SHIFTING VALUES IN SINCLAIR LEWIS by LESLIE ELLENOR B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f Durham, 1957 D i p . Ed., U n i v e r s i t y of O x f o r d , 1960 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n t h e Department of English We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming t o t h e required standard The U n i v e r s i r f y o f B r i t i s h Columbia September, 1969 In presenting t h i s thesis in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e for reference and Study. I further agree that permission for extensive for s c h o l a r l y purposes may by his representatives. be granted by the Head of my Department or It is understood that copying or p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain shall not be a 11 owed without my w r i t t e n permission. Department of ENGLISH The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada Date ^&^T, copying of this thesis ABSTRACT The purpose o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t o examine two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in t h e l i f e and works o f S i n c l a i r L e w i s : h i s ambivalence i n g e n e r a l , and.his p a r t i c u l a r unambivalent h o s t i l i t y towards religion. A l t h o u g h he h e l d i n c o n s i s t e n t and i n c o m p a t i b l e views on A m e r i c a , its p e o p l e , i n s t i t u t i o n s , and b e l i e f s , he was c o n s i s t e n t i n h i s d i s l i k e of American r e l i g i o u s practices. Chapter I examines L e w i s ' s ambivalence r e s p e c t i n g A m e r i c a and A m e r i c a n s , t h e M i d d l e West, t h e M i d d l e C l a s s and B u s i n e s s ; t h e r e i s a l s o an account o f L e w i s ' s p e r s i s t e n t h o s t i l i t y towards r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , the c l e r g y , and c h u r c h g o e r s . Chapter I I examines a s p e c t s o f t h e l i f e and p e r s o n a l i t y of S i n c l a i r Lewis f o r some o f t h e f a c t o r s which c o n t r i b u t e t o h i s a m b i v a l e n t views and a l s o t o h i s a n t i - r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k . Chapter I I I n o t e s t h e t i m e l i n e s s of L e w i s ' s n o v e l s , p u b l i s h e d i n the Twenties when people were confused about beliefs. their Chapter I I I t h e n a n a l y s e s i n d e t a i l f o u r n o v e l s , M a i n S t r e e t , A r r o w s m i t h , Elmer G a n t r y , and The God Seeker, which demonstrate how L e w i s ' s a t t i t u d e s change, except towards religion. Chapter IV s t u d i e s t h e s t y l e of S i n c l a i r L e w i s , and notes t h a t he c o n s t a n t l y a p p l i e s mocking or h o s t i l e terms t o c l e r g y and C h r i s t i a n s , w h i l e on o t h e r s u b j e c t s he e x p r e s s e s incomp a t i b l e views w i t h n o i s y a s s u r a n c e . Chapter I V a l s o suggests t h a t L e w i s ' s ambivalence and h i s a n t i - r e l i g i o n b o t h stem from a l a c k o f p r o f u n d i t y i n h i s thought and f e e l i n g . He i s u n a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d and a p p r e c i a t e f u l l y t h e t r u t h s o f American l i f e and t h e t r u t h s of religion. TABLE OF CONTENTS * Page Introduction Chapter I 1 • 4 Chapter I I 2 2 Chapter I I I 34 Chapter IV. , 7 1 B i b l i o g r a p h y .. . 85 INTRODUCTION I n a n a l y s i n g t h e l i f e and works o f S i n c l a i r L e w i s , t h e prime d i f f i c u l t y i s t o d e a l w i t h h i s c o n t r a d i c t o r i n e s s , i n c o n s i s t e n c y , and a m b i v a l e n c e . his He has no s e t t l e d p e r s p e c t i v e o r v i e w p o i n t ; p r i n c i p l e s are insecure. Escaping d e f i n i t i o n , he i s an " i n c o n s i s t e n t and p a r a d o x i c a l iconoclast."''' He assumes c o n t r a d i c t o r y r o l e s , " t h e p r o l e t a r i a n p l u t o c r a t , t h e b o u r g e o i s gypsy, t h e p a t r i o t i c 2 e x p a t r i a t e , t h e unmannerly c r i t i c of manners," t o be many S i n c l a i r L e w i s e s . so t h a t t h e r e seem One c r i t i c c a l l e d h i m " t h e v i c t i m o f 3 his own d i v i d e d h e a r t . " He i s C a r o l and K e n n i c o t t , heart and head, r a d i c a l and o r t h o d o x , p u r i t a n and man o f the w o r l d , " s t a n d i n g between East and West, Europe and A m e r i c a , Beacon S t r e e t and M a i n S t r e e t , t h e e x o t i c and t h e o r d i n a r y , c u l t u r e and v i g o r , r e f i n e m e n t and c r u d i t y , convention and f r e e d o m . " 4 L e w i s i s changeable and i r r e g u l a r and i n c o n s i s t e n t , a man o f m u l t i p l e p e r s o n a l i t y who " s h i f t s h i s p o i n t of view so o f t e n t h a t f i n a l l y we come t o wonder whether he has any."-' However, t h e r e a r e some c o n s i s t e n t a t t i t u d e s i n the l i f e and works o f S i n c l a i r L e w i s . progress, He b e l i e v e s i n b r o t h e r h o o d , s c i e n c e , and i n d i v i d u a l freedom. h y p o c r i s y and inhumane a c t s , a n d religion. He '.always h a t e s he has a steady d i s l i k e of o r g a n i s e d " A p a r t from a b r i e f c o n v e r s i o n , w h i l e L e w i s prepped f o r r Y a l e a t O b e r l i n , h i s h o s t i l i t y t o r e l i g i o n and i t s m i n i s t r y was constant."^ He d i s l i k e s c h u r c h e s , dogma, p a s t o r s , and f l o c k s ; and a l l h i s n o v e l s , from f i r s t t o l a s t , have a n t i - r e l i g i o u s elements. -2- T h i s study w i l l i n d i c a t e some o f t h e many a s p e c t s of A m e r i c a n about which L e w i s was a m b i v a l e n t , and i t w i l l a l s o show h i s d i s l i k e of r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s . life consistent -3Footnotes t o I n t r o d u c t i o n ^D.J. Dooley, The A r t o f S i n c l a i r L e w i s . U n i v e r s i t y o f Nebraska P r e s s , 1967), p. 58. Mark Schorer, S i n c l a i r Lewis: Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l , 1961), p. 483. 2 (Lincoln: An A m e r i c a n L i f e . (New ^Quoted i n D o o l e y , A r t , p. 223. ^ S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 166. ^Quoted i n D o o l e y , A r t , p. 252. Sheldon N. G r e b s t e i n , S i n c l a i r L e w i s . (New Haven: C o l l e g e and U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1962), p. 99. CHAPTER I L e w i s ' s ambivalence shows i t s e l f i n h i s t r e a t m e n t of A m e r i c a and A m e r i c a n s , t h e i r s t a n d a r d s and t h e i r b e h a v i o u r . He both a t t a c k s and p r a i s e s t h e M i d d l e West, t h e M i d d l e C l a s s , and most o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s . L i k e any s a t i r i s t , he a t t a c k s more o f t e n than he d e f e n d s , and i t i s e a s i e r t o see what he i s a g a i n s t than what he i s f o r . L e w i s ' s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s summed up i n h i s N o b e l speech, when he contended " t h a t A m e r i c a , w i t h a l l h e r wealth and power, has n o t y e t produced a c i v i l i z a t i o n good enough t o s a t i s f y t h e deepest wants o f human c r e a t u r e s . " ^ He d e s c r i b e d i t as a l a n d of s t e r i l i t y and emptiness and "narrow frustrated Q lives." L a c k i n g s e r e n i t y and m a t u r i t y , i t s o n l y d e f i n i t i o n o f l i f e i s materialistic — success, wealth, position. The Americans 9 have no t r u e home, no t r u e c h u r c h , no c o r p o r a t e l i f e ; b u t they take smug s a t i s f a c t i o n i n a c u l t u r e which l a c k s b e a u t y , decency, and tolerance. I t i s an u n i m a g i n a t i v e l y s t a n d a r d i z e d background, a s l u g g i s h n e s s of speech and manners, a r i g i d r u l i n g of t h e s p i r i t by t h e d e s i r e t o appear r e s p e c t a b l e . I t i s contentment . . . t h e contentment o f t h e q u i e t dead, who a r e s c o r n f u l o f t h e l i v i n g f o r t h e i r r e s t l e s s w a l k i n g . I t i s n e g a t i o n canonized as t h e one p o s i t i v e v i r t u e . I t i s the p r o h i b i t i o n of happiness. I t i s s l a v e r y s e l f - s o u g h t and s e l f - d e f e n d e d . It is d u l l n e s s made God. A s a v o r l e s s p e o p l e , g u l p i n g t a s t e l e s s food, and s i t t i n g a f t e r w a r d , c o a t l e s s and t h o u g h t l e s s , i n -5- r o c k i n g - c h a i r s p r i c k l y w i t h inane d e c o r a t i o n s , l i s t e n i n g to mechanical music, s a y i n g mechanical t h i n g s about the e x c e l l e n c e of F o r d automobiles and v i e w i n g themselves as the g r e a t e s t r a c e i n the world.10 S i n c l a i r Lewis suggests t h a t the motto of t h i s "grossly m a t e r i a l i s t i c , money-mad, smugly h y p o c r i t i c a l , p r o v i n c i a l should be changed from " I n God we civilization" t r u s t " t o "Government of the p r o f i t s , 12 by the p r o f i t s , f o r the p r o f i t s . " humane i d e a l s , no good l i f e , The Americans have no no honor of k n i g h t , a r t i s t , no t r u t h , beauty, or goodness, no i m a g i n a t i o n or f a i t h : understand democracy as l i t t l e as they understand rational or p r i e s t , "They Christianity."^ They cannot see the i m p e r f e c t i o n s and f a l s e v a l u e s of t h e i r c o u n t r y , but Lewis w i l l "de-bamboozle the American public. You cannot h e a l the problems of any one m a r r i a g e u n t i l you h e a l the problems of an e n t i r e c i v i l i z a t i o n founded upon s u s p i c i o n and s u p e r s t i t i o n ; and you cannot h e a l the problems o f a c i v i l i z a t i o n thus founded u n t i l i t r e a l i z e s i t s own b a r b a r i c n a t u r e , and r e a l i z e s that what i t thought was brave was o n l y c r u e l , what i t thought was h o l y was only meanness, and what i t thought was success was merely the paper helmet of a clown more nimble than h i s f e l l o w s , scrambling f o r a peanut i n the dust of an i g n o b l e circus.15 American or s o c i e t y i s opposed to any d i s i n t e r e s t e d effort c h a r i t a b l e a c t i o n , and any d e v i a t i o n from pack behaviour i s punished w i t h m a l i c e and v i o l e n c e . and Americans U.S. Main S t r e e t can be a nightmare, a r e c a p a b l e of o b s e s s i v e c r u e l t y and h o r r o r . "The i s not c i v i l i z e d ; " - ^ the i n d u s t r i a l g i a n t i s an emotional dwarf, a s p i r i t u a l pauper"*"^ -- and what i s worse — the U.S. is " f i r e d w i t h a z e a l , i n the name of h u m a n i t a r i a n i d e a l i s m , t o reduce 18 the r e s t of the w o r l d to i t s own meager s p i r i t u a l proportions." ± 0 Lewis c r i t i c i s e s -6" t h e cheapness o f a l l s t a n d a r d s , t h e shoddiness o f 19 a l l values," t h e s e e k i n g of money r a t h e r than wisdom. r e l i g i o u s m o r a l i t y i s superseded He complains that by b u s i n e s s m o r a l i t y and t h e e t h i c s o f s u c c e s s ; what i s e x p e d i e n t and p r o f i t a b l e i s r i g h t . To be s u c c e s s f u l and a c c e p t e d , one must l i e , dodge, compromise, and do t h e expected. When Dodsworth r e t u r n s t o A m e r i c a a f t e r y e a r s i n Europe he f i n d s " l i f e dehumanized by i n d i f f e r e n c e 20 or enmity t o a l l human v a l u e s . " There i s no f a i t h i n t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f man, t h e law o f p r o g r e s s , t h e u l t i m a t e r e i g n o f j u s t i c e , t h e conquest o f n a t u r e , or t h e s u f f i c i e n c y o f democracy The i d e a l s o f e a r l y A m e r i c a have been l o s t , and t h e p i o n e e r s have been r e p l a c e d "by people w i t h b a t h t u b s and coupes and porch f u r n i t u r e and speedboats and l a k e - c o t t a g e s , who a r e determined t h a t t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n of these p r e t t y t h i n g s s h a l l n o t be t h r e a t e n e d by r a d i c a l s and t h a t t h e i r comments on them 22 s h a l l n o t be i n t e r r u p t e d by mere s p e c u l a t i o n on t h e s o u l o f man." The " v i l l a g e v i r u s " saps hope and energy and r e b e l l i o n , as s m a l l minded s e t t l e m e n t s grow i n t o m e d i o c r e , i n h i b i t i n g , m a t e r i a l i s t i c c i t i e s . In A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e t h e r e i s a d i s c r e p a n c y between p u b l i c and p r i v a t e m o r a l i t y , between what i s s a i d and what i s done. Schmaltz, i n The Man Who Knew C o o l i d g e (1928), p r a i s e s p r o h i b i t i o n b u t enjoys d r i n k i n g ; and F r e d Cornplow i s s i m i l a r : " l i k e most Americans he was p r o f o u n d l y d e m o c r a t i c except perhaps as r e g a r d s 23 s o c i a l s t a n d i n g , w e a l t h , p o l i t i c a l power and c l u b membership." This hypocrisy i s p a r t o f an A m e r i c a n p r e f e r e n c e f o r doing a c t i v e good, " s e r v i c e " i n s t e a d o f o v e r - t h i n k i n g deeply and r i g h t l y . S i n c l a i r L e w i s i s not a deep t h i n k e r , but then a n o v e l i s t ' s work i s d i f f e r e n t from a p h i l o s o p h e r ' s . A n o v e l i s t does n o t come t o c o n c l u s i o n s about l i f e , b u t d i s c o v e r s a q u a l i t y i n i t , p r e s e n t s "a mode o f experience." L e w i s examines s e l e c t e d a s p e c t s of American l i f e , and presents h i s f i n d i n g s i n s a t i r i c a l novels; -7- but . h i s p e c u l i a r ambivalence makes him p r a i s e a t the same t i m e as he blames. He c r i t i c i s e s America's p a t r i o t i c a l l y loves h i s country: "The i m p e r f e c t i o n s , but only deeply rooted f a i t h L e w i s ever possessed /*was7 h i s f a i t h i n A m e r i c a . I n World So Wide, (1951), h i s l a s t n o v e l , Lewis p r a i s e s the U n i t e d S t a t e s as the t r u e s t s o u r c e of v a l u e s , a n a t i o n w i t h a d e s t i n y . The U.S. 25 w i l l r e s c u e the w o r l d . H i s r o m a n t i c optimism was dream of a p r o s p e r o u s , e n l i g h t e n e d A m e r i c a . to founded He wanted the c o u n t r y outgrow i d e o l o g i e s , and become f r e e and g r e a t . The i c o n o c l a s t of contemporary mores had, l i k e h i s f e l l o w 9 i c o n o c l a s t H.L. was on a Mencken, a deep f e e l i n g f o r t r a d i t i o n . " ft He a c o n s e r v a t i v e , b e l i e v i n g i n the p i o n e e r s ' h e r o i c v i r t u e s , which he knew were based on P u r i t a n b e l i e f s . S i n c l a i r L e w i s would 27 l i k e t o r e s t o r e the " w i n t r y P i l g r i m v i r t u e s " to h i s n a t i v e land. A t the same t i m e , he saw A m e r i c a as a new new„people, new s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , and new v a l u e s . land, requiring In t h i s connection, the M i d d l e West can r e p r e s e n t s e r e n i t y , wisdom, and beauty: I n the m i d s t of the b a b e l she found enchanted q u i e t u d e . A l o n g the r o a d the shadows from oak-branches were i n k e d on the snow l i k e bars of music. Then the s l e d came out on the s u r f a c e of Lake M i n n i e m a s h i e . Across the t h i c k i c e was a v e r i t a b l e r o a d , a s h o r t - c u t f o r f a r m e r s . On the g l a r i n g expanse of the l a k e - l e v e l s of h a r d c r u s t , f l a s h e s of green i c e blown c l e a r , c h a i n s of d r i f t s r i b b e d l i k e the sea-beach -- the m o o n l i g h t was o v e r whelming. I t stormed on the snow, i t t u r n e d the woods ashore i n t o c r y s t a l s of f i r e . The n i g h t was t r o p i c a l and v o l u p t u o u s . I n t h a t drugged magic t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e between heavy heat and i n s i n u a t i n g cold. C a r o l was dream-strayed. The t u r b u l e n t v o i c e s , even Guy P o l l o c k b e i n g c o n n o t a t i v e b e s i d e h e r , were n o t h i n g . She r e p e a t e d : -8- Deep on t h e c o n v e n t - r o o f t h e snows A r e s p a r k l i n g t o t h e moon. The words and t h e l i g h t b l u r r e d i n t o one v a s t i n d e f i n i t e h a p p i n e s s , and she b e l i e v e d t h a t some g r e a t t h i n g was coming t o h e r . She withdrew from t h e clamor i n t o a w o r s h i p o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e gods. The n i g h t expanded, she was c o n s c i o u s o f t h e u n i v e r s e , and a l l m y s t e r i e s stooped down t o h e r . ^ 2 For a l l h i s c r i t i c i s m of A m e r i c a n s , he o f f e r s no c l e a r a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e i r c o n v e n t i o n s , though he hopes they c a n c r e a t e : an i n t e l l e c t u a l w o r l d , a w o r l d o f c u l t u r e and g r a c e , o f l o f t y thoughts and t h e i n s p i r i n g communion o f r e a l knowledge, where creeds were n o t o f i m p o r t a n c e , and where man asked one a n o t h e r , n o t " I s your s o u l saved?'* b u t " I s your mind w e l l f u r n i s h e d ? " ^ 2 Some o f t h e i d e a l s t h a t S i n c l a i r Lewis i s a d v o c a t i n g f o r A m e r i c a a r e t o be found i n Europe. He admires European g r a c e , e l e g a n c e , and l e i s u r e d wisdom; b u t he d i s l i k e s t h e r i g i d i t y and l a c k o f democracy: "London i s n o t h i n g b u t a bunch o f f o g and o u t - o f - d a t e 30 buildings." He i s a m b i v a l e n t t o o about t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and' snobbery o f E a s t e r n S t a t e s , t h e f r i e n d l i n e s s and decency o f Western S t a t e s , and many o t h e r m a t t e r s , The i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t o f L e w i s ' s ambivalence i s u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h e mind o f t h e r e a d e r who i s never sure whether or n o t Lewis i s sincere: "That was always t h e t r o u b l e : r e a l l y cared a t a l l , never knowing whether he 31 f o r anybody o r a n y t h i n g except h i s work". P a r t o f L e w i s ' s b a f f l i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r i n e s s i s caused by h i s double purpose i n w r i t i n g -- t o t e l l a s t o r y and t o expose a s i t u a t i o n . 32 The " s o f t b o i l e d romancer" c l a s h e s w i t h t h e " h a r d b o i l e d c r i t i c ; " f a n t a s y and romance oppose s a t i r e and v e r i s i m i l i t u d e . i s t i c tone i s one o f l o v e - h a t e : His character- "He combines contemptuousness 33 n a i v e good h e a r t e d n e s s t o an i n c r e d i b l e degree." with He mocks and i d e a l i z e s , d e r i d e s and s y m p a t h i s e s , c r e a t i n g " t h e mature L e w i s i a n -9- i r o n y , t h a t p e c u l i a r a b i l i t y t o p r e s e n t a t once the r o m a n t i c surface 3 ^\ of new phenomena and the b e f o u l e d underside." He does n o t believe in s o l u t i o n s ; he i s "not d e t a c h e d , but c u r i o u s l y i n v o l v e d , i d e n t i f i e d in t u r n w i t h each of two 35 c o n f l i c t i n g sides." Sometimes h i s c r i t i c i s m of A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y i s n a i v e 36 and "half-baked ^ as when he d e s c r i b e s 1 go s n i f f i n g about, wondering S t r e e t w i t h him is "persons l i k e m y s e l f t h a t 37 what i t a l l means." everywhere he goes, and He takes Main i s so enmeshed i n what he f i g h t i n g t h a t he can n e i t h e r s e p a r a t e e v i l from i g n o r a n c e , be t r u l y r a d i c a l . A t o t h e r times he i s "a d i s t r e s s e d and gusted i d e a l i s t " - ^ w i t h an " a r d e n t , truthfulness,""^ or a Red dis- mocking, obscene l o v e Indian stalking his f o e s , ^ nor of analysing t h e outward forms of A m e r i c a n c i v i l i z a t i o n w i t h detachment: "He knew the d e t a i l s of A m e r i c a n l i f e as no one could e l s e d i d , but he 41 not t e l l what they added up to." Lewis's changeability i s confusing, different poses and as he adopts l o o k s a t t h i n g s w i t h b o t h l o v e and hate. However, i n almost every c a s e , h i s r e a c t i o n to r e l i g i o u s is one of d i s a p p r o v a l ; one of the few unchanging t e n e t s of L e w i s ' s changeable f a i t h Is h i s c o n s t a n t C h r i s t i a n i t y ' s God, matters d i s l i k e of r e l i g i o u s the c l e r g y , and the c h u r c h g o e r s . organizations, He repeatedly wages a c r u s a d e a g a i n s t a system which p r e v e n t s ' man's freedom and integrity. " I n s t i t u t i o n s a r e the enemies,"^ 2 f o r they aim t o s a f e - guard the e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r , i f n e c e s s a r y by c o n t r o l l i n g the whole world. and I n Gopher P r a i r i e , r e l i g i o n had become " r e p r e s s i v e puritanism p r u r i e n t e s p i o n a g e . U . S . r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s were based on -10- f e a r s and h a t r e d s , net C h r i s t i a n l o v e . L e w i s weighed American r e l i g i o n a g a i n s t C h r i s t ' s i d e a l s and t h e B i b l e ' s t e a c h i n g , and found i t w a n t i n g . He s a i d ; "Conventional r e l i g i o n s a r e among t h e most a c t i v e foes o f 44 progress." He found no j o y i n church p r i e t y and H e l l , a " v i c i o u s m i x t u r e t e a c h i n g s , o n l y f e a r o f impro- o f nonsense and r e p r e s s i o n . " ^ 4 He opposed as clumsy, outworn, and i g n o r a n t , a l l r e l i g i o u s systems, s o l u t i o n s , and i d e o l o g i e s . Una G o l d e n , t h e h e r o i n e o f The Job (1917), b e l i e v e d " t h a t l i f e i s t o o s a c r e d t o be taken i n war and f i l t h y i n d u s t r i e s and d u l l e d u c a t i o n ; and t h a t most forms and o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n h e r i t e d c a s t e s a r e n o t s a c r e d a t a l l . " ^ 6 L e w i s a t t a c k e d t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e c h u r c h e s , techniques Schools the business ("pep and p i e t y " ^ ) i n r e l i g i o n , t h e s u p e r f i c i a l i t y o f Sunday 48 7 and d e n o m i n a t i o n a l c o l l e g e s ( f a c t o r i e s f o r moral men ) the b u l l y i n g and d e c e i t of t h e Y.M.CiA., t h e " p h i l a n t h r o b b e r s " who used r e l i g i o u s emotions t o get g i f t s , and t h e e v a n g e l i s t s who were i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n e m o t i o n - s t i r r i n g methods and money, n o t people o r t r u t h : 49 "God save A m e r i c a from z e a l o u s i d e a l i s t i c o r g a n i z e d do-gooders." I n t h i s r e s p e c t he was echoing Thoreau's f e a r o f " s e l f - s t y l e d the g r e a t e s t bores of a l l . " - ^ so f u l l reformers, xhe r e l i g i o u s systems were so inhumane, o f " c h i l d i s h and d i s g u s t i n g absurdities"^''" t h a t s i n c e r e C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s could h a r d l y e x i s t , Lewis b e l i e v e d . whole magic and taboo system o f w o r s h i p i n g He hated " t h e t h e B i b l e and t h e m i n i s t r y , ' and a l l t h e o t h e r s k u l l - d e c o r a t e d v e s t i g e s o f h o r r o r t h e r e a r e i n so52 called Christianity!" Although on o c c a s i o n s Lewis quoted t h e B i b l e as a s t a n d a r d of moral wisdom, a p o s i t i v e i d e a l by which t o judge churches and people, he a l s o p o i n t e d out t h e nonsense, c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , i n d e c e n c i e s , and -11- f a l s e p r o p h e c i e s of God's Word -- Hebrew p o e t r y i s " n o b l e , moving, 5,3 and m e a n i n g l e s s . " superstitions," : He s c o r n e d " t h a t a n t i q u a t e d a n t h o l o g y of and a l s o t h e "time-honored d r o o l " - • and "damned 5 bad v e r s e " - ^ of c h u r c h s e r v i c e s . He blamed the churches f o r t u r n i n g young minds t o p r i e s t w o r s h i p and symbols — "trapping idiots i n t o h o l y m o n k e y - s h r i n e s " " ^ - - a n d was a p p a l l e d a t c h u r c h r i v a l r i e s . When Z i l l a "got r e l i g i o n , " she announced t h a t t h e o l d e r churches CO were g o i n g t o damnation: "Get saved our way or go t o H e l l . " U r i e l Ga-dd, the f a t h e r of the hero of The God Seeker (1959), r e f e r s t o "our c o n g r e g a t i o n a l God -- not t h a t of t h e g o d l e s s Roman C a t h o l i c I r i s h or t h e German L u t h e r a n s . " 5 9 L e w i s cannot u n d e r s t a n d how clergymen can b e l i e v e i n a God so c r u e l t h a t a f t e r c r e a t i n g human b e i n g s , he w i l l burn h a l f of 60 them i n H e l l : is! "Good L o r d , what a concept C h r i s t i a n i t y s God Here i s t h i s supreme e g o t i s t s i t t i n g up t h e r e who fashions c r e a t u r e s and puts them on e a r t h f o r the s o l e purpose o f w o r s h i p p i n g 61 62 him" -- a " l i t e r a r y , i n t r u s i v e , v i n d i c t i v e God," "who speaks i n r i d d l e s , and p u n i s h e s w i t h e t e r n a l t o r t u r e t h o s e who get t h e 63 wrong answers." The O l d Testament God who d e s i r e s r e e k i n g s l a u g h t e r i s , f o r L e w i s , a heathen hangover, an anachronism i n the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . 