women was s u f f i c i e n t t o s a t i s f y clubwomen and t o c o n v i n c e them t h a t t h e y had been i n v o l v e d i n o b t a i n i n g a m a j o r s o c i a l r e f o r m . 206 C h a p t e r 5 "THE SACREDNESS OF MOTHERHOOD": MOTHERS' PENSIONS LEGISLATION, 1919-25 *• Of a l l t h e s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n p a s s e d i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a between 1916 and 1925 t h e M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s A c t was d e a r e s t t o t h e h e a r t s of clubwomen. The o n l y l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t r a n k e d n e a r t o i t i n t h e i r e s t i m a t i o n was t h e S u f f r a g e A c t and t h i s , as we have s e e n , was o n l y r e g a r d e d as a means t o t h e end of o b t a i n i n g f u r t h e r r e f o r m . L i k e t h e Minimum Wage A c t , clubwomen saw m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n l e g i s l a t i o n as c a p a b l e of i m p r o v i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f s o c i e t y as a whole by r e m o v i n g some o f t h e w o r s t c o n d i t i o n s w i t h w h i c h women of l e s s f o r t u n a t e b i r t h had t o c o n t e n d and a l s o of i m p r o v i n g t h e l i v e s of t h e i r c h i l d r e n f o r t h e f u t u r e b e n e f i t of t h e r a c e . ' But u n l i k e w a g e - e a r n i n g w i t h w h i c h t h e y t h e m s e l v e s had l i t t l e d i r e c t c o n t a c t , motherhood was a r o l e w h i c h clubwomen a l s o e x p e r i e n c e d and f u r t h e r , i t was a r o l e w h i c h formed t h e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n of t h e p h i l o s o p h y by w h i c h t h e y l i v e d and f o r w h i c h t h e y p u r s u e d t h e i r r e f o r m a c t i v i t i e s . The i d e a of f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t f o r widowed m o t h e r s had f i r s t been p u t i n t o p r a c t i s e i n C h i c a g o i n 1911 on t h e recommendation of Judge Henry N e i l of t h e J u v e n i l e C o u r t . He was c o n c e r n e d a t t h e f a c t t h a t some women, d e s p i t e t h e i r b e s t e f f o r t s , were b e i n g f o r c e d by p o v e r t y t o p l a c e t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n i n s t i t u t i o n s 1 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "Wages f o r Housework", pp. 25-27; see a l s o Suzann B u c k l e y , " L a d i e s o r M i d w i v e s ? E f f o r t s t o Reduce I n f a n t and M a t e r n a l M o r t a l i t y , " i n L i n d a K e a l e y , e d . , A Not U n r e a s o n a b l e C l a i m , pp. 131-49. 207 t h e r e b y l o s i n g b o t h c u s t o d y of and c o n t a c t w i t h them. He a r g u e d t h a t t h e money p a i d by government t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n f o r t h e c a r e of t h e c h i l d m i g h t j u s t as e a s i l y be p a i d t o t h e mother t o e n a b l e h e r t o c a r e f o r t h e c h i l d or c h i l d r e n h e r s e l f . 2 T h i s t y p e of l e g i s l a t i o n o b v i o u s l y f u l f i l l e d two i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s a t t h i s p e r i o d , i t d e a l t humanely and e c o n o m i c a l l y w i t h a v e r y r e a l s o c i a l p r o b l e m and i t f i t t e d w e l l w i t h s o c i e t y ' s d e v e l o p i n g i d e a s about t h e needs of c h i l d r e n f o r f a m i l y r a t h e r t h a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l l i f e , as w e l l as w i t h t h e needs and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e s t a t e r e g a r d i n g t h e i r w e l f a r e . 3 That t h i s p o i n t of v i e w was becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y a c c e p t e d i n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s i s e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e f a c t t h a t by 1919 t h i r t y A m e r i c a n s t a t e s had e n a c t e d some k i n d of s i m i l a r l e g i s l a t i o n . New Z e a l a n d , A u s t r a l i a and Denmark a l s o had t h i s k i n d of law i n a c t i o n . I n Canada, M a n i t o b a i n 1918 was t h e f i r s t p r o v i n c e t o p u t l i m i t e d l e g i s l a t i o n f o r m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s on i t s b o o k s , f o l l o w e d i n 1919 by t h e two o t h e r p r a i r i e p r o v i n c e s , A l b e r t a and S a s k a t c h e w a n . * B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a p a s s e d i t s l e g i s l a t i o n i n A p r i l , 1920 and O n t a r i o f o l l o w e d some months l a t e r . Nova S c o t i a , New B r u n s w i c k and Quebec were s l o w e r b o t h t o s t u d y t h e i d e a of m o t h e r s ' a s s i s t a n c e programs and t o l e g i s l a t e p r o v i s i o n f o r them, r e f l e c t i n g t h e i r more t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s 2 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 1921, R e p o r t on M o t h e r s P e n s i o n s , 1918 p.5. 3 S u t h e r l a n d , C h i l d r e n i n E n g l i s h C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y , pp. 91-94. 4 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "Wages f o r Housework," p.26; WWW, March 21, 1919 p.1; see a l s o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 1920, R e p o r t of C ommission on M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s , pp. T5-6. 208 t o w e l f a r e . Quebec, f o r i n s t a n c e , d i d not i n t r o d u c e a s s i s t a n c e m a t e r n e l l e u n t i l 1937. 5 The l o c a l campaign t h e n d i d not r e p r e s e n t a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e i n s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n a l t h o u g h many p e o p l e l i k e d t o t h i n k t h a t i t was. R a t h e r , i t was an a t t e m p t t o b r i n g l o c a l l e g i s l a t i o n i n l i n e w i t h a w o r l d - w i d e movement t h a t was a l r e a d y under way. In t h i s s e n s e i t had much i n common w i t h minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n . B o t h r e p r e s e n t e d a movement away from n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y n o t i o n s about c h a r i t y and t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s g e n e r a l l y and a movement t o w a r d s more modern i d e a s about t h e r o l e of t h e s t a t e i n t h e h e a l t h and w e l f a r e of i t s c i t i z e n s . 6 The p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e e v e n t u a l B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a l e g i s l a t i o n were t w o f o l d . F i r s t l y , i t was p e r c e i v e d t o be an economic method of s u p p o r t i n g f a t h e r l e s s c h i l d r e n and s e c o n d l y i t made f u l l use of t h e m o t h e r i n g i n s t i n c t s f o r w h i c h , i t was i n c r e a s i n g l y b e l i e v e d , t h e r e was no s u b s t i t u t e . A B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a government s t a t e m e n t p u t i t q u i t e s u c c i n c t l y i n t h e e a r l y 1920's: The u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e of the A c t i s one of a c o n t r a c t between t h e S t a t e and t h e mother, under w h i c h she a g r e e s i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the a s s i s t a n c e g i v e n h e r t o m a i n t a i n and e d u c a t e h e r c h i l d r e n so as t o make 5 Le C o l l e c t i f C l i o , L ' H i s t o i r e des Femmes au Quebec, pp.260-64. 6 F o r d i s c u s s i o n on the d e v e l o p m e n t of modern s o c i a l w e l f a r e from t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i d e a s o f ' c h a r i t y , i n t h e C a n a d i a n c o n t e x t see P.T.Rooke and R.L. S c h n e l l , " C h i l d W e l f a r e i n E n g l i s h Canada, 1920-1948," S o c i a l S e r v i c e Review September 1981, pp. 485-506; D e n n i s G u e s t , The Emergence of S o c i a l S e c u r i t y , pp. 1-8. Andrew J o n e s and L e o n a r d Rutman, I n t h e C h i l d r e n ' s A i d : J . J . K e l s o and C h i l d W e l f a r e i n O n t a r i o ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 152-55. 209 them u s e f u l c i t i z e n s of t h e S t a t e . 7 M a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e n u r t u r e and e d u c a t i o n of c h i l d r e n i n a p r o p e r manner r e q u i r e d t h a t the m o t h e r i n g r o l e be a f u l l - t i m e one. But many s o l e - s u p p o r t m others were f o r c e d t o work arrd were u n a b l e t o l o o k a f t e r t h e i r homes s a t i s f a c t o r i l y due t o t h e i r l o n g a b s e n c e s and poor wages. The o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e , t h a t of p l a c i n g t h e c h i l d r e n i n an i n s t i t u t i o n , was becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y u n a t t r a c t i v e as s o c i a l w e l f a r e p h i l o s o p h y d e v e l o p e d beyond i t s n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b e g i n n i n g s . . . . a s s i s t a n c e i s g i v e n f o r t h e p u r p o s e of a l l o w i n g t h e mother t o r e m a i n i n her home and m a i n t a i n i t , i n s t e a d of b r e a k i n g i t up and a l l o w i n g t h e c h i l d r e n t o be p l a c e d i n an o r p h a n or f o u n d l i n g i n s t i t u t i o n a t t h e p u b l i c e x p e n s e . By t h i s means t h e mother becomes t h e a g e n t of t h e S t a t e f o r t h e r e a r i n g and e d u c a t i o n of her c h i l d r e n , c a r e t h e y w o u l d o t h e r w i s e l o s e . 8 S e v e r a l p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f o r p e n s i o n s , w i t h m o r a l o v e r t o n e s , were a l s o p u t f o r w a r d . The f i r s t was t h a t p e n s i o n s w o u l d e r a d i c a t e j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y . The WWW s t a t e d t h a t , In C h i c a g o , where t h e measure i s law and where i t has l o n g s i n c e p a s s e d t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a g e , i t has been f o u n d t h a t i n t h o s e homes where M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s meant s o m e t h i n g , not one c a s e r e t u r n e d t o t h e j u v e n i l e c o u r t s . In o t h e r words, t h e d e l i n q u e n t s had become 100 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n t . 9 7 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . P r e m i e r P a p e r s . M o t h e r ' s P e n s i o n A c t . ( t y p e s c r i p t ) n.p. [ p r o b a b l y 1922] GR 441 v.235, F i l e '122' or 9. PABC. ( H e r a f t e r c i t e d as B.C.P.P.) 8 WWW, November 6, 1920 p.3; see a l s o , R e p o r t of t h e Committee on M o t h e r s ' A l l o w a n c e s , ( T o r o n t o : Committee on M o t h e r s ' A l l o w a n c e s , 1918), p.3. 9 I b i d . , March 21, 1918 p. 1 . 210 A ' se c o n d j u s t i f i c a t i o n was t h a t p e n s i o n s w o u l d p r e v e n t m e n t a l d e f i c i e n c y . A g a i n i t was t h e WWW t h a t s a i d , . . . i t has been p r o v e d t h a t l a c k of p r o p e r n o u r i s h m e n t l e a d s t o m e n t a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n . Wherever t h e M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n ' s [ s i c ] law o b t a i n s t h e r e has been a n o t i c e a b l e d i m i n u t i o n i n t h e numbers of t h e M e n t a l l y D e f i c i e n t , u n t i l t h e y a r e , i n some p l a c e s a' n e g l i g i b l e q u a n t i t y . 1 0 The n o t i o n of p e n s i o n s a l s o r e c e i v e d s u p p o r t from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f i r s t Workmen's C o m p e n s a t i o n A c t had been p a s s e d i n the p r o v i n c e i n 1916. Clubwomen f i g u r e d v e r y l i t t l e i n t h e pa s s a g e of t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n but t h e y were c o n c e r n e d f o r t h e women who d i d not b e n e f i t from i t , t h a t i s , women who were d e s e r t e d ' o r whose husbands were i n c a p a c i t a t e d by r e a s o n s o t h e r t h a n o n - t h e -j o b a c c i d e n t s . They f e l t t h a t m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s w o u l d h e l p t h e s e women i n t h e same way t h a t w o r k e r s ' c o m p e n s a t i o n h e l p e d w o r k e r s . The campaign f o r p e n s i o n s got p u b l i c l y under way e a r l y i n 1918 a f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s of s p o r a d i c work and d i s c u s s i o n by clubwomen i n t h e p r o v i n c e . S u s i e Lane C l a r k of t h e NEL w r o t e , Today t h e demand f o r m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s i s sw e e p i n g o v e r t h e l a n d . In t h e g r e a t new e r a w h i c h t h e w o r l d has a p p a r e n t l y e n t e r e d , t h e s a c r e d n e s s of motherhood seems t o be b e t t e r r e c o g n i z e d t h a n i n t h e p a s t , and, as a r e s u l t , we f i n d t h a t e f f o r t s a r e e v e r y w h e r e b e i n g made f o r p r o p e r p r o t e c t i o n of women and c h i l d r e n , . . . t h r o u g h l e g i s l a t i o n . 1 1 Clubwomen were not a l o n e i n t h e i r s u p p o r t of and a g i t a t i o n f o r mo t h e r s ' p e n s i o n laws but t h e y were c e r t a i n l y t h e l e a d e r s of the 1 0 I b i d . 1 1 WWW, F e b r u a r y 7, 1918 p.5. 21 1 c ampaign i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . I t was t h e s e women, headed by S u s i e Lane C l a r k of t h e NEL, who a r r a n g e d d e l e g a t i o n s t o V i c t o r i a t o c o n f r o n t t h e government and g e n e r a l l y p u b l i c i z e d t h e i s s u e t o s o c i e t y a t l a r g e . T h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s and c r e d i b i l i t y were g r e a t l y enhanced by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y were a b l e t o u n i t e not o n l y a l a r g e number of women's c l u b s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s of many k i n d s but a l s o t o draw t o t h e c a u s e c h u r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h as t h e S a l v a t i o n Army and t h e M i n i s t e r i a l A s s o c i a t i o n , o r g a n i z e d l a b o r i n t h e form of t h e T r a d e s and L a b o r C o u n c i l and t h e B.C. F e d e r a t i o n of L a b o r , and t h e Mayors and heads o f t h e m u n i c i p a l r e l i e f d e p a r t m e n t s of V a n c o u v e r , V i c t o r i a and New W e s t m i n s t e r . 1 2 L a b o r and t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s had t h e i r own s p e c i f i c r e a s o n s f o r f a v o u r i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of l e g i s l a t i o n , but n e v e r t h e l e s s b o t h were w i l l i n g t o work l a r g e l y under t h e d i r e c t i o n of women's c l u b s and t h e i r l e a d e r s f o r a common end. O r g a n i z e d l a b o r saw m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s as y e t a n o t h e r p i e c e of s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t was n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n , h e a l t h and w e l l - b e i n g of t h e w o r k i n g woman. W . H . C o t t e r e l l , v i c e -p r e s i d e n t of t h e B.C. F e d e r a t i o n of L a b o r , n o t e d t h a t t h e s u b j e c t had been b r o u g h t up i n d i f f e r e n t C o n v e n t i o n s by our v a r i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s o v e r t h e p a s t s i x y e a r s and has been t h e c a u s e of much d i s c u s s i o n . They have gone i n t o c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l s a s . . . [ t o how m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s ] 1 2 The M i n i s t e r i a l A s s o c i a t i o n was an o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r o t e s t a n t M i n i s t e r s w o r k i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e l o w e r m a i n l a n d . T h e r e was a l s o a b r a n c h i n V i c t o r i a . 212 s h o u l d be worked out and have made r e q u e s t s t o t h e P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n m e n t . 1 3 The B.C. F e d e r a t i o n i s t r e p r i n t e d l a r g e e x t r a c t s from t h e p r o c e e d i n g s of t h e 1919 C a l g a r y c o n v e n t i o n of t h e F e d e r a t i o n of L a b o r but d i d not i n c l u d e any m e n t i o n of m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s a l t h o u g h t h e y were supp o s e d t o have been d i s c u s s e d . 1 4 P e n s i o n s may have been c o n s i d e r e d d e s i r a b l e by some l a b o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s but t h e y do not seem t o have been a p r e s s i n g c o n c e r n . No w r i t t e n s u b m i s s i o n s from l a b o r r e g a r d i n g p e n s i o n s a r e t o be f o u n d i n government c o r r e s p o n d e n c e e i t h e r , a l t h o u g h many r e q u e s t s from o t h e r b o d i e s , i n c l u d i n g women's c l u b s e x i s t i n t h e s e f i l e s . H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e , now Mrs O l i v e r F e a r n , a l s o c l a i m e d , The o r g a n i z e d l a b o r movement of t h e whole D o m i n i o n has a l w a y s e n d o r s e d m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s . . . l a b o r was f a r ahead of any o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n i n a s k i n g f o r i t . . . 1 5 But t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h i s was s o . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . R e p o r t of t h e H e a r i n g s of t h e H e a l t h I n s u r a n c e C o m m i s s i o n , ( t y p e s c r i p t ) 1920 p.517 ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as H e a l t h C o mmission) GR 706 PABC. C o t t e r e l l s u b m i t t e d an e x t r a c t from t h e N i n t h A n n u a l C o n v e n t i o n of t h e F e d e r a t i o n of L a b o r h e l d i n C a l g a r y i n March 1919 i n w h i c h m o t h e r ' s p e n s i o n s were s a i d t o have been d i s c u s s e d . T h i s s u b m i s s i o n has not been p r e s e r v e d i n t h e t y p e s c r i p t R e p o r t of t h e C o m m i s s i o n . B.C. F e d e r a t i o n i s t , March 14,21,28, A p r i l 4,11, 1919 pa s s i m. H e a l t h C o m m i s s i o n p.523; I s u s p e c t t h a t women i n o r g a n i z e d l a b o r c o n s i d e r e d t h i s a f a r more i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n - t h a n d i d t h e i r male c o u n t e r p a r t s but because t h e i r numbers were so s m a l l t h e y had l i t t l e r e a l i n f l u e n c e i n t h e l a b o r movement. Women l a b o r a c t i v i s t s were a l s o i n t e r e s t e d i n o t h e r t o p i c s p e r t a i n i n g t o women, f o r i n s t a n c e b i r t h c o n t r o l . See Angus M c L a r e n , "'What has t h i s t o do w i t h W o r k i n g C l a s s Women?': B i r t h C o n t r o l and t h e C a n a d i a n L e f t , 1900-1939," H i s t o i r e S o c i a l e / S o c i a l H i s t o r y 28 (November, 1981), pp.435-54. These women appear t o have been much more r a d i c a l t h a n G u t t e r i d g e and her s u p p o r t e r s . 213 M u n i c i p a l governments a l s o had a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n p r o v i n c i a l law f o r the s u p p o r t o f i n d i g e n t women w i t h c h i l d r e n b e c a use u n t i l s uch t i m e as t h e p r o v i n c e t o o k o v e r t h e ' r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of p r o v i d i n g f o r them t h e e n t i r e burden f e l l upon th e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e i r r e l i e f d e p a r t m e n t s . 1 6 The l a r g e r , u r b a n m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y V a n c o u v e r , V i c t o r i a and New W e s t m i n s t e r , f e l t t h i s burden most h e a v i l y and were u n d e r s t a n d a b l y eager t o p a s s on p a r t i f not a l l of t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t h e h i g h e r l e v e l of government. The c i t y of V a n c o u v e r was by 1918 p a y i n g t h e l a r g e s t amount of any c i t y i n t h e p r o v i n c e f o r t h e r e l i e f of i n d i g e n t m o t h e r s . S u s i e Lane C l a r k c l a i m e d t h a t i t p a i d "about h a l f of t h e sum expended upon a i d o f t h i s k i n d i n the P r o v i n c e . " Once t h e y were c o n t a c t e d by t h e NEL c o m m i t t e e on m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s , w h i c h was composed o f S u s i e Lane C l a r k , J e a n Macken and Mrs Ada T a y l o r , t h e V a n c o u v e r C i t y C o u n c i l p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n recommending t o t h e p r o v i n c i a l government t h e b r i n g i n g i n of m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s and c o n t i n u e d t o s u p p o r t f u r t h e r a c t i o n by t h e N E L . 1 7 A l t h o u g h t h e NEL had been d i s c u s s i n g p e n s i o n s s i n c e i t s i n c e p t i o n i n 1916 t h e campaign d i d not become p u b l i c u n t i l e a r l y 1918. P r i o r t o t h i s t h e NEL c o m m i t t e e on m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s had been l a r g e l y engaged i n o b t a i n i n g s u p p o r t from o t h e r women's o r g a n i z a t i o n s and mix e d membership a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t were 1 6 see R i c h a r d S p l a n e , S o c i a l W e l f a r e i n O n t a r i o , pp. 284-86 f o r d i s c u s s i o n of development of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s o c i a l w e l f a r e a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of government i n t h a t p r o v i n c e . 1 7 WWW, F e b r u a r y 7, 1918 p.5. 214 i n t e r e s t e d i n i m p r o v i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s of b o t h women and c h i l d r e n and a l t h o u g h t h e y f o u n d a g r e a t amount o f work i n a p p r o a c h i n g t h e numerous o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h e y v e r y s e l d o m f o u n d o p p o s i t i o n , o r i f any, i t was soon overcome when t h e p r i n c i p l e and hu m a n i t y of t h e c a u s e was e x p l a i n e d t o them f u l l y . 1 8 T h i s work was i n i t i a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h i n V a n c o u v e r but as i t became i n c r e a s i n g l y o b v i o u s t h a t a d e l e g a t i o n t o t h e l e g i s l a t u r e w o u l d be a n e c e s s a r y p a r t of the ca m p a i g n , c o n t a c t s were made w i t h Mrs C h r i s t i n a F o r r e s t e r of New W e s t m i n s t e r , and Mrs M a r i a G r a n t of V i c t o r i a . F o r r e s t e r had been a c t i v e i n t h e New W e s t m i n s t e r LCW s i n c e a t l e a s t 1911 and was a l s o a member of t h e B.C. PPEL and t h e New W e s t m i n s t e r Women's L i b e r a l A s s o c i a t i o n . G r a n t had been a member of t h e V i c t o r i a LCW s i n c e i t s i n c e p t i o n i n 1894 and a l s o b e l o n g e d t o t h e B.C. PPEL, t h e V i c t o r i a P o l i t i c a l E q u a l i t y l e a g u e , t h e V i c t o r i a and P r o v i n c i a l WCTU, t h e NCWC and t h e I n d e p e n d e n t P o l i t i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n . She had been a s c h o o l t r u s t e e , an a r d e n t s u f f r a g e s u p p o r t e r and was a M e t h o d i s t p r e a c h e r . W i t h i n V a n c o u v e r , Mary E l l e n S m i t h , newly e l e c t e d t o the l e g i s l a t u r e , and H e l e n M a c G i l l , a l w a y s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e e x t e n s i o n of l e g i s l a t i o n f o r women, were a l s o c o - o p t e d . A l l f o u r women b r o u g h t w i t h them t h e s u p p o r t of the c l u b s t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g e d as w e l l as r e p u t a t i o n s and i n f l u e n c e as p u b l i c l y a c t i v e women. The f i r s t d e l e g a t i o n t h e y o r g a n i z e d met w i t h t h e government on t h e m o r n i n g of March 21, 1918 and r e q u e s t e d t h a t Sun, F e b r u a r y 15, 1920 p.13. 215 t h e d e s i r e d l e g i s l a t i o n be b r o u g h t down i n t h e c u r r e n t s e s s i o n . (See T a b l e 19) The d e l e g a t i o n c l a i m e d t o r e p r e s e n t a t l e a s t 10,000 women v o t e r s a l t h o u g h how t h i s f i g u r e was a r r i v e d a t i s not c l e a r . Each d e l e g a t e spoke b r i e f l y on some a s p e c t of t h e p r o p o s e d l e g i s l a t i o n and Mayor R o b e r t H. G a l e of V a n c o u v e r summed up t h e arguments i n a f i n a l s p e e c h . The d e l e g a t i o n a s k e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r L e g i s l a t i o n t h a t w i l l e s t a b l i s h a c e r t a i n sum f o r moth e r s w i t h dependent c h i l d r e n , t h e e x p e n d i t u r e o f t h e money t o be under t h e c o n t r o l of a b u r e a u of women, t h e b u r e a u h a v i n g t h e power t o p l a c e c h i l d r e n w i t h o t h e r s t h a n t h e m o t h e r s , s h o u l d i t be deemed a d v i s a b l e , 1 9 The NEL was aware t h a t f i r s t a t t e m p t s t o g a i n new l e g i s l a t i o n a r e o f t e n u n s u c c e s s f u l but f e l t t h a t t h e b r o a d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and t h e u n a n i m i t y of t h e d e l e g a t i o n m i g h t have p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e government had a l r e a d y v o i c e d c o n c e r n a t t h e c o s t of su c h a scheme. P e r h a p s t o o , t h e y had been m i s l e d by t h e ease w i t h w h i c h minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n had been a c h i e v e d . That l a w , of c o u r s e , had not c o s t t h e government much a t a l l , whereas p r o v i s i o n f o r even s m a l l p e n s i o n s i n v o l v e d expense w h i c h t h e government, b u r d e n e d by t h e p r e v i o u s government's d e f i c i t , was h a r d p r e s s e d t o meet d e s p i t e i t s r e f o r m o r i e n t a t i o n . The s e s s i o n drew t o a c l o s e w i t h o u t a m e n t i o n o f m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n l e g i s l a t i o n , and so t h e NEL co m m i t t e e once a g a i n s e t t o work t o o r g a n i z e an even l a r g e r d e l e g a t i o n . 1 9 Sun, March 19, 1918 p.4. 216 T a b l e 19 M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s D e l e g a t i o n March 21, 1918 L e a d e r : M r s . S u s i e Lane C l a r k Mrs Mary E l l e n S m i t h , MLA D e l e g a t e Mrs H e l e n M a c G i l l Mrs E.B. M a c d o n a l d Mrs C e c i l i a S p o f f o r d Mrs J.A. G i l l e s p i e Mrs C h r i s t i n a F o r r e s t e r Mrs M a r g a r e t G r i f f i n A d j u t a n t Bond Mrs A n n i e W i l s o n Mrs J e a n Macken M i s s H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e Mrs J o h n D i c k s o n Mrs Ada T a y l o r Mrs W i n i f r e d C o t t o n Duncan M c C a l l u m or A.S. W e l l s Rev. George I r e l a n d Mayor R o b e r t H. G a l e Organ i z a t i o n V a n c o u v e r LCW V i c t o r i a LCW New W e s t m i n s t e r LCW P r o v i n c i a l WCTU Va n c o u v e r WCTU New W e s t m i n s t e r WCTU V i c t o r i a WCTU K i n g ' s D a u g h t e r s S a l v a t i o n Army Mt. P l e a s a n t S u f f r a g e League T h e o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y V a n c o u v e r T r a d e s and La b o u r C o u n c i l Women's Forum New E r a League U n i t e d Women's S u f f r a g e S o c i e t y BC F e d e r a t i o n of L a b o r V a n c o u v e r C i t y R e l i e f Department V a n c o u v e r C i t y V i c t o r i a WBA Maccabees V a n c o u v e r WBA Maccabees V i c t o r i a Women's C a n a d i a n C l u b V a n c o u v e r Women's C a n a d i a n C l u b A m e r i c a n Women's C l u b I ODE M i n i s t e r i a l A s s o c i a t i o n S o u r c e : Sun, March 19, 1918 p.4. 217 T h i s s e c o n d d e l e g a t i o n was p r e s e n t e d t o P r e m i e r John O l i v e r by Mary E l l e n S m i t h on J a n u a r y 14, 1919 and once a g a i n a number of d e l e g a t e s spoke on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t h e s c h e m e . 2 0 T h i s t i m e t h e d e l e g a t i o n was c e r t a i n l y l a r g e - some f o r t y - t w o p e r s o n s , and i t was w e l l o r g a n i z e d , (see T a b l e 20) P r e m i e r O l i v e r r e marked t h a t i t was " t h e most b u s i n e s s l i k e and one of t h e most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d e l e g a t i o n s he had e v e r met". 