WEBSTER AND THE THEATRE OF CRUELTY: A THEATRICAL CONTEXT FOR THE DUCHESS OF MALFI by REGINALD WALLACE BUCKLE B.A., University of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1961 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n the Department of English We accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA August, 1966 In presenting thesis an advanced degree for that the Library study, I thesis for Department or this further at in partial the U n i v e r s i t y s h a l l make i t agree that freely purposes or representatives. publication of this thesis for ENGLISH The U n i v e r s i t y Vancouver 8, of British Columbia Canada Date___Augtt£LL_31 19-6JL 1 of British available for It is financial the requirements Columbia, I reference extensive may b e g r a n t e d b y t h e w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department of of permission-for scholarly by h i s fulfilment understood gain s h a l l and copying Head o f of this my that not agree be copying allowed ABSTRACT The The p u r p o s e o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t o examine W e b s t e r ' s Duchess o f M a l f i , a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e example o f t h e Jacobean " h o r r o r " p l a y , ship t o Antonin theory The chiefly i n terms o f i t s p o s s i b l e Artaud's Theatre of Cruelty, a p r o p o u n d e d i n The T h e a t e r of a Theatre and i t s Double. o f C r u e l t y a s p o s t u l a t e d by A r t a u d , a t t e m p t s t o show why, i n v i e w o f r e c e n t ments, Webster's p l a y might p r o f i t a b l y t h i s twentieth The century first why he makes f u l l device personal two c h a p t e r s The thematic proceed t o a d i s c u s s i o n of form, attempting t o show how a n d and t h e a t r i - t o a i d i n the presentation o f man a n d s o c i e t y . examined i n t h e c o n t e x t a Theatre experi- be i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h i n use o f any a v a i l a b l e dramatic and convention vision theatrical and context. W e b s t e r ' s complex t h e a t r i c a l to dramatic i n t r o d u c t o r y s e c t i o n o u t l i n e s t h e b a s i c aims a n d p r i n - ciples cal relation- The p l a y i s t h u s of T o t a l Theatre, a principle ofh i s first basic of Cruelty. c e n t r a l chapters lines of the t h e s i s investigate the i n The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i , a n d a t t e m p t t o show how i n s p i t e o f t h e many components f r o m w h i c h t h e p l a y i s constructed, there nevertheless ent vision. in dramatic emerges a u n i f i e d This vision t h r e e ways, s e p a r a b l e i s seen as being and coherdeveloped f o r purposes o f d i s c u s s i o n but iii ultimately verbal c l o s e l y i n t e r - r e l a t e d , namely v i s u a l imagery, i m a g e r y and characters-in-action. t i o n t h r o u g h v i s u a l and ter of verbal I I I , w h i l e C h a p t e r IV Thematic presenta- imagery i s d i s c u s s e d deals i n Chap- i n more d e t a i l w i t h aspects characterization. The method o f argument a d v a n c e d i n C h a p t e r IV Evil c o n t r a s t , w i t h the as opposed F o r c e s or symbols. as opposed F o r c e s , The of the The themes as final explored somewhat more g e n e r a l terms. An presentation tures play satire. attempt i s imperfect of tragedy, the related theory p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y t o the A b s u r d , on w h i c h t h e formative verbal imagery. play in genres—tragedy, the i s advanced t h a t the i s made t o r e l a t e c . of forms i s d i s c u s s e d . i f measured a g a i n s t seen presenta- t h e s i s examines t h e Webster's p a r t i c u l a r use of these t r a d i t i o n a l of the v i s u a l and D u c h e s s o f M a l f i t o more t r a d i t i o n a l comedy and developed in action, strengthening i n the chapter of the characters characters constitute a third c e n t r a l t h e m e s , w o r k i n g w i t h and The Webster's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i s b a s e d on what i s b a s i c a l l y a s i m p l e Good and tion i s that certain feaBecause accepted i t might conventions be viewed contemporary Theatre of T h e a t r e o f C r u e l t y has had the as the considerable influence. Throughout the tion, references ideas are discussion t o A r t a u d and o f themes and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of i n c l u d e d wherever p o s s i b l e t o ness of the characteriza- r e l a t i o n s h i p between The point out Artaud's the Duchess o f M a l f i closeand iv Artaud's Theatre of C r u e l t y . is not that the play contains within f o r m a l l y advanced century. The t h e s i s a d v a n c e d In e f f e c t , suggested as e x i s t i n g Concluding a Jacobean Theatre o f C r u e l t y i n fact remarks s e e n t o be a v a l i d Jacobean elements which a s a n a p p r o a c h t o drama u n t i l suggest that this i s being i f the f e l t relation- and t h e T h e a t r e o f C r u e l t y one, a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n d r a m a t i s t s might were i f n o t i n name. s h i p between The Duchess o f M a l f i is itself throughout o f o t h e r works by p r o v e o f u s e i n g i v i n g meaning and s i g n i f i c a n c e t o much o f t h e v i o l e n c e , h o r r o r a n d g r o t e s q u e r y which the appears i n the p l a y s o f the p e r i o d . The r e s p o n s e o f J a c o b e a n d r a m a t i s t s t o t h e i r t i m e s c a n be s e e n a s i n many ways a n a l o g o u s t o t h e r e s p o n s e t o t h e human c o n d i t i o n dramas o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y avant-garde. i n the TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page INTRODUCTION I. II. III. 1 W E B S T E R ' S T H E A T R I C A L FORM T H E DUCHESS THEMATIC OF M A L F I UNITY Including: IV. V. CHARACTERS " . . . IN THE A FASHIONABLE THEATRICAL AS T O T A L T H E A T R E . DUCHESS OF M A L F I A Digression AS F O R C E S 7 on V e r b a l IN THE MIXTURE INGREDIENTS . . . . 14 . . 33 Cruelty . DUCHESS OF M A L F I OF A L L T H E AROUND. . . . $8 . 65 BEST . . . 86 CONCLUSIONS 102 NOTES 108 BIBLIOGRAPHY 117 INTRODUCTION The that for f o l l o w i n g study a theory o f drama and the twentieth century understanding of Antonin of essays its an early i s based t h e a t r e w h i c h was can be f o r a form o f man ment—and, through techniques, be the r e s t r a i n t s and brought into On t h e on t h e break superficial environ- stage the fears, anarchic—man Drama was i n n e r c o n d i t i o n o f man, and stage inner obses- stage, the t r u e nature violent, and t o be to this of man freed an end a l l t e c h n i c a l r e s o u r c e s o f t h e t h e a t r e were t o p l a y t o work t o w a r d s t h e senses t o be largely annihilation by a d i r e c t r a t h e r than t o the c o m m u n i c a t i o n was f u n c t i o n was Theater of r e a l i s t i c subconscious obligations. were r e l e g a t e d t o a s u b o r d i n a t e and theories collection comprehensible on d e l i n e a t i n g spectator's acquired inhibitions and The The of outer l i f e — t h e revealed—irrational, p h y s i c a l and rational and c o m p l e t e abandonment proclivities. social nerves in interpreting century play. in a realistic, concentrate expression of the the and o f t h e a t r e which would o f man—man's r e p r e s s e d and s i o n s , and assumption written in p u b l i s h e d i n E n g l i s h under the t i t l e representation of o f use seventeenth completely with the p o r t r a y a l w o u l d be initial (1895-1948), a s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e Artaud Double"*" c a l l e d life on t h e appeal to intellect. To abandoned; s p e e c h position, and the the this since their d i s c u r s i v e r a t h e r than of end, dialogue origin intuitive. 2 The reasoning p r o c e s s , at l e a s t w h i l e the s p e c t a t o r was the t h e a t r e , was Theatre in t o be abandoned. such as Artaud wanted i t t o be thus becomes an o u t l e t f o r our r e p r e s s i o n s ; our eyes, r a t h e r than l o o k i n g a n a l y t i c a l l y at a r e a l i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of man in a social context, are turned inwards and we look upon our i n n e r s e l v e s as p o r t r a y e d on the stage. called h i s theatre a Theatre Artaud of C r u e l t y , a term i n c l u s i v e not only of s u b j e c t mat- t e r and v i s u a l stage r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , but a l s o — a n d more impor- t a n t l y i n f a c t — o f a d e s i r e d e f f e c t on the s p e c t a t o r s . In t h i s l a t t e r sense, he compared the t h e a t r i c a l experience to the presence of a plague i n a community: . . . the t h e a t e r , l i k e the plague, i s a d e l i r i u m and i s communicative. . . . i t i s not only because i t a f f e c t s important c o l l e c t i v i t i e s and upsets them i n an i d e n t i c a l way. In the t h e a t e r as i n the plague t h e r e i s something v i c t o r i o u s and v e n g e f u l : we are aware t h a t the spontaneous c o n f l a g r a t i o n which the plague l i g h t s wherever i t passes i s nothing e l s e than an immense l i q u i d a t i o n . A s o c i a l d i s a s t e r so f a r - r e a c h i n g , an organic d i s o r d e r so m y s t e r i o u s — t h i s overflow of v i c e s , t h i s t o t a l exorcism which presses and impels the s o u l t o i t s u t m o s t — a l l i n d i c a t e the presence of a s t a t e which i s n e v e r t h e l e s s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by extreme s t r e n g t h . . . . . . . t h e r e can be t h e a t e r only from the moment when the impossible r e a l l y begins and when the poetry which occurs on the stage s u s t a i n s and superheats the r e a l i z e d symbols. I t i s impossible t o o f f e r a s a t i s f a c t o r y capsule t i o n of the Theatre tions. of C r u e l t y and i t s far-reaching implica- Artaud's essays, reviews and notes are only represented defini- by the c o l l e c t i o n t i t l e d The:- Theater partially and i t s 3 Double. 3 He repeats and frequently contradicts himself, ap- p r o a c h e s t h e same p r o b l e m o r t h e same c o n c e p t i n a number o f d i f f e r e n t ways. an i n i t i a l The b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n above s h o u l d i n d i c a t i o n of the o f M a l f i i s t o be Cruelty w i l l be serve c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h The as Duchess examined; v a r i o u s f a c e t s of t h e T h e a t r e e l a b o r a t e d upon d u r i n g t h e course of of the discussion to follow. Artaud and seemed t o h a v e an a d m i r a t i o n J a c o b e a n drama. T h e r e i s an u n s t a t e d for Elizabethan implication that s e n s e d i n many o f t h e p l a y s o f t h o s e somewhat c h a o t i c something of the e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h he q u a l i t y of dramatic eras t h e modern d r a m a , w i t h i t s o v e r - d e p e n d e n c e on r e a l i s m , bility o f c h a r a c t e r and m o r a l i s s u e s , had 'Tis lost. P i t y S h e ' s A Whore. p l o t and p r e s e n t a t i o n of For example, Artaud G i o v a n n i , he he felt credi- palatable admired Ford's observes: . . . d o e s n o t w a v e r an i n s t a n t , d o e s n o t h e s i t a t e a m i n u t e , and t h e r e b y shows o f how l i t t l e a c c o u n t a r e a l l t h e b a r r i e r s t h a t c o u l d be o p p o s e d t o h i m . He i s h e r o i c a l l y c r i m i n a l and a u d a c i o u s l y , o s t e n t a t i o u s l y h e r o i c . E v e r y t h i n g d r i v e s h i m i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n and i n f l a m e s h i s e n t h u s i a s m ; he r e c o g n i z e s n e i t h e r e a r t h n o r h e a v e n , o n l y the f o r c e of h i s convulsive passion, t o which the r e b e l l i o u s and e q u a l l y h e r o i c p a s s i o n o f A n n a b e l l a d o e s n o t f a i l t o respond. " I weep," she s a y s , " n o t w i t h r e m o r s e b u t f o r f e a r I s h a l l n o t be a b l e t o s a t i s f y my p a s s i o n . " They a r e b o t h f o r g e r s , h y p o c r i t e s , and l i a r s f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e i r s u p e r h u m a n p a s s i o n w h i c h l a w s o b s t r u c t and condemn b u t w h i c h t h e y w i l l put beyond the law.4 I n h i s proposed program f o r a Theatre of C r u e l t y , Artaud gested s t a g i n g an a d a p t a t i o n o f a work f r o m t h e t i m e of sug- 4 Shakespeare, " . . . a work e n t i r e l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h our p r e s 5 ent t r o u b l e d s t a t e o f mind. . . ." such as Arden o f Feversham, or something e l s e from the same p e r i o d — " W o r k s from the E l i z a bethan t h e a t e r s t r i p p e d o f t h e i r t e x t and r e t a i n i n g only the accouterments of p e r i o d , s i t u a t i o n s , c h a r a c t e r s , and a c t i o n . " In u s i n g Artaud's t h e o r i e s as a b a s i s f o r a study o f The Duchess o f M a l f i I am thus assuming, and attempting t o show, t h a t the p l a y contains elements o f Artaud's Theatre o f C r u e l t y which have always been t h e r e , which were i n f a c t put t h e r e by Webster h i m s e l f . What has i n t r i g u e d me has been the f a c t except f o r one important f a c t o r — t h e d i a l o g u e — n e i t h e r that Webster's p l a y nor Artaud's t h e o r i e s need be d i s t o r t e d or q u a l i f i e d t o any great extent f o r the f e l t r e l a t i o n s h i p o f one t o the other t o be e s t a b l i s h e d as a v a l i d one. Two f u r t h e r p o i n t s should be noted at the o u t s e t , one i n r e l a t i o n t o Artaud, t h e other t o Webster. I t i s important t o remember t h a t Artaud's o r i g i n a l manifesto f o r a Theatre of C r u e l t y was and i s l a r g e l y t h e o r e t i c a l ; i n — a n d tially because o f — i t s indeed par- extreme form i t never became an a c t u a l 7 realized fact. full Even Artaud was d o u b t f u l about e f f e c t i n g a r e a l i z a t i o n of h i s personal c o u l d and should be. v i s i o n o f what the t h e a t r e However, h i s w r i t i n g s have had an impor- t a n t i n f l u e n c e i n two r a t h e r l a r g e areas; first, avant-garde movement i n contemporary drama on the e n t i r e and, more r e l e v a n t t o t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n , as an i n f l u e n c e on t h e r e - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and s t a g i n g of more t r a d i t i o n a l w o r k s — p l a y s i n 5 which dialogue and language remain an important f a c t o r . The use which can be made o f t h e b a s i c philosophy o f c r u e l t y i n the t h e a t r e , combined w i t h s t a g i n g t e c h n i q u e s which use t h e v e r b a l , p o e t i c imagery inherent i n a g i v e n work as an a d d i t i o n a l element of c r u e l t y t o support and u n d e r l i n e t h e v i s u a l and s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e a t r i c a l d e l i n e a t i o n o f c r u e l t y has been r e c e n t l y r e v e a l e d i n Peter Brook's productions f o r t h e Royal Shakespeare Company o f King Lear (1956-57) (1962), T i t u s Andronicus and Peter Weiss' The P e r s e c u t i o n and A s s a s s i n a t i o n of Marat as performed by t h e inmates of t h e Asylum o f Charenton under t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Marquis de Sade (1964-65).^ In these p r o d u c t i o n s , the p l a y s as w r i t t e n have o b v i o u s l y been f e l t t o c o n t a i n , i n t r i n s i c a l l y , elements which t h e t h e o r i e s of Artaud have f o r m u l a t e d i n non-dramatic and t h e o r e t i c a l terms. Hence t h e p l a y s as produced have made use o f Artaud's w r i t i n g s , admittedly d i l u t e d , as an i n t e r p r e t i v e and product i o n guide. I see no reason why the same i n t e r p r e t i v e prin- c i p l e s cannot be a p p l i e d t o Webster's The Duchess o f Malfi', or f o r t h a t matter, t o many other works from Webster's period. As Robert O r n s t e i n observes: For a few b r i e f hours i n t h e t h e a t r e , the demons t h a t haunted the Jacobean a r t i s t i c mind assumed a f l e s h and blood as w e l l as p o e t i c r e a l i t y . 1 0 Secondly, i n r e l a t i o n t o Webster, w i t h t h e notable e x c e p t i o n o f John R u s s e l l Brown's i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Revels Plays e d i t i o n of The Duchess of M a l f i , 1 1 c r i t i c a l w r i t i n g on 6 Webster seems t o have concentrated l i t e r a t u r e , and on the work as dramatic i n s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n seems t o have been g i v e n t o the p l a y as a p i e c e of t h e a t r e , w r i t t e n f o r p e r f o r mance and f u l l y e f f e c t i v e only i n performance. As dramatic l i t e r a t u r e , which presumably presupposes the l e i s u r e t o r e f l e c t and contemplate, The Duchess of M a l f i can r a p i d l y f a l l t o p i e c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f one t o the p l a y — t h e the cause and motivations and c o n s i s t e n c y of c h a r a c t e r s , of I f e e l t h a t Webster wrote f o r immediate e f f e c t i v e n e s s , and t h a t any attempted e v a l u a t i o n of the p l a y must keep t h i s i n mind. t i o n are undeniably The flaws of construc- present , but become minimal i n the acy of a stage performance. cerns of Artaud's Theatre what one of r e a l i s m e f f e c t development of p l o t , the c r e d i b i l i t y the work as a whole. impact and a p p l i e s standards F u r t h e r , when standards or con- of C r u e l t y are a p p l i e d t o the sees through l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s as dramatic come, perhaps p e r v e r s e l y , t h e a t r i c a l v i r t u e s . the f a c t , as noted i n Don immedi- play, flaws In t h i s be- regard, D. Moore's recent a r t i c l e "Webster 12 i n the Modern T h e a t r e , " t h a t productions of The Duchess of M a l f i , by approaching the p l a y l a r g e l y as a p i e c e of r e a l i s t i c drama, have had r e i n f o r c e s my only l i m i t e d success on the modern stage theory t h a t i n the w r i t i n g s of Antonin Artaud l i e both i n t e r p r e t i v e and s t a g i n g approaches t o the play which have remained l a r g e l y unexplored. only CHAPTER I WEBSTER'S THEATRICAL FORM The for concept of a Theatre of C r u e l t y i s E l i z a b e t h a n and been o f t e n un- j u s t l y c r i t i c i z e d f o r i t s l a c k of s t y l i s t i c homogeneity. In this i n i t i a l Jacobean drama, which has tailor-made chapter, I would l i k e t o suggest a more t o l e r a n t a t t i t u d e be taken t o Webster's methods of composition. i s , t o be sure, l i t t l e There case t o be made f o r a s t y l i s t i c of the dramatic or t h e a t r i c a l content of The unity Duchess of M a l f i . F o r t u n a t e l y , however, not a l l c r i t i c s of Webster are as bothered by h i s s t r u c t u r a l chaos as i s someone l i k e W i l l i a m Archer. is In h i s condemnatory c r i t i c i s m , he i n s i s t s t h a t simply Malfi. too much u n a s s i m i l a t e d m a t e r i a l i n The there Duchess of Webster mistakes q u a n t i t y f o r q u a l i t y , Archer f e e l s , although he admits t h a t " T h i s attempt t o apply r a t i o n a l canons of dramatic c o n s t r u c t i o n t o an E l i z a b e t h a n doubtless 'masterpiece' w i l l be regarded i n many q u a r t e r s as l i t t l e 2 sacrilegious." S a c r i l e g i o u s only i n t h a t the a t t i t u d e t o the E l i z a b e t h a n dramatists Drama and the New^ E l i z a b e t h a n and takes l i t t l e derogatory as r e f l e c t e d i n The account of the f a c t Jacobean audiences were not Ibsen or Shaw-like c o n s i s t e n c y , l e s s than but that interested i n i n v a r i e t y — a s much of i t as p o s s i b l e — w i t h i n a g i v e n p l a y , o r , f u r t h e r , t h a t there i s no compositional while u n i t y i n a p l a y such as The of M a l f i , there i s n e v e r t h e l e s s Old a definite Duchess compositional 3 p a t t e r n or s t r u c t u r e present, and l o g i c a l progression a l b e i t devoid of the rational of events which Archer demands i n dramatic s t r u c t u r e . As M u r i e l Bradbrook suggests, an E l i z a b e t h a n p l a y was expressed i n imagery and the only t r u e u n i t y of i t s poetic unity, a unifying v i s i o n language, a v e r b a l m o t i f which under- l i e s and u n d e r l i n e s a l l the d i s p a r a t e v i s u a l and elements u t i l i z e d i n the a c t u a l composition t i o n of a work such as The c o u l d be n e g l e c t e d , of events, not larity. Duchess of M a l f i . telescoped or expanded. so important i n any r e a l i s t i c expected and s i n c e the dramatists e n c e s — t o i n c o r p o r a t e so much. drama, was She impossible, compares the by a v a r i e t y one required, degree of reguBradbrook audi- resulting of a modern u n i f y i n g theme of t h e a t r i c a l means.^ e f f e c t of a work would thus be both immediate and The not were e x p e c t e d — b y t h e i r revue, which o f t e n does have, of course, repeated space A c a u s a l sequence form of E l i z a b e t h a n drama t o the h e t e r o g e n e i t y r e v e a l e d and stage r e a l i z a - Time and c e r t a i n l y not f o l l o w e d t o any A s t r i c t l y l o g i c a l framework was suggests, and theatrical cumulative. Duchess of M a l f i works upon us i n much the same way; dividual scenes have an immediate and powerful e f f e c t , working w i t h i n us at the same time i s a cumulating which i s f e l t only a f t e r the f i n a l scene has The inbut effect ended. Webster b u i l d s h i s play through drawing f r e e l y upon whatever best s u i t s h i s needs at the moment. work has Much c r i t i c a l bsen done on Webster's commonplace book method of 9 composition, h i s f r e e borrowing other w r i t e r s t o s u i t h i s own and adapting of passages from p o e t i c needs. 5 But he i s a l s o a great borrower and adapter of t h e a t r i c a l d e v i c e s and tions. T h i s h a b i t has been c i t e d by T.S. E l i o t as conven- "artistic g r e e d i n e s s , " r e s u l t i n g , a d m i t t e d l y , i n an impure a r t form. why need t h i s be regarded as a f a u l t ? f u l l y controlled and handled In the t h e a t r e , care- as i t i s i n The Duchess of M a l f i , t h e r e i s no r e a l need t o condemn . n . . their [i.e., E l i z a b e t h a n d r a m a t i s t s ] d e s i r e f o r every s o r t the of e f f e c t t o - gether, t h e i r u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o accept any l i m i t a t i o n and by i t . " ^ I f we of d e v i c e s and But do condemn Webster f o r h i s e x c e s s i v e conventions, he becomes, as E l i o t abide mixture calls him, ". . . a very great l i t e r a r y and dramatic genius d i r e c t e d t o ward chaos.", a remark which, I t h i n k , combines p r a i s e f o r h i s particular dramatic v i s i o n w i t h condemnation f o r the chaos of "7 h i s dramatic form. As F.L. Lucas notes i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o h i s edition of Webster, we must r e g a r d the p l a y s l e s s as c o n s i s t e n t wholes than as a s e r i e s of great s i t u a t i o n s , and i n the and u l t i m a t e t h e a t r i c a l r e a l i z a t i o n of these g r e a t composition situations, we must see Webster, u n a p o l o g e t i c a l l y , as an i n v e t e r a t e borrower and p l a g i a r i z e r . There was, as M u r i e l Bradbrook notes, a common pool of stock m a t e r i a l — t h e m e s , c h a r a c t e r types, v i s u a l d e v i c e s , t h e a t r i c a l e f f e c t s and t r i c k s — t o which E l i z a bethan d r a m a t i s t s a l l c o n t r i b u t e d and from which they a l l drew. Out of t h i s evolved a vast number of u n s a n c t i f i e d ( i n the sense 10 t h a t they were not w r i t t e n down and formulated as r u l e s ) but accepted conventions; a body o f t h e a t r i c a l m a t e r i a l which was the common p r o p e r t y o f t h e d r a m a t i s t s and r e c o g n i z e d and accepted as such by t h e audiences. Miss Bradbrook's approach, Accepting t h e t r u t h of does not t h e i n t e r e s t then c e n t r e on t h e p a r t i c u l a r use t o which an i n d i v i d u a l d r a m a t i s t , such as Webster, put t h e v a r i o u s conventions i n conveying h i s own p e r s o n a l v i s i o n of l i f e ? There i s an undeniable u n i t y i n The Duchess o f M a l f i —a thematic u n i t y t o which Webster adheres and t o which a l l the d i v e r s e t h e a t r i c a l and dramatic elements contribute. of the play M a r t i n E s s l i n i n The Theatre o f the Absurd a s u g g e s t i o n f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e form o f works by w r i t e r s offers such as Ionesco and Beckett which i s a l s o u s e f u l as an approach t o Webster's method o f composition. Overall unity, E s s l i n r i g h t l y says, i s one o f theme and/or e f f e c t , thus echoing Miss Bradbrook's dramas. d i s c u s s i o n of t h e p o e t i c u n i t y o f t h e E l i z a b e t h a n I t develops out o f . . . an i n d i v i d u a l human being's i n t u i t i o n o f t h e u l t i mate r e a l i t i e s as he experiences them; t h e f r u i t s o f one man's descent i n t o t h e depths o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , h i s dreams, f a n t a s i e s and nightmares. . . . one poet's most i n t i m a t e and p e r s o n a l i n t u i t i o n o f t h e human s i t u a t i o n . . . . T h i s i s the s u b j e c t matter of the Theatre o f t h e Absurd, and i t determines i t s form. . . . 9 In e f f e c t , t h e author's form i s t h e end r e s u l t of whatever he chooses t o use i n p r e s e n t i n g h i s s u b j e c t matter. There a r e no p r e s c r i b e d r u l e s t o observe, anything i s a l l o w a b l e i f i t 11 c o n t r i b u t e s i n i t s own way t o the f i n a l statement. To t h i s end, t h e n — t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h i s p e r s o n a l i n t u i t i o n of the b a s i c t r u t h o f the human s i t u a t i o n — W e b s t e r a v a i l s h i m s e l f of any t h e a t r i c a l convention which w i l l a i d i n conveying h i s v i s i o n t o the audience, anything which w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o a thorough involvement o f t h e i r a t t e n t i o n . Thus, a concept o f T o t a l Theatre as p o s t u l a t e d by Artaud can be d i s t i n c t l y r e l e v a n t t o The Duchess o f M a l f i : " . . . the Theater of C r u e l t y i n t e n d s t o r e a s s e r t a l l the t i m e - t e s t e d magical means o f c a p t u r i n g the s e n s i b i l i t y . " 1 0 The Theatre o f Cruelty, concerned as i t i s w i t h thorough involvement through a c o n t i n u a l barrage o f seemingly d i s p a r a t e elements d i r e c t e d towards the conscious and subconscious responses o f an audience, makes a v i r t u e of c o m p o s i t i o n a l d i v e r s i t y r a t h e r than a f a u l t . "In a g i v e n time, t o the g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e number o f movements, we w i l l j o i n the g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e number o f p h y s i c a l images and meanings a t t a c h e d t o those movements." 11 T o t a l Theatre a l l o w s f o r the use o f a l l the elements of the stage t o serve the d r a m a t i s t ' s i n t e n t i o n : The t h e a t e r w i l l never f i n d i t s e l f a g a i n . . . except by f u r n i s h i n g the s p e c t a t o r with the t r u t h f u l p r e c i p i t a t e of dreams, i n which h i s t a s t e f o r crime, h i s e r o t i c o b s e s s i o n s , h i s savagery, h i s chimeras, h i s Utopian sense of l i f e and matter, even h i s c a n n i b a l i s m pour out on a l e v e l not c o u n t e r f e i t and i l l u s o r y , but i n t e r i o r . In other terms, the t h e a t e r must pursue by a l l i t s means a r e a s s e r t i o n not only o f a l l the aspects o f the o b j e c t i v e and d e s c r i p t i v e e x t e r n a l world but o f the i n t e r n a l world; t h a t i s , o f man c o n s i d e r e d m e t a p h y s i c a l l y . 