64 The c l e r g y a r e a l s o out of tune w i t h modern t i m e s , and from h i s Y a l e days L e w i s a t t a c k e d t h e "Ambassadors of C h r i s t . " ^ They were opposed t o t h e a r t s , s c i e n c e s , l e a r n i n g and a l l and they p e r p e t u a t e d o l d forms and r i t u a l s : " w o r d - s p l i t t i n g , text- t w i s t i n g , applause-hungry, j o b - h u n t i n g , medieval-minded raters." ideas, The were d e s c r i b e d by E z r a Pound: . - second- -12- These h e a v y w e i g h t s , these dodgers and t h e s e p r e a c h e r s , C r u s a d e r s , l e c t u r e r s , and s e c r e t l e c h e r s , Who wrought about h i s " s o u l " t h e i r s t a l e i n f e c t i o n . ^ C e r t a i n l y Lewis f e l t that godliness i n Elmer G a n t r y (1927) p o i n t e d committed by e r r i n g clergymen. and eros were c o n j o i n e d , and t o t h e g r e a t number o f s e x - c r i m e s What B a b b i t ' s women, " t h e r e v e r e n d eyes g l i s t e n e d . T h e m i n i s t e r t a l k e d of wicked c l e r g y "were a l l , indeed, absorbed i n v i c e . " ^ He c r i t i c i s e d them f o r t h e i r u n w i l l i n g n e s s to sacrifice themselves f o r C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s , t o f o l l o w Jesus i n t o l o n e l i n e s s , r i d i c u l e , and perhaps, d e a t h . ^ L i k e one of h i s c h a r a c t e r s i n The T r a i l o f t h e Hawk, (1915) L e w i s " d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t p r i e s t s and m i n i s t e r s , who seemed t o be o r d i n a r y men as r e g a r d s e a r t h l y t h i n g s , had any e s t r a o r d i n a r y knowledge o f t h e m y s t e r i e s "nasty and of h e a v e n . " ^ The 72 were no h e l p i n l i g h t e n i n g l i f e , 7"} gentlemen of God"' J t h e i r c l e r i c a l d u t i e s were s o c i a l and c o m m e r c i a l , n o t p i o u s . According t o L e w i s , t h e i d e a l s o f t h e Sermon on the Mount were n o t preached o r p r a c t i s e d by C h r i s t i a n s , who were more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s world not than t h e Kingdom o f Heaven. He a t t a c k e d C h r i s t i a n s f o r l i v i n g up t o t h e i r i d e a l s , but he a l s o f e l t t h a t t h e i d e a l s themselves were i n a p p r o p r i a t e and o u t - o f - d a t e . Ann r e j e c t s old-fashioned I n Ann V i c k e r s C h r i s t i a n names, " i n g r a t i a t i n g symbols l i k e C h a r i t y , Hope, F a i t h , and P a t i e n c e . But dumb p a t i e n c e , d u l l hope, and hang-jawed f a i t h , these were no l o n g e r t h e m e r i t s No, (1933), of females. h e r c h i l d should be named P r i d e , and p r i d e o f l i f e , p r i d e of l o v e , p r i d e o f work, p r i d e of b e i n g a woman should be h e r v i r t u e s . L e w i s was s u r e t h a t t h e c l e r g y must share h i s doubts conc e r n i n g t h e p r a c t i c a l i t y and r e l e v a n c e of C h r i s t i a n i t y . Rev. -13- Judson R o b e r t s , " b i g as a g r i z z l y , j o l l y as a s p a n i e l pup, as t e n suns," muttered: " I do w i s h I c o u l d get over t h i s d o u b t i n g . Reverend Frank S h a l l a r d commented: a l y i n g compromising radiant "Oh, L o r d , P h i l , what a j o b , what job, t h i s being a m i n i s t e r ! " ^ The clergy were seen as u s i n g p l a t i t u d e s and p o e t i c r h e t o r i c t o a v o i d t e l l i n g the t r u t h : "As we d o i n g any r e a l t h i n g i n the w o r l d a t all?"^ Lewis was angry a t the p r e t e n s i o n s of clergymen who 78 "prayed as God t o God," and c l a i m e d t o have "wiped out a l l s i n i n 79 the community." He was a f r a i d t h a t a h e l l f i r e p r e a c h e r l i k e B i s h o p P r a n g , "not the s t i l l a hellfire s m a l l v o i c e of God,"^0 might e a s i l y become fascist.^ A l o n g w i t h the c l e r g y , Lewis c r i t i c i s e d i m p o r t a n t , u n t h i n k i n g c o n g r e g a t i o n s who compelled r e s p e c t a b i l i t y : self- p r e v e n t e d freedom and "a m e c h a n i c a l r e l i g i o n -- a d r y hard c h u r c h , shut o f f from the r e a l l i f e of the s t r e e t s , 82 r e s p e c t a b l e as a t o p - h a t ; " their dull, inhumanly "solemn w h i s k e r y persons whose o n l y p l e a s u r e a s i d e from not d o i n g a g r e e a b l e t h i n g s was k e e p i n g o t h e r s QO from d o i n g them." They a r e u n c r i t i c a l c h u r c h f o i k s , whose w o r s h i p has become a s t a n d a r d i z e d p u b l i c rite. Church c o n g r e g a t i o n s a r e B a b b i t t s , l a c k i n g the of c i v i l i z e d l i f e . qualities They have no purposes, no' . r i t e s ; t h e i r m o r a l i t y and c h u r c h a t t e n d a n c e a r e m e a n i n g l e s s . T h e i r r e l i g i o n has become a c r e e d which they do not u n d e r s t a n d ; i t has ceased t o be, as i t was i n C a t h o l i c Europe, or even i n t h e o c r a t i c New E n g l a n d , a way of l i f e , a c h a n n e l of t h e i r hopes, an o r d e r w i t h meaning. -14They a r e c r e a t u r e s of t h e p a s s i n g moment who a r e v a g u e l y unhappy i n a b o r i n g and s e n s e l e s s e x i s t e n c e t h a t i s w i t h o u t d i g n i t y , w i t h o u t g r a c e , w i t h o u t purpose. These people b e l o n g t o a dead w o r l d of empty s h i b b o l e t h s , 85 a s o c i e t y marked by drabness, s t e r i l i t y , and j o y l e s s n e s s , ight brought ,86 about by a r e l i g i o n which l a c k s " r e a s o n , decency, and kindness.' A c c o r d i n g t o L e w i s , man must l e a v e r e l i g i o n s , i d e o l o g i e s , and supers t i t i o n , and stand on h i s own. autonomy, h e a l t h and i n t e g r i t y : ^ I n t h i s way he w i l l a c h i e v e freedom, 7 "Come out of death i n t o "The C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n i s a c r u t c h . life."88 U n t i l i t i s taken away we can on never b e g i n t o walk w e l l . " A l l Lewis's works a r e i n i m i c a l t o r e l i g i o n , because r e l i g i o n i s opposed t o b r o t h e r h o o d , p r o g r e s s , and s c i e n c e , which he n e a r l y always a f f i r m s . ing, These few b e l i e f s l i e a t the c e n t r e o f L e w i s ' s think- and animate h i s a t t a c k s on v a r i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s , c l a s s e s , and points of view. A t times h i s anger becomes s h r i l l , and he c u r s e s r e l i g i o n f o r causing or a l l o w i n g misery, f o r g i v i n g a f a l s e p i c t u r e of l i f e w i t h i t s poisonous t e a c h i n g . He p o r t r a y s C h r i s t as n e i t h e r 90 f o r g i v i n g nor tender, t h e B i b l e as e n s l a v i n g , and God as an e g o t i s t i c a l b u l l y . C l e a r g y and l a i t y a r e d e c e i v e r s , s e e k i n g power, l i m i t i n g thought and c u l t u r e : "Do n o t f o r g i v e them, L o r d , f o r they know what 91 they d o . ' j The w o r l d i s "a booby b l u n d e r i n g s c h o o l b o y , " clumsy, raw, 92 i g n o r a n t , slow, and " t e n p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n t . " I n extreme moments, Lewis f i n d s mankind u n r e g e n e r a t e , and passes b i t t e r judgment on t h e whole 93 damned human r a c e . or When he saw t h e drunken men and women b r a w l i n g l y i n g u n c o n s c i o u s i n t h e slums o f Glasgow, Red stopped and r a i s e d h i s c l e n c h e d f i s t s t o h i g h heaven. Tears were s t r e a m i n g down h i s cheeks. " I can't stand i t any more," he c r i e d . " I c a n ' t stand it." A l l t h e way back t o t h e h o t e l he c u r s e d and r a v e d . "God damn t h e s o c i e t y t h a t w i l l p e r m i t such p o v e r t y ! " "God damn t h e r e l i g i o n s t h a t stand f o r such a p u t r i d system. God damn them a l l ! " ^ ^ -15- L e w i s ' s a t t a c k s on r e l i g i o n a r e u s u a l l y i r r a t i o n a l prejudiced. ficialities: and He makes a s u p e r f i c i a l c r i t i c i s m of c h u r c h super"The amount of time and p a s s i o n t h a t t h e o l o g i a n s have spent on d e f i n i n g f a i r y - s t o r y words would, i f s e n s i b l y a p p l i e d , 95 have e l i m i n a t e d a l l war and bad c o o k i n g . " He h a t e s f a l s e religiosity, smug d e c e i t f u l b e l i e v e r s , u n e t h i c a l a c t s , and empty f o r m a l i t i e s : " A l l those mouldy barns of c h u r c h e s , and people coughing 96 hymns, and long-winded p r e a c h e r s " illiterate r e p e a t i n g " p e r f e c t l y meaning- 97 less doctrine." He makes Elmer G a n t r y a monster, war a g a i n s t the O l d Testament God, and uses him i n " h i s against l i t e r a l p u r i t a n i s m , h y p o c r i s y , b i g o t r y , c r u e l t y , and d o l l a r and through Elmer whole c h u r c h . interpretation, 98 evangelism," ( l i k e p r i e s t , l i k e people) Lewis judges the He mocks e s t a b l i s h e d creeds and makes a " c o a r s e m i s p l a c e d , cheap j e s t of e v e r y t h i n g t h a t y e t has v a l u e i n American c u l t u r e , t h a t i s t o say, r e l i g i o n . " ^ fl e m i s r e a d s t h e meaning and f a i t h of A m e r i c a , but h i s b i t t e r n e s s i s based on c o n c e r n , and a f e e l i n g t h a t something i s wrong w i t h r e l i g i o u s l i f e . I have d e c i d e d t h a t no one i n t h i s room, i n c l u d i n g your p a s t o r , b e l i e v e s i n the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n . Not one of us would t u r n t h e o t h e r cheek. Not one of us would s e l l a l l t h a t he has and g i v e t o the poor. Not one of us would g i v e h i s c o a t t o some man who .-took h i s o v e r c o a t . Every one of us l a y s up a l l t h e t r e a s u r e he can. We don't p r a c t i s e the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n . We don't i n t e n d t o p r a c t i s e i t . T h e r e f o r e , we don't b e l i e v e i n i t . T h e r e f o r e I r e s i g n , and I a d v i s e you to q u i t l y i n g and d i s b a n d . L e w i s c r i t i c i s e s C h r i s t i a n s f o r not l i v i n g up t o C h r i s t ' s t e a c h i n g s , and he s c o r n s t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n because he sees i t as f a l s e and i r r e l e v a n t . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d h i s d i s l i k e of r e l i g i o n , and h i s ambivalency w i t h r e s p e c t t o ether v a l u e s , i t i s -16- n e c e s s a r y t o make a study of t h e man and h i s l i f e . After;that, his works w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d i n the l i g h t of t h e s e t e n d e n c i e s i n h i s outlook. -17- F o o t n o t e s t o Chapter I ^ S i n c l a i r L e w i s , The Man from M a i n S t r e e t , e d s . H;E. Maule and M.H. Cane (New York: Random House, 1953), p. 6. ^Dooley, A r t , p. 44. ^Dooley, A r t , p. 113. • ^ S i n c l a i r L e w i s , M a i n S t r e e t (New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1920), p. 265) •'••'•Mark S c h o r e r , I n t r o d u c t i o n , A C o l l e c t i o n o f C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , ed. Mark S c h o r e r (Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1962), 17 S i n c l a i r L e w i s , I t Can't Happen Here (New York; C o l l i e r , 1935), p. 441. •^Vernon L. P a r r i n g t o n , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s : Our Own Diogenes" (1927), E s s a y s , p. 64. "^Robert Morss L o v e t t , "An I n t e r p r e t e r o f American L i f e " (1925) , E s s a y s , p. 34. • ^ S i n c l a i r L e w i s , Cass T i m b e r l a n e (New Y o r k : Random House, 1945), p. 373. •^Sinclair L e w i s , Dodsworth Dunlap, 1929), p. 96. (New York: G r o s s e t and • ^ F r e d e r i c k J . Hoffman, The Twenties (New York: C o l l i e r , 1953), p. 2 1 . l ^ C a r l L. Anderson, The Swedish A c c e p t a n c e of American L i t e r a t u r e ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y l v a n i a P r e s s , 1957), p. 63. • ^ V i n c e n t Sheean, Dorothy and Red ( B o s t o n : Houghton M i f f l i n , 1963), p. 167. 20 T . K . W h i p p l e , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s " (1928), E s s a y s , p. 72. P a r r i n g t o n , "Diogenes", E s s a y s , p. 69. 2 2 M a n From M a i n S t r e e t , p. 328. ^Sinclair L e w i s , The P r o d i g a l P a r e n t s , quoted i n E s s a y s , p. 160. 2 ^ D o o l e y , A r t , p. 234. -18Sinclair 1925), p. 416. L e w i s , A r r o w s m i t h (New York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 2 5 2 6 S h e e a n , p. 338. 2 7 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 26. 2 8 Main S t r e e t , p. 205. 9Q H a r o l d F r e d e r i c , The Damnation 1896), p. 198. M a i n S t r e e t , p. 415. 3 Q 3 of Theron Ware (New Y o r k , ^"Sheean, p. 336. 3 2 Grebstein, preface. 3 3 S h e e a n , p. 111. R o b e r t J . G r i f f i n , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s " , American Winners of t h e Nobel L i t e r a r y P r i z e , eds. W.G. F r e n c h and W.E. K i d d (Norman: U n i v e r s i t y of Oklahoma P r e s s , 1968), p. 48. 3Zf ^ D o o l e y , A r t , p. 54. 3 3 6 W a l t e r Lippmann, " S i n c l a i r L e w i s " (1927), E s s a y s , p. 91. 37 M a n from M a i n S t r e e t , p. 313. R o b e r t E. S p i l l e r e t a l . , The L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s (New York; M a c m i l l a n , 1953), p. 1225. 3 8 3 ^ S h e e a n , p. 4 4 i 4 0 W h i p p l e , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 77. 4 1 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 162. 4 2 M a i n S t r e e t , p. 430. 4 3 W h i p p l e , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 73. ^Quoted i n S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 219. ^ G r e b s t e i n , p. 105. Sinclair 1917), p. 185. 4 6 4 7 Sinclair L e w i s , The Job (New York: G r o s s e t and Dunlap, L e w i s , B a b b i t t (New York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1922), p. 188. 48A r r o w s m i t h , p. 9. -1949 5 0 I t Can't Happen Here, p. 426. Henry D. Thoreau, Walden ( E d i n b u r g h : Douglas, 1884), p. 167, "^H;L. Mencken, P r e j u d i c e s : Jonathan Cape, 1925), p. 75. Fourth Series (London: 5 2 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 372. 5 3 S i n c l a i r L e w i s , The God Seeker (New Y o r k : Random House, 1949), p. 82. -^Quoted i n S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 178. G r a c e Hegger L e w i s , With Love From G r a c i e (New York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1951), p. 92. 5 5 5 6 S e h o r e r , L i f e , p. 219. S i n c l a i r L e w i s , Elmer Gantry (New York: 1927), p. 180. 5 7 Harcourt, Brace, S i n c l a i r L e w i s , Our Mr. Wrenn (New York: H a r p e r , 1915), 5 8 p. 46. 59 God Seeker, p. 53. ^ W i l f r i e d Edener, D i e R e l i g i o n s k r i t i k i n den Romanen^von S i n c l a i r L e w i s , B e i h e f t e zum Jahrbuch f u r A m e r i k a s t u d i e n , No. 10. ( H e i d e l b e r g : C a r l x W i n t e r , 1963), p. 145. 61 Quoted by G. H. L e w i s , p. 302. 6 2 G o d Seeker, p. 176. 6 3 I b i d . , p. 211. ^ E d e n e r , p. 86. H . L . Mencken, P r e j u d i c e s : 1926), p. 114. 65 6 6 F i f t h S e r i e s (New York: Knopf, E l m e r G a n t r y , p . 89. , 67,Quoted i n Hoffman, T w e n t i e s , p. 28. 6 8 B a b b i t t , p. 394. 6 9 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 348. 7 0 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 449 S^ Si in nccllaaii r LLew e w i s , The T r a i l of the Hawk (New York: G r o s s e t and Dunlap, 1915), p. 383. 7 1 -2072 Mencken, P r e j d u c i e s : F i f t h , p.111. T h e Job, p. 261. 7 3 74 S i n c l a i r L e w i s , Ann V i c k e r s (Garden C i t y : Doran, 1933), p. 220. Doubleday, ^ E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 61. 7 6 Ibid., 77 H.G. W e l l s , Joan and P e t e r (New Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n , 1918), p. 10. p. 370. 78 God Seeker, p. 6. 7 9 A r r o w s m i t h , p. 258. 80 I t Can't Happen Here, 81, ''Ibid., p.65. p. 66. 82 B a b b i t t , p. 234. 8 3 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 333. 84 Lippmann, "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 90. 85 P a r r i n g t o n , "Diogenes," E s s a y s , p. 68. (New York: H o r t o n D a v i e s , A M i r r o r o f the M i n i s t r y i n Modern N o v e l s O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959), p. 30. 8 7 E d e n e r , p. 198. 88 God S e e k e r , p. 345. 89 Quoted i n S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 92. 9 Q 9 1 9 2 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 377. I t Can't Happen Here, p. 384. T h e Job, p..182. 93 George J . B e c k e r , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s : A p o s t l e t o the A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r , XXI (Autumn 1952), 425. Q/i ^Quoted from F r a z i e r Hunt i n G r e b s t e i n , p. 148. 9 5 G o d Seeker, p. 179. 9 6 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 87. Philistines", -21- 97 Elmer G a n t r y , p. 87. R o b e r t L i t t r e l l , "The P r e a c h e r F r i e d i n O i l , " R e p u b l i c , 50 (March 16, 1927), 108. 9 8 99 A n d e r s o n , p. 58. 1 0 0 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 385. New CHAPTER I I S i n c l a i r Lewis was b o r n and brought up i n t h e s m a l l Midwestern town o f Sauk C e n t r e , and he f u l l y understood i t s v a l u e s . He had an " a p p a l l i n g regard"'^''" f o r h i s f a t h e r , Dr. E . J . L e w i s , who thought t h a t t h e c h u r c h was a good t h i n g f o r t h e community ( " R e l i g i o n i s a f i n e t h i n g t o keep p e o p l e i n order"-'-^ ) , who b e l i e v e d 2 103 i n and p r a c t i s e d " t h e s t e r n e r and more p u r i t a n i c a l v i r t u e s " e s p e c i a l l y duty. -- From h i s f a t h e r , young H a r r y " i n h e r i t e d a con104 s i d e r a b l e respect f o r the P u r i t a n v a l u e s , " and though he r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t Sauk C e n t r e and Dr. E . J . he was not b l i n d t o t h e i r m e r i t s n o r •_. f r e e .fr.o'm t h e i r i n f l u e n c e . ^ 5 i n d e e d , i t has been observed t h a t he "developed an o v e r t p e r v e r s i t y and h a t r e d f o r 10 6 what he s e c r e t l y l o v e d and i n which he wanted t o s h a r e . " He longed t o j o i n i n the a c t i v i t i e s of h i s b r o t h e r C l a u d e , who was e v e r y t h i n g t h a t H a r r y was n o t -- " s e n s i b l e , s t e a d y , w e l l o r g a n i z e d , happy, g r e g a r i o u s , g o o d - l o o k i n g and w e l l - b u i l t , at gifted s p o r t s and a t h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g , u n i m a g i n a t i v e , shrewd w i t h 107 money and t h r i f t y , a m b i t i o u s . " To w i n a t t e n t i o n f o r h i m s e l f , H a r r y f e l t a c o m p u l s i o n t o show o f f , t o do t h e o p p o s i t e of what was expected o f him, t o d e l i g h t i n s a y i n g s u r p r i s i n g t h i n g s . complained: His father " H a r r y , why c a n ' t you do l i k e any o t h e r boy ought t o 108 do?" L e w i s ' s c h a r a c t e r developed i n t o one o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y -23c o n t r a d i c t i o n , and throughout h i s l i f e he won attention with his c o n t r a r y ways. The and i n s e c u r e . his dynamo of energy, i d e a s , and words was He r e a d a v i d l y and w i d e l y , and l i v e d i n w o r l d s of imagination. Sensing h i s s u p e r i o r endowments and he developed a degree of s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s and attended a l s o shy, l o n e l y , a l l the l o c a l c h u r c h e s , social inferiority, p i e t y . H e and a t Y a l e w r o t e : "I certainly have a keen i n t e r e s t i n the r e l a t i o n between the human s p i r i t and 110 That Power Not O u r s e l v e s . " He experienced a real need, and under t h e i n f l u e n c e of an O b e r l i n YMCA man, c a l l e d t o be a C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r y . " s a c r e d and n e c e s s a r y " ; He spiritual felt s a i d that prayer i s and""Cod's word i s e t e r n a l l i f e . " However, h i s q u e s t i o n i n g mind and h i s r e a d i n g o f books by Haeckel, himself and I n g e r s o l l undermined these new he w r o t e a paragraph c a l l e d "My Paine, religious feelings, R e l i g i o n " advocating and appreciation of the a r t s , k i n d n e s s , m i n d i n g one's b u s i n e s s , sympathy, p l a i n l i v i n g and h i g h t h i n k i n g . He was "committed t o c u r i o s i t y , t o l e r a n c e , and skepticism."''''''^ He had t u r n e d e a g e r l y t o the church f o r s p i r i t u a l wisdom and h e l p i n h i s l o n e l i n e s s ; but he soon found many t h i n g s 113 to b e l i e v e i n C h r i s t i a n theism. He became d i s i l l u s i o n e d C h r i s t i a n i t y , and a t Y a l e proposed the a b o l i t i o n o f the He was always r e b e l l i o u s , g r o p i n g , impossible dissatisfied. with chapel. He had a " r e s t - l e s s , dynamic, o v e r c h a r g e d , demanding personality,"''''''^ and h i s u g l y cancerous f a c e and affection: "he was w i l d t a l k prevented a meager and r u s t y - h a i r e d youth w i t h p r o t r u d i n g t e e t h and an uneasy t i t t e r change the w o r l d . him from a t t r a c t i n g . . . h i s voice s h r i l l with desire to -24Originally called "God F o r b i d , " he was Y a l e f o r h i s h a i r and h i s hazy Utopian s o c i a l i s m : renamed "Red" at " I f a l l the people worked as a team, we would have a p e r f e c t w o r l d . " B r o t h e r h o o d became a k i n d of r e l i g i o n . wanted t o improve the w o r l d and of people a n d p l a c e s , "Red" s o c i e t y ; he r e a l l y d i d c a r e about p e o p l e , and h i s c r i t i c i s m of s o c i e t y was d e s i r e d human p e r f e c t i o n . Throughout h i s l i f e , fundamentally To make " s y s t e m a t i c he t r a v e l l e d moral. He observations"-'--'- t o Europe and 7 t o Panama, and in 1906 he went t o work a t Upton S i n c l a i r ' s Utopian experiment i n communal l i v i n g , Helicon H a l l . He enjoyed d i s c u s s i n g i d e a s w i t h the "worthwhile 118 people" t h e r e , and a f t e r w a r d s completed h i s Y a l e s t u d i e s . He planned t o be a w r i t e r , but the n e x t y e a r s were "a m i s c e l l a n y of 119 f a l s e s t a r t s , l o s t j o b s , l o s t h o p e s , l o o s e ends, e r r a t i c wandering." He seemed t o have enormous and i n e x h a u s t i b l e enthusiasm, but h i s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s were many and b i t t e r . bumbling, poor, r e s t l e s s , He was r e j e c t e d , d e r i d e d , and l o n e l y , " a t once n a i v e and y e t f a m i l i a r w i t h a q u i t e tough e x p e r i e n c e When he met own of Grace L i v i n g s t o n e Hegger, p r e t t y , s p i r i t e d , smart, g i v e n t o a i r s , he f e l l 121 his gawky and divided being." life." arrogant, i n l o v e w i t h her because "she objectified The mixed q u a l i t y of L e w i s i s shown i n ^ t h i s p h r a s e , and i t i s a l s o shown i n the ambiguous tone of n o v e l t h a t he d e d i c a t e d t o G r a c i e , Our Mr. Wrenn the (1914). I t i s a p a t r o n i z i n g tone, not q u i t e s a t i r i c a l , t h a t t r i e s a t once t o make us take'Wrenn s e r i o u s l y and a t the same t i m e a l l o w us t o be s u p e r i o r t o him, a coy s e n t i m e n t a l i t y about h i s s e n t i m e n t a l i t y t h a t seems a t once t o want b o t h t o s a n c t i o n the c h o i c e as the w i s e , g e n e r a l c h o i c e , and t o d e r i d e him as an unimportant chooser -- an eaten-uneaten cake s i t u a t i o n . 