2' V i c t o r i a and t h e l o w e r m a i n l a n d were w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d and d e l e g a t e s a p p e a r e d f o r t h e women of s e v e r a l o t h e r towns and c i t i e s and f o u r p r o v i n c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s e x t e n d i n g t h e b r e a d t h of t h e e n t i r e d e l e g a t i o n t o t h e p o i n t where i t m i g h t j u s t i f i a b l y be c o n s i d e r e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e o p i n i o n of t h e p r o v i n c e . J e a n Macken a r g u e d t h a t p e n s i o n s were e c o n o m i c a l b e c a u s e t h e y p r o d u c e d good c i t i z e n s ; Mrs H.G. T a y l o r t a l k e d about t h e p u r p o s e and meaning of m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s ; H e l e n M a c G i l l c l a i m e d p e n s i o n s w o u l d l e s s e n j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y ; Mrs W.A. Morrow s a i d t h e y were j u s t i c e not c h a r i t y ; M i s s McLeod e m p h a s i z e d t h e need of m o t h e r l y l o v e t o g u i d e l i t t l e o n e s ; C h r i s t i n a F o r r e s t e r spoke on t h e n e c e s s i t y of t h e m o t h e r ' s c a r e of t h e c h i l d ; S u s i e Lane C l a r k r e i t e r a t e d t h e aims of t h e d e l e g a t i o n ; Mr Dougan c l a i m e d p e n s i o n s were a f a c t i n e m p i r e b u i l d i n g ; M a r g a r e t H a r o l d c l a i m e d t h a t a mother has t h e b e s t knowledge of t h e c h a r a c t e r and p h y s i c a l d e f i c i e n c y of t h e c h i l d ; Mrs A . J . P a t e r s o n e n d o r s e d t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e o f t h e scheme; S t e l l a B e a t t i e t o l d of t h e o r i g i n s o f m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n schemes; H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e p r e s e n t e d t h e l a b o r p o i n t of v i e w ; Mr D. M c C a l l u m t o l d of t h e e f f e c t s a p e n s i o n scheme wo u l d have on l a b o r . O t h e r p o i n t s t a k e n up i n c l u d e d 'the o v e r w o r k e d mother, h e r l a c k of o p p o r t u n i t y f o r r e c r e a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n , t h e g r e a t r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e s a c r e d n e s s of m o t herhood, t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e mother by h a v i n g t o c o n t i n u a l l y scheme t o r e l i e v e p o v e r t y ' , and t h e ' e f f e c t on m i g r a t i o n ' of p e n s i o n s . The meaning of t h i s l a s t t e r m i s u n c l e a r . Sun, F e b r u a r y 1 5, 1920 p.13. 2 1 8 D e l e g a t e s were y e t a g a i n d i s a p p o i n t e d t h a t no l e g i s l a t i o n was f o r t h c o m i n g , but t h e i r e f f o r t s were not t o t a l l y u n r e w a r d e d . On November 19, 1919, as a r e s u l t of t h i s s e c o n d d e l e g a t i o n , t h e O l i v e r government a p p o i n t e d a H e a l t h I n s u r a n c e Commission t o i n v e s t i g a t e m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s , m a t e r n i t y i n s u r a n c e , h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e and p u b l i c h e a l t h n u r s i n g . The c h a i r m a n was E.S.H.Winn, who was a l s o c h a i r m a n of t h e newly formed Workmen's C o m p e n s a t i o n B o a r d and t h e o t h e r members were Dr. T.B.Green, a g e n e r a l p r a c t i t i o n e r from New W e s t m i n s t e r , C e c i l i a S p o f f o r d of t h e p r o v i n c i a l WCTU and Duncan M c C a l l u m of t h e B.C. F e d e r a t i o n of L a b o r . The Commission s e t t o work r a p i d l y and w i t h i n a two month p e r i o d h e a r i n g s were h e l d i n s e v e n t e e n towns and c i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o v i n c e w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n o v e r 800 pages of t y p e w r i t t e n t r a n s c r i p t and an o u t l a y of some $4000 - a r e c o r d a c c o r d i n g t o a C a b i n e t M i n i s t e r , " i n e x p e d i t i o n , e f f i c i e n c y and economy as f a r as R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n s a r e c o n c e r n e d . " 2 2 The C o m m i s s i o n , i n a d d i t i o n , made a s u r v e y of t h e m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n schemes a l r e a d y o p e r a t i n g e l s e w h e r e i n Canada, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . D e s p i t e t h e b r e a d t h of t h e C o m m i s s i o n ' s mandate, i t was c l e a r t h a t most i n t e r e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l s and d e l e g a t e s who came f o r w a r d t o g i v e e v i d e n c e were l a r g e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s and had g i v e n l i t t l e i f any t h o u g h t t o t h e o t h e r s u b j e c t s under i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In g e n e r a l , 2 2 Hon. Dr. J.D. McLean, P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , i n a s p e e c h i n t h e House b e f o r e t h e s e c o n d r e a d i n g of t h e M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n B i l l , A p r i l 9, 1920 ( t y p e s c r i p t ) B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Department of t h e P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y 1918-26. GR 344 Box 1 F i l e 1/2 PABC. ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as B.C. PS) 219 however, a l l w i t n e s s e s f a v o u r e d t h e p r i n c i p l e of government i n t e r v e n t i o n in. a l l f o u r a r e a s of i n q u i r y . B ecause of t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n and e m p h a s i s on m o t h e r ' s p e n s i o n s , t h e C ommission p r e p a r e d i t s r e p o r t on t h i s a r e a f i r s t , s u b m i t t i n g i t t o t h e l e g i s l a t u r e on March 2 2 , 1 9 2 0 . 2 3 The r e p o r t on t h e o t h e r t h r e e a r e a s was a n o t h e r y e a r i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n and t h e M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s A c t had B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 1919-20. R e p o r t on M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s , pp.T2-3. T a b l e 20 M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s D e l e g a t i o n J a n u a r y 14, 1919 L e a d e r : S u s i e Lane C l a r k D e l e g a t e Mrs R.S. Day Mrs C e c i l i a S p o f f o r d Mr J . J . Dougan Mr A.S. W e l l s -Mrs Blackwood-Wileman A d j u t a n t Bond Rev Mr S t e v e n s o n Mayor R o b e r t H. G a l e Mayor A Todd Mayor A.H. Gr a y Mrs N i n a d e P e n c i e r Mrs C h r i s t i n a F o r r e s t e r M i s s Susan C r e a s e Rev. Mr George I r e l a n d Mrs W.H. W h i t e Mrs A n n i e W i l s o n Mrs S t e l l a B e a t t i e Mrs J e a n Macken M i s s H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e Mrs H e l e n M a c G i l l Mrs E s s i e Brown Mrs A . J . P a t t e r s o n Mrs A.K. Morrow Mrs C h a r l e s W e l c h and Mrs Hardy M i s s McLeod Mrs M a r g a r e t H a r o l d Mrs A n n i e B o r l a n d Mrs Mary E l l e n S m i t h Mrs John D i c k s o n Mrs HG T a y l o r Mrs M a r i a G r a n d and Mrs W i l l i s c r o f t Mrs W G r a n t Rev. D r . C l a y M i s s B e r t h a Winn and Dr. H e l e n Ryan Mrs J . M a c M i l l a n Mrs Ada G i l l e s p i e M i s s Barrow O r g a n i z a t i o n NCWC P r o v i n c i a l WCTU P r o v i n c i a l C h i l d W e l f a r e A s s o c . BC F e d e r a t i o n of L a b o r Women's I n s t i t u t e s S a l v a t i o n Army M i n i s t e r i a l A s s o c i a t i o n V a n c o u v e r C i t y V i c t o r i a C i t y New W e s t m i n s t e r C i t y V a n c o u v e r LCW New W e s t m i n s t e r LCW, New West. Women's L i b e r a l A s s o c i a t i o n V i c t o r i a LCW Va n c o u v e r C i t y R e l i e f D epartment V a n c o u v e r Women's C a n a d i a n C l u b IODE, WBAM A l e x a n d e r Review A m e r i c a n Women's C l u b C e n t r a l R a t e p a y e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n V a n c o u v e r T r a d e s and L a b o r C o u n c i l V a n c o u v e r UWC Va n c o u v e r L i b e r a l Women's A s s o c . Van. C o n s e r v a t i v e Women's A s s o c . E q u a l F r a n c h i s e A s s o c i a t i o n o New W e s t m i n s t e r B e n e v o l e n t A s s o c . S o c i a l R e c o n s t r u c t i o n League V a n c o u v e r C h i l d W e l f a r e League C i t i z e n ' s U n i o n Women of R e v e l s t o k e & P r i n c e R u p e r t Women's Forum New E r a League Women's In d e p e n d e n t P o l i t i c a l A s s o c . V a n c o u v e r WCTU V i c t o r i a C h i l d r e n ' s A i d V i c t o r i a UWC Women of Nanaimo V a n c o u v e r WCTU Women of C h i l l i w a c k S o u r c e Sun, J a n u a r y 14, 1919 p.4. 221 £ T a b l e 21 Combined D e l e g a t i o n t o M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s Commission J a n u a r y 20, 1920 L e a d e r : Mrs S u s i e Lane C l a r k D e l e g a t e Mrs J a n e t Kemp G r e a t A l d e r m a n A.D. McRae Mrs J.A. G i l l e s p i e Mrs F l o r a E s s l e m o n t Mrs A n n i e W i l s o n Mrs J e a n C a r s o n Mr J . J . Dougan Mrs M c M o r r i n Mrs D. Woods Mr W.O. B l a c k Mrs W.A. C l a r k Mrs S t e l l a B e a t t i e M i s s L i l l i a n C h i t t e n d e n M i s s R a n d a l l M i s s H a s k i n Mrs L i l l i a n N e l s o n Mrs C r e e r y Mrs F r a n c e s MacConkey Mrs McLean Mrs Thomas K i r k Mrs Mary N o r t o n Mrs O l i v e R i c e Mrs A n n i e B o r l a n d Mrs J.A. P a t t e r s o n Mrs C h a r l e s W i l k e s Mrs P e t t i g r e w Mrs Brown Mrs Emma G a l l a g h e r Mrs Kenworthy Mrs 0. F e a r n ( F o r m e r l y M i s s H. G u t t e r i d g e ) Mr W.H. C o t t r e l l Rev. Mr M c l n t y r e O r g a n i z a t i o n Widows and Wives and M o t h e r s o f B r i t a i n ' s War Heroes V a n c o u v e r C i t y D i s t r i c t WCTU Va n c o u v e r LCW New E r a League Women's Forum C h i l d W e l f a r e A s s o c . F e d e r a t e d P a r e n t - T e a c h e r s ' A s s o c . T e a c h e r s ' A s s o c . S o u t h V a n c o u v e r Women's Forum C e n t r a l R a t e p a y e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n V i c t o r i a n O r d e r of N u r s e s A m e r i c a n Women's C l u b A m e r i c a n G i r l s ' C l u b P r o v i n c i a l G r a d u a t e N u r s e s ' A s s o c . L o c a l G r a d u a t e N u r s e s ' A s s o c . Community House S e r v i c e I ODE S o c i a l S e r v i c e D e p a r t m e n t , VGH Va n c o u v e r UWC S a l v a t i o n Army Va n c o u v e r Women's C a n a d i a n C l u b P i o n e e r P o l i t i c a l E q u a l i t y League C a t h o l i c Women's A i d K i n g ' s D a u g h t e r s C i t i z e n s ' U n i o n Van. Women's C o n s e r v a t i v e A s s o c . S t . P a u l ' s H o s p i t a l V a n c o u v e r Women's L i b e r a l A s s o c . WBA Maccabees A l e x a n d e r Review 7. WBA Maccabees A l e x a n d e r Review 2. N o r t h V a n c o u v e r S u f f r a g e S o c i e t y N o r t h V a n c o u v e r S u f f r a g e S o c i e t y V a n c o u v e r T r a d e s and L a b o r C o u n c i l BC F e d e r a t i o n of L a b o r Lower M a i n l a n d M i n s t e r i a l A s s o c . S o u r c e : B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . R e p o r t of t h e H e a r i n g of t h e H e a l t h I n s u r a n c e C o m m i s s i o n a t V a n c o u v e r . J a n u a r y 20, 1920. ( t y p e s c r i p t ) pp.506-7. PABC GR 706. 222 i n f a c t become law b e f o r e i t a p p e a r e d . 2 " The NEL was once a g a i n t h e l e a d e r i n o r g a i z i n g a l a r g e g r o u p of d e l e g a t e s from many c l u b s and a s s o c i a t i o n s t o g i v e e v i d e n c e , b o t h i n d i v i d u a l l y and c o l l e c t i v e l y , b e f o r e t h e C o m m i s s i o n when i t s a t i n V a n c o u v e r on J a n u a r y 20, 1920 (see T a b l e 2 1 ) . T h i s d e l e g a t i o n c o n s i s t e d s o l e l y of V a n c o u v e r - b a s e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s - g r o u p s from e l s e w h e r e gave e v i d e n c e a t o t h e r h e a r i n g s . A m e e t i n g of t h e d e l e g a t e s from t h e t h i r t y - s e v e n g r o u p s d i s c u s s e d t h e i r m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s a t l e n g t h and gave some p a s s i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r t h r e e a r e a s . 2 5 In r e s p o n s e t o a q u e s t i o n n a i r e d i s t r i b u t e d by t h e C o m m i s s i o n , t h e g r o u p s u b m i t t e d a c o l l e c t i v e r e p o r t , a p p r o v e d by "a m a j o r i t y of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s " , w h i c h i n summary recommended t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of p e n s i o n s f o r b o t h d e s e r t e d and u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s of "good c h a r a c t e r " , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of i n v e s t i g a t i n g c o m m i t t e e s t o a s s e s s a p p l i c a n t s and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e a c t by an a d v i s o r y c o u n c i l composed of j u d g e s of t h e j u v e n i l e c o u r t or o t h e r m a g i s t r a t e s and two l o c a l women. The m e e t i n g f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t p e n s i o n s be b a s e d on t h e c o s t of l i v i n g i n t h e a r e a where t h e r e c i p i e n t l i v e d , t h a t t h e y c o n t i n u e u n t i l g i r l s were s e v e n t e e n and boys s i x t e e n u n l e s s t h e y l e f t - s c h o o l and were a b l e t o e a r n more, and t h a t t h e m other, who must be a B r i t i s h c i t i z e n o r w i l l i n g t o swear a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e c r o wn, c o n t i n u e t o r e c e i v e t h e a l l o w a n c e a f t e r h e r c h i l d r e n were grown i f she had no o t h e r The s e c o n d p a r t of t h e R e p o r t was s u b m i t t e d on M a r c h 8, 1921. H e a l t h C o m m i s s i o n , p.507. 223 s o u r c e of i n c o m e . 2 6 Each i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o gave e v i d e n c e b e f o r e t h e C o m m i s s i o n t h r o u g h i t s d e l e g a t e and w h i l e t h e r e were "some d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n r e g i s t e r e d " t h e r e was a l s o "a g r e a t d e a l of u n a n i m i t y of o p i n i o n " . 2 7 T h i s u n a n i m i t y of o p i n i o n was i n f a c t t h e most n o t a b l e f a c t o r , not o n l y amongst t h e g r o u p o r g a n i z e d by t h e NEL, but amongst a l l g r o u p s and i n d i v i d u a l s who gave e v i d e n c e b e f o r e t h e C o m m i s s i o n . A l l a g r e e d i n p r i n c i p l e w i t h t h e f o u r p r o p o s e d c a t e g o r i e s of b e n e f i t s t h a t were b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d . Any d i s a g r e e m e n t t h a t d i d e x i s t t e n d e d t o c o n c e r n t h e way i n w h i c h l e g i s l a t i o n s h o u l d be worded and / o r c a r r i e d out i f and when i t was p a s s e d . The main s o u r c e s of c o n c e r n t o b o t h t h e NEL g r o u p d e l e g a t e s and o t h e r s were t h e f e a r t h a t many needy f a m i l i e s m i g h t r e j e c t a p e n s i o n as " c h a r i t y " and t h a t u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s m i g h t n o t be e l i g i b l e . The f e a r t h a t r e c i p i e n t s m i g h t o b j e c t t o p e n s i o n s as c h a r i t y i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . U n t i l t h i s t i m e s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n t o s u p p o r t t h e i n d i g e n t had been n o n - e x i s t e n t o r had a l w a y s c a r r i e d w i t h i t t h e s t i g m a of o u t d o o r r e l i e f . The r e c e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n of p e n s i o n s f o r war widows p r o b a b l y h e l p e d t o a l l e v i a t e t h i s f e e l i n g somewhat, as d i d t h e Workmen's C o m p e n s a t i o n A c t . No d i r e c t e v i d e n c e r e m a i n s of t h e o p i n i o n of p r o s p e c t i v e p e n s i o n e r s H e a l t h C o m m i s s i o n , E x h i b i t 14,-' R e p o r t on M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s handed i n by Mrs J.A. C l a r k [ S u s i e Lane C l a r k ] on b e h a l f of t h e V a r i o u s Women's O r g a n i z a t i o n s of V a n c o u v e r , f i l e d between p.508 and 509. I b i d . , p.508. 224 b e f o r e t h e f a c t but l e t t e r s r e c e i v e d by v a r i o u s government d e p a r t m e n t s a f t e r t h e p e n s i o n s were i n t r o d u c e d s u g g e s t s t h a t , f a r from r e j e c t i n g them as c h a r i t y , t h e s e women were o n l y t o o r e l i e v e d and happy t o have some f i n a n c i a l h e l p . O t h e r s , who were no t e l i g i b l e , o f t e n e x p r e s s e d anger t h a t t h e y r e c e i v e d n o t h i n g . 2 8 The p o s s i b i l i t y of p e n s i o n s b e i n g p e r c e i v e d as c h a r i t y was b r o u g h t up s e v e r a l t i m e s b e f o r e t h e C o m m i s s i o n . Mrs F l o r a E s s l e m o n t , g i v i n g e v i d e n c e on b e h a l f of t h e LCW c a u t i o n e d t h a t p e n s i o n s would "have t o be h a n d l e d c a r e f u l l y b e c a u s e many of t h e mo t h e r s w o u l d be v e r y s e n s i t i v e a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s . " In r e p l y t o a q u e s t i o n from C o m m i s s i o n e r S p o f f o r d , r e g a r d i n g t h e f a c t t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e v a l u e of motherhood by t h e s t a t e w o u l d remove any t h o u g h t o f c h a r i t y , she s t a t e d f u r t h e r t h a t t h e p u b l i c does not a l w a y s c o n s i d e r h e r [ t h e m o t h e r ] t h e way t h e y [ s i c ] s h o u l d and v e r y o f t e n i t i s thrown up t o h e r and t o h e r c h i l d r e n t h a t i t i s c h a r i t y and i t s h o u l d n ot be c h a r i t y a t a l l , she i s b r i n g i n g up good c i t i z e n s . 2 9 J a n e t Kemp of t h e LCW and WF and p r e s i d e n t of t h e W i v e s , Widows and M o t h e r s of G r e a t B r i t a i n ' s War Her o e s a l s o s t a t e d t h a t " i t must come from t h e Government, t h e r e a r e no o t h e r means of i t coming t o t h e p e o p l e t h a t i t does not become c h a r i t y . " 3 0 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l ' s C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , c o n t a i n s many l e t t e r s from i n d i v i d u a l s s e t t i n g f o r t h t h e i r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , r e q u e s t i n g h e l p and- o f f e r i n g o p i n i o n on t h e m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n scheme. Some of t h e f i l e s a r e open but most a r e r e s t r i c t e d so no s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e has been made t o i n d i v i d u a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as B.C. A-G) H e a l t h C o m m i s s i o n , pp.514-15. I b i d . , p.542. 225 But not o n l y clubwomen were c o n c e r n e d w i t h the n o t i o n of c h a r i t y . I t was c l e a r l y a w o r r y a t o t h e r l e v e l s of s o c i e t y t o o . H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e s p e a k i n g f o r w o r k i n g women a l s o commented, "There a r e q u i t e a number of m o t h e r s who w o u l d not l i k e t o r e v e a l t o t h e w o r l d a t l a r g e t h a t t h e y were i n need of a s s i s t a n c e , t h e y l o o k upon i t as c h a r i t y . " 3 1 C o n v e r s e l y , t h e r e was f e a r t h a t a w h o l l y government a d m i n i s t e r e d p e n s i o n scheme m i g h t become t o o i m p e r s o n a l . Ada T a y l o r , s p e a k i n g f o r t h e NEL and t h e LCW e x p r e s s e d t h e hope t h a t . . . t h i s C o mmission w i l l g e t m o t h e r s on t h e B o a r d who w i l l go a b o u t t h e i r work i n t h e s p i r i t o f m o t h e r l y l o v e and k i n d n e s s and f i n d out and a d v i s e t h e s e p e o p l e . 3 2 I n o t h e r words a new s t e p f o r w a r d was b e i n g t a k e n w i t h t h e a d v e n t of government i n t e r v e n t i o n but many m i d d l e - c l a s s women were a f r a i d t h a t w h i l e m otherhood was b e i n g r e c o g n i s e d i n a l l i t s i m p o r t a n c e i t r i s k e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b e i n g c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d by the i m p e r s o n a l i t y of b u r e a u c r a t i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n u n l e s s g r e a t c a r e was t a k e n ; a f i n e l i n e had t o be drawn between c h a r i t y on one s i d e and t o t a l i m p e r s o n a l i t y on t h e o t h e r . C o n c e r n f o r u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s , or a l e a s t f o r t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e s e women, was a p p a r e n t i n much of t h e e v i d e n c e t o the C o m m i s s i o n . O n l y one w i t n e s s spoke a g a i n s t a s s i s t i n g u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s . Mrs M.A.Robertson of t h e V a n c o u v e r LCW, a d m i t t e d t h a t she "may be p e r h a p s o l d f a s h i o n e d " , but she f e l t t h a t c h i l d r e n 3 1 I b i d . , p.526. 3 2 I b i d . , p.544. 226 of u n m a r r i e d p a r e n t s s h o u l d be p l a c e d i n e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s i f t h e mother or t h e mothe r ' s p a r e n t s were u n w i l l i n g o r u n a b l e t o s u p p o r t them. She wou l d n o t , however, deny t h e mother a c c e s s t o t h e c h i l d . 3 3 O t h e r s were l e s s j u d g m e n t a l . J e a n C a r s o n , on b e h a l f of t h e WF, s a i d , we f e e l t h a t many u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s have c h i l d r e n who a r e j u s t as good as t h o s e who a r e m a r r i e d [ s i c ] - why s h o u l d she be d e p r i v e d of s u p p o r t , i f she i s my d a u g h t e r o r yo u r d a u g h t e r - l e t us s t i c k t o g e t h e r . 3 " A n n i e B o r l a n d , on b e h a l f o f t h e C i t i z e n s ' U n i o n c l a i m e d " t h e r e i s no d i s h o n o u r a b l e m other, t h e r e n e v e r was one - you want t o b r i n g down an a c t f o r t h e d i s h o n o u r a b l e f a t h e r " , w h i l e Mr J . C . H a b k i r k of t h e S a l v a t i o n Army s t a t e d , " I t h i n k i t v e r y wrong t h a t u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s s h o u l d be s a c r i f i c e d . We f i n d i n our d e a l i n g s t h a t many of them a r e more s i n n e d a g a i n s t t h a n s i n n i n g and i f t h e y a r e g i v e n a ch a n c e t h e y make good and I t h i n k i n e v e r y c a s e i t i s not o n l y b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e mother but t o t h e c h i l d t h a t t h e y s h o u l d r e m a i n t o g e t h e r . " 3 5 The recommendations of t h e C o m m i s s i o n , s u b m i t t e d t o t h e l e g i s l a t u r e i n March 1920, f o l l o w e d c l o s e l y t h e demands made by t h e m a j o r i t y of w i t n e s s e s . Widowed, d i v o r c e d , d e s e r t e d and u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s , as w e l l as w i v e s o f men i n p e n a l and m e n t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o r of men i n c a p a c i t a t e d t h r o u g h a c c i d e n t o r i l l n e s s were a l l t o be e l i g i b l e f o r t h e p e n s i o n o r "mothers' a s s i s t a n c e " w h i c h , i t was recommended, s h o u l d be $42.50 p e r month f o r t h e I b i d . , pp.718-20; Mrs R o b e r t s o n and H e l e n M a c G i l l had d i s a g r e e d e a r l i e r , i n f r o n t o f t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r s , as t o w h i c h of them was t h e o f f i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e LCW. The f a c t t h a t Mrs R o b e r t s o n gave her e v i d e n c e s e p a r a t e l y from o t h e r clubwomen p r e s u m a b l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t she l o s t t h e argument. I b i d . , p.511. I b i d . , p.512, 520. 227 mother and t h e f i r s t c h i l d and $7.50 p e r month f o r each o t h e r c h i l d . Women were r e q u i r e d t o be B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s , , t o have l i v e d i n t h e p r o v i n c e f o r a t l e a s t e i g h t e e n months and t o be "of good m o r a l c h a r a c t e r and a f i t and p r o p e r c u s t o d i a n " . The Commission f u r t h e r recommended t h a t c a s e s be i n v e s t i g a t e d by l o c a l b o a r d s but be under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a t i o n and t h a t m u n i c i p a l i t i e s s h a r e t h e c o s t w i t h t h e p r o v i n c i a l g overnment. I t a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t "by r e a s o n of i t s u r g e n c y and t h e i n s i s t e n t demand, [ t h e a c t ] be i n t r o d u c e d and p a s s e d a t t h e p r e s e n t s e s s i o n of t h e l e g i s l a t u r e " . 3 6 There i s no r e c o r d of how t h e sum of $42.50 was a r r i v e d a t but i t must have a l l o w e d r e c i p i e n t s a s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g o n l y j u s t above t h e s u b s i s t e n c e l e v e l f o r i t was c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n even t h e l o w e s t of t h e minimum wages s e t i n 1919 and t h e y were i n t e n d e d o n l y t o s u p p o r t one p e r s o n r a t h e r t h a n two. R e c i p i e n t s were not a l l o w e d to- e a r n more t h a n a m i n i m a l sum, t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t of p e n s i o n s b e i n g t o keep them i n t h e home as f u l l - t i m e m o t h e r s . 3 7 T h i s of c o u r s e was t h e c r u x of t h e m a t t e r f o r t h e i d e a l i z e d v i e w t h a t m i d d l e - c l a s s r e f o r m e r s had of motherhood l e d them t o b e l i e v e t h a t s i m p l y b e c a u s e a women was a B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s 1910-20, p p . T 8 - l O . F i r s t A n n u a l R e p o r t on t h e work of M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s November 30, 1920 ( t y p e s c r i p t ) B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l P a p e r s . R o l l 89 F i l e 1-107-22 PABC pp.11-12. ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as F i r s t M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n R e p o r t ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t a number of women were i n e l i g i b l e f o r p e n s i o n s because t h e i r e a r n i n g s and t h o s e of t h e i r c h i l d r e n were t o o h i g h , however no a c t u a l amounts were m e n t i o n e d ; V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "Wages f o r Housework," p. 27 n o t e s t h a t most m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n schemes d i d a l l o w women t o work p a r t - t i m e , and e n c o u r a g e d them t o do s o . 228 mother she c o u l d overcome o b s t a c l e s t h a t m i g h t be i n s u r m o u n t a b l e t o o t h e r s . Her motherhood w o u l d e n a b l e h e r t o s c r i m p and s a v e , t o mend and "make do" i n ways t h a t men and women w i t h o u t c h i l d r e n m i g h t f i n d i m p o s s i b l e . Aware of t h e s a c r e d n e s s of her c a l l i n g she wou l d do a l l t h i s h a p p i l y , s e c u r e i n t h e knowledge t h a t i t was f o r t h e b e n e f i t of h e r c h i l d r e n and t h e i r f u t u r e . Many women were a l r e a d y d o i n g t h i s , n ot . h a p p i l y p e r h a p s , but out of s h e e r n e c e s s i t y . The a c t was r a p i d l y p r e p a r e d , s u b m i t t e d t o t h e l e g i s l a t u r e and p a s s e d i n t o law w i t h o u t o p p o s i t i o n on A p r i l 17, 1920. I t was t o come i n t o a c t i o n on t h e f i r s t day of t h e f o l l o w i n g J u l y . To a l a r g e e x t e n t i t f o l l o w e d t h e recommedations o f t h e Commission a l t h o u g h t h e r e were some s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . F i r s t , u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s were e x c l u d e d from e l i g i b i l i t y a l t h o u g h a c l a u s e d i d a l l o w f o r a p e n s i o n t o be p a i d t o "any o t h e r p e r s o n whose c a s e , i n t h e o p i n i o n of t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , i s a p r o p e r one f o r a s s i s t a n c e . " 3 8 Second, t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e a c t was p l a c e d i n t h e hands o f t h e A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l ' s Department under t h e d i r e c t c o n t r o l of t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of N e g l e c t e d C h i l d r e n r a t h e r t h a n under t he M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a t i o n . T h i r d , t h e e n t i r e c o s t was t o be borne by t h e p r o v i n c e r a t h e r t h a n s h a r e d by m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . T h i s l a s t f a c t o r , combined w i t h t h e r a t e of b e n e f i t s , made i t t h e most g e n e r o u s m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n l e g i s l a t - i o n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S t a t u t e s 1920, c h . 61, p a r a . 2 ( e ) ; t h i s c l a u s e was i n i t i a l l y used t o a l l o w payment of p e n s i o n s t o u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e F i r s t M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n R e p o r t , p.10 seven u n m a r r i e d m others were r e c e i v i n g p e n s i o n s i n November 1 920. 229 so f a r e n a c t e d i n Canada. S p e a k i n g j u s t b e f o r e t h e se c o n d r e a d i n g of t h e B i l l , t h e Hon. J.D.McLean, M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a t i o n and P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y , i n f o r m e d t h e House t h a t t h e government e x p e c t e d some 235 women and 652 c h i l d r e n w o u l d be i n i t i a l b e n e f i c i a r i e s under t h e a c t . 