1 2 12 Enough has now been s a i d , I f e e l , t o suggest t h a t we may p r o f i t a b l y view Webster i n a l i g h t o f a p p r o v a l than disapproval f o r h i s t h e a t r i c a l v a r i e t y . rather In o u t l i n i n g t h i s v a r i e t y below, my concern f o r t h e moment i s s i m p l y with t h e v a r i e t y i n and o f i t s e l f , and o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l d e v i c e s and c o n v e n t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d themselves. The r e l e v a n c e i n and f o r of seemingly d i s p a r a t e elements t o t h e t o t a l t h e m a t i c u n i t y o f t h e work w i l l be made c l e a r , I hope, i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s . A l s o , I make no attempt t o t r a c e any a c t u a l o r p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s o f t h e elements used."'" To c l a r i f y my c o n t e n t i o n t h a t The Duchess o f M a l f i may be seen w i t h i n a c o n t e x t of Total Theatre, a twentieth a n a l o g y seems r e l e v a n t a t t h i s p o i n t . century As mentioned e a r l i e r , t h e f u l l e s t contemporary r e a l i z a t i o n o f A r t a u d ' s concept o f T o t a l T h e a t r e has been i n P e t e r Brook's 1964 p r o d u c t i o n o f W e i s s ' Marat/Sade. In his introduction to the English text of t h e p l a y , Brook n o t e s : Weiss not o n l y uses t o t a l t h e a t r e , t h a t time-honoured n o t i o n o f g e t t i n g a l l t h e elements o f t h e s t a g e t o s e r v e t h e p l a y . H i s f o r c e i s not o n l y i n t h e q u a n t i t y of i n s t r u m e n t s he u s e s ; i t i s above a l l i n t h e j a n g l e produced by t h e c l a s h o f s t y l e s . One o f t h e London c r i t i c s a t t a c k e d t h e p l a y on t h e ground t h a t i t was a f a s h i o n a b l e m i x t u r e o f a l l t h e best t h e a t r i c a l ingredients around^-Brechtian—didactic-a b s u r d i s t — T h e a t r e o f C r u e l t y . He s a i d t h i s t o d i s p a r a g e but I r e p e a t t h i s as p r a i s e . Weiss saw t h e use o f every one o f t h e s e i d i o m s and he saw th&t he needed them a l l . And, f r o m h i s work i n t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e t e x t t o t h e s t a g e , Brook 13 felt t h a t Weiss had s u c c e s s f u l l y a s s i m i l a t e d t h e many d i s - parate elements used: From our p r a c t i c a l experience I can r e p o r t t h a t the f o r c e of t h e performance i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e imaginative r i c h n e s s o f the m a t e r i a l : the i m a g i n a t i v e r i c h n e s s i s the consequence of the amount of l e v e l s t h a t a r e working simultaneously: t h i s simultaneity i s the d i r e c t r e s u l t of Weiss's d a r i n g combination o f so many c o n t r a d i c t o r y techniques.14 For Weiss, l e t us t e m p o r a r i l y read Webster, f o r g e t t i n g the Marat/Sade and c o n s i d e r i n g the relevance The Duchess o f M a l f i . o f the statement t o The e x e r c i s e i s a l l t h e more p r o f i t a b l e i f one notes t h a t Brook's i n d i c a t i o n o f ". . . t h e best r i c a l i n g r e d i e n t s around. . . . " a r e a l l present of M a l f i . theat- i n The Duchess The B r e c h t i a n element, at l e a s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , i s as much Webster's as i t i s Brecht's, elements a r e a l s o present and d i d a c t i c and a b s u r d i s t i n the play. F o r the moment, however, l e t us concern o u r s e l v e s w i t h the s p e c i f i c a l l y dramatic and t h e a t r i c a l elements of t h e p l a y which represent indigenous t o Webster's own time. conventions This represents, I feel, T o t a l Theatre as i t was i n e f f e c t p r a c t i c e d i f not a c t u a l l y so named by a Jacobean dramatist. CHAPTER THE DUCHESS OF MALFI AS TOTAL THEATRE Assuming t h a t The noted, " . . . II one Duchess of M a l f i i s , as previously- poet's most i n t i m a t e and of the human s i t u a t i o n . personal intuition . . .","*" i t seems l e g i t i m a t e t o sug- gest t h a t d e s p i t e i t s I t a l i a n s e t t i n g , the p l a y i s meant t o be a microcosmic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of l i f e s p e c i f i c a l l y of l i f e everywhere, but more i n the England Webster l i v e d i n . Hence the p l a y attempts t o p l a c e on the stage as f u l l and v a r i e d a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n as p o s s i b l e of the manifold complex s o c i e t y : scenes of p u b l i c and with concerns of a court l i f e a l t e r n a t e domestic, p r i v a t e scenes, the f o r m a l i t y of the p u b l i c scenes c o n t r a s t i n g with the i n f o r m a l i t y of the domestic scenes. I n t e r i o r s and e x t e r i o r s are used: r e c e i v i n g chambers, bedrooms, c o r r i d o r s , a c o u r t y a r d , the open c o u n t r y s i d e , a p r i s o n , a graveyard, a r e l i g i o u s shrine. stage allowed The f o r such constant f l e x i b i l i t y of the Elizabethan movement and a c t i v i t y , and throughout the p l a y , Webster p l a c e s h i s c e n t r a l group of c h a r a c t e r s w i t h i n the l a r g e r context s o c i a l machine. of a busy and There i s an undeniable aura of s p e c t a c l e i n the p l a y j u s t on the l e v e l of movement and a c t i v i t y Spectacle scene ( I l l . i v ) , complex alone. of a more s p e c i f i c nature i s used i n the a l s o i n v o l v i n g r i t u a l and pageantry, of the C a r d i n a l ' s i n v e s t i t u r e as a s o l d i e r , a scene which i s not completely necessary t o the a c t u a l p l o t , but which v i s u a l l y 15 makes an extremely important c o n t r i b u t i o n to the theme. we over-all Immediately f o l l o w i n g the C a r d i n a l ' s i n s t a l l a t i o n , have i n dumb-show the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n the Duchess and Antonio, a scene which depends e n t i r e l y pantomime, g e s t u r e and This p a r t i c u l a r establish is, first point i n the play i s a u s e f u l one inter-play l e v e l s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and most simply, and a basic plot to of a number response. There s i t u a t i o n : the s a f e t y at the s h r i n e where the takes p l a c e , t h e i r banishment by the C a r d i n a l . l e v e l , we mally have a v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n p u t t i n g a s i d e the garb of a man up the dress of a f i g h t e r . In one t i o n of h i s t r u e nature as we play; a v i s u a l confirmation i s one who nature. Carand ceremony On a character of the C a r d i n a l for- of the Church and taking sense, t h i s g i v e s a r e v e l a - have seen i t developing of our f e e l i n g that the i n the Cardinal uses r e l i g i o n only as a cloak t o d i s g u i s e h i s t r u e In the garb of a s o l d i e r , he somehow looks much more appropriate, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the context symbolic and ritualistic delivering and on help d i n a l i n s t a l l e d i n the h a b i t of a s o l d i e r , h i s s i s t e r her husband seeking of p h y s i c a l movement f o r i t s e f f e c t . some i d e a of the frequent of d i f f e r e n t of the banishment of the accompanying a c t i o n s of h i s attendants up h i s c r o s s , hat, robes and r i n g at the i n v e s t i n g him with sword, helmet, s h i e l d and "... shrine, spurs; . . . (III.iv.8). On a more complex l e v e l of response, i t seems s i g n i f i cant that the banishment of the Duchess and immediately f o l l o w i n g t h i s ceremony, and Antonio takes place on l o o k i n g back, we 16 can realize that i t i s at t h i s point that the the Duchess b e g i n s i n e a r n e s t . From t h e sense a deeper i m p l i c a t i o n of the d i s s o l u t i o n of the l a r l y , a l s o i n pantomime (we p i l g r i m ' s comments a f e w are Cardinal's l i n e s l a t e r ) , we of the of another e s t a b l i s h e d i n s t i t u t i o n or All of the the foregoing The f o r c e of gesture The ensuing dialogue n e c e s s a r y , and p e r f o r m a n c e , he and the Cardinal finger. imminent Here we destruction A f t e r seeing discontinuous a k i n d of d i r e c t p h y s i c a l appeal verbal be comment; un- spectacular e f f e c t i v e - I n The w r i t e s of the of gesture; cannot P i l g r i m s i s i n many ways .... T h e a t e r and strong one noted i n h i s impressions g e s t i c u l a t i o n s and the f a c i a l expression just taken place. expressiveness Simi- i s suggested i n purely v i s u a l o f t h e two power o f mime a c t i o n s . tible see s c e n e a c t u a l l y n e e d s no Double, Artaud repeatedly a religious custom. a c t u a l l y decreases the n e s s o f what h a s by the must assume i t s p r e s e n c e f r o m Duchess' wedding r i n g from her under-estimated. actions: of can e v e n by r e l i g i o n i t s e l f . offered a v i s u a l suggestion terms. p a n t o m i m e , we protection usually provided s h r i n e , p e r h a p s more g e n e r a l l y t e a r i n g the persecution Its communicative p a r t i c u l a r mime "... the In the animated unfolding irresis- o f images t h e r e . . . w h i c h memory w i l l never 2 release." A f t e r a p e r f o r m a n c e o f The d o u b t t h a t we w o u l d remember a s i n g l e w o r d o f t h e commentary, but banishment. Duchess o f M a l f i , we w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y remember t h e is I pilgrims' dumb-show 17 We should a l s o bear i n mind t h a t yet another l e v e l of response would be i n o p e r a t i o n due to the presence of accompaniment and the r i t u a l chanting musical of the Churchmen, form- ing almost a mocking counter e f f e c t t o our v i s u a l responses. The scene r e p r e s e n t s f o l d i n g a c t i o n , and vey a s i g n i f i c a n t t u r n i n g p o i n t i n the un- i t i s of note t h a t Webster chose t o con- i t e n t i r e l y i n t h e a t r i c a l t e r m s — v i s u a l l y r a t h e r than verbally. R i t u a l elements are a l s o i n v o l v e d i n the scene of I . i and the b e t r a y a l of J u l i a i n V . i i , a l s o depending h e a v i l y on the v i s u a l f o r f u l l In f a c t , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o t h i n k of any betrothal both scenes realization. important scene i n the p l a y which does not depend h e a v i l y on t h e a t r i c a l realiza- t i o n f o r i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s : the b e t r o t h a l scene, the confron- t a t i o n of Antonio and Bosola i n the c o u r t y a r d , the i n t r u s i o n of Ferdinand i n t o the Duchess' bedroom, the scene at Ancona, the t o r t u r e and death of the Duchess, Ferdinand's mad the echo scene, the death of J u l i a , and and i n t r i g u e s at the c l o s e of the In h i s f i r s t scene, the v a r i o u s murders play. manifesto f o r a Theatre of C r u e l t y , Artaud, who had l i t t l e use f o r the modern t h e a t r e ' s on dialogue t o convey meaning, advocated i n h i s planned pro- gram the s t a g i n g of "Works from the E l i z a b e t h a n s t r i p p e d of t h e i r t e x t and r e t a i n i n g only the dependency theater accouterments 3 of p e r i o d , s i t u a t i o n s , c h a r a c t e r s revealed and action." As further i n h i s short d i s c u s s i o n of the p h y s i c a l impact of 18 Ford's ' T i s P i t y She's A W h o r e d Artaud seemingly had a s t r o n g sense of the importance of the v i s u a l image as a v i t a l con- t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r t o the audience's apprehension of thematic i m p l i c a t i o n s of a g i v e n work. s i d e r j u s t how What i s s u r p r i s i n g i s t o con- much of the t o t a l e f f e c t of The Duchess of M a l f i depends on v i s u a l r e a l i z a t i o n , d e s p i t e the f a c t that Webster's p o e t i c imagery i s what has brought him r e c o g n i t i o n and p r a i s e . The poetry of the p l a y supports and extends the i m p l i c a t i o n s of the v i s u a l imagery. enduring I f the p l a y i n o u t l i n e form were t o become the b a s i s f o r a mime s c e n a r i o and were consequently played as such i t would, I t h i n k , r e t a i n i t s thematic i m p l i c a t i o n s as r e v e a l e d through v i s u a l image and character i n action. The onus would be p l a c e d on the expres- s i v e power of g e s t u r e and movement t o convey the meaning of key scenes. S t r i p p e d of i t s t e x t u a l ambiguity, the revenge of Ferdinand a g a i n s t h i s s i s t e r might be then seen i n i t s essence as pure, m o t i v e l e s s c r u e l t y . I t s t e r r o r would not be l e s s e n e d , but g r e a t l y heightened due t o the complete absence of a v e r b a l d i r e c t i o n of the audience's r e a c t i o n s and sympathies. In the p l a y , v i s u a l and v e r b a l images seem t o run p a r a l l e l t o each o t h e r , so t h a t i n e f f e c t we have a double statement of theme: one v i s u a l , one v e r b a l , and a l s o a double r e v e l a t i o n of c h a r a c t e r : one v i s u a l , one v e r b a l . r e t u r n t o t h i s i d e a i n the next chapter. For the moment, l e t us continue t o look at the t h e a t r i c a l elements of M a l f i . I will of The Duchess 19 It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note that f o l l o w i n g the scene at Ancona, r i t u a l elements, normally a s s o c i a t e d w i t h order harmony, are used f o r p e r v e r t e d versions purposes and become grotesque of our u s u a l a s s o c i a t i o n s of r i t u a l f u n c t i o n s . k i s s e s the B i b l e , a r i t u a l c o n f i r m a t i o n she has and of the oath of Julia secrecy j u s t g i v e n ; the book i s poisoned, and her l i f e ends. In I V . i , the Duke o f f e r s the Duchess h i s hand t o k i s s , a r i t u a l s i g n of a c c e p t i n g and r e c e i v i n g f o r g i v e n e s s , but hand t u r n s out t o be the severed hand of a dead man; ing inherent i n the ceremony i s mocked, p e r v e r t e d Indeed, a strange p a t t e r n of p e r v e r t e d underline a l l of the t o r t u r e scenes ( I V . i and minate i n the death of the Duchess. the the mean- and nullified. r i t u a l seems t o i i ) which c u l - T h i s r i t u a l m o t i f has i n t e r p r e t e d i n a v a r i e t y of ways, a l l of them s u g g e s t i v e , been none 5 r e a l l y conclusive. useful. C l i f f o r d Leech's suggestions are most R i t u a l , he f e e l s , . n . . schematises human b e l i e f or a s p i r a t i o n or need, thus both a s s e r t i n g the mental c o n d i t i o n it expresses and . ... at the same time unburdening t h a t So Ferdinand and black mass."^ of I V . i and condition. Bosola arrange t h e i r v a r i a n t of a I t seems p o s s i b l e t o see the e n t i r e sequence i i as a r i t u a l i z a t i o n by Ferdinand of h i s d e s i r e s and needs and as a v i s u a l a s s e r t i o n of h i s mental c o n d i t i o n . Leech makes a f u r t h e r r e l e v a n t point: And f o r us, who have been f a s c i n a t e d and tormented by the ceremony but never acquiescent i n i t , the e f f e c t i s no l e s s complex, no mere t h r i l l of h o r r o r . I t i s informed 20 by our r e a l i z a t i o n of i t s source i n the minds of those who have stage-managed i t , and by a growing sense of what i t w i l l do t o them.7 In r e l a t i o n t o the concept of c r u e l t y i n the t h e a t r e , Leech's note of our f a s c i n a t i o n by the r i t u a l / c e r e m o n y i s h i g h l y i n formative. The machinations of Ferdinand e l i c i t , I t h i n k , an unformed, u n i n t e l l e c t u a l empathy i n the audience. Theatre of C r u e l t y p r o v i d e s an o u t l e t f o r our r e p r e s s i o n s . comparing munity In h i s essay the t h e a t r i c a l experiencefc.6'the presence i n a com- of a plague, Artaud suggests: The plague takes images that are dormant, a l a t e n t d i s o r d e r , and suddenly extends them i n t o the most extreme g e s t u r e s ; the t h e a t e r a l s o takes g e s t u r e s and pushes them as f a r as they w i l l go: . . . . I t r e c o v e r s the n o t i o n of symbols and archetypes which act l i k e s i l e n t blows, r e s t s , l e a p s of the h e a r t . . . inflammatory images t h r u s t i n t o our a b r u p t l y wakened heads." Much has been made of the s o - c a l l e d Senecan h o r r o r d e v i c e s used by Webster i n the p e r s e c u t i o n scene. But, r e g a r d l e s s of whatever s p e c i f i c t r a d i t i o n s he drew upon, Webster does not i n c l u d e a severed hand, r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of dead b o d i e s , madmen, murder and t o r t u r e simply as t i t i l l a t i o n s f o r the audience. extraneous T h i s i s not t o say t h a t he unaware of t h e i r t h e a t r i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s and p o p u l a r i t y . p o i n t becomes, r a t h e r , why were such t h i n g s so popular? mentioned, i n I V . i and i i we was The As seem c l o s e t o Artaud's concept of t h e a t r e as an o u t l e t f o r , and an e x t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f , our repressions. notes: In "The Theater and the Plague," Artaud f u r t h e r 21 . . . l i k e the plague, i t [ i . e . , the t h e a t r e ] i s the r e v e l a t i o n , the b r i n g i n g f o r t h , the e x t e r i o r i z a t i o n of a depth of l a t e n t c r u e l t y by means of which a l l the perverse p o s s i b i l i t i e s of the mind, whether of an i n d i v i d u a l or a people, are l o c a l i z e d It releases c o n f l i c t s , disengages powers, l i b e r a t e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s , and i f these p o s s i b i l i t i e s are dark, i t i s the f a u l t not of the plague nor of the t h e a t e r , but of l i f e . 9 One can begin t o p e r c e i v e here the i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s h o r r o r show which we deniable f a s c i n a t i o n . as audience members watch i n un- I f a m i r r o r were suddenly h e l d i n f r o n t of our f a c e s as we watched, perhaps we would be h o r r i f i e d the s i g h t of our own murder represented by engrossment i n c r u e l t y , t o r t u r e and before us. We would thus have a sudden and p a i n f u l insight into ourselves. In the Theatre of C r u e l t y , the stage area becomes t h i s m i r r o r ; a r e f l e c t i o n of our l a t e n t and suppressed p r o c l i v i t i e s . T h i s , I t h i n k , was was t r y i n g t o do i n t h i s long f o u r t h act s e q u e n c e — t r y i n g reach a deeper l e v e l of awareness than one i n t e r e s t i n p l o t and use characters. of the t h e a t r e and As we what Webster to of s u p e r f i c i a l To do t h i s , he made f u l l i t s resources t o evoke the insight. s h a l l see i n a l a t e r s e c t i o n , h i s dialogue and poetic imagery were a l s o working f o r t h i s e f f e c t , i n harmony with the v i s u a l imagery. T.S. E l i o t senses i n E l i z a b e t h a n drama a r e l e a s e i n the t h e a t r e of t a s t e s and a t t i t u d e s which were h e l d under tenuous r e s t r a i n t i n everyday l i f e . Tastes g r a t i f i e d i n the t h e a t r e are always l a t e n t i n the audience, he f e e l s . A point he makes about Seneca's i n f l u e n c e i s most r e l e v a n t t o the 22 f o r e g o i n g argument: The worst t h a t can be urged a g a i n s t Seneca, i n the matter of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r what i s d i s g u s t i n g i n E l i z a b e t h a n drama, i s t h a t he may have provided the dramatist w i t h a p r e t e x t or j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r h o r r o r s which were not Senecan a t a l l , f o r which t h e r e was c e r t a i n l y a t a s t e , and t h e t a s t e f o r which would c e r t a i n l y have been g r a t i - -,Q f i e d a t that time whether Seneca had ever w r i t t e n or not. Thus, Seneca's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the h o r r o r and bloodshed o f a p l a y such as The Duchess of M a l f i can be seen as minimal; he, by way o f e a r l i e r E n g l i s h d r a m a t i s t s such as Kyd, undoubtedly p r o v i d e d t h e conventions, but t h e reason f o r t h e i r use by Webster i s because o f t h e i r d i s t i n c t r e l e v a n c e t o h i s view of man and s o c i e t y . F u r t h e r support f o r t h i s view i s found i n Lord David C e c i l ' s essay on Webster: "The w i l d and bloody conventions o f E l i z a b e t h a n melodrama p r o v i d e d a most appro- p r i a t e v e h i c l e f o r conveying h i s h e l l - h a u n t e d v i s i o n o f human e x i• s t* e n c e . "n i l Another t h e a t r i c a l t r a d i t i o n i s a t work i n a t l e a s t p a r t o f t h e p e r s e c u t i o n sequence, namely Webster's i n c l u s i o n of a dance o f madmen. There i s a p a r a l l e l between Webster's use o f dancing and h i s use o f r i t u a l . Just as t h e comforts and order normally a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r i t u a l a r e s t r i p p e d away i n t h e p l a y , so the t r a d i t i o n a l ideas o f o r d e r , balance and harmony as expressed by the d a n c e — p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the f o r m a l masque f o r m — a r e here r e v e r s e d . The dance o f madmen expresses d i s o r d e r , a l o s s o f balance and harmony i n t h e world o f the play. In one sense t h i s dance i s a key image i n t h e p l a y , 23 again v i s u a l , and a n a t u r a l consequence of the e a r l i e r image of the abandonment of t r a d i t i o n and order as suggested Ancona dumb-show. i n the As w i t h t h i s e a r l i e r image, the importance of the dance f o r m as g e s t u r e , movement and e x p r e s s i o n must be noted. In The E l i z a b e t h a n World P i c t u r e , E.M.W. T i l l y a r d mentions the i d e a of the cosmic dance, the concept—adopted i n the masque f o r m — o f harmony and order r e f l e c t e d i n movement, 12 the order of the u n i v e r s e seen as a dance. t r a d i t i o n of the anti-masque evolved as Presumably, the contrast—disharmony which would be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the order of the masque proper. In The Duchess of M a l f i , we have only an anti-masque. What f o l l o w s i s not an o r d e r l y e x p r e s s i o n of harmony t o reassure us, but r a t h e r the entrance Duchess 1 executioners. of Bosola and, soon a f t e r , the In her extremely u s e f u l a r t i c l e , •Impure A r t ' of John Webster," Inga-Stina Ekeblad t h i s sequence i n terms of i t s masque elements, and t h a t the dance " . . . the in-coherence a c t s as an ideograph of the Duchess* world. of the "The examines observes dis-unity, I t a c t s as a v i s u a l and a u r a l image of what the a c t i o n of the p l a y has l e d t o . . 13 . ." As an e x p r e s s i o n i n dance of a world-gone-mad-motif, Webster has o b v i o u s l y brought another l e v e l of response p l a y through h i s use of another form of t h e a t r e . into Clifford Leech f e e l s t h a t the madmen's scene and dance represent a concrete image of the p l a y as a whole i n t h a t they signify the f i n a l d i s s o l u t i o n of an a p p a r e n t l y ( i . e . , deceptively) ordered w o r l d . ^ point, i n that i t T h i s i s an important 24 a l l o w s us t o see the r e l e v a n c e of Act V t o the t o t a l p l a n of the p l a y . D e s p i t e i t s l o o s e s t r u c t u r e , i t i s not but shows a world t o t a l l y without order and v a l u e . extraneous, We should a l s o keep i n mind the concept of the stage as microcosm. The dance of the madmen comments on the world of the p l a y , and i n t u r n , as we have noted, the world of the p l a y i s intended as a r e f l e c t i o n of the world o u t s i d e the t h e a t r e . I f Act IV depends h e a v i l y on stage performance f o r full tent. e f f e c t i v e n e s s , Act V i s every b i t as t h e a t r i c a l i n conF r e q u e n t l y regarded as somewhat extraneous and be- l a b o u r e d , i t i s r a t h e r an e x t e n s i o n of the i m p l i c a t i o n s of the dance of madmen and ensuing death of the Duchess i n Act IV. I t i s a h i g h l y p h y s i c a l act—movement, a c t i v i t y , c o n f u s i o n are constant. I f the a c t seems d i s o r g a n i z e d and fragmentary, per- haps i t i s i n t e n t i o n a l l y so; i t m i r r o r s the c o n d i t i o n of the M a l f i world. In a sense the act i s an e l a b o r a t e development of a remark made by Bosola j u s t before he stabs the C a r d i n a l : . . . when thou k i l l ' d ' s t thy s i s t e r , Thou t o o k ' s t from J u s t i c e her most equal balance, And l e f t her naught but her sword. (V.v.39-41) The sword i s the most predominant stage prop throughout Act V. The outcome of e v e r y t h i n g i s death. But v i s u a l l y an important point can be made; one which i s made t e x t u a l l y , but which can only be f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e d i n performance. The deaths are extremely g r o t e s q u e - - J u l i a d i e s k i s s i n g a poisoned book; Bosola stabs Antonio by mistake; the C a r d i n a l ' s c l e v e r p l a n t o a l l o w 2 5 him t o dispose of J u l i a ' s body i s the cause of h i s downfall on Bosola's sword, who beforehand; has a l s o k i l l e d a servant immediately Ferdinand, i n h i s madness, g i v e s h i s b r o t h e r another death blow, a l s o stabs Bosola, who i n t u r n manages t o s t a b Ferdinand before he d i e s h i m s e l f . Condensed as above, the a c t i o n i s not only grotesque but almost movements; i t i s "comic" but i n a way r e a l l y funny. statement comical i n i t s too t e r r i b l e t o be The sequence conveys the t r u t h of Kernan's t h a t i n The Duchess of M a l f i "The metaphors which the s a t i r i s t t r a d i t i o n a l l y uses t o d e s c r i b e the and i d i o c y of mankind now filthiness become l i t e r a l r e a l i t i e s before 15 our eyes." Admittedly, t h e r e i s a p r e c a r i o u s balance tween the grotesque and the merely from p r o d u c t i o n t o p r o d u c t i o n . be- s i l l y which would vary What i s important theatri- c a l l y i s t o convey v i s u a l l y the obvious f a c t t h a t nobody merely passes away q u i e t l y - - t h e Duchess and C a r i o l a i n Act IV and J u l i a , Antonio, the C a r d i n a l , Ferdinand and Bosola i n Act V a l l d i e n o i s y , v i o l e n t , c r u e l a n d — r e l e v a n t t o a l a t e r d i s c u s s i o n but worth n o t i n g here—man i n f l i c t e d deaths. This i s a s o c i e t y c o n t r o l l e d , o r g a n i z e d , operated and destroyed by man alone. I t h i n k a v i s u a l s u g g e s t i o n of t h i s has been g i v e n much e a r l i e r i n the p l a y — i n the symbolic implications of the C a r d i n a l abandoning the robes of r e l i g i o n and t a k i n g on the garb of an a c t i v e , f i g h t i n g man of the world. The v a r i o u s t h e a t r i c a l elements o u t l i n e d above work i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h v a r i o u s dramatic elements ( i . e . , conven- 26 t i o n s o f c h a r a c t e r and p l o t ) which a r e a l s o not a l l o r i g i n a l w i t h Webster, but a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s put t o o r i g i n a l use by him. On one l e v e l , The Duchess o f M a l f i i s a l o v e s t o r y , and we see Webster again u s i n g the s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e o f cont r a s t , analogous t o h i s c o n t r a s t s between t r a d i t i o n a l and p e r v e r t e d r i t u a l s and masque and anti-masque, t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between the normal and h e a l t h y l o v e o f the Duchess and Antonio and the l u s t and s e x u a l i t y o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between J u l i a and the C a r d i n a l , or J u l i a i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Bosola and Delio. Character c o n t r a s t s a r e , o f course, a l s o i m p l i e d . The M a c h i a v e l l i a n stage f i g u r e i s used by Webster i n h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f the C a r d i n a l and, t o a l e s s e r extent, Ferdinand, although the l a t t e r might be as e a s i l y seen as Webster's v e r s i o n o f a Humour Character. T h e i r work i s c a r - r i e d out by a t o o l v i l l a i n , a stock f i g u r e c r e a t e d a f r e s h by Webster i n the c h a r a c t e r o f Bosola. I n t r i g u e and d e c e p t i o n , standard p l o t d e v i c e s o f revenge tragedy, are u t i l i z e d out the p l a y , but here again the important as microcosm i s r e l e v a n t . concept through- o f the p l a y I t i s not only t h a t t h i s type o f p l o t was t h e a t r i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g ; t o Webster i t was, as everyt h i n g , r e l e v a n t t o h i s view o f s o c i e t y . Three somewhat more g e n e r a l concerns d i s c u s s i n g the t h e a t r i c a l composition need mention i n o f a work l i k e The Duchess o f M a l f i : the importance of music, l i g h t i n g and a c t i n g i n the o v e r - a l l r e a l i z a t i o n o f the work as T o t a l Theatre. We should, I t h i n k , r e g a r d the use o f music as o f primary 27 importance t o Webster. j u s t how We have no way of knowing, o f course, much i n c i d e n t a l music appeared throughout the a c t i o n . In a modern p r o d u c t i o n of the work, one attempting t o r e a l i z e the t h e o r i e s of Artaud, music would be g r e a t l y used. set a mood or atmosphere I t can almost i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y , i t can under- score dramatic a c t i o n throughout, u n d e r l i n e or punctuate c e r t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t passages. A l s o , i t s appeal i s , i n keeping w i t h Artaud's concept of t h e a t r e , p r i m a r i l y sensory r a t h e r than i n t e l l e c t u a l . In a work l i k e The Duchess of M a l f i i t can and should be made t o work upon the nerves of the s p e c t a tor. An i n d i c a t i o n o f t h i s f u n c t i o n i s g i v e n at the opening of I V . i i : "What hideous n o i s e was t h a t ? " the Duchess asks, i n d i c a t i n g t o an a s t u t e d i r e c t o r t h a t at t h i s particular p o i n t i n the p l a y , d i s c o r d a n t music could have an important emotional impact on an audience. However, even i n Webster's time t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e reason t o suspect t h a t music was much more used than the t e x t s o f s u r v i v i n g works a c t u a l l y i n d i c a t e . In M a l f i , the i n s t a l m e n t of the C a r d i n a l i n the garb of a s o l d i e r , and the ensuing dumb show banishment of the Duchess and Antonio was, as suggested i n the t e x t , e n t i r e l y underscored w i t h music and v o c a l c h a n t i n g : . . during a l l which ceremony, t h i s d i t t y i s sung, t o v e r y solemn music, by d i v e r s Churchmen; . . . ." ( I l l . i v . s . d . below 1 . $ ) . There i s ample o p p o r t u n i t y f o r i t s use throughout I V . i and i i . "Here, by a Madman, t h i s song i s sung, t o a d i s m a l k i n d of music." the d i r e c t i o n s 28 i n d i c a t e at I V . i i . 