1 2 2 H i s n e x t n o v e l s had the c h e e r f u l exuberance and b r i g h t o p t i m i s m of the y e a r s b e f o r e A m e r i c a e n t e r e d the war. Amid the -25d i s i l l u s i o n and c r i t i c i s m a f t e r the war many Americans c l u n g t o a b e l i e f i n the s m a l l town as the f r i e n d l i e s t p l a c e , t h e r e a l A m e r i c a . S i n c l a i r L e w i s sometimes thought the same, but i n h i s b e s t - s e l l e r M a i n S t r e e t (1920) he p o r t r a y e d Gopher P r a i r i e as an u n p l e a s a n t f i x e d i n the r i g i d i t i e s of the p a s t . " H i s a t t i t u d e toward the West i s as ambiguous as h i s a t t i t u d e toward the m i d d l e c l a s s : place Middle both drawn as h o p e l e s s l y narrow, the f i r s t i s shown f i n a l l y as somehow the o n l y s e n s i b l e : p l a c e , and people." the second as somehow the o n l y s e n s i b l e 1 2 3 I n s p i t e of c o n f l i c t i n g elements i n the n o v e l , M a i n S t r e e t s o l d 500,000 c o p i e s , was gave a new t r a n s l a t e d i n t o n e a r l y every European language, phrase t o d i c t i o n a r i e s , and made Lewis a w o r l d f i g u r e . a l s o i n v o l v e d him i n a storm of c o n t r o v e r s y , but i n s t e a d of It worrying he e a g e r l y wrote o t h e r p r o v o c a t i v e books, B a b b i t t (1922), A r r o w s m i t h and Elmer Gantry (1927). social l i f e . The As a s u c c e s s f u l n o v e l i s t , L e w i s l e d a busy p a i n t e r C.R.W. N e v i n s o n c a l l e d him " r e s t l e s s , and i n t e n s e , " - as "he (1925), clownish, poured f o r t h the most remarkable monologue of l o v e and h a t e , shrewdness and s e n t i m e n t a l i t y . " 1 2 4 L e w i. s b e l i e v e d i n the v a l u e of i m a g i n a t i v e i n d e c i s i o n and doubt. " I don't know,"125 s a i d A a r o n Gadd, when s e e k i n g r e l i g i o u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A r r o w s m i t h and G o t t l i e b l o o k e d f o r s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h s , but always w i t h s c e p t i c i s m . Dodsworth t r i e d t o a n a l y s e the q u a l i t i e s of A m e r i c a and Europe w i t h o u t prejudice. I n h i s s e a r c h f o r knowledge, S i n c l a i r L e w i s s t u d i e d the i d e a s of S o c i a l i s t Eugene Debs, whom he c a l l e d a " C h r i s t s p i r i t " \ because he was w i s e and k i n d and f o r g i v i n g -- y e t a f i g h e r f o r t r u t h . 126 When Debs s a i d : "Be t r u e t o the God w i t h i n o n e s e l f , " L e w i s wept. He a l s o s t u d i e d the works of Thoreau and Emerson, who i n d i v i d u a l freedom, and wisely. taught that man believed i n c o u l d be r e l i g i o u s , but nobly, W i t h M e l v i l l e , Hawthorne, and Whitman, they c r e a t e d an American 1 t r a d i t i o n of r e v o l t . 97 ' L e w i s j o i n e d t h e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n of c r i t i c i s m o f A m e r i c a n r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s , based o r i g i n a l l y on E i g h t e e n t h Century French E n l i g h t e n m e n t ; he had r e a d t h e works of V o l t a i r e , F r a n k l i n , J e f f e r s o n and Paine ("My mind i s my own c h a p e l " ) . These a u t h o r s believed t h a t a r t c o u l d change l i v e s f o r t h e b e t t e r , and were s i n c e r e and courageous i n t h e s e a r c h f o r reason. B r i t i s h w r i t e r s a l s o helped and H.G. W e l l s form L e w i s ' s p o s i t i v e i d e a l s , taught t h a t mankind can, by t a k i n g thought, by r e a l e d u c a t i o n , a c q u i r e such s t r a n g e , c r i m s o n - s h o t , a l t o g e t h e r enchanted q u a l i t i e s as c h e e r f u l n e s s , k i n d n e s s , h o n e s t y , p l a i n decency, r e f u s a l t o make o u r s e l v e s m i s e r a b l e and g u i l t y j u s t t o p l e a s e some i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t f o r a c e n t u r y has been a w a l k i n g and t a l k i n g c o r p s e . I 2 9 L e w i s ' s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e church f o l l o w e d t h a t o f H.G. W e l l s , but i t was a l s o based on h i s awareness o f a p o w e r f u l , unapproachable God: "an overwhelming l i g h t w i t h streamers t h a t r e a c h out t o p i e r c e a 130 man's s o u l . " L e w i s ' s sense o f God was vague, b u t he had s i n c e r e r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g s , expressed i n h i s l o v e o f c h a r i t y and h o n e s t y , which made h i m a t t a c k t h e p r a c t i c e o f r e l i g i o n i n A m e r i c a . He r e f u s e d a l l o b l i g a t i o n s o f r e l i g i o n because no w o r s h i p s a t i s f i e d h i s own r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g s : "As a s a t i r i s t , he saw t o o c l e a r l y t h e f a u l t s and f o i b l e s and t h e undue p r e t e n s i o n s o f t h e church b r i n g h i m s e l f under i t s wing." -'12 I n addressing ever t o t h e Sunday evening forum o f t h e Community C h r i s t i a n Church, Kansas C i t y , on t h e s u b j e c t o f a r e l i g i o n f o r t h e modern man, he t r i e d t o i n t r o d u c e t h e i d e a t h a t God i s n o t t h e p e t t y avenging God of some men's i m a g i n a t i o n : t h i n k God i s l i k e t h a t . " " I don't 1 3 2 133 W i t h i s " c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e a k of a d o l e s c e n t p i e t y , " he'was a p p a l l e d a t the churches' presumption and s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s i n -27- p r o c l a i m i n g God, and hated smug s e l f - i m p o r t a n t c l e r g y who l i t t l e r e s p e c t and u n d e r s t a n d i n g showed f o r God: ... and t h a t , y e s , the Maker of the u n i v e r s e w i t h the s t a r s a hundred thousand l i g h t - y e a r s a p a r t was i n t e r e s t e d , f u r i o u s , and v e r y p e r s o n a l about i t i f a s m a l l boy p l a y e d b a s e b a l l on Sunday afternoon.134 From h i s Sunday School days t o h i s death — "supposing a f t e r they throw the l a s t s p a d e f u l of d i r t on u s , we f i n d out i t ' s a l l t r u e l " 1 3 S i n c l a i r L e w i s was t r y i n g t o f i n d out t r u t h s about God and -- 3 religion. He t a l k e d of the deep h e a r t ' s e x p e r i e n c e , the p e r s o n a l s e a r c h , and " t h e y e a r n i n g f o r u n i o n w i t h the d i v i n e . " The s e a r c h of the s o u l 137 f o r God he c a l l e d an " a d v e n t u r e , " Commitment was Rev. G.E. B e i l b y wrote, " R e l i g i o u s an i d e a t h a t caused him much t o r t u r e . . . He d i d sense p o s i t i v e elements i n C h r i s t i a n i t y , and, I t h i n k , a t l e a s t s u b c o n s c i o u s l y , he l o n g e d t o make them h i s own." L e w i s b e l i e v e d i n "decency and k i n d n e s s and f r i e n d s h i p , t o l e r a n c e , i n t e g r i t y , beauty, f a i t h i n j u s t i c e and p r o g r e s s . t h e purpose o f l i f e ? " — He was "Work." 1 4 1 intellect, 1 4 1 , 1 4 2 t h a t h i s aim was L ^ and a 3? democratic d r i v e n by t h e g o s p e l of work ("What's ) , and i n h i s n e a t n e s s , n e s s , sex embar.rassment, and g u i l t shows-"a profound and puritanism. reason,"• ' love l a c k of t e n d e r - provincial N e v e r t h e l e s s , w i t h a t y p i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n , he claimed t o l i v e f u l l y , t o e x p e r i e n c e beauty and j o y and l o v e . He wanted e/ery i n d i v i d u a l t o a c h i e v e s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n , t o be a " f r e e , 143 inquiring, c r i t i c a l spirit" d i c t a t e s of the churches. -- and t h i s meant l e a v i n g the f a b l e s and He d e s i r e d a w i s e r and more j u s t s o c i a l o r d e r , w i t h p r i d e and f u l f i l m e n t i n good work, and a new Humanitarianism, men and P r o g r e s s . " ^ 1 s h o u l d be p o i n t e d t o "uncharted T r i n i t y of "Reason, I n Elmer G a n t r y , he suggested plateaus c a l l e d Righteousness, Honesty, S a c r i f i c e , Beauty, S a l v a t i o n . " 1 4 that Idealism, 3 never r l y orr a ci ol ni sn ig s taetn tAmerican l y d e f i n efda u these i d e was als, a but he used He them i n h cilse aangry l t s . He -28satirist (more f u l l y d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I V ) p r e s e n t i n g d i s t o r t e d p i c t u r e s o f i n s t i t u t i o n s and b e l i e f s so t h a t r e a d e r s c o u l d p e r c e i v e them as i f f o r the f i r s t t i m e . H i s r e a c t i o n t o s o c i a l wrongs was immediate, i n t e n s e , and r e b e l l i o u s : "He l o v e d g e t t i n g angry, e s p e c i a l l y 146 i n a r i g h t e o u s cause," s a i d h i s second w i f e , Dorothy Thompson. She was a b r i l l i a n t and p o p u l a r newswoman, v i t a l , whose o p i n i o n s were m u l t i t u d i n o u s and f i r m . warm, and i n t e l l i g e n t , L e w i s was enchanted by h e r a t f i r s t j and proposed s e v e r a l t i m e s ; but she h e s i t a t e d about l o v i n g a man who l a c k e d d i r e c t i o n and had "something s l i p p e r y " him. 1 4 7 about They were m a r r i e d i n May, 1928, i n . ' c i v i l and r e l i g i o u s ceremonies, but t h e r e were b i t t e r c l a s h e s i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p . d i f f i c u l t man t o l i v e w i t h : L e w i s was a 148 "he h a t e d p r o h i b i t i o n of any k i n d . " He s a i d , "My m i s s i o n i n l i f e i s t o be t h e d e s p i s e d c r i t i c , t h e e t e r n a l fault-finder. I must c a r p and s c o l d u n t i l everyone d e s p i s e s me. what I was put h e r e for." That's 1 4 9 Thomas W o l f e admired t h e s i n c e r i t y b e h i n d t h e anger. He d e s c r i b e d Lewis-McHarg i n You Can't Go Home A g a i n : He knew how much i n t e g r i t y and courage and honesty was c o n t a i n e d i n t h a t tormented tenement o f f u r y and l a c e r a t e d h u r t s . R e g a r d l e s s of a l l t h a t was j a n g l e d , s n a r l e d , and t w i s t e d i n h i s l i f e , r e g a r d l e s s of a l l t h a t had become b i t t e r , h a r s h , and a c r i d , McHarg was o b v i o u s l y one o f the t r u l y good, the t r u l y h i g h , t h e t r u l y g r e a t p e o p l e of t h e w o r l d . 1 5 0 L e w i s aimed t o c a s t i g a t e A m e r i c a u n t i l i t was pure and worthy of h i s love.151 He f e l t a s e l f - a p p o i n t e d m i s s i o n t o r e f o r m by e x p o s u r e , . b e l i e v i n g t h a t the l o t of man c o u l d be improved i f i t s f a u l t s were p o i n t e d o u t ; and h i s f a v o u r i t e t a r g e t s were smugness, h y p o c r i s y , d i s h o n e s t y , c o n f o r m i t y , snobbery, and p r e j u d i c e . He made s l a s h i n g a t t a c k s on c r e e d s and p r a c t i c e s , d e r i d e d d u l l n e s s and f o r m a l i s m , and was i n d i g n a n t a t narrow p e o p l e f o r 152 t h e i r " c o n s t r i c t i o n o f the s o u l . " All t h e s e f a u l t s L e w i s found i n A m e r i c a ! r e l i g i o n , and f o r most o f h i s l i f e , he showed "a complete l a c k o f sympathy f o r any form -29of r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f . " 153 He mimicked clergymen and sang t a s t e l e s s about Jesus C h r i s t a t p a r t i e s , he dragged h i s s i c k w i f e down B i l l y "sawdust t r a i l " songs Sunday's f o r f u n , and l e f t i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t n o t h i n g of a r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e was t o occur i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h i s f u n e r a l . " ' ' 1 i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e o l o g y and a b s t r a c t d i s c u s s i o n , i m p r e s s i v e knowledge 1 5 5 He was not 4 but he had an of r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s , and i n c o l l e c t i n g m a t e r i a l f o r Elma r G a n t r y cross-examined h i s Sunday S c h o o l C l a s s of twenty Kansas C i t y clergymen w i t h such q u e s t i o n s a s , "Why pulpits?" He c a l l e d them "a f i n e bunch. don't you be honest i n your You get up and preach t h i n g s 156 t h a t n e i t h e r you nor your c o n g r e g a t i o n s b e l i e v e . " As i f t o show t h e i r i n s i n c e r i t y , he h i m s e l f e n t e r e d t h e i r p u l p i t s f o r "damned f o o l p r e a c h i n g ; " and on one c e l e b r a t e d o c c a s i o n , "spoke up t o Papa 1 5 7 God." S i n c l a i r L e w i s knew t h a t r e l i g i o n , which i s concerned w i t h man's deepest m y s t e r i e s , cannot be r a t i o n a l , cannot be a n a l y s e d -159 " I b e l i e v e because i t i s i m p o s s i b l e , " -- but he was determined t o w r i t e a t r a c t t o prove t h a t r e l i g i o n i s i m p o s s i b l e . L e w i s " g o t so e x c i t e d making I n w r i t i n g Elmer Gantry f a c e s a t God t h a t he f o r g o t h i s c r a f t s m a n s h i p . " 1 6 0 The s a t i r e goes too f a r ; C h r i s t i a n i t y i s made i n c o n c e i v a b l e , as a l l ^ r e l i g i o u s people a r e p r e s e n t e d as e i t h e r h y p o c r i t e s or morons. The s a t i r e f a i l s t o g e n e r a t e a r e a l i s t i c view of r e l i g i o n i n America'; i n s t e a d , i t i s j u s t p e e v i s h 161 "foaming a t t h e mouth." I t i n d i c a t e s L e w i s ' s r e v u l s i o n and l o a t h i n g f o r C h r i s t i a n p r a c t i c e s , perhaps a r e a c t i o n t o h i s own i m p u l s e t o be an e v a n g e l i c a l missionary.l^ 2 ... p a y i n g my compliments t o the M e t h o d i s t C a r d i n a l s , the L o r d s Day A l l i a n c e , t h e S.P.V., and a l l the r e s t -not s l i g h t l y and meekly as i n M.St, and B a b b i t t but a t : f u l l l e n g t h , and v e r y , v e r y i l o v i n g l y . I t h i n k i t ' l l be j u s t the r i g h t time f o r t h i s n o v e l , and I t h i n k I can do i t con amore ... I l o n g t o d e a l w i t h the r e l i g i o u s e r s soon. The book Elmer G a n t r y caused a s t o r m of c o n t r o v e r s y and p u l p i t f u r y , and L e w i s was t h r e a t e n e d w i t h j a i l and l y n c h i n g . A t the time he was -30t r a v e l l i n g i n Europe and r e v i s i n g Dodsworth (1929), the n o v e l i n which he t u r n e d back t o a r e a s s e r t i o n of t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s , middle-brow, and M i d d l e Western v a l u e s t h a t he had c r i t i c i s e d i n Main S t r e e t and B a b b i t t . However, the s t o c k market c r a s h d r a s t i c a l l y a l t e r e d the o l d - f a s h i o n e d v a l u e s , and a l s o m o d i f i e d L e w i s ' s p l a n s f o r a l a b o u r n o v e l , never completed. He was labors' I J won D H d r i n k i n g h e a v i l y because he l a c k e d the "arduous and of n o v e l w r i t i n g ; then suddenly he was n o t i f i e d that he the N o v e l p r i z e i n l i t e r a t u r e f o r 1930. the news; Dr. Henry Van Dyke w r o t e , "You bawdy t a l e . . . . had Americans were d i s g u s t e d a t say God's dead, and l i f e ' s You mock mankind w i t h lewd u n g a i n l y m i r t h ; " ^ a the 1 award showed t h a t the importance godly of new American l i t e r a t u r e was recognised i n Europe. L e w i s c l a i m e d t h a t h i s p u b l i s h e r s , H a r c o u r t , Brace and Company, had not t a k e n f u l l advantage of the Nobel p u b l i c i t y , and off h i s contract. broke He d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t A l f r e d H a r c o u r t sensed that L e w i s ' s v e r s i o n of A m e r i c a n r e a l i t y , which had brought them enormous s u c c e s s , was no l o n g e r r e l e v a n t i n t h e 1930's. H i s t o r y had l e f t Sinclair L e w i s b e h i n d , though he c o n t i n u e d t o be a p o p u l a r n o v e l i s t , and Ann V i c k e r s (1933) brought l a r g e d i v i d e n d s t o N e l s o n Doubleday, h i s new p u b l i s h e r s . Dorothy Thompson was v e r y much i n v o l v e d w i t h w o r l d a f f a i r s , and h e r knowl e d g e of N a z i Germany and H i t l e r p r o v i d e d m a t e r i a l f o r I t Can't Happen Here (1935), i n which L e w i s d e s c r i b e d a f a s c i s t t a k e o v e r of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s s u c c e s s f u l book was r e c e i v e d as a major p o l i t i c a l act, 166 not an a r t i s t i c achievement. L e w i s was c a l l e d "a p u b l i c i s t i n f i c t i o n " by R i c h a r d P. Blackmur, but he thought "I'm of h i m s e l f as p r i m a r i l y a n o v e l i s t : not i n the b u s i n e s s of e x p o s i n g t h i n g s . . . don't know what t h e h e l l t h i s c o u n t r y needs." Lewis's a t t i t u d e t o h i s own work was I w r i t e n o v e l s ... I According to h i s p u b l i s h e r s , one o f detachment, "the absence of 168 any genuine imag-.in.ative commitment t o h i s m a t e r i a l , " books were w r i t t e n w i t h g r e a t enthusiasm and i n d u s t r y . even though h i s T h i s detachment -30aa l l o w e d him t o p r e s e n t opposing views w i t h e q u a l c o n v i c t i o n , or t o be angry i n c o n f l i c t i n g , c a u s e s . I t Can't Happen Here does n o t have the i n t e l l e c t u a l coherence of A l d o u s Huxley or t h e p e r s u a s i v e v i s i o n of a nightmare f u t u r e of George O r w e l l , but i t caught p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n at j u s t the r i g h t time. L e w i s made.-ia s e r i e s , o f l e c t u r e t o u r s , t a l k i n g about politics and l i t e r a t u r e , and wrote The P r o d i g a l P a r e n t s (1938) which defended the A m e r i c a n b u s i n e s s and c a p i t a l i s t system. He a l s o t r i e d a c t i n g and p l a y - w r i t i n g , but h i s performances l a c k e d d i s c i p l i n e . However, he enjoyed the company of the young a c t r e s s , M a r c e l l a Powers, and w i t h her p l a y e d the clergyman i n Shadow and Substance. H i s n o v e l about a stage-eompany, B e t h e l M e r r i d a y (1940), was u n s u c c e s s f u l , and h i s b e h a v i o u r became marked by " n e r v o u s n e s s , t h e u n r e m i t t i n g a g i t a t i o n , the i n s i s t e n c e of h i s f i e r c e 169 and f r o t h y energy, the e n d l e s s p l a c i n g up and down, up and down." l o s t h i s f r i e n d s and was d i v o r c e d by Dorothy; h i s s o c i a l conduct was He un- p r e d i c t a b l e , and when he addressed u n i v e r s i t y c l a s s e s on the s u b j e c t of w r i t i n g , he made h i s s t u d e n t s wonder what he s t o o d f o r : " H i s l i t e r a r y judgments were always so whimsical."''" ^ 7 I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t he was " w i t h o u t self-deception"'^''" and r e c o g n i z e d tawdry r e p e t i t i o n and d e c l i n e i n h i s l a t e r work, but when he c a l l e d The God Seeker (1949) h i s b e s t , most s e r i o u s book, h i s b i o g r a p h e r noted: " h i s m i s c a l c u l a t i o n s about h i s own work 172 are p a r t of h i s m i s c a l c u l a t i o n s about everything." L e w i s was never a t ease -- " d r i v e n a l l h i s l i f e , a l l over t h e w o r l d , from house t o house, by h i s unmanageable r e s t l e s s n e s s , he was never a t home, o n l y always w i s h i n g to be." - " 17 5 # e drank t o e x c e s s , and s u f f e r e d two h e a r t a t t a c k s . No f r i e n d s v i s i t e d him i n h i s Rome h o s p i t a l , and he d i e d on January 10, 1951. H i s body was brought back t o A m e r i c a , the l a n d he l o v e d and h a t e d , documented and made aware of i t s e l f . w r i t i n g one cannot imagine modern A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e . w i t h o u t h i s w r i t i n g , we can h a r d l y imagine o u r s e l v e s . " "Without h i s T h i s i s because, -31F o o t n o t e s to Chapter I I 1 0 1 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 463. ^Main S t r e e t , p. 325. 1 0 3 S h e e a n , p. 353. 1 0 4 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 25. 1 0 5 G r e b s t e i n , p. 71. I b i d . , p. 2 1 . 1 0 6 1 0 7 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 20. 1 0 8 I b i d . , p. 264. 1 0 9 I b i d . , p. 40. 1 1 0 M a n from M a i n S t r e e t , p. 113. m S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 50. 1 1 2 I b i d . , p. 89. 1 1 3 I b i d . , p. 64, 77. 1 1 4 S h e e a n , p. 297. 1 1 5 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 7. 1 1 6 1 1 7 T r a i l o f t h e Hawk, p. 81. S c h o r e r , L i f e , p . 110. 1 1 8 I b i d . , p. 115. 1 1 9 I b i d . , p. 139. 120_.. . I b x d . , p. 207. 1 2 1 I b i d . , p. 207. 1 2 2 I b i d . , p. 212. 1 2 3 I b i d . , p. 295. 1 2 4 i d . , p. 395. I b 1 2 5 G o d Seeker, p. 380. 1 2 6 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 456. 127 'Man From M a i n S t r e e t , p. 242. -32- 128 Thomas P a i n e , The Age o f Reason -- Being an I n v e s t i g a t i o n of True and Fabulous Theology, p. 6. 1 2 9 M a n from M a i n S t r e e t , p. 249. 1 3 Q G o d Seeker, p. 95. G . H . L e w i s , p. 302. 131 I b i d . , p. 301. 1 3 2 1 3 3 E d e n e r , p. 55. 1 3 4 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 236. 13 ^ Q u o t e d i n G r e b s t e i n , p. 106. 136 T r a i l o £ t h e Hawk, p. 426. 1 3 7 G r e b s t e i n , p. 139. 1 3 8 G . H . L e w i s , p. 302. 1 3 9 E l m e r G a n t r y , p . 28. 1 4 0 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 355. 1 4 1 D o d s w o r t h , p. 20. 1 4 2 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 595. 1 Z f 3 1 4 4 I t Can't Happen h e r e , p. 433. Dooley, A r t , p. 240. 1 4 5 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 120. 1 4 6 S h e e a n , p. 147. 1 4 7 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p . 489. 1 4 8 G . H . L e w i s , p. 68. 1 4 9 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 311. Q u o t e d i n G e o f f r e y Moore, " S i n c l a i r L e w i s : Romantic" (1959), E s s a y s , p. 163. 1 5 0 1 5 1 S h e e a n , p.88. 1 5 2 G r e b s t e i n , p. 65. 1 5 3 Dooley, 1 5 4 E d e n e r , p. 70. 1 5 5 S h e e a n , p. 142. A r t , p. 228. A Last -331 5 6 Q u o t e d i n Dooley, A r t , p. 121. S i n c l a i r L e w i s , L e t t e r s , From Main S t r e e t t o Stockholm H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1952), p. 207. 1 5 7 (New York: 1 5 8 Q u o t e d i n S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 447. 1 5 9 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 71. 1 6 0 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 126. 1 6 1 I b i d . , p. 130. 1 6 2 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 480. 1 6 3 L e w i s , L e t t e r s , p. 150. 1 6 4 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 536. 1 6 5 I b i d . , p. 550. 1 6 6 I b i d . , p. 690. 1 6 7 I b i d . , p. 545. 1 6 8 I b i d . , p. 598. 1 6 9 I b i d . , p. 1 7 0 I b i d . , p. 709. 1 7 1 I b i d . , p. 726. 1 7 2 . 658. S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 776. 173 tanley. I . K u n i t z , T w e n t i e t h Century A u t h o r s : — F i r s t Supplement (New Y o r k : W. H. W i l s o n , 1955), p. 578. S 1 7 4 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 813. CHAPTER I I I Many of S i n c l a i r L e w i s ' n o v e l s made t h e i r c r i t i c i s m s a t j u s t the r i g h t t i m e . The Twenties r e j e c t e d V i c t o r i a n i s m and P u r i t a n i s m , a t t a c k e d p r o v i n c i a l i t y , and l a c k of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and c u l t u r e , w i t h an i n t e l l e c t u a l superiority based on s c i e n c e , s o c i o l o g y , and p s y c h o l o g y . p r o c l a i m e d s c e p t i c i s m and " c r y s t a l l i z e d the m i s g i v i n g s o f The American Mercury thousands," 5 i7 To t h e s e r e a d e r s , Main S t r e e t , B a b b i t t , A r r o w s m i t h , Elmer G a n t r y and I t Can't Happen Here were u p - t o - d a t e , r e a l i s t i c and i m p o r t a n t books. 