3 9 However, by t h e end of November 1920, o n l y f o u r months a f t e r t h e a c t was o p e r a t i o n a l , 636 p e n s i o n s had been g r a n t e d and by t h e end of t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r 850 f a m i l i e s were r e c e i v i n g s u p p o r t . " 0 Because o f t h e s e h i g h e r t h a n a n t i c i p a t e d numbers of a p p l i c a n t s , amendments were r a p i d l y made i n t h e n e x t t h r e e y e a r s t o t i g h t e n up e l i g i b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s and t o t i e them e i t h e r t o l o n g t e r m i l l n e s s o r i n c a p a c i t y o r d e s e r t i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e husband r a t h e r t h a n a l l o w i n g women t o be e l i g i b l e as soon as t h i s o c c u r r e d . I n t h e c a s e of a widow i t was made n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e l a t e husband had been l i v i n g w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e a t t h e f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e of t h e d i s a b i l i t y t h a t e v e n t u a l l y c a u s e d h i s d e a t h . " 1 L e t t e r s t o t h e M i n i s t e r s i n d i c a t e t h a t many women were d e n i e d a s s i s t a n c e b e c a u s e of t e c h n i c a l i t i e s s u c h as t h i s b u t , f a c e d w i t h a r a p i d l y e s c a l a t i n g b i l l f o r p e n s i o n s , t h e government o b v i o u s l y f e l t i t must be v e r y s t r i c t . D e s p i t e two amendments i n 1921, a t t h e end of t h i s y e a r B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a B.C.PS. t y p e s c r i p t t i t l e d " L e g i s l a t i v e P r e s s g a l l e r y 1918-26. A f t e r n o o n S i t t i n g . A p r i l 9," [1920] p.40. GR 344 Box 1- F i l e 1/2 PABC. The e s t i m a t e was based on t h e number o f "widows" s u p p o r t i n g f a m i l i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o v i n c e r a t h e r t h a n on t h e number of women who r e q u i r e d some a s s i s t a n c e . F i r s t M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n R e p o r t , p.8. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S t a t u t e s 1921, c h . 4 3 ; 1921(Second S e s s i o n ) , c h . 3 5 ; 1924, ch . 3 2 . 230 f o u n d i t s e l f p a y i n g a l m o s t t w i c e as much p e r 1000 head of p o p u l a t i o n as M a n i t o b a and f i v e t i m e s as much as S a s k a t c h e w a n . (See T a b l e 2 2 ) . Such a c o m p a r i s o n i s not c o m p l e t e l y f a i r because e l e g i b i l i t y and r a t e of p e n s i o n s were q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n each of the p r o v i n c e s but i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s c l e a r t h a t t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a government f o u n d t h e l e g i s l a t i o n f a r more e x p e n s i v e t h a n i t had i n i t i a l l y a n t i c i p a t e d . On t h e o t h e r hand i t was u n a b l e t o make major changes t o t h e law b e c a u s e o f i t s g e n e r a l p o p u l a r i t y and t h e o b v i o u s need of many d e s t i t u t e m o t h e r s . I n i t i a l l y , a d v i s o r y b o a r d s were a p p o i n t e d by O r d e r - i n -C o u n c i l t o d e a l w i t h women making a p p l i c a t i o n f o r p e n s i o n s and t o c o - o p e r a t e w i t h o f f i c i a l s of t h e M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n Department w h i c h was p l a c e d under t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f D a v i d M . B r a n k i n , S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of N e g l e c t e d C h i l d r e n . These a p p o i n t m e n t s were h o n o r a r y and t h e a p p o i n t e e s were n e a r l y a l l women. The V a n c o u v e r b o a r d c o n s i s t e d of H e l e n M a c G i l l , Mrs R o b e r t M c N a i r , S u s i e Lane C l a r k , Mrs J o s e p h S h e a s g r e e n , and Judge H.C. Shaw of t h e J u v e n i l e C o u r t . The V i c t o r i a b o a r d i n c l u d e d C e c i l i a S p o f f o r d , 0 Mrs S t e w a r t Henderson and Mrs R o b e r t D i n s d a l e w h i l e i n New W e s t m i n s t e r C h r i s t i n a F o r r e s t e r , Mrs H e l e n S m i t h and Mrs Maud Doran were a p p o i n t e d . Thus t h e l e a d e r s of t h e campaign i n a l l t h r e e c i t i e s were i n i t i a l l y g i v e n a r o l e i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e A c t . By e a r l y 1921 s e v e n t e e n s u c h b o a r d s were o p e r a t i n g 231 t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o v i n c e . " 2 At t h e end of 1921 " a s t o r m of p r o t e s t a r o s e i n t h e House T a b l e 22 M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s i n S e l e c t e d P r o v i n c e s Compared 1921 P r o v i n c e C o s t Borne By Number of F a m i l i e s C o v e r e d A v e r a g e R e c e i v e d p e r F a m i l y C o s t p e r 1000 of P o p u l a t i o n S a s k a t c h e w a n P r o v i n c e and M u n i c i p a l i t y 51 95 $27.70 $189.00 A l b e r t a 1/2 by P r o v . and 1/2 by M u n i c i p a l i t y 4795 $36.00 $355.00 O n t a r i o 1/2 by P r o v . and 1/2 by M u n i c i p a l i t y 26605 $29.10 $264.00 Man i t o b a 1/2 by P r o v . and 1/2 by Mun i c i p a l i t y 4805 $62. 1 3 $574.00 B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a P r o v i n c e 8505 $46.83 $935.00 S o u r c e : B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . P r e m i e r P a p e r s . GR 441 v o l . 235, F i l e "122" o r 9 n.d. n.p. " 2 F i r s t M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n R e p o r t , p.6. M c N a i r was a member of t h e IODE, WCC, K i n g ' s D a u g h t e r s , t h e C h i l d r e n ' s A i d , t h e Women's B u i l d i n g and t h e LCW. S h e a s g r e e n was a member of C a t h o l i c Women's A i d , S t . P a u l ' s L a d i e s of C h a r i t y , Women's B u i l d i n g and LCW. S p o f f o r d b e l o n g e d t o WCTU, LCW, C h i l d r e n ' s A i d , WCC, PPEL, was a member of t h e V i c t o r i a B o a r d o f P o l i c e C o m m i s i o n e r s and had r u n s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r t h e V i c t o r i a S c h o o l B o a r d . Henderson b e l o n g e d t o t h e V i c t o r i a Women's L i b e r a l A s s o c i a t i o n but I have f o u n d no m e n t i o n of o t h e r c l u b membership. 232 w i t h c h a r g e s a g a i n s t t h e o l d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of i n e f f i c i e n c y and p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e . " " 3 A f u r t h e r amendment was e n a c t e d t r a n s f e r r i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and a u t h o r i t y from t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of N e g l e c t e d C h i l d r e n t o t h e Workmen's C o m p e n s a t i o n B o a r d (WCB), c h a i r e d by E.S.H.Winn, i n t h e hope t h a t p o l i t i c s w ould be e l i m i n a t e d from t h e s i t u a t i o n and money sav e d as w e l l , by u s i n g t h e l a t t e r ' s e x i s t i n g b u r e a u c r a t i c mechanisms."" Many V a n c o u v e r clubwomen, i n p a r t i c u l a r S u s i e Lane C l a r k and t h e NEL, were i n c e n s e d by t h i s change; t h e t i g h t e n i n g of t h e e l i g i b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s c a u s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e r n but th e r e m o v a l of women fr o m p a r t i c i p a t i o n now t h a t t h e WCB was i n c h a r g e of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was t h e main p o i n t of c o n t e n t i o n . F e e l i n g s were p a r t i c u l a r l y r o u s e d by t h e f a c t t h a t , under t h e new l e g i s l a t i o n , t h e Vanco u v e r b o a r d was t h e o n l y one t o be d i s m a n t l e d c o m p l e t e l y . The c r u x of t h e p r o b l e m i n V a n c o u v e r seems t o have been t h e -c l a s h between p r o f e s s i o n a l male a d m i n i s t r a t o r s e a ger t o see t h e b u r e a u c r a c y r u n n i n g as s m o o t h l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y as p o s s i b l e , and women who f e l t t h a t t h e i r gender and motherhood e x p e r i e n c e were of g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e i n d e a l i n g w i t h members of t h e i r own sex n e e d i n g h e l p . Winn h i m s e l f w r o t e t o P r e m i e r O l i v e r , I s o b e l H a r v e y , "An H i s t o r i c Review of t h e S o c i a l S e r v i c e s of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , " p.5. t y p e s c r i p t . Add. Mss. 708 PABC. W i l f r e d Rasmussen, "An E v a l u a t i o n of t h e M o t h e r s ' A l l o w a n c e s Programme i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , " (M.S.W. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1950) p.87. Rasmussen c l a i m s many women had o b j e c t e d t o b e i n g under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e Department of N e g l e c t e d C h i l d r e n as t h e y f e l t i t was a s l i g h t t o t h e i r m o t h e r i n g a b i l i t i e s . 233 The main s e a t of t r o u b l e w i t h t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of th e A c t was i n V a n c o u v e r where two o r t h r e e of t h e women who a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l know t o t h e A t t o r n e y -G e n e r a l were d e t e r m i n e d t o c o n t r o l t h e whole s i t u a t i o n . " 5 I t i s not c l e a r who t h e "two or t h r e e women" were. Winn may have meant a l l f o u r of t h e women on t h e o r i g i n a l B o a r d o r he may have been r e f e r r i n g t o S u s i e Lane C l a r k and one o r two of her f o l l o w e r s from NEL who c o n s i s t e n t l y a g i t a t e d i n r e g a r d t o m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s d u r i n g t h e 1920's. T h i s i s most l i k e l y as H e l e n M a c G i l l does not ap p e a r t o have been u n p o p u l a r w i t h p o l i t i c i a n s o r c i v i l s e r v a n t s ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of C o n s e r v a t i v e e x - P r e m i e r Bowser who c l a i m e d a n g r i l y t h a t she had "put more b u r r s under my s a d d l e t h a n anyone e l s e i n the p r o v i n c e " ) . " 6 Mrs M c N a i r and Mrs S h e a s g r e e n were a l s o u n l i k e l y c a n d i d a t e s f o r Winn's contempt f o r a l t h o u g h t h e y were b o t h a c t i v e clubwomen t h e i r s e r v i c e on t h e o r i g i n a l b o a r d seems t o have been t h e i r o n l y a s s a y i n t o p u b l i c l i f e . O t h e r w i s e t h e y kept v e r y low p r o f i l e s . However, S u s i e Lane C l a r k ' s name as w e l l as t h a t of t h e NEL o c c u r s r e g u l a r l y i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l and o t h e r M i n i s t e r s . Many women's c l u b s were c o n c e r n e d about t h e changes i n t h e l e g i s l a t i o n but t h e y were by no means as v o c i f e r o u s as . t h e NEL. They e x p r e s s e d t h e i r d i s a p p o i n t m e n t i n j o i n t r e s o l u t i o n s w i t h t h e NEL t o the government but d i d not appear keen t o become e m b r o i l e d i n E.S.H. Winn t o J . M o r t o n , s e c r e t a r y t o t h e P r e m i e r , September 20, 1922. B.C.P.P. GR 441 v o l . 2 6 7 F i l e . ' 1 2 2 ' n.p. PABC. E l s i e M a c G i l l , My Mother t h e J u d g e , p. 168, no s o u r c e g i v e n . 234 f u r t h e r a c t i o n . 4 7 The V a n c o u v e r s i t u a t i o n was made even more u n p l e a s a n t by t h e e n m i t y t h a t e x i s t e d between t h e NEL and t h e C i v i l i a n P e n s i o n e d M o t h e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n (CPMA). T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , formed i n 1921 by Mrs B a r b a r a C h i p p e n d a l e , f o r m e r l y of t h e NEL, was " m a i n l y composed of mo t h e r s who were r e c e i v i n g a s s i s t a n c e , as w e l l as o t h e r s who were u n a b l e t o g e t a s s i s t a n c e by v i r t u e of t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s A c t " . 4 8 Mrs C h i p p e n d a l e h e r s e l f was not a d e s e r t e d mother and her m o t i v a t i o n seems t o have been a d e s i r e t o supplement t h e new l e g i s l a t i o n w i t h some good o l d - f a s h i o n e d c h a r i t y . T h e r e was o b v i o u s p e r s o n a l d i s l i k e between C l a r k and C h i p p e n d a l e and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f o l l o w e r s t h o u g h whether t h i s a r o s e b e f o r e o r a f t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n of CPMA i s n ot c l e a r . Mrs C h i p p e n d a l e and h e r s u p p o r t e r s a c c u s e d S u s i e Lane C l a r k of " w o r k i n g s e c r e t l y " and b e i n g "no l a d y " i n some of t h e i r many l e t t e r s t o t h e A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l and t h e P r e m i e r . 4 9 NEL c o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o t h e same two p o l i t i c i a n s , however, was a l w a y s v e r y b u s i n e s s l i k e w i t h no p e r s o n a l comments. I t s i m p l y The V a n c o u v e r LCW, K i n g ' s D a u g h t e r s , TLC, C a t h o l i c ' Women's Leag u e , WCTU and M o t h e r s , Wives and Widows of G r e a t B r i t a i n ' s War H e r o e s j o i n e d a NEL d e l e g a t i o n t o i n t e r v i e w Mary E l l e n S m i t h i n l a t e 1922 r e g a r d i n g f u r t h e r c hanges t o the M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n A c t . Ada T a y l o r , S e c r e t a r y o f NEL M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s Committee t o t h e A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l , November 15, 1922. B.C.A-G R e e l 138 F i l e M-336-8 1921-23, p.48. PABC. The name of t h e CPMA s u g g e s t s an a t t e m p t by t h e s e women t o p l a c e t h e m s e l v e s on a s i m i l a r f o o t i n g t o p e n s i o n e d war widows, t h a t i s , p e r s o n s r e c e i v i n g a p e n s i o n f o r s e r v i c e s r e n d e r e d t o the n a t i o n . The a c t i o n s of t h e CPMA, however, d i d not a l w a y s j i b e w i t h t h i s c o n c e p t . See a l s o D e n n i s G u e s t , Emergence of S o c i a l S e c u r i t y , pp. 50-55.; E.S.H. Winn t o P r e m i e r O l i v e r , November 8, 1924 B.C.P.P n.p. GR 441 v o l . 2 6 7 F i l e '122' PABC. Mrs J e s s i e F u l t o n , s e c r e t a r y CPMA, t o P r e m i e r O l i v e r , August 14, 1922, B.C.P.P. n.p. GR 441, v o l 227, F i l e '8' PABC; B a r b a r a C h i p p e n d a l e t o P r e m i e r O l i v e r , J a n u a r y 25, 1923, I b i d , GR 441 F i l e ' 122'. PABC. 235 r e q u e s t e d , t h o u g h o f t e n i n q u i t e f o r c e f u l t e r m s , t h e changes t h a t t h e NEL w i s h e d t o see i n t h e A c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e r e -a p p o i n t m e n t of women t o t h e b o a r d . F o r a l l i t s b a c k - b i t i n g , t h e CPMA was t h e g r o u p p r e f e r r e d by t h e male members of t h e WCB a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e p e n s i o n s . Chairman Winn was a t one t i m e h o n o r a r y p r e s i d e n t of t h e CPMA and d e s c r i b e d i t as "an o r g a n i z a t i o n p e r f o r m i n g e x c e p t i o n a l l y f i n e work f o r t h e m o t h e r s of t h e c i t y " . He f u r t h e r c l a i m e d , "Our r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e s e women have been p a r t i c u l a r l y p l e a s a n t , and t h e y a r e t h e o n l y body of women e n d e a v o r i n g i n e v e r y p o s s i b l e way t o c o - o p e r a t e . " 5 0 The r e a s o n f o r t h i s happy s t a t e of c o -o p e r a t i o n p r o b a b l y l a y i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of members were women who were dependent on and g r a t e f u l f o r t h e i r p e n s i o n s . The aim of t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n was t o p r o v i d e m u t u a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e m s e l v e s as w e l l as t o a s s i s t o t h e r women who f o r one r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r were not e l i g i b l e f o r a p e n s i o n . B a r b a r a C h i p p e n d a l e h e r s e l f a p p e a r s t o have been t h e o n l y member who had or had had any c o n n e c t i o n w i t h o r g a n i z e d clubwomen. T h e i r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s Winn seems t o have been one of g r a t e f u l r e s p e c t and no doubt he f o u n d them f a r e a s i e r t o a c c e p t and work w i t h t h a n S u s i e Lane C l a r k and NEL members who c o n s t a n t l y a t t e m p t e d t o r e g a i n t h e i r l o s t p o s i t i o n s and i n f l u e n c e i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e a c t . C l a r k a p p e a r e d t o 5 0 E.S.H. Winn t o J . M o r t o n , s e c r e t a r y t o t h e P r e m i e r , September 20, 1922, G.C.P.P. GR 441 v o l . 227 F i l e '8' n.p.; Winn t o P r e m i e r O l i v e r , November 8, 1924, B.C.P.P GR441 v o l . 2 4 2 F i l e '122' n.p. PABC. 236 have d i f f i c u l t y c o m p r o m i s i n g and c o - o p e r a t i n g w i t h o t h e r s even under optimum c o n d i t i o n s . No doubt when c r o s s e d she was even h a r d e r t o work w i t h . The a c t i v i t i e s u n d e r t a k e n by t h e CPMA were a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t t h e H e a l t h Commission and i t s w i t n e s s e s had p l a c e d on g e t t i n g r i d of any n o t i o n of c h a r i t y i n t h e p e n s i o n s , t h e r o l e p l a y e d by t h e CPMA i s somewhat i n c o n g r u o u s , f o r t h e y were v e r y much s t e e p e d i n t h e o l d i d e a s of c h a r i t y . T h e i r m o t t o was " S e r v i c e f o r O t h e r s " and most of t h e i r e n e r g i e s were d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s c h a r i t a b l e a s s i s t a n c e f o r needy women. Mrs J e s s i e F u l t o n , CPMA s e c r e t a r y r e m i n d e d P r e m i e r O l i v e r t h a t , Many c o m f o r t s and p l e a s u r e s have been b r o u g h t t o t h e mot h e r s w h i c h were q u i t e beyond t h e i r s l e n d e r means t h r o u g h t h e u n t i r i n g e f f o r t s of Mrs C h i p p e n d a l e , i n c l u d i n g a c o m p l e t e Xmas [ s i c ] Hamper from t h e E l k s C l u b , a $5 b i l l - t h e p a y i n g of p e n s i o n s by m a i l e d c h e q u e . . p a y i n g of h o s p i t a l e x p e n s e s f o r m o t h e r s and c h i l d r e n . . . F o o d , f u e l and c l o t h i n g t a k e n t o u r g e n t c a s e s . . . t w o weeks h o l i d a y a t C r e s c e n t Beach Camp f o r f i f t y m o t h e r s and c h i l d r e n . . . F r e e T e c h n i c a l S c h o o l e d u c a t i o n f o r t h o s e c h i l d r e n a b l e t o a c c e p t i t , and many more w h i c h I w i l l n o t t i r e you by e n u m e r a t i n g . 5 1 The CPMA c l e a r l y saw i t s r o l e as t h a n of an a u x i l i a r y t o t h e mo t h e r s ' p e n s i o n scheme, p r o v i d i n g e x t r a h e l p t o some r e c i p i e n t s as w e l l as a i d i n g t h o s e who were i n e l i g i b l e . The government and t h e WCB a p p e a r e d o n l y t o o p l e a s e d t o e n c o u r a g e them i n t h i s r o l e . Even under t h e i n i t i a l a c t many f a m i l i e s were not e l i g i b l e f o r p e n s i o n s and as e x p e n s e s r o s e and new amendments e l i m i n a t e d 5 1 J e s s i e F u l t o n t o P r e m i e r O l i v e r , September 15, 1922, B.C.P.P GR441 v o l . 2 2 7 F i l e '8'. n.p. PABC. 237 more f a m i l i e s , i n c r e a s e d numbers of a p p l i c a n t s were r e j e c t e d . At l e a s t some of t h e s e c o u l d be h e l p e d , a t no expense t o the government, by t h e CPMA. Yet a n o t h e r p r o b l e m t h a t t h e government had t o f a c e was t h e f a c t t h a t once p e n s i o n s were p r o v i d e d by t h e s t a t e many women who had n e v e r been c o n s i d e r e d as r e c i p i e n t s under t h e o r i g i n a l a c t began t o demand p e n s i o n s as a r i g h t . They were t o a l a r g e d e g r e e s u p p o r t e d by clubwomen t o whom motherhood i t s e l f was t h e main c r i t e r i o n f o r r e c e i p t of a p e n s i o n . A f t e r r e c e i v i n g a b a r r a g e o f l e t t e r s from " s e v e r a l Women's O r g a n i z a t i o n s i n V a n c o u v e r " i n 1923 and s u b s e q u e n t l y m e e t i n g w i t h S u s i e Lane C l a r k , A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l A.M. Manson a p p e a l e d t o Mary E l l e n S m i t h t o p e r s u a d e women t o moderate t h e i r demands f o r more p e n s i o n s and more say i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of them. Manson was o b v i o u s l y a l a r m e d by t h e r a p i d l y r i s i n g e x p e n se and g r o w i n g b u r e a u c r a c y of t h e p e n s i o n scheme. U n l i k e h i s p r e d e c e s s o r F a r r i s , who had i n t r o d u c e d t h e l e g i s l a t i o n , he d i d not appear t o have much c o n c e r n o r sympathy f o r t h e women who a p p l i e d f o r p e n s i o n s . By 1923 he was c o n v i n c e d t h a t , T h i s P r o v i n c e has a l l t h e s o c i a l G o v e r n m e n t a l m a c h i n e r y now t h a t i s good f o r i t and, I t h i n k i t can be a r g u e d w i t h some j u s t i c e , more t h a n i t ought t o h a v e . . . N e i t h e r t h e i n d i g e n t nor t h e near i n d i g e n t were s u p p o r t e d by t h e S t a t e a few y e a r s ago and i t i s a b s o l u t e l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e S t a t e t o keep on i n c r e a s i n g i t s burden as i t has been d o i n g l a t e l y . 5 2 I n t h e f a c e of suc h an adamant s t a n c e clubwomen had l i t t l e 5 2 Manson t o S m i t h , J a n u a r y 22,1923, B.C.A-G. R e e l 138 F i l e M-336-8, 1921-23. pp.51-52. PABC. 238 l i k e l i h o o d of a c h i e v i n g f u r t h e r c h a n g e . S e v e r a l c l u b s c o n t i n u e d t o send o c c a s i o n a l r e s o l u t i o n s t o t h e P r e m i e r or A t t o r n e y -G e n e r a l but o n l y t h e NEL r e m a i n e d d e t e r m i n e d t o c o n t i n u e b a t t l e . P e r h a p s s e n s i n g t h a t t h e r e w o u l d never be peace u n t i l t h e r e was some f e m a l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of p e n s i o n s , t h e government d e c i d e d t o a p p o i n t a P r o v i n c i a l M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n B o a r d i n 1925. T h i s b o a r d i n f a c t c o n s i s t e d of t h e WCB w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of a s i n g l e women, M i s s M a r g a r e t S u t h e r l a n d who b e l o n g e d t o t h e V a n c o u v e r LCW, t h e PPEL, t h e Women's C a n a d i a n C l u b and t h e Women's L i b e r a l A s s o c i a t i o n . Manson s t a t e d h o p e f u l l y t h a t " i n a p p o i n t i n g M i s s S u t h e r l a n d who has been p r o m i n e n t and a c t i v e i n women's work i n t h e c i t y of V a n c o u v e r f o r many y e a r s i t was f e l t t h e a p p o i n t m e n t w o u l d meet w i t h g e n e r a l a p p r o v a l . " 5 3 The m a j o r i t y of women's c l u b s were s i l e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e a p p o i n t m e n t w h i c h most l i k e l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t d i d meet w i t h t h e i r a p p r o v a l . But not e v e r y o n e was p l e a s e d . Mrs C h i p p e n d a l e p l a i n t i v e l y d e s c r i b e d i t as " q u i t e a blow t o me - I d i d f e e l e x t r e m e l y h u r t s i n c e I have done so much f o r t h e widows and c h i l d r e n of V a n c o u v e r . I have no o b j e c t i o n t o M i s s S u n d e r l a n d [ s i c ] a t a l l b u t f a i l t o see why I c a n n o t be a p p o i n t e d a l o n g w i t h h e r . " 5 " The NEL o b j e c t i o n was s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t . The League c o m p l a i n e d t h a t M i s s S u t h e r l a n d , " a l t h o u g h , no d o u b t , a v e r y e s t i m a b l e and c a p a b l e p e r s o n , i s not f i t t e d f o r t h e p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e as a A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l t o J e s s i e F u l t o n , J a n u a r y 20, 1925, B.C.A-G. 1918-37, 1921-24. R e e l 138 F i l e '122' n.p. PABC. B a r b a r a C h i p p e n d a l e t o P r e m i e r O l i v e r , J a n u a r y 25, 1925, B.C.P.P. GR441 v o l . 2 5 0 F i l e '122'. n.p. PABC. 239 s i n g l e woman, she has not t h e i n t u i t i o n a l knowledge w h i c h b e l o n g s t o a women who i s a w i f e and m o t h e r , and must be e m b a r r a s s e d i n t h e n a t u r e of t h e d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h of n e c e s s i t y must come i n t h e b u s i n e s s of t h e B o a r d . " 5 5 M o t h e r h o o d was s t i l l of paramount i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e NEL r e g a r d l e s s o f whether t h e mother was t h e r e c i p i e n t o r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r of t h e p e n s i o n . W h i l e o n l y one woman was a member of t h e b o a r d , o t h e r women d i d work under i t s a u s p i c e s . H a r v ey r e p o r t e d t h a t " t h e work o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n and f o l l o w up d u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s [ t h e mid 1920's] was done by a s t a f f of s i x women, f i v e of whom were i n V a n c o u v e r and one i n V i c t o r i a . The r e s t of t h e P r o v i n c e was s u p p o s e d t o be v i s i t e d y e a r l y by t h i s same s t a f f but when t h e y c o u l d not go, t h e P r o v i n c i a l P o l i c e v i s i t e d . " 5 6 T h i s i n d i c a t e s a g r o w i n g t r e n d t o w a r d s p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t a t e w e l f a r e . These women may not have been w e l l t r a i n e d , o r i n d e e d t r a i n e d a t a l l , but t h e y u n d e r t o o k t h e i r p o s i t i o n s on a f u l l - t i m e p a i d b a s i s . C e n t r a l i z a t i o n and p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n were r e p l a c i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l methods of w e l f a r e p r o v i s i o n . 5 7 _ A s t h i s o c c u r r e d t h e r e was l e s s and l e s s room f o r t h e r o l e t h a t clubwomen had i n i t i a l l y e n v i s i o n e d f o r t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r i n c o r p o r a t i o n as u n p a i d a s s i s t a n t s t o t h e government was q u i t e soon d i s c o n t i n u e d . J a n e A. C a m p b e l l , s e c r e t a r y P r o v i n c i a l NEL t o P r e m i e r O l i v e r , J a n u a r y 29, 1925, B.C.P.P GR441 v o l 2 6 7 F i l e '122' n.p. PABC. I s o b e l H a r v e y , "An H i s t o r i c Review of t h e S o c i a l S e r v i c e s , " p.6. P a t r i c i a Rooke and R.L. S c h n e l l , " C h i l d W e l f a r e i n E n g l i s h Canada", p.492; N e i l S u t h e r l a n d , C h i l d r e n i n E n g l i s h - C a n a d i a n Soc i e t y , pp. 231-32; V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "Wages f o r Housework," p.28. 240 Whether o r not g r e a t e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n by n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l women i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of p e n s i o n s w o u l d have been of v a l u e i s d o u b t f u l but t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e scheme was of g r e a t b e n e f i t t o many women who had p r e v i o u s l y s t r u g g l e d a l o n e w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n f o r m a r g i n a l s u r v i v a l . The r e c e i p t of a r e g u l a r sum of money, a l b e i t s m a l l and d i s t r i b u t e d under a c e r t a i n measure of government s u p e r v i s i o n , t o o k many women o f f "worry s t r e e t " and e n a b l e d them " t o g i v e [ t h e i r ] l i t t l e ones what t h e y n e e d . " 5 8 And w h i l e numbers o f women were i n e l i g i b l e f o r p e n s i o n s , t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t a scheme had been e s t a b l i s h e d drew b o t h government and p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e were f a r g r e a t e r numbers of women i n need t h a n had p r e v i o u s l y been r e a l i z e d o r a c k n o w l e d g e d . F u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n of s o c i a l a s s i s t a n c e d i d not come r a p i d l y but h a v i n g t a k e n t h e f i r s t s t e p , t h e s t a t e was c o m m i t t e d t o p l a y i n g an i n c r e a s i n g r o l e i n a s s i s t i n g t h o s e who were u n a b l e t o s u r v i v e a t a r e a s o n a b l e l e v e l by t h e m s e l v e s . The i d e a of a " s o c i a l minimum", below w h i c h none s h o u l d f a l l , had been a c c e p t e d . 5 9 The s u p p o r t w h i c h clubwomen gave t o mo t h e r s ' p e n s i o n l e g i s l a t i o n stemmed from t h e i r own b e l i e f i n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of the m o t h e r i n g r o l e and t h e i r d e s i r e t o a f f i r m and s t r e n g t h e n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e f a m i l y f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e whole of s o c i e t y as w e l l as f o r i n d i v i d u a l s . S t r o n g - B o a g has n o t e d t h a t t h e f a c t The words o f a r e c i p i e n t of t h e p e n s i o n as r e p o r t e d by Mrs S u s i e I n g l e s of t h e A r m s t r o n g , B.C. a d v i s o r y b o a r d , i n F i r s t M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n R e p o r t , p.13. D e n n i s G u e s t , The Emergence of S o c i a l S e c u r i t y , pp.3-4. 241 t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g w e l f a r e s t a t e "chose t o r e c o g n i z e i t s f e m a l e c i t i z e n s most p a r t i c u l a r l y as m o t h e r s r e f l e c t e d how f a r t h e y were f r o m f u l l e q u a l i t y . " 6 0 T h i s s h o u l d not c a u s e s u r p r i s e . We have seen t h a t clubwomen p l a c e d ' t he n o t i o n s of womanhood and c i t i z e n s h i p a t t h e head of t h e i r r e f o r m agenda. But c i t i z e n s h i p was l a r g e l y t h e method by w h i c h motherhood was t o be a f f i r m e d as t h e most i m p o r t a n t base of s o c i e t y . The i r o n y l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t t h e i r p r o m o t i o n was so s u c c e s s f u l t h a t t h e need f o r a c t i v e c i t i z e n s h i p became l e s s and l e s s i m p o r t a n t . 