6 0 . " ^ L a t e r i n the scene ( 1 . 1 1 2 ) , the dance o f madmen t a k e s p l a c e , " . . . unto. w i t h music answerable t h e r e - . . .", and music would presumably accompany t h e Execu- t i o n e r ' s e n t r a n c e w i t h the c o f f i n . Beyond t h e s e specific i n d i c a t i o n s , one can o n l y s p e c u l a t e on t h e amount of i n c i d e n t a l music a c t u a l l y used. considerable. I p r e f e r t o s p e c t u l a t e t h a t i t was I t seems h i g h l y l i k e l y , f o r example, t h a t the Echo sequence i n V . i i i would have had some form o f m u s i c a l underscoring. The importance of l i g h t i n g t o c o n t r i b u t e t o mood, atmosphere and s e t t i n g o f a modern p r o d u c t i o n i s so t h a t i t need not be e l a b o r a t e d upon. ing obvious However, i t i s i n t e r e s t - t o s p e c u l a t e on t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of r u d i m e n t a r y experimen- t a t i o n w i t h some t y p e o f l i g h t i n g e f f e c t s being p o s s i b l e i n a p r o d u c t i o n o f The Duchess o f M a l f i i n Webster's own In h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the p l a y , John R u s s e l l Brown time. suggests t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y a t l e a s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o e a r l y performances at t h e p r i v a t e and i n d o o r B l a c k f r i a r s T h e a t r e . For example, . . . t h e i n c i d e n t of the dead man's hand, f o l l o w i n g t h e l i n e 'Take hence t h e l i g h t s ' i n IV. i . of The Duchess, has a shock e f f e c t t h a t depends on a p a r t i a l l y darkened stage What would be d i f f i c u l t , clumsy, and g r o t e s q u e a t t h e G l o b e , X30uld be t h r i l l i n g and s e n s i t i v e i n t h e darkened a u d i t o r i u m of the B l a c k f r i a r s . 1 7 C o n s i d e r a b l e v i s u a l i n t e r e s t c o u l d be added t o a scene such as I I . i i i when A n t o n i o and B o s o l a meet i n the c o u r t y a r d i f , at t h e B l a c k f r i a r s , i t was p l a y e d on a darkened s t a g e w i t h some use made o f l a n t e r n s and t o r c h e s ; an atmospheric effect 29 would be evoked which would be i m p o s s i b l e on the stage at the Globe. Although the Globe s p e c t a t o r s were of course accus- tomed t o r e c e i v i n g atmosphere through the poet's language, i t i s obvious t h a t the emotional response would be enhanced i n a darkened a u d i t o r i u m . S i m i l a r l y , the l a s t two scenes of the p l a y , a n i g h t s e t t i n g abounding with f u r t i v e f i g u r e s scurry- i n g about and i d e n t i t i e s mistaken i n the darkness would be g r e a t l y enhanced by some type of l i g h t i n g e f f e c t , however rudimentary. The v i o l e n c e of the s t o r y l i n e of The Duchess of M a l f i , the v i o l e n c e of stage b u s i n e s s , n e c e s s i t a t e s a c o r responding v i o l e n c e and energy i n the a c t i n g . I t i s important t o keep i n mind the p h y s i c a l i t y of E l i z a b e t h a n a c t i n g s t a n dards, the amount of energy e x p e l l e d not o n l y i n v o c a l express i o n , but a l s o i n movement and g e s t u r e . I t i s a s t y l e which i s r i g h t f o r the p l a y , and yet one which modern audiences, c o n d i t i o n e d t o r e a l i s m i n a c t i n g , f i n d s t i l t e d and ing. Yet, the p h y s i c a l i t y and f o r m a l nature of E l i z a b e t h a n a c t i n g , the importance embarrass- (by our standards) of b o d i l y movement and g e s t u r e , are not u n r e l a t e d t o the q u a l i t i e s i n a c t i n g which Artaud f e l t n e c e s s a r y f o r a Theatre of C r u e l t y : an a c t i n g s t y l e which i s exaggerated and extremely dependent on v i o l e n t and extravagant g e s t u r e s . M u r i e l Bradbrook mentions the im- portance of g e s t u r e , pose, f a c i a l d i s t o r t i o n i n E l i z a b e t h a n a c t i n g , much of i t r e s u l t i n g , l o g i c a l l y , from the p a r t i c u l a r n e c e s s i t i e s of a c t i n g i n open a i r c o n d i t i o n s . 30 Throughout t h i s chapter I have been concerned primari l y with the content variety of The Duchess of M a l f i and the p a r t i c u l a r effectiveness of Webster's use of various conventions and forms. No attempt has yet been made to relate disparate elements and momentary effects to a t o t a l i t y of effect. The next chapter attempts to make some integration of the various elements outlined above into a u n i f i e d whole. I have chosen to approach the theme of the play i n t h i s manner because of the e a r l i e r mentioned idea of cumulative effect. In performance, assuming complete ignorance of the work before we entered the theatre, our reaction would build slowly. Individual scenes and segments of dialogue, which we may have seen or heard before, would have an immediate effect on us, and yet only at the end of the play could we make any attempt at an assessment of what we had just seen, any attempt to draw a coherent theme from the unfolding pattern. A further quotation from E s s l i n ' s Theatre of the Absurd i s of use at t h i s point. A play which i s centered around a poetic image i s constructed i n a somewhat different manner from a r e a l i s t i c play attempting to reproduce a segment of l i f e on the stage: The t o t a l action of the play, instead of proceeding from Point A to Point B, as i n other dramatic conventions, gradually builds up the complex pattern of the poetic image that the play expresses. The spectator's suspense consists i n waiting f o r the gradual completion of t h i s pattern which w i l l enable him to see the image as a whole. And only when that image i s assembled—after the f i n a l curtain—can he begin to explore, not so much i t s meaning as i t s structure, texture, and impact.19 31 I suggested e a r l i e r t h a t the most important moments of the play were expressed i n v i s u a l images which could stand by themselves without supporting v e r b a l comment. I f e e l that the image which best expresses the play as a whole i s — assuming i t could be " f r o z e n " and l i f t e d from the play t o be looked at i n i s o l a t i o n — t h e i n s t a n t of the Duchess' death. However, t o f u l l y understand t h i s image, and a l l that has l e d up t o i t and subsequently evolves from i t , Webster has u t i l i z e d a v a r i e t y of methods t o present, i n pantomime, i n dance, i n song, i n dialogue, i n a c t i o n , a whole complex of images which rebound o f f t h i s c e n t r a l v i s u a l image. Esslin i s again u s e f u l at t h i s p o i n t : . . . i n a dramatic form t h a t presents a c o n c r e t i z e d poetic image the play's extension i n time i s purely i n c i d e n t a l . Expressing an i n t u i t i o n i n depth, i t should i d e a l l y be apprehended i n a s i n g l e moment, and only because i t i s p h y s i c a l l y impossible to present so complex an image i n an i n s t a n t does i t have t o be spread over a period of time. The formal s t r u c t u r e of such a play i s , t h e r e f o r e , merely a device t o express a complex t o t a l image by u n f o l d i n g i t i n a sequence of i n t e r a c t i n g elements.20 In e f f e c t , what has been s a i d about the v i s u a l image of the Duchess' death as expressive of the meaning of the play must be q u a l i f i e d somewhat i n the l i g h t of E s s l i n ' s statement. This c e n t r a l image, i n i s o l a t i o n , would not be understood. But, i n r e l a t i o n t o the complex of images throughout the p l a y , as presented i n a v a r i e t y of ways, the image becomes c l e a r l y understandable. A f u l l d i s c u s s i o n of Webster's t o t a l image i s the concern of the f o l l o w i n g chapter. 32 The the p o i n t o f t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r has b e e n t o d e v e l o p contention that i n the t h e a t r i c a l r e a l i z a t i o n of h i s v i s i o n , Webster uses a T o t a l Theatre concept which a l l o w s f o r the inclusion compositional of seemingly incongruous elements. Thus i f a u n i t y i s s e e n t o be i m p o s s i b l e , we must l o o k f o r t h e u n i t y o f t h o u g h t a n d / o r theme o u t o f w h i c h t h e v i s u a l a n d t h e v e r b a l i m a g e r y o f The evolved. now both Duchess o f M a l f i has CHAPTER I I I THEMATIC UNITY IN THE DUCHESS OF MALFI The b a s i c purpose of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o show d e s p i t e t h e g r e a t d i v e r s i t y o f h i s m a t e r i a l , Webster how, main- t a i n e d a c o n s i s t e n t p o i n t o f view throughout The Duchess o f M a l f i t h r o u g h a c l o s e c o r r e l a t i o n between v i s u a l and v e r b a l images w i t h i n a coherent t h e m a t i c p a t t e r n . Thematic u n i t y i s o f p r i m a r y importance t o t h e concept o f T h e a t r e o f Cruelty. As George E. W e l l w a r t h n o t e s i n h i s c h a p t e r on A r t a u d i n The T h e a t e r o f P r o t e s t and Paradox: " . . . Artaud sees drama as a s e t of i m p o r t a n t themes f l o a t i n g around amorp h o u s l y , ready t o be shaped i n t o whatever form t h e a l l p o w e r f u l m e t t e u r en scene (a c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r o d u c e r , d i r e c t o r , and a u t h o r i n A r t a u d ' s system) wishes t o g i v e them.""*' We have a l r e a d y seen t h e v a r i o u s t h e a t r i c a l and d r a m a t i c d e v i c e s used i n The Duchess o f M a l f i . These elements a l l c o n t r i b u t e t o a form o f u n i t y w h i c h M a d e l i n e Doran calls 2 ". . . q u a l i t a t i v e u n i t y . " I n Endeavors o f A r t she makes r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s t y p e of u n i t y as i t appears i n Shakespeare's p l a y s , but a l s o a t t e s t s t o i t s presence i n t h e work o f Marlowe, Jonson, Chapman and Webster: In t h i s f i e l d , Shakespeare i s once more t h e master. He l e a r n e d how t o r e l a t e h i s songs i n theme o r tone t o t h e a c t i o n o f h i s p l a y s , how t o g i v e a p l a y i t s own p e c u l i a r e m o t i o n a l c o l o r i n g w i t h t h e dominant imagery, how t o weave a p a t t e r n of echoes and c o n t r a s t s i n words and 34 images which everywhere works with the action, how to vary verse and prose not merely with the rank and nature of the characters, according to the rules of decorum, but also with changes i n attitude, i n emotional tension, i n the tone desired f o r the scene.3 From the above statement, we should note the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of two phrases to Webster, both of which denote the primary concerns of t h i s chapter: ". . . dominant imagery. . . . " and . . a pattern of echoes and contrasts i n words and images which everywhere works with the action. ..." C e c i l W. Davies suggests that the play's themes are presented twice, once i n the action and again i n the poetic imagery: . . . the two modes of expression being superimposed the one on the other, and fused i n the appropriate l i n g u i s t i c medium, which thus communicates a single experience to the audience.4 He concludes: The themes are dramatically embodied i n characters and i n the developing situations between them, while a consist e n t l y and suitably textured vehicle of language i s used not simply to convey t h e i r story i n dramatic dialogue, but also to involve these characters, i n our imagination, i n a world of imagery also associated with the themes.5 Hereward T. Price takes a comparable view of Webster's technique, seeing a double construction through the inter-actions of figure i n action and figure i n language, the one r e i n f o r c 6 ing the other. What, then, are these themes which are revealed by both the characters i n action ( i . e . , the v i s u a l 35 imagery) and the p o e t i c imagery? B a s i c a l l y , I am concerned with how f u l l y The Duchess of M a l f i r e v e a l s a working out, a l b e i t w i t h i n a n a r r a t i v e context, o f the b a s i c thematic aim o f a Theatre o f C r u e l t y : As Artaud saw i t , what was wrong w i t h drama, as w e l l as w i t h a l l t h e other a r t s , was c u l t u r e . By " c u l t u r e " Artaud meant t h e o v e r l a y o f a r t i f i c i a l i t i e s t h a t c i v i l i z a t i o n had imposed upon human nature. The essence o f human nature, i t s b a s i c and i n t r i n s i c q u a l i t y , had become obscured by t h e u n r e a l f o r m a l m a s k s — t h e s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e behaviour p a t t e r n s a r b i t r a r i l y imposed on us by custom and t r a d i t i o n . Since a r t i s r e a l i t y , t h e a r t i s t ' s t a s k was t o s t r i p away t h e l a y e r s of a r t i f i c i a l i t y and expose t h e core o f r e a l i t y t h a t had been h i d den f o r so l o n g . To Artaud t h i s core was pure emotion; and t h e emotion was l a t e n t , i n s t i n c t u a l savagery. He p e r c e i v e d t h a t men a r e , as they always have been, b a s i c a l l y barbaric, that the t h i c k p r o t e c t i v e w a l l s of urbane, c i v i l i z e d behaviour they have a c q u i r e d through c e n t u r i e s o f h i d i n g from p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n i s e a s i l y crumbled by a f o r c e f u l appeal t o i r r a t i o n a l emotion.7 During the course o f t h e a c t i o n o f Webster's p l a y , t h e p r o t e c t i v e w a l l s o f c i v i l i z e d behaviour crumble, one by one, u n t i l , i n t h e f i n a l scenes o f t h e p l a y , t h e essence of human nature i s revealed. Webster's p l a y d e a l s i n i t s f i n a l two a c t s w i t h i n s t i n c t i v e human d e s i r e s — a n g e r , hate, l u s t , p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t , w i t h man seen as animal. Davies sees t h e scene i n v o l v i n g the dance of t h e madmen as a key t o t h e meaning of the p l a y , and i t i s u s e f u l t o begin an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f Webster's themes with t h i s scene, s i n c e i t p r o v i d e s such an e x c e l l e n t example of the p a r a l l e l f u n c t i o n i n g o f v i s u a l and v e r b a l imagery. last As noted i n the chapter, t h e dance o f madmen expresses an anti-masque 36 m o t i f o f a w o r l d gone mad, a w o r l d w i t h o u t o r d e r o r harmony. D a v i e s comments on t h e g r o t e s q u e q u a l i t i e s o f i t s i m a g e r y , w h i c h r e m i n d h i m o f t h e f a n t a s t i c images We s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t h e p o e t i c i m a g e s o f Hieronimus Bosch. e x p r e s s e d b y t h e madmen a l s o i n d i c a t e a w o r l d gone mad, w i t h o u t c o m f o r t o r s e c u r i t y ; a w o r l d i n w h i c h g r o s s a n d demoniac forces predominate: As r a v e n s , s c r e e c h - o w l s , b u l l s , a n d b e a r s , W e ' l l b i l l and bawl o u r p a r t s , T i l l irksome n o i s e have c l o y ' d y o u r e a r s And c o r r o s i v ' d y o u r h e a r t s . (IV.ii.65-68) i n d i c a t e s a madman i n t h e e n t r y s o n g . i n t r u d e r s then proceed t o b i l l The i m a g e s w h i c h t h e and bawl a r e a l l e x t r e m e l y p h y s i c a l , g r o t e s q u e a n d somewhat r e v o l t i n g . The a p p e a l o f the i m a g e r y i s s e n s o r y ; i t seems meant t o w o r k u p o n o u r n e r v e s or, a s t h e madman i n t i m a t e s i n h i s s o n g , t o c l o y o u r e a r s a n d corrode our hearts. One madman c a n n o t s l e e p ; h i s p i l l o w i s stuffed with a l i t t e r of porcupines. of Another sees a v i s i o n h e l l w h e r e " . . . t h e d e v i l s a r e c o n t i n u a l l y b l o w i n g up women's s o u l s , on h o l l o w i r o n s , a n d t h e f i r e n e v e r g o e s o u t . " A n o t h e r madman s u g g e s t s t h a t h i s p o t h e c a r y " . . . makes a l u m of h i s w i f e ' s u r i n e , and s e l l s i t t o p u r i t a n s t h a t have s o r e throats with over-straining." of The t h i r d madman i s a c c u s e d b e i n g a ". . . s n u f f l i n g k n a v e , t h a t w h i l e he shows t h e t o m b s , w i l l h a v e h i s h a n d i n a wench's p l a c k e t . " The d e v i l ' s n a i l s h a v e b e e n p a r e d , r o a s t e d i n r a v e n ' s eggs a n d u s e d t o c u r e a g u e s ; t h r e e h u n d r e d m i l c h - b a t s a r e n e e d e d t o make a 37 sleeping posset. And i n t h e midst o f a l l t h i s , o r immediately f o l l o w i n g , they break i n t o t h e i r grotesque dance. 113.) the (IV.ii.73- Here, as Davies says, i s a-scene which i s c e n t r a l t o p l o t and image s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p l a y , one which presents both v i s u a l l y and v e r b a l l y t h e concept o f a world gone mad— and i t i s t h i s world which d e s t r o y s t h e Duchess. Madness surrounds the Duchess i n h e r f i n a l hours, and she seems t o r e c o g n i z e h e r s o l i t u d e amidst i t . When t h e E x e c u t i o n e r s a r r i v e , C a r i o l a advises her t o c a l l f o r help. "To whom? t o our next neighbours? they a r e mad-folks." she r e p l i e s (IV.ii.19S). T h i s can, I t h i n k , be construed not o n l y as a s p e c i f i c note o f the presence o f the eight madmen who have j u s t v i s i t e d her, but as a g e n e r a l awareness o f the omnipresence of v i o l e n c e and d i s o r d e r . I f we take t h e scene o f t h e dance o f madmen and the immediately f o l l o w i n g e x e c u t i o n o f t h e Duchess as a c e n t r a l statement of b a s i c thematic l i n e s i n t h e p l a y , f o u r i d e a s emerge. They a r e t o some extent i n t e r - r e l a t e d , but I t h i n k enough d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e t h a t they can be d i s c u s s e d separately. Present i n the scene, and o p e r a t i v e throughout The Duchess o f M a l f i a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g : a. The i d e a o f a world without order and harmony, i n l a r g e measure r e s u l t i n g f r o m — b. The breakdown o f t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and s a f e guards . c. The h e l p l e s s n e s s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n a world o f v i o l e n c e where t r a d i t i o n a l safeguards no l o n g e r afford protection. d. The concept o f man as animal. 38 The whole i d e a o f The Duchess o f M a l f i as r e l a t e d t o the concept o f a world o f madness and v i o l e n c e i s b a s i c t o the p l a y ' s a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o t h e framework o f a Theatre o f C r u e l t y , a form of t h e a t r e which wishes t o convey the h o r r o r and b r u t a l i t y o f a s o c i e t y which, o u t s i d e t h e t h e a t r e , i n - dulges i n h o r r o r and b r u t a l i t y . In h i s opening speech, Antonio observes t h a t . . . a p r i n c e ' s court Is l i k e a common f o u n t a i n , whence should flow Pure s i l v e r drops i n g e n e r a l : but i f ' t chance Some curs'd example poison ' t near t h e head, Death, and d i s e a s e s through t h e whole l a n d spread. _ ^ ( I # i < 1 1 The 1 ) r e s t of t h e p l a y shows t h e t r u t h of Antonio's aphorism. Near t h e head of t h e court a r e the C a r d i n a l and Ferdinand: ". . . l i k e plum-trees, t h a t grow/crooked over standing pools; they a r e r i c h , and o'erladen/ with f r u i t , but none but crows, p i e s , and c a t e r p i l l a r s feed/on them. . . . " (I.i.49-52). ensuing misuse o f power and u s u r p a t i o n Their of t h e i r s i s t e r ' s rights as head o f t h e court shows how w i t h i n t h e p l a y they a r e t h e concrete and v i s i b l e causes o f t h e world's madness: "The manner i n which t h i s v i o l e n t a t t a c k on the everyday i s t o be accomplished involves a f a n t a s t i c , l a r g e r - t h a n - l i f e callousness t h a t enables t h e c h a r a c t e r s t o d i s r e g a r d t h e amenities of 9 s o c i a l behaviour. . . ." The s i t u a t i o n i s f u r t h e r cated by the f a c t t h a t one brother compli- i s a representative of the Church, and h i s misuse o f power causes an even f u r t h e r breakdown i n t r a d i t i o n a l institutions. 39 Webster's d e l i n e a t i o n o f a world without harmony i s echoed and repeated the p l a y . order and i n v a r i o u s ways throughout V i s u a l l y , i t i s centered i n Act IV, i n the sequence a l r e a d y noted, and, a f t e r t h e death o f t h e Duchess, becomes the dominant image o f Act V, i n which v i o l e n c e and i n t r i g u e are everywhere. recurring motif. In the v e r b a l imagery, i t i s a c o n s t a n t l y Just before d e c l a r i n g h e r l o v e t o Antonio, the Duchess asks h e r maid t o : — w i s h me good speed For I am going i n t o a w i l d e r n e s s , Where I s h a l l f i n d nor path, nor f r i e n d l y clew To be my guide. (I.i.358-360) The Duchess thus seems aware t h a t there w i l l be r e p e r c u s s i o n s from h e r d e f i a n c e o f h e r b r o t h e r s , although concept she has no r e a l of t h e r e a l i t y of t h e w i l d e r n e s s which we a r e t o see manifested i n the play. The connotations of wilderness us an e a r l y i n k l i n g o f t h e d i s o r d e r t o f o l l o w . give It i s inti- mated again by the p o s i t i o n of t h e s t a r s when Antonio c a l c u l a t e s t h e horoscope o f h i s newborn son: The l o r d o f the f i r s t house, Being combust i n the,ascendant, s i g n i f i e s s h o r t l i f e : and Mars being i n a human s i g n , j o i n e d t o the t a i l o f t h e Dragon, i n t h e e i g h t h house, doth t h r e a t e n a v i o l e n t death; . . . . (II.iii.60-63) Here we should note the t e n s i o n g e n e r a t i n g combust, s h o r t l i f e , the t a i l death. connotations o f of the Dragon, t h r e a t e n , v i o l e n t 40 The beginning of the a c t u a l breakdown of o r d e r , the i n i t i a t i o n of the madness which i s t o dominate u n t i l the c l o s e of the p l a y occurs i n I I . v when Ferdinand and the C a r d i n a l l e a r n of t h e i r s i s t e r ' s a c t i o n s . An image Webster g i v e s us b r i l l i a n t l y foreshadows what i n e f f e c t happens l a t e r i n the play: Card. Ferd. Why do you make y o u r s e l f So w i l d a tempest? Would I c o u l d be one, That I might t o s s her palace 'bout her e a r s , Root up her goodly f o r e s t s , b l a s t her meads, And l a y her g e n e r a l t e r r i t o r y as waste As she hath done her honours. (II.v.17-21) T h e r e a f t e r , Ferdinand's rage c a r r i e s him "As men convey'd by witches through the a i r , / O n v i o l e n t w h i r l w i n d s . . . ." ( I I . v.49-50). When he l e a v e s h i s s i s t e r ' s r e s i d e n c e t h i s image i s a g a i n repeated: Bos. The duke your b r o t h e r i s ta'en up i n a w h i r l w i n d , Hath took horse, and's r i d post t o Rome. (III.ii.161-162) Reason, t o l e r a n c e and moderation disappear from Webster's dramatic world and the madmen take over. In terms of a Theatre of C r u e l t y one c o u l d thus say t h a t the veneer of c i v i l i z e d behaviour i s s t r i p p e d away and i n s t i n c t takes over from reason: hence C r u e l t y , the m a n i f e s t a t i o n of i r r a t i o n a l and u n c o n t r o l l a b l e impulses, appears i n f u l l force. In t h i s context, i t i s important t o note that Ferdinand h i m s e l f goes 41 insane a f t e r h i s s i s t e r ' s death, but t h a t i n essence this " i n s a n i t y " i s only a l a b e l g i v e n by s o c i e t y t o one whose subhuman impulses are no l o n g e r h e l d under r e s t r a i n t . i n - A c t V i s Webster's view of q u i n t e s s e n t i a l man, one would expect would a l s o have been presented ally i n the dance of "madmen" i n Act The Ferdinand a view which choreographic- IV. c o n f u s i o n and t e n s i o n of a world without order and harmony i s f u r t h e r r e v e a l e d i n the b r i e f but i n c i s i v e t i o n by the Duchess ". . .—my hair tangles.", just observa- before the entrance of her b r o t h e r ( I I I . i i i . 5 3 ) , and, a f t e r he l e a v e s : I stand As i f a mine, beneath my f e e t , were ready To be blown up. (III.ii.155-157) In p h i l o s o p h i c a l terms, Webster's d e p i c t i o n of a world devoid of order amounts t o a smashing of what we could c a l l , a f t e r E.M.W. T i l l y a r d ' s d e f i n i t i v e study, the E l i z a b e t h a n World P i c t u r e . Degree and harmony are absent i n the later s e c t i o n s of The Duchess of M a l f i , and i n Act V there i s no governing f o r c e l e f t but f o r c e i t s e l f . As Alexander Allison observes: Though no subsequent happenings can a t t a i n the mystery and t e r r o r of the duchess's murder, m a l i c i o u s and d e c e i t f u l motives then m u l t i p l y and the i n t e r a c t i o n between them becomes the p l a y ' s s o l e business.10 I would suggest t h a t i t i s not the Duchess who by a marriage upsets degree beneath her s t a t i o n , but r a t h e r Ferdinand and 42 the C a r d i n a l , w i t h Bosola's a s s i s t a n c e , who no heed t o t h e i r s i s t e r ' s p r e r o g a t i v e s do so by paying as a r u l e r . As was p r e v i o u s l y noted, the disharmony of the M a l f i world r e s u l t s from t h e i r t a k i n g the law i n t o t h e i r own hands—or from t h e i r complete d i s r e g a r d of the law. r e a l mistake was invulnerability. The rather Duchess' only perhaps i n p l a c i n g too much f a i t h on her What she l e a r n s i s by i m p l i c a t i o n what the audience i s supposed t o l e a r n . Artaud would put i t as follows: We are not f r e e . And the sky can s t i l l f a l l on our heads. And the t h e a t e r has been c r e a t e d t o teach us t h a t f i r s t of a l l . 