1 7 fi Lewis "tapped a s w o l l e n mood o f i n c o n o c l a s m and escapism." Like h i s r e a d e r s , he r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t o l d r e s t r i c t i o n s and was i n s e c u r e about new i d e a s . He made people and i n s t i t u t i o n s s e l f - c r i t i c a l , b u t d i d n o t persuade to e r a d i c a t e t h e i r f a u l t s . them H i s books s o l d w e l l because, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of Elmer G a n t r y , they p r e s e n t e d a l l t a s t e s and a l l p o i n t s o f v i e w . Elmer Gantry appeared i n " t h e most h o t l y charged atmosphere s i n c e t h e Salem w i t c h burnings,"''' 77 religious when t h e Scopes T r i a l was b e i n g debated w i t h p a s s i o n a t e e x c i t e m e n t , when B i l l y Sunday, Aimee Semple McPherson, and o t h e r h e l l f i r e e v a n g e l i s t s were c o n d u s t i n g t h e i r c o n v e r s i o n campaigns, when B i b l e F u n d a m e n t a l i s t s and Ku K l u x Klansmen marched through t h e l a n d . There was l i v e l y c o n t r o v e r s y as m o d e r n i s t t h e o l o g y i n t e r p r e t e d t h e B i b l e as myths, and as s o c i o l o g y blamed environment, r a t h e r than s i n , f o r man's evil- d o i n g . S c i e n c e promised an e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e , and a l l c o n c e p t s based on s p i r i t u a l i n t u i t i o n s and b e l i e f s r a t h e r than on s c i e n t i f i c p r o o f s were made s u s p e c t . Americans i n t h e Twenties were l i v i n g i n p l e n t y , and as w e a l t h i n c r e a s e d , 17 8 f e a r of t h e d e v i l d e c r e a s e d ' and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n : i n witchcraft."-'- 79 The church was viewed as a p u r e l y s o c i a l "our p r e s e n t churches a r e as absurd as a b e l i e f MAIN STREET ( 1 9 2 0 ) * i s marked by L e w i s ' s a m b i v a l e n t views on the U n i t e d S t a t e s , Gopher P r a i r i e and i t s p e o p l e , c u l t u r e and b e a u t y , c l a s s - d i s t i n c t i o n and democracy, thought and a c t i o n , women's r i g h t s , l o v e and m a r r i a g e , C a r o l and K e n n i c o t t ; b u t on t h e s u b j e c t o f r e l i g i o n , Lewis i s a n t a g o n i s t i c t h r o u g h o u t . A m e r i c a i s g e n e r a l l y c r i t i c i s e d i n M a i n S t r e e t as l a c k i n g "the s c i e n t i f i c s p i r i t , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l mind, which would make i t g r e a t " ( p . 2 6 7 ) , because i t i s made up o f Gopher P r a i r i e s and t h e i r philosophy of d u l l s a f e t y : are to are " N i n e - t e n t h s o f t h e American towns so a l i k e t h a t i t i s t h e c o m p l e t e s t bor^lcm t o wander from one a n o t h e r " ( p . 2 6 8 ) . F a c t o r i e s , houses, shops, c l o t h e s and people standardized. Americans move on because they hope t o f i n d a d v e n t u r e of t h e s p i r i t i n changing t h e i r h o r i z o n ( p . 2 4 7 ) . Those who s t a y a r e i n f e c t e d w i t h the V i l l a g e V i r u s ( p . 1 5 6 ) , and f o r g e t the ideals of " l i f e , l i b e r t y , and t h e p u r s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s " ( p . 1 1 7 ) . F o r e i g n immigrants do n o t p r a c t i s e t h e i r customs, b u t a r e " i r o n e d i n t o mediocrity" (p. 266). Americans d r e s s e d up remain unchanged ( p . 3 0 3 ) . When they t r a v e l on v a c a t i o n they l o n g f o r f a m i l i a r s i t u a t i o n s ( p . 4 0 4 ) ; when they go t o t h e t h e a t r e , t h e y demand n o t h i n g " i m p r o p e r " ( p . 2 1 8 ) . One o f t h e i r movies i s d e s c r i b e d : The f e a t u r e f i l m p o r t r a y e d a b r a v e young Yankee who conquered a South American r e p u b l i c . He t u r n e d the n a t i v e s from t h e i r barbarous h a b i t s o f s i n g i n g and l a u g h i n g t o t h e v i g o r o u s s a n i t y , t h e Pep and Punch and Go, o f t h e N o r t h . . . . He changed n a t u r e i t s e l f . A mountain which had borne n o t h i n g b u t l i l i e s and *Note: F o r t h e remainder o f t h i s c h a p t e r , t e x t u a l r e f e r e n c e s w i l l be found i n p a r e n t h e s e s a f t e r q u o t a t i o n s . -3.6- c e d a r s and l o a f i n g c l o u d s was by h i s H u s t l e so i n s p i r i t e d t h a t i t broke out i n . . . p i l e s of i r o n o r e . (p. 198) The q u a l i t i e s of V i g o r and E n t e r p r i s e a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of A m e r i c a n s , a c c o r d i n g t o Mr. Blausser the Booster: genuwine, honest-to-God homo A m e r i c a n i b u s he's a f r a i d t o t a c k l e . "you take a and t h e r e a i n ' t a n y t h i n g Snap and Speed a r e h i s m i d d l e name. He'll put her a c r o s s i f he has t o r i d e from h e l l t o b r e a k f a s t . . . ." (p. 414) S i n c l a i r L e w i s , t h e " a l i e n c y n i c " (Head P i e c e ) , c r i t i c i s e s t h i s mad r u s h of energy because I t l a c k s s p i r i t u a l He i s s a r c a s t i c (Head P i e c e ) , and understanding. "Main S t r e e t i s the c l i m a x of c i v i l i z a t i o n " just look at it! There a r e redeeming f e a t u r e s of A m e r i c a . When K e n n i c o t t sees h i s t o r i c F o r t S n e l l i n g and t h e work of the p i o n e e r s , he " I t ' s a good c o u n t r y , and I'm proud of i t . those o l d boys dreamed about" (p. 1 7 ) . L e t ' s make i t a l l t h a t V i d a Sherwin, whose reforms a r e slower and more r e a l i s t i c than C a r o l ' s , s a y s : So much t o c o n s e r v e . "I'm a conservative. A l l t h i s t r e a s u r e of American i d e a l s . and democracy and o p p o r t u n i t y " (p. 65). cries: She has Sturdifie&s . "overwhelming b e l i e f i n the b r a i n s and h e a r t s o f our n a t i o n , our s t a t e , our town" (p. 66). A m e r i c a i s compared t o the o u t s i d e w o r l d , which i s " t o p s y t u r v y " (p. 4 4 1 ) , and a l s o " t h e w o r l d of g a i e t y and adventure, of music and t h e i n t e g r i t y of b r o z e , of remembered m i s t s from t r o p i c i s l e s and P a r i s n i g h t s and the w a l l s of Bagdad" ( p . I l l ) , C a r o l dreams r o m a n t i c a l l y of Mentone, "a p i c t u r e drenched w i t h g o l d and h a r d b r i g h t b l u e s " (p. 234), o f " s t a r t l i n g e x o t i c t h i n g s " (p. 270), and of "a think, black-bearded, and^drink c y n i c a l Frenchman who would s i t about and s i n g opera and t e l l bawdy s t o r i e s and l a u g h a t our proprieties -37and quote R a b e l a i s and n o t be ashamed t o k i s s my hand" ( p . 2 7 0 ) . C a r o l ' s n o t i o n s o f c i v i l i z e d l i v i n g a r e vague, b u t she l o o k s f o r c u l t u r e i n Washington, D.C. P e o p l e go t o t h e E a s t t o conquer themselves ( p . 440), and they f i n d good and bad. The E a s t e r n c i t i e s have eager e n t h u s i a s m and mystery (p. 426), b u t they a l s o s u f f e r from "a thie;k s t r e a k o f M a i n S t r e e t " ( p . 427), c a u t i o u s d u l l n e s s and g o s s i p . easy g e n t l e n e s s , c h e e r f u l n e s s and e f f i c i e n c y C i t y p e o p l e have ( p . 4 2 8 ) ; but t h e Bohemians shock C a r o l ( p . 1 0 ) , and she h a t e s "creamy s k i n n e d f a t women, smeared w i t h grease and c h a l k , . . . p l a y i n g b r i d g e w i t h p u f f y pink-mailedjjeweled f i n g e r s , women who a f t e r much e x p e n d i t u r e o f l a b o r and bad temper s t i l l lap-dogs" g r o t e s q u e l y resemble t h e i r own f l a t u l e n t (p. 25). C a r o l r e t u r n s t o t h e West: " t h e newest empire o f t h e w o r l d ; t h e N o r t h e r n M i d d l e w e s t ; a l a n d o f d a i r y h e r d s and e x q u i s i t e l a k e s , o f new a u t o m o b i l e s towers, and t a r - p a p e r s h a n t i e s and s i l o s l i k e r e d of clumsy speech and a hope t h a t i s b o u n d l e s s " (p. 24). T h i s mixed v i e w i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f L e w i s ' s a m b i v a l e n c e . the b l e a k n e s s , "the vastness "the unprotected He d e s c r i b e s and t h e emptiness o f t h e l a n d " where houses would crouch t o g e t h e r i n t e r r o r o f storms g a l l o p i n g out o f t h e w i l d waste" ( p . 3 3 ) , " t h e p a n t i n g summer and the s t i n g i n g w i n t e r " ( p . 8 2 ) . Though t h e l a n d can be f r i g h t e n i n g (p. 2 5 ) , i t has " d i g n i t y and g r e a t n e s s " ( p . 58) and b e a u t y . L i k e e a r l i e r w r i t e r s c r i t i c i s i n g America, Lewis i s d i s t r e s s e d a t t h e descrepancy between t h e promises o f t h e New World j u s t i c e , e q u a l i t y , and h a p p i n e s s f o r a l l men - - a n d t h e r e a l i t y . has a r o m a n t i c — He l o n g i n g f o r what might have been, b u t h i s a n a l y s i s i s m a i n l y concerned with current conditions. Sometimes -38- L e w i s b e l i e v e s i n A m e r i c a and A m e r i c a n myths, and a t o t h e r times he a t t a c k s them. " I t ' s one of our f a v o r i t e American myths t h a t broad p l a i n s n e c e s s a r i l y make broad minds" ( p . 343), b u t the p i o n e e r s tamed t h e l a n d (pp. 150-151) w i t h h a r d s h i p philosophies who and j o y have narrow ( p . 1 5 2 ) . A n o t h e r t r a d i t i o n i s t h a t " t h e American v i l l a g e remains t h e one sure abode o f f r i e n d s h i p , h o n e s t y , and c l e a n sweet m a r r i a g e a b l e girls" ( p . 264); but M a i n S t r e e t was w r i t t e n t o show t h e d u l l deadness o f s m a l l towns. America i s great, but i t k i l l s the s p i r i t : a dominion which w i l l r i s e t o unexampled g r e a t n e s s when o t h e r empires have grown s e n i l e . B e f o r e t h a t time .-. . a hundred g e n e r a t i o n s o f C a r o l s w i l l a s p i r e and go down i n tragedy d e v o i d o f p a l l s and solemn c h a n t i n g , the humdrum i n e v i t a b l e tragedy o f s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t i n e r t i a , ( p . 450) (f But C a r o l would n o t be u t t e r l y d e f e a t e d . She was g l a d o f h e r r e b e l l i o n . The p r a i r i e was no l o n g e r empty l a n d i n t h e s u n - g l a r e . . . i n t h e v i l l a g e s t r e e t s were shadows of h e r d e s i r e s and t h e sound o f h e r marching and t h e seeds o f mystery and g r e a t n e s s , ( P . 442) She w i l l l o o k a t e v e r y t h i n g , and a s k why i t i s , and who f i r s t down t h e law t h a t i t had t o be t h a t way. the s p i r i t of t h a t b e w i l d e r e d laid "A r e b e l l i o u s g i r l i s empire c a l l e d t h e A m e r i c a n M i d d l e w e s t " (P- 1 ) . A l l t h e bewilderment i s summed up i n Gopher P r a i r i e , the u n a t t r a c t i v e s m a l l town: unapologetic " I t was n o t o n l y t h e u n s p a r i n g u g l i n e s s and t h e r i g i d overwhelmed h e r . straightness that I t was t h e planlessness, t h e f l i m s y t e m p o r a r i n e s s of t h e b u i l d i n g s , t h e i r faded u n p l e a s a n t c o l o r s " ( p . 3 7 ) . However, Bea Sorenson f i n d s Gopher P r a i r i e b e a u t i f u l , and C a r o l l e a r n s t o enjoy i t : "everybody bowed t o h e r , s t r a n g e r s and a l l , a n d made h e r f e e l t h a t they wanted h e r , t h a t she belonged h e r e " (p. 62). The l o c a l c i t i z e n s b e l i e v e " i t ' s a darn p r e t t y town" (p. 1 4 ) , but t o a newcomer i t i s "a f r o n t i e r camp. . . not a p l a c e to l i v e " (p. 2 7 ) , " t h i s j u n k - h e a p l " (p. 29) "Main S t r e e t was b l a c k swamp from c u r b t o c u r b . . . the town was bleak sky. houses b a r r e n under a the S o f t e n e d n e i t h e r by snow n o r by waving boughs the s q u a t t e d and s c o w l e d , r e v e a l e d i n t h e i r unkempt h a r s h n e s s " (p. 139). C a r o l ' s dreams of c r e a t i n g a b e a u t i f u l town a r e l u d i c r o u s "she f e l t a f o r b i d d i n g s p i r i t which she c o u l d never conquer" (p. 34) Her house squeaks, "Choke h e r - choke h e r - smother h e r " (p. 3 1 ) . C o n v e r s a t i o n ' d o e s not e x i s t i n Gopher P r a i r i e (p. 4 6 ) , but everybody g o s s i p s . C a r o l i s f u l l y d i s c u s s e d , and judged t o be "showing o f f " and " f r i v o l o u s " derision: (p. 9 5 ) . She cannot endure their "she had t r i p p e d i n t o a meadow t o t e a c h the lambs a p r e t t y e d u c a t i o n a l dance and found t h a t the lambs were w o l v e s . There was no way was out between t h e i r p r e s s i n g gray s h o u l d e r s . surrounded by fangs and s n e e r i n g eyes" (p. 9 9 ) . She The town i s " f i l l e d w i t h b u s y b o d i e s , t h a t have p l e n t y o f time t o s t i c k t h e i r noses i n t o o t h e r f o l k s ' b u s i n e s s " (p. 395). C a r o l moans: " I came h e r e t r u s t i n g me w i t h rods of d u l l n e s s . how them. They don't know, they don't u n d e r s t a n d a g o n i z i n g t h e i r complacent d u l l n e s s i s " (p. 364). c i t i z e n s b e l i e v e they a r e l i v i n g t h a t they a r e b o r e d , l i v i n g They beat i n a p a r a d i s e , but C a r o l p e r c e i v e s l i v e s of "vacuousness and s p i t e f u l g o s s i p " (p. 284). Gopher P r a i r i and bad manners W i l l Kennicott protests: "This i s -40an independent town, not l i k e t h e s e E a s t e r n h o l e s where you have t o watch your step- a l l the t i m e , and l i v e up t o f o o l demands and s o c i a l customs, and a l o t o f o l d t a b b i e s always busy Everybody's criticizing. f r e e h e r e t o do what he wants t o " (p. 9 8 ) . K e n n i c o t t i s a l o c a l , and p e r c e i v e s t h i n g s d i f f e r e n t l y from C a r o l . When she sees h o p e l e s s houses, v i l e garbage, s c a r e - crow p e o p l e , he sees new (p. 408). f e n c i n g , improved s i g n s , and She r e s o l v e s t o " l o v e the f i n e W i l l K e n n i c o t t q u a l i t y t h a t t h e r e i s i n Gopher P r a i r i e . (p. 405). friends The n o b i l i t y of good sense" She r e a l i z e s t h a t the p r y i n g c u r i o s i t y and g o s s i p of the c i t i z e n s i s a form of a f f e c t i o n : "Nobody i n Washington c a r e d enough f o r h e r to f r e t about her s i n s as Sam-did" (p. 4 3 2 ) . She remembers w i t h sympathy h e r husband's d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e p e o p l e : "a l o t of p r e t t y good f o l k s , w o r k i n g h a r d and t r y i n g t o b r i n g up t h e i r f a m i l i e s the b e s t they can" (p. 4 4 2 ) . Gopher P r a i r i e not be as w o n d e r f u l as the town d e s c r i b e d i n the Commercial may Club b o o k l e t (p. 4 1 6 ) , but i t i s much b e t t e r than many o t h e r p l a c e s (p. 429). Gopher P r a i r i e c i t i z e n s b e l i e v e they a r e s u p e r i o r t o the/L simple hardworking farmers. and;,/profit s h a r i n g . patriotic: The town l e a d e r s a r e opposed t o s o c i a l i s m J a c k E l d e r becomes e x c i t e d and b e l l i g e r e n t and " I s t a n d f o r freedom and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s . l i k e what I pay 'em, or they get out" (p. 5 0 ) . . . they A l l agitators s h o u l d be hanged, agrees K e n n i c o t t . The a r i s t o c r a c y of Gopher P r a i r i e c o n s i s t s of " a l l persons engaged i n a p r o f e s s i o n , or e a r n i n g more than t w e n t y - f i v e hundred d o l l a r s a y e a r , or possessed o f grandparents born i n A m e r i c a " (p. 7 4 ) . They b e l i e v e i n democracy -- the d o c t o r hunts w i t h the t a i l o r and the u n d e r t a k e r (p. 42) — but they d e s p i s e t h e i r s e r v a n t s . "Juanita • -41Haydock r a t t l e d , 'They're u n g r a t e f u l , a l l t h a t c l a s s o f p e o p l e . . . I don't know what t h e c o u n t r y ' s coming t o , w i t h these Scandahoofian c l o d h o p p e r s demanding every cent you save, and so i g n o r a n t and i m p e r t i n e n t ' . " ( p . 89) C a r o l l o v e s common workmen ( p . 4 ) , sees the S c a n d i n a v i a n s as " t h e h a r d i e s t and b e s t p e o p l e " ( p . 8 9 ) , and i s f r i e n d l y w i t h h e r maid ( p . 6 2 ) ; but she dares not share .her t a b l e w i t h Bea and M i l e s ( p . 2 0 4 ) . C a r o l i s happy t o be i n v i t e d t o t h e T h a n a t o p s i s : are the r e a l people. "These When t h e housewives, who bear t h e burdens, a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n p o e t r y , i t means something" ( p . 2 0 4 ) . The s e l f ^ s a t i s f i e d women f i n i s h t h e E n g l i s h poets i n a s i n g l e meeting -" t h e y have t h e i r c u l t u r e s a l t e d and hung up" ( p . 1 2 7 ) . Shaw's p l a y s a r e r e j e c t e d because they a r e " r i s k y " ( p . 2 1 8 ) , and B a l z a c ' s novels a r e taken o f f the l i b r a r y s h e l v e s . The Gopher P r a i r i e L i b r a r i a n i n s i s t s t h a t t h e f i r s t duty of a c o n s c i e n t i o u s l i b r a r i a n i s t o p r e s e r v e t h e books, r a t h e r t h a n t o g e t people t o r e a d ( p . 9 2 ) . C a r o l r e t o r t s t h a t h>ooks a r e cheaper than minds; and i s d e l i g h t e d when she i s a p p o i n t e d t o t h e town l i b r a r y b o a r d , f o r she c o n s i d e r s h e r s e l f t h e o n l y one w i t h knowledge o f books and l i b r a r y methods. Her c o n d e s c e n s i o n i s r u i n e d when she d i s c o v e r s t h a t t h e men on t h e board a r e e x t r e m e l y w e l l - r e a d — even though they l e a v e t h e l i b r a r y "as dead as Moses" ( p . 2 3 2 ) . Such committees as t h e l i b r a r y - b o a r d a r e hampered by l a c k of f u n d s . pocket-books" taste: Every r e f o r m i s b l o c k e d by s t u p i d i t y and " s c a r e d ( p . 1 3 8 ) , and t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f d e c i d i n g m a t t e r s of " I t ' s a r t b u t i s i t p r e t t y ? " ( p . 66) K e n n i c o t t p o i n t s out the f o o l i s h n e s s o f " a r t i s t i c guys" l i k e Raymie Wutherspoon and E r i k "Elizabeth" Valborg. Most a r t i s t s , he s a y s , a r e " g r i n d i n g out a bum -42l i v i n g " (p. 3 9 7 ) . C a r o l has i d e a s about a r t and beauty and romance: We're g o i n g t o f i n d e l e p h a n t s w i t h g o l d e n howdahs from which peep young maharanees w i t h n e c k l a c e s o f r u b i e s , and a dawn s e a c o l o r e d l i k e the breast o f a dove, and a green house f i l l e d w i t h books and s i l v e r t e a - s e t s . (p. 424) but h e r n o t i o n s a r e vague and o f t e n s i l l y , and soon swamped by t h e deadness o f M a i n S t r e e t : "She f e l t o o z i n g through t h e w a l l s t h e s p i r i t o f s m a l l houses and r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e " (p.409). Her attempts t o r e d e c o r a t e the house and e n l i v e n t h e p a r t y a r e p a t h e t i c and she i s n o t a r t i s t i c enough t o answer Mr. B l a u s s e r ' s (p. 70), claim that the town has "as much r e f i n e m e n t and c u l t u r e as any burg on the whole b l o o m i n ' expanse of God's Green F o o t s t o o l " (p. 416). does n o t l a y down canons o f t a s t e i n t h e n o v e l : c u l t u r e and s a t i s f a c t i o n i n l i f e a r e i n d e f i n i t e . S i n c l a i r Lewis H i s longings In this for respect he d i f f e r s from h i s models, V o l t a i r e and D i c k e n s , s a t i r i s t s who suggest or i n f e r v e r y r e a l v a l u e s by which t o measure t h e f a u l t s o f s o c i e t y . L e w i s i s vague about s t a n d a r d s , b u t h i s mockery i s c l e a r : "Whatsoever E z r a does n o t know and s a n c t i o n , t h a t t h i n g i s h e r e s y , w o r t h l e s s f o r knowing and w i c k e d t o c o n s i d e r " The of;-poverty respectability (Head P i e c e ) . o f Gopher P r a i r i e i s " r e i n f o r c e d by vows and c h a s t i t y i n the m a t t e r o f knowledge . . . t h e c i t i z e n s a r e proud o f t h a t achievement o f i g n o r a n c e " (p. 266). The p e o p l e do not think:.(p. 2 0 ) , b u t remain peasants " s o sunk i n the mud" ( p . 2 2 ) . Carol i s disgusted w i t h her: a t t h e s i g h t and s m e l l of t h e farm f o l k who t r a v e l "a s o i l e d man and woman . . . a l a r g e b r i c k - c o l o r e d Norwegian . . . and an o l d woman whose t o o t h l e s s mouth shuts l i k e a mud t u r t l e ' s " ( p . 2 1 ) . -43K e n n i c o t t defends them: " t h e s e farmers are mighty keen and up-and-coming" (p. 2 2 ) , aid they l i v e in-"good h u s t l i n g b u r g s " (p. 23) -- but he w i l l not a l l o w them p o l i t i c a l power (p. Gopher P r a i r i e l e a d e r s agree w i t h him: solemnly and "the o t h e r s nodded, i n t u n e , l i k e a shop-window of f l e x i b l e comic mandarins and toys, judges and ducks and clowns" (p. 5 0 ) . Their are "monotonous, t h i c k , emphatic . . . h a r s h l y pompous" (p. and frighten Carol: " G o l d h e l p me i f I were an o u t s i d e r ! " (p. but become " h o r r i b l y h y p o c r i t i c a l " (p. 158). l i f e miserable" (p. 158). just for pleasure" N a t u r e i s tamed, so men (p. 158) , a c c o r d i n g t o Guy to of making " r a i s e the Pollock. 52) 142), They a r e a f r a i d " I t ' s the h i s t o r i c a l Anglo-Saxon way voices 52), The Gopher P r a i r i e r i c h do not h e l p the poor (p. act.,on i m p u l s e : 57). He devil does not t r y t o wake up and r e f o r m Gopher P r a i r i e , because he i s t i m i d (p. 202) and knows how impossible i t i s . Had she a c t u a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t she c o u l d p l a n t a seed of l i b e r a l i s m i n the b l a n k w a l l of m e d i o c r i t y ? How had she f a l l e n i n t o the f o l l y of t r y i n g t o p l a n t a n y t h i n g whatever i n a w a l l so smooth and sun-glazed, and so s a t i s f y i n g t o the happy s l e e p e r s w i t h i n ? (p. 144) U n c l e W h i t t i e r and Aunt B e s s i e a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of v i l l a g e n o t i o n s . They are s t a g g e r e d t o l e a r n t h a t C a r o l can b e l i e v e " t h a t men drunk wine y e t not d i e d i n the g u t t e r ; t h a t the c a p i t a l i s t i c of d i s t r i b u t i o n and have system the B a p t i s t wedding-ceremony were not known i n the Garden of Eden . . . t h a t t h e r e are M i n i s t e r s of the G o s p e l who a c c e p t e v o l u t i o n " (p. 245). However, t h e i r bewilderment and of l o v e . They want to do t h i n g s h i t upon the tragedy t h a t i t s l o v e and of o l d age. i n t e r f e r i n g a r e a form f o r the K e n n i c o t t s . "Thus C a r o l . . t h a t i t i s not needed by y o u t h ; prosy sageness. . . a r e r e j e c t e d w i t h l a u g h t e r " (p. 447). -44C a r o l l e a r n s t o u n d e r s t a n d Midwest p e o p l e , t o a c c e p t t h e i r l a c k o f p o l i s h as a form o f r e l a x a t i o n ( p . 171), t o f e e l " t h e secure q u i e t o f Gopher P r a i r i e " ( p . 2 1 0 ) . Carol's a c t i v e hatred o f t h e town and i t s people runs out. She r e c a l l e d t e n d e r l y t h e young awkwardness of M a i n S t r e e t . . . she p i t i e d t h e i r shabbiness and i s o l a t i o n ; had compassion f o r t h e i r a s s e r t i o n o f c u l t u r e . . . f o r t h e i r p r e t e n s e o f g r e a t n e s s . She saw M a i n S t r e e t i n the d u s t y p r a i r i e s u n s e t , a l i n e o f f r o n t i e r s h a n t i e s w i t h solemn l o n e l y people w a i t i n g f o r h e r . ( p . 442) The happy e n d i n g i s d i s t u r b i n g . I f Gopher P r a i r i e i s so bad, does S i n c l a i r L e w i s make C a r o l a c c e p t i t ? The m a t e r i a l o f t h e n o v e l i s ; p r o s a i c b u t t h e u n d e r l y i n g mood i s r o m a n t i c : "She was of some s i g n i f i c a n c e because she was commonplace, t h e o r d i n a r y the age made a r t i c u l a t e and p r o t e s t i n g " ( p . 439). l o v e s t h e Midwest: why l i f e of L e w i s h a t e s and "Why, t h e f a u l t s y o u f i n d i n t h i s town a r e s i m p l y human n a t u r e , and never w i l l be changed" ( p . 2 8 4 ) . M i l e s B j o r n s t a m , t h e s o c i a l i s t , would o v e r h a u l Gopher P r a i r i e c o m p l e t e l y , b u t he admits h i s i d e a s a r e " h a l f - b a k e d " When he a c q u i r e s ( p . 