6 0 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "Wages f o r Housework," pp. 27-28. 242 C h a p t e r 6 "THE BRIGHTEST WOMEN OF OUR LAND": CHARACTERISTICS OF VANCOUVER CLUBWOMEN" Who i s i t g r e e t s you w i t h a s m i l e And makes you f e e l l i f e i s w o r t h w h i l e You q u i t e a d m i r e h e r b r e e z y s t y l e Of h e l p and i n s p i r a t i o n The C l u b woman. Who p u t s h e r s h o u l d e r t o t h e wheel And makes you f e e l h e r p r e s e n c e r e a l You know h e r by her h i g h i d e a l The C l u b woman. Who g i v e s t h e o t h e r s of h e r s t o r e Her wisdom, s t r e n g t h and t i m e g a l o r e And s e e k s h e r s e l f f o r de e p e r l o r e The C l u b woman. A l l honour t o t h i s n o b l e band The b r i g h t e s t women of our l a n d Whose mot t o i s a h e l p i n g hand The C l u b woman. 1 The p i c t u r e t h a t has emerged so f a r of t h e t y p i c a l clubwoman i n t h e se c o n d and t h i r d d e c a d e s of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i n V a n c o u v e r i s e x e m p l i f i e d i n the_ above poem. I n C h a p t e r 3 we saw t h a t clubwomen b e l i e v e d and were a t g r e a t p a i n s t o show t h e w o r l d t h a t t h e i r n a t u r a l m o t h e r l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g and a b i l i t i e s were e s s e n t i a l t o t h e r e f o r m and s u c c o u r o f t h a t most b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n w i t h i n s o c i e t y , t h e f a m i l y . By s t e p p i n g out of t h e home and i n t o a w i d e r p u b l i c s p h e r e t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d be a b l e t o improve and s t r e n g t h e n s o c i e t y as a whole b o t h t h r o u g h and f o r t h e f a m i l y . P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s of clubwomen have W r i t t e n by " J e n n i e C o l u m b i a " p o s s i b l y Mrs J e n n i e S m i t h , Women''s Sun, p.13. 243 shown them t o have been o v e r w h e l m i n g l y m i d d l e - c l a s s . I f t h e y d i d n o t have " t i m e g a l o r e " t o d e v o t e t o t h e i r c a u s e , a t l e a s t t h e y had a c e r t a i n amount of t i m e and f reedom from home c h o r e s . 2 Armed w i t h t h e i r i n n a t e womanly s t r e n g t h and wisdom, u t i l i z i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l bonds i d e n t i f i e d by C o t t f o r " h e l p and i n s p i r a t i o n " t h e y were w i l l i n g and o f t e n w e l l - e d u c a t e d enough t o be a b l e t o "seek f o r g r e a t e r l o r e " a t l e a s t i n r e g a r d s t o i m p r o v i n g and e x t e n d i n g t h e q u a l i t y of f a m i l y l i f e t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y . I f t h e y were not a l w a y s d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e s e improvements, t h e y were adept a t u r g i n g t h o s e more q u a l i f i e d t h a n t h e m s e l v e s t o do s o . They saw t h e m s e l v e s as " t h e b r i g h t e s t women" i n t h e l a n d and c o n s c i o u s l y sought t o promote t h i s image b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e i r c l u b s . 3 But d i d a l l , o r even t h e m a j o r i t y of clubwomen f i t t h i s mold? Were t h e y a l l m a r r i e d and of m i d d l e - c l a s s or h i g h e r s t a t u s ? D i d t h e y a l l have t h e c o n f i d e n c e , a b i l i t y and d e s i r e t o 2 See V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , • P a r l i a m e n t of Women, ch . 4 ; C a r o l B a c c h i , L i b e r a t i o n D e f e r r e d ? , p.13; Wayne R o g e r t s , " R o c k i n g t h e C r a d l e f o r t h e W o r l d , " p.26; Wendy M i t c h i n s o n , "The WCTU; 'For God, Home and N a t i v e L a n d ' : A S t u d y i n N i n e t e e n t h - C e n t u r y F e m i n i s m , " i n K e a l e y , e d . , A Not U n r e a s o n a b l e C l a i m , pp.152,155; C a t h e r i n e C l e v e r d o n , The Woman S u f f r a g e Movement i n Canada, 2nd ed. p.4; D i a n n e C r o s s l e y , "The B.C L i b e r a l P a r t y and Women's Reforms 1916-28," i n B. Latham and C. K e s s , e d s . , I n Her Own R i g h t , . p . 230; N e i l S u t h e r l a n d , C h i l d r e n i n E n g l i s h - C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y , p.14; C a r o l D e n n i s o n , "The Women's I n s t i t u t e s i n B.C.," p.65 n o t e s t h a t the s o c i a l s t a t u s of l e a d e r s and t h a t of rank and f i l e members may not be i d e n t i c a l . 3 See Nancy C o t t , Bonds of Womanhood, f o r t h e ways i n w h i c h women use d f e m a l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r s t r e n g t h and s u p p o r t ; V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t of Women, p.164 and C a r o l B a c c h i , L i b e r a t i o n D e f e r r e d ? p.5 b o t h n o t e t h e l a r g e number of c o l l e g e o r u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t e d women i n r e f o r m g r o u p s p a r t i c u l a r l y by t h e s e c o n d decade of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . 244 s t e p i n t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y p u b l i c r o l e t h a t some of them c l a i m e d as t h e i r own? And i f t h e y d i d , was i t p u r e l y as a r e s u l t of t h e i r m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t i c b e l i e f s , o r d i d o t h e r f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e them? T h i s c h a p t e r examines a v a r i e t y of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of V a n c o u v e r clubwomen, i n c l u d i n g m a r i t a l s t a t u s , r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n , s t a t u s of membership w i t h i n t h e c l u b s and s o c i a l s t a t u s as d e t e r m i n e d by clubmembers' own or t h e i r husbands' o c c u p a t i o n s and p l a c e of r e s i d e n c e , t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e f o r e g o i n g p i c t u r e i s i n d e e d a c c u r a t e . The s t u d y i d e n t i f i e d by name 1534 women who were members of one o r more of t h e c l u b s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1910-1928. The names were o b t a i n e d from a wide v a r i e t y of s o u r c e s i n c l u d i n g c l u b r e c o r d s , p r e s s r e p o r t s and government r e p o r t s and c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w h i c h d e a l t w i t h c l u b a c t i v i t e s . The l i s t i s by no means c o m p l e t e . The UWC r e c o r d s c o n t a i n membership l i s t s f o r t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d and p r o b a b l y i n c l u d e d w e l l o v e r 90% of members o v e r t h e s e y e a r s . The LCW p a p e r s c o n s i s t e n t l y r e c o r d e d e x e c u t i v e and c o m m i t t e e members t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d and i n d i v i d u a l members i n t h e y e a r s when t h i s c a t e g o r y e x i s t e d . A l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f d e l e g a t e s from a f f i l i a t e d s o c i e t i e s were a l s o r e c o r d e d on a r e g u l a r b a s i s . A s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n of women from t h e t h r e e i n n e r l e v e l s of LCW membership, as shown i n F i g u r e 1 on page 52, were t h e r e f o r e i d e n t i f i a b l e . No e f f o r t was made t o t r a c e women who were o n l y members of LCW a f f i l i a t e s . A l l s h a r e h o l d e r s i n t h e Women's B u i l d i n g were r e c o r d e d i n a n n u a l r e p o r t s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e R e g i s t r a r of Companies. O n l y a v e r y s m a l l number of women appear t o have b e l o n g e d t o t h e 245 o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h o u t h o l d i n g s h a r e s and t h e i r names were f o u n d l a r g e l y i n s o c i a l and c l u b n o t e s i n t h e d a i l y p r e s s . Membership i n t h e NEL, WF and BPL was much more d i f f i c u l t t o a s c e r t a i n . No r e c o r d s of t h e s e c l u b s r e m a i n and so heavy r e l i a n c e was p l a c e d on p r e s s r e p o r t s , s o c i a l n o t e s , r e c o r d s of o t h e r c l u b s w i t h w h i c h t h e y i n t e r a c t e d and c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h government b o d i e s . I n t h e c a s e of t h e s e t h r e e c l u b s , t h e members i d e n t i f i e d p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t t h e e x e c u t i v e and c o m m i t t e e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e g e n e r a l membership a l t h o u g h some women who h e l d o r d i n a r y membership o v e r a p e r i o d o f y e a r s were i d e n t i f i a b l e a l s o . These t h r e e c l u b s were c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r t h a n t h e UWC, LCW and Women's B u i l d i n g and i t may be t h a t q u i t e a s m a l l number o f women r e m a i n u n i d e n t i f i e d . One n o t a b l e f a c t o r a b o u t membership i n a l l t h e c l u b s was i t s l o n g term n a t u r e . W e l l o v e r h a l f t h e women i d e n t i f i e d were members of one o r more c l u b s f o r t h r e e y e a r s o r l o n g e r and many were a c t i v e o v e r t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d . T h i s would have r e s u l t e d i n a s m a l l e r number of women p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n c l u b a c t i v i t i e s t h a n i f t h e r e had been major and c o n s t a n t c hanges i n membership from y e a r t o y e a r . A l t h o u g h i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o e s t i m a t e e x a c t l y t h e t o t a l number of women i n v o l v e d i n the g r o u p of c l u b s d u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1910-1928, t h o s e i d e n t i f i e d r e p r e s e n t a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n , p r o b a b l y w e l l o v e r h a l f . They a l s o r e p r e s e n t t h o s e women who had most i m p a c t and i n v o l v e m e n t . Women who r e m a i n u n i d e n t i f i e d were p r o b a b l y t h o s e who p l a y e d a v e r y m i n o r r o l e i n c l u b l i f e . 246 The m a r i t a l s t a t u s o f i d e n t i f i e d clubmembers was o b t a i n e d i n most c a s e s , but some p r o b l e m s e x i s t e d . Widows were p r o b a b l y not a l l d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e l a r g e body of m a r r i e d women, a h a n d f u l of members used o n l y t h e t i t l e " D o c t o r " and i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e i r m a r i t a l s t a t u s was not a v a i l a b l e , and t h e s u b s e q u e n t m a r r i a g e of i n i t i a l l y s i n g l e members may have been m i s s e d i n some c a s e s . Most s i n g l e women of m a r r y i n g age were UWC members and t h i s c l u b ' s r e c o r d s m e n t i o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e of a number of m a r r i a g e s but how c o n s i s t e n t l y t h e y were n o t e d i s not c l e a r . Newly m a r r i e d women may have w i t h d r a w n from c l u b l i f e o r may have c o n t i n u e d t h e i r membership under t h e i r m a r r i e d names. Fou r o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were a l s o d i f f i c u l t t o p i n p o i n t f o r s i g n i f i c a n t numbers of clubwomen. A woman's age was not c u s t o m a r i l y m e n t i o n e d e i t h e r i n c l u b r e c o r d s o r i n p u b l i c n o t i c e s . Even d e a t h n o t i c e s i n t h e p r e s s o m i t t e d t h i s d e t a i l r e g u l a r l y . I t was t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o r e l y on i n d i r e c t d a t a s u c h as age of c h i l d r e n , d a t e of m a r r i a g e o r g r a d u a t i o n , o r rou g h a s s e s s m e n t from d a t e d p h o t o g r a p h s . Even s u c h c l u e s as t h e s e were u n a v a i l a b l e f o r most women. R e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n was not commonly r e c o r d e d e x c e p t i n t h e c a s e of d e l e g a t e s t o t h e LCW from c h u r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s . And w h i l e i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t few clubmembers had been b o r n i n V a n c o u v e r t h e i r o r i g i n s and d a t e of a r r i v a l i n t h e c i t y u s u a l l y r e m a i n o b s u r e . E d u c a t i o n , t o o , was r a r e l y m e n t i o n e d . UWC members n e c e s s a r i l y h e l d a t l e a s t a B a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e and a m i n o r i t y of o t h e r clubwomen were a l s o known t o have d e g r e e s but t h e e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d of most women r e m a i n s unknown. 247 Two f u r t h e r f a c t o r s were i d e n t i f i a b l e f o r s i g n i f i c a n t numbers of t h e 1534 women. I t was p o s s i b l e t o a s c e r t a i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n of husbands o f a l m o s t h a l f of t h e 1041 clubwomen who were m a r r i e d . A f u r t h e r 190 women were i d e n t i f i e d as engaged i n p a i d employment on t h e i r own b e h a l f . A s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s , on a s c a l e of 1 t o 5 f o r men and 2 t o 5 f o r women, was a s s i g n e d t o t h e s e women (See A p p e n d i x C ) . P l a c e of r e s i d e n c e was a l s o d i s c o v e r e d f o r 1138 of t h e i d e n t i f i e d c l u b members w h i c h , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r a s s i g n e d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s , gave an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e i r s o c i a l c l a s s . From amongst t h e t o t a l g r o u p of 1534, a s m a l l e r g r o u p of t h i r t y - t h r e e women were i d e n t i f i e d as f o r m i n g t h e n u c l e u s of l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e c l u b s i n r e s p e c t t o l e g i s l a t i v e r e f o r m and c i t i z e n s h i p o v e r t h e p e r i o d 1910-1928. The c r i t e r i a f o r i n c l u s i o n i n t h i s s m a l l e r g r o u p were not c l e a r c u t i n a l l r e s p e c t s . A c t i v e membership i n more t h a n one c l u b o v e r a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n of t h e p e r i o d was c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t a l t h o u g h two women, E v l y n F a r r i s and H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e .each b e l o n g e d t o o n l y one. 4 A c e r t a i n l e v e l of a c t i v i t y i n e x e c u t i v e p o s i t i o n s or on c o m m i t t e e s was a l s o r e q u i r e d . C a n d i d a c y f o r or e l e c t i o n o r a p p o i n t m e n t t o p u b l i c b o a r d s , g o v e r n i n g b o d i e s o r o t h e r p u b l i c p o s t s was a l s o t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t as was t h e amount of r e c o g n i t i o n g i v e n t o t h e women and t h e i r a c t i v i t y i n c l u b 4 E v l y n F a r r i s a p p e a r s o n l y t o have b e l o n g e d t o t h e UWC w h i c h she f o u n d e d . I t i s somewhat p u z z l i n g t h a t she d i d not a t l e a s t a l s o j o i n t h e LCW but no r e c o r d of h e r name has been d i s c o v e r e d i n i t s r e c o r d s o r e l s e w h e r e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s was t h e c a s e . 248 <-r e c o r d s and t h e p u b l i c p r e s s . Though t h e c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i o n v a r i e d s l i g h t l y amongst t h e t h i r t y - t h r e e women, t h e o v e r a l l r e q u i r e m e n t was a s t r o n g and v i s i b l e l e a d e r s h i p r o l e o v e r a p e r i o d of y e a r s . S e v e r a l women were p u r p o s e l y o m i t t e d from t h e g r o u p because t h e i r i n f l u e n c e , t h o u g h s t r o n g i n t h e s h o r t t e r m was not c o n s i d e r e d t o have e x t e n d e d o v e r a s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g p e r i o d . P e r h a p s t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t t h a t can be made i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m a j o r i t y of clubwomen i s not t h a t t h e y were a homogenous g r o u p of " t y p i c a l " r e f o r m e r s of t h e i r t i m e but t h a t t h e r e were many s i g n i f i c a n t d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s amongst them. C e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c o u l d be s e l e c t e d w h i c h w o u l d a p p l y t o s i g n i f i c a n t numbers but t h e v a r i a t i o n s a r e t o o i m p o r t a n t t o d i s m i s s i n an a t t e m p t t o d e s c r i b e o n l y t h e norm. The v a r i o u s i d e n t i f i a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must t h e r e f o r e be examined f o r b o t h s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s . The m a j o r i t y of i d e n t i f i e d clubwomen were m a r r i e d as p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s have e m p h a s i z e d , but a l a r g e number were s i n g l e women. Of t h e 98.6% of members whose m a r i t a l s t a t u s was d e t e r m i n e d , 70.2% were m a r r i e d , 26% s i n g l e , and 2.4% widowed. C l e a r l y , m a r r i e d women d i d not have a monopoly on r e f o r m and c i t i z e n s h i p a c t i v i t i e s . The m a j o r i t y of s i n g l e women were members of t h e UWC w h i c h c o n s i s t e n t l y had more s i n g l e t h a n m a r r i e d members. Many were young and r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t g r a d u a t e s but a c o n s i d e r a b l e number r e m a i n e d p e r m a n e n t l y s i n g l e and 249 p u r s u e d b o t h c a r e e r s and r e f o r m o v e r an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d . L i k e m a r r i e d clubwomen whose f a m i l i e s had grown p a s t t h e s t a g e of n e e d i n g c o n s t a n t a t t e n t i o n , t h e s e s i n g l e women had a c e r t a i n amount of f r e e t i m e t o d e v o t e t o c l u b l i f e and f r e q u e n t l y , t h ough not i n v a r i a b l y t h e i r c o n c e r n f o r r e f o r m a r o s e out of t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s . The age of clubmembers was i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e w i t h a c c u r a c y e x c e p t i n t h e c a s e of a few i n d i v i d u a l s . Of t h e s e , t h e y o u n g e s t were i n t h e i r mid t o l a t e t w e n t i e s i n 1910. The r e m a i n d e r r a n g e d from t h e i r m i d - t h i r t i e s t o c l o s e on f i f t y . By the 1920's t h e s e o l d e s t members were q u i t e e l d e r l y women. U s i n g a l l a v a i l a b l e i n d i r e c t c l u e s , s u c h as age of c h i l d r e n , p h o t o g r a p h s , t h e d a t e s of o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t l i f e e v e nts- s u c h as m a r r i a g e o r g r a d u a t i o n i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of clubwomen were i n t h e o v e r - f o r t y age g r o u p . M a r i t a l s t a t u s and age ap p e a r t o have been l i n k e d t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t though t h i s was by no means i n v a r i a b l e . The UWC, w i t h t h e h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n of s i n g l e members had t h e l a r g e s t number of younger members, p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r 1920 when new g r a d u a t e s of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a began t o j o i n . The s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of s i n g l e members i n c l u b s o t h e r t h a n t h e UWC a p p e a r s t o have been o l d e r and t o have r e m a i n e d p e r m a n e n t l y u n m a r r i e d a l t h o u g h some s i n g l e members of t h e LCW may have been d e l e g a t e s from a f f i l i a t e d c l u b s w i t h y ounger members. The G r a d u a t e N u r s e s ' A s s o c i a t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , was a l m o s t a l w a y s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e LCW by s i n g l e women. As r e c o g n i t i o n of p r o v i n c e - w i d e s t a n d a r d s i n n u r s i n g t r a i n i n g d i d not o c c u r i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a u n t i l t h e s e c o n d decade of the 250 c e n t u r y , t h e s e women were l i k e l y r e c e n t g r a d u a t e s . 5 The Women's B u i l d i n g t o o p r o b a b l y had a s m a l l number of yo u n g e r women amongst i t s members. F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e A m e r i c a n G i r l s ' C l u b and t h e G i r l s ' A u x i l i a r i e s of t h e V a n c o u v e r G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l and the L o y a l C i r c l e o f K i n g ' s D a u g h t e r s were s h a r e h o l d e r s i n t h e B u i l d i n g . A number o f o l d e r members a l s o bought s h a r e s i n t h e i r d a u g h t e r s ' names.but whether t h e s e d a u g h t e r s a c t i v e l y s u p p o r t e d t h e B u i l d i n g i s not c l e a r . 6 P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t c l u b l e a d e r s a t l e a s t were g e n e r a l l y from t h e more mature a g e - g r o u p . 7 I n V a n c o u v e r t h i s a l s o seems t o have been t h e c a s e a l t h o u g h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e 1910's some l e a d e r s were s l i g h t l y y o u n g e r . S u s i e Lane C l a r k , K a t e McQueen and L a u r a J a m i e s o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , were a l l i n t h e i r t h i r t i e s a t t h i s t i m e . Rank and f i l e membership i n Va n c o u v e r a l w a y s i n c l u d e d a number o f younger women b u t t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e y p l a y e d a p a r t i c u l a r l y a c t i v e r o l e i n c l u b l i f e o r t h a t t h e y r e m a i n e d members t h r o u g h t o m i d d l e age. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e y w i t h d r e w from c l u b a c t i v i t i e s as and when t h e y m a r r i e d and r e j o i n e d i n l a t e r y e a r s but t h e r e i s no 5 P r o v i s i o n f o r t h e e x a m i n a t i o n and r e g i s t r a t i o n of n u r s e s and t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of a g r a d u a t e n u r s e s ' o r g a n i z a t i o n were, i n c l u d e d i n t h e R e g i s t e r e d N u r s e s ' A c t 1918, c h . 6 5 . However, a G r a d u a t e N u r s e s ' A s s o c i a t i o n had been i n e x i s t e n c e s i n c e a t l e a s t 1912 when i t a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e LCW. The LCW was i n v o l v e d i n l o b b y i n g f o r r e c o g n i t i o n of s t a n d a r d q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and from 1916-20 had a s t a n d i n g c o m m i t t e e on N u r s i n g ; see a l s o J u d i C o b u r n , ' " I See and am S i l e n t ' ; A S h o r t H i s t o r y of N u r s i n g , " J a n i c e A c t o n , Penny G o l d s m i t h and B o n n i e S h e p a r d , Women a t Work, pp. 151-55. 6 See A n n u a l S t a t e m e n t s , Women's B u i l d i n g F i l e . 7 F o r i n s t a n c e , see V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t of Women, ch . 4 . 251 e v i d e n c e of t h i s . Clubwomen, on t h e whole were o l d e r women, tho u g h a c e r t a i n number were young; young m a t r o n s w i t h g r o w i n g f a m i l i e s , however, r a r e l y a p p e a r e d t o j o i n c l u b s . E d u c a t i o n a l a c h i e v e m e n t was a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r f o r c e r t a i n clubwomen. A l l UWC members had a B a c h e l o r ' s o r h i g h e r d e g r e e , but s u c h a l e v e l of e d u c a t i o n was u n u s u a l amongst members o f o t h e r c l u b s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e 430 who d i d have d e g r e e s c o m p r i s e d 38% of t h e t o t a l of i d e n t i f i e d clubwomen. T h i s was a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s m a l l number of women g r a d u a t e s i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n even by the end of t h e 1920's when f e m a l e u n i v e r s i t y a t t e n d a n c e had i n c r e a s e d . A s m a l l e r number of women p u r s u e d o c c u p a t i o n s w h i c h r e q u i r e d a c e r t a i n s t a n d a r d of e d u c a t i o n beyond t h e s e c o n d a r y l e v e l . F o r i n s t a n c e , o n l y s i x t y - s i x of t h e e i g h t y - o n e members who were t e a c h e r s h e l d d e g r e e s . The r e m a i n d e r had p r e s u m a b l y a t t e n d e d a t e a c h e r s ' c o l l e g e o r n o r m a l s c h o o l . O t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s s u c h as n u r s i n g , j o u r n a l i s m , l i b r a r i a n s h i p and s t e n o g r a p h y c l e a r l y r e q u i r e d a c e r t a i n l e v e l of e d u c a t i o n t h ough not n e c e s s a r i l y f o r m a l c e r t i f i c a t i o n . The m a j o r i t y of clubwomen, however, show no e v i d e n c e of any e d u c a t i o n beyond e l e m e n t a r y o r p o s s i b l y s e c o n d a r y l e v e l . P l a c e of b i r t h and e t h n i c o r i g i n of members were two f u r t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t were r a r e l y r e c o r d e d by c l u b s and were t h u s v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e w i t h any d e g r e e of-a c c u r a c y . The newness of V a n c o u v e r i t s e l f and t h e age of t h e m a j o r i t y of clubwomen meant t h a t v e r y few members p r i o r t o t h e 252 1920's would have been n a t i v e s of t h e c i t y . Most of the few women whose p l a c e of b i r t h was d i s c o v e r e d came from e a s t e r n Canada. I n t h e f i r s t d e cades of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h e p o p u l a t i o n of V a n c o u v e r was l a r g e l y of B r i t i s h s t o c k but of t h e s e a g r o w i n g p r o p o r t i o n were C a n a d i a n b o r n . I n t h e 1911 c e n s u s 75% of men and 82% of women i n t h e c i t y were c l a s s e d as b e i n g of B r i t i s h r a c i a l s t o c k and of t h e s e 39% of men and 51% of women had been b o r n i n Canada. 8 I n l i n e ' w i t h t h e l a r g e l y C a n a d i a n and B r i t i s h o r i g i n s of t h e c i t y ' s p o p u l a t i o n , t h e names of clubmembers were p r e d o m i n a n t l y of B r i t i s h o r i g i n . I n t h e c a s e of m a r r i e d women t h i s may have r e p r e s e n t e d t h e o r i g i n s of t h e husband r a t h e r t h a n t h e w i f e but i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t t h i s w o u l d e f f e c t s i g n i f i c a n t numbers. Some n o n - B r i t i s h names were t o be f o u n d amongst members but i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e were a t l e a s t s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n C a n a d i a n s o r A m e r i c a n s . A l t o g e t h e r i t seems p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of clubwomen came from e a s t e r n Canada, B r i t a i n o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h an i n c r e a s i n g number of l o c a l l y b o rn women amongst t h e younger members by t h e 1920's. 9 R e l i g i o n was not a f a c t o r t h a t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d membership i n t h e c l u b s s t u d i e d but i t was an o b s e r v a b l e and i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e g e n e r a l r e f o r m movement o f t h e p e r i o d . R i c h a r d A l l e n has p o i n t e d o ut t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e s o c i a l 8 Canada, Census of Canada 1911 v o l . 2, pp.' 426-27 . 9 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t of Women, pp. 167-68; C a r o l D e n n i s o n , "The Women's I n s t i t u t e s i n B.C.," pp. 61-62. 253 g o s p e l movement, b o t h i n t h e y e a r s of i t s a s c e n t , 1890-1914, and d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of i t s g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e , 1914-28. The movement was, b a s e d on t h e b e l i e f t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y r e q u i r e d "A p a s s i o n a t e commitment t o s o c i a l i n v o l v e m e n t " and t h e n o t i o n t h a t " A l l a l i k e s h a r e d i n t h e s o c i a l g u i l t of an i m p e r f e c t w o r l d , and t h e way from d e a t h t o l i f e , . . . l a y t h r o u g h a w a k e n i n g t h e ' s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' and h a r n e s s i n g o n e s e l f t o the. s o c i a l p r o b l e m w i t h t h e yoke of s o c i a l c o n c e r n . " 1 0 He i d e n t i f i e d t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n , M e t h o d i s t and A n g l i c a n c h u r c h e s as b e i n g t h e most a c t i v e i n t h e movement a l t h o u g h S h e i l a Mosher has c o n c l u d e d t h a t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , a t l e a s t , t h e A n g l i c a n c h u r c h d i d not become h e a v i l y i n v o l v e d u n t i l a f t e r t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r . 1 1 Many of t h e r e f o r m s s o u g h t by o r g a n i z e d women were s i m i l a r t o t h o s e d e s i r e d by s o c i a l g o s p e l l e r s . J u s t how g r e a t an e f f e c t t h e s o c i a l g o s p e l had on clubwomen i n V a n c o u v e r i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e b e c a u s e t h e r e was no d i r e c t l i n k between t h e two g r o u p s . However, t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e s o c i a l g o s p e l movement may have e n c o u r a g e d a g r e a t e r number of women w i t h s t r o n g r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n t o t a k e p a r t i n r e f o r m a c t i v i t i e s . T h i s i s s u g g e s t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t some 60% of women whose r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n was d e t e r m i n e d were e i t h e r M e t h o d i s t o r P r e s b y t e r i a n , t h e two d e n o m i n a t i o n s most c l o s e l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l g o s p e l . O n l y 1 0 R i c h a r d A l l e n , The S o c i a l P a s s i o n : R e l i g i o n and S o c i a l Reform i n Canada 1914-1928 ( T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1973), pp. 16-17. 