1 1 In Webster's own day, t h i s i d e a was most memorably i n Shakespeare's T r o i l u s and expressed probably Cressida: 0, when degree i s shak'd, Which i s the l a d d e r t o a l l high designs, The e n t e r p r i s e i s s i c k . . . . Take but degree away, untune t h a t s t r i n g , And hark, what d i s c o r d follows.' Each t h i n g meets In mere oppugnancy. Strength should be l o r d of i m b e c i l i t y , And the rude son should s t r i k e h i s f a t h e r dead. Force should be r i g h t ; or r a t h e r , r i g h t and wrong, Between whose endless j a r j u s t i c e r e s i d e s , Should l o s e her names, and so should j u s t i c e t o o . Then everything i n c l u d e s i t s e l f i n power, Power i n t o w i l l , w i l l i n t o a p p e t i t e , And a p p e t i t e , an*. u n i v e r s a l wolf, So doubly seconded w i t h w i l l and power, Must make p e r f o r c e an u n i v e r s a l prey And l a s t eat up h i m s e l f . 1 2 A l b e i t w r i t t e n e a r l i e r than The Duchess of M a l f i , we might 43 p r o f i t a b l y read t h i s Shakespearean passage as a very condensed summation of the theme of Acts IV and V of Webster's The rude son does not s t r i k e h i s f a t h e r dead, but two do d e s t r o y t h e i r s i s t e r who them. play. brothers i s , i n terms o f degree, above Right and wrong do cease t o be o p e r a t i v e terms, power becomes e v e r y t h i n g , Ferdinand's "madness" i s diagnosed as l y c a n t h r o p y , and, t o complete the r e l e v a n c e of the q u o t a t i o n , at the end of The Duchess of M a l f i we see e v i l d e s t r o y i n g s e l f by p r e y i n g on i t s own k i n d . it- One i s reminded of Jan K o t t ' s comment on King L e a r , which seems even more r e l e v a n t t o our p l a y : A l l bonds, a l l laws, whether d i v i n e , n a t u r a l or human, are broken. S o c i a l Order, from the kingdom t o the f a m i l y , w i l l crumble i n t o dust. There are no l o n g e r king and subj e c t s , f a t h e r s and c h i l d r e n , husbands and wives. There are only huge Renaissance monsters, devouring one another l i k e beasts of prey.13 Webster g i v e s one e x p r e s s i o n of the d i s c o r d i n the f o l l o w i n g words of the Duchess: I am not mad y e t , t o my cause of sorrow. Th'-' heaven o'er my head seems made o f molten b r a s s , The earth of f l a m i n g s u l p h u r , yet I am not mad: . . . . (IV.ii:. .24-26) He g i v e s us a p l a y intended t o convey t h i s o v e r - a l l chaos of l i f e without order through the d e l i n e a t i o n of v i o l e n c e and chaos on the stage. of the f o u r t h a c t . V i s u a l l y , we have the extended t o r t u r e s V e r b a l l y we have such images as: 44 Ferd. I would have t h e i r bodies Burnt i n a c o a l - p i t , with the ventage stopp'd, That t h e i r curs'd smoke might not ascend t o heaven: Or d i p the sheets they l i e i n , i n p i t c h or s u l p h u r , Wrap them i n ' t , and then l i g h t them l i k e a match; Or e l s e t o b o i l t h e i r b a s t a r d to a c u l l i s , And g i v e 't h i s lecherous f a t h e r , t o renew The s i n of h i s back. (II.v.67-73) A breakdown or absence of order and harmony i n s o c i e t y , with the ensuing dramatist, triumph of i r r a t i o n a l f o r c e s , when f e l t can r e s u l t t h e a t r i c a l l y i n one of two by a things: a wish t o r e a s s u r e us as t o the eventual r e t u r n of permanent laws and human "dignity'/, or a wish t o shock us i n t o an awareness of c o n d i t i o n s as they are. I f e e l t h a t g e n e r a l l y whereas Shakespeare chooses the former approach, Webster chooses the latter. Webster's i n s t r u c t i o n comes through h i s attempts t o , i n terms of a Theatre of C r u e l t y , s h a t t e r the complacencies of the s p e c t a t o r and shock h i s s e n s i b i l i t i e s at the same time; t o b r i n g the s p e c t a t o r t o an awareness of the t r u t h s of s o c i e t y , of h i m s e l f , and of l i f e i n g e n e r a l . a t t i t u d e i s , I f e e l , not so much one of an i n t e n s e p e r c e p t i o n of and h o r r o r and u g l i n e s s . Webster's of d i s g u s t with l i f e concern with i t s b r u t a l i t y , H i s i s an a n a r c h i c view of l i f e , but i t i s not t o t a l l y n i h i l i s t i c . In h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the John R u s s e l l Brown notes a u n i t y i n The play, Duchess of M a l f i of ". . . e m p i r i c a l , r e s p o n s i b l e , s c e p t i c a l , u n s u r p r i s e d , deeply and p e r c e p t i v e concern f o r the c h a r a c t e r s and s o c i e t y portrayed. as 45 Returning torture t o t h e image o f t h e d a n c e o f madmen a n d t h e o f t h e Duchess, t h e presence of t h e second major theme o f t h e p l a y — t h e breakdown o f t r a d i t i o n a l and s a f e g u a r d s — i s a p p a r e n t when we n o t e t h a t of t h e Duchess i s c a r r i e d the persecution o u t by h e r b r o t h e r s . regarded as a fundamental nucleus a r e o f no m e a n i n g i n W e b s t e r ' s Family o f any s o c i a l dramatic B o s o l a ' s summation o f t h i s 272). In Webster's plays, much f a i t h i s at issue. bilities laws by h e r b r o t h e r s . He i s r e a d y This it idea, enough t o abandon has r e s p o n s i - t h e Duchess from h a r s h relation- a n d was t o r e - W e b s t e r seemed t o f e e l of the s o c i a l structure and u s u a l l y i n the treatment the emptiness of f a m i l y Law-Case. wife to becomes s o when h i s own h a d a l r e a d y a p p e a r e d i n The W h i t e D e v i l a p p e a r i n The D e v i l ' s basic in o f a husband and a s a h u s b a n d t o s a v e h i s own n e c k , t r u s t i n g the rottenness brother become empty The one e x c e p t i o n responsibilities or at least of kinship to preserve ships, sister, A n t o n i o d o e s n o t seem t o r e c i p r o c a t e ; h i m i s a n empty t e r m , safety they (IV.ii.270- c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h e D u c h e s s , who p l a c e s t o o i n the protective her brothers. truth, such terms as mother, o f a d d r e s s , n o t h i n g more. t h e work u n d e r structure, a s p e c t o f t h e theme a n d h u s b a n d c e a s e t o have a n y r e a l v a l u e ; nominatives values, world. You h a v e b l o o d i l y a p p r o v ' d t h e a n c i e n t T h a t k i n d r e d commonly do w o r s e a g r e e Than r e m o t e s t r a n g e r s . is institutions that e x t e n d e d t o i t s most most s t a b l e a n d i n v i o l a b l e unit: 46 Perhaps men would l i k e t o b e l i e v e t h a t the i n s t i t u t i o n s of r e l i g i o n , law, and f a m i l y are expressions of u n i v e r s a l decorum; but these i n s t i t u t i o n s seem f r a g i l e defenses a g a i n s t the anarchy of human p a s s i o n . . . . Before s e x u a l and mercenary a p p e t i t e s and before the b r u t a l c o e r c i o n s of wealth and p l a c e , t r a d i t i o n a l s a n c t i t i e s are meaning--, l e s s : b r o t h e r , s i s t e r , husband, w i f e become empty terms. The i n s t i t u t i o n s of r e l i g i o n and by Webster's v i l l a i n s . play. The He law are a l s o misused suggests t h i s very e a r l y i n the Cardinal . . . i s a melancholy churchman; the s p r i n g i n h i s f a c e i s nothing but the engendering of toads; where he i s j e a l o u s of any man, he l a y s worse p l o t s f o r them than ever was imposed on H e r c u l e s , f o r he strews i n h i s way f l a t t e r e r s , panders, i n t e l l i g e n c e r s , a t h e i s t s , and a thousand such p o l i t i c a l monsters. He should have been Pope; but i n s t e a d of coming t o i t by the p r i m i t i v e decency of the church, he d i d bestow b r i b e s so l a r g e l y , and so impudently, as i f he would have c a r r i e d i t away without heaven's knowledge. (Ant. I.i.157-166) w h i l e w i t h r e g a r d t o the workings of the law, Ferdinand . . . speaks w i t h o t h e r s ' tongues, and hears men's s u i t s With o t h e r s ' ears; w i l l seem t o s l e e p o'th' bench Only t o entrap o f f e n d e r s i n t h e i r answers; Dooms men t o death by i n f o r m a t i o n , Rewards by hearsay. (Ant. and I.i.172-176) thus Then the law t o him Is l i k e a f o u l black cobweb t o a s p i d e r — He makes i t h i s d w e l l i n g , and a p r i s o n To entangle those s h a l l f e e d him. (Delio. I.i.177-lSO) By t h e i r a c t i o n s throughout the p l a y , the two brothers reveal 47 t h e i r inner corruption. As was mentioned e a r l i e r , the dumb-show banishment scene conveys i n v i s u a l terms t h e d e c e p t i v e n e s s of t r a d i t i o n a l safeguards associated w i t h r e l i g i o n , a r e l i g i o n which, at l e a s t i n terms o f what we s e e , has a p e r s o n l i k e the as i t s h i g h e s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . as c e n t e r e d Cardinal R e l i g i o n i n Webster's p l a y , i n the C a r d i n a l , seems c o n t r o l l e d by the T h i s i s s u g g e s t e d i n a v a r i e t y of ways. devil. I n imagery, t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e d e v i l ' s i n f l u e n c e i s suggested e a r l y i n the p l a y when A n t o n i o observes of the C a r d i n a l : They t h a t do f l a t t e r him most say o r a c l e s Hang a t h i s l i p s : and v e r i l y I b e l i e v e them; For t h e d e v i l speaks i n them. (I.i.184-186) I n the p r i s o n s c e n e , B o s o l a t e l l s t h e Duchess she must l i v e ; she t h e n equates her w o r l d w i t h h e l l , where the t o r t u r e i s t h a t s o u l s must c o n t i n u e cannot d i e ( I V . i . 7 0 - 7 2 ) . greatest t o l i v e and s u f f e r , and A l s o , t h e s i t u a t i o n of t h e Duchess i s s u r e l y i m p l i e d i n the madman's image f o r m e r l y c i t e d : i s a mere g l a s s - h o u s e , "Hell where t h e d e v i l s / a r e c o n t i n u a l l y b l o w i n g up women's s o u l s , on h o l l o w / i r o n s , and t h e f i r e n e v e r goes o u t . " (IV.ii.77-79•) L a t e i n the p l a y , t h e Cardmnaliis p u z z l e d by a r e c u r r i n g v i s i o n : When I l o o k i n t o the f i s h - p o n d s , i n my g a r d e n , M e t h i n k s I see a t h i n g , arm'd w i t h a r a k e That seems t o s t r i k e a t me:— (V.v.5-7) 4 8 The i m p l i c a t i o n s of h e l l on e a r t h , or of the earth as d e v i l ' s t e r r a i n , seem present the throughout the p l a y , both as a m o t i f i n the imagery and as an u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e of the action. and T h i s allows one, c r u e l t y of The i f he so wishes, t o see the v i o l e n c e Duchess of M a l f i , the d e l i n e a t i o n of the workings of the i r r a t i o n a l , as the work of the D e v i l . It i s a c r e d i t t o Webster t h a t t h i s work can be meaningfully inter- preted i n r e l i g i o u s terms as w e l l as p s y c h o l o g i c a l and philosophical. Webster w i s e l y does not commit h i m s e l f one way or the other on the presence of the D e v i l or the absence of God h i s dramatic world. in But the i m p l i c a t i o n seems obvious f o r those who want i t . As O r n s t e i n notes . . . we must remember t h a t the e t h i c a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l substance of a Jacobean tragedy i n c l u d e s more than the sum of ideas expounded or r e f e r r e d t o i n i t s pages. The d r a m a t i s t ' s v i s i o n i s a l s o , and more i m p o r t a n t l y , expressed i n c h a r a c t e r , i n p l o t , and i n the t o t a l p o e t i c impression of l i f e which h i s p l a y creates.1° In t h i s context, Lord David C e c i l sees Webster's world i n terms of an extreme G a l v i n i s t p o i n t of view, i . e . , e v i l i s i n n a t e , more p e r v a s i v e and powerful than the f o r c e s of good. C e c i l sees The Duchess of M a l f i as a simple good and In effect, s t r u g g l e between e v i l — o r , i n t h e o l o g i c a l terms, between Heaven and 17 Hell. we T h e a t r i c a l l y , t h i s i s an extremely r e l e v a n t p o i n t i f keep i n mind t h a t i n as heterogeneous an audience as a t - tended the t h e a t r e i n Webster's day, or f o r t h a t matter our 49 own, the v a r i o u s thematic i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a work such as The Duchess o f M a l f i a r e not going t o be r e a d i l y grasped by everyone. But i n i t s simplest form, t h e o p p o s i t i o n between f o r c e s of good and e v i l , the meaning o f t h e p l a y , and i t s o v e r a l l i m p l i c a t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o a world o u t s i d e the t h e a t r e , i s a v a i l a b l e t o everyone. I w i l l r e t u r n t o t h i s p o i n t i n more d e t a i l i n discussing characterization. worth n o t i n g One f u r t h e r point i s i n considering the implications i n the play of the p e r v a s i v e n e s s o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f E v i l , t h e D e v i l , H e l l , the i r r a t i o n a l , t h e i n s t i n c t u a l — o r whatever one p e r s o n a l l y chooses t o name t h e i n f l u e n c e . I f I were asked t o p l a c e Webster w i t h i n a r e l i g i o u s scheme or t r a d i t i o n , Calvinism would seem most l o g i c a l : "Webster i s i m i t a t i n g a f a l l e n man- 18 kind i n a f a l l e n world." However, i t i s a l s o tempting, how- ever erroneous i n f a c t , t o see him as Manichean, with a b e l i e f i n t h e e a r t h as the d e v i l ' s t e r r a i n , the inherent e v i l tenden- c i e s of man and matter, and the accompanying b e l i e f i n t h e f o r c e s o f darkness e v e n t u a l l y triumphing over l i g h t . To r e t u r n t o the c e n t r a l i s s u e , there i s thus present as a thematic i m p l i c a t i o n i n The Duchess o f M a l f i a sense of the breakdown o f t r a d i t i o n a l values inherent law and order, and i n t h e f a m i l y u n i t . i n religion, i n These a r e t h e r e s - t r a i n t s which Artaud f e l t must be broken through t o r e v e a l man i n h i s t r u e l i g h t . Ornstein o f f e r s t h e best summation o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r thematic l i n e , n o t i n g t h a t we a r e l e f t with a t e r r i f y i n g sense o f t h e f r a g i l i t y o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e : 50 . . . we a r e made t o f e e l how v u l n e r a b l e a r e t h e w a l l s — the p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , l e g a l and f a m i l i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s — w h i c h seek t o check or c o n t a i n t h e u n c i v i l i z e d f u r y o f c i v i l i z e d man.19 The m o t i f of t h e world gone mad, and t h e corresponding s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e breakdown o f t r a d i t i o n a l safeguards o f law and o r d e r , extending even t o the s a n c t i t y o f the f a m i l y u n i t , l e a d s t o a b r i e f c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a t h i r d aspect of Webster's t o t a l v i s i o n , namely t h e sense o f t h e h e l p l e s s n e s s o f t h e sane/rational individual chaos. ( i . e . , the Duchess) i n t h e midst of I n d i f f e r e n c e and concomitant h o s t i l i t y towards the Duchess a r e m a n i f e s t e d on t h r e e l e v e l s . Muriel Bradbrook f e e l s t h a t cosmic malignancy i s suggested i n t h e c o n f i g u r a 20 t i o n s r e v e a l e d i n t h e horoscope cast by Antonio, and o f course we have t h e o f t e n quoted words o f B o s o l a : We a r e merely t h e s t a r s ' t e n n i s - b a l l s , s t r u c k and banded Which way p l e a s e t h e m — (V.iv.54-55) In a d d i t i o n , cosmic i n d i f f e r e n c e t o the s u f f e r i n g s o f man seems e x p l i c i t i n Bosola's "Look you, t h e s t a r s s t i l l shine:" ( I V . i . 9 9 ) , which C l i f f o r d Leech c a l l s " . . . t h e completest a s s e r t i o n i n Jacobean drama of man's impotence, of t h e 21 remoteness, t h e i m p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e cosmic powers." We have f u r t h e r i n s t a n c e s o f s o c i e t y ' s i n d i f f e r e n c e t o man, and on the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l , man's i n d i f f e r e n c e t o h i s f e l l o w man. The Duchess' p r o g r e s s through the p l a y c o n s i s t s of the development o f a f u l l awareness o f t h i s i n d i f f e r e n c e and 51 hostility. G r a d u a l l y , a l l t h e i l l u s i o n s o f p r o t e c t i o n and s a f e t y a r e taken from her: t h e p r e r o g a t i v e s and perhaps assumed i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y of h e r p o s i t i o n as Duchess, t h e safeguards o f law and r e l i g i o n , t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f a husband, the a f f e c t i o n o f her b r o t h e r s : "My l a u r e l i s a l l w i t h e r e d . " (III.v.93). side. When she d i e s , only h e r servant remains by h e r She i s , i n e f f e c t , alone w i t h only an a f f i r m a t i o n o f her i d e n t i t y t o t e n a c i o u s l y c l i n g t o : i n s p i t e o f e v e r y t h i n g , "I am Duchess o f M a l f i s t i l l . " (IV.ii.142). M u r i e l Bradbrook sees I V . i i i n t h i s way: The scene i s not l a i d i n a d e f i n i t e p l a c e : i t i s , as i t were, i n a d i f f e r e n t dimension; t h e r e i s a c u r i o u s s t i l l ness and hush about t h e scene, a s t a t i c q u a l i t y and a sense o f t i m e l e s s n e s s . 2 2 In t h i s scene t h e Duchess i s a b l e t o see the t r u t h about life and about h e r s i t u a t i o n , coming f i n a l l y t o r e c o g n i z e and accept t h e omnipresence o f e v i l , ergo l i f e as compounded o f v i o l e n c e and c r u e l t y : Persuade a wretch t h a t ' s broke upon t h e wheel To have a l l h i s bones new s e t ; entreat him l i v e To be executed again:—who must despatch me? I account t h i s world a t e d i o u s t h e a t r e , For I do p l a y a p a r t i n ' t 'gainst my w i l l . Go howl them t h i s : and say I long t o b l e e d : It i s some mercy, when men k i l l w i t h speed. (IV. i i . 81-8$; The Duchess, Bradbrook f e e l s , concentrates 109-110) t h e meaning o f t h e whole p l a y i n t o h e r s e l f , and can thus express the t o t a l a t i o n as though she were standing o u t s i d e the a c t i o n , situ- observ- 52 ing i t with disdain, with " . . . t h e detachment of a feeling 23 w h i c h has passed The discern is f o u r t h and i n The a l l important thematic Duchess o f M a l f i i s that the e n d - r e s u l t of the thematic the r e s t r a i n t s is beyond hope o r d e s p a i r . . . ." the are broken, c e n t r a l purpose lines l i n e which o f man I as a n i m a l . It d i s c u s s e d above. After man's t r u e n a t u r e i s r e v e a l e d . of a Theatre of It Cruelty: . . . t h e s p e c t a t o r i s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e madness o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n , i s e n a b l e d t o s e e h i s s i t u a t i o n i n a l l i t s g r i m n e s s and d e s p a i r , and t h u s , i n s t r i p p i n g him o f i l l u s i o n s o r v a g u e l y f e l t f e a r s and a n x i e t i e s , e n a b l e s him t o f a c e i t c o n s c i o u s l y , r a t h e r t h a n f e e l i t v a g u e l y below t h e s u r f a c e o f euphemisms and o p t i m i s t i c i l l u s i o n s . I earlier gives used a q u o t a t i o n from Shakespeare i n b r i e f the i m p l i c a t i o n s of a world without harmony as d e p i c t e d i n The Duchess o f M a l f i . analogy to the now seems r e l e v a n t as an a n a l o g y concept a t the asylum of Charenton o f man i n Weiss' and A more r e c e n t A c t s IV and V o f W e b s t e r ' s p l a y a r e e f f e c t i v e l y a patient order which as animal. summed up Marat/Sade: A mad a n i m a l Man's a mad a n i m a l I'm a t h o u s a n d y e a r s o l d and i n my t i m e I've h e l p e d commit a m i l l i o n m u r d e r s The e a r t h i s s p r e a d The e a r t h i s s p r e a d t h i c k w i t h s q u a s h e d human g u t s We few s u r v i v o r s We few s u r v i v o r s w a l k o v e r a q u a k i n g bog o f c o r p s e s always under our f e e t e v e r y s t e p we t a k e r o t t e d bones a s h e s m a t t e d h a i r by 53 under eur f e e t broken t e e t h s k u l l s s p l i t A mad animal 25 I'm a mad animal open In The Duchess o f M a l f i man as animal i s a m o t i f i n t h e imagery as constant as t h a t of t h e world gone mad p a t t e r n which runs throughout t h e p l a y . In f a c t , t h e two c o n c e p t s — madness and man as a n i m a l — j o i n v i s u a l l y and p o e t i c a l l y i n the f i n a l a c t when Ferdinand imagines h i m s e l f t o be a w o l f . Here we have an e x p l i c i t l y v i s u a l and d e l i b e r a t e l y grotesque c o n f i r m a t i o n of the theme: One met the duke, 'bout midnight i n a lane Behind S a i n t Mark's church, w i t h the l e g o f a man Upon h i s s h o u l d e r ; and he howl'd f e a r f u l l y ; S a i d he was a w o l f , only t h e d i f f e r e n c e Was, a w o l f ' s s k i n was h a i r y on the o u t s i d e , His on t h e i n s i d e ; . . . . (V.ii.13-18) T h i s marks t h e c u l m i n a t i o n and c o n c r e t i z a t i o n of a p a t t e r n o f imagery used throughout t h e p l a y i n which the c h a r a c t e r s a r e l i n k e d w i t h animals. For example: . . . c o u l d I be one o f t h e i r f l a t t e r i n g panders, I would hang on t h e i r ears l i k e a h o r s e - l e e c h t i l l I were f u l l , and then drop o f f : . . . . (Bos. I.i.52-54) I would sooner eat a dead pigeon, taken from the s o l e s o f the f e e t o f one s i c k o f t h e plague, than k i s s one o f you fasting. (Bos. Mark P r i n c e Ferdinand: A v e r y salamander l i v e s i n ' s eye, To mock t h e eager v i o l e n c e o f f i r e . (Pes. II.i.3S-40) III.iii.4^-50) 54 That c a r d i n a l . . . ; he l i f t s up's nose, l i k e a f o u l p o r p o i s e before a s t o r m — (Sil. III.iii.51-53) W i t h i n t h e same p a t t e r n , t h e Duchess i s l i n k e d w i t h trapped and c a p t i v e animals: A l a s , your shears do come untimely now To c l i p t h e b i r d ' s wings t h a t ' s a l r e a d y f l o w n ! (Duch. III.ii.8V8&) I would have you t e l l me Whether i s t h a t note worse t h a t f r i g h t s the s i l l y b i r d s Gut o f t h e corn, or t h a t which doth a l l u r e them To the nets? you have hearken'd t o t h e l a s t t o o much. (Bos. III.v.101-104) Bos. Duch. Your b r o t h e r s mean you s a f e t y , and p i t y . Pity.' With such a p i t y men preserve a l i v e Pheasants and q u a i l s , when they a r e not f a t enough To be eaten. (III.v.109-112) I f we c o n s i d e r the t o t a l e f f e c t o f the thematic lines present i n The Duchess o f M a l f i , we observe t h a t d e s p i t e the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n which can be made, Webster was working towards a s i n g l e cumulative e f f e c t : t h e e v i l of t h e world, t h e c r u e l t y of l i f e , the a n i m a l i t y o f man. The p o i n t o f view i n the p l a y i s a d m i t t e d l y l i m i t e d , a pre-determined and, as A l v i n Kernan notes, a p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y b i a s e d p o i n t o f view. Webster, Kernan observes, makes a shambles o f accepted i d e a l s o f reason, order, 26 l o v e and c o n t r o l . The p l a y i s a view o f what man is_. important t o note t h a t , f o r the purpose It i s o f t h i s view, how man became t h i s w a y — i . e . , how the Ferdinands and Bosolas and C a r d i n a l s o f s o c i e t y were molded and formed i n t o t h e i r u l t i m a t e 55 animal s t a t e — i s essentially irrelevant. Webster's concern i s w i t h the r e s u l t s r a t h e r than the causes, with the here now and of h i s dramatic world, and a background f o r h i s characters, or even a c a r e f u l c o n s i s t e n c y of m o t i v a t i o n and a c t i o n i n the course o f the p l a y becomes secondary t o the p r e s e n t a t i o n of what O r n s t e i n d e s i g n a t e s as the d r a m a t i z a t i o n of the myster- 27 IOUS workings of the i r r a t i o n a l w i l l . Thus t o a critic l i k e W i l l i a m Archer, who f e e l s Webster shows " s i n g u l a r i n 2g expertness" i n t e l l i n g h i s story w e l l , our r e t o r t can only be t h a t p l o t was secondary t o theme i n the w r i t i n g of The Duchess of M a l f i . 29 where, Webster found h i s b a s i c p l o t l i n e else- but he adapted and a l t e r e d i t t o i l l u s t r a t e a pre- determined t h e s i s . As T r a v i s Bogard notes, " . . . the com- p l e t e r e v e r s a l of P a i n t e r ' s and B e l i e f o r e s t ' s d i s a p p r o v a l of the Duchess of M a l f i i s c l e a r l y an a l t e r a t i o n t o f i t an i n d i v i d u a l conception of the b a s i c materials."-^ seems i n t e r e s t e d i n making men Webster aware of t h e i r i n n a t e , a l b e i t submerged, i r r a t i o n a l and a n a r c h i c t e n d e n c i e s . Bronson Feldman makes an i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t i n t h i s connection when he suggests of Webster's two major p l a y s as w e l l as of O t h e l l o , The Maid's Tragedy and The Broken Heart: P a i n t i n g the hot-blooded personages of these p l a y s i n Mediterranean r a c i a l c o l o r s enabled the d r a m a t i s t s t o u t t e r more f r e e l y the emotions of the E n g l i s h men and women they were concerned with i n a c t u a l i t y . 3 1 As Theatre o f C r u e l t y , the p l a y i n consequence can become, i n Artaud's words, 56 . . . b e n e f i c i a l , f o r i m p e l l i n g men t o see themselves as they a r e , i t causes the mask t o f a l l , r e v e a l s the l i e , the s l a c k n e s s , baseness, and h y p o c r i s y of our world; . . . and i n r e v e a l i n g t o c o l l e c t i v i t i e s of men t h e i r dark power, t h e i r hidden f o r c e , i t i n v i t e s them t o t a k e , i n the f a c e of d e s t i n y , a s u p e r i o r and h e r o i c a t t i t u d e they would never have assumed without it.32 Or, i n much simpler terms, The Duchess of M a l f i q u a l i f i e s as 33 ". . . an exorcism t o make our demons FLOW.", u n r e l a t e d t o Leech's a s s e r t i o n of ". an i d e a not . . the extension of grasp t h a t the play makes a v a i l a b l e t o us."-^ It i s only i f we equate the t h e a t r e with entertainment which i s intended to amuse and d i v e r t but not t o arouse or stimulate u s — o r , i f i t does upset us, i t w i l l c e r t a i n l y t o i t t h a t we t h a t we are reassured before we leave the see auditorium— have d i f f i c u l t y a c c e p t i n g the thematic i m p l i c a t i o n s of a work l i k e The tury c r i t i c Duchess of M a l f i . Thus a nineteenth cen- such as S i r W i l l i a m Watson can say of the Jacobeans i n g e n e r a l and Webster i n p a r t i c u l a r : These men had no sober v i s i o n of t h i n g s . Theirs i s a world t h a t r e e l s i n a ' d i s a s t r o u s t w i l i g h t ' of l u s t and blood. We r i s e from Shakespeare enlarged and i l l u m i n e d . Webster i s f e l t as a c o n t r a c t i n g and b l u r r i n g i n f l u e n c e . . . . V i r t u e i n t h i s d i s o r d e r e d world i s merely wasted, honour bears not i s s u e , nobleness d i e s unto i t s e l f . 