115i). a f a m i l y and a farm, he t r i e s t o conform t o Main S t r e e t s t a n d a r d s , b u t i s c r u e l l y r e j e c t e d , i n t h e most moving i n c i d e n t i n t h e n o v e l , when people come t o o l a t e t o h e l p h i s d y i n g w i f e , Bea. V i d a Sherwin i s a p a t i e n t r e f o r m e r , who b e l i e v e s i n w o r k i n g from t h e i n s i d e ( p . 138) t o a l t e r o n l y d e t a i l s : "things- i n - g e n e r a l were comely and k i n d and immutable" (p. 2 5 4 ) . She i s n o t a destructive " r e v o l u t i o n i s t " l i k e Carol moderate a d v i c e : conventional scrupulously" ( p . 254), b u t she g i v e s " t h i n k how much b e t t e r you can c r i t i c i z e customs i f you y o u r s e l f l i v e up t o them, ( p . 373). They t a l k e n d l e s s l y , " t h e e t e r n a l Mary -45and M a r t h a -- an i m m o r a l i s t Mary and a r e f o r m i s t M a r t h a " (p. I s t a l k b e t t e r than work? t h i n k " (p. 422). C a r o l wants " t o be q u i e t She admires the poets and 271). and t h o u g h t f u l w r i t e r s and r e l i s h e s the d i s c u s s i o n s of Washington f r i e n d s ; but she can h e a r Kennicott grunting: sittin' "They're s i m p l y a bunch of w i l d i m p r a c t i c a l t h e o r i s t s round chewing the r a g " (p. 428). " c r y i n g out f o r j o y of freedom r e g a i n e d The woodland gods s t i l l to admiration life!'" (p. 146) C a r o l runs i n t o the woods, a f t e r W i n t e r . . . 'I b e l i e v e ! But a t o t h e r times she f o r her p r a c t i c a l d o c t o r husband: turns "We're a p a i r of h y p e r c r i t i c a l l o a f e r s . . . w h i l e he q u i e t l y goes and does t h i n g s " (p. 180). I t i s noteworthy t h a t on her r e t u r n t o Gopher P r a i r i e , C a r o l works (p. 445). She has been busy i n a Washington o f f i c e . i s d u l l and u n h e a l t h y , affairs. The war The routine but i t g i v e s freedom and a sense of w o r l d i s " t o b r i n g a b a s i c change i n p s y c h o l o g y , t o p u r i f y and u p l i f f e e v e r y t h i n g from m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s t o n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s " (p. 275), but why The war s h o u l d P r u s s i a n s be h a t e d and bayonetted? (p. 276) i n v o l v e s "common p e o p l e " : The c o n c e p t i o n of m i l l i o n s of workman l i k e M i l e s t a k i n g c o n t r o l f r i g h t e n e d h e r , and she s c u t t l e d r a p i d l y away from the thought of a time when she might no l o n g e r r e t a i n the p o s i t i o n of Lady B o u n t i f u l t o the Bjornstams and Beas and O s c a r i n a s whom she l o v e d — and p a t r o n i z e d , (p. 276) Guy P o l l o c k has s i m i l a r doubts: "Democracy i s a l l r i g h t theoretically, and I ' l l admit t h e r e a r e i n d u s t r i a l i n j u s t i c e s , but I'd r a t h e r have them than see t h e w o r l d reduced t o a dead l e v e l of m e d i o c r i t y " The (p. 202). i n d u s t r i a l l e a d e r , P e r c e Bresnahan, i s "a good, d e c e n t , f r i e n d l y , e f f i c i e n t man" (p. 279); but he i s a l s o "a s p i r i t u a l bully", an a c t o r and a h y p o c r i t e ( p . 2 7 8 ) . He preaches h i s g o s p e l -- " l o v e of o u t d o o r s , P l a y i n g t h e Game, l o y a l t y t o f r i e n d s " (p. .285) — and answers t h e i c o n o c l a s t C a r o l w i t h " a g i l i t y and c o n f u s i n g s t a t i s t i c s " (p. 285). He t e l l s h e r t h a t t h e r e a r e thousands o f women as d i s s a t - i s f i e d as h e r s e l f : "Women haven't any p l a c e i n p o l i t i c s . They would l o s e t h e i r d a i n t i n e s s and charm i f they became i n v o l v e d i n . . . t h i s a w f u l p o l i t i c a l s t u f f " ( p . 1 4 3 ) . But C a r o l i s c o n s c i o u s " d i s c o n t e n t " i n women. "What i s i t we want -- and need?" of c h i l d r e n and h a r d work ( p . 296), b u t "a more c o n s c i o u s of a Not l o t s life" ( p . 201) "we-»want our U t o p i a now" ( p . 2 0 2 ) . From r e a d i n g many modern books "she g o t t h e same confused d e s i r e which t h e m i l l i o n other women f e l t ; t h e same d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o be c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s w i t h o u t c o v e r i n g t h e c l a s s o f which she was t o be c o n s c i o u s " dis- (p. 263). "Confused d e s i r e " a p t l y d e s c r i b e s C a r o l K e n n i c o t t , and S i n c l a i r L e w i s ' s i n t e n t i o n s i n u s i n g h e r as h i s . p r o t a g o n i s t : " t h e l i n e s a r e b r o k e n and u n c e r t a i n o f d i r e c t i o n " ( p . 430). Carol i s v i t a l l y a l i v e ( p . 2) y e t a dreamer ( p . 5 ) . She wants t o "do something w i t h l i f e " ( p . 8) but she has no system ( p . 7 3 ) . One minute she i s "drunk w i t h h e a l t h , m i s t r e s s o f l i f e " the n e x t she i s b r o o d i n g in (p. 8 4 ) ; ( p . 8 4 ) . She y e l l s " Y i p p e e l " and jumps t h e snow, then t u r n s i n t o t h e sedate Mrs. D r . K e n n i c o t t (p..86). She i s d i s t r e s s e d a t Gopher P r a i r i e c r i t i c i s m ( p . 9 5 ) , then takes Bjornstam's a d v i c e : " K i c k 'em i n t h e f a c e l Say, i f I were a s e a g u l l and a l l over s i l v e r , t h i n k I ' d c a r e what a pack o f d i r t y s e a l s thought about my f l y i n g ? " ( p . 118) She l o v e s p o e t r y , b u t i s n o t t r a n s p o r t e d t o Camelot ( p . 1 2 1 ) . She l o a t h e s v u l g a r movies, but t i t t e r s ( p . 1 2 1 ) . -47When she d i s c o v e r s the c i v i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s of Gopher P r a i r i e , she i s "a proud and p a t r i o t i c c i t i z e n , a l l evening" (p. 128); and when she l e a r n s the town's h i s t o r y , she d e c l a r e s " t h e G.P. had the c o l o r of A l g i e r s and the g a i e t y of M a r d i Gras" ( p . 136): but u s u a l l y she i n s i s t s t h a t " t h i s morass" i s "not h e r home" (p. 139), and p l a n s t o r u n away. in town she laments: tried. . . . I'm She i s c o n t e n t a t the l a k e (p. 149), but " I ' v e f a i l e d a t every p o s i t i v e t h i n g a t i n y l e a s h e d hawk, pecked t o death by I've these l a r g e , w h i t e , f l a b b y , wormy hens" (p. 160). Her husband c r i t i c i s e s h e r f o r f e e l i n g so s u p e r i o r t o f o l k s , w i t h o u t cause (p. 173), and she i s a p p a l l e d a t b e i n g a r e f o r m e r l i k e Widow Bogart (p.186). of all. I'm Her p l a y i s "the worst d e f e a t beaten" (p. 228), but she c a r r i e s on. a l w a y s , an u n r e s o l v e d B u t ? " (p. 410) " I s a l l my life, To the c a s u a l eye she i s not d i s c o n t e n t e d , but i n s i d e she rages mutely a g a i n s t t h e i n d i f f e r e n t gods: (p. " I am I I . . . I'm 273) n o t c o n t e n t . . . . Damn a l l of them!" Bresnahan says t h a t she j u s t l i k e s b e i n g d i f f e r e n t (p. 284), V i d a t e l l s h e r , "You're n o t a sound r e f o r m e r a t a l l . You're an impossiblist. Kennicott And you g i v e up too e a s i l y " (p. 271). complains t h a t she had no p a s s i o n (p. 307), and C a r o l sees h e r s e l f as " t h a t wedded s p i n s t e r " (p. 354), a b l o o d l e s s , m o r a l , small-town woman. Y e t she i s w o n d e r f u l as the n u r s e t o the Bjornstams and she wants t o be h e r s e l f , w i t h " g r e a t n e s s of l i f e " (p. 4 2 2 ) . runs away from K e n n i c o t t , but remembers h i s t e n d e r n e s s : h e r freedom, and i t was empty" (p. 423). ( p . 321), "she had One y e a r l a t e r , when he v i s i t s h e r i n Washington, she f e e l s " n o t h i n g d e f i n i t e t o a g o n i z e o v e r " (p. 4 3 6 ) . On h e r r e t u r n t o Gopher P r a i r i e , she i s " n e i t h e r She g l a d n o r s o r r y t o be back" ( p . 444). She expects t o be " a t once a h e r e t i c and a r e t u r n e d h e r o ; she was v e r y r e a s o n a b l e about i t ; and i t h u r t j u s t as much as e v e r " thoroughly and merry ( p . 4 4 8 ) . She i s beaten by Gopher P r a i r i e ; b u t she has fought a good f i g h t and kept t h e f a i t h ( p . 4 5 1 ) . C a r o l ' s f a i t h i s a vague and changing t h i n g , and L e w i s ' s a t t i t u d e t o C a r o l keeps a l t e r i n g . he mocks. Sometimes he a d m i r e s , sometimes The n o v e l i s p r i m a r i l y an exposure o f American s m a l l town f a u l t s , w i t h C a r o l as t h e v i e w e r and s u f f e r e r , w i t h as t h e u p h o l d e r o f A m e r i c a n and s m a l l town v i r t u e s . Will Kennicott Kennicott i s "a t h i c k t a l l man of t h i r t y - s i x or -seven, w i t h s t o l i d brown h a i r , l i p s used t o g i v i n g o r d e r s , eyes which f o l l o w e d good-naturedly" everything ( p . 1 2 ) . He i s k i n d and p o s i t i v e and v i r i l e (p. 15), and C a r o l l i k e s and m a r r i e s him. When he t a l k s o f home, she suddenly sees h i m as "a s t r a n g e r , " n o t o f h e r k i n d , w i t h "none of t h e magic of shared a d v e n t u r e s and eagerness" ( p . 2 6 ) . However, he i s com- f o r t i n g and s t r o n g , and she f i n d s " i n t h e courage and k i n d n e s s o f her man a s h e l t e r from t h e p e r p l e x i n g w o r l d " (p. 30). He i s awed by h e r beauty ( p . 7 4 ) , and clumsy i n c r i t i c i s m (p. 8 0 ) , but he g i v e s up tobacco-chewing and other h a b i t s t o p l e a s e her ( p . 1 0 4 ) . He scorns t h e o t h e r v doctors i n the crudest terms (p. 164), b u t Bresnahan p r a i s e s him: " I t ' s t h e o l d doc t h a t keeps a community w e l l , mind and body. And s t r i k e s me t h a t W i l l i s one of t h e s t e a d i e s t and c l e a r e s t - h e a d e d country p r a c t i t i o n e r s " (p. 283). K e n n i c o t t i s mean about money, and when he c r i t i c i s e s C a r o l f o r a r g u i n g , he r e a r s up h i s t h i c k s h o u l d e r s , " i n absurd p i n k and green f l a n e l e t t e pajamas. He s a t s t r a i g h t , and i r r i t a t i n g l y snapped h i s f i n g e r s , and g r o w l e d " ( p . 1 6 8 ) . -.42However, he i s courageous i n making arduous n i g h t c a l l s (p. 177) and a d m i r a b l e i n h i s o p e r a t i o n on A d o l p h Morgenroth ( p . 1 9 2 ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, C a r o l knows h i s anger and mockery, and d e s p i s e s " h i s g u t t e r p a t o i s " ( p . 199), h i s d r e a d f u l c l o t h e s ( p . 2 8 9 ) , and h i s t a b l e manners: "He v i o l e n t l y chased fragments o f f i s h about h i s p l a t e w i t h a k n i f e and l i c k e d t h e k n i f e a f t e r g o b b l i n g them" ( p . 2 8 9 ) . Sometimes he i s t h e b u l l y i n g A m e r i c a n p a t r i o t : "There's t o o much f r e e speech and f r e e gas and f r e e beer and f r e e l o v e and a l l the r e s t of your damned mouthy freedom, and i f I had my way I ' d make you f o l k s l i v e up t o t h e e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s of decency even i f I had t o t a k e you --" ( p . 420) K e n n i c o t t has f i v e h o b b i e s : m e d i c i n e , l a n d - i n v e s t m e n t , C a r o l , m o t o r i n g , and h u n t i n g . " I t i s n o t c e r t a i n i n what o r d e r he p r e f e r r e d them" ( p . 195). He i s "as f i x e d i n r o u t i n e as an i s o l a t e d o l d man" ( p . 2 9 1 ) , and complains t h a t "she's always t r y i n g t o make me over from a p e r f e c t l y good M.D. i n t o a damn poet w i t h a s o c i a l i s t n e c k - t i e " (p. 306). He t u r n s t o Maud Dyer f o r c o m f o r t , b u t when C a r o l i s f o o l i s h about E r i k V a l b o r g he i s "mature and s l o w , y e t b e s e e c h i n g " ( p . 3 9 6 ) , and a s k s : " C a r r i e , do you u n d e r s t a n d my work?" ( p . 7 9 6 ) . He i s t h e s c i e n t i s t of Gopher P r a i r i e , who works a l l h o u r s t o h e a l everybody, r i c h or poor, and a l l he needs i s t o have C a r r i e welcome h i m . She i s h i s s o u l ( p . 3 9 6 ) . C a r o l . does not r e a l i s e t h a t W i l l has " b e w i l d e r m e n t s and concealments as i n t r i c a t e as h e r own" ( p . 4 3 9 ) . M a i n S t r e e t i s , i n some ways, a l o v e s t o r y . making o f C a r o l and W i l l i s o r d i n a r y : The l o v e - "They were b i o l o g y and m y s t e r y ; t h e i r speech was s l a n g phrases and f l a r e s o f p o e t r y ; t h e i r were contentment or shaky c r i s e s " silences (p. 1 5 ) . They l i k e each o t h e r h o n e s t l y , and put o f f c h i l d r e n u n t i l W i l l has more money: "perhaps he had made -50- a l l t h e mystery o f l o v e a m e c h a n i c a l c a u t i o u s n e s s " ( p . 8 5 ) . C a r o l i s n o t s t i r r e d by W i l l , b u t she depends on h i m ( p . 1 6 1 ) . She has t o a s k f o r money, and i n t h e e n s u i n g argument h a t e s him (p. 1 7 3 ) . Then she sees she has n o t been j u s t , and " t h a t December she was i n l o v e w i t h h e r Husband" ( p . 1 7 6 ) . She t h i n k s o f games and s u r p r i s e s t o v a r y t h e days, r e f u s i n g t o l i s t e n t o h i s t h e o r y t h a t " a l l t h i s romance s t u f f i s s i m p l y moonshine" ( p . 1 8 1 ) . When h e r baby i s born she f i r s t h a t e s i t then l o v e s " w i t h a l l t h e d e v o t i o n and i n s t i n c t a t which she had s c o f f e d " (p. 2 4 1 ) . K e n n i c o t t w i l l g i v e Hugh d i s c i p l i n e , but C a r o l w i l l g i v e h i m t h e r i g h t s o f a human b e i n g ( p . 4 4 8 ) . K e n n i c o t t ' s r e l a t i v e s a r e u n b e a r a b l e t o C a r o l ; she d i s c o v e r s " t h a t t h e one t h i n g t h a t can be more d i s c o n c e r t i n g than i n t e l l i g e n t h a t r e d i s demanding l o v e " ( p . 2 4 4 ) . She babbles h e r t r o u b l e s t o M r s . W e s t l a k e , d o c t o r ' s w i f e and g o s s i p , who approves of h e r h a v i n g a s e p a r a t e bedroom: "Why, c h i l d , every woman ought t o g e t o f f by h e r s e l f and t u r n o v e r h e r thoughts -- about c h i l d r e n , and God, and how bad h e r c o m p l e x i o n i s . . . and how much p a t i e n c e i t t a k e s t o endure some t h i n g s i n a man's l o v e . " ( p . 295) C a r o l , " s n a r l e d w i t h l i e s and foggy a n a l y s e s and d e s i r e s " ( p . 3 6 6 ) , i s n o t as l o v i n g t o W i l l as he w i s h e s . She cannot put on an a c t , though she wants t o l o v e him: "Am I t o o honest -- a funny t o p s y t u r v y h o n e s t y -- t h e f a i t h f u l n e s s o f u n f a i t h ? " ( p . 367) She wants to be l e t a l o n e , b u t " m a r r i a g e weaves people t o g e t h e r " ( p . 3 9 8 ) . The m a r r i a g e s t o r y of C a r o l and W i l l K e n n i c o t t i s f u l l o f t w i s t s and changes. Sometimes Lewis preaches the v i r t u e s o f l o y a l t y and obedience, a t o t h e r times he advocates freedom and open mindedness. Sometimes he i s on t h e s i d e o f W i l l ; a t o t h e r times he sympathises -51with Carol. He p r a i s e s will f o r b e i n g steady and blames him f o r b e i n g f i x e d i n h i s ways; he approves C a r o l ' s adventurous i d e a s and her f l i g h t i n e s s . criticises The n o v e l d i f f e r s from an o r d i n a r y l o v e - s t o r y because of the L e w i s i a n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and q u e s t i o n i n g s w i t h r e s p e c t t o the v a l u e s w h i c h a r e embedded i n the c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r situations. However,there i s no a m b i v a l e n c e i n the r e f e r e n c e s t o r e l i g i o n i n Main S t r e e t : S i n c l a i r L e w i s c o n s t a n t l y a t t a c k s the church and i t s t e a c h i n g s and i t s p e o p l e . The g i r l s who ask God t o guide t h e i r f e e t a r e the "bulbous-browed and pop-eyed maidens" (p. 3 ) . V i d a prays to J e s u s , " o f f e r i n g him the t e r r i b l e power of her a d o r a t i o n , a d d r e s s i n g him as the e t e r n a l l o v e r , growing p a s s i o n a t e , e x a l t e d , l a r g e . . . . 'Bius she mounted t o endurance and "dear nebulous L o r d " i s so foggy" surcease" (p. 251). C a r o l prays t o the (p. 32) when she i s s c a r e d , and admits, "My religion (p. 6 5 ) ; but she w i l l not a l l o w an i g n o r a n t young man f r o c k c o a t t o s a n c t i o n Hugh by c h r i s t e n i n g : t o any d e v i l c h a s i n g r i t e s i " (p. 241) She " I refuse to subject i s "an uneasy and in a him dodging a g n o s t i c " (p. 328), w h i l e K e n n i c o t t , whose f a i t h i s h i s B u i c k , b e l i e v e d i n t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , and never thought about i t ; he b e l i e v e d i n t h e c h u r c h , and seldom went near i t ; he was shocked by C a r o l ' s l a c k of f a i t h , and wasn't q u i t e s u r e what was the n a t u r e of the f a i t h t h a t she l a c k e d , (p. 328) The P e r r y s a r e c o m p l e t e l y sure: "The B a p t i s t Church i s the p e r f e c t , the d i v i n e l y o r d a i n e d s t a n d a r d i n m u s i c , o r a t o r y , p h i l a n t h r o p y , and ethics. . ,j . What we need i s t o get back to the t r u e Word of and a good sound b e l i e f i n h e l l " added on the New (p. 152). God, This P r a i r i e P u r i t a n i s m i s England P u r i t a n i s m (p. 4 4 1 ) , w h i c h i s s l i g h t l y less crude andvunthinking, so t h a t C a r o l i s "dismayed t o f i n d the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , i n America, i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , as abnormal as Z o r o a s t r i a n i s m — w i t h o u t t h e splendor" (p. 328). I t i s f u l l of p r i m i t i v e e r o t i c symbols and gory C h a l d e a n phrases -- a " s a n g u i n a r y compelling respectability. and a l i e n t h e o l o g y " (p. 328) -52A l l the courageous i n t e l l i g e n t people a r e f i g h t i n g M a i n S t r e e t ' s god, the god of Mrs. " I went to a denominational B o g a r t who c o l l e g e and spake i n d o g g e r e l hymns (p. learned that since d i c t a t i n g the B i b l e , and h i r i n g a p e r f e c t r a c e of m i n i s t e r s t o e x p l a i n i t , has never done much but creep around and it" (p. 156). cunningly. Mrs. She (p. 185) She t r y t o c a t c h us God disobeying B o g a r t a l s o c r e e p s around, her l a r g e f a c e " w r i n k l e d showed the decayed t e e t h i n a r e p r o v i n g s m i l e , i n the c o n f i d e n t i a l v o i c e of one who she b r e a t h e d : scents s t a l e bathroom and scandal 'You don't know the t h i n g s t h a t go on under cover'." i s the o n l y p e r s o n i n town not l i v i n g i n shame, but f o l k s can be c u r e d by k n e e l i n g a t Wednesday P r a y e r - m e e t i n g w i t h her and "0 God, 384): I would be a m i s e r a b l e s i n n e r except f o r thy g r a c e " (p. saying, 186). T h i s d r e a d f u l woman's son causes a s c a n d a l i n v o l v i n g h i s t e a c h e r , F e r n M u l l i n s , and the board d i s c u s s e s the c a s e . On the board i s the Reverend Z i t t e r e l -- " S i s t e r B o g a r t about h a l f r u n s h i s church, so of c o u r s e h e l l t a k e h e r say-so" (p. 386). "a thin,-, swart, i n t e n s e young man" does as Mrs. Bogart t e l l s him. (p. 329) Reverend Z i t t e r e l , w i t h a " h o l y l e e r " (p. 387)", They b o t h b e l i e v e t h a t the g r e a t w i t h t h i s n a t i o n i s l a c k of s p i r i t u a l f a i t h (p. 70); he i s g i v e n trouble one hundred d o l l a r s by P e r c e Bresnahan " f o r A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n work" (p. M i l e s B j o r n s t a m contends t h a t " t h e d o l l a r - s i g n has the c r u c i f i x c l e a n o f f t h e map" (p. 115). When C a r o l asks 282). chased the T h a n a t o p s i s t o h e l p t h e poor of the town, Mrs. Warren,the clergyman's w i f e , agrees t h a t c h a r i t y i s "the c h i e f adornment of the t r u e C h r i s t i a n and the Church" (p. 142), but " t h e s e s h i f t l e s s f o l k s " must r e a l i s e i t i s c h a r i t y , not a r i g h t , and be much more g r a t e f u l . Mrs. w i l l r e b u i l d Gopher P r a i r i e when a l l the e v a n g e l i c a l churches a r e u n i t e d , " o p p o s i n g C a t h o l i c i s m and C h r i s t i a n S c i e n c e , Warren -53and p r o p e r l y g u i d i n g a l l movements t h a t make f o r m o r a l i t y and p r o h i b i t i o n " (p. 132). Even though c h u r c h suppers are f r i e n d l y and human (p. 328), the c h u r c h people w i l l not welcome a " p i o u s " M i l e s B j o r n s t a m (p. 318), and Washington " v e r y unhappy and l o n e l y " (p. 4 2 7 ) . c h u r c h e s , t h e i r b e l i e f s , and church members make C a r o l S i n c l a i r Lewis damns the practices. I n A r r o w s m i t h (1925), s c e p t i c i s m i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the h e r o , M a r t i n A r r o w s m i t h , who argues t h a t " t r u t h i s a s k e p t i c a l a t t i t u d e to l i f e " (p. 284). The p o s i t i v e elements of L e w i s ' s b e l i e f s a r e e x p r e s s e d i n t h i s nor e l , o r i g i n a l l y named The Gods of M a r t i n A r r o w s m i t h . Q xhe book shows Arrowsmith's 1S and s e l f l e s s d e d i c a t i o n t o t r u t h . spiritual I t i s a "moralistic allegory j" -'1 8 a P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s w i t h the T w e n t i e t h Century man of p i e t y i n pur- s u i t of t h e T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y d e i t y , s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h . new Red C r o s s K n i g h t , s a v i n g l i v e s . on the o t h e r V i r t u e He i s the On one s i d e i s V i c e ( P i c k e r b a u g h ) , (Gottlieb). G o t t l i e b ' s name means ' l o v e of God', C h r i s t of the new r e l i g i o n , S c i e n c e . i n t e g r i t y , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and l o v e . and he i s the G o t t l i e b has i n t e l l e c t and He b e l i e v e s t h a t man i s not dijvine or i m m o r t a l , but a machine d e s i g n e d by God the m a t h e m a t i c i a n . prays: He "God g i v e me a q u i e t and r e l e n t l e s s anger a t p r e t e n c e and a l l p r e t e n t i o u s work and a l l work l e f t s l a c k or u n f i n i s h e d . . | . God g i v e me s t r e n g t h n o t t o t r u s t t o God!" (p. 139). The s c i e n t i s t advances mankind, but r e j e c t s respectability. He i s s i n c e r e l y a l t r u i s t i c , y e t people c o n s i d e r him a c r a n k . So he i s o l a t e s -54- h i m s e l f from a s o c i e t y which m e r e l y wants to keep t h i n g s as are. they He i s concerned w i t h h i s s c i e n t i f i c work, not i t s meta- p h y s i c a l or p h i l o s o p h i c a l meanings. A r r o w s m i t h works w i t h a f i n e i n t e l l i g e n c e and i n t e r e s t e d motives, even i n d e f e a t . dis- f a c i n g i s s u e s o f l i f e and death w i t h L e w i s ' s standards and integrity, l o y a l t i e s are c l e a r ; know where he s t a n d s , a p p r e c i a t e h i s frame of r e f e r e n c e . we Just as r e l i g i o n i s r e p e a t e d l y r i d i c u l e d by L e w i s , s c i e n c e i s one k i n d of t r u t h he c o n s i s t e n t l y r e c o g n i z e s ; he possessed "a humani s t i c f a i t h i n s c i e n c e and a c o n c e r n w i t h the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of man's 182 p e r f e c t i b i l i t y through h i s own efforts." p a r a d i s e on e a r t h , can a b o l i s h "war, S c i e n c e can make a p o v e r t y , c a s t e , uncouthness, i • nl83 clumsiness." L e w i s ' s s i n c e r i t y about s c i e n c e makes the book p o s i t i v e in i t s idealism. f a t e and I t - i s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l n o v e l , concerned w i t h f r e e w i l l , and man's s e a r c h f o r l i f e ' s s e c r e t s . p a r t of what S i n c l a i r L e w i s b e l i e v e d i n i s expressed p u b l i c h e a l t h , war, " l i e - h u n t e r s " , surgeons and scientists: (p. 266) c h a r a c t e r s a r e changeable -- though L e o r a r e t o r t s : I'm wealth, c u l t u r e , b e a u t y , l o v e , n a t u r e , the West, c u r s e i t , i s n ' t a n y t h i n g i n the w o r l d s i m p l e ? " to be c o n s i s t e n t . great i n Arrowsmith. There i s a m b i v a l e n c e i n A r r o w s m i t h c o n c e r n i n g power, s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r , A a mere woman." (p. 227) "Oh, The " I don't have There i s an important c o n f l i c t between s c i e n c e ( l e t t i n g h a l f the n a t i v e s be ' c o n t r o l s , ' and maybe d i e ) and humanity ( g i v i n g the phage t o every M a r t i n preaches t o h i m s e l f : islander). -55th e l o y a l t y of d i s s e n t , the f a i t h of b e i n g v e r y d o u b t f u l , the g o s p e l of not b a w l i n g g o s p e l s , the wisdom of a d m i t t i n g the p r o b a b l e i g n o r a n c e of one's s e l f and of everybody e l s e . (p. 237) R e f e r e n c e s to r e l i g i o n i n A r r o w s m i t h are-.