1 1 S h e i l a Mosher, "The S o c i a l G o s p e l i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a : S o c i a l R e form as a D i m e n s i o n of R e l i g i o n , 1900-1920," (M.A. t h e s i s , UBC, 1974), p . 1; C a r o l B a c c h i , L i b e r a t i o n D e f e r r e d ? , a l s o found most s u f f r a g i s t s were P r e s b y t e r i a n , M e t h o d i s t o r A n g l i c a n . 254 a h a n d f u l of A n g l i c a n women, on t h e o t h e r hand, were i d e n t i f i e d . A l l e n has n o t e d t h a t a s i m i l a r b u t s e p a r a t e s o c i a l g o s p e l movement e x i s t e d i n t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d w h i c h may a c c o u n t f o r t h e h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of women of t h i s d e n o m i n a t i o n i n c l u b s t h a n i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . 1 2 A number of m i n i s t e r s ' w i v e s were a c t i v e i n t h e c l u b s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e LCW. T h i s may have been a r e s u l t of t h e r e f o r m a t m o s p h e r e w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h e s but may a l s o have stemmed from t h e f a c t t h a t m i n i s t e r s ' w i v e s were t r a d i t i o n a l l y e x p e c t e d t o p l a y an a c t i v e r o l e i n r e s p e c t t o s o c i a l i s s u e s . S i x t e e n s u c h women were i d e n t i f i e d as clubmembers d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1910-28 and of t h e s e , f o u r h e l d e x e c u t i v e p o s i t i o n s i n t h e LCW. N i n a de P e n c i e r j o i n e d t h e LCW i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of t h e c e n t u r y when she a r r i v e d i n t h e c i t y w i t h h e r husband who to o k up h i s m i n i s t r y a t S t . P a u l ' s C h u r c h . He l a t e r became B i s h o p of New W e s t m i n s t e r , t h e A n g l i c a n d i o c e s e of w h i c h V a n c o u v e r was t h e p r i n c i p a l c i t y . N i n a de P e n c i e r was an a c t i v e member o f t h e LCW " e x e c u t i v e on many o c c a s i o n s and a l s o s e r v e d as p r e s i d e n t and h o n o r a r y p r e s i d e n t f o r a number of y e a r s . D e s i r e U n s w o r t h , w i f e of P a s t o r J o s e p h U n s w o r t h of F i r s t C o n g r e g a t i o n a l C h u r c h , was LCW p r e s i d e n t i n 1914 b e f o r e moving t o V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d . She was a l s o i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e C i t y C r e c h e and t h e C e n t r a l M i s s i o n Rescue and P r o t e c t i o n S o c i e t y i n 1912-14. Mrs George C. P i d g e o n was w i f e of t h e R e g i s t r a r of W e s t m i n s t e r H a l l , t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n T h e o l o g i c a l C o l l e g e and was LCW s e c r e t a r y i n 1915. Mrs George 0. 1 2 R i c h a r d A l l e n , The S o c i a l P a s s i o n , p . x x i i i . 255 F a l l i s was m a r r i e d t o the M e t h o d i s t f o u n d e r of C a n a d i a n M e m o r i a l C h u r c h and h e l d s e v e r a l e x e c u t i v e and c o m m i t t e e p o s i t i o n s i n t h e LCW i n t h e 1920's. D e s c r i b e d by t h o s e who knew h e r , as s m a l l and b i r d l i k e but w i t h an a p p a r e n t l y i n e x h a u s t i b l e s u p p l y of e n e r g y , she was a l s o a c t i v e i n t h e s o c i a l s e r v i c e s s e c t i o n of t h e UWC and on t h e b o a r d of d i r e c t o r s of t h e Women's B u i l d i n g . 1 3 The a c t i v i t i e s of t h e c h u r c h e s a t t h i s t i m e no doubt s e r v e d t o enhance t h e c l i m a t e of s o c i a l r e f o r m , w i t h i n w h i c h women's c l u b s o p e r a t e d and no doubt some women were s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r own p e r s o n a l r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s but t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e women's c l u b s s t u d i e d were one of t h e major media t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y worked. The s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s of 508 of t h e 1041 m a r r i e d clubwomen was a s c e r t a i n e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e o c c u p a t i o n s of t h e i r h u s b a n d s . S t a t u s was a s s i g n e d on a f i v e p o i n t s c a l e from 1 ( h i g h ) t o 5 ( l o w ) . T h e r e were no husbands i n t h e l o w e s t c a t e g o r y ( s e e A p p e n d i x C ) . C a t e g o r y 1 i n c l u d e d t h e major p r o f e s s i o n s and s e n i o r b u s i n e s s and c o m m e r c i a l o c c u p a t i o n s and r e p r e s e n t e d t h e v e r y t o p 1 3 I n t e r v i e w s J u l y 9, and 13, 1983. 256 s t r a t u m of s o c i e t y . 1 " M e d i c i n e , t h e law and t h e c h u r c h were w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l e . n u m b e r t o o ,of a c c o u n t a n t s , h i g h r a n k i n g company o f f i c e r s , l a r g e - s c a l e m e r c h a n t s o r company owners and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s . C a t e g o r y 2 c o n s i s t e d of t h e mi n o r p r o f e s s i o n s , m i d d l e and l o w e r l e v e l b u s i n e s s o c c u p a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g o w n e r s h i p of s m a l l b u s i n e s s e s , w h i t e c o l l a r o c c u p a t i o n s and one or two h i g h l y s k i l l e d n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n s . The boom i n l a n d t r a n s a c t i o n s and c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e c i t y i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of t h e c e n t u r y i s i n d i c a t e d by a number of r e a l t o r s , b u i l d e r s and c o n t r a c t o r s and t h e g r o w t h o f t h e c i t y as t h e b u s i n e s s c e n t r e of t h e p r o v i n c e by a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of a g e n t s , managers, b r o k e r s , i n s u r a n c e d e a l e r s and g e n e r a l c l e r i c a l and o f f i c e w o r k e r s . J u s t o v e r h a l f o f t h e husbands f e l l i n t o t h i s c a t e g o r y w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d t h e m i d d l e t o upper m i d d l e - c l a s s s e c t i o n of s o c i e t y . C a t e g o r y 3 was made up a l m o s t e n t i r e l y of s k i l l e d t r a d e s m e n i n a v a r i e t y of a r e a s whose s o c i a l p o s i t i o n p r o b a b l y r a n g e d from p r o s p e r o u s w o r k i n g c l a s s t o low m i d d l e - c l a s s . 1" R o b e r t M a cDonald, " B u s i n e s s L e a d e r s i n E a r l y V a n c o u v e r 1886-1914," (Ph.D. t h e s i s , UBC, 1977) and Angus R o b e r t s o n , "The P u r s u i t o f Power, P r o f i t and P r i v a c y : A Study of V a n c o u v e r ' s West End E l i t e , " (M.A. t h e s i s , UBC, 1977) b o t h examine s e l e c t e d g r o u p s of t h e c i t y ' s s o c i a l e l i t e . V e r y few husbands of clubwomen a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e i r s t u d i e s but t h e y o c c u p i e d a s i m i l a r , i f m a r g i n a l l y l o w e r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n . Most of t h e husbands i n c a t e g o r y I were m e n t i o n e d i n t h e V a n c o u v e r S o c i a l R e g i s t e r and C l u b D i r e c t o r y ( V a n c o u v e r : Welch and G i b b s P u b l i s h e r s L t d , 1914). 257 C a t e g o r y 4 c o n s i s t e d . ' o f s e m i - s k i l l e d or u n s k i l l e d o c c u p a t i o n s and c o n t a i n e d o n l y a v e r y s m a l l number of men. They were c l e a r l y w o r k i n g c l a s s . By f a r t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f clubwomen were m a r r i e d as we have seen and of t h e s e m a r r i e d women t h e g r e a t e s t number were h o u s e w i v e s . Some of them t o o k on heavy r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s on an u n p a i d o r n o m i n a l l y p a i d b a s i s , f o r i n s t a n c e on p u b l i c b o a r d s , o r as i n t h e c a s e of H e l e n M a c G i l l and L a u r a J a m i e s o n , on t h e bench o f t h e j u v e n i l e c o u r t s ; o t h e r worked s p o r a d i c a l l y , f o r i n s t a n c e as j o u r n a l i s t s , but w h i l e t h e y may have made' some money t h e y were not and d i d not c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s w o r k i n g women. A t o t a l of 190 clubwomen, however, d i d work a t f u l l - t i m e , p a i d j o b s between 1910 and 1928. T h i s was much l e s s t h an t h e 60% o f s u f f r a g i s t s i d e n t i f i e d by B a c c h i as h o l d i n g f u l l - t i m e employment. But i t was o n l y s l i g h t l y l e s s t h a n t h e 14-15% o f t h e t o t a l f e m a l e w o r k f o r c e i n t h e p r o v i n c e o v e r t h e age of t e n y e a r s . 1 5 A p p r o x i m a t e l y one q u a r t e r of t h e s e 190 employed clubwomen were m a r r i e d women who* c o n t i n u e d t o p r a c t i s e p r o f e s s i o n s , p r o b a b l y from c h o i c e r a t h e r t h a n n e c e s s i t y . The o t h e r t h r e e q u a r t e r s were s i n g l e and o b v i o u s l y worked t o s u p p o r t t h e m s e l v e s . 1 5 C a r o l B a c c h i , L i b e r a t i o n D e f e r r e d ? , p.13; Canada. Census of Canada 1921, v o l . 4, p . x i v . 258 Women were r a t e d on t h e same o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s s c a l e as men but were p l a c e d one c a t e g o r y l o w e r t o a l l o w f o r t h e i r l o w e r s t a t u s b o t h as women and as w o r k e r s (See A p p e n d i x C ) . No women were t h e r e f o r e e l i g i b l e f o r C a t e g o r y 1 and none a p p e a r e d i n C a t e g o r y 5. As w i t h men, t h e h i g h e s t c a t e g o r y ( i n t h i s c a s e #2) i n c l u d e d t h e p r o f e s s i o n s of m e d i c i n e and l a w , u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h e r s and one or two women from t h e h i g h e s t r a n k s of b u s i n e s s . The m i d d l e c a t e g o r y (#3) i n c l u d e d t h e m a j o r i t y of women. They worked as t e a c h e r s , n u r s e s , j o u r n a l i s t s , and i n a v a r i e t y of s k i l l e d c l e r i c a l and o f f i c e j o b s . O n l y a s m a l l number worked a t j o b s i n c a t e r g o r y 4 w h i c h i n c l u d e d d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e , f a c t o r y j o b s and s e m i - s k i l l e d o f f i c e and r e t a i l o c c u p a t i o n s . The f a c t t h a t some 12% of clubwomen were employed, as compared w i t h 14-15% of a l l women, t h e r e f o r e t a k e s on g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e . The t o t a l f e m a l e w o r k f o r c e , as o f f i c i a l l y r e c o r d e d by t h e 1921 c e n s u s , i n c l u d e d a l l f e m a l e s o v e r t h e age of t e n and was composed p r e d o m i n a n t l y o f w o r k i n g - c l a s s women i n u n s k i l l e d o r s e m i - s k i l l e d o c c u p a t i o n s . The 12% of employed and l a r g e l y m i d d l e - c l a s s clubwomen i s t h e r e f o r e a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n t h a n t h a t o f w o r k i n g women of t h e same c l a s s i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . I n o t h e r words, w h i l e p a i d employment f o r women of h i g h e r t h a n w o r k i n g - c l a s s s t a t u s was s t i l l not common, amongst clubwomen i t was c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n f o r t h e same c l a s s of women i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . . The o c c u p a t i o n s of w o r k i n g V a n c o u v e r clubwomen and / o r t h e i r h usbands i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e s e women were of m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a t u s . A s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n came from a h i g h e r 259 s o c i a l l e v e l and can be c l a s s e d as members of t h e s o c i a l e l i t e . However, a s m a l l but s i g n i f i c a n t number of members were from t h e upper l e v e l s of t h e w o r k i n g - c l a s s . The p r o p o r t i o n s of u p p e r , m i d d l e and w o r k i n g - c l a s s members seems t o have been r o u g h l y 2:6:1. The mix of c l a s s e s i s c o n f i r m e d by an e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e p l a c e of r e s i d e n c e of i n d i v i d u a l members w h i c h was a l s o t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e l i n k e d t o c l a s s . From t h e l a t e 1880's t i l l t h e end of t h e f i r s t decade of t h e new c e n t u r y V a n c o u v e r ' s West End w h i c h l a y between S t a n l e y Park and t h e i n d u s t r i a l and c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y of t h e c e n t r a l b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t was the c h i e f r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a f o r t h e c i t y ' s p r o s p e r o u s upper m i d d l e and e l i t e c l a s s e s . 1 6 (see F i g u r e 3) The e a s t end of t h e c i t y ( S t r a t h c o n a ) was a l s o e x p a n d i n g a t t h i s t i m e but was u n s u i t a b l e as a r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a f o r t h e upper c l a s s e s b e c a u s e of c o n f l i c t w i t h o t h e r k i n d s of l a n d u s e . The w e a l t h y d i d not w i s h t o l i v e i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o smoke and n o i s e from s a w m i l l s and o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s nor s i d e by s i d e w i t h t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s and e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s . Edward G i b s o n has n o t e d t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of upper and m i d d l e - c l a s s women were e q u a l l y as i m p o r t a n t as t h o s e of t h e i r m e n f o l k i n t h e c h o i c e of a r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a . The l a r g e and g r a c i o u s h o u s e s t h a t were 1 6 R o b e r t McDonald, " B u s i n e s s L e a d e r s , " pp. 259-66; Angus R o b e r t s o n , "The P u r s u i t of Power," pp. 2-12; see a l s o Edward G i b s o n , "The Impact of S o c i a l B e l i e f on L a n d s c a p e Change: A G e o g r a p h i c a l S t u d y of V a n c o u v e r , " (Ph.D. t h e s i s , UBC, 1971), c h . 3 ; A l a n M o r l e y , V a n c o u v e r : From M i l l t o w n t o M e t r o p o l i s pp. 119-20, 127-28; P a t r i c i a Roy, V a n c o u v e r : An I l l u s t r a t e d H i s t o r y ( T o r o n t o : James L o r i m e r & Co. and N a t i o n a l Museums of Canada, 1980), c h . 2 . •v 260 c o n s t r u c t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e West End r e f l e c t e d t h e l i f e s t y l e of t h e s e women and t h e i m p o r t a n c e of home e n t e r t a i n i n g and v i s i t i n g j u s t as much as t h e s o c i a l and b u s i n e s s s t a t u s of t h e i r h u s b a n d s . The s o c i a l h a b i t s and v i c e s of t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s and of e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s , s u c h as p u b l i c d r i n k i n g and g a m b l i n g made t h e e a s t end t o t a l l y u n a t t r a c t i v e f o r m i d d l e - c l a s s women. 1 7 Many women were c o n c e r n e d t o improve o r e r a d i c a t e t h i s t y p e of b e h a v i o u r ; t h e y c e r t a i n l y had no d e s i r e t o l i v e amongst i t . 1 7 Edward G i b s o n , "The Impact of S o c i a l B e l i e f , " p.81; Angus R o b e r t s o n , "The P u r s u i t o f Power," pp. 2,4,9. 261 F i g u r e 3 L o c a l A r e a B o u n d a r i e s , V a n c o u v e r 262 J u s t as t h e West End's " p r e e m i n e n t s o c i a l p o s i t i o n " had become s t r o n g l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of t h e c e n t u r y , s e v e r a l o t h e r a r e a s t o t h e s o u t h of F a l s e Creek began t o c h a l l e n g e i t as d e s i r a b l e l i v i n g s p ace b o t h f o r t h o s e a t t h e t o p of V a n c o u v e r s o c i e t y as w e l l as f o r the p r o s p e r o u s m i d d l e -c l a s s . 1 8 In 1910 F a i r v i e w r i v a l l e d t h e West End i n some r e s p e c t s as t h e most a t t r a c t i v e a r e a i n t h e c i t y . L y i n g on t h e s o u t h e a s t s h o r e of F a l s e C r e e k , i t o f f e r e d an e x c e l l e n t v i e w as w e l l as e a s y a c c e s s t o t h e c i t y on newly b u i l t b r i d g e s and s t r e e t c a r l i n e s . 1 9 Good m u n i c i p a l programs w h i c h i n c l u d e d sewerage, p a r k s and s i d e w a l k s , added t o i t s a t t r a c t i o n s . The main c i t y h i g h s c h o o l , t h e G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l and t h e t e m p o r a r y UBC campus were a l s o i n t h e a r e a . A s t r e e t c a r e x t e n s i o n t o w a r d Mt. P l e a s a n t was opened i n 1912 g i v i n g a c c e s s t o t h i s d e v e l o p i n g m i d d l e - c l a s s s u b u r b a l s o . 2 0 G r a n d v i e w and K i t s i l a n o a l s o a t t e m p t e d t o a t t r a c t f a m i l i e s of s o c i a l s t a n d i n g i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s but w i t h o u t major m u n i c i p a l improvements t h e y were l e s s s u c c e s s f u l t h a n F a i r v i e w . M i d d l e - c l a s s f a m i l i e s , however, d i d b u i l d and were f o l l o w e d by some of t h e more p r o s p e r o u s w o r k i n g c l a s s of B r i t i s h o r C a n a d i a n o r i g i n who a l s o began t o move from t h e i r o r i g i n a l homes i n Y a l e t o w n ( i n t h e s o u t h e a s t c o r n e r of t h e downtown a r e a ) and S t r a t h c o n a t o Mount P l e a s a n t , G r a n d v i e w and S o u t h V a n c o u v e r ( w h i c h w o u l d l a t e r i n c l u d e L i t t l e M o u n t a i n , M a r p o l e , Cedar R o b e r t McDonald, " B u s i n e s s L e a d e r s " , p.261. P a t r i c i a Roy, "The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a E l e c t r i c R a i l w a y Company, 1897-1928: A B r i t i s h Company i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , " (Ph.D. t h e s i s , UBC, 1970), p.405. Edward G i b s o n , "The Impact of S o c i a l B e l i e f , " p.82. 263 C o t t a g e and R i l e y P a r k - K e n s i n g t o n ) . 2 1 Members of t h e b u s i n e s s and p r o f e s s i o n a l c l a s s a l s o r e l o c a t e d i n t o a r e a s l i k e P o i n t G r e y , K e r r i s d a l e and t h e f a s h i o n a b l e Shaughnessy H e i g h t s , opened i n 1910 by t h e C a n a d i a n P a c i f i c R a i l Company on one of i t s many l a n d g r a n t s . P o i n t Grey and Shaughnessy i n p a r t i c u l a r r e p r e s e n t e d a " d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t by t h e c o r p o r a t i o n t o m a n i p u l a t e s t a n d a r d s of s o c i a l s t y l e f o r t h e ' w e a l t h y ' of t h e c i t y " and by 1914 R o b e r t McDonald p l a c e s one i n f i v e of t h e c i t y ' s b u s i n e s s l e a d e r s as r e s i d i n g i n one or t h e o t h e r of t h e m . 2 2 D e s p i t e i t s l o s s of s t a t u s a f t e r t h e r e l o c a t i o n of a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e cream of s o c i e t y and t h e c o n s e q u e n t g r o w t h of c h e a p e r houses and a p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g s a f t e r 1910, t h e West End n e v e r t h e l e s s r e t a i n e d a h i g h l e v e l of d e s i r a b l i l t y and, w i t h i t s s i z e and e a s y a c c e s s t o t h e c i t y , a h i g h p o p u l a t i o n of m i d d l e t o u p p e r - c l a s s r e s i d e n t s . The West End, K i t s i l a n o , P o i n t G r e y , K e r r i s d a l e and Shaughnessy w h i c h G i b s o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d as s o l i d l y h i g h s t a t u s a t t h i s t i m e were home t o o v e r two t h i r d s of i d e n t i f i e d clubwomen w i t h t h e m a j o r i t y r e s i d i n g i n t h e West End. The a r e a s t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d t o be p r e d o m i n a n t l y w o r k i n g - c l a s s , Mount P l e a s a n t , G r a n d v i e w , H a s t i n g s , S t r a t h c o n a , L i t t l e M o u n t a i n , Cedar C o t t a g e , R i l e y and Renfrew housed a. f u r t h e r one f i f t h of members. 2 1 I b i d . , p.83; R o b e r t McDonald, " B u s i n e s s L e a d e r s , " p.264. 2 2 I b i d . , p.265. 264 G i b s o n ' s c a t e g o r i z a t i o n of t h e s o u t h e r n a r e a s as l a r g e l y w o r k i n g - c l a s s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d may be somewhat m i s l e a d i n g . C e r t a i n l y , few clubwomen from t h e s e s u b u r b s were w o r k i n g - c l a s s as d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i r own o r t h e i r husbands' o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s . These a r e a s p r o b a b l y h o u s e d a p r e d o m i n a n t l y w o r k i n g -c l a s s p o p u l a t i o n but w i t h s m a l l numbers of m i d d l e - c l a s s and t h e o c c a s i o n a l u p p e r - c l a s s f a m i l y . C o n v e r s e l y , s m a l l numbers of w o r k i n g - c l a s s clubwomen were t o be found i n s u p p o s e d l y h i g h s t a t u s a r e a s l i k e t h e West End, K i t s i l a n o and P o i n t G r e y . P l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e of clubmembers i s not an a b s o l u t e g u i d e t o s o c i a l s t a t u s nor was t h e o c c u p a t i o n of clubwomen and / o r t h e i r h u s b a n d s . However, b o t h f a c t o r s i n d i c a t e t h e same g e n e r a l t r e n d s i n r e l a t i o n t o c l a s s and c l u b membership, namely t h a t a l o n g w i t h t h e l a r g e body of m i d d l e - c l a s s members and a s m a l l e r number of women from t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l of s o c i e t y t h e r e was a s m a l l but s i g n i f i c a n t number of w o r k i n g - c l a s s clubwomen. P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s have i d e n t i f i e d o c c a s i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l clubwomen from w o r k i n g - c l a s s b a c k g r o u n d s but t h e y have not i n d i c a t e d t h a t membership from t h i s l e v e l of s o c i e t y was c o n s i s t e n t and i n v o l v e d numbers w h i c h , t h o u g h s m a l l , a r e t o o l a r g e t o d i s m i s s as u n i m p o r t a n t . An e x a m i n a t i o n of p a r t i c i p a t i o n by women a t t h e e x e c u t i v e and c o m m i t t e e l e v e l s of t h e V a n c o u v e r c l u b s f u r t h e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s m a l l body of w o r k i n g - c l a s s women p l a y e d an a c t i v e r o l e . I n ter m s of o v e r a l l numbers, clubwomen whose o c c u p a t i o n o r whose husbands' o c c u p a t i o n s p l a c e d them i n c a t e g o r i e s 1 o r 2 265 formed t h e m a j o r i t y of c l u b o f f i c e r s and c o m m i t t e e members (314 out o f a t o t a l of 593 women). But w o r k i n g - c l a s s women were a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h i s l e v e l of c l u b l i f e (58 out of a t o t a l of 95 women). The o v e r a l l number o f w o r k i n g - c l a s s clubwomen was s m a l l but t h e i r r a t e of p a r t i c i p a t i o n a p p e a r s t o have been as g r e a t as t h a t of h i g h e r s t a t u s women s u g g e s t i n g t h a t low c l a s s s t a t u s was not i n p r i n c i p l e a b a r r i e r t o f u l l a c c e p t a n c e and i n v o l v e m e n t i n c l u b l i f e . I n p r a c t i c e , however, most w o r k i n g - c l a s s women may not have had e i t h e r t h e t i m e o r i n c l i n a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n r e f o r m a c t i v i t y . The p i c t u r e t h a t r e m a i n s of t h e a v e r a g e rank and f i l e clubwomen a f t e r ' a c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n i s not v e r y f a r removed from t h a t d i s c u s s e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of the c h a p t e r . I f we l o o k f o r an a v e r a g e woman i n V a n c o u v e r c l u b l i f e we f i n d t h a t she was i n d e e d m a r r i e d , of B r i t i s h e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d , p r o b a b l y m i d d l e -aged and c e r t a i n l y of m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a t u s as d e f i n e d by husband's o c c u p a t i o n and p l a c e of r e s i d e n c e . He was most l i k e l y t o be a p r o f e s s i o n a l man or i n t h e m i d d l e t o upper l e v e l s of b u s i n e s s o r commerce and t h e y were most l i k e l y t o l i v e i n t h e West End, K i t s i l a n o or F a i r v i e w . However, w h i l e a c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n c o n f i r m s t h i s v i e w of t h e a v e r a g e clubwoman, i t a l s o i l l u m i n a t e s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e were a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f d e v i a t i o n s from t h i s norm w h i c h were a l s o i m p o r t a n t . F or a l l t h e i r s i m i l a r i t i e s clubwomen were c l e a r l y not a homogenous g r o u p w i t h a s i n g l e c l e a r c u t g o a l . 266 Amongst t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were f i r s t , t h e f a c t t h a t a s i z e a b l e m i n o r i t y were s i n g l e women, many of whom worked f o r a l i v i n g . O f t e n t h e i r j o b s were p r o f e s s i o n a l but even t h o s e of l o w e r s t a t u s g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e d some amount, o f t e n c o n s i d e r a b l e , of s k i l l and t r a i n i n g . Even amongst m a r r i e d c l u b members t h e r e were some who worked but a g a i n t h e i r j o b s were of c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r s t a t u s t h a n t h o s e of t h e m a j o r i t y of w o r k i n g women. Second, not a l l clubwomen by any means were m i d d l e aged. Amongst UWC members i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e was a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of women i n t h e i r t w e n t i e s and t h i r t i e s . T h i s does not appear t o have been so common i n t h e o t h e r c l u b s a l t h o u g h some younger women were members of t h e LCW and Women's B u i l d i n g . T h i r d , a l t h o u g h P r e s b y t e r i a n and M e t h o d i s t women were i n t h e m a j o r i t y , c l u b women came from a wide v a r i e t y of d e n o m i n a t i o n s . The p r o p o r t i o n of C a t h o l i c clubwomen was q u i t e h i g h i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e number of C a t h o l i c s i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . F o u r t h , t h e r e was a wide range of e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d s and a c h i e v e m e n t from t h e h i g h e s t a c a d e m i c a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s t o l e v e l s t h a t may not have even i n c l u d e d a t t e n d a n c e a t h i g h s c h o o l . F i n a l l y , and p e r h a p s most i m p o r t a n t of a l l , not a l l clubwomen were m i d d l e - c l a s s . A l t h o u g h m i d d l e - c l a s s women, t o g e t h e r w i t h a s m a l l e r number from t h e v e r y h i g h e s t s t r a t u m of 267 t h e c i t y ' s s o c i e t y formed t h e v a s t b u l k of clubmembers i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e l o w e r m i d d l e c l a s s as w e l l as t h e upper l e v e l s of t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s were r e p r e s e n t e d . M o r e o v e r , t h e membership of t h e s e w o r k i n g - c l a s s women was not p u r e l y n o m i n a l ; some of them p l a y e d an a c t i v e r o l e 'on t h e e x e c u t i v e a n d / o r c o m m i t t e e s of t h e i r c l u b s . The membership of t h e c l u b s , t h e n , was not homogenous but r a t h e r was composed of women w i t h d i f f e r i n g b a c k g r o u n d s , e x p e r i e n c e and a b i l i t i e s . I t was e v i d e n t l y not n e c e s s a r y f o r women t o s h a r e more t h a n one of t h e s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s t o become a member a l t h o u g h i n most c a s e s c l u b members p r o b a b l y d i d have more t h a n one v a r i a b l e i n common. A woman w i t h a u n i v e r s i t y d e g r e e but no i n t e r e s t w h a t s o e v e r i n r e f o r m m i g h t become one of t h e l a r g e r g r o u p t h r o u g h membership i n t h e UWC. Women l i k e Mme Chang and Mme Gomyo, w i v e s o f h i g h r a n k i n g s t a f f a t t h e C h i n e s e and J a p a n e s e C o n s u l a t e s m i g h t be i n c l u d e d s i m p l y b e cause of t h e i r s o c i a l s t a t u s . And a woman l i k e H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e w i t h l i t t l e s o c i a l s t a t u s but w i t h t h e a b i l i t y and commitment n e c e s s a r y t o s u c c e s s f u l l y p u r s u e r e f o r m would a l s o be welcomed. W o r k i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h a c e r t a i n measure and f e e l i n g of s i s t e r h o o d and under a s t r o n g and e n e r g e t i c l e a d e r s h i p , women of d i v e r s e b a c k g r o u n d s and i n t e r e s t s were a b l e t o p r e s e n t a f r o n t t h a t was by no means i m p r e g n a b l e o r even a l w a y s unanimous but w h i c h e n a b l e d them t o p u r s u e and a c h i e v e c e r t a i n g o a l s t h a t were b r o a d l y a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e membership as a whole. I t i s t o t h i s l e a d e r s h i p and t h e women who c o n s t i t u t e d i t t h a t we w i l l now t u r n . 