3 5 As F.L. Lucas p o i n t s out, Watson's o b s e r v a t i o n s are p e r f e c t l y c o r r e c t , but the i n t e n t i o n of the remark i s approbation for Webster's l a c k of reassurance t h a t l u s t and blood are r a r e exceptions r a t h e r than constant presences. I f Webster's play i s read i n the l i g h t of theory about the f u n c t i o n s of a 57 Theatre o f C r u e l t y , Watson's c r i t i c i s m s cease t o have a derogatory effect. The mind which has come by b i t t e r experience t o l o a t h the 'painted comforts' t h a t hide t h e c r u e l t y o f t h e world i s the r e a d i e r i n i t s r e a c t i o n t o dwell almost l o v i n g l y on the grim r e a l i t i e s behind. They at l e a s t are t r u e , and b e t t e r than pretence.36 One f i n a l p o i n t should be made. There i s , t o be sure, token reassurance of the r e t u r n of order and harmony g i v e n a t the end of t h e p l a y . I t i s a b r i e f scene o f some f i f t e e n l i n e s i n which D e l i o e n t e r s w i t h Antonio's son and suggests: Let us make noble use Of t h i s g r e a t r u i n ; and j o i n a l l our f o r c e To e s t a b l i s h t h i s young, h o p e f u l gentleman In's mother's r i g h t . (V.v.110-113) However, i n view o f a l l that has taken p l a c e , i n view o f the c r u e l t y and chaos o f the preceding f i v e a c t s — e s p e c i a l l y t h e l a s t two, which a r e s t i l l s t r o n g e s t i n our minds, the e f f e c - t i v e n e s s o f t h i s f i n a l t a c i t reassurance i s d o u b t f u l . all To e f f e c t s and purposes, t h e p l a y ends, and i t s meaning i s f i n a l l y summed up, i n Bosola's dying speech which immediately precedes t h e entrance o f D e l i o : 0 t h i s gloomy world.' In what a shadow, or deep p i t o f darkness, Doth womanish and f e a r f u l mankind l i v e ! Let worthy minds ne'er stagger i n d i s t r u s t To s u f f e r death, o r shame f o r what i s j u s t — Mine i s another voyage. (V.v.100-105) 53 VERBAL CRUELTY IN THE DUCHESS OF MALFI (A DIGRESSION) The f u n c t i o n of p o e t i c imagery i n a scheme which attempts t o i n t e r p r e t The Duchess of M a l f i i n the l i g h t of a t w e n t i e t h century theory of t h e a t r e needs some f u r t h e r separate c o n s i d e r a t i o n . As was and shown i n the preceding chapter, Webster's p o e t i c images work c l o s e l y with h i s v i s u a l images i n the r e a l i z a t i o n of a thematic p o i n t of view analogous the d e s i r e d content of Artaud's dramas of c r u e l t y . h i m s e l f would be l i t t l e to Artaud i n t e r e s t e d i n a concern f o r the r o l e of the v e r b a l image; s i n c e i n e f f e c t the v e r b a l images perform a d u p l i c a t i n g f u n c t i o n , r e p e a t i n g i n words ideas and attitudes which are present v i s u a l l y , h i s approach t o the p l a y would be to do without most of the d i a l o g u e and concentrate on the t h e a t r i c a l r e a l i z a t i o n of the themes v i s u a l l y . explains i t i n t h i s Wellwarth way: E v e r y t h i n g t h a t has ever been done i n the t h e a t e r s i n c e a n c i e n t Greece has been p r e d i c a t e d on the assumption t h a t the f u n c t i o n of the t h e a t e r i s communication through speech. But speech—communication of r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t s — i s the very t h i n g t h a t does not and cannot d i s t i n g u i s h the t h e a t e r from anything e l s e — w h i c h makes i t , i n s h o r t , merely a branch of l i t e r a t u r e . I f r a t i o n a l communication through speech i s r e a l l y the u l t i m a t e g o a l of the t h e a t e r , then, a c c o r d i n g t o Artaud, t h e r e i s no\ p o i n t at a l l i n going t o the enormous t r o u b l e and expense of producing a p l a y : i t i s o b v i o u s l y enough simply t o read i t . One can o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n from the w r i t t e n word j u s t as e a s i l y as from the spoken. Theater, Artaud decreed, must be t h e a t r i c a l , and speech i s not t h e a t r i c a l , but l i t e r a r y . T h e r e f o r e we must concentrate e x c l u s i v e l y on those elements of the t h e a t e r p e c u l i a r t o i t alone.-'' However, t h e r e i s a way i f we out of t h i s dictum which we must take are going t o do j u s t i c e t o Webster without doing an 59 i n j u s t i c e t o Artaud. "the communication That i s the d e s i g n a t i o n o f speech as of r a t i o n a l thoughts." That does not seem t o me t o be the primary f u n c t i o n of the language of The Duchess o f M a l f i , at l e a s t the language which a v a i l s of imagery. itself Another point made by Wellwarth i s u s e f u l here i n e s t a b l i s h i n g the context f o r t h i s approach: Speech might s t i l l be used i n the t h e a t e r , but not f o r the communication of ideas and not i n such a way as t o make i t an end i n i t s e l f . Words can be used on the stage as sound per s e — a s i n t o n a t i o n s . As such, t h e i r purpose would no l o n g e r be t o communicate thought, but to b r i n g about an emotional e f f e c t . 3 ° The use o f words and images t o e l i c i t an "emotional e f f e c t " seems t o be o f d i s t i n c t r e l e v a n c e t o the work under tion. considera- Without denying t h a t much o f Webster's dialogue i s d i r e c t l y communicative and f u n c t i o n s on a p u r e l y n a r r a t i v e l e v e l , the f a c t remains t h a t whenever a p o e t i c image i s brought i n , i t s o r i e n t a t i o n i s u s u a l l y not t o the i n t e l l e c t but primari l y t o the senses. I f we look at the p o e t i c content of The Duchess o f M a l f i i n terms of i t s sensory o r i e n t a t i o n , and i t s a n a r c h i c and i r r a t i o n a l images, i t should be seen t h a t lan- guage becomes yet another of the many d e v i c e s used by Webster i n the o v e r a l l p r e s e n t a t i o n — a n i n d i s p e n s i b l e part of the T o t a l Theatre approach t o the p l a y . As Moody P r i o r observes ". . . the remarkable f e a t u r e of Webster as a w r i t e r of dramatic v e r s e i s h i s e f f e c t i v e use of the instruments of 39 poetry t o i l l u m i n a t e and develop h i s d i f f i c u l t materials."^' We must a l s o keep i n mind t h a t i n Webster's time, without the 6G modern t e c h n i c a l r e s o u r c e s on which Artaud's Theatre of C r u e l t y i s so dependent, the main way phere c o u l d be c r e a t e d on stage was l i n g u i s t i c medium. Poetry was i n which mood and atmos- through f u l l use of the an i n d i s p e n s i b l e part of Webster's Theatre of C r u e l t y . Many of the images i n The Duchess of M a l f i seem i n t e n tionally revolting—just as much so as the v i s u a l images. They a i d and abet the a t t a c k on the emotions audience. and nerves of an Webster's word p i c t u r e s p l a y on s i g h t , sound, taste, touch: as such they are not o n l y immediately e v o c a t i v e but i n t e n s e l y p h y s i c a l : "Often h i s v i s u a l symbols suggest a f e a r ful immediacy, an i c y touch, a s u f f o c a t i n g embrace, a p h y s i c a l contact w i t h the h o r r i b l e . " ^ Indeed, t h i s i s the q u a l i t y of many of the images presented i n the preceding chapter, and i n t h e i r context t h e r e , they can be seen as i n s e p a r a b l e from f u l l d i s c u s s i o n of the p l a y ' s themes. should s u f f i c e at t h i s any A few more examples point: You do tremble: Make not your heart so dead a p i e c e of f l e s h To f e a r , more than t o l o v e me: . . . . (Duch. I.i.450-452) There was a l a d y i n France, t h a t having had the smallpox, f l a y e d the s k i n o f f her f a c e t o make i t more l e v e l ; and whereas b e f o r e she looked l i k e a nutmegg r a t e r , a f t e r she resembled an a b o r t i v e hedgehog. (Bos. I I . i . 2 6 - 2 9 ) Bos. Duch. Bos. Duch: Bos. W i l l not your grace pare them? No, they t a s t e of musk, methinks; indeed they d o : — I know not: yet I wish your grace had par'd 'em:— Why? I f o r g o t t o t e l l you the knave gard'ner (Only t o r a i s e h i s p r o f i t by them the sooner) Did r i p e n them i n horse-dung. (II.i.135-140) 61 . . . your k i s s i s c o l d e r Than t h a t I have seen an h o l y a n c h o r i t e Give t o a dead man's s k u l l . (Duch. III.v.88-90) I f they would b i n d me t o t h a t l i f e l e s s trunk And l e t me f r e e z e t o death. (Duch. IV.i.68) Thou a r t a box of worm-seed, at b e s t , but a s a l v a t o r y of green mummy:—what's t h i s f l e s h ? a l i t t l e crudded m i l k , f a n t a s t i c a l p u f f - p a s t e ; our bodies are weaker than those paper p r i s o n s boys use t o keep f l i e s i n ; more cont e m p t i b l e , s i n c e ours i s t o preserve earth-worms. (Bos. IV.ii.124-128) What would i t p l e a s u r e me t o have my t h r o a t cut With diamonds? or t o be smothered With c a s s i a ? or t o be shot t o death w i t h p e a r l s ? (Duch. IV.ii.216-218) One c o u l d go on, but the examples g i v e n c o n s t i t u t e a r e p r e s e n - t a t i v e sampling of the p l a y ' s imagery. V e r b a l and visual c r u e l t y work t o g e t h e r throughout. Salingar's response is L.G. indicative: . . . the agonies of the t o r t u r e - c h a m b e r — b a t t e r i n g , choki n g , f l a y i n g , beheading; toothache, insomnia, f e v e r ; the s t i n g i n g of bees; p r e s s i n g t o death w i t h weights. . . . every s e n s a t i o n i s i n f l a m e d , every emotion becomes an orgy . . . . Storming, d e f y i n g , b e w a i l i n g , s p a r t a n i z i n g ; the set t e e t h , the b o l d f r o n t and the i n t o l e r a b l e pang: these are almost the whole of Webster's t r a g i c a l r e p e r t o r y . When spoken language i s used i n the t h e a t r e , Artaud suggests, i t must be used i n a s p e c i a l , non-communicative way: True poetry i s , w i l l y n i l l y , metaphysical and i t i s j u s t i t s metaphysical b e a r i n g , I should say, the i n t e n s i t y of i t s metaphysical e f f e c t , t h a t comprises i t s e s s e n t i a l worth. 62 To make metaphysics out o f a spoken language i s t o make the language express what i t does not o r d i n a r i l y express: to make use o f i t i n a new, e x c e p t i o n a l , and unaccustomed f a s h i o n : t o r e v e a l i t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r producing p h y s i c a l shock.^ 2 There i s thus a fundamental anarchy a t the root o f a l l t r u e poetry; an anarchy f e l t i n t h e new r e l a t i o n s h i p s which a r e e s t a b l i s h e d between o b j e c t s , between forms and s i g n i f i c a t i o n s . In Webster's p l a y , t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f unexpected relationships between o b j e c t s i s a primary b a s i s o f the imagery. speaks o f having h e r t h r o a t cut w i t h diamonds, to death w i t h p e a r l s ; compares h e r husband's an a n c h o r i t e k i s s i n g a dead man's s k u l l . The Duchess or being shot k i s s t o t h a t of Further: murder s h r i e k s o u t : The element o f water moistens the e a r t h , But blood f l i e s upward, and bedews t h e heavens. (Bos. IV.ii.261-263) We seem t o sweat i n i c e , and f r e e z e i n f i r e . (Bos. IV.ii.338) You s h a l l see me wind my tongue about h i s h e a r t , Like a skein of s i l k . (Julia. V.ii.222-223) One cannot do j u s t i c e t o miost o f Webster's images i f one attempts t o " e x p l a i n " them; t o express t h e i r e f f e c t i n r a t i o n a l , a n a l y t i c a l terms. The images a r e comprehended best on an emotional l e v e l , and thus work w e l l i n a form o f t h e a t r e which i s p r i m a r i l y aimed a t a f f e c t i n g the emotions. to There i s , be s u r e , minimal i n t e l l e c t u a l content i n The Duchess o f M a l f i , i n the sense o f d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h i n t h e p l a y of concepts 63 of good and e v i l , or any of the other thematic concepts which are r e v e a l e d i n the v i s u a l and v e r b a l images. But the p o e t i c imagery does have a cumulating emotional e f f e c t ; Webster i s fond of i t e r a t i v e images, and when one attempts t o c a t e g o r i z e the images, as Moody P r i o r does t o some degree i n The Language of Tragedy, the frequency of images d e a l i n g i n one way or another w i t h blood, death, demons, s i c k n e s s and d i s e a s e , predatory animals, warfare, decay and sex becomes apparent. P r i o r notes t h a t storm and tempest imagery—so fundamental to the i d e a of anarchy and chaos i n the p l a y ' s thematic pattern—appears frequently: The suggestions of v i o l e n c e i n the storm images, supplemented by r e f e r e n c e s t o thunder, earthquakes, and the l i k e , are a l s o s u s t a i n e d by f i g u r e s d e r i v e d from b a t t l e s and implements of w a r f a r e . ^ The best example has p r e v i o u s l y been d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o theme: Card. Ferd. Why do you make y o u r s e l f tempest? Would I c o u l d be one, That I might t o s s her palace 'bout her e a r s , Root up her goodly f o r e s t s , b l a s t her meads, And l a y her g e n e r a l t e r r i t o r y as waste As she hath done her honours. (II.v.16-21) So w i l d a P r i o r a l s o notes: But t h i s i s not merely an e v i l and v i o l e n t world; i t i s corrupt and gross and unhealthy. T h i s impression grows from the p e r s i s t e n t use of such words as f o u l , dark,rank, r o t t e n , p e s t i l e n t . . . and from m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of images bearing on d i s e a s e , drugs, and decay.45. 64 P r i o r ' s d i s c u s s i o n i s a l s o u s e f u l i n n o t i n g how c h a r a c t e r s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n types of images, which w i l l be an important c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n the next chapter. The primary purpose o f t h i s b r i e f d i g r e s s i o n between c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of theme and c h a r a c t e r has been t o emphasize the f a c t t h a t poetic imagery i s an e s s e n t i a l u n i f y i n g element i n The Duchess of M a l f i , and t h a t the fundamentally a n a r c h i c and emotional q u a l i t i e s of t h i s imagery makes mandatory i t s i n c l u s i o n i n c o n s i d e r i n g the relevance play. Verbal of a Theatre of C r u e l t y t o Webster's c r u e l t y supports and deepens the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e v i s u a l c r u e l t y i n The Duchess of M a l f i . CHAPTER IV CHARACTERS AS FORCES IN THE The DUCHESS OF MALFI f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n of c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i n Duchess of M a l f i i s i n t e n t i o n a l l y l i m i t e d i n approach. p r i m a r i l y concerned with suggesting an approach t o The I am character which seems r e l e v a n t t o the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the t o t a l dramat i c work as Theatre of C r u e l t y . Moreover, some of the follow- i n g p o i n t s w i l l be unavoidably r e p e t i t i v e , i n t h a t I f e e l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s a t h i r d approach t o theme, which depends f o r f u l l understanding on v i s u a l and imagery, but which, at l e a s t f o r purposes of t h i s w i l l be t r e a t e d one verbal discussion, separately. At an e a r l i e r p o i n t i n t h i s paper, I suggested t h a t the thematic core of the p l a y was pressed c e n t r a l i z e d and best v i s u a l l y i n the death scene of the Duchess. could stop the a c t i o n , and ex- I f we f r e e z e the stage p i c t u r e at the p o i n t i n I V . i i at which the Duchess, k n e e l i n g , i s s t r a n g l e d by the two Executioners, each h o l d i n g an end probably one of the would have a c h a r a c t e r her, cord t h a t i s looped about her neck, w i t h the c o f f i n c l o s e by and we on each s i d e of Bosola l o o k i n g on dispassionately, image which r e p r e s e n t s the meaning and a l s o the r e s u l t s of the thematic concerns suggested i n the! last chapter: gone mad; the breakdown of order and harmony; the world the h e l p l e s s n e s s i r r a t i o n a l f o r c e s ; man of the r a t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l a g a i n s t as animal. The death image a l s o suggests 66 a b a s i c o v e r a l l conception of c h a r a c t e r which has of these separate thematic l i n e s . evolved out I t i s thus tempting t o see the Duchess costumed i n white and the Executioners and Bosola i n b l a c k , but perhaps t h i s would be a l i t t l e too blatantlysymbolic. But at i t s core, the p l a y can be seen as w i t h a c o n t r a s t between Good and concerned E v i l , more s p e c i f i c a l l y be- tween the dominating f o r c e s of E v i l and the dominated f o r c e s of Good; an E v i l which overpowers and destroys Good. It i s on t h i s r a t h e r d e c e p t i v e l y simple a n t i t h e s i s t h a t I f e e l Webster has developed h i s c h a r a c t e r s . characters seen as symbols can provide Consequently, the another approach t o theme. Suggesting a Good-Evil c o n t r a s t i n the c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of The Duchess of M a l f i l e a v e s the way open f o r s e v e r a l l e v e l s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : r e l i g i o u s , i n t h a t the c h a r a c t e r s could p r o f i t a b l y be regarded i n terms of the Good and E v i l contrasts inherent i n the t r a d i t i o n a l E n g l i s h m o r a l i t y p l a y ; 1 politi- c a l l y , i n t h a t the play c o u l d be seen as a t h e a t r i c a l i z a t i o n of the ( a l b e i t misunderstood) d o c t r i n e s of M a c h i a v e l l i ; psycho- l o g i c a l , i n t h a t the p l a y could be read as a r e a l i z a t i o n the stage of the i r r a t i o n a l and a n a r c h i c tendencies of on man. In r e l a t i o n t o a Theatre of C r u e l t y , the l a t t e r approach i s of course most a p p l i c a b l e , but i n the f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n of c h a r a c t e r , the other p o s s i b i l i t i e s need not be t o t a l l y cluded. ex- In speaking of a c o n t r a s t between Good and E v i l , am merely choosing t o use the two most b a s i c r e f e r e n t s I avail- 6 7 able. As was suggested e a r l i e r , the Good/Evil dichotomy i s of great use t h e a t r i c a l l y ; s i n c e i t s i m p l i f i e s the meaning of the p l a y s u f f i c i e n t l y t o make i t r e a d i l y comprehensible t o all; the degree of complexity on i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i v e n e s s added t o the play w i l l depend and interpretation. Alexander A l l i s o n suggests the e t h i c a l design i n the play i s one antagonists. fills of p o l a r c o n t r a s t between the Duchess and The E v i l represented i n the e n t i r e world: "The her by her a n t a g o n i s t s duchess's tragedy t h a t t h e r e i s a power abroad which can ... time, d r i v e value from the earth gradually informs us at l e a s t f o r a And, a l l the the a c t i o n i s accompanied by a c h o r i c descant upon the while, pre- 2 dominance of e v i l i n the world. . . . " The i d e a of Good being d r i v e n from the e a r t h , as A l l i s o n expresses i t , l e a d s me t o suggest we as f o r c e s . might p r o f i t a b l y view Webster's In The characters Cankered Muse, A l v i n Kernan sees Ferdinand and the C a r d i n a l i n these terms; as f o r c e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of 3 unrestrained anarchic individualism. Artaud used symbols as h i s o p e r a t i v e term: The t h e a t e r r e s t o r e s us a l l our dormant c o n f l i c t s and a l l t h e i r powers, and g i v e s these powers names we h a i l as symbols: and behold! before our eyes i s fought a b a t t l e of symbols, one charging a g a i n s t another i n an impossible melee. . . . 4 T h i s view i s perhaps a l i t t l e too d r a m a t i c a l l y s t a t e d f o r our purposes; i n The Duchess of M a l f i the f o r c e s or symbols do not r e a l l y charge a g a i n s t each o t h e r — t h e process i s rather 68 one o f the slow but steady advance of the f o r c e s o f unres t r a i n e d impulse, savagery, h a t r e d and anarchy as manifested i n v a r y i n g degrees i n the c h a r a c t e r s o f Ferdinand, the Car- d i n a l and Bosola a g a i n s t the r a t h e r h e l p l e s s and p a s s i v e " f o r c e s " o f o r d e r , reason and normal l i f e r e p r e s e n t e d by the Duchess. I f the c o n f l i c t b a t t l e , i t i s an extremely Webster's purposes. can i n any way be construed as a one-sided one; n e c e s s a r i l y so f o r The only r e a l a i d e s t o the Duchess' cause a r e the r a t h e r i n e f f e c t u a l Antonio and the f a i t h f u l but d i s p e n s a b l e C a r i o l a , while t h e o p p o s i t i o n i s able t o draw unto i t s e l f a s s i s t a n c e from a l l q u a r t e r s — t h e Church, the law, and as i s s u r e l y i n t i m a t e d i n the c r o s s - s e c t i o n of s o c i e t y r e p r e s e n t e d by the madmen, most o f mankind; mankind which, as f u r t h e r symbolized and concentrated i n t o the c h a r a c t e r of B o s o l a , i s always ready t o do anything f o r money or the promise of s o c i a l preferment. Before l o o k i n g i n some d e t a i l a t the two opposing o r c o n t r a s t e d f o r c e s present i n The Duchess o f M a l f i i t i s necess a r y t o o f f e r some q u a l i f i c a t i o n t o t h i s d i v i s i o n o f charact e r s i n t o what may seem a t f i r s t t o be two completely groupings—one E v i l , the other Good. separate T h i s o f course i s not the case; almost a l l the c h a r a c t e r s a r e n e i t h e r completely Good nor E v i l , but have v a r y i n g and c o n s t a n t l y s h i f t i n g of both q u a l i t i e s . In a predominantly mixtures E v i l world, not even a c h a r a c t e r as e s s e n t i a l l y Good as the Duchess i s f r e e from c o r r u p t i o n , nor i s a c h a r a c t e r as e s s e n t i a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of 69 the f o r c e s of E v i l as i s Duke Ferdinand e n t i r e l y without our sympathy or h i s moments of s a n i t y i n the midst of h i s general insanity. of I t i s t h i s ambiguity and constant p e r s p e c t i v e which makes Webster's c h a r a c t e r s esting (and r e a l ) as people and shifting both so inter- so d i f f i c u l t t o comprehend. I t i s i n t h i s area of ambiguity i n c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n t h a t most c r i t i c a l study on The Duchess of M a l f i has concentrated, and s e v e r a l c o n f l i c t i n g p o i n t s of view are a v a i l a b l e t o us on d i s c e r n e d good and Ferdinaimd and bad Antonio. q u a l i t i e s of the Duchess, broader o u t l i n e s c o n t i n u a l l y i n mind. the v a r i o u s Bosola, These w i l l be d e a l t w i t h i n t u r n below. At t h i s point i t seems wise t o suggest that we t e r c o n t r a s t s may a l s o keep the Black and white charac- seem too simple and melodramatic, but shadings Webster has g i v e n h i s c h a r a c t e r s d e s i r a b l e complexity and, add l i g h t dichotomy i s c l e a r and c l o s e i n on the play and the f i n e r p o i n t s of c h a r a c t e r characters a be seen as a f a i r l y c l e a r o p p o s i t i o n between black and white types. a d i s t a n c e , t h i s dark and while I t h i n k , an i n t e n t i o n a l ambiguity t o the p l a y , h i s b a s i c s t a r t i n g p o i n t should t i n c t ; only when we the do we From dis- begin t o examine see that a l l the major emerge as v a r i e g a t e d mixtures. In the theatre, however, Webster keeps h i s p l a y moving so q u i c k l y , and in his v i s u a l and v e r b a l images seems t o make i t so apparent that h i s characters are i n essence opposed and contrasted that the f i n e r p o i n t s of behaviour which we forces, can d i s c e r n i n the study would be of l e s s concern t o us i n the immediacy of 70 the t h e a t r e . The This Duchess l i v e s i s made c l e a r surrounded by e v i l i n the a l l important and c o r r u p t i o n . first few m i n u t e s o f t h e p l a y , a s a l l t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r s make t h e i r f i r s t ances. that W e b s t e r c h a r a c t e r i z e s q u i c k l y , a n d i t i s o f some our f i r s t introduced play. ian impressions Travis tragedy dividuals life." Bogard suggests The E v i l tragedy i s broadly s o c i a l , with i n examples o f W e b s t e r ' s lishes this. In h i s f i r s t i s human L e t u s s e e how c a r e f u l l y W e b s t e r speech, Antonio evil, a corrupt court. concomitants Now B o s o l a e n t e r s , a n d c o m p l a i n s s e r v i c e s rendered. expects The C a r d i n a l , r e p u l s e s him, and B o s o l a estab- alludes t o the a n d d i s e a s e w h i c h he s e e s a s t h e i n e v i t a b l e C a r d i n a l of being neglected--he for conception i n c h a r a c t e r , a n d n o t i n some r e m o t e , a b s t r a c t a n d force. of "Shakespear- generality of i n The Duchess o f M a l f i unseen cosmic death f o rthe entire o f W e b s t e r ' s method: s e r v i n g as normative manifested definitively i s i n d i v i d u a l , with a suggested 5 note o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s as they a r e e s t a b l i s h e s t h e i r type a p p l i c a t i o n ; Websterian of appear- to the payment a n d p r e f e r m e n t c o l d and e n i g m a t i c , observes: I w i l l t h r i v e some way: b l a c k b i r d s f a t t e n b e s t i n h a r d w e a t h e r ; why n o t I , i n t h e s e dog-days? (I.i.37-395 Our first right impressions o f t h e two c h a r a c t e r s p r o v e ones: t h e C a r d i n a l remains throughout cold, sinister the play, while Bosola's constant t o be t h e and e n i g m a t i c complaint i s 71 that he i s n e g l e c t e d , w i t h t h e accompanying note n e s s t o do spoils. to any sort of unpleasant In the speech c i t e d a b o v e , he a blackbird—the implications p r o b a b l y meant t o be t h e r e — a n d come, i n h i s own terminology, . rich, p i e s , and two and they o'erladen/with power, p o s i t i o n and fruit, but flesh; p l a y and mouths. cations horse-leech, are none but crows, (I.i.50-52). caterpillars Webster i s c a r e f u l l y We are building on a s s o c i a t i v e o f d i s e a s e and decay. first t o a h o s p i t a l , the animal The exit; The have— same are also o n l y a few time an carrion minutes taste in initial i d e a i s put his parting into our response imagery c a r r y i n g into line courtiers to patients. d i s e a s e seem i n e x t r i c a b l y Malfi's at the a l r e a d y t h e r e i s an u n p l e a s a n t context with Bosola's court be- i n imagery w i t h r o t t e n n e s s , c o r r u p t i o n , p u t r e - c r o w s , p i e s and c h a r a c t e r based are has C a r d i n a l , who but i n the carrion l a t e r he ..." prestige, f e e d e r s , as a r e h o r s e - l e e c h e s . to impli- another likens Again, j o i n e d w i t h t h e Duchess the death of court. The is lines the c a t e r p i l l a r s f e e d on them. are l i n k e d fying and and share compared h i m s e l f o f f e e d i n g on a few willing- b r o t h e r s seem t o have e v e r y t h i n g B o s o l a d o e s n ' t wealth, the has can a blood-sucking attaching himself to Ferdinand . t a s k i f he of next scenic unit i n t r o d u c e s us t o F e r d i n a n d . worth n o t i n g t h a t , although in this handled lightly, jesting interchanges with Castruchio. first scene It it is there i s a strong sexual under-current to his What i s p e r h a p s more 72 important and he t o our f i r s t view o f him i s t h a t h i s f i e r y , u n p r e d i c t a b l e temperament suddenly t u r n s on S i l v i o , taking their cue f r o m the g u l l i b l e Castruchio: i s displayed. Roderigo Without and G r i s o l a n , him, have j o i n e d quick warning, who, i n on t h e b a i t i n g o f Why do y o u l a u g h ? Methinks you t h a t a r e c o u r t i e r s s h o u l d be my t o u c h - w o o d , t a k e f i r e , when I g i v e f i r e ; t h a t i s , l a u g h when I l a u g h , were t h e s u b j e c t n e v e r so witty— (I.i.122-235) The s u d d e n u n e x p e c t e d n e s s w i t h w h i c h he q u a s h e s h i s a t t e n d a n t s is an e a r l y h i n t to keep h i m s e l f u n d e r c o n t r o l . character prove i n such as t o h i s u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y introduces the s u s p i c i o n s about him t o be a s a c c u r a t e a s t h o s e we have f e l t follows just Webster thus a way t h a t o u r e a r l y d i n a l and B o s o l a . the and h i s i n a b i l i t y about t h e Car- Further c o n f i r m a t i o n o f our s u s p i c i o n s immediately i n t h e e x c h a n g e between A n t o n i o and D e l i o ; C a r d i n a l , we l e a r n , u s e s r e l i g i o n t o s e r v e h i s own as F e r d i n a n d makes a c o r r e s p o n d i n g ends, use o f t h e law. The Cardinal W i l l p l a y h i s f i v e t h o u s a n d crowns a t t e n n i s , d a n c e , C o u r t l a d i e s , a n d . . . h a t h f o u g h t s i n g l e combats. (I.i.154-155) He i s a man o f t h e w o r l d , h a r d l y o f t h e Church. "a most p e r v e r s e , a n d t u r b u l e n t n a t u r e : . . . " . ' ( I . i . l 6 9 ) , an o b s e r v a t i o n w h i c h g i v e s us a v e r b a l a f f i r m a t i o n have i n f a c t just seen. Ferdinand has o f what we 73 The Antonio's that she description i s the l a s t W e b s t e r has and i n t r o d u c t o r y movement o f t h e p l a y c o n c l u d e s carefully o f t h e Duchess. significant m a j o r c h a r a c t e r t o be described to us. d e l i n e a t e d the world i n w h i c h she lives, i t i s h a r d l y a p l e a s a n t one. contamination i s "the r i g h t Her That Are Let And I t seems with noble In the midst of surrounding duchess—": days a r e p r a c t i s ' d i n such n o b l e v i r t u e s u r e h e r n i g h t s — n a y more, h e r v e r y s l e e p s — more i n h e a v e n t h a n o t h e r l a d i e s ' s h r i f t s . a l l sweet l a d i e s b r e a k t h e i r f l a t t ' r i n g g l a s s e s , dress themselves i n her. (I.i.201-204) S u r e l y Webster's i n i t i a l be regarded audience as every b i t as i n d i c a t i v e o f what a t t i t u d e the i s t o t a k e t o w a r d s h e r as has been h i s i n i t i a l swift characterizations effect very in o f The first o f F e r d i n a n d , t h e C a r d i n a l and Duchess o f M a l f i clear-cut this c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e Duchess i s t o rests, I feel, few "able to possess the g r e a t e s t d e v i l , " Ferd. Bos. of on The the elicits minutes o f the p l a y ; the r i g h t - n o b l e Duchess, t u r b u l e n t Ferdinand, the truths largely a t t i t u d e s t o c h a r a c t e r which Webster t h e p e r v e r s e and malcontent Bosola. Bosola, completely without enigmatic (I.i.46) and illusions Cardinal, the as t o slighted the life: There's gold. So: What f o l l o w s ? N e v e r r a i n ' d s u c h show'rs as W i t h o u t t h u n d e r b o l t s i n t h e t a i l o f them; Whose t h r o a t must I c u t ? (I.i.247-249) these 74 I have dwelt at some l e n g t h on the opening moments of the p l a y because they seem e s s e n t i a l i n e s t a b l i s h i n g audience attitude. F u r t h e r , i f we w i l l accept Webster's i n i t i a l descrip- t i o n s of h i s c h a r a c t e r s , many of the problems r e l a t e d t o motivat i o n s and the seeming ambivalence of Webster's a t t i t u d e t o h i s c h a r a c t e r s are somewhat minimized. the Let us now look i n t u r n at two opposed f o r c e s of the p l a y as r e p r e s e n t e d by c h a r a c t e r s . As Alexander A l l i s o n notes, the Duchess i s a noble woman whom Webster c a r e f u l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the sum and d e c e i t a r r a y e d a g a i n s t her. of m a l i c e "In her death scene she be- comes a lone embodiment o f v a l u e : a s i n g l e b r i g h t spot, as Webster's imagery would have i t , i n the surrounding dark."