-nearly always adverse. D e a l i n g w i t h a cadaver damages M a r t i n ' s " a l r e a d y f e e b l e b e l i e f i n man's d i v i n i t y and i m m o r t a l i t y " (p. 1 6 ) . "No s t e e r ever bellowed more enormously" than I r a H i n k l e y , the " b r i g h t and Happy C h r i s t i a n " (p. 15) who killing " r e v e r e n t i a l l y accepted e v e r y t h i n g " (p. 3 8 ) , who but l o v e s s i n g i n g hymns about b l o o d hates (p. 3 8 ) , and who is a "maniac" about the damned s o u l s o f t h e n a t i v e s (p. 380). Gottlieb mocks p r e a c h e r s and who t a l k meaninglessly about S i n and T r u t h Honesty (p. 144), and he w i l l not " s t o o p i n f e a r b e f o r e t h e i r God of Wrath" (p. 145). To win p a t i e n t s , a d o c t o r s h o u l d a t t e n d c h u r c h , he b e l i e v e s the s t u f f or n o t " (p. 184); and, once d i s t r u s t e d , M a r t i n i s a t t a c k e d by " a l l the f a s h i o n a b l e churches" S o n d e l i u s , the d y i n g a g n o s t i c , c r i t i c i s e s God "whether (p. 274). for laughingly p u t t i n g d i s e a s e i n t o the b e a u t i f u l t r o p i c s (p. 394). The book ends w i t h a h y p o c r i t e C h r i s t i a n e n j o y i n g the m i n i s t e r ' s g l o a t i n g : "The r i g h t e o u s , even the C h i l d r e n of L i g h t , they s h a l l be rewarded w i t h a g r e a t reward and t h e i r f e e t s h a l l w a l k i n g l a d n e s s , s a i t h the L o r d of H o s t s ; but the mockers, the Sons of B e l i a l , they s h a l l be s l a i n betimes and c a s t down i n t o darkness and f a i l u r e , and i n the busy marts s h a l l they be f o r g o t . " (p. The f i r s t p a r t o f Elmer Gantry (1927) d e s c r i b e s Elmer's B a p t i s t e d u c a t i o n , h i s o r d i n a t i o n , h i s f i r s t p u l p i t , and h i s escape from L u l u ; the second d e s c r i b e s h i s c a r e e r as an e v a n g e l i s t w i t h f a n t a s t i c Sharon F a l c o n e r ; the t h i r d d e s c r i b e s h i s e x p e r i e n c e of the New 464) -56Th ought and h i s r i s e i n Methodism, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e d e c l i n e o f h i s m a r r i a g e t o C l e o and h i s escape from H t e t t i e , who t h r e a t e n s t o b r i n g him t o p u b l i c r u i n , b u t who i s h e r s e l f r o u t e d a s , i n t h e f i n a l s e n t e n c e , Elmer promises: "We s h a l l y e t make t h e s e U n i t e d S t a t e s a moral n a t i o n . " ( p . 432) There i s some ambivalence i n Elmer G a n t r y , b u t i t i s c o m p l e t e l y overshadowed by L e w i s ' s c o n s t a n t d i s l i k e oM r e l i g i o n . He aimed t o g i v e r e l i g i o u s c h a r l a t a n r y a f a t a l blow i n a " d r a g o n - k i l l i n g exhibition," 184 " S t . George and t h e P a r s o n . " The b a t t l e i s b e l l i g e r e n t l y o n e - s i d e d -185 "a p a u s e l e s s s e r i e s of knockdowns." With " t h e b i g o t r y o f t h e a n t i -1 religious," o r L e w i s p o r t r a y s a s e r i e s o f wicked clergymen and con- f u s e d , i g n o r a n t , narrow-minded, and d u l l c h u r c h e s ; then he bashes them w i t h rough and tumble anger, and e x p e c t s a t o r n a d o o f boos and a p p l a u s e . L e w i s does n o t base h i s c r i t i c i s m on a deep u n d e r s t a n d i n g of C h r i s t i a n p h i l o s o p h y , b u t h i s c r i t i c i s m s of American religious p r a c t i c e s , even t h e d i s t o r t i o n s o f G a n t r y ' s c h u r c h , a r e based on 187 C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s , such a s : "Ye cannot s e r v e God and Mammon." His h i g h e s t p r a i s e o f t h e church o c c u r s when McGarry answers t h e q u e s t i o n : "Why have a c h u r c h a t a l l ? " I t has t h e unique p e r s o n a l i t y and t e a c h i n g s o f Jesus C h r i s t , and t h e r e i s something i n J e s u s , t h e r e i s somet h i n g i n t h e way he spoke, t h e r e i s something i n t h e f e e l i n g o f a man when he suddenly has t h a t i n e x p r e s s i b l e e x p e r i e n c e o f knowing t h e M a s t e r and h i s p r e s e n c e , which makes the c h u r c h o f Jesus d i f f e r e n t from any o t h e r merely human i n s t i t u t i o n o r i n s t r u m e n t whatsoever! Jesus i s n o t s i m p l y g r e a t e r and w i s e r than S o c r a t e s or V o l t a i r e ; he i s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t . Anybody can i n t e r p r e t and t e a c h S o c r a t e s or V o l t a i r e — i n s c h o o l s or books o r c o n v e r s a t i o n . But t o i n t e r p r e t t h e p e r s o n a l i t y and t e a c h i n g s o f J e s u s r e q u i r e s an e s p e c i a l l y c a l l e d , chosen, t r a i n e d , c o n s e c r a t e d body o f men, u n i t e d i n an e s p e c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n -- t h e c h u r c h . ( p . 376) -57Elmer G a n t r y i s a f o r m i d a b l e warning a g a i n s t h y p o c r i s y , s k i n - d e e p c o n v e r s i o n , and a narrow s u p e r f i c i a l C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r e . The p i o u s humbugs succeed, and the good m i n i s t e r s f a i l ; Elmer's church i s not i n t e r e s t e d i n r a t i o n a l , h o n e s t , humble, t o l e r a n t , humane i d e a s or p e r s o n s . The book i s an account of morbid symptoms of r e l g i o n i n a l a n d where t h e r e l i g i o u s s p i r i t i s dead. No fraud, quackery, h y p o c r i s y , or i n i q u i t y i s ' o m i t t e d -- " n o t h i n g i s ^ m i s s i n g but religion."•'•88 p o r Elmer G a n t r y i s not a symbol of the death 189 of r e l i g i o n ; h i s essence i s s w i n i s h n e s s . I n h i s essay " S i n c l a i r L e w i s and the Method of H a l f - T r u t h s , " S c h o r e r says Elmer i s " t o t a l death."190 He r e p r e s e n t s a decayed, dehumanized, barren r e l i g i o n ; and he has no genuine human v a l u e s t o f i g h t a g a i n s t . On the f r i n g e s o f the n a r r a t i v e , L e w i s p e r m i t s a few shadowy f i g u r e s of good, such as S h a l l a r d and P e n g i l l y , t o appear, but they do n o t impede Elmer's "barbarous r i s e from c o u n t r y boob t o i n f l u e n t i a l preacher."191 L e w i s shares S h a l l a r d ' s b e l i e f i n i n d i v i d u a l freedom and P e n g i l l y ' s sense of r i g h t e o u s n e s s , but he i s more i n t e r e s t e d i n a clergyman who can r e j e c t such i d e a l s . L e w i s i m p l i e s f a c e t s of human b e h a v i o u r t h a t he admires by s a t i r i z i n g f a c e t s of human b e h a v i o u r t h a t he h a t e s i n Elmer G a n t r y , t h a t b r u t a l , s e n s u a l , l y i n g , s n e a k i n g b u l l y , w i t h o u t honour, decency or a s p i r a t i o n . He i s monster, a g r o t e s q u e 192 h o b g o b l i n , a c a r i c a t u r e , " t o o s a t a n i c t o be r e a l . " i s inhuman, w i t h o u t f u l f i l m e n t . His sexuality He i s i n c a p a b l e of f e e l i n g ("Elmer c o u l d n o t c o n s i d e r the c o n v e r t s human" p. 119) or thought ("he had n e v e r been^sure but t h a t t h e r e might be something t o t h e d o c t r i n e s he had preached" (p. 2 2 9 ) , though he has shrewdness and a n i m a l c u n n i n g . To him, p r e a c h i n g i s an easy j o b , w i t h "no b a c k - t a l k or c r o s s e x a m i n a t i o n a l l o w e d . " (p. 51) -5,8- " I may n o t , " Elmer m e d i t a t e d , "be as s w e l l a s c h o l a r as o l d Toomis, b u t I can i n v e n t a l o t of s t u n t s and e v e r y t h i n g t o wake t h e church up and a t t r a c t t h e crowds, and t h a t ' s worth a whole l o t more than a l l t h i s yowl i n g about t h e prophets and t h e o l o g y l " ( p . 278) 193 Elmer Gantry i s "a mendacious w o l f i n p a s t o r a l c l o t h i n g " , a melodramatic f i g u r e c a p a b l e of f o r c e f u l i n f l u e n c e . He i s f r i g h t e n i n g 194 because he r e p r e s e n t s t h e " s i n i s t e r f o r c e s of r i g h t e o u s n e s s " , the s e l f - i n t e r e s t of some c h u r c h l e a d e r s . He i s p a r t of t h e " r e l i g i o u s 195 vaudeville",' and c a r r i e s t h e r e l i g i o n of success i n t o t h e c h u r c h , 196 197 making a d e a l w i t h Mammon. He i s "Mr. O p p o r t u n i s t ' ^ insisting t h a t a " S o u l Saver" must " s e l l t h e goods." ( p . 208) Elmer resembles " t h e v u l g a r e s t contemporary pulpit-thumping m a t e r i a l i s t " ' - type of He i s of t h e same c l a y as h i s p e o p l e , n o t s e t a p a r t by l e a r n i n g or i n t e g r i t y or s p i r i t u a l i t y : "Mr. G a n t r y , why don't you b e l i e v e i n God?" ( p . 367) of He i s i n c a p a b l e deep s e l f - e x a m i n a t i o n . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , D. A a r o n has written: The weight of t h e s a t i r e f a l l s on an e d u c a t i o n a l system t h a t p e r m i t s an i g n o r a n t boor t o pass as educated, and a cunning a n i m a l , t o o t h i c k h e a d e d t o be s c e p t i c a l , t o p r o f e s s a t h e o l o g y t h a t he does not understand and t e a c h a C h r i s t i a n i t y which he understands o n l y i n i t s f o r m u l a s and i t s p r o f i t a b l e fmiits. Elmer Gantry "had, i n f a c t , got e v e r y t h i n g from t h e c h u r c h and Sunday S c h o o l , e x c e p t , perhaps, any l o n g i n g whatever for decency and k i n d n e s s and r e a s o n . " ( p . 28) him i n t h e churches d e s c r i b e d i n t h e n o v e l . H i s f a i l i n g s promote An e g o t i s t w i t h o u t any c a l l i n g , s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , or i d e a s , he somehow b e l i e v e s ( l i k e Sharon F a l c o n e r ) t h a t God w i l l t u r n h i s s i n s t o g l o r y , ( p . 174) be " t h e most p o w e r f u l man s i n c e the b e g i n n i n g of h i s t o r y ^ He w i l l .... -59"l'm g o i n g t o be t h e emperor o f A m e r i c a -- maybe o f t h e w o r l d . " (p. 410) We do n o t b e l i e v e i n Elmer as a p e r s o n ; he i s an e f f i g y w i t h out human l i k e n e s s d e s i g n e d f o r a p u b l i c w i t c h b u r n i n g : fried i n o i l . " ^ 2 "The p r e a c h e r S i n c l a i r Lewis, the revolted p u r i t a n , attacks the whole c h u r c h a t Elmer's l e v e l . He i s n o t b e i n g n o v e l i s t b u t p r o s e c u t i n g 201 attorney. There a r e moments when he h i n t s a t opposing n o t i o n s — the j o y o f c h u r c h C h r i s t m a s , t h e h a p p i n e s s o f Elmer's mother a t h i s conversion, saving and t h e t e n d e r n e s s of o l d p r e a c h e r s who b e l i e v e they a r e t h e w o r l d . Even Sharon F a l c o n e r w o r l d ' s "poor t r o u b l e d s o u l s " ( p . 226). recognises t h e need t o h e l p t h e Among C h r i s t i a n s a r e honest t h i n k e r s l i k e B r u n o Z e c h l i n and s i n c e r e s e a r c h e r s l i k e F r a n k S h a l l a r d ; and t h e c h u r c h has elements of p o e t r y and power. Elmer i s moved by the beauty o f l a n d and sea; he r e j o i c e s i n h i s work o f p r e a c h i n g God's word and a b o l i s h i n g s o c i a l e v i l s . Nevertheless, t h e book i s p r i m a r i l y a c a r i c a t u r e o f A m e r i c a n r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s which Lewis sees as b e i n g b r u t a l and h a t e f u l . His attack i s i n l i n e with a long t r a d i t i o n of r e l i g i o u s criticism. The P r o t e s t a n t i s m of Lewis's upbringing grew f i n a l ^ out of L u t h e r ' s and C a l v i n ' s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e Roman C a t h o l i c Church. Their doctrines of the priesthood o f a l l b e l i e v e r s and man's need o f Grace were brought t o America by t h e P i l g r i m s and P u r i t a n s , who had r e j e c t e d t h e e s t a b l i s h e d churches i n Europe. t h e r e were d i s p u t e s From the f i r s t , over c h u r c h and B i b l e a u t h o r i t y -- by what r i g h t c o u l d a c h u r c h f o r c e d o c t r i n e and conduct on a b e l i e v e r w i t h light?" The second g e n e r a t i o n P u r i t a n s were " g o s p e l - g l u t t e d , "inner sermon- 202 proof," and i n t e r e s t e d i n l i v i n g w e l l i n A m e r i c a . A c q u i r i n g of r i c h e s was a c c e p t e d as a s i g n o f grace by t h e P u r i t a n s , even i n t h e OA s i n f u l world. K i l l i n g o f I n d i a n s ("limbs of Satan") O J and e x p l o i t i n g t h e i r l a n d demonstrated man's courage, i n g e n u i t y , and s e l f - r e l i a n c e , -60r a t h e r than God's p l a n . "Where do the m i s s i o n a r i e s come i n t o your p i c t u r e ? " "They don't!"204 The righteousness "My P u r i t a n s o u l - s e a r c h i n g l e d b o t h t o overweening s e l f and t o n e u r o t i c i s m i n f e a r of an a r b i t r a r y inhumane God: h e a r t i s f i l t h and p o l l u t i o n , contaminated w i t h loathsome s o f t n e s s 205 and decay!" Preachers exaggerated man's h e l p l e s s n e s s and S c o t t i s h P r e s b y t e r i a n s took C a l v i n i s t d o c t r i n e t o the H i l l s , where the Book o f G e n e s i s was account o f man's o r i g i n s , and s i n , and Appalachian h e l d t o be the o n l y p o s s i b l e to the Mid-West p l a i n s , where developed the P r a i r i e P r o t e s t a n t i s m t h a t Lewis knew. The A m e r i c a n C o l o n i e s became more w o r l d l y and commercial -" t h e man and of b u s i n e s s i s not o n l y n o b i l i t y but judge and p r i e s t " the gap between t h e i r p r a c t i c a l l i f e and t h e i r symbolic 2 0 aura ^ -- increased, though m i n i s t e r s i n s i s t e d the more s t r o n g l y t h a t New England was "an 207 emblem of God's thought." God's Word was the B i b l e , and the P u r i t a n s were deeply concerned w i t h words, but not always w i t h the i d e a s behind the words. "Does a l l t h a t mean a n y t h i n g ? Or i s i t j u s t a r a s h of 208 words?" T h e i r j u g g l e d terms of d i a l e c t i c d i v e r g e d from r e a l and P a i n e mocked " t h e C h r i s t i a n system of a r i t h m e t i c , t h a t t h r e e one, experience, are and one i s t h r e e . " J e f f e r s o n wrote: ' The r e l i g i o u s b u i l d e r s have so d i s t o r t e d and deformed the d o c t r i n e s of J e s u s , so m u f f l e d them i n m y s t i c i s m s , f a n c i e s , and falsehoods, have c a r i c a t u r e d them i n t o forms so monstrous and i n c o n c e i v a b l e , as t o shock r e a s o n a b l e t h i n k e r s . 2 1 0 2 0 9 Even though t h e r e were changes and d e v e l o p m e n t s _ i n American churches throughout the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , S i n c l a i r L e w i s i s shocked by t h e i r l a c k of reason and t h e i r undue i n f l u e n c e : ' i t i s t h i n k e r s l i k e Dr. /Elmer/ G a n t r y . . . who f i n a l l y determine our philosophy, -61- our i d e a l s , our judgment i n l i t e r a r y and a r t i s t i c m a t t e r s , and 211 our e t h i c s i n b u s i n e s s . " L i k e many o f h i s contemporaries, L e w i s r e j e c t s t h e churches and t h e i r dogma, b u t remains aware of t h e f o r c e o f C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s . In t h e moral c o n f u s i o n o f a c h a r a c t e r such as George F. B a b b i t t we see something o f the dilemma of modern man -- eager t o g i v e h i m s e l f over t o complete enjoyment o f them because o f vague s c r u p l e s o f c o n s c i e n c e ; b e l i e v i n g i n t h e American i d e a l s o f Work and P r o g r e s s , w i t h o u t any r e a l o b j e c t i n l i f e t o make them w o r t h w h i l e ; d e p r i v e d o f t h e p o s s i b l i t y of r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n , yet f u l l of i n d e f i n i t e l o n g i n g s and d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s ; s t u m b l i n g i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f husband and f a t h e r , o n l y to be caught i n a d u l l and p e t t y r o u t i n e o f domestic b i c k e r i n g and v u l g a r i t y . T r u l y , t o paraphrase t h e b r i l l i a n t words o f Matthew A r n o l d , B a b b i t t i s l o s t between two w o r l d s , t h e one dead t o h i m f o r e v e r , and t h e other powerless t o be born. -'2 One o f S i n c l a i r L e w i s ' s c a t c h i n g t h e temper of h i s t i m e s . 2 prime g i f t s was h i s s k i l l i n He understood t h e moral c o n f u s i o n and t h e d i s l i k e o f r e l i g i o n i n B a b b i t t and many modern A m e r i c a n s . He was " t h e c o n s c i e n c e o f h i s g e n e r a t i o n , d e s c r i b i n g the 214 s e c u l a r p i l g r i m a g e of the twentieth century; b u t i n one n o v e l he d e s c r i b e s A m e r i c a i n t h e 1840's. Because o f i t s h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g , The God Seeker (1949) i s d i f f e r e n t from L e w i s s o t h e r n o v e l s , b u t t h e u s u a l a m b i g u i t i e s a r e e v i d e n t . The e a r l y s e t t l e r s o f M i n n e s o t a a r e p o r t r a y e d as 1 -62- v u l g a r , i g n o r a n t , and b i g o t e d : "When any of these outlaw breeds -- n i g g e r s or I n d i a n s or Jews or the Y t a l i a n s or the w i l d I r i s h or any of them - - s e e m l i k e t h e y ' r e b r i g h t and decent and even r e l i g i o u s t h e y ' r e j u s t i m i t a t i n g us, l i k e monkeys!" (p.217) o f t e n a r e bad farmers: They " S i x out of t e n b r e a k e r s of l a n d a r e no good -- o t h e r w i s e they wouldn't have f l e d t o .the w i l d e r n e s s " (p. 299). ness" They a r e f u l l of C h u z z l e w i t " o r a t o r i c a l (p. 109): rambunctious- but t h i s gang of farmers and f u r t r a d e r s , s u r v e y e r s and s t o r e k e e p e r s , w i t h a blacksmith, a country school teacher, a t a i l o r , a d o c t o r - d r u g g i s t , and the m i s s i o n a r y Gideon Pond, founded a j u s t , o r d e r l y , and e n d u r i n g commonwealth, (p. 368) The w h i t e s e t t l e r s a r e b l e s s e d (p. 131), but s t e a l the I n d i a n s ' l a n d (p. 128) f i n e gun, (p. 128). "We they i n exchange f o r " f i n e k e t t l e , f i n e b l a n k e t , the b i g pox, the s m a l l pox and r e l i g i o n " The cunning t r a d e r , Caesar L a n a r k , t e l l s Aaron: have g i v e n the I n d i a n s consumption, i n f l u e n z a , measles, s y p h i l i s , and the hymns of C h a r l e s Wesley" (p. 177). -63- In the n o v e l , Lewis' u s u a l l y sympathises w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . They a r e "grave and e r e c t " and d i g n i f i e d : " t h e s e t a l l and softly s t e p p i n g men d i d not seem i n f e r i o r t o God's own chosen p e o p l e the (p. 128). Yankees" heaven? — Maybe they a r e of the e l e c t and go t o The I n d i a n r i t e of 'hambeday' i s a form of God-seeking, a c o n s c i o u s n e s s of d i v i n e power (p. 1 7 6 ) ; M e d i c i n e S p i d e r i s the e t e r n a l Church Mother (p. 210). However,there i s much c r i t i c i s m of t h e " S i o u x or Dakota savage I n d i a n s , h e l l - f l a m e d , g o r g e - r a i s i n g , m u r d e r i n g , a d u l t e r o u s , s a b b a t h - b r e a k i n g sons of B e l i a l " The ones who (p. 4 5 ) . l i v e b e h i n d t h e agency a r e " d i r t y beggars" (p. 118) t o A a r o n , " i n e r a d i c a b l y damned" (p. 119) t o the m i n i s t e r . When B l a c k Wolf i s murdered by t h e Ojibway, A a r o n h a t e d a l l I n d i a n s and was t e r r i f i e d of them w h i l e he y e t l o v e d B l a c k Wolf and was dismayed t h a t h i s r e v o l t had been ended by o u t l a w murder. N o t h i n g seemed c l e a r . . . . (p. 321) A a r o n Gadd, the God Seeker, i s f u l l of u n c e r t a i n t i e s ; he i s as changeable as S i n c l a i r L e w i s : "He was the immemorial who h a t e d t h e K i n g b u t l o v e d the crown" (p. 2 2 ) . One minute he sees the C h r i s t i a n C a p t a i n Pipman as "a s p l e n d i d f e l l o w and no Ought I t o be a s o l d i e r ? " (p. 295): "Pipman i s a c l o d h o p p e r ! rebel the n e x t minute, A a r o n prig. thinks, No, I ' l l never be a s o l d i e r ! " (p. 296). When he reads B l a c k W o l f ' s a n a l y s i s of C h r i s t i a n i t y , " t h e s u b t l e t i e s of tEeason b e d e v i l e d him f o r days" (p. 275). "Sometimes he was h e a r t i l y f o r B l a c k W o l f , sometimes he complained t o S e l e n e " ( p . 318). He i s c o n f u s e d about h i s l o v e f o r Huldah and h i s l o v e f o r S e l e n e : "his p l a n s f o r her changed every hour" (p. 318). m a r r i e d , Selene says t o him: you h e r e t i c ! " (p. 372) A f t e r they a r e " I don't change coaches l i k e you -- He r e p l i e s : "There a r e many t h i n g s I -64- don't ever expect t o know, and I'm preaching tight. not going t o devote m y s e l f t o about them but t o b u i l d i n g wood sheds so t r u e and . . ." (p. 380) S e l e n e L a n a r k i s " h a l f gypsy and h a l f snob" (p. 202). She d e s c r i b e s h e r s e l f : The e l e g a n t S a y - l a y - n a y , the f i n e l a d y , w i t h her f a i r j e w e l e d hand h o l d i n g the s p a r k l i n g b e a k e r ! A m i s e r a b l e b r u l e e -- a squaw t h a t ought to be t o t i n g wood! That's me1 (p. 78) "I'm c l e a n flummuxed about i t . Sometimes I l o v e the w h i t e s . . . sometimes I l o v e the Dakota." (p. 78) Her f a t h e r , Caesar L a n a r k , " t a l l and Marcus A u r e l i u s brow" (p. 167) amiable, slender, with a seems t o be "hundreds of y e a r s o l d : l e a r n e d , sharp-eyed" (p. 167); but he cheats d r i v e s out h i s d a u g h t e r , and the I n d i a n s , i s "a f a i r l y competent a t h e i s t " (p. He i s the spokesman of the s e c u l a r view -- but Lewis seems by t o have l o s t p a r t of h i s f a i t h i n w o r l d l y wisdom. L a n a r k , and h a t e him" S q u i r e Harge, whose f i r s t m i s s i o n was against l i f e ' s current: earnestly sincere: (p. (p. 185). " I do l o v e the L o r d God and 185). a cave, i s a t h r e s h e r " R e l i g i o n i s not peace i n a v a l l e y f i g h t i n g on the windy h i l l t o p s " 1949 Aaron r e f l e c t s ; "When I know them enough, I t h i n k I ' l l l a u g h a t the S q u i r e , l o v e him; and I ' l l admire Mr. 185). He i s courageous but and w i t h my whole s o u l , and I want t o make a savory s a c r i f i c e t o him, but Satan comes and makes me b o t c h i t " (p. 183). mockery (p. 6 1 ) . He i n v i t e s a d m i r a t i o n " I n h u m i l i t y and i r a t e c h e e r f u l n e s s " (p. he f a i l s t o c o n v e r t the I n d i a n s : g l o r y of the L o r d " his preaching (p. 45) (p. 222). i s wrong: and 190), but he i s " c i r c l e d round w i t h " I m p a t i e n t l y p a t i e n t " (p. 191), " t h e p u l p i t i s where you t e a r o f f the the -65garments of i n i q u i t y and p r i d e , and show t h e b l a c k , c l o t t e d e v i l beneath t h e s h i n i n g raiment" (p. 147). Aaron i s embarrassed by t h e nakedness o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s ' p i e t y (p. 145). When he goes h u n t i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s , he keeps " t e l l i n g h i m s e l f t h a t he ought t o be g i v i n g them a h o l y message, but every hour he was l e s s c e r t a i n what t h a t message might be" (p. 2 4 1 ) . The I n d i a n s t h i n k t h a t i f A a r o n l e a r n s humbly t o share t h e i r l i f e , and l i s t e n t o t h e s p i r i t s o f a n i m a l s and streams and w i n d , "he might y e t become a saved s o u l and a Man" (p. 2 4 1 ) . The f r e s h a i r i s a sacrament. The l a n d i s b e a u t i f u l : There was t h e s o f t g o l d o f t h e p r a i r i e autumn, b a t h i n g him,.washing out a l l t h e c a r e f u l meannesses o f t h e t i g h t - f o l d e d h i l l s ; soft gold, radiant gold i n waves, and t h e h i g h cumulus c l o u d s overhead, ( p . 