268 A g r o u p of t h i r t y - t h r e e women were i d e n t i f i e d as f o r m i n g the n u c l e u s of l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e c l u b s i n r e s p e c t t o c i t i z e n s h i p and l e g i s l a t i v e r e f o r m d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1910-1928. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h c a u s e d them t o s t a n d o ut above and beyond rank and f i l e members were a c o m b i n a t i o n of m u l t i p l e membership i n t h e c l u b s , t h e i r . a c t i v i t y a t t h e e x e c u t i v e and c o m m i t t e e l e v e l s and t h e i r a t t e m p t s , whether s u c c e s s f u l or n o t , t o r e p r e s e n t t h e i r sex and t h e i r c a u s e i n the p u b l i c w o r l d . The women i d e n t i f i e d by means of t h e s e c r i t e r i a had much i n common and y e t t h e r e were marked d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s a l s o . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of H e l e n M a c G i l l , who was a r e m a r k a b l y a c t i v e woman even i n c o m p a r i s o n t o o t h e r r e f o r m e r s of h e r p e r i o d , none of t h e women met a l l t h e c r i t e r i a . What we see i s a g r o u p of women w i t h s i m i l a r i d e a l s and a number of common g o a l s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n t r o l of t h e i r own l i v e s and t h o s e of t h e i r c h i l d r e n , who d i d not n e c e s s a r i l y a l w a y s work t o g e t h e r but who formed a network w i t h i n and between t h e c l u b s . Through t h i s n e twork t h e y were a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e and d i r e c t r e f o r m a c t i o n f o r n e a r l y two d e c a d e s . At l e a s t h a l f o f them had c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h one or more of t h e l o c a l s u f f r a g e s o c i e t i e s ; a l l , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of E v l y n F a r r i s , f o u n d e r of t h e UWC, b e l o n g e d t o the LCW and e i g h t e e n were a t one t i m e o r a n o t h e r c o m m i t t e e members of t h e NCWC. S e v e n t e e n were members of t h e WF, t w e n t y - f i v e b e l o n g e d t o th e Women's B u i l d i n g , f i f t e e n t o t h e NEL and t e n t o t h e UWC. And r a r e l y were t h e y o r d i n a r y members of t h e c l u b s . In most c a s e s t h e y were d i r e c t o r s o r h e l d e x e c u t i v e o r c o m m i t t e e p o s i t i o n s , o f t e n more t h a n one a t a t i m e w i t h i n a s i n g l e c l u b . E i g h t of 269 them b e l o n g e d t o two of t h e c l u b s , t w e l v e t o t h r e e c l u b s and t e n t o f o u r c l u b s . H e l e n M a c G i l l b e l o n g e d , t o f i v e of the s i x c l u b s . 2 3 The p i c t u r e t h a t emerges of t h e s e women i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t t o t h a t w h i c h we have c o n s t r u c t e d of t h e a v e r a g e c l u b member. A v e r a g e i s not a t e r m t h a t f i t s t h i s s m a l l e r g r o u p a t a l l f o r t h e y were c l e a r l y e x c e p t i o n a l i n terms of commitment, a c t i v i t y and a b i l i t y . On t h e whole t h e y come c l o s e r t o t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s "WASP" p a t t e r n i d e n t i f i e d by S t r o n g - B o a g i n t h e e x e c u t i v e of the NCWC but t h e r e a r e some marked e x c e p t i o n s . 2 4 T w o - t h i r d s of t h e i r number a p p e a r e d i n t h e V a n c o u v e r S o c i a l R e g i s t e r and C l u b D i r e c t o r y of 1914 w h i c h p l a c e d them f i r m l y i n t h e upper e c h e l o n s of V a n c o u v e r s o c i e t y . The husbands of t h e s e t w e n t y - t w o women, f o r a l l but two of them were m a r r i e d or widowed, were l a r g e l y from t h e p r o f e s s i o n s or t h e upper l e v e l s of b u s i n e s s . The two u n m a r r i e d women, A n n i e B. J a m i e s o n and K a t e McQueen, made c a r e e r s f o r t h e m s e l v e s i n t e a c h i n g but t h o s e who were m a r r i e d r a r e l y worked i n f u l l - t i m e , p a i d j o b s . The e x c e p t i o n s were H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e , whose b r i e f m a r r i a g e i n t h e l a t e 1910's and e a r l y 1920's d i d not a p p ear t o a f f e c t e i t h e r her w o r k i n g s t a t u s or h e r heavy i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h the l a b o u r movement, B e l l e W i l s o n who c o n t i n u e d h e r m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e The BPL had o n l y two members from t h i s l e a d e r s h i p g r o u p , I r e n e Moody and A n n i e W i l s o n , n e i t h e r of whom a p p e a r e d t o p l a y a v e r y a c t i v e r o l e i n i t s f u n c t i o n s even t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r was f o u n d i n g h o n o r a r y p r e s i d e n t . V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t of Women, ch . 4 . 270 t h r o u g h o u t h er m a r r i e d l i f e and L a u r a D i c k i e McKay, a d o c t o r ' s w i f e , who was t h e d i r e c t o r of a l a r g e w h o l e s a l e b u s i n e s s . The two widows amongst t he g r o u p , I r e n e Moody and J e a n Macken, were a p p a r e n t l y l e f t i n s u f f i c i e n t l y c o m f o r t a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t t h e y d i d not need t o t a k e p a i d employment. Of t h e r e m a i n i n g e l e v e n women e i g h t were c o m f o r a b l y m i d d l e -c l a s s but t h r e e do not f i t t h i s m o l d . H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e was c l e a r l y w o r k i n g - c l a s s b o t h i n economic s t a t u s and i n o u t l o o k and l o y a l t y . Two o t h e r women were e c o n o m i c a l l y on t h e b o r d e r l i n e between m i d d l e and w o r k i n g c l a s s b u t because of t h e i r c o n t i n u i n g and c l o s e t i e s w i t h l a b o u r c a n p r o b a b l y be c l a s s e d more c o r r e c t l y i n t h e l a t t e r g r o u p . S u s i e Lane C l a r k , whose husband was a p r i n t e r by t r a d e , had s o c i a l i s t l e a n i n g s w h i c h w o u l d i n l a t e r y e a r s draw h e r i n t o CCF a c t i v i t i e s . N e l l i e P e t t i p i e c e , w i f e of o n e - t i m e c i t y a l d e r m a n and l a b o u r o r g a n i z e r P a r m e t e r P e t t i p i e c e , a l s o s h a r e d h i s i n t e r e s t i n the p r o b l e m s of l a b o u r . D e s p i t e t h e s o c i a l d i s t a n c e between t h e s e t h r e e women and o t h e r l e a d e r s from t h e cream of s o c i e t y a l l managed, t on t h e w h o l e , t o work t o g e t h e r i n r e a s o n a b l e u n a n i m i t y . L i k e t h e l e a d e r s of the NCWC, most V a n c o u v e r l e a d e r s were of P r o t e s t a n t r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n The e x c e p t i o n s were Mrs J . O . P e r r y , who was C a t h o l i c and a c t i v e i n c h u r c h c i r c l e s and t h e C a t h o l i c C h i l d r e n ' s A i d S o c i e t y , and Jean Macken who was a T h e o s o p h i s t . Of t h e o t h e r s , t h e m a j o r i t y were M e t h o d i s t o r P r e s b y t e r i a n . They were a l s o a l l of B r i t i s h e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d . As f a r as c o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d none was a c t u a l l y b o r n i n 271 V a n c o u v e r . T h i r t e e n came from o t h e r p a r t s of Canada, m o s t l y t h e M a r i t i m e s and O n t a r i o , f o u r were from t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h r e e from t h e U n i t e d Kingdom. S t r o n g - B o a g has n o t e d t h a t NCWC l e a d e r s h i p underwent a change by t h e 1920's w i t h women of u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g s u c c e e d i n g t o t h e h i g h e s t p o s i t i o n s . 2 5 T h i s was c e r t a i n l y t h e c a s e amongst t h e V a n c o u v e r l e a d e r s h i p w i t h e l e v e n of the women h o l d i n g B a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e s o r h i g h e r and a n o t h e r t h r e e w i t h known c o l l e g e c e r t i f i c a t i o n . Those women w i t h no h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n t e n d e d t o be s l i g h t l y o l d e r . I n one i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t t h i s s m a l l g r o u p o f women d i f f e r e d c o n s i d e r a b l y from b o t h t h e NCWC and t h e g e n e r a l V a n c o u v e r membership. F o l l o w i n g t h e i r own p r e s c r i p t i o n t h a t r e f o r m f o r women and c h i l d r e n c o u l d o n l y be g a i n e d by a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of women i n p u b l i c l i f e many of them a c t i v e l y s o u g h t p o s i t i o n s on p u b l i c b o a r d s , e l e c t i o n t o m u n i c i p a l and p r o v i n c i a l government and o t h e r o f f i c i a l a p p o i n t m e n t s r e l a t i n g t o t h e i r a r e a s o f i n t e r e s t . I n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o a r o u s e p u b l i c a w a reness of and c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e a b i l i t y o f women t o e f f e c t change, as w e l l as t o e d u c a t e o t h e r c l u b members t o t h e i r own p o t e n t i a l , t h e y p r o c e e d e d by s e t t i n g a p r a c t i c a l example r a t h e r than s i m p l y p r o p o u n d i n g a t h e o r e t i c a l i d e a l . More t h a n t w o - t h i r d s of them a t t e m p t e d t o g a i n p u b l i c o f f i c e s and i n most c a s e s t h e y were s u c c e s s f u l . I n t o t a l t h e y h e l d some t h i r t y p u b l i c p o s i t i o n s a t 2 5 I b i d . , p.164. 272 th e m u n i c i p a l and p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l s . One o f t h e f i r s t a r e a s i n w h i c h women were a b l e t o g a i n e l e c t e d p o s i t i o n s was, as we saw i n c h a p t e r 2, on s c h o o l b o a r d s . From 1912 u n t i l t h e 1930's one o r more of t h e l e a d e r s h i p g r o u p s a t on t h e V a n c o u v e r b o a r d . M a r i e McNaughton was t h e f i r s t o f th e g r o u p ( t h o u g h not t h e f i r s t woman, Mrs D. R e i d had s u c c e s s f u l l y s o u g h t e l e c t i o n i n 1897 w i t h o u t a s s i s t a n c e from women's o r g a n i z a t i o n s ) i n 1912-15, f o l l o w e d by I r e n e Moody 1916-20, Dora M a c a u l a y 1919-27, Mrs F r a n c e s H o p k i n s 1923-28 and A n n i e B . J a m i e s o n 1928-34. S u s i e Lane C l a r k a l s o r a n i n 1931 and 1932 but w i t h o u t s u c c e s s . The S e n a t e and B o a r d of G o v e r n o r s of UBC t o o had clubwomen amongst t h e i r members i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s . E v l y n F a r r i s was a p p o i n t e d t o t h e f o r m e r by t h e government a f t e r e l e c t i o n by C o n v o c a t i o n i n 1912-18 and 1930-35 and s a t on t h e l a t t e r f r om 1917 t o 1929. Her i n t e r e s t was a l w a y s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n women's e d u c a t i o n b u t h e r o u t s p o k e n n e s s about t h e u n i v e r s i t y g e n e r a l l y and more s p e c i f i c a l l y a bout women's p l a c e i n i t , combined w i t h her open s u p p o r t o f t h e L i b e r a l P a r t y d i d not en d e a r her t o t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e government i n t h e y e a r s p r i o r t o 1 9 1 6 . 2 6 A n n i e B. J a m i e s o n was a l s o a S e n a t o r from 1919 t o 1925 and L a u r a J a m i e s o n an u n s u c c e s s f u l c a n d i d a t e f o r S e n a t e i n 1918. 2 6 Tami A d i l m a n , " E v l y n F a r r i s and t h e U n i v e r s i t y Women's C l u b , " pp.152-53. 273 A p p o i n t m e n t t o t h e l i b r a r y b o a r d of V a n c o u v e r was made by c i t y c o u n c i l a n d, w i t h s t r o n g s u p p o r t from t h e UWC i n p a r t i c u l a r , A n n i e J a m i e s o n g a i n e d t h i s p o s i t i o n i n 1918 and h e l d i t f o r a de c a d e . L a u r a J a m i e s o n was a member of t h e p r o v i n c i a l P u b l i c L i b r a r y Commission from 1927 t o 1938. The Town P l a n n i n g B o a r d was a l s o made up of members a p p o i n t e d by c i t y c o u n c i l and J e a n S c o t t Drummond and Mrs J.O. P e r r y s a t on i t t o g e t h e r i n 1925. Mrs M a r g a r e t G r i f f i n was t h e f i r s t a p p o i n t e e t o t h e b o a r d of t h e V a n c o u v e r G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l i n 1918 f o l l o w e d by E t h e l Cody S t o d d a r d i n 1921-22. B o t h were p l e a s e d t o b r i n g some f e m a l e i n f l u e n c e t o t h e t h r e e p e r s o n b o a r d w h i c h had p r e v i o u s l y been a l l m a l e . The LCW a l s o l o b b i e d h a r d f o r a f e m a l e a p p o i n t m e n t t o the b o a r d of t h e Va n c o u v e r E x h i b i t i o n S o c i e t y i n an a t t e m p t t o i n f l u e n c e t h e k i n d of f u n c t i o n s h e l d t h e r e . H o r s e - r a c i n g , and th e g a m b l i n g i t e n c o u r a g e d was p a r t i c u l a r l y o f f e n s i v e t o them. Mrs G r i f f i n was a p p o i n t e d t o t h e b o a r d i n 1918 but was u n a b l e t o e l i m i n a t e t h e h o l d i n g of r a c e m e e t i n g s due t o l o n g t e r m c o n t r a c t s w h i c h had been s i g n e d some y e a r s b e f o r e . 2 7 E l e c t i o n t o m u n i c i p a l b o a r d s o t h e r t h a n t h e s c h o o l b o a r d was not easy f o r women. I t was not u n t i l j u s t b e f o r e t h e Second W o r l d War t h a t H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e managed t o win a p l a c e on t h e c i t y c o u n c i l , and i t was a f u r t h e r decade b e f o r e L a u r a J a m i e s o n 2 7 P r o v i n c e , J a n u a r y 8, 1919 p 8. D a v i d B r e e n and K e n n e t h C o a t e s , V a n c o u v e r ' s F a i r : An A d m i n i s t r a t i v e and P o l i t i c a l H i s t o r y of the P a c i f i c N a t i o n a l E x h i b i t i o n " ( V a n c o u v e r : U n i v e r s i t y of Br i t i sh C o l u m b i a P r e s s , 1982) do not m e n t i o n t h i s a p p o i n t m e n t but t h e y do n o t e s t r o n g p u b l i c o p p o s i t i o n t o h o r s e - r a c i n g and o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s t h a t e n c o u r a g e d g a m b l i n g , pp.31, 56-57. 274 matched h e r a c h i e v e m e n t . P r i o r t o t h i s however, t h r e e of t h e l e a d e r s h i p n etwork had made u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t s , J e a n Macken i n 1921, Mrs F r a n c e s H o p k i n s i n 1921 and 1922 and S u s i e Lane C l a r k i n 1930. The c i t y P a r k s b o a r d a p p e a r e d t o be not s u c h a t o u g h nut t o c r a c k and was p e r c e i v e d as e n a b l i n g women t o e n g i n e e r r e f o r m s i n t h e a r e a s o f s a f e and s u i t a b l e p l a y and s p o r t s g r o u n d s f o r c h i l d r e n and i m p r o v e d t r a n s p o r t , roadways and p a r k s e a t s f o r women, c h i l d r e n and t h e e l d e r l y . 2 8 Mrs M a r g a r e t H a r o l d and Mrs S t e l l a B e a t t i e b o t h r a n f o r o f f i c e i n 1921 but A l i c e A s h w o r t h Townley was t h e f i r s t woman e l e c t e d seven y e a r s l a t e r . She s a t on t h e b o a r d u n t i l 1935. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p u b l i c o f f i c e s o f t h i s k i n d gave c l u b l e a d e r s immense p r i d e and t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e y were i n d e e d making g r e a t p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s t h e i r g o a l s , and no doubt a l a r g e measure of t h i s p r i d e a f f e c t e d t h e rank and f i l e c l u b members t o o . But w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h o s e women on t h e s c h o o l b o a r d and i n l a t e r y e a r s on t h e c i t y c o u n c i l t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s were not a l w a y s a p p a r e n t t o t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c . To o b t a i n h i g h p r o f i l e p o s i t i o n s was much more d i f f i c u l t and r e q u i r e d t i m e , commitment and a b i l i t i e s t h a t few women, even amongst t h i s e l i t e g r o u p , p o s s e s s e d . H e l e n M a c G i l l and L a u r a J a m i e s o n ' s a p p o i n t m e n t s t o th e bench of t h e j u v e n i l e c o u r t s of V a n c o u v e r and Burnaby i n 1917 and 1926 r e s p e c t i v e l y p l a c e d them c l e a r l y i n t h e p u b l i c e y e . But o t h e r a p p o i n t m e n t s l i k e t h o s e of H e l e n M a c G i l l , J a n e t These p o i n t s were i n c l u d e d i n M a r g a r e t H a r o l d ' s p l a t f o r m . See WWW, June 8, 1921 p.4. 275 Kemp and S u s i e Lane C l a r k t o t h e M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s A d v i s o r y B o a r d i n 1921 were t o o s h o r t t o have much p u b l i c i m p a c t and Mrs. G. S t a n l e y Brown's a p p o i n t m e n t as Minimum Wage I n s p e c t o r f o r women i n 1927 a l s o drew l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n o u t s i d e of t h e c l u b s . Mary E l l e n S m i t h ' s e a r l y e l e c t i o n t o t h e p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t u r e added c r e d i b i l i t y t o clubwomen's c l a i m s t h a t women were competent t o p e r f o r m a f u l l p u b l i c r o l e . But t h i s example d i d not open t h e f l o o d g a t e s f o r o t h e r women. J e a n S c o t t Drummond r a n u n s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r t h e l e g i s l a t u r e i n 1924 and H e l e n D o u g l a s S m i t h , t h e p r o v i n c e ' s s e c o n d woman MLA was e l e c t e d i n 1933 w i t h o u t any p a r t i c u l a r s u p p o r t from clubwomen. No o t h e r women were s u c c e s s f u l u n t i l t h e l a t e 1930's when, w i t h t h e r i s e of t h e CCF, L a u r a J a m i e s o n and D o r o t h y S t e e v e s , a l o n g w i t h G r a c e M c l n n i s (who was not a c l u b m e m b e r ) , were f i n a l l y e l e c t e d . 2 9 H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e a l s o r a n u n s u c c e s s f u l l y under t h e CCF banner i n 1941 . The q u e s t i o n s p o s e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c h a p t e r can now be a n s w e r e d , a t l e a s t i n p a r t . F i r s t , i t i s p l a i n t h a t w h i l e c l u b membership was made up i n l a r g e p a r t o f m i d d l e - c l a s s , m i d d l e - a g e d 'WASP' women, a s u b s t a n t i a l number of members d i d not f i t t h i s mold i n one o r more r e s p e c t s . Nor d i d many members c a r e t o e x t e n d t h e i r r o l e i n s o c i e t y beyond s i m p l e membership i n one o r p e r h a p s two of t h e c l u b s . . F a r from a c t i n g as a 2 9 D a i s y W e b s t e r , Growth of t h e NDP i n B.C., 1900-1970 ( V a n c o u v e r : N a t i o n a l D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y , n.d. [ 1 9 7 0 ? J ) , pp. 48-49, 76-78. 276 s p r i n g b o a r d t o i n c r e a s e d p u b l i c i n v o l v e m e n t as c l u b l e a d e r s a n t i c i p a t e d , membership i t s e l f was o f t e n t h e l i m i t of women's a c t i v i t y . Nor were i n t e r e s t i n p r o m o t i n g m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t i d e o l o g y and c o n c o m i t a n t l e g i s l a t i v e r e f o r m n e c e s s a r i l y t h e o n l y a ims of t h e ran k and f i l e members. The NEL and WF were c l u b s whose p r o f e s s e d aims were r e f o r m and c i t i z e n s h i p , but t h e LCW, th e Women's B u i l d i n g and UWC had much b r o a d e r g o a l s , some of w h i c h r e q u i r e d l i t t l e o r no i n t e r e s t i n m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t i c and r e f o r m i s s u e s . Second, i t i s e q u a l l y c l e a r t h a t w i t h i n t h e c l u b s t h e r e was a s m a l l e r g r o u p o f women who were t o t a l l y c o m m i t t e d t o w i d e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n ' by women i n i s s u e s t h a t t h e y p e r c e i v e d as b e i n g r i g h t f u l l y t h e i r c o n c e r n and o b l i g a t i o n . These women d i d not c o n s t i t u t e t h e e n t i r e l e a d e r s h i p o f the c l u b s between 1910 and th e mid t o l a t e 1920's but t h e y were a l w a y s a c t i v e i n p o s i t i o n s of l e a d e r s h i p . The m a j o r i t y of t h e s e l e a d e r s d i d f i t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of clubwomen f o u n d i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s and p r e s e n t e d a t t h e s t a r t of t h i s c h a p t e r . That i s , t h e y were m i d d l e - c l a s s o r abo v e , m a r r i e d , w e l l - e d u c a t e d , of P r o t e s t a n t r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n , d i d not work i n f u l l - t i m e , p a i d j o b s and were p r i m a r i l y m o t i v a t e d by m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t i c b e l i e f s . However, a g r o u p of t h r e e were d i s t i n q u i s h e d by much l o w e r s o c i a l s t a t u s and a c o n c e r n f o r and commitment t o l a b o u r and s o c i a l i s m t h a t may have been as s t r o n g , i f not s t r o n g e r , t h a n t h e i r m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y . T o g e t h e r , however, a l l t h e s e women were a b l e t o work w i t h i n and t h r o u g h t h e i r i n t e r l o c k i n g c l u b network t o promote t h e i r r e f o r m s and t o move i n t o t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e a t 277 th e m u n i c i p a l and p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l s i n p u r s u i t o f t h e i r g o a l s . In t h i s t h e y were r e l a t i v e l y s u c c e s s f u l , j u d g e d b o t h by t h e number and v a r i e t y o f p o s i t i o n s t h e y managed t o a t t a i n as w e l l as by t h e amount of l e g i s l a t i o n t h e y were a b l e t o i n f l u e n c e i n t h e s e c o n d two d e c a d e s of t h e c e n t u r y . They were l e s s s u c c e s s f u l , t h o u g h , i n a r o u s i n g t h e i r c l u b s i s t e r s t o s i m i l a r a c t i v i t y . M o r a l s u p p o r t t h e y c o u l d and d i d get from t h e membership a t l a r g e , but t h e r e were few women of t h e i r g e n e r a t i o n who d e s i r e d o r a t t e m p t e d t o f o l l o w t h e i r l e a d i n t o p u b l i c l i f e ; even fewer of t h e younger g e n e r a t i o n w o u l d do s o . 278 C h a p t e r 7 "DRESSED UP WITH NO PLACE TO GO"?: THE SUCCESS AND FAILURE OF THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY WOMEN'S MOVEMENT Loo k e d a t from a narrow p o i n t of v i e w , t h i s s t u d y c o n c e r n s o n l y a h a n d f u l of women's c l u b s i n a s i n g l e c i t y . But from a b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e i t s v a l u e l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t a l l o w s a c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n of a s i t u a t i o n t h a t was not u n i q u e t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a l o n e . I t a f f i r m s t h a t t h e women's movement on t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t d i d i n d e e d f o l l o w s i m i l a r l i n e s of d e v e l o p m e n t t o i t s c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e r e s t of E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g Canada. The e m p h a s i s of p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s on E a s t e r n Canada l e f t s o m e t h i n g of a b l a n k as f a r as t h e west was c o n c e r n e d . On t h e o t h e r hand, l o c a l B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a women as w e l l as v i s i t o r s i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of t h e c e n t u r y , sometimes s u g g e s t e d t h a t women's a c t i v i t i e s on t h e west c o a s t were b i g g e r and b e t t e r t h a n t h o s e of t h e i r e a s t e r n s i s t e r s b o t h i n terms of o r g a n i z a t i o n and r e s u l t s . H e l e n M a c G i l l , w r i t i n g i n 1928 c l a i m e d t h a t t h e s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n a c h i e v e d i n t h e p r o v i n c e as a r e s u l t of women's e f f o r t s was t h e most a d v a n c e d i n 'the n a t i o n . 1 And v i s i t i n g B r i t i s h a n t h r o p o l o g i s t B e s s i e P u l l e n - B u r y n o t e d t h e a c t i v i t i e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e i n i t i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e Women's B u i l d i n g Company and commented t h a t i n V a n c o u v e r " C l u b l a n d i s supreme". 2 The s t u d y r e d r e s s e s t h e i n b a l a n c e between t h e two e x t r e m e s by 1 H e l e n G r e g o r y M a c G i l l , Laws f o r Women and C h i l d r e n , p.6. 2 B e s s i e P u l l e n - B u r y , From H a l i f a x t o V a n c o u v e r (London: M i l l s & Boon L t d . , 1912), p.343. 279 i n d i c a t i n g t h a t w h i l e a c t i v i t y i n V a n c o u v e r was h i g h i t was not m a r k e d l y h i g h e r t h a n i n E a s t e r n Canada o r t h e p r a i r i e s . M o r e o v e r , t h e l e g i s l a t i o n f o r w h i c h t h e c l u b s worked was r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t p a s s e d i n t h e m a j o r i t y of E n g l i s h -s p e a k i n g p r o v i n c e s i n t h e same p e r i o d . The r e s u l t s of t h e s t u d y do not s u g g e s t any m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y women's movement but t h e y do p r o v i d e some f u r t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s and i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e f o u r a r e a s i d e n t i f i e d i n C h a p t e r 1, namely s o c i a l c l a s s , c l u b s t r u c t u r e , p e r i o d i z a t i o n and t h e l a c k of g e n e r a t i o n a l c o n t i n u i t y . The q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d i n C h a p t e r 1 r e g a r d i n g c l a s s were of two k i n d s . The f i r s t c o n c e r n e d t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e terms m i d d l e and w o r k i n g - c l a s s and whether clubwomen came from e i t h e r or b o t h c a t e g o r i e s and t h e s e c o n d d e a l t w i t h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e c l a s s e s i n t h e w i d e r s o c i e t y as clubwomen p u r s u e d t h e i r r e f o r m s . A d e f i n i t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n of c l a s s l i e s o u t s i d e t h e bounds of t h e t h e s i s but c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f clubwomen by t h e s o c i o -economic s t a t u s of t h e i r j o b s o r t h o s e of t h e i r h u s b a n d s , and a l s o by t h e i r p o s i t i o n , o r l a c k o f i t , i n t h e c i t y ' s s o c i a l e l i t e , i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c a t e g o r i e s of upper m i d d l e , m i d d l e and w o r k i n g c l a s s may l e g i t i m a t e l y be a p p l i e d . The f i r s t two c a t e g o r i e s i n v o l v e d o c c u p a t i o n s of a p r o f e s s i o n a l , m a n a g e r i a l or w h i t e c o l l a r n a t u r e and were d i s t i n g u i s h e d one from t h e o t h e r p r i m a r i l y by membership i n t h e s o c i a l e l i t e . The w o r k i n g c l a s s 280 was c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e and was t i e d t o o c c u p a t i o n s of a s k i l l e d , o r v e r y o c c a s i o n a l l y , u n s k i l l e d n a t u r e . Most p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of clubwomen were of m i d d l e o r u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s s t a t u s , o r a t l e a s t t h a t t h e l e a d e r s were. 3 The s o c i a l s t a t u s of rank and f i l e members has e i t h e r been assumed t o have been t h e same or has been l e f t unexamined. I n V a n c o u v e r , clubmembers r e p r e s e n t e d a b r o a d s p e c t r u m of s o c i e t y from t h e s o c i a l e l i t e t o t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s . The g r e a t e r p o r t i o n of women were, t o be s u r e , s o l i d l y m i d d l e - c l a s s o r above but a s i g n i f i c a n t number were of l o w e r s t a t u s . T h i s was t r u e of b o t h t h e g e n e r a l membership and, t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e of t h e l e a d e r s as w e l l . M a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t s w o u l d l i k e l y have e x p l a i n e d t h i s on t h e gr o u n d s t h a t t h e i r common aims as women t r a n s c e n d e d any c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f c l a s s , but i t i s c l e a r , t h a t c l a s s d i v i s i o n s were o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y and s u p e r f i c i a l l y done away w i t h i n t h e c o u r s e of r e f o r m a c t i v i t y . M a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t v a l u e s were v e r y s t r o n g l y m i d d l e - c l a s s and t h e r e f o r m s sought were d e s i g n e d t o s h o r e up t h e s e v a l u e s and t o p r o d u c e c o n d i t i o n s under w h i c h w o r k i n g - c l a s s women would be a b l e t o c o n d u c t t h e i r l i v e s , i n t h e w o r k p l a c e and t h e home, i n a manner w h i c h was c o n g r u e n t w i t h 3 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t of Women, Ch.4 i d e n t i f i e s o n l y one woman amongst NCWC l e a d e r s as w o r k i n g c l a s s ; Wayne R o b e r t s , " S i x New Women," pp. 151-57 makes no comment r e g a r d i n g t h e c l e a r c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e between F l o r a M a c d o n a l d D e n i s o n and t h e f i v e o t h e r women w i t h whom he d e a l s ; C a r o l B a c c h i , L i b e r a t i o n D e f e r r e d ? p.117 c l a s s e s s u f f r a g i s t s as members of t h e s o c i a l e l i t e . 