^ Throughout the p l a y she denotes l i g h t , h e a l t h , normal and i n s t i n c t s ; reason and order. appetites But, as R i c h a r d Sewall notes, 7 ". . . her l i t t l e l i g h t was soon e x t i n g u i s h e d . " T h i s t o me i s the whole point of the p l a y . Harold Jenkins suggests t h a t The Duchess of M a l f i i s ". . . a revenge p l a y without a crime."; he sees the Duchess as completely i n n o c e n t , and f e e l s i t i s erroneous t o r e g a r d her i n any context of g u i l t , i n c l u d i n g her p e r s o n a l consciousness of g u i l t , f o r her s e c r e t remarriage t o a person of lower rank. The e x p l i c a t i o n s of the Duchess' c h a r a c t e r by S t o l l and Leech both concentrate t o a l a r g e on the assignment Duchess. degree of g u i l t and consciousness of g u i l t t o the They base t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n s on the assumption that o the Duchess has committed a d e f i n i t e crime by marrying Antonio. T h i s mode of approach s t r i k e s me p r i m a r i l y as an attempt t o 75 f i n d some j u s t i f i c a t i o n , no matter how s l i g h t , f o r the savagery of the punishment meted out by her b r o t h e r s . If this cannot be done, the Duchess* punishment becomes h o r r i f y i n g i n i t s anarchic i m p l i c a t i o n s ; meaningless d e s t r u c t i o n with r a t i o n a l l y j u s t i f i a b l e cause. And, I t h i n k , that i s e x a c t l y what Webster wanted t o show happening. Leech seem t o overlook no What both S t o i l and i s that the Duchess does not seem t o regard her marriage as a crime, but r e g r e t s r a t h e r the compromising p o s i t i o n i t f o r c e s her i n t o ; r e g r e t s t h a t the world she l i v e s i n f o r c e s her t o r e s o r t t o subterfuge in order t o l i v e a normal, h e a l t h y and duplicity life: 0 misery! methinks unjust a c t i o n s Should wear these masks and c u r t a i n s , and not (III.ii.158-1591 The end, one. Duchess maintains her p e r s o n a l never admitting t o any i n t e g r i t y to crime because she has not She welcomes death not as j u s t punishment f o r her s i n s , wishes t o l i v e . I t has longer become a "tedious t h e a t r e " (IV.i.84). Death does not f r i g h t e n her; she 223), the committed but as a r e l e a s e from a world of E v i l i n which she no for we:— i s w i l l i n g t o d i e "any heaven sake,/So I were out of your whispering." (IV.i.222- and her f i n a l words r e v e a l a f u l l awareness of the t o t a l i t y of v i o l e n c e and c r u e l t y i n the w o r l d : Go t e l l my b r o t h e r s , when I am l a i d They then may f e e d i n q u i e t . out, (IV.ii.236-237) way, 76 P.F. Vernon p e r c e i v e s a d e f i n i t e moral flaw i n the Duchess and Antonio; because of t h e i r d u p l i c i t y they become as c u l p a b l e as t h e i r p e r s e c u t o r s . i n t h e i r honest end T h e i r methods " . . . . . . are i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from the cunning schemes of the court M a c h i a v e l l i a n s . " add, except 1 0 Should we not however, t h a t the d u p l i c i t y i s u n w i l l i n g l y undertaken, but a b s o l u t e l y necessary t o remain completely t h r i v e s on subterfuge i n our own, for survival? innocent I t seems impossible and u n t a i n t e d i n a world which and d e c e p t i o n . In Webster's world, as the s u r v i v a l i n s t i n c t i s i n n a t e . In the d e l i n e a - t i o n of what one must do i n order t o s u r v i v e , Webster and B e r t o l t Brecht seem t o have an analogous philosophy: The Duchess i s a d i s t a n t r e l a t i v e of Shen Te i n The Good Woman of Setzuan who at the c l o s e of Brecht's p l a y speaks t o the t h r e e h o p e l e s s l y i n e f f e c t u a l Gods as f o l l o w s : Your former i n j u n c t i o n t o be good and yet t o Tore me l i k e l i g h t n i n g i n h a l v e s . I don't know how i t happened. To be good t o others and t o m y s e l f — I couldn't do both at the same time. For who could long r e f u s e t o be bad when he eats no meat must d i e ? live who A l o a d of good i n t e n t i o n s weighed- ! me down t o the ground. Yet when I was unjust I walked m i g h t i l y about and ate good meat I Something must be wrong w i t h your world. Why i s malice w e l l rewarded? Why do punishments await the g o o d ? H - Between Webster's p l a y and remained much the same. Brecht's, mankind seems t o have From two completely different plays 77 we can e x t r a c t a comparable j u s t i f i c a t i o n of wrong i t may behaviour: not be moral or d e s i r a b l e , but i t i s p r a c t i c a l . Fur- t h e r , i t i s i n e v i t a b l e i n a m o r a l l y c h a o t i c world which, as Ferdinand notes, i s ". . . but a dog-kennel:" (V.v.67). Turning t o the E v i l f o r c e s i n the p l a y , we f i n d t h a t Brecht can a l s o supply us w i t h a r e l e v a n t summation of an a t t i t u d e t o l i f e which i s d i s t i n c t l y t h a t of Webster's Bosola: For what keeps a man a l i v e ? He keeps a l i v e by every hour T o r t u r i n g , s t r i p p i n g , a t t a c k i n g , t h r o t t l i n g , and devouring h i s f e l l o w man. A man j u s t keeps a l i v e by completely -^2 Being a b l e t o f o r g e t t h a t he's a human being too. Bosola i s completely without i l l u s i o n s as t o the meanness of l i f e , and i s p e r f e c t l y w i l l i n g t o undertake any j o b , be i t spy, h i r e d a s s a s s i n , t o r t u r e r or e x e c u t i o n e r , so long as t h e r e i s something i n i t f o r him. of being i l l - u s e d , u n a p p r e c i a t e d , i n s u f f i c i e n t l y rewarded by those he has served w e l l . ing of His constant complaint i s his first As noted, t h i s i s e s t a b l i s h e d dur- appearance i n the p l a y , and becomes a keynote h i s character. Antonio does n o t i c e t h a t : 'Tis g r e a t p i t y He should be thus n e g l e c t e d — I have heard He's very v a l i a n t : t h i s f o u l melancholy W i l l poison a l l h i s goodness. . . . (I.i.74-77) He can thus reasonably be seen as ". . . a n man who e s s e n t i a l l y moral has y i e l d e d t o the pressures of c o r r u p t i o n . ..." 13 78 but e x c e p t f o r r a r e moments o f d i s t a s t e f o r what he w o r l d has f o r c e d him For All t o become, s u c h the as 0, t h a t t o a v o i d i n g r a t i t u d e good d e e d you h a v e done me, I must i l l man can invent.' the the feels do (I.i.273-275) he seems a b l e to ignore the reality been h i r e d t o do a job, and f e e l i n g s o f h u m a n i t y and t i o n are suppressed. best death of the the face possible D u c h e s s , by of t o r t u r e and of h i s a c t i o n s ; A d m i t t e d l y , he the compuncthe displays However, I f i n d to agree with I r v i n g Ribner's contention death p r e c i p i t a t e s Bosola»s has i s u n n e r v e d by show o f c o u r a g e she suffering. he it that in imher reformation: When B o s o l a r e c o g n i z e s t h e v a l u e o f t h e D u c h e s s ' s ' • i n t e g r i t y o f l i f e , ' i t i s no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e f o r him t o l i v e by t h e code w h i c h had l i n k e d him t o t h e A r r a g o n i a n brothers. W h i l e g o o d i s p o s s i b l e , he must s e e k f o r v a l u e s i n l i f e , and t h u s he comes t o s t a n d f o r j u s t i c e and t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f o r d e r . . . . Her ' f a i r s o u l , ' b r i g h t and u n c h a n g i n g l i k e t h e s h i n i n g s t a r s , l e a d s him out o f t h e d a r k n e s s o f a w o r l d w i t h o u t v a l u e t o an a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h e d i g n i t y o f l i f e f o r w h i c h she had s t o o d and f o r w h i c h he now comes t o stand.14 Is i t r e a l l y dignity of l i f e Duchess' death? of l i f e . possible i n the B o s o l a as remainder of the Better B o s o l a i n Act perhaps t o personal revenge f o r the services as say V i s r e a l l y no B o s o l a o f A c t s I t h r o u g h IV. he t o see He play he affirming following affirms the d i f f e r e n t from i s as much c o n c e r n e d ingratitude of Ferdinand f o r i s w i t h revenge a g a i n s t him f o r what he the the reality the with his had 79 commissioned Bosola t o do t o the Duchess. In f a c t , one pects t h a t the l a t t e r revenge motive i s r e a l l y only a i n g pretence f o r the former. The sus- justify- e f f e c t of the p l a y as a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of c r u e l t y and anarchy would be weakened i f Bosola i n Act V suddenly became p e n i t e n t and moral. In a c t u a l f a c t , h i s a c t i o n s tend t o deny h i s s t a t e d i n t e n t i o n s , thus denying a l s o the v a l i d i t y of Ribner's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the f i n a l act. it, Bosola's way of doing "good," as Ribner would name i r o n i c a l l y and i n d i c a t i v e l y i n v o l v e s the same t e c h n i q u e s , the same deceptiveness and cunning t h a t had been necessary i n c a r r y i n g out the job a s s i g n e d him by Ferdinand at the beginning of the p l a y . As C l i f f o r d Leech observes: In t h i s l a s t act we have seen him drawn over i n t o sympathy w i t h Antonio and h i s dead w i f e , yet s l a y i n g an innocent servant without compunction, m i s t a k e n l y k i l l i n g Antonio, complaining always of being n e g l e c t e d . As an instrument of j u s t i c e he i s p i t i f u l l y i m p e r f e c t , w h i l e he had shown address as tormentor and e x e c u t i o n e r . 1 5 Throughout Act V, Bosola continues as b e f o r e , and Webster's p o i n t here may be t h a t i n a t o t a l l y c h a o t i c world the ordered d i s t i n c t i o n s between the Good and E v i l are no l o n g e r o p e r a t i v e ; i r r a t i o n a l and a n a r c h i c f o r c e s have taken over completely. The v i s u a l image of the death of the Duchess i m p l i e s the o b l i t e r a t i o n of the concept of Good, w i t h i t s connotations of order, reason, t r u s t and happiness, from the world. t u r n s the i m p l i c a t i o n i n t o v i s u a l f a c t ; man r a t i o n a l c r e a t u r e , but merely animal. Act V i s no l o n g e r a I t i s a dog eat dog so w o r l d , a n d when p a s s i o n t a k e s o v e r f r o m become somewhat e x t r a n e o u s reason, moral and i r r e l e v a n t . concerns Thus O r n s t e i n a s k s : How c a n r e v e n g e a c t i o n be r e g a r d e d a s v i r t u o u s i n an e v i l w o r l d when t h a t a c t i o n i t s e l f must be d e v i o u s , p o l i t i c , or t a i n t e d with e v i l ? l 6 In r e l a t i o n t o t h e a p p r o a c h Duchess o f M a l f i t a k e n i n this to characterization discussion, Alvin i n The Kernan s T o b s e r v a t i o n s o f B o s o l a a r e by f a r t h e most u s e f u l , i . e . : . . . h i s p s y c h o t i c h a t r e d o f t h e f l e s h which i s mixed w i t h f a s c i n a t i o n , h i s s i c k c o n c e n t r a t i o n on d i s e a s e a n d t h e b o d i l y p r o c e s s e s , and h i s s a d i s t i c j o y i n t o r t u r i n g others.17 Bosola s T c o n f u s i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e death profitably ability be r e g a r d e d a s a c o n f u s i o n r e s u l t i n g t o d r a g h e r down t o h i s l e v e l , her see t h e f i l t h i n e s s triumph by t o make h i s eyes. o f t h e D u c h e s s i s t h a t she r e f u s e s t o be Thus when B o s o l a s a y s The contaminated "Now, by my I p i t y y o u . " ( I V . i . 8 8 ) , t h e p i t y n e e d n o t be i n t e r - preted as p i t y f o r h e r s u f f e r i n g , faith from h i s i n - his inability o f t h e world through Bosola or her brothers. life, o f t h e Duchess might and goodness. but r a t h e r f o r h e r i n t r e p i d Throughout t h e p r i s o n scene he c o n s t a n t l y mocks h i s c a p t i v e ; t h e r e s u r e l y must be p e r v e r s e c y n i c i s m intended i n h i s various i n t e r j e c t i o n s : ber/You a r e a C h r i s t i a n . " . "0 f i e I d e s p a i r ? remem- ( I V . i . 7 4 ) ; "0 f i e . ' . . . 0 fearful! . . F i e l a d y ! . . . 0, u n c h a r i t a b l e ! " ( I V . i . 9 6 t h r o u g h 110). Bosola t i r e s win. o f t h e game b e c a u s e he s e e s he i s n o t g o i n g t o Thus he a s k s F e r d i n a n d t o s t o p t h e t o r m e n t , asks never 81 t o have t o see h e r a g a i n . However, i t i s d i f f i c u l t r e g r e t and genuine repentance point. t o admit into h i s character at t h i s He i s o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y amazed by t h e way i n which t h e Duchess welcomes death. H i s words immediately s t r a n g l e d a r e very t e l l i n g a f t e r she i s i n t h e i r c o l d and b u s i n e s s - l i k e import: Where's t h e w a i t i n g woman? Fetch h e r : some other s t r a n g l e t h e c h i l d r e n . (IV.ii.237-238) And, a few l i n e s l a t e r , when C a r i o l a t r i e s t o a v o i d d y i n g : D e l a y s : — t h r o t t l e her. F i n a l l y , i n answer t o Ferdinand: She You'd have her: " I s she dead?" i s what . . . (IV.ii.256) The "repentance" o f Bosola only occurs a f t e r Ferdinand a t - tempts t o deny r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r what Bosola has done, and because Ferdinand r e f u s e s t o reward him. I f Ferdinand i s not going t o f u l f i l l h i s part o f t h e b a r g a i n , Bosola wishes he had known i n advance. naturally L i k e any h i r e d k i l l e r , he expects t o be p a i d . Bosola i s t h e r a t i o n a l and conscious executor of orders which have o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e i r r a t i o n a l , deranged mind of Ferdinand. Thus Bosola's a c t i o n s a r e i n a very t r u e sense t h e p h y s i c a l and v i s u a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e subconscious and sup- 82 pressed—hence imperfectly understood—desires of Ferdinand. Within Ferdinand and f a n t a s i e s i s the l a t e n t v i o l e n c e and c r u e l t y which t h e Theatre o f C r u e l t y would have us r e a l i z e i s l a t e n t i n us a l l . H i s a c t i o n s can be seen as r e p r e s e n t i n g the workings o f t h e i n s t i n c t u a l and t h e i r r a t i o n a l . q u e n t l y , t h e r e i s a problem i n comprehending him. ConseThere i s more t o understanding Ferdinand's a c t i o n s than simply c e r n i n g i n him a long suppressed incestuous dis- passion f o r h i s s i s t e r which provokes h i s vengeance a g a i n s t her disobedience. I n i t i a l l y , we r e a l i z e t h a t Ferdinand's a c t i o n s r e s u l t from a perverted l o v e which manifests i t s e l f as h a t r e d and c r u e l t y . We note t h a t he c o n s t a n t l y t h i n k s of h i s s i s t e r i n sexual terms, as i n Duch. F e And women l i k e t h a t part which, l i k e t h e lamprey, Hath ne'er a bone i n ' t . Fie s i r ! r d N a y , I mean t h e tongue: v a r i e t y o f c o u r t s h i p ; — What cannot a neat knave w i t h a smooth t a l e Make a woman b e l i e v e ? F a r e w e l l , l u s t y widow. (I.i.336-340) and Methinks I see h e r l a u g h i n g — E x c e l l e n t h y e n a ! — t a l k t o me somewhat, q u i c k l y , Or my imagination w i l l c a r r y me To see her, i n t h e shameful act o f s i n . ( I I . v. 38-4D However, what seems important f o r us t o r e a l i z e i s t h a t h i s revenge a c t i o n i s only a r a t i o n a l i z e d p r e t e x t ; once he l o s e s c o n t r o l and g i v e s way t o h i s l a t e n t emotions, t h e predetermined 33 m o t i v e and i t s end result i s lost F e r d i n a n d becomes an ing uncontrollable reactions irrational force o f f a s c i n a t i o n and r e a l i z a t i o n that play's the completely, force, finally i n t o complete animal i r r a t i o n a l i t y . vance of t h i s the s i g h t of r e v u l s i o n , and s i t u a t i o n i s w i l d l y out effectiveness rests. degenerat- I t i s i n our i n a c t i o n , i n our obser- uneasy mixed i n our of and growing control that Ferdinand . . . t a k e s t h e i n i t i a t i v e and i n v e n t s e v e r y r e f i n e m e n t of c r u e l t y i n the t o r t u r e of h i s s i s t e r . . . . w h i l e W e b s t e r r e p e a t e d l y s t r e s s e s t h e p a i n and t h e f u r y w h i c h l i e b e h i n d F e r d i n a n d ' s o u t b u r s t s , he c o n s i s t e n t l y dec l i n e s t o i n t e r p r e t them, and i t i s a t l e a s t a r g u a b l e t h a t t h e p e c u l i a r e f f e c t o f t e r r o r and s u f f e r i n g w h i c h he s o u g h t t o c o n v e y demanded t h a t t h i s i s s u e s h o u l d r e m a i n a m y s t e r y : i n f a c t t h e D u c h e s s ' s o r d e a l becomes t h e more h o r r i f y i n g b e c a u s e o f t h e v e r y l a c k o f an e x p l i c i t m o t i v e on t h e p a r t o f h e r t o r m e n t o r s . 1 3 Thus we fully encompass him realize is can no are that longer he puzzled with i s out g u i d e d by comprehend him our of standing tial, but intellects. to once we which we s y m p a t h i z e w i t h him, something of o u r s e l v e s m o t i v e s and and, i n him. rational comprehension—full of a character's empathy i s . But, cannot control, a destructive force sufficiently Theatre of C r u e l t y , F e r d i n a n d b e c a u s e we p r i n c i p l e s of reason or s a n i t y , however r e l u c t a n t l y , see the by a c t i o n s — i s not As W e l l w a r t h o b s e r v e s , much o f In underessenan a u d i e n c e ' s e x p r e s s e d d i s t a s t e o f a v a n t - g a r d e drama comes as . . . an i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t o f t h e c o n f u s i o n c r e a t e d i n t h e human mind by i t s a c q u i r e d f e a r o f i n s t i n c t and i t s i n g r a i n e d habit of analyzing a c t i o n . The s p e c t a t o r i s c o n f u s e d b e c a u s e he s h i e s away f r o m o v e r t d i s p l a y s o f 84 h i s own i n s t i n c t u a l s e l f a n d b e c a u s e he t r i e s t o a n a l y z e , i . e . , u n d e r s t a n d , i n s t e a d o f r e s p o n d i n g and p a r t i c i p a t i n g emotionally.19 Of earlier. part the Cardinal, l i t t l e n e e d be a d d e d t o what was s a i d He r e m a i n s c o l d , r e m o t e a n d e n i g m a t i c , y e t he i s o f t h e same u n c o n t r o l l a b l e f o r c e s y m b o l i z e d by The force i s visually and Bosola, ground. presented b u t we c a n n o t l e a v e When he c o n f e s s e s i n the actions of Ferdinand. Ferdinand t h e C a r d i n a l i n t h e back- to Julia: By my a p p o i n t m e n t , t h e g r e a t D u c h e s s o f M a l f i , And two o f h e r young c h i l d r e n , f o u r n i g h t s s i n c e Were s t r a n g l e d . (V.ii.267-268) we s h o u l d he n o t be t o o s u r p r i s e d . i s a b l e t o keep h i m s e l f A true Machiavellian under c o n t r o l , t o hide f e e l i n g s f r o m t h e w o r l d much more t h a n h i s b r o t h e r this i s e s s e n t i a l l y the only r e a l figure, h i s true i s , and d i f f e r e n c e between them: Y e s — I c a n be a n g r y Without t h i s rupture: there i s not i n nature A t h i n g t h a t makes man s o d e f o r m ' d , s o b e a s t l y , As d o t h i n t e m p e r a t e a n g e r : — (II.v.55-53) Enough h a s p e r h a p s been i n d i c a t e d t o a l l o w pretation the o f Webster's c h a r a c t e r s and as opposing f o r c e s , Duchess as t h e main r e p r e s e n t a t i v e which i s extinguished f a c e t s by F e r d i n a n d , with of a positive force by t h e s u p e r i o r i t y — i n r a n k , number—of the forces of E v i l the inter- represented t h e C a r d i n a l and B o s o l a . strength i n i t s various In h i s d e l i n e a t i o n of c h a r a c t e r , Webster has thus o f f e r e d another means of t o t a l comprehension. The thematic i m p l i c a t i o n s of The Duchess o f M a l f i , as d i s c u s s e d i n an e a r l i e r chapter i n terms of r e a l i z a t i o n i n v i s u a l and v e r b a l images, are f u r t h e r borne out i n the p o l a r d e l i n e a t i o n of character. CHAPTER V " . . . A FASHIONABLE MIXTURE OF ALL THE THEATRICAL INGREDIENTS AROUND. . . ." Thus f a r i n t h i s how discussion The Duchess o f M a l f i to suggest that At t h e same t i m e , a l t h o u g h A r t a u d was concept of Theatre of C r u e l t y , theatre or form T h e a t e r and effect amounted t o a new comparison that comedy and forms. legitimate perhaps Artaud avoided the forms t o h i s concept v a r i a t i o n s on t h e s e two was c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of genre interest but The specific o f drama, Cruelty basic s i n c e Webster's p l a y i s , i n f a c t , and was the elements irrelevant, freedom a d e s i r e d response. disparate theatrical of o f no r e l e v a n c e t o of p a r t i c u l a r value to the examination seemingly and were somewhat t o be a l l o w e d c o m p l e t e ing h i s materials to e l i c i t Malfi, tried a o f t h e a t r e where a n y t h i n g i n a p a r t i c u l a r genre o f academic such l o n g b e f o r e he w r o t e i f i t contributed to the r e a l i z a t i o n d r a m a t i s t who is practise r e l a t i o n s h i p s of the Theatre of i n a form dramatist's v i s i o n , allowable genre, t r a g e d y , and In e f f e c t , I have been I n s e e k i n g t o e s t a b l i s h what i n o f more t r a d i t i o n a l i s , the possible verbal the formulator of the i n actual o f drama e x i s t e d i t s Double. v i s u a l and t o show c a n be r e l a t e d t o what has named t h e T h e a t r e o f C r u e l t y . to I have a t t e m p t e d i n f o r m , theme, c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and imagery, BEST o f The the i n organizThis attitude Duchess o f s u c h an amalgam o f dramatic elements. This 87 amalgam c o n t a i n s elements of the t r a d i t i o n a l forms of tragedy and comedy, and i t i s t o these and t h e i r use by Webster t h a t I now turn. Tragedy u s u a l l y poses p o s i t i v e v a l u e s , i n t h a t a nor- mal, ordered world i s seen as exj&ing b e f o r e and a f t e r the p e r i o d of time covered by the a c t i o n of the p l a y , i f not during i t . In Webster's p l a y , t h e r e i s l i t t l e sense of a normal world e x i s t i n g b e f o r e or a f t e r , even though he does set h i s a c t i o n w i t h i n such a frame of r e f e r e n c e by means of the opening a l l u s i o n t o the order and harmony of the French court and the c l o s i n g note of hope which accompanies the i n s t a l l a t i o n of the young son of the Duchess as her s u c c e s s o r . However, t h i s seems t o be a very nominal i n d i c a t i o n of order surrounding d i s o r d e r , or of order e v o l v i n g out of d i s o r d e r . The reassurance at the end of the p l a y , which we usually a s s o c i a t e with the c l o s e of a tragedy, seems p e r f u n c t o r y and at best only tenuous. One might suggest t h a t Webster was not o v e r l y concerned w i t h o f f e r i n g reassurance t o h i s audience; his dramatic v i s i o n of l i f e , developed throughout the p l a y , has been one i n v o l v i n g a b a t t l e of f o r c e s i n which the s t r o n g , by v i r t u e of t h e i r s u p e r i o r s t r e n g t h and w i l l i n g n e s s t o f o r e go a l l t r a d i t i o n a l s a n c t i t i e s i n order t o s a t i s f y t h e i r i n nate urges, trample on and d e s t r o y those who are weaker. As we have seen, the s t r o n g f o r c e s have been E v i l , the Good have been d e p i c t e d as weaker, and i n consequence have been s u c c e s s f u l l y annihilated. The view of man as animal, of the world agin c h a o s , as developed o r e x p l a i n e d by t h e i n Acts few l i n e s o f The g i v e n us any pacifying not M a l f i world i s t o be regarded His t r a g i c vision rule. V i s hardly last W e b s t e r has the I through as t h e nullified Duchess o f indication Malfi. that exception rather i s negative r a t h e r than rather than optimistic, a vision rather than o r d e r a s an inescapable concomitant about a personal v i s i o n is i t i s a statement r i g h t f u l l y s e e n as a t r a g i c legitimately that regarded and If light we play offers indication social agony but we any not are hard laws. like Evil reconciliation play put, As which be Jenkins suggests stressing or f o r g i v e n e s s . Duchess o f M a l f i 1 i n the Jacobean e x p e c t a t i o n s of the I t h i n k , t o f i n d where nature the or s p e c i f i c predatory pointlessness animals. i n the of the the Good, t h e y t u r n on The m o r a l l y good because of t h e i r goodness. d e s t r u c t i o n of the p h i l o s o p h i c a l context r e a l sense, W e b s t e r d e p i c t s , and likeable and characters destroy themselves i n t h i s have d e s t r o y e d i n part destroyed thoroughly Harold of l i f e . r e a l l y convincing moral i n s t r u c t i o n The other In a v e r y can t h e anarchy o f God's p u n i s h m e n t f o r t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o f m o r a l once t h e y play but sensing death-oriented, f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r The play; are v i s i o n was o f E l i z a b e t h a n and a tragedy, one, as a t r a g e d y ? Webster's t r a g i c suffering of life, than positive, pessimistic such, the the yet i s the character i n the The of the Duchess i s a m i s f i t she characters very Duchess p l a c e s of Theatre the Absurd. i n the s o c i e t y only thoroughly play. each decent, A relationship to 89 Brecht was suggested seem t o s e n s e t h e ing i f good—in earlier, i n t h a t b o t h W e b s t e r and impossibility a c h a o t i c and of remaining Brecht good—or predominantly e v i l surviv- world: Caresses t u r n to s t r a n g u l a t i o n . The s i g h o f l o v e t u r n s t o a c r y o f f e a r . Why a r e t h e v u l t u r e s c i r c l i n g o v e r t h e r e ? A g i r l i s g o i n g t o meet h e r l o v e r . 