126) But t h e r e i s a l s o f e a r — " o v e r t h e drab immensity o f t h e l a n d comes the p r a i r i e f e a r , t h e f e a r o f s o l i t u d e " (p. 1 2 7 ) . There i s danger -- " t h e snow was t h i c k e r , h a r d e r d r i v e n a g a i n s t t h e i r f a c e s by a v i c i o u s wind" (p. 328). Running from the m i s s i o n , A a r o n and S e l e n e a r e caught i n a snowstorm. "The steady w a i l o f t h e b l i z z a r d s l a c k e n e d , thought he heard . . . t h e v o i c e of a woman r e a d i n g and he from t h e B i b l e . He caught some of t h e words. . .." (p. 333) The B i b l e words a r e a a b l e s s i n g t o him. R e l i g i o n i s communicated by words, and he c a n get drunk on words (p. 1 8 5 ) ; y e t he i s t r o u b l e d by words: I get a philosophy t h a t i s n ' t b u i l t o f uncemented His brother, the j u s t but impatient words?" "Can't ( p . 222) E l i j a h , says t h a t "such words as C h a r i t y , I d e a l s , Democracy, Freedom, F a i t h , L o y a l t y , P a t r i o t i s m , Industry, R e s p o n s i b i l i t y " are " l i k e the caresses warm but v o m i t a b l e " (p. 386). of a p r o s t i t u t e , -66- In t h i s s e n t e n c e , S i n c l a i r Lewis seems t o be under- c u t t i n g e v e r y t h i n g t h a t he has s a i d and w r i t t e n i n f o r t y y e a r s . Of c o u r s e i t i s o n l y a q u o t a t i o n from a f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r , b u t doubts about L e w i s ' s b e l i e f s p e r s i s t . I n s p i t e of the t i t l e , i s a g r e a t d e a l o f a n t i - r e l i g i o u s sentiment there i n the novel, beginning w i t h t h e b l e a k and v i c i o u s C h r i s t i a n , U r i e l Gadd. He seemed t o A a r o n l i k e t h e God o f Wrath as he b l a r e d , " S a l v a t i o n i s t h e only i m p o r t a n t t h i n g i n t h i s w o r l d I And I see my own sons and my daughter w a l l o w i n g i n s i n and i g n o r a n c e , t o o muddleheaded t o r e a l i z e they a l r e a d y scorched by the flames o f h e l l , which i s t h e reward o f them t h a t r e s i s t t h e t e n d e r i n v i t a t i o n of t h e L o r d J e s u s , and now g i t out and c u r r y them h o s s e s l " (P. 7) A a r o n Gadd i s sometimes f i l l e d with unnatural fears because o f r e l i g i o n -- "doom i s doom" ( p . 205) -- and he cannot reason h i m s e l f i n t o r e l i g i o u s p a s s i o n ( p . 9 4 ) : b e a p r i g t o be a good C h r i s t i a n " (p.. 229). "Oh do you have t o C h r i s t i a n s e c t s a r e seen as " v i c i o u s l y b e l l i g e r e n t t r i b e s " ( p . 9 9 ) , and t h e Reverend Noah Cudway curses them a l l (p. 91). R e l i g i o u s t a l k i s a fashion (p. 232). Missionaries are f u l l o f l u s t and h a t r e d : try "Look! I f they really t o i m i t a t e J e s u s , why do they h a t e t h e s i n f u l heathen?" ( p . 2 4 5 ) . C h r i s t i a n s , "so s e l f - s a t i s f i e d " , l o v e t o r e a d about t h e " F u t u r e Punishment o f t h e Wicked U n a v o i d a b l e " ( p . 257). meanness" ( p . 345) make e v e r y t h i n g shameful. The "pure i n B l a c k Wolf d e s c r i b e s C h r i s t i a n i t y as "an i d o l a t r o u s r e l i g i o n w i t h many gods" ( p . 2 6 6 ) , a "borrowed and fable-crammed r e l i g i o n ( o r r a t h e r , s e t o f r e l i g i o n s ) " (p. 271), and C h r i s t i a n s as "moral d w a r f s " ( p . 268) f u l l of c o r r u p t i o n . The God Seeker i s c l e a r l y a n t i - r e l i g i o u s , b u t , u n l i k e Elmer G a n t r y , L e w i s ' s ambivalence had c r e p t i n t o t h i s a s p e c t o f h i s t h i n k i n g and f e e l i n g , and t h e n o v e l i s oddly p r o - r e l i g i o u s a t t i m e s : -67- "Most m i n i s t e r s a r e such n i c e f o l k s -- d r e a d f u l l y s i m p l e , f r i e n d l y and good" (p. 391). but .Aaron has a n o t i o n " t h a t the Church was not merely a f o r t r e s s a g a i n s t the y e l p i n g h o s t s of h e l l , a l s o a p l e a s a n t and even mannerly c o l l e c t i o n of people" Aaron's s o u l i s l i k e a l o n e l y l i t t l e dog, s h e l t e r of the m i s s i o n ( p . 5 7 ) . f a m i l y a l l over the w o r l d Conversion (p. 1 6 ) . matters and l a b o r i n g " (p. 191) c o u l d have would be t o i n t e r p r e t A the missionary's " y e a r s , decades, g e n e r a t i o n s , w a i t i n g and so t h a t people may " B r o t h e r , you c a n ' t know how of the e t e r n a l word" f e e l the need f o r r e l i g i o n : t h i r s t y I get f o r the s p a r k l i n g waters (p. 9 7 ) . A a r o n Gadd sees Jesus C h r i s t as a man, but s t i l l God. (p. 95). the g l o r i o u s (p. 5 4 ) , and A a r o n i s moved by the m i s s i o n a r i e s ' enduring patience: be" there To Deacon Popplewood, " t h e to a l l the poor i g n o r a n t f o l k s " (p. 1 6 ) . l i f e i s noble (p. 3 2 3 ) . c l e a n s i n g (p. 4 9 ) , and t a l k i n g about "heavenly deepest h a p p i n e s s t h a t a man w i l l o f God s e e k i n g t h e warmth and (p. 68), the "Good P e o p l e " p r o s p e c t s of the f a i t h f u l " (p. 1 5 ) . He l o n g s t o be a p a r t of the m i s s i o n a r y i s a miraculous i s j o y i n p r a y e r and but "God was l i k e a brother, f i r e , and as unapproachable as f i r e must Even though A a r o n c o n s i d e r s Samuel W i l l i a m Pond's words u n r e a l and m e s m e r i z i n g , they a r e moving: "The t r u e r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e i s , f i r s t , anrv^unmistakable p e r c e p t i o n of God, through the r e a s o n and through a l l the senses. . . .Then, second, i t i s a wondering r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t God i s so much g r e a t e r than a n y t h i n g e l s e t h a t we know or can know — b r i g h t e r than l i g h t , v a s t e r than the u n i v e r s e y e t smalfcrthan t h e bee, and more t e n d e r than a l l human l o v e t o g e t h e r s i n c e time was; and t h i r d , i t i s a s u r r e n d e r t o God so complete t h a t you s i m p l y can not remember what i t was l i k e t o have been o u t s i d e the r a p t u r e of i t s m a j e s t i c power" (p. 343). -68- A a r o n f e e l s awed and a f r a i d under t h e s p e l l o f Samuel W i l l i a m Pond's a d d r e s s , b u t he t h i n k s : i f t h e y ' r e p o e t i c and n o b l e , a r e s t i l l "These words of h i s , even o n l y words. . . . I'm g o i n g t o keep Selene from b e i n g mesmerized" ( p . 3 4 3 ) . L i k e H u l d a h , he b e l i e v e s , "The Ponds a r e w o n d e r f u l l y devout, b u t . . . t h e y ' r e wrong" (p. 3 4 3 ) . Always A a r o n r e t u r n s t o t h e problem of words and t h e exp r e s s i o n of t r u t h . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , t h e words of S i n c l a i r Lewis w i l l be a n a l y s e d t o see i f h i s s t y l e changes i n k i n d and i n t e n s i t y when d e a l i n g w i t h r e l i g i o n . -69F o o t n o t e s t o Chapter I I I •L^Edener, p. 3 0 . W a r r e n Beck, "How good i s S i n c l a i r L e w i s ? " C o l l e g e E n g l i s h . I X (January 1948), 173. 1 7 6 1 7 7 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 130. 1 7 8 Mencken, Prejudices: 1 7 9 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 381. 1 8 0 G . H . L e w i s , p. 256. 1 8 1 G r e b s t e i n , p. 87. 1 8 2 I b i d . , p. 100. 1 8 3 T h e Job, p. 130. F i f t h , p. 110. C a r l Van Doren, Saturday Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , 3 (March 12, 1927), 639. 1 8 4 L i t t r e l l , New R e p u b l i c , 50 (March 16, 1927), 108. 1 8 5 1 8 6 L i p p m a n n , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 93. 1 8 7 M a t t h e w v i . 24. 1 8 8 W h i p p l e , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 74. 1 8 9 G r e b s t e i n , p. 102. 190 s c h o r e r , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s and t h e Method o f H a l f T r u t h s " ( 1 9 5 6 ) , E s s a y s , p. 52. M a r k S c h o r e r , " H a l f - T r u t h s , " E s s a y s , p. 54. 1 9 1 1 9 2 d e n e r , p. 129. E 1 9 3 G r i f f i n , p. 39. 1 9 5 G r i f f i n , Nobel Winners, p. 42. 196 LyH;U.S.,..p.q228. 1 9 7 G e o f f r e y Moore, " L o s t Romantic," E s s a y s , p. 159. l J o s e p h Wood K r u t c h , "Mr. B a b b i t t ' s S p i r i t u a l Guide" 9 8 (1927) E s s a y s , p. 36. D a n i e l A a r o n , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s : M a i n S t r e e t , " The American N o v e l , ed. W a l l a c e Stegner (New York: B a s i c Books, 1965), p. 637. 1 9 9 -70- 2 0 0 Littrell, p. 108. A a r o n , p. o J 7 . R.W. H o r t o n and W.H. Edwards, Backgrounds o f American L i t e r a r y Thought (New York; A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1952), p. 41. 202 2 0 3 I b i d . , p. 43. 2 0 4 G o d Seeker, p. 299. 2 0 5 I b i d . , p. 148. 2 0 6 I b i d . , p. 262. C h a r l e s F e i d e l s o n , Symbolism and American L i t e r a t u r e (Chicago: C h i c a g o U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1953), p. 80. 2 G 7 2 0 8 G o d Seeker, p. 391. 2 0 9 F e i d e l s o n , p. 97. T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n , The W r i t i n g s o f Thomas J e f f e r s o n T a y l o r and Maury, 1854), V o l . 7, p. 210. 210 (Washington: S i n c l a i r L e w i s , The Man Who Knew C o o l i d g e (New York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1928), p. 253. 2 1 1 2 -*- Horton and Edwards, p. 48. 2 2 1 3 G r e b s t e i n , Preface. 2 1 4 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 267. CHAPTER IV L e w i s ' s s t y l e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of h i s r e l i g i o u s as W i l f r i e d Edener demonstrates von S i n c l a i r L e w i s . criticism, i n D i e R e l i g i o n s k r i t i k i n den Romanen L e w i s ' s aim i s t o make the r e a d e r share h i s f e e l i n g s and p o i n t of v i e w , and sometimes h i s w r i t i n g becomes crude propaganda. There i s a " c o a r s e n i n g of s t y l e " i n Elmer G a n t r y , most b r a y i n g , g u f f a w i n g , b e l c h i n g n o v e l " i n American "The literature. L e w i s s e l e c t s and p u b l i c i z e s A m e r i c a n f a u l t s , but h i s v a l u e s except f o r the most b a s i c ones i n v o l v i n g h o n e s t y , i n t e g r i t y , j u s t i c e , and k i n d ness a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t and h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s not p r o f o u n d . The key t o L e w i s ' s s t y l e i s d i c t i o n , e x p e c i a l l y the p i v o t a l a d j e c t i v e ("pop-eyed m a i d e n s " - ^ ) , 2 t h e adverb, and t h e v e r b : Wrenn's mustache i s " u n s u c c e s s f u l . " He approaches a t h e a t e r " p r i m l y . " H i s l a n d l a d y e a t s enormous heaps of food " s l o w l y and r e s e n t f u l l y . " H i s room i s " a b j e c t l y r e s p e c t a b l e . " He p l a n s " c o y l y i m p r o b a b l e t r i p s . " Wrenn " t r o t s " t o t h e t h e a t e r , " p e e r s " a t the t i c k e t - t a k e r , and " t r e m b l e s " i n t o t h e doorway.217 Lewis d e s c r i b e s C h r i s t i a n s w i t h a tone of amused superiority: a churchgoer i s p r e s e n t e d as "a b l e a c h e d man, g o a t i s h w h i s k e r s and a s a n c t i m o n i o u s w h i t e n e c k - c l o t h , who puritanically, ethically, Roomily, with was r e l i g i o u s l y a t h e i s t i c . " 2 1 8 j ^ e con- s c i e n c e of Gopher P r a i r i e , Mrs. Bogart,'was not the a c i d type of Good Influence. She was the s o f t , damp, f a t , s i g h i n g , i n d i g e s t i v e , m e l a n c h o l y , d e p r e s s i n g l y h o p e f u l kind."219 clinging, i h e clergyman i n B a b b i t t , Dr. Drew, "had a l r e a d y f l o p p e d down b e s i d e h i s d e s k - c h a i r .... B a b b i t t a l s o k n e l t , w h i l e Drew g l o a t e d . " ^ 2 2 Sometimes Lewis uses word-play: " I am E p i s c o p a l i a n -2 2*1 n o t so much H i g h Church as h i g h l y i n f r e q u e n t c h u r c h . " + Some- times t h e s y n t a x of h i s sentences i s marked by i n c o n g r u i t y : "He kept stammering t h e most absurd p l a t i t u d e s about how happy h i s mother must be i n heaven r e g a r d i n g which he d i d n o t seem t o have 929' v e r y r e c e n t or v e r y d e f i n i t e knowledge." p r e a c h e r s use meaningless ~ L e w i s ' s gas-bag phrases i n t h e i r sermons: " I hope t h a t i n t h e d e v o t i o n t o the i d e a l s of t h e B a p t i s t Church we s h a l l strive 223 ever onward and upward. . . ." and T h e i r c o n g r e g a t i o n s mix s l a n g doctrine: P r i c e s i s a l l g o i n g up so, Ah d e c l a r e , Ah was j u s t s a y i n g t o Lee Theresa Ah dunno what we're a l l g o i n g t o do i f the dear L o r d don't l o o k out f o r u s . 2 2 4 C h a r a c t e r s made f u n of by Lewis a r e g i v e n p e c u l i a r names (Mudge, Smeeth, Z i t t e r e l , P i c k e r b a u g h , Speezer) and odd mannerisms i n the t r a d i t i o n of D i c k e n s . g r a n d c h i l d r e n of the Americans speech ( L e w i s ' s people a r e the 225 i n Martin Chuzzlewit. ) Mrs. Mudge's v o i c e " f l o w e d on r e l e n t l e s s l y , w i t h o u t one comma, t i l l B a b b i t t was h y p n o t i z e d . ollllllways Her f a v o r i t e word was 226 . . ." 'always', which she pronounced C h a r a c t e r s a r e put i n e x t e r n a l s e t t i n g s which accentuate Lewis's a t t i t u d e s . The B a p t i s t church where t h e Reverend Mr. Z i t t e r e l d e l i v e r s "a p r a y e r i n f o r m i n g A l m i g h t y God o f t h e news of the p a s t week" i s " h a l f b a r n and h a l f Golpher P r a i r i e parlor. The s t r e a k y brown w a l l p a p e r was broken i n i t s d i s m a l sweep o n l y by framed texts." 2 2 7 •73C o l o u r s g i v e tone t o r e l i g i o u s s e t t i n g s : "the w a l l s were p a i n t e d c h e e r i l y i n t h r e e s t r a t a -- green, watery b l u e , and 228! khaki;'-' Elmer G a n t r y s c i t y church i s "a hideous gray-stone h u l k w i t h g r a v y - c o l o r e d windows . . . and a l t e r n a t e l a y e r s o f t i l e s 229 i n d i s t r e s s i n g r e d and green." The e v a n g e l i c a l temple i s f l a m - boyant -- "an immense s t r u c t u r e , b u i l t o f cheap k n o t t y p i n e , painted a h e c t i c red with gold s t r i p e s . " Sharon c h r i s t e n e d i t "The Waters of J o r d a n T a b e r n a c l e , " added more and redder p a i n t , more g o l d e n g o l d , and e r e c t e d an enormous r e v o l v i n g c r o s s , l i g h t e d a t n i g h t w i t h y e l l o w and ruby e l e c t r i c bulbs.230 Another b a s i c technique i s L e w i s ' s employment o f f i g u r a t i v e language, i n c l u d i n g a wide range o f types and v a r i e t i e s : metaphor, p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n , s i m i l e , metonyme, synecdoche, zeugma, and o t h e r s . "With one o f h i s damp hands Smeeth i m p r i s o n e d paw w h i l e he c h a n t e d . " 231 • Babbitt's large A r r o w s m i t h was r e c e i v e d "by the p a s t o r and a committee o f t h r e e , w e a r i n g morning c l o t h e s and a manner 232 of C h r i s t i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y . " 233 " L i k e a l l ardent agnostics, M a r t i n was a r e l i g i o u s man." L e w i s ' s use of language p r e d e t e r m i n e s t h e r e a d e r ' s r e a c t i o n t o c h a r a c t e r s and s i t u a t i o n s . We a r e f o r c e d t o share L e w i s ' s f e e l i n g , tone, and i n t e n t i o n ; and i t i s almost i m p o s s i b l e t o escape from 234> the f i c t i o n a l w o r l d of t h e n o v e l t o make s e p a r a t e c r i t i c a l judgements. I n r e a d i n g , we f i n d no enigmas, no m y s t e r i e s , no c o m p l e x i t y of personality. We do n o t n o t i c e a m b i v a l e n c e , b u t we a r e swept a l o n g on t h e f l o o d o f r h e t o r i c , L e w i s ' s r e f u g e from i n t e l l e c t u a l a n a l y s i s : " L e w i s ' s prime r u l e f o r t h e h a n d l i n g of i d e a s : be b r i s k w i t h them and count on t h e f l o w o f words t o sweep t h e r e a d e r r i g h t p a s t 235 implications." their -74- L e w i s ' s books a r e amusing p i c t u r e s o f d u l l n e s s . He i s most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c as a f i n e f o l k s y commentator p o i n t i n g out examples o f American smugness, p r o v i n c i a l i s m , i g n o r a n c e , b i g o t r y , and h y p o c r i s y . ^ H i s s a t i r e i s broad, v u l g a r , good-natured, and 2 3 exaggerated -- what James Branch C a b e l l c a l l e d "a minim o f r e a l i t y 237' exaggerated i n t o B r o b d i n g n a g i a n i n c r e d i b i l i t y . " In .fact, " h i s Mid-West humor gave him a d e l i g h t i n p o r t r a y i n g extreme, 238 overdrawn, e x c e s s i v e , g r o t e s q u e l y absurd events and c h a r a c t e r s . " H i s works a r e l i k e movies, or a d v e r t i s e m e n t s , c r u d e l y c o l o u r e d and obvious enough f o r any f o u r t e e n y e a r o l d t o under23 9 s t a n d , •-: and t h e cases f o r and a g a i n s t a r e s t a t e d , proved, documented, and hammered home. Lewis i s "outrageously, p e r s i s t e n t l y , b r a i n ,240. s p l i t t i n g l y noisy." . H i s l o o s e l y e p i s o d i c c h r o n i c l e s have no s u s t a i n e d p r e s s u r e of p l o t , no p r i m a r y c o n f l i c t , t o a c h i e v e a complex d e f i n i t i o n of v a l u e . awareness, C h a r a c t e r s a r e n o t f o r c e d i n t o new s e l f - and t h e r e a r e no."dynamics of s o c i a l a c t i o n . " ' His t y p i c a l approach ( l e a r n e d from H.G. W e l l s ) was t o choose an 242 i n s t i t u t i o n , or c l a s s o f p e o p l e , d e c i d e t h e p o i n t of v i e w , then w i t h t i r e l e s s c u r i o s i t y and energy, t h e " c o n s c i e n t i o u s thoroughness 243 of Z o l a , " t o c o l l e c t masses of d a t a . The g a t h e r i n g t o g e t h e r of f a c t s , n o t a t i o n s , and s o r d i d d e t a i l s i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of N a t u r a l i s t i c writing. N a t u r a l i s m i s based on t h e t h e o r y of " s c i e n t i f i c d e t e r m i n i s m , " 4 4 which s t a t e s t h a t man i s t h e p r o d u c t of b i o l o g i c a l , s o c i a l , and economic f o r c e s over which he has no c o n t r o l . w i t h o u t autonomy or moral r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . He i s a puppet, N a t u r a l i s m makes man an a n i m a l w i t h o u t c h o i c e and w i t h o u t s i n . Romanticism on t h e o t h e r hand, makes man " i n f i n i t e l y good, i n f i n i t e l y p e r f e c t i b l e , and p o t e n t i a l l y , -75when not a c t u a l l y , God." 245 L e w i s d i d not r e a l l y b e l i e v e i n the e n v i r o n m e n t a l u n d e r l y i n g N a t u r a l i s m but r a t h e r i n the triumph of the spirit. individual H i s c h a r a c t e r s tower above t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s : d e s p i t e h e r f o o l i s h n e s s and Carol, i m p r a c t i c a l i t y , i s e n t i t l e d to r e s p e c t ; Arrowsmith i s genuinely h e r o i c , accomplishing a g a i n s t enormous odds; Dodsworth a c h i e v e s our great things s p i r i t u a l independence over the American v i c e of k e e p i n g up w i t h the Joneses. L e w i s was theory I t would seem t h a t a N a t u r a l i s t i c w r i t e r o n l y i n h i s c o l l e c t i n g of d a t a . From out of h i s mass of i n f o r m a t i o n , he prepared an o r d e r l y s t r u c t u r e f o r each n o v e l , w i t h p r e c i s e and c o p i o u s out- l i n e s of c h a r a c t e r s , p r o f e s s i o n s , and characters, places. His whether r e b e l s or c o n f o r m i s t s , cannot escape from t h e i r environment; they are f i x e d i n the t r a d i t i o n s , h i s t o r y , and v a l u e s Western A m e r i c a . Middle T h e i r c r e a t o r i s more i n t e r e s t e d i n outward than i n i n n e r l i f e , and behavior they are shells, s e l f - s a t i s f i e d , i n t o l e r a n t , b e l i e v i n g i n the s t a n d a r d s of the h e r d . "bread of l i f e ; " of they a r e the " g a l v a n i z e d They cannot f i n d dead." * 24 the 5 "With h i s t y p i c a l i n c o n s i s t e n c y , L e w i s sometimes h i d e s t h e monstrousness of h i s f i g u r e s and p o r t r a y s them as l i k e a b l e human b e i n g s . " and The 2 4 7 c h a r a c t e r s s h i f t i n s i z e , sometimes l a r g e f r i g h t e n i n g , sometimes s m a l l and i s t i c s are stressed. silly, as d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r - W i l l K e n n i c o t t can be s e n s i t i v e and considerate, i. or he can be v u l g a r and b i g o t e d . S q u i r e Harge i s n o b l e a t r e v i v a l m e e t i n g , crude i n h i s home, and p a t h e t i c i n h i s the prayers. To p o i n t h i s i n d e c i s i v e moral v i e w s , L e w i s m a n i p u l a t e s h i s c h a r a c t e r s , making them change oddly: "old C a r o l f e l t "young and d i s s i p a t e d " then and r u s t i c and p l a i n . " 2 4 8 L e w i s ' s c o n f l i c t s of a l l e g i a n c e con- -76- t r i b u t e t o the a m b i v a l e n t q u a l i t y of h i s n o v e l s . However, i n w r i t i n g Elmer G a n t r y , L e w i s ' s h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e to r e l i g i o n made h i s work c r u d e l y o n e - s i d e d . I n p r e p a r i n g h i s book on r e l i g i o n , Lewis took p a i n s t o g a t h e r a huge mass of d a t a , an 24 9 " a m a z i n g l y complete account o f t h e shades o f r e l i g i o u s c o n t r o v e r s y . " He r e a d over 90 books and h i s t o r i e s ; he s t u d i e d the p e r i o d i c a l s r e a d by M e t h o d i s t and B a p t i s t p r e a c h e r s , he c o l l e c t e d newspaper r e p o r t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y items about e r r a n t clergymen and religious fanatics). He went t o Kansas C i t y s e e k i n g clergymen as they r e a l l y are, cross-examined 2 5 0 and Birkhead. the " c y c l o p o e d i a of data,"251 Rev. Dr. He s t u d i e d every a s p e c t of r e l i g i o u s l i f e i n Kansas C i t y , even p o s i n g as a B i b l e salesman t o i n t e r v i e w r u r a l c l e r g y . He h e l d a weekly Sunday S c h o o l C l a s s of M i n i s t e r s , t o whom he 252 boasted: " I know more about r e l i g i o n than y o u ' l l ever know." However, L e w i s ' s e n e r g e t i c s e a r c h f o r knowledge was on i m p a t i e n c e and h o s t i l i t y . his based Reading o n l y s u p p l i e d d e t a i l s f o r o l d grudge, as he d i s h o n e s t l y s e l e c t e d m a t e r i a l s t o prove t h a t much of American c h u r c h l i f e i s c o r r u p t . Writing to h i s publishers about t h e need t o a t t e n d Kansas C i t y churches r e g u l a r l y , he s t a t e d : "Gawd how I dread i t . " 2 5 3 p r o m o u o n e - s i d e d d e t a i l s -- h a l f - t r u t h s . to m a t t e r s of t r u t h and d i g n i t y . p r e j u d i c e and t; Q f t h e mass of d a t a he selected He p r e f e r r e d damning d e t a i l s The work i s marked by irrational propaganda. You always answer opponents by r e p r e s e n t i n g them as h a v i n g o b v i o u s l y absurd n o t i o n s which they do not p o s s e s s , t h e n w i t h tremendous v i g o r showing t h a t t h e s e n o n - e x i s t e n t t r a i t s a r e o b v i o u s l y a b s u r d , and i g n o r i n g any e x p l a n a t i o n . 