281 m i d d l e - c l a s s b e l i e f s and a t t i t u d e s t o t h e f a m i l y . The m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t r a t i o n a l e m i t i g a t e d a g a i n s t any r e a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of c l a s s b a r r i e r s ; what i t a c t u a l l y e n c o u r a g e d was c o n f o r m i t y , by the w o r k i n g c l a s s , t o m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a n d a r d s w h i l e r e t a i n i n g t h e c l a s s b a r r i e r i n t a c t . * W o r k i n g - c l a s s members have l e f t no e v i d e n c e as t o t h e i r r e a s o n s f o r j o i n i n g t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s r e f o r m c l u b s . We can o n l y i n f e r t h a t t h e i r membership r e p r e s e n t e d a p u b l i c a f f i r m a t i o n of a m i d d l e - c l a s s way of l i f e e i t h e r because t h e y g e n u i n e l y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e e x t e n s i o n of s u c h v a l u e s w o u l d most e f f e c t i v e l y and q u i c k l y remove some of t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t w o r k i n g c l a s s women f a c e d d a i l y , o r because t h e y were s e e k i n g o r c o n f i r m i n g a h i g h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s f o r t h e m s e l v e s t h r o u g h c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h women from a h i g h e r l e v e l . I t i s c l e a r t h a t w h i l e c l a s s d i v i s i o n s e x i s t e d t h e y were n e i t h e r a b a r r i e r t o c l u b membership nor d i d t h e y p r e v e n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n a t t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l s o f c l u b l i f e . Amongst t h e t h i r t y - t h r e e women i d e n t i f i e d as f o r m i n g t h e l e a d e r s h i p n e t w o r k , t h r e e were from t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s , o r a t v e r y b e s t t h e l o w e s t l e v e l o f t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s . H e l e n a G u t t e r i d g e , S u s i e Lane C l a r k and N e l l i e P e t t i p i e c e a l l had v e r y c l o s e t i e s w i t h l a b o u r and s o c i a l i s t c i r c l e s , and G u t t e r i d g e and C l a r k were l a t e r i n v o l v e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e CCF P a r t y . 5 A l l t h r e e a p p e a r e d t o * C a r o l B a c c h i , " D i v i d e d A l l e g i e n c e s : The Response of Farm and La b o u r Women t o S u f f r a g e , " pp. 89-107. 5 I am g r a t e f u l t o S u s i e W a lsh f o r d i s c u s s i o n and i n s i g h t s r e g a r d i n g t h e s e women p r i o r t o t h e i r i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e CCF i n t h e 1930's. See her f o r t h c o m i n g s t u d y of e a r l y CCF women (M.A. t h e s i s , Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y ) . 282 espouse t h e t e n e t s of m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s m w i t h j u s t a h i n t of t h e r a d i c a l i s m t h a t was t o be f o u n d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and B r i t a i n and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t i n O n t a r i o and t h e p r a i r i e p r o v i n c e s , but w h i c h was r a r e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . F u r t h e r s t u d i e s may i n d i c a t e t h e n a t u r e of any c o n n e c t i o n s between m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t r e f o r m of t h e 1910's and 20's and t h e o v e r t l y p o l i t i c a l and more e g a l i t a r i a n a c t i v i t i e s of t h e s e women i n t h e 19 3 0's and d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c l a s s l i n k . I n f a c t a sympathy w i t h s o c i a l i s t b e l i e f s may have been a s t r o n g e r l i n k i n t h i s a r e a t h a n was c l a s s , f o r two o t h e r clubwomen of much h i g h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s , L a u r a J a m i e s o n and D o r o t h y S t e e v e s , were a l s o d e e p l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e CCF and s o c i a l i s t i s s u e s i n t h e 1930's. The n a t u r e of and r e a s o n s f o r i n t e r a c t i o n between m i d d l e -c l a s s c l u b women and w o r k i n g - c l a s s women who were n o t clubmembers i s a much more complex p r o b l e m t h a n t h e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n of clubmembers by c l a s s . Some n o t i o n of t h e s i s t e r h o o d of a l l women d i d e x i s t and e n a b l e d t h e two g r o u p s t o o c c a s i o n a l l y combine f o r c ' e s . I t was n o t c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , however, and was o f t e n o v e r - r i d d e n by o t h e r f a c t o r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e v e r y r e a l d i v i s i o n s t h a t e x i s t e d between t h e two c l a s s e s . M i d d l e - c l a s s women m e n t i o n e d i t more f r e q u e n t l y and a r t i c u l a t e d i t more c l e a r l y . F o r them i t was an e x t e n s i o n of t h e i r m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t i c i d e o l o g y . Because t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t woman's c h i e f r o l e was as mother o f t h e n a t i o n ' s c h i l d r e n t h e y a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t a l l women had common p r o b l e m s and s i m i l a r a s p i r a t i o n s . In r e g a r d t o many r e f o r m s t h i s n o t i o n of s i s t e r h o o d p r e s e n t e d no p r o b l e m s t o m i d d l e - c l a s s women and e n a b l e d them t o 283 work w i t h and f o r t h e i r l o w e r s t a t u s s i s t e r s . However, i n r e l a t i o n t o employment, p a r t i c u l a r l y of d o m e s t i c h e l p , m i d d l e -c l a s s women were n e v e r a b l e t o r e c o n c i l e t h e i r t h e o r y w i t h p r a c t i c e . T h e i r p e r c e p t i o n of t h e needs of t h e i r own c l a s s and t h e d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s of t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s were n e v e r s u c c e s s f u l l y r e s o l v e d . 6 F o r w o r k i n g - c l a s s women t h e s e n s e of s i s t e r h o o d seemed l e s s s t r o n g and may have been e n c o u r a g e d more by a s e n s e t h a t t h e male members o f t h e i r c l a s s were not a l w a y s s y m p a t h e t i c t o some of t h e i r p r o b l e m s . A g a i n , r e f o r m i n t h e w o r k - p l a c e i s a c a s e i n p o i n t . A l t h o u g h w o r k i n g - c l a s s women o r g a n i z e d t h e m s e l v e s i n p u r s u i t of minimum wage l e g i s l a t i o n , s u p p o r t from o r g a n i z e d male l a b o r was lukewarm a t b e s t . M i d d l e - c l a s s clubwomen, on t h e o t h e r hand, were q u i c k t o j o i n t h e campaign and w h i l e d i f f e r i n g c l a s s i n t e r e s t s m i t i g a t e d a g a i n s t a t r u l y e q u i t a b l e s o l u t i o n a l i m i t e d s e n s e o f s i s t e r h o o d e x i s t e d and may have e n c o u r a g e d w o r k i n g -c l a s s women t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r p u r s u i t of r e f o r m even when r e s u l t s f e l l s h o r t of e x p e c t a t i o n s . ; The p r o b l e m s of c l u b s t r u c t u r e w h i c h S t r o n g - B o a g i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e NCWC do not a p p e a r t o have e x i s t e d a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l i n V a n c o u v e r . 7 The s i x o r g a n i z a t i o n s examined were r e m a r k a b l e f o r t h e i r common g o a l s . Because of t h e i r u n a n i m i t y of a s p i r a t i o n t h e y were not f a c e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m of r e c o n c i l i n g d i f f e r i n g o r o p p o s i n g p o i n t s of v i e w amongst t h e i r members. T h e i r s m a l l e r 6 H e l e n L e n s k y j , "A ' S e r v a n t P r o b l e m ' , " p.6. 7 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , P a r l i a m e n t of Women, pp. 409-24. 284 s i z e and l o c a l r a t h e r t h a n n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o made c o n s e n s u s more easy t o a c h i e v e . Members c o u l d meet f a c e t o f a c e e a s i l y and q u i c k l y f o r d i s c u s s i o n and p l a n n i n g . They were f o r c e d t o p u r s u e r e f o r m a t b o t h t h e m u n i c i p a l and p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l s but t h e y d i d n o t , l i k e t h e NCWC, have t o f o r m u l a t e p o l i c y w h i c h t h e n had t o be r e l a y e d t o a m u l t i t u d e o f m u n i c i p a l and p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n m e n t s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p l a n n i n g of c a m p a i g n s and any e n s u i n g r e s u l t s were much more d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d . The r e p l i c a t i o n of co m m i t t e e work i n ea c h of t h e c l u b s was i n one sen s e t i m e - w a s t i n g , but on t h e o t h e r hand i t a l l o w e d f o r g r e a t e r d i s c u s s i o n and i n p u t from rank and f i l e members of ea c h of t h e c l u b s . These two f a c t o r s meant t h a t t h e l e a d e r s h i p and g e n e r a l membership were c l o s e r t o each o t h e r and b o t h were more d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n o b t a i n i n g r e f o r m s t h a n was t h e c a s e i n t h e NCWC. At th e n a t i o n a l l e v e l t h e l e a d e r s h i p w h i c h f o r m u l a t e d p o l i c y was v e r y d i s t a n t from t h e women who had t o t r a n s l a t e t h e i r p o l i c y i n t o t h e a c t u a l p u r s u i t of r e f o r m a t the p r o v i n c i a l and m u n i c i p a l l e v e l s . The e x i s t e n c e of a f i r m l y e n t r e n c h e d l e a d e r s h i p seems r a t h e r t o have f a c i l i t a t e d r e f o r m i n Vancou v e r t h a n t o have l e d t o r i g i d i t y and s t u l t i f i c a t i o n as i t d i d i n t h e NCWC. The Va n c o u v e r n e t w o r k of l e a d e r s p r o v i d e d c o n t i n u i t y i n terms of b o t h c a m paigns and g o a l s . Because t h e l e a d e r s h i p n etwork e x t e n d e d a c r o s s t h e s i x o r g a n i z a t i o n s i t was a b l e t o c o - o r d i n a t e and d i r e c t a c t i v i t i e s and draw t o g e t h e r rank and f i l e members from t h e v a r i o u s c l u b s who o t h e r w i s e might n ot have worked t o g e t h e r so c o n s i s t e n t l y o r s u c c e s s f u l l y . In e f f e c t , b e c a u s e t h e 285 n etwork o f l e a d e r s e x i s t e d , t h e s i x o r g a n i z a t i o n s were a b l e t o f u n c t i o n on c e r t a i n o c c a s i o n s , as a s i n g l e o r g a n i z a t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e when a d e p u t a t i o n a p p r o a c h e d government r e g a r d i n g a s p e c i f i c r e f o r m s u c h as m o t h e r s ' p e n s i o n s . At t h e same t i m e , e a c h r e t a i n e d t h e a d v a n t a g e of b e i n g a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y t h a t c o u l d j u s t i f i a b l y c l a i m t o r e p r e s e n t a s e c t o r of s o c i e t y . When t h e y combined w i t h y e t o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t h e community t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s was even f u r t h e r e nhanced. The r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s i z e of t h e l e a d e r s h i p network and t h e f a c t t h a t , a l t h o u g h i t was l a r g e l y m i d d l e - c l a s s i n c o m p o s i t i o n i t d i d i n c l u d e some women of l o w e r c l a s s , may a l s o have been of a s s i s t a n c e i n a c h i e v i n g , w i t h r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y , t h e d e s i r e d r e f o r m s . The e x i s t e n c e of a s o c i a l l y m ixed g r o u p o f women w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r o v e r an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d of t i m e may have been one i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n b r i d g i n g t h e b a r r i e r between l a r g e r g r o u p s of m i d d l e and w o r k i n g - c l a s s women and e n h a n c i n g t h e s o l i d a r i t y and sense o f s i s t e r h o o d t h a t was from t i m e t o t i m e a p p a r e n t . The q u e s t i o n o f p e r i o d i z a t i o n r e m a i n s somewhat p r o b l e m a t i c a l . The y e a r s from r o u g h l y 1910 t o a p o i n t i n t h e l a t e 1920's do appear t o have some d i s t i n c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t s e t them a p a r t as a d i s c r e t e and s i g n i f i c a n t p e r i o d i n t h e h i s t o r y of women and t h e de v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i r r o l e i n modern soc i e t y . 286 The h a l f c e n t u r y p r i o r t o t h i s p e r i o d saw t h e emergence of women fr o m t h e i r c i r c u m s c r i b e d and p r i v a t e r o l e w i t h i n t h e home i n t o a more p u b l i c but s t i l l l i m i t e d r o l e w i t h i n t h e w i d e r s o c i e t y . C o n c u r r e n t l y t h e r e was an e x t e n s i o n and s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e i d e a t h a t women's s p e c i f i c s k i l l s and a b i l i t i e s s h o u l d no l o n g e r be d i r e c t e d s o l e l y t o w a r d s t h e c a r e of h e r own c h i l d r e n b u t had a w i d e r s i g n i f i c a n c e and v a l u e f o r a l l s o c i e t y . The y e a r s a f t e r 1928 saw a c o n s i d e r a b l e r e t r e a t by women from many a s p e c t s of p u b l i c l i f e and a r e - g r o w t h of e m phasis on the f a c t t h a t h e r i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l y was e a ch woman's c h i e f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . F o r t h o s e women who r e m a i n e d a c t i v e i n f e m a l e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e e m phasis was on s o c i a l or c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s , o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y , on o v e r t l y p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l o r newly formed male p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , o r i s s u e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l peace and c o - o p e r a t i o n . The y e a r s between 1910 and 1928 were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d u a l e m p h a s i s on womanhood and c i t i z e n s h i p . T h r o u g h o u t t h i s p e r i o d clubwomen promoted t h e i d e a t h a t women had a u n i q u e and i m p o r t a n t r o l e t o p l a y by v i r t u e of t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h a t t h i s r o l e no l o n g e r i n v o l v e d o n l y t h e i r own f a m i l i e s but must of n e c e s s i t y be p e r f o r m e d p u b l i c l y f o r t h e b e n e f i t of a l l s o c i e t y . Demands f o r t h e v o t e had been h e a r d s i n c e t h e l a s t d e c a d e s of t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y . Renewed demands f o r t h e f r a n c h i s e were now l i n k e d t o demands f o r f u r t h e r s p e c i f i c r e f o r m s on b e h a l f of women and c h i l d r e n . Clubwomen b e l i e v e d t h e s e w o u l d form t h e b a s i s of a renewed s o c i e t y i n w h i c h j u s t i c e and g r e a t e r e q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y would be 287 e n s u r e d , n o t ' j u s t f o r women but f o r e v e r y o n e . However, there,: was a b a s i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n between t h e k i n d s of l e g i s l a t i v e r e f o r m t h a t o r g a n i z e d women sought d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d and t h e expanded p u b l i c r o l e t h e y w i s h e d t o see women p l a y i n s o c i e t y . The two g o a l s of womanhood and c i t i z e n s h i p were i n c o m p a t i b l e i n t h e form i n w h i c h t h e y were propounded and of n e c e s s i t y one had t o t a k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r t h e o t h e r . C i t i z e n s h i p came out s e c o n d b e s t . I n r e g a r d t o t h e q u e s t i o n of p e r i o d i z a t i o n , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t b o t h t h e c o n t i n u i t i e s and c o n n e c t i o n s t h a t e x i s t e d between t h e p e r i o d s t h a t p r e c e d e d and f o l l o w e d t h e y e a r s 1910-28, and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t were u n i q u e t o t h e p e r i o d must be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i f a b a l a n c e d e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e s e y e a r s i s t o be a c h i e v e d . M o r e o v e r , t h e l a c k of p a r a l l e l between p e r i o d i z a t i o n i n r e f e r e n c e t o women's h i s t o r y and t o t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r y must be r e i t e r a t e d . L e i l a Rupp has n o t e d t h e l a c k of c o n t i n u i t y between t h e n i n e t e e n t h and t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s as t h e y emerge i n t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r y . 8 F o r women i n t h e 1910 * s and 1920's t h e c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e de v e l o p m e n t of m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t i d e o l o g y and t h e movement o f women o u t s i d e of t h e home w h i c h began i n t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y were c r u c i a l t o t h e i r own r e f o r m a c t i v i t i e s and t o t h e s u c c e s s t h a t t h e y e n j o y e d i n a t t a i n i n g them. L e i l a Rupp, " R e f l e c t i o n s on T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y A m e r i c a n Women's H i s t o r y , " p.275. 288 The q u e s t i o n of why y o u nger women d i d not f o l l o w i n t h e i r m o t h e r s ' r e f o r m f o o t s t e p s i n t h e mid t o l a t e 1920's was one t h a t p u z z l e d clubwomen a t t h e t i m e as w e l l as some h i s t o r i a n s i n more r e c e n t y e a r s . 9 But i n l i g h t of t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l of clubwomen, t h e r e a f f i r m a t i o n of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of m otherhood, i t i s not r e a l l y s u r p r i s i n g . The v e r y s u c c e s s of t h e push f o r t h e k i n d of l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t t h e s e women d e s i r e d e n s u r e d c o n t i n u e d emphasis on t h e m o t h e r i n g r o l e as woman's most i m p o r t a n t j o b w i t h i n and f o r s o c i e t y . T h e r e f o r e , by w i t h d r a w i n g f u r t h e r i n t o t h e home as c o m p a n i o n a t e w i v e s and e d u c a t e d m o t h e r s t h e y o u nger g e n e r a t i o n of women were i n f a c t c a r r y i n g out t h e r o l e t h a t m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t s had c r e a t e d f o r them. I n so d o i n g , t h e y were a s s i s t e d by i n c r e a s i n g l y p r o f e s s i o n a l i z e d p u b l i c w e l f a r e mechanisms w h i c h s u p p l i e d s u p p o r t and s e r v i c e s t h a t had p r e v i o u s l y been l a c k i n g o r s u p p l i e d o n l y as c h a r i t y . E a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n s of women had o r g a n i z e d i n i t i a l l y t o p r o v i d e some of t h e s e s e r v i c e s t h e m s e l v e s . Then, u s i n g t h e c i t i z e n s h i p powers t h a t t h e y had o b t a i n e d f o r t h a t v e r y p u r p o s e , t h e y had worked t o c o n v i n c e t h e s t a t e t h a t s u c h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was i t s own. Once t h e s e p u b l i c h e a l t h and w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s were o p e r a t i o n a l t h e y t o o k o v e r t h e p u b l i c p a r e n t i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t h a t clubwomen had e n v i s i o n e d -t h e m s e l v e s f i l l i n g . M o t h e r s were no l o n g e r e i t h e r needed o r wanted i n a p u b l i c r o l e . The g r o w i n g b e l i e f t h a t a m o t h e r ' s f u l l - t i m e c a r e and a t t e n t i o n was e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e w e l l - b e i n g of 9 F o r i n s t a n c e , L i n d a H a l e , "The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Woman S u f f r a g e Movement," p.26; G l o r i a G e l l e r , "The Wartime E l e c t i o n s A c t , " pp. 105-6; C a r o l B a c c h i , " L i b e r a t i o n D e f e r r e d , " p.434. 289 h e r c h i l d r e n was e n c o u r a g e d by t h e i n c r e a s i n g number of p r o f e s s i o n a l s and c h i l d c a r e e x p e r t s who to o k c o n t r o l of t h e d e v e l o p i n g p u b l i c w e l f a r e s y s t e m . The i m p o r t a n c e o f motherhood was e m p h a s i z e d as clubwomen had d e s i r e d , but a t t h e expense of th e p u b l i c r o l e t h a t t h e y had a l s o e n v i s i o n e d f o r women. F o r a g e n e r a t i o n t o come mothers of young c h i l d r e n w o u l d be u n a b l e t o v e n t u r e i n t o t h e p u b l i c r e a l m w i t h o u t b e i n g a c c u s e d of n e g l e c t i n g o r a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s w e l f a r e . Clubwomen were d i s a p p o i n t e d and s u r p r i s e d by t h e l a c k of s u p p o r t and i n v o l v e m e n t by yo u n g e r women. But t h e y were a l s o s u r p r i s e d by t h e i r own l o s s of momentum and d i r e c t i o n i n t h e l a t e 1920's. W r i t i n g i n 1928, Anne And e r s o n P e r r y c o m p l a i n e d t h a t women were s t i l l " a t t h e f e e t of o l d Gods"; t h a t d e s p i t e t h e w i n n i n g o f t h e v o t e and v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e i r o t h e r l e g i s l a t i v e demands, women were " D r e s s e d up w i t h no p l a c e t o g o . " 1 0 W i t h t h i s p h r a s e she e x p r e s s e d t h e b e w i l d e r m e n t t h a t clubwomen f e l t a t t h e r e s u l t s of t h e i r r e f o r m s . Why d i d s u c c e s s b r i n g s u c h d i s a p p o i n t m e n t a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l e u p h o r i a had worn o f f ? I n p a r t , women were d i s a p p o i n t e d because t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of t h e i r r e f o r m agenda d i d not b r i n g w i t h i t t h e p e r f e c t i o n of s o c i e t y t h a t many women had n a i v e l y e x p e c t e d . The r e f o r m s t h a t t h e y d e s i r e d have been c h a r a c t e r i z e d e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s s t u d y as c o n s e r v a t i v e by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y were d e s i g n e d t o 1 0 Anne A n d e r s o n P e r r y , " I s Women's S u f f r a g e a F i z z l e ? " MacLean's M a g a z i n e F e b r u a r y 1, 1928 p.7. 290 p r e s e r v e and s t r e n g t h e n r a t h e r t h a n t o remake s o c i e t y . But women r e f o r m e r s were a l s o h e i r s of t h e l i b e r a l t r a d i t i o n i n t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e d i n t h e p e r f e c t a b i 1 i t y o f s o c i e t y and i t s component c i t i z e n s . They e x p e c t e d t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of t h e i r r e f o r m g o a l s t o u s h e r i n a u t o m a t i c a l l y a new e r a i n w h i c h b o t h men and women worked i n e q u a l i t y and harmony f o r a common i d e a l . They d i d not see t h a t t h e i r g o a l of e q u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s o c i e t y by women was t o o r a d i c a l a change t o 'be b r o u g h t about by means of a c o n s e r v a t i v e e m phasis on f a m i l i a l v a l u e s . 1 1 N e i t h e r c o u l d t h e y see t h a t t h e i r -twin g o a l s o f womanhood and c i t i z e n s h i p were i n h e r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y ; t h a t t h e s u c c e s s t h e y a c h i e v e d i n t h e p r o m o t i o n of motherhood worked d i r e c t l y a g a i n s t t h e e x t e n s i o n of t h e i r r o l e as p u b l i c l y a c t i v e c i t i z e n s . The s u c c e s s of t h e for m e r e n s u r e d a l e s s e r e m phasis on t h e l a t t e r , but r a t h e r t h a n o f f e r i n g clubwomen "nowhere t o go" i t pushed them i n t o a r e a s t h a t were s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t t o t h o s e t h e y had a n t i c i p a t e d . C l u b s l i k e t h e NEL,.WF and BPL d e c l i n e d o r d i s a p p e a r e d but t h e LCW, UWC and Women's B u i l d i n g c o n t i n u e d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . Many women r e m a i n e d a c t i v e c l u b members and w h i l e t h e i r c i t i z e n s h i p f o c u s weakened, o t h e r i s s u e s of s o c i a l i m p o r t a n c e drew t h e i r i n t e r e s t . The UWC, f o r i n s t a n c e , was, i n t h e c l o s i n g y e a r s of t h e 1920's, i n v o l v e d i n p r o m o t i n g home e c o n o m i c s i n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a s c h o o l of home e c o n o m i c s a t th e U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , and LCW was c o n c e r n e d w i t h i s s u e s l i k e t h e e x t e n s i o n and p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n o f women E l l e n D u B o i s , "The R a d i c a l i s m o f t h e Woman S u f f r a g e Movement," p. 63-7 1 . 291 w i t h i n t h e p o l i c e f o r c e . I n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s such as the League of Women V o t e r s and t h e WILPF grew i n s i z e and s t r e n g t h as some women t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o i s s u e s o f w o r l d peace and c o o p e r a t i o n ; o t h e r women t u r n e d t o a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s o r i n p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e r e i s no doubt t h a t t h e r e f o r m s w h i c h clubwomen a c h i e v e d d i d have an imme d i a t e and p o s i t i v e e f f e c t f o r many women and c h i l d r e n i n t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . And because women and c h i l d r e n , no l e s s t h a n men, a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t of s o c i e t y t h e n , by i m p l i c a t i o n , t h e whole o f s o c i e t y b e n e f i t t e d . F o r many women, s t r u g g l i n g t o r a i s e a f a m i l y a l o n e , f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e , s m a l l t h ough i t m i g h t be, d i d remove some of t h e u n c e r t a i n t y and h a r d s h i p t h a t t h e y had p r e v i o u s l y e x p e r i e n c e d . M a r r i e d women g a i n e d g r e a t e r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r own l i v e s and t h o s e of t h e i r c h i l d r e n . Widowed and d e s e r t e d women had g r e a t e r r i g h t s t o t h e i r h u sbands' e s t a t e s and f i n a n c e s . W o r k i n g women, even though t h e i r s t a t u s i n t h e w o r k f o r c e r e m a i n e d l o w , b e n e f i t t e d from t h e r e m o v a l of some of t h e w o r s t e x c e s s e s of e x p l o i t a t i o n i n ter m s of wages and c o n d i t i o n s . 1 2 N e g l e c t e d , dependent and d e l i n q u e n t c h i l d r e n came i n c r e a s i n g l y t o be c a r e d f o r i n s m a l l e r , more f a m i l y - l i k e i n s t i t u t i o n s o r i n f o s t e r homes and t o be t r e a t e d under p r i n c i p l e s of r e f o r m a t i o n and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n p u n i s h m e n t . 1 3 1 2 V e r o n i c a S t r o n g - B o a g , "Wages f o r Housework," pp.31-32. 1 3 N e i l S u t h e r l a n d , C h i l d r e n i n E n g l i s h - C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y , pp. 238-41 . 292 Women of h i g h e r s o c i a l c l a s s a l s o b e n e f i t t e d . T h e i r a c c e s s t o t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r l d was e x t e n d e d , i n some a r e a s t h r o u g h l e g i s l a t i v e d e c r e e , i n o t h e r s by t h e g r o w t h of p r o f e s s i o n a l p o s i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c o n c o m i t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e newly e s t a b l i s h e d h e a l t h and w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s . They a l s o now had a c c e s s , l e g a l l y i f not a l w a y s i n p r a c t i c e , t o t h e g o v e r n i n g and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s of s o c i e t y . T h i s r i g h t , of c o u r s e , was a v a i l a b l e t o women of any c l a s s but i t was g e n e r a l l y o n l y women of h i g h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s who to o k a d v a n t a g e of i t . T h e i r numbers were n e v e r as h i g h as r e f o r m e r s had e n v i s a g e d o r hoped but from t h e l a t e 1910's onward s m a l l numbers o f women began t o ap p e a r i n o f f i c i a l and s e m i - o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n s . I n t h e l o n g r u n , t h e b e n e f i t s o f m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t r e f o r m a r e more d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s . The e f f e c t s of t h e i r r e f o r m s a r e s t i l l v e r y much w i t h us t o d a y but p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e i r v a l u e have been changed t o some e x t e n t by t h e modern f e m i n i s t movement of t h e 1960's and 1970's. A l t h o u g h m a t e r n a l f e m i n i s t s spoke about f u l l c i t i z e n s h i p f o r women and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t a b o u t e q u a l i t y of t h e s e x e s i n t h e e x e r c i s e of t h a t c i t i z e n s h i p , t h e main t h r u s t of t h e i r r e f o r m was t o w a r d s p r o m o t i n g r e c o g n i t i o n of motherhood as woman's p r i m a r y r o l e . In t h i s a r e a t h e y were e m i n e n t l y s u c c e s s f u l . 