2 It is difficult t o perceive moral i n s t r u c t i o n i n which e v e r y t h i n g of emulation which i s r e c o g n i z a b l e i s s e n s e l e s s l y destroyed. cating of tragedy a particular as ". . .a Providence, very and se in a a s g o o d and The would thus h a r d l y f i t i n t o Augustan c r i t i c designation per worthy Duchess o f John play Malfi Dennis' solemn l e c t u r e , i n c u l - showing i t p l a i n l y pro- 3 tecting the g o o d and Webster's p l a y F a t a l Secret dinal c h i l d r e n and v e r s i o n and to s a t i s f y Antonio. of J u l i a the who has sub-plot He original Theobald p l a y i n t o an Webster: The the do Car- their Duchess (off-stage) t o r t u r e scene, the of her making B o s o l a brothers, as and then returns her a f f a i r with such a good c o n t r a s t t o the D u c h e s s ) , and i s what been washed c l e a n i n T h e o b a l d ' s I n o m i t t i n g most o f t h e restrained Ferdinand Antonio l i v e , F e r d i n a n d ' s commands. (hence t h e This Theobald's adaptation, i n which D u c h e s s and bad." only pretends t o s t r a n g l e the against her the 1735), Bosola, which provides the becomes i n L o u i s (publ. d i e , but c h a s t i s i n g the the love piece character Cardinal of Antonio champion o f t h e congratulated acceptable the to himself and Duchess on of t h e a t r e , making having 90 . . . with f r i e n d l y Chains Such as a prudent Parent, s o f t and m i l d , Tho g r i e v ' d , yet f o r c ' d , puts on a F r a n t i c k , Child. f In the o r i g i n a l , however, Bosola i s t h e agent of Ferdinand (hence the i r r a t i o n a l ) u n t i l a f t e r the r e f u s a l of payment, and then becomes an avenging agent i n and f o r h i m s e l f . c o n v i n c i n g a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h a D i v i n e Providence. He has no To be s u r e , God, t h e Gods, or any k i n d of e x t e r i o r c o n t r o l l i n g f o r c e seems d i s t i n c t l y absent from Webster's world. H i s world i s con- t r o l l e d by man, and i f we l i n k t h i s with the p o i n t l e s s d e s t r u c t i o n o f the Duchess, we can, I t h i n k , see a v i s i o n of l i f e emerging which moves the p l a y away from tragedy towards the area o f the absurd. M a r t i n E s s l i n s u p p l i e s a good b r i e f d e f i n i t i o n of a b s u r d i t y as i t i s meant t o be used i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o i n t of view: "'Absurd' o r i g i n a l l y means 'out of harmony' i n a m u s i c a l context. Hence i t s d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n i t i o n : 'out of harmony with reason o r p r o p r i e t y ; incongruous, unreasonable, 5 illogical.'" The r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e Absurd t o Theatre o f C r u e l t y i s a c l o s e one: when man i s f r e e d of s o c i a l and h i s i n n e r impulses c o n t r o l h i s a c t i o n s , v a l u e s restraints, crumble, reason and p r o p r i e t y no l o n g e r govern h i s r e l a t i o n s with h i s f e l l o w man and, as r e v e a l e d i n a work l i k e The Duchess of M a l f i , what ensues i s incongruous, unreasonable and i l l o g i c a l — b u t u l t i m a t e l y e x p l a i n a b l e i n terms of the i r r a t i o n a l . However, the term absurd s t i l l has u n f o r t u n a t e c o n n o t a t i o n s , and i t i s perhaps w i s e r t o designate Webster's v i s i o n of l i f e as 91 e s s e n t i a l l y grotesque r a t h e r than absurd, i n that he r e v e a l t h e m o n s t r o u s c r u e l t y , u g l i n e s s and v i o l e n c e rather than i t s t o t a l problem to be in this a r e a , but saying that meaning when man seen as truth for meaninglessness. life i s valueless i n that meaning . as Webster d e p i c t s of becomes a v a l u e s have life itself i s not difficult many p e o p l e t o a c c e p t , t h u s a t v a r i o u s t i m e s he has d e n o u n c e d f o r h i s show o f d e c a d e n c e , Malfi can be seen i n the l i g h t the nature of the grotesque's "Grotesque because pessimism of l i f e , and The relationship to been nihilism. Duchess o f of Jan K o t t ' s s u g g e s t i o n i s more c r u e l t h a n t r a g e d y , " he about tragedy: suggests, i n t h e g r o t e s q u e w o r l d t h e r e i s o n l y man c a t a s t r o p h e and no However, t h e m e a n i n g , o r i t i s h a r s h and As a p l a y d e a l i n g w i t h t h e c r u e l t y life whereas W e b s t e r seems loses his self-control, completely without of l i f e I f e e l that Semantics seems t o partially t o blame f o r suffering: The t r a g i c and t h e g r o t e s q u e w o r l d s a r e c l o s e d , and t h e r e i s no e s c a p e f r o m them. I n t h e t r a g i c w o r l d , t h i s comp u l s o r y s i t u a t i o n h a s b e e n imposed i n t u r n by t h e Gods, F a t e , t h e C h r i s t i a n God, N a t u r e and H i s t o r y t h a t h a s been endowed w i t h r e a s o n and i n e v i t a b i l i t y . On t h e o t h e r s i d e , o p p o s e d t o t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t , t h e r e was a l w a y s man. If N a t u r e was a b s o l u t e , man was u n n a t u r a l . . . . In the world o f t h e g r o t e s q u e , d o w n f a l l c a n n o t be j u s t i f i e d by, o r b l a m e d on, t h e a b s o l u t e . 0 The grotesque world, and influence s e e n as a w o r l d i s , I feel, Duchess of M a l f i , nancy of Fortune the kind cut o f f from outside help of world depicted i n The d e s p i t e frequent r e f e r e n c e s t o the maligor the s t a r s . T h e s e f o r c e s a r e n o t s o much 92 m a l i g n a n t as i n d i f f e r e n t , and i n t h e p l a y as performed we a r e g i v e n ample v i s u a l i n d i c a t i o n t h a t man i s t h e c o n t r o l l i n g and d e s t r o y i n g f o r c e a t work. The view o f man i n a c t i o n which t h e p l a y g i v e s us makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o agree w i t h O r n s t e i n ' s contention that t h e p l a y u l t i m a t e l y r e a f f i r m s t h e d i g n i t y o f man: And i f i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e Duchess i s a threnody f o r t h e dying Renaissance, then i t i s a l t o g e t h e r f i t t i n g that i t s h o u l d r e a f f i r m t h a t i n e f f a b l e q u a l i t y o f t h e human s p i r i t which t h e Renaissance d e f i n e d as t h e d i g n i t y o f man. 7 O r n s t e i n has u n d o u b t e d l y reached t h i s c o n c l u s i o n because o f t h e t r i u m p h o f t h e Duchess i n t h e death scene: "Her murderers would drag h e r down and open h e r eyes t o t h e ' r e a l i t i e s ' which t h e y p e r c e i v e ; t h e y would have h e r share t h e h o r r o r o f t h e i r lives. heaven." They b r i n g h e r t o h e r knees, but i t i s t h e p o s t u r e o f To be s u r e , t h e r e i s d i g n i t y and t r i u m p h h e r e , but we s t i l l have t h e e n t i r e f i f t h a c t t o contend w i t h . By t h e t i m e t h e p l a y ends, man's t r u e n a t u r e has been r e v e a l e d , and d i g n i t y has been l e f t f a r b e h i n d . Richard Sewall's observations i n The V i s i o n o f Tragedy are u s e f u l f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g an absurd/grotesque c o n t e x t f o r The Duchess o f M a l f i . S e w a l l suggests t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l tragedy, i n s p i t e o f i t s d e l i n e a t i o n s o f e v i l and s u f f e r i n g , u l t i m a t e l y ennobles and e x a l t s l i f e . S u f f e r i n g has a meaning when i t l e a d s t o t h e r e - o r d e r i n g o f l o s t o r usurped v a l u e s o r t h e establishment o f new ones. However, 93 . . . when the values that s u s t a i n tragedy begin t o d i s i n t e g r a t e and the 'nerve' f a i l s , the dramatist (who i s to some degree the creature as w e l l as the creator of h i s times) may r e s o r t t o another a l t e r n a t i v e : i r o n y . The dramatist then often becomes and anatomist of e v i l , and . . . may make whole plays out of one of the many elements ( l i k e irony) which tragedy even at i t s best holds i n uneasy c o n t r o l : pathos, melodrama, the 'absurd'. A l l these tendencies, which we are pleased t o c a l l 'modern', are symptomatic of the default of tragedy and are d i s c e r n i b l e i n the t r a g i c drama of the d e c l i n i n g Jacobean stage. Underlying them a l l i s frank despair i n the face of the human condition.9 As E s s l i n suggests of today's Theatre of the Absurd, The hallmark of t h i s a t t i t u d e i s i t s sense that the c e r t i tudes and unshakable basic assumptions of former ages have been swept away, that they have been t e s t e d and found wanting, that they have been d i s c r e d i t e d as cheap and somewhat c h i l d i s h i l l u s i o n s . 1 0 ]h some ways, then, the subject matter and thematic i m p l i c a t i o n s of The Duchess of M a l f i can be seen as analogous t o the depict i o n of the human c o n d i t i o n i n t w e n t i e t h century Theatre of the Absurd cum Grotesque; a thematic and p h i l o s o p h i c a l point of view develops from the play which has evolved out of the Theatre of C r u e l t y elements of the work, i . e . , the a c t u a l d e l i n e a t i o n of the anarchic savagery of man and the c r u e l t y of l i f e f r e e d of r e s t r a i n t s . Although Theatre of C r u e l t y does not seek t o o f f e r the reassurance which t r a d i t i o n a l tragedy does, i t does e f f e c t or aim t o e f f e c t a c a t h a r s i s which i s d i s t i n c t l y r e l a t e d t o t r a d i t i o n a l t h e a t r i c a l concepts of purgation of the emotions: 94 ". . . l i k e the plague, the theater has been created to drain abscesses c o l l e c t i v e l y . " i s one way i n which Artaud expresses the idea of purgation. As has been noted, the world gone mad motif of the l a t t e r h a l f of The Duchess of Malfi—the torture scenes of Act I? and the chaos and slaughter of Act V—and the view of man as mad animal as manifested i r r a t i o n a l l y i n Ferdinand and r a t i o n a l l y i n Bosola and the Cardinal, presumably reveals to the spectator a view of his submerged s e l f — ". . . his taste for crime, his erotic obsessions, savagery, his chimeras, his . . . even his cannibalism, . . . " Frightening and cruel as t h i s i s , i n terms of Artaud's Theatre of Cruelty, i t i s ultimately b e n e f i c i a l : Whatever the c o n f l i c t s that haunt the mind of a given period, I defy any spectator to whom such violent scenes w i l l have transferred t h e i r blood, who w i l l have f e l t i n himself the t r a n s i t of a superior action, who w i l l have seen the extraordinary and essential movements of his thought illuminated i n extraordinary deeds—the violence and blood having been placed at the service of the v i o lence of the thought—I defy that spectator to give hims e l f up, once outside the theater, to ideas of war, r i o t , and blatant murder. 1 As Wellwarth observes of Artaud's ideas of cruelty: "This cruelty i s seen to some extent as viciousness between human beings. But such scenes must be presented i n a manner calcu- lated to purge the spectator of the corresponding emotions 12 i n him rather than to arouse i n him the desire to imitate." Thus the Theatre of Cruelty can be seen as using violent methods to achieve b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s : ". . . b y confronting the audience with a picture of d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , i t sets i n 95 motion an a c t i v e process of i n t e g r a t i v e f o r c e s i n the mind of 13 each i n d i v i d u a l s p e c t a t o r . " J T h i s can become the r a i s o n d'etre of the v i o l e n c e , the bloodshed, the dramatic and t h e a t r i c a l d i v e r s i t y of a work such as The Duchess of M a l f i : The t h e a t e r i s the only p l a c e i n the world, the l a s t g e n e r a l means we s t i l l possess of d i r e c t l y a f f e c t i n g the organism, and, i n p e r i o d s of n e u r o s i s and p e t t y s e n s u a l i t y l i k e the one i n which we are immersed, of a t t a c k i n g t h i s s e n s u a l i t y by p h y s i c a l means which i t cannot withstand.14 I f the i d e a of p u r g a t i o n i s thus allowed as a v a l i d g o a l of the Theatre presence i n The of C r u e l t y , and we Duchess of M a l f i , we a l s o acknowledge i t s a r r i v e not too f a r out of l i n e with M u r i e l Bradbrook's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t the bethan p l a y was expected Eliza- t o o f f e r moral i n s t r u c t i o n which was 15 f u r t h e r expected While what we t o have an immediate and powerful effect. are o f f e r e d i n The Duchess of M a l f i i s not s e n t e n t i o u s moral i n s t r u c t i o n per se, i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s i n s t r u c t i o n , and i t does have an immediate and powerful effect. Perhaps t h i s i s thus a much more v a l i d and t o r y way of attempting than arguing pro and t o sum satisfac- up the f i n a l e f f e c t of the p l a y con on whether or not t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e moral commitment present i n the work. There i s a point of view presented, which we as s p e c t a t o r s are t o see, r e l a t e t o o u r s e l v e s and our s o c i e t y , and presumably leave the t h e a t r e i f not ennobled, r e a s s u r e d or s a t i s f i e d by once again seeing v i r t u e triumph over e v i l , at l e a s t e n l i g h t e n e d , shaken, perhaps shocked and confused, but, h o p e f u l l y , i n c l i n e d t o do 96 some thinking about what we have just seen revealed of ourselves. In addition to the threads of absurdity, grotesquery, cruelty and catharsis which are woven into the texture of The Duchess of M a l f i , our t o t a l response to the play i s f u r ther complicated by the presence of elements of comedy or near-comedy and s a t i r e i n the M a l f i world. The term black comedy has come into frequent use as c r i t i c s attempt to evaluate many works of the contemporary Theatre of the Absurd. I suggested e a r l i e r i n t h i s study that much of Act V i s comic i n i t s e f f e c t , a l b e i t too t e r r i b l e f o r laughter. I f laughter i s present, i t i s the type of uncomfortable laughter which emerges when an audience i s placed i n an equivocal position — h o r r i f i e d but fascinated; embarrassed, tense and nervous. This i s what happens i n the l a s t two acts of The Duchess of Malfi. A bad production of the play w i l l e l i c i t only laughter, a laughter which s i g n i f i e s a lack of involvement and further implies d e r i s i o n f o r and rejection of the extremity of the dramatist's point of view. What i s meant to be grotesque and t e r r i f y i n g degenerates into s i l l y horror and melodrama. A good production, and they appear to have been few and f a r between, might s t i l l e l i c i t laughter, but i t would hopefully be of a much more uncertain variety, the form of laughter which evolves from the t e r r i b l e grotesqueness of the action, from the constantly s h i f t i n g blend of the p a i n f u l , the i r o n i c and the perversely comic so that the audience never quite 97 knows how i t should react. V as examples: the death i s the death almost to kill Consider three i n c i d e n t s of o f J u l i a i s p a i n f u l and ironic, b e f o r e he i s e v e n s u r e who he is killing. Bosola Soon a f t e r , o f the C a r d i n a l p l a y s even f u r t h e r w i t h t h e s e conflicting developing elements, somewhat m i n i m i z i n g t h e p a i n f u l three and e v e n f u r t h e r t h e u n f u n n y humour a r i s i n g f r o m the d e l i b e r a t i o n s of t h e C a r d i n a l ' s a t t e n d a n t s as t o whether n o t he r e a l l y i s i n d a n g e r o r o n l y p r e t e n d i n g t o b e , a s had t o l d t h e m he m i g h t do t o t e s t them. stage s i t u a t i o n develops a r e a , and as of A n t o n i o , which goes a s t e p f u r t h e r i n being comic because o f the i n c r e d i b l e eagerness o f the death Act he A marvellously tense from a murder b e i n g executed a d i s c u s s i o n about whether or not b e i n g h e l d a t t h e same t i m e in and h e a r t h e d i s c u s s i o n , and We one i t i s a murder i n a s e c o n d a r e a by a g r o u p r a t h e r simple-minded court attendants. or of see t h e murder, t h e v e r y u n c e r t a i n t y o f how we s h o u l d r e a c t i s what c r e a t e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e moment. The has under-current o f comedy i n The been p e r c e i v e d by a t l e a s t one before the chaotic f i f t h the subject matter act. Jane Marie Malfi as emerging long Leucke notes that o f t h e e a r l y s c e n e s o f t h e p l a y i s more u s u a l t o comedy t h a n t r a g e d y : ling critic Duchess o f "The of scenes during the f i r s t o f comedy, f o r a l t h o u g h v e r y manner o f t h e hand- t h r e e a c t s i s i n t h e manner s u s p e n s e i s b u i l t up ... a logical 17 sequence would have c a l l e d f o r a happy e n d i n g . " i s a v a l i d one, b u t we ' The point should n o t i c e t h a t the v e r b a l imagery 98 has i n f a c t g i v e n an i n d i c a t i o n of the non-comic t o come long before they a c t u a l l y happen. developments F u r t h e r , we should note Miss Leucke's i n d i c a t i o n t h a t " . . . a l o g i c a l sequence would have c a l l e d f o r a happy ending.", t h e point of the p l a y of course being t h a t t h i s world, when i t g e t s out o f c o n t r o l , i s completely i l l o g i c a l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a case could be made f o r ambiguity o f r e a c t i o n t o the play from the o u t s e t — i n s u b j e c t matter, the e a r l y scenes might suggest comedy, but i n v e r b a l imagery and d i a l o g u e we a r e p u l l e d i n q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t direction. it One must suggest t h a t the ambiguity i s i n t e n t i o n a l ; i s so c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d and developed t h a t i t seems r i d i c u l o u s t o accuse Webster o f muddled t h i n k i n g and poor dramaturgy. Leucke The p l a y i s complex, but not confused. Miss c r i t i c i z e s Webster f o r h i s i n j u d i c i o u s mixing of . . . n comic elements f r a u g h t with t r a g i c overtones, or t r a g i c e l e - 18 ments t h a t tend t o l a u g h t e r . " , whereas I f e e l t h i s i s essen- t i a l l y what makes t h e p l a y so e n g r o s s i n g . Miss Leucke f u r t h e r suggests that t h e blend of comedy and tragedy i n The Duchess o f M a l f i r e s u l t s i n s a t i r e as the dominant genre i n t h e p l a y . emerging S a t i r e i s undeniably p r e s - ent i n Webster's w r i t i n g , a l b e i t a harsh and b i t t e r satire which, f o r F.L. Lucas, suggests a comparison w i t h S w i f t , both seen as a l i k e i n "The b i t t e r n e s s , the savage w i t , the almost morbid rage t o s t r i p t h e mask from the baseness o f human l i f e , 19 the u n u t t e r a b l e d e s p a i r . ..." 7 I t should be noted that the elements o f s a t i r e which a r e undeniably present i n The 99 Duchess o f M a l f i and i n the Bosola, c e n t r a l i z e d almost l a n g u a g e and entirely v e r b a l images put in dialogue, i n t o t h e mouth of whom A l v i n K e r n a n s u g g e s t s i s a t e x t b o o k m o d e l o f malcontent side are satirist, of l i f e . one . . .", who and s e e s ". . . the i s completely extreme despaired a satiric o f man and 20 of honesty. Because B o s o l a s utterances T tently vile and r e p u l s i v e , the linked with the idea of v e r b a l c r u e l t y i n the cussed earlier i n the g e n r e a t work i n t h e plexity see tration that The o f T.S. As so inherent satire, consis- i n them may imagery dis- i . e . , as y e t another i t adds f u r t h e r d e n s i t y and a w h o l e , and a further level be com- of spectator. Thus i n t h e can play, t o t h e work a s response f o r the we paper. satire are e x a m i n a t i o n o f o n l y a few basic Duchess o f M a l f i atypical Eliot's contention i s a not elements, illus- t h a t E l i z a b e t h a n and Jaco- 21 bean drama i s an The Theatre ally so. tragedy, "impure" a r t form. o f C r u e l t y i s a l s o an I n W e b s t e r ' s p l a y , we have impure a r t can form—intention- d i s c e r n elements and absurdity. A l l of these drawn i n t o t h e Theatre of Cruelty, a perverse vorous genre which engulfs and other f o r m s o f drama w h i c h c a n of the man, observed, of o f comedy o r d a r k comedy, s a t i r e , melodrama, t i o n a l i s m , grotesquery are As we dramatist's presented images c r u s h personal i n ". and . .a hypnotize a s s i m i l a t e s any be vision theater the o f use i n the of the inner elements and aspects omniof realization condition i n which v i o l e n t sensibility sensa- of the of physical spectator 100 seized The by t h e t h e a t e r a s by a w h i r l w i n d o f h i g h e r f o r c e s . " vision p r e s e n t e d i n The Duchess o f M a l f i be r e j e c t e d tion by many. A definitive epitome i s one w h i c h of spectator o f v i o l e n c e a n d c r u e l t y h a s been i n c l u d e d 22 will rejec- i n the Marat/ Sade: I a l w a y s t h o u g h t p l a y s were meant t o be e n t e r t a i n i n g , But how c a n e n t e r t a i n m e n t d e a l i n s a r c a s m and v i o l e n c e ? I always thought poets s t r o v e t o a c h i e v e pure beauty, But what i s b e a u t i f u l a b o u t w h i p p i n g a n d c o r p s e s ? And I was a l w a y s t a u g h t p h i l o s o p h y ' s i n t e n t i o n was t o e l e v a t e man above t h e b e a s t s , B u t , M o n s i e u r de Sade, y o u r p h i l o s o p h y seems c o l d — almost savage. ?3 And w o r s t o f a l l — p e s s i m i s t i c . An answer t o s u c h c r i t i c i s m , w h e t h e r i t be d i r e c t e d extremity of the vision o f The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i work s u c h a s t h e M a r a t / S a d e , Double. o r a t a modern i s f o u n d i n The T h e a t e r and i t s I have u s e d t h e r e f e r e n c e repeating. at the A work l i k e W e b s t e r ' s earlier, but i t bears The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' s e e n as T h e a t r e o f C r u e l t y . . . r e l e a s e s c o n f l i c t s , d i s e n g a g e s powers, l i b e r a t e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s , and i f t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s and powers a r e dark, i t i s t h e f a u l t not o f . . . t h e t h e a t e r , but o f life.24 S u r e l y t h e r e i s no need t o d e s i g n a t e W e b s t e r a d e c a d e n t b e cause porary of h i s vision. As M a r t i n E s s l i n s u g g e s t s o f contem- theatre, U l t i m a t e l y , a phenomenon l i k e t h e T h e a t r e o f t h e A b s u r d does n o t r e f l e c t d e s p a i r o r a r e t u r n t o d a r k i r r a t i o n a l f o r c e s b u t e x p r e s s e s modern man's e n d e a v o u r t o come t o 101 terms w i t h t h e world i n make h i m f a c e u p t o t h e to f r e e him from i l l u s i o stant maladjustment and I do n o t f e e l ing we would w h i c h he l i v e s . I t attempts t o human c o n d i t i o n a s i t r e a l l y i s , n s t h a t a r e bound t o cause condisappointment.25 be f a r wrong t o d o much t h e same t h i n g uncertain era. i f we saw W e b s t e r i n a n d f o r h i s own attempt- chaotic and CONCLUSIONS The preceding d i s c u s s i o n has attempted t o e s t a b l i s h a r e l a t i o n s h i p between one Jacobean p l a y and a t w e n t i e t h century theory o f drama. v a l i d , i n that Artaud s T I f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s allowed as t h e o r i e s h e l p t o p o i n t out q u a l i t i e s i n The Duchess of M a l f i which were present i n i t on t h e o c c a s i o n o f i t s f i r s t performance, i t seems reasonable t o suggest t h a t other works from the p e r i o d might p r o f i t a b l y be viewed i n a comparable context. s e n s a t i o n a l i s m and grotesque Presumably, t h e h o r r o r , q u a l i t i e s o f many E l i z a b e t h a n and Jacobean dramas c o u l d be seen as an attempt by t h e i r authors t o express, independently and y e t u t i l i z i n g a common p o o l o f standard dramatic and t h e a t r i c a l m a t e r i a l s , t h e i r v i s i o n s o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n as they f e l t t h e i r era. of One might thus suggest i t existed i n t h a t a Jacobean Theatre C r u e l t y e x i s t e d i n f a c t i f not i n name, and t h a t T o t a l Theatre, even i f not o f f i c i a l l y designated as such, was p r a c t i s e d on the stages of t h e Globe and t h e B l a c k f r i a r s and elsewhere. In t h e t h e a t r e o f t h e Jacobean p e r i o d , works by a number o f authors seem t o r e v e a l analogous t r a i n s o f thought, comparable p e r c e p t i o n s o f the fundamentally of violent nature man, t h e anarchy and c r u e l t y of e x i s t e n c e which was h e l d under tenuous c o n t r o l by t h e r e s t r a i n t s of law, r e l i g i o n and morality. The advantage of time allows us t o look at t h e 103 J a c o b e a n drama a s a w h o l e and a p o i n t come t o and s e e i n of view towards life t e r m s w i t h t h e meaning o f comparable t o the points to which, in its existence, in twentieth individual d r a m a t i s t s may v a r y , r e a d works by w r i t e r s such as W e b s t e r , theories, truths t o name o n l y certain be p e r c e i v e d w h i c h tieth century Pinter playwrights, such as Brecht i n the l i g h t effect, this a reappearance of we were of Artaud's of basic to life of Ionesco, what is represents i d e a s and a t t i t u d e s called w h i c h have been drama i s b e i n g r e - e v a l u a t e d and f r e e d f r o m t h e writers sibly e x p l a i n why t h e c r i t i c i s m o f n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y rapport Jacobean twentieth with the more r e a d i l y of recent developments i n the t h e a t r e , Jacobean d r a m a t i s t s ' points-of-view established in a spectator t h e n and now T h e a t r e s of Cruelty or reader. (and o f t h e A b s u r d cen- century s u c h a s S i r W i l l i a m Watson and W i l l i a m A r c h e r . as a r e s u l t the i n some ways This suring and from A r t a u d . expressed before. gradually twen- since Artaud, influence suggests that may h e l p could who h a v e e x p r e s s e d c o m p a r - o f any s p e c i f i c continuity if such as B e c k e t t , G e n e t , a v a n t - g a r d e movement i n drama r e a l l y only but drama. or r e - e m e r g e i n t h e works and J a r r y , i d e a s independent society century and f u n d a m e n t a l a t t i t u d e s continue to F o r d , M a r s t o n and a n d W e i s s , who have d e v e l o p e d l a r g e l y others, able a few, expression i n many ways elemental themes, expressions o f human n a t u r e of attempts is of Middleton, In a quality o f v i e w a b o u t man and h i s w h i c h have emerged i n d e p e n d e n t l y The s t y l e s it is Both or Posa now the 104 Grotesque) can be s e e n a s r e p r e s e n t i n g a n a l o g o u s artistic r e s p o n s e s t o t h e human c o n d i t i o n , be i t s o c i a l , political, r e l i g i o u s , m o r a l , o r any Although approach combination of these. h a s y e t t o be e x p l o r e d i n d e p t h , a more a p p r a i s a l of the Jacobean i n g i t w i t h contemporary " h o r r o r " p l a y may the satisfactory evolve from d r a m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n t h a n has link- hither- t o b e e n p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h r e g a r d i n g i t a s a d e v i a t e and deca- dent form o f t r a g e d y . F u r t h e r study of the Jacobean an i n t e r p r e t i v e g u i d e might ing the analogous drama u s i