1 " Two g e n e r a t i o n s of women t u r n e d i n w a r d t o t h e i r homes and f a m i l i e s as a r e s u l t of s u c c e s s f u l a g i t a t i o n f o r r e f o r m by clubwomen, and a f u r t h e r g e n e r a t i o n of modern 1" K a r e n B l a i r , The Clubwoman as F e m i n i s t : True Womanhood R e d e f i n e d 1868-1914 (New Y o r k : Homes and M e i e r , 1980), p. 119. 293 f e m i n i s t s have not y e t s u c c e e d e d i n c o u n t e r i n g t h e e f f e c t s of t h e i r i d e o l o g y . The i r o n i c i n c o n g r u e n c e between what clubwomen a n t i c i p a t e d t h e y w o u l d a c h i e v e f o r women and t h e v e r y d i f f e r e n t r o l e t h a t t h e y i n f a c t r e i n f o r c e d d e s e r v e s comment. W h i l e t h i s i n c o n g r u e n c e by no means d e t r a c t s f r o m t h e i m p o r t a n c e and v a l u e of t h e r e f o r m s t h e y a c h i e v e d , i t a p p e a r s t o have been one of t h e f a c t o r s w h i c h l e d t o t h e l o s s of momentum and p u r p o s e o f t h e women's movement by t h e l a t e 1920's. R e t u r n i n g t o t h e metaphor w h i c h opened t h i s s t u d y , we can see s t r o n g p a r a l l e l between t h e f o r t u n e s of t h e V a n c o u v e r Women's B u i l d i n g and t h e movement w h i c h gave i t b i r t h . The t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e b u i l d i n g from an i d e a i n t o r e a l i t y drew women t o g e t h e r i n d e d i c a t e d and p u r p o s e f u l work but t h e p u r p o s e i t s e l f d i s a p p e a r e d once t h e b u i l d i n g was c o m p l e t e d l e a v i n g t h e women w i t h no f u r t h e r g o a l . L i k e w i s e t h e push f o r c i t i z e n s h i p i n o r d e r t o e f f e c t l e g i s l a t i v e change on b e h a l f of women and c h i l d r e n had t h e same e f f e c t . Once t h e l e g i s l a t i o n was o b t a i n e d t h e p r o t e c t i o n and s t r e n g t h e n i n g of s o c i e t y t h r o u g h t h e f a m i l y was t a k e n o ut of r e f o r m e r s ' hands and p l a c e d once more i n t h e hands of t h e i n d i v i d u a l mother w i t h o v e r s i g h t and d i r e c t i o n f rom t h e s t a t e t h r o u g h t h e medium of p r o f e s s i o n a l i z e d h e a l t h and w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s . The e x e r c i s e of c i t i z e n s h i p on b e h a l f o f t h e f a m i l y was not r e n d e r e d a t o t a l l y u s e l e s s e x e r c i s e but i t l o s t much of t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t clubwomen had a n t i c i p a t e d i t wo u l d have. Women r e f o r m e r s had e n s u r e d t h a t motherhood was r e c o g n i z e d by s o c i e t y as woman's most i m p o r t a n t r o l e and t h e y , and a l l women, had l i t t l e c h o i c e but t o g i v e s e c o n d p l a c e t o t h e i r c i t i z e n s h i p r o l e . 295 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. PRIMARY SOURCES i . P u b l i s h e d S o u r c e s a. Government Documents A l b e r t a . S t a t u t e s . 1910-1925. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Commission on S e s s i o n a l M o t h e r s ' P a p e r s , P e n s i o n s . 1920. " PP. " R e p o r t T1-16. of t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Sess i o n a l P a p e r s , 1 920. " R e p o r t of t h e Minimum Wage B o a r d . " pp. K80-99 • B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S e s s i o n a l P a p e r s , 1921 . " R e p o r t on M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s . " pp. Y23-29. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . S t a t u t e s . 1910-1925. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . A n n u a l R e p o r t of t h e P u b l i c S c h o o l s 1920-21. Canada. Census of Canada 1891-1921. O t t a w a : D o m i n i o n B u r e a u of S t a t i s t i c s . M a n i t o b a . S t a t u t e s . 1910-1925. O n t a r i o . S t a t u t e s . 1910-1925. b. Books B o o t h , C h a r l e s . L a b o r and L i f e of t h e P e o p l e . 2 v o l s . 3 r d ed. London: W i l l i a m s and N o r g a t e , 1891. M a c G i l l , H e l e n G r e g o r y . Laws f o r Women and C h i l d r e n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . V i c t o r i a : n.p., 1928. . The J u v e n i l e C o u r t i n Canada: O r i g i n , U n d e r l y i n g P r i n c i p l e s , G o v e r n i n g L e g i s l a t i o n and P r a c t i c e . O t t a w a : C a n a d i a n C o u n c i l on C h i l d W e l f a r e , 1925. 296 McGeer, Ada. "Oh C a l l Back Y e s t e r d a y , B i d Time R e t u r n " . V a n c o u v e r : V e r s a t i l e P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1981. P u l l e n - B u r r y , B e s s i e . From H a l i f a x t o V a n c o u v e r . London: M i l l s & Boon L t d . , 1912. R i i s , J a c o b A. The B a t t l e w i t h t h e Slum. New Y o r k : M c M i l l a n and Co., 1902. S m i t h , M i n n i e . I s i t J u s t ? T o r o n t o : W i l l i a m B r i g g s , 1911. Sp a r g o , J . The B i t t e r C r y of t h e C h i l d r e n . New Y o r k : M c M i l l a n and Co., 1906. c. A r t i c l e s Cuppage, E d i t h M. "Women La w y e r s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , " The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a M o n t h l y 15:4 ( J a n u a r y - 1 9 2 0 ) pp. 8-9. P e r r y , Anne A n d e r s o n . " I s Women's S u f f r a g e a F i z z l e ? " MacLean's M a g a z i n e , F e b r u a r y 1, 1928. d. Newspapers B.C. F e d e r a t i o n i s t ( V a n c o u v e r ) 1910-1928. Cowichan L e a d e r (Duncan) May 23, 1967. D a i l y C o l o n i s t ( V i c t o r i a ) 1910-28. Democrat ( V a n c o u v e r ) August-November, 1980. P r o v i n c e ( V a n c o u v e r ) 1910-1930. Sun ( V a n c o u v e r ) 1910-1930. W e s t e r n Women's Weekly ( V a n c o u v e r ) 1917-1924. Woman's C e n t u r y ( T o r o n t o ) 1915-1921. 297 "Women's E d i t i o n " Sun ( V a n c o u v e r ) March 1 9 , 1913 e. R e p o r t s And Y e a r b o o k s N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of Women of Canada. R e p o r t of t h e A n n u a l M e e t i n g 1897-1930. T o r o n t o : N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of Women of Canada. V a n c o u v e r S c h o o l B o a r d . A n n u a l R e p o r t s . 1920-28. V a n c o u v e r Women's B u i l d i n g D i a r y , 1943. V a n c o u v e r : V a n c o u v e r Women's B u i l d i n g Co., 1943. MCR 1943-41, V a n c o u v e r C i t y A r c h i v e s . f . O t h e r P r i n t e d P r i m a r y M a t e r i a l s B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a D i r e c t o r y ( p u b l i s h e r v a r i e s ) 1900-1930. G r e a t e r V a n c o u v e r C i t y D i r e c t o r y (Henderson P u b l i s h i n g Co.) 1900-1930. M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h of Canada and P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u r c h i n Canada. R e p o r t s of I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of S o c i a l C o n d i t i o n s and S o c i a l S u r v e y s " ( V a n c o u v e r , R e g i n a , F o r t W i l l i a m , P o r t A r t h u r , London, H a m i l t o n , Sydney, T o r o n t o ) . T o r o n t o , 1913-14. Newspaper F i l e s [ M a j o r Matthews' C o l l e c t i o n ] VCA. R e p o r t of t h e Committee on M o t h e r s ' A l l o w a n c e s . T o r o n t o : Committee on M o t h e r s ' A l l o w a n c e s , 1918 . V a n c o u v e r S o c i a l R e g i s t e r and C l u b D i r e c t o r y . V a n c o u v e r , Welch and G i b b s P u b l i s h e r s , 1914. V e r t i c a l F i l e s , PABC. Who's Who i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . V i c t o r i a : S.M. C a r t e r , 1930. Who's Who i n We s t e r n Canada, ed. C.W. P a r k e r , 1911. T o r o n t o : I n t e r n a t i o n a l P r e s s , 1911. 298 i i . U n p u b l i s h e d S o u r c e s a. M a n u s c r i p t M a t e r i a l s B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a : A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l C o r r e s p o n d e n c e PABC. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Department of t h e P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y . C i v i l S e r v i c e C o m m i s s i o n . I n t e r i m u n r e v i s e d r e p o r t on "The A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a 1920-1921 t o 1930-31, Summary o f F i n d i n g s and Recommendations." PABC. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . Department of t h e P r o v i n c i a l S e c r e t a r y C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 1918-26. PABC. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . P r e m i e r P a p e r s . 1910-1928. PABC. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . R e g i s t r a r of Companies. V a n c o u v e r Women's B u i l d i n g Company L i m i t e d . R e p o r t s f i l e d a n n u a l l y w i t h R e g i s t r a r o f Companies, V i c t o r i a . B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . " R e p o r t of t h e H e a r i n g s of t h e H e a l t h I n s u r a n c e C o m m i s s i o n " ( t y p e s c r i p t ) PABC. C i t y o f V a n c o u v e r . O f f i c e of t h e C i t y C l e r k . N o m i n a t i o n s and E l e c t i o n s , 1912-1925. VCA. F a r r i s , John W. deB. P a p e r s . S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s D i v i s i o n , The L i b r a r y , UBC. J a m i e s o n , L a u r a . P a p e r s . PABC. M a c G i l l , H e l e n G r e g o r y . P a p e r s . PABC. S t e e v e s , D o r o t h y G r e t c h e n B i e r s t e k e r . P a p e r s . Boxes 1,2,5. S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s D i v i s i o n , The L i b r a r y , UBC. V a n c o u v e r L o c a l C o u n c i l of Women. P a p e r s 1900-1930. Boxes 2-9. S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s D i v i s i o n . The L i b r a r y , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . 299 V a n c o u v e r U n i v e r s i t y Women's C l u b . P a p e r s 1907-28. Box 1-2 V a n c o u v e r U n i v e r s i t y Women's'Club A r c h i v e s . b. I n t e r v i e w s Mrs O r s o n W. B a n f i e l d Mrs M i l d r e d F a h r n i Mrs T e r e s a G a l l o w a y Mrs A i l e e n G a r r i s o n M i s s G e o r g i e H a g g a r t y Mrs M u r i e l Ledingham Mrs Sherwood L e t t Mrs Ada McGeer Mrs C a t h e r i n e Robson 2. SECONDARY SOURCES i . P u b l i s h e d S o u r c e s a. Books A c t o n , J a n i c e ; G o l d s m i t h , Penny; and S h e p a r d , B o n n i e . , e d s . Women a t Work i n O n t a r i o 1850-1920. T o r o n t o : C a n a d i a n Women's E d u c a t i o n a l p r e s s , 1974. A l l e n , R i c h a r d . The S o c i a l P a s s i o n : R e l i g i o n and S o c i a l R eform i n Canada, 1914-1928. T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1965. B a c c h i , C a r o l . L i b e r a t i o n D e f e r r e d ? The I d e a s of t h e E n g l i s h - C a n a d i a n S u f f r a g i s t s , 1877-1918. T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1983. 300 B l a i r , K a r e n . The Clubwoman as F e m i n i s t : T r u e Womanhood R e d e f i n e d 1868-1914. New Y o r k : Holmes and M e i e r , 1980. B l i s h e n , B e r n a r d . A C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y : S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s . 3 r d ed. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1968. B r e e n , D a v i d and C o a t e s , K e n n e t h , V a n c o u v e r ' s F a i r : An A d m i n i s t r a t i v e and P o l i t i c a l H i s t o r y of t h e P a c i f i c N a t i o n a l E x h i b i t i o n . 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"Quebec's L e g a l E l i t e L o o k s a t Women's R i g h t s : The D o r i a n Commission 1929-31," i n D a v i d H. F l a h e r t y , ed. E s s a y s i n t h e H i s t o r y of C a n a d i a n Law. T o r o n t o : U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o P r e s s , 1981. pp. 323-57. S t r o n g - B o a g , V e r o n i c a . " S e t t i n g t h e S t a g e : N a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n and t h e Women's Movement i n t h e L a t e N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , " i n A l i s o n P r e n t i c e and Susan Mann T r o f i m e n k o f f , e d s . , The N e g l e c t e d M a j o r i t y : E s s a y s i n C a n a d i a n Women's H i s t o r y . T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1977, pp. 87-103. -. " I n t r u d e r s i n t h e N u r s e r y : C h i l d c a r e P r o f e s s i o n a l s Reshape t h e y e a r s One t o F i v e , 1920-1940," i n J o y P a r r , e d . , C h i l d h o o d and F a m i l y i n C a n a d i a n H i s t o r y . 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"The Women's I n s t i t u t e s i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a 1909-1946: Housewives 'For Home and C o u n t r y ' , " M.A. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of V i c t o r i a , 1983. 3 1 2 Dunn, T i m o t h y A.'"Work, C l a s s and E d u c a t i o n : V o c a t i o n a l i s m i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s P u b l i c S c h o o l s , 1900-1929," M.A. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1978. G i b s o n , E. "The Impact o f S o c i a l B e l i e f s on L a n d s c a p e Change: A G e o g r a p h i c a l S t u d y o f V a n c o u v e r , " Ph.D. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1971. H a l e , L i n d a . "The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a Woman S u f f r a g e Movement 1890-1917," M.A. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1977. L e w i s , N o r a h . " A d v i s i n g t h e P a r e n t s : C h i l d r e a r i n g i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a i n t h e I n t e r w a r Y e a r s , " Ed.D t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1980. McDonald, R o b e r t . " B u s i n e s s L e a d e r s i n E a r l y V a n c o u v e r , 1886-1914," Ph.D. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1977. M o r r i s o n , T e r r e n c e . "The C h i l d and Urban S o c i a l R eform i n L a t e N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y O n t a r i o , " Ph.D t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o , 1971. Mosher, S h e i l a P. "The S o c i a l G o s p e l i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a : S o c i a l Reform as a D i m e n s i o n o f R e l i g i o n 1900-1920," M.A. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1974. R o b e r t s o n , Angus. "The P u r s u i t o f Power, P r o f i t and P r i v a c y : A St u d y of V a n c o u v e r ' s West End E l i t e , " M.A.. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1977. Roy, P a t r i c i a . "The B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a E l e c t r i c R a i l w a y Company, 1897-1928: A B r i t i s h Company i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , " Ph.D t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1970. Sheehan, Nancy. "Temperance, t h e WCTU and E d u c a t i o n i n A l b e r t a , 1905-1930," Ph.D t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , 1980. U n d e r h i l l , H a r o l d F. "Labor L e g i s l a t i o n i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , " Ph.D t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1930. APPENDIX A NCWC WOMEN'S PLATFORM 1920 314 BASIS: TRUTH, JUSTICE, RIGHTEOUSNESS, LOYALTY FEDERAL 1) P o l i t i c a l S t a n d a r d s a) E q u a l m o r a l s t a n d a r d s i n p u b l i c and p r i v a t e l i f e . b) A b o l i t i o n o f p a t r o n a g e c ) P u b l i c a t i o n of amounts s u b s c r i b e d t o p a r t y f u n d s . d) Open n o m i n a t i o n of p o l i t i c a l c a n d i d a t e s e) P o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y f o r men and women. f ) A s p e a k i n g knowledge of e i t h e r t h e E n g l i s h o r F r e n c h l a n g u a g e f o r men and women b e f o r e r e c e i v i n g t h e f r a n c h i s e . g) The n a t u r a l i z a t i o n of women i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e n a t i o n a l i t y o f t h e husband. h) The p r a c t i c e of t h r i f t i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of p u b l i c and p r i v a t e a f f a i r s . 2) S o c i a l S t a n d a r d s a) That n e c e s s a r y l e g i s l a t i o n be e n a c t e d t o p e r m i t of u n i f o r m m a r r i a g e l a w s . b) That t h e r e be e q u a l i t y o f c a u s e f o r d i v o r c e i n a l l d i v o r c e c o u r t s - and t h a t t h e r e be no f i n a n c i a l b a r r i e r . c) P r o h i b i t i o n o f t h e s a l e of i n t o x i c a n t s . d) R a i s i n g t h e age of c o n s e n t t o 18 y e a r s . 3) I n d u s t r i a l S t a n d a r d s . a) E q u a l pay f o r work of e q u a l v a l u e i n q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y . b) The b a s i s of employment t o be p h y s i c a l and m e n t a l f i t n e s s w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o s e x . c) The p r i n c i p l e of c o - o p e r a t i o n between employer and employed. d) The p r i n c i p l e of c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g as d e f i n e d by t h e F e d e r a l Department of L a b o r , PROVINCIAL 315 1) P o l i t i c a l S t a n d a r d s a) To be the.same as F e d e r a l S t a n d a r d s . 2) S o c i a l S t a n d a r d s a) A C h i l d W e l f a r e S e c t i o n i n a l l D e p a r t m e n t s of H e a l t h - P r o v i n c i a l and M u n i c i p a l b) S u p p o r t of e v e r y e f f o r t made by D o m i n i o n and P r o v i n c i a l movements i n c o m b a t t i n g V e n e r e a l D i s e a s e , and e n d o r s a t i o n of e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f f r e e c l i n i c s . c ) S e g r e g a t i o n and c a r e o f ' t h e f e e b l e m i n d e d . d) P r o h i b i t i o n of t h e s a l e of i n t o x i c a n t s . e) A d e q u a t e M o t h e r s ' P e n s i o n s o r A l l o w a n c e s . f ) E q u a l g u a r d i a n s h i p of c h i l d r e n . g) L e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n of woman's s h a r e i n husband's p r o p e r t y and income d u r i n g l i f e . h) F r e e and c o m p u l s o r y e d u c a t i o n i n a l l P r o v i n c e s . i ) P h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g of boys and g i r l s i n a l l s c h o o l s . j ) M e d i c a l i n s p e c t i o n of a l l s c h o o l s - w i t h d e n t a l c l i n i c s where t h i s i s p o s s i b l e . k) A d e q u a t e s a l a r i e s f o r s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . 1) E q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o sex i n a l l t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g ; manual t r a i n i n g i n a l l s c h o o l s , g r a d e f o r boys and g i r l s , [ s i c ] 3) I n d u s t r i a l S t a n d a r d s . ( a ) - ( b ) - ( c ) - ( d ) t h e same as F e d e r a l . S o u r c e : NCWC Yearbook 1920 pp. 62-63. APPENDIX B MARY ELLEN SMITH'S PLATFORM 1918 317 Minimum l i v i n g wage f o r women w o r k e r s . S u p e r v i s i o n of workshops and f a c t o r i e s t o e n s u r e h e a l t h f u l c o n d i t i o n s f o r women and g i r l s . E q u a l pay f o r women w i t h men f o r e q u a l work. P e n s i o n s f o r dependent m o t h e r s . E d u c a t i o n and r e f o r m of j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n t s . O r g a n i z e d a s s i s t a n c e t o e n a b l e r e t u r n e d s o l d i e r s t o become a g r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e r s o r t o a c q u i r e t r a i n i n g f o r t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r s . The b r i n g i n g i n t o f o r c e of t h e C i v i l S e r v i c e A c t w i t h p r o v i s i o n f o r e n a b l i n g wounded v e t e r a n s t o q u a l i f y f o r i n d o o r p o s i t i o n s i n t h e c i v i l s e r v i c e . P r o p o r t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r m u l t i p l e c o n s t i t u e n c i e s . S t r i c t e n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e P r o h i b i t i o n A c t w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y amendments. P r o v i s i o n of an a d e q u a t e s y s t e m of t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g t o f i t young men and women f o r v o c a t i o n a l work. S o u r c e : WWW, J a n u a r y 24, 1918 p.1. APPENDIX C OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS 319 The o c c u p a t i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n used i n t h i s s t u d y i s b a s e d on t h a t used by M i c h a e l K a t z i n The P e o p l e of H a m i l t o n , Canada West: F a m i l y and C l a s s i n a M i d - N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y C i t y , ( H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1975) . K a t z n o t e s t h a t t h e scheme i s u s e f u l f o r n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y u r b a n s t u d i e s but does not recommend i t s use f o r t h e p e r i o d a f t e r i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . The p e r i o d of s t u d y of t h i s t h e s i s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y l a t e r t h a n K a t z ' b u t even i n t h e 1920's V a n c o u v e r was not a h e a v i l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c i t y i n c o m p a r i s o n t o many i n e a s t e r n Canada. K a t z ' scheme, w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n s was t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r e d as l i k e l y t o be as a c c u r a t e as more modern c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s s u c h as B e r n a r d R. B l i s h e n ' s s c a l e as d e f i n e d i n A C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y : S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s , 3 r d ed. ( T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1968) pp. 741-53. Many of K a t z ' o c c u p a t i o n s had e i t h e r d i s a p p e a r e d from t h e V a n c o u v e r work scene or s i m p l y were not r e p r e s e n t e d amongst t h e s e c t o r of t h e community s t u d i e d . O t h e r j o b s were d i s c o v e r e d w h i c h were not m e n t i o n e d by K a t z . In t h e s e c a s e s o c c u p a t i o n s were p l a c e d i n w h i c h e v e r c a t e g o r i e s seemed most a p p r o p r i a t e . C o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e s o f t e n gave a q u i t e c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n of an i n d i v i d u a l ' s s t a t u s o r t h a t of h i s j o b but a t t i m e s an i n t e l l i g e n t g u e s s was t h e method u s e d . One or two changes were made r e g a r d i n g o c c u p a t i o n a l r a t i n g s a s u s e d by K a t z . The p r o f e s s i o n of d e n t i s t was r a i s e d f r o m c a t e g o r y 2 t o c a t e g o r y 1, p a r t l y t o r e f l e c t a r a i s i n g of t h e s t a t u s of t h e p r o f e s s i o n by t h e s e c o n d decade of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y but a l s o b e c a u s e t h o s e d e n t i s t s i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e s t u d y a p p e a r e d t o have h e l d q u i t e a h i g h s o c i a l s t a t u s . The o c c u p a t i o n of a c c o u n t a n t was a l s o r a i s e d t o c a t e g o r y 1 t o i n d i c a t e a h i g h e r s t a t u s t h a n e i t h e r b o o k k e e p e r or c l e r k w h i c h were b o t h i n c l u d e d i n c a t e g o r y 2. Women's o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s was a s s i g n e d on t h e same s c a l e as f o r men but a l w a y s one c a t e g o r y l o w e r t o i n d i c a t e t h e l o w e r s t a t u s of women t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y . Whether t h i s r e s u l t s i n a t r u e e v a l u a t i o n of women's s t a t u s i s open t o q u e s t i o n but a t l e a s t i t e n a b l e s some k i n d of c o m p a r i s o n of male and f e m a l e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s and t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d a p p e a r t o j u s t i f y t h e method. One f i n a l p r o b l e m i s t h e f a c t t h a t o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s w h e t h e r of men or women may not a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s o c i a l s t a t u s . T h i s a p p e a r s t o have been t h e c a s e w i t h one o r two i n d i v i d u a l s . However as b o t h c l a s s and s o c i a l s t a t u s a r e v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o d e f i n e i n m i n u t e d e t a i l and s i n c e s u c h a t a s k i s beyond t h e scope and i n t e n t i o n of t h i s s t u d y , a rough g u i d e t o s o c i a l s t a t u s was c o n s i d e r e d t o have been a c h i e v e d by r a t i n g o c c u p a t i o n s on t h e f i v e p o i n t s c a l e . 320 Husbands' O c c u p a t i o n s and O c c u p a t i o n a l S t a t u s C a t e g o r y 1 no. D a i ryman 1 D r u g g i s t 3 A c c o u n t a n t 7 Farmer 1 Bank Manager 2 F i r e I n s p e c t o r 1 B a r r i s t e r 1 F i r e Warden 1 B i shop 1 G e o l o g i s t 1 B o a r d Chairman 1 G r o c e r 1 C l u b P r e s i d e n t 1 I m p o r t e r 3 Company D i r e c t o r 1 I n s p e c t o r 9 Company Owner 3 I n s u r a n c e a g e n t 4 Company P r e s i d e n t 33 J e w e l l e r 4 Company S e c r e t a r y 1 J o u r n a l i s t 1 Company V i c e - P r e s i d e n t 3 L a n d l o r d 2 C o n s u l 2 Manager 57 D e n t i s t 5 M a n u f a c t u r e r 2 D o c t o r 21 M a r i n e E n g i n e e r 2 I n s u r a n c e B r o k e r 1 M a r i n e S u r v e y o r 1 Judge 1 Men's Wear D e a l e r 1 M a j o r - g e n e r a l 1 M u s i c i a n 1 M e r c h a n t 6 O p t i c i a n 1 M i n i s t e r 18 Plumber P r o p r i e t o r 1 MLA 1 P o s t a l C l e r k 1 P r o f e s s o r 8 P r o p r i e t o r 1 3 P u b l i s h e r 1 R e a l t o r 19 S e n a t o r 1 S a l e s R e p r e s e n t a t i v e 1 S o l i c i t o r 20 Salesman 6 UBC P r e s i d e n t 1 S e c r e t a r y 6 S h i p p e r 3 T o t a l 1 27 S t o r a g e C o n t r a c t o r 2 S u p e r i n t e n d e n t 3 S u p p l i e r 1 C a t e g o r y 2 no. S u r v e y o r 1 Tax C o l l e c t o r 1 A d v e r t i s i n g 1 T e a c h e r 9 Agent 1 9 T e l e p h o n e O p e r a t o r 1 A n a l y s t 1 Tobaccon i s t 1 A r c h i t e c t 1 T r a v e l l e r ( S a l e s ) 9 A s s e s s o r 1 T r e a s u r e r 1 A t t e n d a n c e O f f i c e r 1 U n d e r t a k e r 1 Boat B u i l d e r 1 Warehouseman 2 B o o k k e e p e r 4 W i r e C h i e f ( T e l e p h o n e ) 1 B r o k e r 1 5 B u i l d e r 2 T o t a l 284 C a s h i e r 2 C a t t l e D e a l e r 1 C h e m i s t 1 C a t e g o r y 3 no C h i r o p r a c t o r 1 C l e r k 1 3 B a r b e r s h o p Owner 1 C l o t h i e r 1 B l a c ksmi t h 3 C o a l D e a l e r 1 C annery Worker 1 C o n t r a c t o r 1 7 C a r p e n t e r 1 0 Customs O f f i c e r 1 C o n d u c t o r 3 321 C o n f e c t i o n e r D e c o r a t o r Employee E l e c t r i c i a n E n g r a v e r F i l e r F i r e m a n e Foreman Foreman P a t t e r n Maker Foreman P l a n e r Foreman ( t r o l l e y ) F r e i g h t e r G l a s s B e v e l l e r L o g g e r Lumberman M a c h i n i s t Mason M a s t e r M a r i n e r M e c h a n i c M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r Mi l l w r i g h t Motorman P a c k e r P a i n t e r P a t t e r n m a k e r Plumber Pr i n t e r R a i l w a y O p e r a t o r Roadmaster Saw F i l e r Sawyer Shoemaker T a i l o r T i n s m i t h T y p e w r i t e r Repairman Welder Y a r d m a s t e r T o t a l C a t e g o r y 4. B a r b e r B r i d g e Tender C a r e t a k e r Chauf f e u r Dockhand Dr i v e r H e l p e r L a b o u r e r Messenger M i n e r T o t a l 1 U n c l a s s i f i a b l e no. 1 5 R e t i r e d 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 75 no. 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 18 O c c u p a t i o n s and O c c u p a t i o n a l S t a t u s of W o r k i n g Clubwomen C a t e g o r y 2 no. Company Owner 1 Company P r e s i d e n t 1 D e n t i s t 1 D o c t o r 18 E d i t o r 2 I n s t r u c t o r UBC 5 P r o f e s s o r UBC 4 S o l i c i t o r 3 T o t a l 33 C a t e g o r y 3 no. Bo o k k e e p e r 1 B u s i n e s s Manager 1 C a s h i e r 1 C l e r k 4 F l o o r W a l k e r 1 I n s p e c t o r 1 J o u r n a l i s t 4 L a n d l a d y 1 L i b r a r i a n 2 Man a g e r e s s 1 Masseuse 1 M a t r o n 3 N u r s e 15 P r o p r i e t o r 4 S t e n o g r a p h e r 7 S u p e r i n t e n d e n t 2 S u p e r v i s o r 1 T e a c h e r 86 T e l e g r a p h O p e r a t o r 1 Buyer HBC 2 ,N O f f i c e 8 T o t a l 152 C a t e g o r y 4 no. La b o u r O r g a n i z e r 1 Dressmaker 1 Employee HBC 1 M i l l i n e r 2 T o t a l 5 U n c l a s s i f i a b l e no. Nun 1 S t u d e n t 19 Law S t u d e n t 2