n g A r t a u d a s t h u s be c o m p a r a t i v e , t h e n a n d now investigat- r e s p o n s e s t o t h e human c o n d i - t i o n , and a l s o e x p a n s i v e , l o o k i n g a t t h e Jacobean w h o l e t o s e e how T h i s s t u d y o f The Duchess o f M a l f i has i n many ways b e e n e x p l o r a t o r y i n i n t e n t , t o t e s t t h e feasibility two w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d e r a s o f drama a n d dramatic t h e o r y , and a t t h e same t i m e t o s u g g e s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s u s i n g t h e n e w e r drama a n d t h e o r y t o e x p l a i n and the a e x t e n s i v e and v a r i e d t h e r e s p o n s e s were w i t h i n the period. of comparing drama a s of re-interpret older. Some i n i t i a l p o i n t s of comparison h a v e been i n t h e p a p e r , n o t a b l y t h o s e between W e b s t e r and t h e b a s i s of t h e i r comparable a t t i t u d e s to the suggested B r e c h t , on impossibility o f r e m a i n i n g good i n a c o r r u p t w o r l d , and between W e b s t e r W e i s s i n t h e i r u s e o f T o t a l T h e a t r e and t h e c o n c e p t animal. F o r The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i we might o f man a l s o note i n p a s s i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Webster's F e r d i n a n d and and as 105 Jarry's King Ubu as comparable delineations of i r r a t i o n a l man. C r i t i c a l descriptions of Ubu remind one of Webster's Duke: Wellwarth c a l l s him " . . . the prototype of the elemental figure unencumbered by i n h i b i t i o n or respect f o r the veneer of law and order.", while E s s l i n observes that He i s a t e r r i f y i n g image of the animal nature of man, h i s cruelty and ruthlessness. . . . He i s mean, vulgar, and incredibly brutal, a monster that appeared ludicrously exaggerated i n 1896, but was f a r surpassed by r e a l i t y by 1945Once again, an i n t u i t i v e image of the dark side of human nature that a poet had projected onto the stage proved prophetically t r u e . l Webster's Act V delineation of a world gone mad, with man seen as a predatory animal freed of s o c i a l r e s t r a i n t s and i n h i b i t i o n s , appears again i n a new form i n the l a s t act of Ionesco's Rhinoceros (1953). The resultant meaninglessness of t r a d i t i o n - a l values and safeguards associated with the law and r e l i g i o n , which we noted as an important thematic l i n e i n The Duchess of M a l f i , i s one of the themes discernible i n Genet's The Balcony (I960). Also, Webster's play owes much of i t s t e r r o r to the lack of discernible and d e f i n i t e l y stated motives f o r the machinations of Ferdinand and the Cardinal; t h i s technique of mystification and equivocation, used by Webster to show that we cannot expect to understand the workings of the i r r a t i o n a l , i s one of the basic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the plays of Harold Pinter, most notably used i n The Birthday Party (i960) and A Slight Ache (1961). These few examples might suggest that a comparative study of Jacobean and Contemporary dramas could 106 prove of interest and value. W i t h i n the Jacobean an a i d t o d i s c e r n i n g t r e n d s and s e e t h a t W e b s t e r ' s The theatrical did not tation freak. exist and dividually. t e n d e n c i e s , one Duchess o f M a l f i As n o t e d , i n name, and approach works, each p e r i o d , using Artaud's theory i s n o t an a Jacobean f o r The Theatre of However, a t t h i s gest a few works w h i c h m i g h t part to the Whore, a d m i r e d ther and examination, important an be r e l a t e d either entirely of C r u e l t y , the Absurd/Grotesque directed Mellida gest in this area. as does h i s The of Bosola, deserves possibly investigation R o w l e y ' s The the Jacobean intrinsic o f Chapman's B u s s y and Tourneur's examining so i n the each and might also sug- d'Ambois, M i d d l e t o n The obvious could, I f e e l , fur- Marston, Antonio Revenger's and Tragedy. choices, although suggest T h u s , by g o i n g d i r e c t l y p e r i o d and m e r i t s , we Heart. One i n v e s t i g a t i o n would undoubtedly consideration. She's A considerable attention, A n t o n i o ' s Revenge. Changeling for profitably 'Tis Pity Malcontent, T h e s e seem t h e most i m m e d i a t e and detailed Broken or i n Certainly on W e b s t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p a r t i c u l a r a t The and Ford's sug- and d i s c u s s e d by A r t a u d , seems w o r t h y o f influence characterization to other s t a g e i t seems p o s s i b l e t o W e b s t e r ' s o t h e r m a j o r work, The W h i t e D e v i l w o u l d investigation interpre- considered i n - T o t a l Theatre p o s t u l a t e d f o r Webster's p l a y . bear Cruelty Duchess o f M a l f i p l a y w o u l d o b v i o u s l y have t o be quickly isolated i n extending the type of adopted concepts could as o t h e r works t o t h e dramas o f p l a y on i t s own d i s c e r n an a t t i t u d e to 107 l i f e and a means of g i v i n g a r t i s t i c expression t o the d i s c o r d and u n c e r t a i n t y inherent i n t h i s a t t i t u d e of which The Duchess o f M a l f i i s r e a l l y only one example. FOOTNOTES INTRODUCTION A n t o n i n A r t a u d , The T h e a t e r and i t s D o u b l e , t r a n s . Mary C a r o l i n e R i c h a r d s (New Y o r k , 1 9 5 8 ) . Whenever q u o t i n g d i r e c t l y f r o m t h i s work, I w i l l u s e t h e t r a n s l a t o r ' s s p e l l i n g of t h e a t e r . Elsewhere, t h e a t r e i s used. 2 Artaud, pp. 27-28. 3 F u r t h e r s h o r t e s s a y s , n o t e s and l e t t e r s on t h e t h e a t r e by A r t a u d a r e p r i n t e d i n " S t a t e s o f M i n d : 1 9 2 1 - 1 9 4 5 , " T u l a n e Drama Review, V I I I ( W i n t e r 1 9 6 3 ) , 3 0 - 7 3 This issue a l s o c o n t a i n s two c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s on A r t a u d : P a u l A r n o l d , "The A r t a u d E x p e r i m e n t , " 1 5 - 2 9 and Remain W e i n g a r t e n , "Reread Artaud," 7 4 - 8 4 . ^"Artaud, p. 28. 5 Artaud, p. 99. 6 Artaud, p. 100. 7 In 1 9 3 5 , Artaud d i r e c t e d h i s a d a p t a t i o n of the Cenci, c o m b i n i n g t e x t s by S h e l l e y and S t e n d h a l , t h e o n l y p r o d u c t i o n o f h i s p l a n n e d T h e a t r e o f C r u e l t y . The p r o d u c t i o n was r e g a r d e d as an i n t e r e s t i n g f a i l u r e . Also of i n t e r e s t are A r t a u d ' s p l a y The S p u r t o f B l o o d and h i s p r o d u c t i o n s c e n a r i o f o r S t r i n d b e r g ' s Ghost Sonata, both p r i n t e d i n t h e Tulane Drama Review a r t i c l e c i t e d a b o v e . The f a c t t h a t " A l l o f t h e p l a y s o f t h e c u r r e n t a v a n t g a r d e e x p e r i m e n t a l drama have a common s o u r c e i n t h e t h e o r i e s o f A n t o n i n A r t a u d . . . . " i s d i s c u s s e d i n George E. W e l l w a r t h ' s c h a p t e r on A r t a u d i n The T h e a t e r o f P r o t e s t and P a r a dox: D e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e A v a n t - G a r d e Drama (New Y o r k , 1 9 6 4 ) , pp. 1 4 - 2 7 . Q u o t a t i o n s f r o m t h i s work w i l l a l s o a d h e r e t o t h e American s p e l l i n g o f t h e a t e r . o B r o o k ' s p r o d u c t i o n o f K i n g L e a r i s d i s c u s s e d by C h a r l e s M a r o w i t z , " L e a r L o g , " T u l a n e Drama Review, V I I I (Wint e r 1963), 101-123• I t i s perhaps only a c c i d e n t a l t h a t t h i s a r t i c l e appeared i n the Artaud i s s u e . Brook's p r o d u c t i o n o f T i t u s A n d r o n i c u s i s a p p r a i s e d by Jan K o t t i n S h a k e s p e a r e Our C o n t e m p o r a r y , " t r a n s . B o r e s l a w T a b o r s k i (New Y o r k , 1 9 6 4 ) , pp. 229-236. W e i s s ' p l a y , t r a n s . G e o f f r e y S k e l t o n (London, 1965) w i l l h e r e a f t e r be r e f e r r e d t o as t h e M a r a t / S a d e . 109 The Moral Vision of Jacobean Tragedy (Madison, Wise., 1965), p. 24. J o h n Webster, The Duchess of M a l f i , ed. John Russell Brown (Cambridge, Mass., 1 9 6 4 ) • A l l quotations from the play are from t h i s edition (The Revels Plays), and a l l documentat i o n w i l l be given i n the text. 11 1 2 In Educational Theatre Journal, XVII ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 314-321. CHAPTER ONE Throughout t h i s and the following chapter, I use dramatic to specify elements i n the play which are not f u l l y dependent on a stage performance f o r effectiveness or comprehension. Theatrical i s used i n a much wider sense to mean elements which need stage r e a l i z a t i o n f o r proper e f f e c t i v e ness. Thus Webster's use of a Machiavellian figure would be regarded as a dramatic device, whereas the masque of madmen i n I V . i i would be t h e a t r i c a l . It i s at best an arbitrary d i v i s i o n which remains f l e x i b l e . "'The Duchess of M a l f i ' , " 19th Century, LXXXVII (1920), p. 132. 2 1923). -^William Archer, The Old Drama and the New (Boston, ^"Throughout t h i s section I have made considerable use of Miss Bradbrook's work Themes and Conventions of Elizabethan Tragedy (Cambridge, 1957)1 chs. I-V. Also of use was Madeleine Doran, Endeavors of Art: A study of form i n Elizabethan drama (Madison, 1964). 5 Most notable f o r The Duchess of Malfi are the studies of Gunnar Boklund, 'The Duchess of M a l f i ' : Sources, Themes, Characters (Cambridge, Mass., 1962) and Robert W. Dent, John Webster's Borrowings (Berkeley, I960). ^"Four Elizabethan Dramatists," i n Selected Essays (London, 1951), p. 116. 7 "Dramatists," i n Essays, p. 117. g The Complete Works of John Webster, ed. F.L. Lucas (London, 1927), I, p. 21. 110 9 Martin 7 1961), p. 293. Esslin, "^Artaud, p. 1 2 5 . Artaud, p. 1 4 2 . 1 1 The T h e a t r e o f t h e Absurd (New Y o r k , 12 A r t a u d , p. 9 3 . Italics mine. 13 ^ D r a m a t i c d e b t s a n d s o u r c e s h a v e b e e n t r a c e d by E . E . S t o l l , J o h n W e b s t e r : The P e r i o d s o f H i s Work a s D e t e r m i n e d by H i s R e l a t i o n s t o The Drama o f H i s Day ( B o s t o n , 1 9 0 5 ) . 1 / f M a r a t / S a d e , p. [ 6 ] , CHAPTER TWO p. 2 9 3 - Esslin, 2 A r t a u d , p . 1 4 5 . The a r t i c l e i s a r e v i e w o f a mime c r e a t e d b y J e a n - L o u i s B a r r a u l t , b a s e d on W i l l i a m F a u l k n e r ' s As I L a y D y i n g , p e r f o r m e d i n P a r i s i n 1935. 3 Artaud, p. ^Artaud, pp. 100. 28-30. 5 In a d d i t i o n t o Leech's a n a l y s i s , d i s c u s s e d i n t h e t e x t , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e o f some i n t e r e s t : James L . C a l d e r w o o d , "'The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' : S t y l e s o f Ceremony," E s s a y s i n C r i t i c i s m , X I I (1962), 1 3 3 - 1 4 7 , s u g g e s t s t h a t F e r d i n a n d s e e k s t h e r i t u a l p u r g a t i o n o f h i s own t a i n t e d b l o o d i n t h e r i t u a l p u r g a t i o n o f h i s s i s t e r , i . e . , p u r g a t i o n by p r o x y ; J.R. M u l r y n e , "'The W h i t e D e v i l ' a n d 'The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' , " i n J a c o b e a n T h e a t r e , e d . J o h n R u s s e l l Brown a n d B e r n a r d H a r r i s (London, I960), p p . 2 0 1 - 2 2 5 , s u g g e s t s , w i t h o u t d e v e l o p i n g t h e i d e a , that the long r i t u a l i s a f r u s t r a t e d substitute f o r the sex act. B o t h M u r i e l B r a d b r o o k i n Themes a n d C o n v e n t i o n s a n d McD. E m s l i e , " M o t i v e s i n ' M a l f i ' , " E s s a y s i n C r i t i c i s m , I X (1959), 391-405, s e e , w r o n g l y I t h i n k , t h e D u c h e s s s u b m i t t i n g t o t h e p e r s e c u t i o n as a r i t u a l e x p i a t i o n o f h e r offence against her b r o t h e r s and h e r people. T h i s assumes t h a t t h e D u c h e s s i s g u i l t y o f two c r i m e s — r e m a r r i a g e , a n d r e m a r r i a g e below h e r station. As I D e v e l o p i n C h a p t e r I V , I am n o t p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t t h i s p o i n t o f view. Clifford Leech, Webster: (London, 1963), p . 6 l . Ibid., p. 6 1 . 'The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' Ill Artaud, p. 27. Artaud, pp. 30-31. 10 T.S. E l i o t , "Seneca i n Elizabethan Translation," i n Selected Essays, p. 82. 9 L o r d David C e c i l . "John Webster," i n Poets and S t o r y t e l l e r s (London, 1949), p. 40. 1 1 E.M.W. T i l l y a r d , The Elizabethan World Picture (London, I 9 6 3 ) . This idea i s developed i n Chapter VIII. 13 ^Inga-Stina Ekeblad, "The 'Impure Art' of John Webster," Review of English Studies, IX (1958), p. 260. "^Leech's discussion of the scene i s i n John Webster: A C r i t i c a l Study (London, 1951), PP« 81-86. 12 1 5 A l v i n Kernan, The Cankered Muse (New Haven, 1959), p. 233. "^Appendix I I of the Revels Plays edition of The Duchess of M a l f i has a t r a n s c r i p t i o n of a surviving manuscript copy of the song sung by the Madmen. See pp. 210-213. Brown, p. x x i i i . 18 Themes and Conventions, pp. 20-22. Also of interest i s C l i f f o r d Leech, "The acting of Marlowe and Shakespeare," The Colorado Quarterly, XIII (I964), pp. 25-42. E s s l i n , p. 306. 1 9 2 0 E s s l i n , pp. 294-295. CHAPTER THREE 1 New York, 1964, 2, "Doran, p. 294. p. 22. ^Doran, p. 293. ^"The Structure of 'The Duchess of M a l f i ' : An Approach," English, XII (1958), p. 90. 5 ^Davies, p. 93. 112 °»The Function of Imagery i n Webster," PMLA, E X X (1955), P P . 717-739. n 'Wellwarth, p. 16. g Davies, p. 91. 9 Wellwarth, p. 17. " E t h i c a l Themes i n 'The Duchess of M a l f i * , " Studies in English Literature, IV (1964), p. 270. 1 0 11 A r t a u d , p. 79. I . i i i . 1 0 1 - 1 2 4 , Yale edition (New Haven, 1956). 13 Shakespeare Our Contemporary, p. 110. "^Brown, p. x l i x . 15 ^Ornstein, p. 135"^Ornstein, p. 7. 17 ' C e c i l , p. 32 et passim. " ^ A l l i s o n , p. 273. 19 Ornstein, p. 44. The comment i s made as a general view of a thematic implication i n Jacobean tragedy as a whole, but i t s s p e c i f i c relevance to The Duchess of M a l f i seems worthy of notice. 12 20 "Fate and Chance i n 'The Duchess of M a l f i ' , " i n Shakespeare's Contemporaries, ed. Max Bluestone and Norman Rabkin (New Jersey, 19bl), p. 216. J o h n Webster: A C r i t i c a l Study, p. 83. 22 Themes and Conventions, p. 197. 21 23 ^Themes and Conventions, p. 136. 2 4 2 E s s l i n , p. 303. ^Marat/Sade, pp. 40-41. (Act I, Scene 15.) The Cankered Muse, p. 251. ^ T h i s i s the main point made i n Ornstein's excellent discussion of Webster, pp. 128-150. 2 113 Of} * Archer, "'The Duchess of M a l f i ' , " p. 1 2 6 . Archer dwells at l e n g t h on a l l the g l a r i n g flaws and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s he has d i s c e r n e d i n p l o t development, c h a r a c t e r a c t i o n and motivation. 29 T h i s i s f u l l y d i s c u s s e d by John R u s s e l l Brown i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the Revels Plays e d i t i o n of The Duchess of M a l f i , pp. x x v i i - x l i . 7 3 ° T h e T r a g i c S a t i r e of John Webster (Berkeley, 1955), p. 154. of " T h e Yellow Malady: Short S t u d i e s of F i v e Tragedies J e a l o u s y , " L i t e r a t u r e and Psychology, ¥1 ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p. 5 1 . 3 1 3 2 A r t a u d , pp. 31-32. 33 Artaud, p. 60. ^Webster: 'The Duchess of M a l f i ' , p. 6 l . 35 Quoted by Lucas i n Works, I , p. 15. 3 6 37 I b i d . , p. 3 0 . W e l l w a r t h , p. 2 0 . ^^Wellwarth, p. 22. 39 1947), p. Moody P r i o r , The Language of Tragedy (New York, p. 1 3 1 . ^Ian S c o t t - K i l v e r t , John Webster (London, 1 9 6 4 ) , 34. ^ " T o u r n e u r and the Tragedy of Revenge," i n The Age of Shakespeare, ed. B o r i s Ford (London, 1 9 5 5 ) , p. 3 5 0 . ^ A r t a u d , p. 4 4 ; p. 4 6 . 2 ^0f some i n t e r e s t here would be the unpubl. d i s s . (Syracuse, 1962) by S.V. S t e r n l i c h t , "John Webster's Imagery," which, as o u t l i n e d i n D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s , XXIII ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 2 9 0 5 - 2 9 0 6 , d e a l s w i t h i t e r a t i v e images and image c l u s t e r s i n The Duchess of M a l f i and The White D e v i l . 4/f 4 5 T h e Language of Tragedy, p. 1 2 8 . I b i d . , p. 1 2 9 . 114 CHAPTER FOUR "'"Of i n t e r e s t here would be the unpubl. d i s s . (Arkansas, 1957) by M u r i e l West, "The D e v i l and John Webster," which, as o u t l i n e d i n D i s s e r t a t i o n ^ A b s t r a c t s , XVII ( 1 9 5 7 ) , 1 0 7 7 - 1 0 7 8 , d i s c u s s e s d e v i l imagery i n Webster's two major p l a y s . 2 A l l i s o n , p. 271. ^Kernan, p. 238. ^Artaud, p. 27. 5 Bogard, p. 39. 6 A l l i s o n , p. 270. T h e V i s i o n o f Tragedy (New Haven, 1962), p. 81. "The Tragedy o f Revenge i n Shakespeare and Webster," Shakespeare Survey, XIV (1961), p. 537 Q S t o l l f o r example sees Webster as t h e " . . . s t e r n j u s t i c e r o f human e r r o r — o f the f o l l y of Antonio and the Duchess." John Webster, p. 192. 1 0 " T h e Duchess o f M a l f i ' s G u i l t , " Notes and Queries, n.s., X ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p. 3 3 7 . I n Parables f o r the T h e a t e r , t r a n s . E r i c and Maja Apelman (New York, 1948), p. 103. 1 1 Bentley 12 B e r t o l t Brecht, The Threepenny Opera, t r a n s . Guy S t e r n , E n g l i s h l i b r e t t o i n c l u d e d w i t h Die Dreigroschenoper, Columbia Records #02L 257 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , p. 3 4 . 13 -'Seymour L. Gross, "A Note on Webster's T r a g i c t u d e , " Notes and Queries, n.s., VI ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p. 3 7 5 . "^Jacobean Tragedy "^Webster: "^Ornstein, 1 7 (London, 1 9 6 2 ) , pp. 114-115. 'The Duchess o f M a l f i ' , p. 27. p. 23. K e r n a n , p. 2 3 7 . S c o t t - K i l v e r t , p. 26. Atti- 115 19 W e l l w a r t h , p. 17. CHAPTER FIVE "''Jenkins, p. 54. o B e r t o l t Brecht, The Good Woman o f Setzuan, i n Parables f o r t h e Theater, p. 53. ^Quoted i n S c o t t - K i l v e r t , p. 5. ^"Lucas, I , p. 7. A l s o o f i n t e r e s t here i s the short a r t i c l e by B.L. Joseph, " L o u i s Theobald and Webster," Comp a r a t i v e L i t e r a t u r e S t u d i e s , XVII ( 1 9 4 5 ) , 2 9 - 3 1 . 5 E s s l i n , p. x i x . K o t t , p. 74; p. 92. 6 7 O r n s t e i n , p. 150. O r n s t e i n , p. 147. 9 S e w a l l , p. 8 2 . " ^ E s s l i n , p. x v i i i . 1:L 12 1 3 A r t a u d , p. 31; p. 9 2 ; p. 82. W e l l w a r t h , p. 2 0 . E s s l i n , p. 302. 1Zf A r t a u d , p. 8 1 . "^Bradbrook, Themes and Conventions, p. 7 6 f f . As d i s c u s s e d by Don D. Moore, "Webster i n the Modern T h e a t r e , " E d u c a t i o n a l Theatre J o u r n a l , XVII ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 3 1 4 - 3 2 1 . 17»tThe Duchess o f M a l f i ' : Comic and S a t i r i c Confusion i n a Tragedy," S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e , IV ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p. 277. l g Leucke, p. 279. "^Lucas, I , p. 4 6 . * Kernan, p. 237. 116 21 "Four E l i z a b e t h a n D r a m a t i s t s , " i n Essays, p. 114. pp Artaud, pp. 82-83. 23 ^ T h i s passage was a p p a r e n t l y added d u r i n g the New York performances o f the p l a y , and appears o n l y i n t h e r e corded v e r s i o n (Caedmon TRS- 312) spoken by Coulmier a t t h e end o f Act I , Scene 20. Arrangement and punctuation o f the passage i s consequently my own, although guided, by the s t y l e of t h e p u b l i s h e d t e x t . 2 ^ A r t a u d , p. 31. 2 ^ E s s l i n , p. 316. CONCLUSIONS Wellwarth, p. 17; E s s l i n , pp. 225-226. A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY A l l i s o n , A l e x a n d e r W. " E t h i c a l Themes i n 'The D u c h e s s o f Malfi'." S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e , I V (1964), 263-273. Archer, William. . '"The The O l d Drama a n d t h e New. Duchess o f M a l f i ' . " B o s t o n , 1923. 19th C e n t u r y , L X X X V I I ("1920), 126-132. Artaud, Antonin. The T h e a t e r and I t s D o u b l e . Translated f r o m t h e F r e n c h by Mary C a r o l i n e R i c h a r d s . New Y o r k , 1953. Bogard, T r a v i s . 1955. The T r a g i c S a t i r e o f J o h n W e b s t e r . Berkeley, B o k l u n d , G. 'The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' : S o u r c e s , Themes, Characters. C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , 1962. B o w e r s , F.T. E l i z a b e t h a n Revenge T r a g e d y , 1537-1642. t o n , 1940. Prince- B o y e r , C l a r e n c e V. The V i l l a i n a s H e r o i n E l i z a b e t h a n Tragedy. L o n d o n , 1914. Bradbrook, M u r i e l . " F a t e a n d Chance i n 'The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' , " i n S h a k e s p e a r e ' s C o n t e m p o r a r i e s . Ed. Max B l u e s t o n e and Norman R a b k i n . New J e r s e y , 1 9 6 1 , 210-222. . Themes a n d C o n v e n t i o n s o f E l i z a b e t h a n T r a g e d y . C a m b r i d g e , 1935Bradford, Gamaliel. "The Women o f M i d d l e t o n and W e b s t e r . " Sewanee R e v i e w , X X I X (1921), 14-29. B r e n n a n , E l i z a b e t h M. "The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between B r o t h e r and S i s t e r i n t h e P l a y s o f J o h n W e b s t e r . " M o d e r n Language R e v i e w , L V I I I (1963), 433-494. B r u c k l , 0. " S i r P h i l i p Sidney's 'Arcadia' as a Source f o r J o h n W e b s t e r ' s 'The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' . " E n g l i s h S t u d i e s i n A f r i c a , V I I I (1965), 31-55C a l d e r w o o d , James L. "'The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' : S t y l e s o f Ceremony." E s s a y s i n C r i t i c i s m , X I I (1962), 133-147- 118 Cecil, David. London, "John Webster," 1949, 27-43. i n Poets and S t o r y t e l l e r s . D a v i e s , C e c i l W. "The S t r u c t u r e o f 'The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' : An A p p r o a c h . " E n g l i s h , X I I (1958), 89-93. D e n t , R o b e r t W. John W e b s t e r ' s Borrowings. Berkeley, I960. Doran, M a d e l e i n e . Endeavors o f A r t : A s t u d y o f form i n E l i z a b e t h a n drama. M a d i s o n , 1964. Ekeblad, Inga-Stina. "The 'Impure A r t ' o f J o h n W e b s t e r . " Review o f E n g l i s h S t u d i e s , IX (1958), 253-267. . "Webster's E L H , XXIV T.S. " F o u r E l i z a b e t h a n D r a m a t i s t s " (1924); " S e n e c a i n E l i z a b e t h a n T r a n s l a t i o n " (1927); " S h a k e s p e a r e a n d t h e S t o i c i s m o f S e n e c a " (1927). A l l i n Selected Essays. London, 1951. Ellis-Fermor, Una. E m s l i e , McD. "Motives i n ' M a l f i ' . " 1964. The J a c o b e a n Drama. (1959), 391-405. Esslin, Rhythm." 165-176. C1957), Eliot, Constructional Martin. 4th ed. New Y o r k , E s s a y s i n C r i t i c i s m , IX The T h e a t r e o f t h e A b s u r d . New Y o r k , 1961. F e l d m a n , A. B r o n s o n . "The Y e l l o w M a l a d y : S h o r t S t u d i e s o f Five Tragedies of Jealousy." L i t e r a t u r e and Psychology VI (1956), 38-52. F o a k e s , R.A. " S u g g e s t i o n s f o r a New A p p r o a c h t o S h a k e s p e a r e ' s Imagery." S h a k e s p e a r e S u r v e y , V (1952), 81-92. G r o s s , Seymour L . "A Note on W e b s t e r ' s T r a g i c A t t i t u d e . " N o t e s a n d Q u e r i e s , n . s . , V I (1959), 374-375. Hayakawa, S . I . "A Note on t h e Madmen's S c e n e J-The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' . " Hendy, E.W. "John Webster: PMLA, X L V I I Playwright i n Webster's (1932), 907-909. and N a t u r a l i s t . " 19th C e n t u r y , C I I I (1928), 111-123. H u n t e r , G.K. " N o t e s on W e b s t e r ' s Q u e r i e s , n . s . , V I (1959), Jack, Ian. Tragedies." 53-55- "The Case o f John W e b s t e r . " 38-43. Notes and S c r u t i n y , XVI (1949), 119 Jenkins, Harold. Webster." K e r n a n , A. The C a n k e r e d Muse. K n i g h t s , L.C. London, Kott, "The T r a g e d y o f Revenge i n S h a k e s p e a r e a n d S h a k e s p e a r e S u r v e y , X I V (1961), 45-55. Drama a n d S o c i e t y 1937. i n t h e Age o f J o n s o n . J a n . S h a k e s p e a r e Our C o n t e m p o r a r y . Taborski. New Y o r k , 1964. Leech, C l i f f o r d . . John W e b s t e r : "The a c t i n g 1959. New Haven, Trans. Boreslaw A C r i t i c a l Study. o f Marlowe a n d S h a k e s p e a r e . " Colorado Quarterly, XIII . Webster: 'The Duchess . "When w r i t i n g 195L London, The (1964), 25-42. of Malfi'. becomes a b s u r d . " 1963. London, The C o l o r a d o Q u a r t e r l y , X I I I (1964), 6-24. L e u c k e , Jane M a r i e . "'The Duchess o f M a l f i ' : Comic a n d S a t i r i c Confusion i n a Tragedy." Studies i n English L i t e r a t u r e , I V (I964), 275-290. Mehl, D i e t e r . The E l i z a b e t h a n Dumb Show: The H i s t o r y D r a m a t i c C o n v e n t i o n . London, 1965. of a Moore, Don D. " J o h n W e b s t e r i n t h e Modern T h e a t r e . " t i o n a l T h e a t r e J o u r n a l , X V I I (1965), 314-321. Educa- M u l r y n e , J.R. "'The W h i t e D e v i l ' a n d 'The Duchess o f M a l f i ' , " i n J a c o b e a n T h e a t r e . E d . J o h n R u s s e l l Brown a n d Bernard H a r r i s . London, I960, 221-225. Ornstein, Robert. The M o r a l V i s i o n M a d i s o n , 1965 ( c . I960). Parr, J. LX "The H o r o s c o p e o f Jacobean i n 'The Duchess (1945), 760-765. Tragedy. of Malfi'." PMLA, . Praz, Mario. " J o h n W e b s t e r a n d 'The M a i d ' s T r a g e d y ' . " E n g l i s h S t u d i e s , XXXVII (1956), 252-258. Price, Hereward T. "The F u n c t i o n o f Imagery PMLA, LXX (1955), 717-739. P r i o r , Moody E . The Language o f T r a g e d y . Ribner, Jacobean Tragedy. Irving. London, i n Webster." New Y o r k , 1962. 1947. 120 R i e w a l d , R.G. Duchess " S h a k e s p e a r e B u r l e s q u e i n John W e b s t e r ' s 'The of Malfi'." E n g l i s h S t u d i e s , XLV (1964), Supp., 1 7 7 - 1 8 9 . R y l a n d s , George. "On t h e P r o d u c t i o n o f 'The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' , " i n The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i . Sylvan Press ed. L o n d o n , 1945, [v]-xiv. S a l i n g a r , L.G. " T o u r n e u r a n d t h e T r a g e d y o f Revenge," i n The Age o f S h a k e s p e a r e . Ed. B o r i s Ford. London, 1955, 334-355. Seott-Kilvert, Ian. Sewall, Richard Stoll, B. John W e b s t e r . The V i s i o n 1964. London, o f Tragedy. 1962. New Haven, E.E. John W e b s t e r : The P e r i o d s o f H i s Work As D e t e r mined By H i s R e l a t i o n s t o The Drama o f H i s Day. B o s t o n , 1905. S t r o u p , Thomas B. M i c r o c o s m o s : The Shape o f t h e E l i z a b e t h a n Play. L e x i n g t o n , 1965. T h a y e r , C.G. "The A m b i g u i t y o f B o s o l a . " LIV (1957), 162-171. Tillyard, E.M.W. Studies The E l i z a b e t h a n W o r l d P i c t u r e . V e r n o n , P.F. "The D u c h e s s o f M a l f i ' s G u i l t . " Q u e r i e s , n . s . , X (1963), 335-333. i n Philology, London, 1 9 6 3 . Notes and Wadsworth, F r a n k L . " W e b s t e r ' s 'Duchess o f M a l f i ' i n t h e L i g h t o f Some C o n t e m p o r a r y I d e a s o f M a r r i a g e a n d Remarriage." P h i l o l o g i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , XXXV (1956), 394-407. Webster, John. London, . The C o m p l e t e Works. 1927- The D u c h e s s Cambridge, of Malfi. Mass., 1964. E d . F.L. L u c a s . E d . John R u s s e l l 4 vols. Brown. (The R e v e l s P l a y s ) Weiss, Peter. The P e r s e c u t i o n a n d A s s a s s i n a t i o n o f M a r a t a s p e r f o r m e d by t h e i n m a t e s o f t h e A s y l u m o f C h a r e n t o n u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e M a r q u i s de Sade. English v e r s i o n by G e o f f r e y S k e l t o n . I n t r o d u c t i o n by P e t e r Brook. London, 1965. W e l l w a r t h , George E. Developments The T h e a t e r o f P r o t e s t i n t h e Avant-Garde Drama"! and Paradox: New Y o r k , 1964. 121 W i l l i a m s , C h a r l e s . "On the Poetry of 'The Duchess of M a l f i ' , " i n The Duchess of M a l f i . Sylvan Press ed. London, 1945, [xv]-xxii.
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Webster and the theatre of cruelty : a theatrical context for the Duchess of Malfi Buckle, Reginald Wallace 1966
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