2 5 4 Dr. K e n n i c o t t warned Lewis not t o " k i d me i n t o s a y i n g t h e t h i n g s you've a l r e a d y made up your mind you're g o i n g t o make me s a y . " Lewis i s u n f a i r i n d e s c r i b i n g preachers. are H i s clergymen merely c h a r a c t e r i z e d by human f a i l i n g s , and he makes an a r b i t r a r y c o n n e c t i o n between t h e i r f a u l t s and t h e i r b e l i e f s , j u s t t o support his antagonistic c l a i m s . ^ 2 5 them as v i l l a i n s . He h a t e s f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s and d e s c r i b e s U n s c r u p u l o u s l y , he s e t s out t o s t e r e o t y p e the f u n d a m e n t a l i s t , as an Elmer G a n t r y . " H i s method was h i s o l d d e v i c e o f a s s e m b l i n g d e t a i l s , but i n h i s c h o i c e o f d e t a i l s he was i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n those which were u t t e r l y damning." This i s t h e method o f t h e p r o p a g a n d i s t , b u t i t i s w i t h o u t t r u t h o r dignity: "A n o v e l i s t who p r e t e n d s t o be w r i t i n g i n b e h a l f o f a c i v i l i z e d l i f e ought n o t h i m s e l f t o behave l i k e a b a r b a r i a n . " 2 5 7 A n o v e l i s t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y have t o be o b j e c t i v e , but i n Elmer G a n t r y L e w i s over-employs h i s method, e x a g g e r a t i n g i n o r d e r satirize. He i s not aware o f t h e deeper problems man. He cannot f i n d s p i r i t u a l i n s i g h t , o r express h i s own s p i r i t ; he cannot, f o r example, share A r r o w s m i t h ' s of o f a mature f a i t h i n the r e l i g i o n s c i e n c e . L e w i s knows t h e e x t e r n a l d e t a i l s o f r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s , b u t has no t r u e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e reL i g i o u s needs and f e e l i n g s which make men w o r s h i p ; y e t a s u c c e s s f u l satirist must have a t l e a s t a good sense o f t h e q u a l i t y whose l a c k he mocks i n others: " t h e g e n e r a l a i m and end o f s a t i r e i s t o show t h e i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y between t h e t r a d i t i o n a l moral s t a n d a r d s and t h e a c t u a l ways o f l i v i n g . " 2 5 8 requirements of a s a t i r i s t : I n three r e s p e c t s , Lewis f u l f i l s the f i r s t , t h e s a t i r i s t s t r i p s the o b j e c t s a t i r i z e d o f the . f i l m of f a m i l i a r i t y which n o r m a l l y r e c o n c i l e s us -78t o i t , and makes us see i t as i t r e a l l y i s . S i n c l a i r L e w i s ' s n o v e l s make p e o p l e l o o k as i f f o r the f i r s t time a t many f a c e t s of American l i f e -- s m a l l towns, E a s t e r n s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , medicine, t r a v e l , prisons, boosting, h o t e l s , office-work, r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e , m a r r i a g e , and women's r i g h t s . Second, t h e s a t i r i s t must miss the t r u t h which most people a c c e p t , and must 259 ignore the explanation of t h e t h i n g s a t i r i z e d . S i n c l a i r Lewis describes t h e s i t u a t i o n but does not e x p l a i n how i t came t o be t h a t way. For example, he g i v e s a p i c t u r e of b u s i n e s s l i f e i n B a b b i t t , but does not a n a l y s e the economics of American c a p i t a l i s m . T h i r d , the s a t i r i s t d e c l i n e s t o u n d e r s t a n d , and be c o n s t r u c t i v e e x c e p t by i m p l i c a t i o n . S i n c l a i r L e w i s i s n o t t r y i n g t o educate, t o r e f o r m or t o e v a n g e l i z e , merely t o show what i s wrong. "True s a t i r e i m p l i e s t h e condemnation of s o c i e t y by r e f e m i c e t o an i d e a l . The s a t i r i s t i s engagedin measuring t h e 2fi0 monstrous a b e r r a t i o n from the i d e a l . " ° For S w i f t , Pope, and V o l t a i r e , t h e i d e a l was Reason and N a t u r e and the v a l u e s of P l a t o and C i c e r o . The g r e a t s a t i r i s t s b e l i e v e d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n the B e a u t i f u l Order, but were p a i n f u l l y aware, i n a c t u a l l i v i n g , fwhl&^.depravity man had made of h i m s e l f . the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n i s the equivalent S w i f t i s n o t s u r e that of Reason and N a t u r e , but he upholds the s t a n d a r d s of the Chruch of E n g l a n d . t h e Yahoo i s h a t e f u l f o r f a i l i n g of sense and of For him, man to'-.adhere t o Houyhnhnm p r i n c i p l e s order. L e w i s f a i l s as a s a t i r i s t because he does not have a c o n s i s t e n t i d e a l by which t o measure A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y . must be f i n e r , more complex than h i s s u b j e c t s , " w i t h s e n s i t i v e n e s s of l i f e . " The artist enhanced P s e u d o - s a t i r i s t s , l a c k i n g p e r s o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n and urbane judgment, oppose the a b e r r a t i o n s of other men w i t h t h e i r own c a p r i c e , and l a r g e l y out of t h e i r own f r u s t r a t i o n s o r v a n i t i e s . 2 6 2 L e w i s ' s treatment of issues i s c a p r i c i o u s . He a t t a c k s some b e l i e f s , and w r i t e s s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y o f o t h e r s , so t h a t he i s 263 d i f f i c u l t to c l a s s i f y . his A w r i t e r of f i c t i o n i s p e r m i t t e d p o i n t of v i e w f r e e l y , but a s a t i r i s t o r p u b l i c i s t t o change demonstrating what he sees as wrong o r u n r e a s o n a b l e should see l i f e more s t e a d i l y . Lewis i s capable terms; o f p r a i s i n g o r b l a m i n g o p p o s i t e views i n t h e same " F r i e n d s who heard him a r g u i n g any p o i n t which a t the moment took h i s f a n c y " observed " t h e h y p e r b o l e ing made c o n v i n c i n g , t h e s t a g g e r - g e n e r a l knowledge, t h e annoying f a c i l i t y f o r bending t h a t knowledge to h i s u s e s , , t h e i i n t o l e r a n c e ( f o r t h e moment) of any c o n t r a r y v o i c e ; and a t t h e end, so o f t e n , a d i z z y i n g r e v e r s a l of p o s i t i o n i n which he knocked out a l l h i s own arguments and l e f t h i s h e a r e r s ,,264 gasping." L e w i s ' s mind was c a p a b l e v i r t u o s i t y , b u t i t was not c a p a b l e p r o f o u n d way. o f speed and e x t r a o r d i n a r y of d e a l i n g w i t h i d e a s i n any H i s n o v e l s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by u n c e r t a i n b e l i e f s and a t t i t u d e s , though e x p r e s s e d i i n f o r t h r i g h t language. few s u b j e c t s on which he was n o t g e n e r a l l y a m b i v a l e n t One of t h e was r e l i g i o n ( a l t h o u g h some a s p e c t s of The God Seeker show a change of h e a r t ) , and i n d e a l i n g w i t h dogma, c l e r g y and C h r i s t i a n s , he wrote w i t h steady hostility. The two q u a l i t i e s .of L e w i s ' s w r i t i n g which have been examined i n t h i s study have been h i s ambivalence w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e v a l u e s embedded i n h i s w o r l d , and h i s g e n e r a l d i s l i k e of r e l i g i o n . Both t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s stem from a l a c k o f p r o f u n d i t y i n L e w i s ' s thought and f e e l i n g . He had a v a s t knowledge of A m e r i c a n l i f e , and -80- his q u i c k i n t e l l i g e n c e f l a s h e d upon many i n s t i t u t i o n s and b e l i e f s t y p e s , but t h e r e was way it is. no deep u n d e r s t a n d i n g I n the same way, o f r e l i g i o u s l i f e , and and 6f what makes A m e r i c a the he knew a l o t about the e x t e r n a l s though he d i s l i k e d w h a t he saw, t o comprehend the deeper m y s t e r i e s of r e l i g i o u s he was not able experience. 9 AS L e w i s ' s t h i n k i n g was l i t t l e i n the c o u r s e . s h a l l o w and u n o r i g i n a l , of a madly a c t i v e l i f e . He was he learned "the E t e r n a l 266 Amateur of n a t i o n a l l e t t e r s , " i n t e l l e c t u a l vacuum.. Even h i s own d i s p l a y i n g w i t and v i t a l i t y i n an c h a r a c t e r , Dr. W i l l Kennicott, r e p r o a c h e d him w i t h -- " I f o n l y you d i d some r e a l h a r d t h i n k i n g , " ^ 2 9 e c h o i n g Rebecca West: I£ he would s i t s t i l l so t h a t l i f e c o u l d make any deep i m p r e s s i o n on him, i f he would a t t a c h h i m s e l f t o the human t r a d i t i o n by o c c a s i o n a l l y r e a d i n g a book which would s e t him a standard of p r o f u n d i t y , he c o u l d g i v e h i s genius a chance. * 2 He admired Sam Dodsworth who 38 stopped b u s t l i n g — " I would 269 l i k e to v i s i t with myself, A r r o w s m i t h who important and get a c q u a i n t e d , " and Martin s a i d , l i k e Thoreau, " t h i n k i n g about l i f e i s the most p a r t of l i v i n g ; " ' - ' but he d i d not i m i t a t e them. 2 7 not " f i n d the Why, the underneath p r i n c i p l e . " 7 1 2 He He p o i n t e d out n e c e s s i t y of t a k i n g thought, but showed l i t t l e d i s p o s i t i o n t o i t himself: "The did the take p r o c e s s of t a k i n g thought seems l a r g e l y c r i t i c a l , d e s t r u c t i v e , and n e g a t i v e ; i t a l s o seems to mean the f l i p p a n t e v a s i o n of c o m p l e x i t i e s r a t h e r than t h e i r s e r i o u s d i s c u s s i o n . " i t t h a t you l a d s who is defend the church a r e so f a c e t i o u s when you r e a l l y get down t o d i s c u s s i n g the r o o t s of religion?" A n o v e l i s t should e x p l o r e the p r o f o u n d e s t of the human s p i r i t , "Why 2 7 3 possibilities but L e w i s d i d not l o o k i n s i d e h i s c h a r a c t e r s : 275 "he never r e a l l y p e n e t r a t e d t h e s o u l . " Most of h i s c h a r a c t e r s , -81- whether s a t i r i z e d or n o t , have no " i n n e r n e s s " ; i n t e l l i g e n c e , human g r a c i o u s n e s s , 27 6 they l a c k c u l t u r a l charm, d i g n i t y , and an elevated 277 sense of l i f e qualities. He -- p r o b a b l y saw because Lewis a l s o l a c k e d these the e x t e r n a l s of t h i n g s , and the l i t e r a r y t h a t he developed t o an e x t r a o r d i n a r y degree was but he d i d not c r e a t e more t h a n observed f a c t . t h e g i f t of m i m i c r y , He saw the o b j e c t , w^at q u a l i f i e d i t ; he d i d n o t understand the h i s t o r y b e h i n d s i t u t a t ' i o n , nor the f u t u r e consequences. He p a r t of the American c o n s c i e n c e , enough t o p e r c e i v e and and a t t i t u d e s . the i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the a m p l i t u d e of h i s e v a l u a t i o n , not i t s p r o f u n d i t y : aware of many d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s gift he makes people of A m e r i c a n l i f e , and still pricks but he i s not g i f t e d or s e n s i t i v e e x p l a i n the deeper causes of such s i t u a t i o n s Though he i s a b l e t o " l o d g e a p i e c e of a continent 27 9 i n our i m a g i n a t i o n , " i t i s vague, and i t s deeper s t r a t a a r e 280 281 completely uncharted. " H i s A m e r i c a s l i p p e d out of hand." not 2 7 8 -82- F o o t n o t e s t o Chapter I V 2 1 5 S c h o r e r , "Half-Truths," 2 1 6 Main 2 1 7 Grebstein, S t r e e t , p. 3. p. 42. 2 1 8 0 u r Mr. Wrenn, p. 110. 2 1 9 M a i n S t r e e t , p. 69. 2 2 0 Babbitt, p. 394. 2 2 1 Trail 2 2 2 T h e Job, p. 103. 2 2 3 Trail 224p 2 2 5 u r M of t h e Hawk, p. 290. r of t h e Hawk, p. 116. Wrenn, p. 151. > Grebstein, p. 33. 2 2 6 B a b b i t t , p. 357. 2 2 7 Main 2 2 8 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 4 3 . S t r e e t , p. 329. I b i d . , p. 321. 2 2 9 2 E s s a y s , p. 57. 30 I b id., p. 225. 2 3 I Babbitt, p. 379. 2 3 2 A r r o w s m i t h , p. 214. I b i d . , p. 177. 2 3 3 2 3 4 Edener, p. 15. 2 3 5 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 107. A l f r e d K a z i n , "The New R e a l i s m : L e w i s " (19421. E s s a y s , p. 123. 2 3 6 Sinclair 237 D o o i y e } A r t , p. x i . 2 3 8 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 289. 2 3 9 W h i p p l e , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 8 1 . • 240 D o o l e y j Art 3 p . 72. Sherwood Anderson and -832 4 1 S c h o r e r , " H a l f - T r u t h s " , E s s a y s , p. 58. 2 4 2 M o o r e , " L o s t Romantic", 161. E s s a y s , p. L o v e t t , " I n t e r p r e t e r " , E s s a y s , p. 33. 2 4 4 (Baton Rouge: R a n d a l l S t e w a r t , American L i t e r a t u r e and C h r i s t i a n D o c t r i n e L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958), p. 107. Ibid,, 2 4 5 p. 124. 2 4 6 Whipple, "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 2 4 7 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 69. 2 4 8 M a i n S t r e e t , p. 431. 2 4 9 L e w i s , L e t t e r s , p. 2 5 0 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 230. 440. L e w i s , L e t t e r s , p. 2 5 2 74. 202. S c h o r e r , L i f e , p.762. 253 L e w i s , L e t t e r s , p. 2 5 4 204. M a n from M a i n S t r e e t , p. 319. 255 Ibid., p. 315. E d e n e r , p. 217. L i p p m a n h , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 93. B a s i l W i l l e y , The E i g h t e e n t h Century Background C h a t t o and Windus, 1940), p. 100. 2 5 6 2 5 7 2 5 8 2 5 9 Ibid., p . (London: 104. J . M i d d l e t o n M u r r y , The P r o b l e m of S t y l e . (London: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1936), p. 65. 2 6 0 2 6 1 R e b e c c a West, " S i n c l a i r L e w i s I n t r o d u c e s Elmer (1927), E s s a y s , p. 44. 2 6 2 B e c k , C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , x i (January 1948), 2 6 3 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 2 f ) 4 H a r r y E. Maule, Man 180. 415. From M a i n S t r e e t , p. 301. Oxford Gantry" -842 65 G r e b s t e i n , p. 154. 2 6 6 2 6 7 Maxwell Geismar, "The Land o f F a e r y " (1947), E s s a y s , p. 136. M a n from M a i n S t r e e t , p. 316. 2 68 West, " I n t r o d u c e s Elmer G a n t r y , " E s s a y s , p. 45. 269 Dodsworth, p. 168. A r r o w s m i t h , p. 37. 2 7 1 I b i d . , p. 54. 272 Dooley, A r t , p. 251. 273 Elmer G a n t r y , p. 375. 2 M o o r e , " L o s t Romantic," 74 E s s a y s , p. 151. 275 Dorothy Thompson, quoted by Sheean, p. 352. 276 Moore, " L o s t Romantic," E s s a y s , p. 161. 277 Beck, C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , p. 173. K r u t c h , "S.L." E s s a y s , p. 150. E . M . F o r s t e r , "Our Photography: S i n c l a i r Lewis" E s s a y s , p. 95. 280 B e c k e r , American S c h o l a r , . p . 425. 281 Dodsworth, p. 170. 2 7 8 2 7 9 (1929), SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY WORKS BY SINCLAIR LEWIS Novels Our Mr. Wrenn. New York: The T r a i l o f t h e Hawk. The Job. New York: The I n n o c e n t s . Free A i r . Babbitt. New Y o r k : New Y o r k : H a r p e r , 1917. H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1920. H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1922. New Y o r k : New York: Elmer G a n t r y . H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1925. H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1926. New York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1927. The Man Who Knew C o o l i d g e . Dodsworth. H a r p e r , 1915. H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1919. New Y o r k : Arrowsmith. Mantrap. New Y o r k : H a r p e r , 1917. New Y o r k : Main S t r e e t . H a r p e r , 1914. New York: New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1928. H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1929. Ann V i c k e r s . Garden C i t y : Doubleday, Doran, 1933. Work of A r t . Garden C i t y : Doubleday, Doran, 1934. I t Can't Happen Here. Carden C i t y : Doubleday, Doran, 1935. The P r o d i g a l P a r e n t s . Garden C i t y : Doubleday, Doran, 1938. Bethel Merriday. Gideon P l a n i s h . Garden C i t y : New Y o r k : Cass T i m b e r l a n e . The God-Seeker. World So Wide. Random House, 1943. New York: Kingsblood Royal. Random House, 1945. New Y o r k : New Y o r k : New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1940. Random House, 1947. Random House, 1949. Random House, 1951. -86Selections Selected Short S t o r i e s . Garden C i t y : Doubleday, Doran, 1935. From M a i n S t r e e t t o Stockholm: L e t t e r s of S i n c l a i r L e w i s , 1919-1930. S e l e c t e d and w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n by H a r r i s o n Smith. New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1952. The Man from M a i n S t r e e t : S e l e c t e d Essays and Other W r i t i n g s , 19041950. E d i t e d by H a r r y E. Maule and M e l v i l l e H. Cane. New Y o r k : Random House, 1953. I'm a S t r a n g e r Here M y s e l f and Other S t o r i e s . • S e l e c t e d , w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n , by Mark S c h o r e r . D e l l L a u r e l e d i t i o n s . New Y o r k : D e l l , 1962. . WRITINGS ABOUT SINCLAIR LEWIS More complete b i b l i o g r a p h i e s a r e t o be found i n Mark S c h o r e r , S i n c l a i r L e w i s ; D.J. Dooley, The A r t of S i n c l a i r L e w i s ; Sheldon G r e b s t e i n , S i n c l a i r L e w i s ; W i l f r i e d Edener, R e l i g i o n s k r i t i k . A l l r e f e r e n c e s t o Essays a r e found i n S i n c l a i r L e w i s : A C o l l e c t i o n of C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , ed. Mark Schorer... Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1962. S i n c l a i r L e w i s i s a b b r e v i a t e d t o S.L. BOOKS A a r o n , D a n i e l . "S.L.: M a i n S t r e e t " , The American N o v e l , e d . W a l l a c e S t e g n e r . New York: B a s i c Books, 1965. A l l e n , W a l t e r . The Modern N o v e l i n B r i t a i n and t h e U^S. Y o r k : D u t t o n , 1964. New Anderson, C a r o l . The Swedish A c c e p t a n c e of American L i t e r a t u r e . Stockholm: A l m q u i s t and W i k s e l l , 1957. Angoff, Charles. The Tone o f t h e T w e n t i e s . New Y o r k : Beach, Joseph Warren. The T w e n t i e t h Century N o v e l . A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1932. C a b e l l , James B r a n c h . G o b l i n s i n Winnemac. Barnes, 1966. New Y o r k : New Y o r k : M c B r i d e , 1930. D a v i e s , H o r t o n . A M i r r o r o f the M i n i s t r y i n Modern N o v e l s . O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959. D e r l e t h , August. 1963. Three L i t e r a r y Men. New Y o r k : New Y o r k : Candlelight Press, -87- Dooley, D.J. The A r t of S^L. P r e s s , 1967. Lincoln: U n i v e r s i t y of Nebraska Edener, W i l f r i e d . D i e R e l i g i o n s k r i t i k i n den Romanen Von S.L. B e i h e f t e zum Jahrbuch f u r A m e r i k a s t u d i e n , No. 10. H e i d e l b e r g : C a r l W i n t e r , 1963. Fadiman, C l i f t o n . P a r t y of One. New Y o r k : World, 1955. F e i d e l s o n , C h a r l e s . Symbolism and American L i t e r a t u r e . C h i c a g o U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1953. G r e b s t e i n , Sheldon Norman. S.L. New Y o r k : Chicago: Twayne, 1962. G r i f f i n , Robert J . "S.L.," American Winners of t h e N o b e l L i t e r a r y P r i z e , eds. W.G. F r e n c h and W.E. K i d d . Norman: U n i v e r s i t y of Oklahoma P r e s s , 1968. Hoffman, F r e d e r i c k J . The T w e n t i e s . New Y o r k : V i k i n g , 1955. H o l l i s , C. C a r r o l l . "S.L. r e v i v e r of c h a r a c t e r , " F i f t y y e a r s of the American N o v e l : A C h r i s t i a n A p p r a i s a l , ed. H a r o l d C. G a r d i n e r , S.J. New Y o r k : S c r i b n e r s , 1952. H o r t o n , R.W. and H.W. Edwards. Backgrounds o f American L i t e r a r y Thought. New Y o r k : A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1952. Kramer, M a u r i c e . "S.L. and the H o l l o w C e n t e r , " The Twenties P o e t r y and P r o s e : 20 C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , eds. R.E. L a n g f o r d , W.E. T a y l o r . De Land: E v e r e t t Edwards P r e s s , 1963. L e w i s , Grace Hegger. B r a c e , 1951. Mencken, H.L. 1925. . W i t h Love from G r a c i e . Prejudices; Prejudices: Fourth Series. F i f t h Series. . A Book of P r e f a c e s . 1927. New Y o r k : London: New Y o r k ; New Y o r k : M i l l g a t e , M i c h a e l . American S o c i a l F i c t i o n : E d i n b u r g h : O l i v e r and Boyd, 1964. Jonathan Cape, Knopf, Garden C i t y The Problem of S t y l e . 1926. Publishing, from James t o Cozzens. M i z e n e r , A r t h u r . The Sense of L i f e i n the Modern N o v e l . Houghton M i f f l i n , 1964. Murry, J . M i d d l e t o n . P r e s s , 1936. Harcourt, London: Boston: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y R o s e n t h a l , T.G. A m e r i c a n F i c t i o n , N a t i o n a l Book League Reader's G u i d e . Cambridge, Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1961. -88S c h o r e r , Mark. S.L. U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a Pamphlets on American W r i t e r s , No. 27. M i n n e a p o l i s : U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a P r e s s , 1963. . S.L.: An American L i f e . New Y o r k ; M c G r a w - H i l l , 1961. . "The Burdens of B i o g r a p h y . " To the Young W r i t e r , ed. A.L. Bader. Ann A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n P r e s s , 1965. Sheean, V i n c e n t . 1963. Dorothy and Red. New Y o r k : Houghton M i f f l i n , S p i l l e r , Robert E. et a l . The L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . New Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n , 1953. S t e w a r t , R a n d a l l . American L i t e r a t u r e a n d C h r i s t i a n D o c t r i n e . Rouge: L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958. Van Doren, C a r o l . The American N o v e l 1789-1939. M a c m i l l a n , 1940. Wagenknecht, Edward. H o l t , 1952. New York: C a v a l c a d e o f t h e American N o v e l . W i l l e y , B a s i l . The E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y Background. and Windus, 1940. Baton New York: London: Chatto ARTICLES A n g o f f , C h a r l e s . " R e f l e c t i o n s upon a s p e c t s ^ o f A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e . " L i t e r a r y Review, X: 1 (Autumn 1966), 5-17. A l d e r , Benne B. "S.L.: the n o v e l i s t who 'hated' l e c t u r i n g . " Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l of Speech, L I (1965), 275-285. Beck, Warren. 173-180. "How good i s S.L." C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , I X ( J a n u a r y 1948), B e c k e r , George J . "S.L.: A p o s t l e t o the P h i l i s t i n e s . " S c h o l a r , XXI (Autumn 1952), 423-432. B r e a s t e d , C. "The S a u k - C e n t r i c i t i e s o f S.L." XXXVII (August 14, 1954), 7-8, 33-36. Brown, D a n i e l R. "L.'s S a t i r e : X V I I I ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 63-72. Canby, H.S. " V i c i o u s Ignorance." I I I (March 12, 1927), 637. American S a t u r d a y Review, a N e g a t i v e Emphasis." Renascence, Saturday Review of L i t e r a t u r e , Couch, W i l l i a m J r . "S.L.: C r i s i s i n the A m e r i c a n Dream." Languages A s s o c i a t i o n J o u r n a l , V I I (1964), 224-234. Comparative •-89- D a v i s , E l m e r . "Review o f Elmer G a n t r y . " (March 13, 1927), 1. New Y o r k Times Book Review, Durham, F r a n k . "Not a c c o r d i n g t o t h e book: M a t e r i a l i s m and t h e A m e r i c a n N o v e l . " G e o r g i a Review, XX, I ( S p r i n g 1966), 90-98. Friedman, P h i l i p A l l a n . " B a b b i t t : S a t i r i c R e a l i s m i n Form a n d j C o n t e n t . " S a t i r e N e w s l e t t e r , IV (1966), 20-24. Geismar, M a x w e l l . "S.L.: 25, 1960), 29-30. F o r g o t t e n Hero." Saturday Review (June . " D i a r i s t o f the M i d d l e - C l a s s . " Saturday Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , XXX (November 1, 1947), 9-10, 42-45. Genthe, C h a r l e s V. "The Damnation o f Theron Ware and Elmer G a n t r y . " Research S t u d i e s (Washington S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ) , XXXII (1964), 334-343. , G r e b s t e i n , Sheldon. " E d u c a t i o n of a R e b e l : S.L. a t Y a l e . " England Q u a r t e r l y , X X V I I I (September 1955), 372-382. New J o n e s , Howard Mumford. "Review o f The God Seeker." Saturday Review o f L i t e r a t u r e (March 12, 1949). L i g h t , M a r t i n . "H.G. W e l l s and S.L.: F r i e n d s h i p , L i t e r a r y I n f l u e n c e , and L e t t e r s . " E n g l i s h F i c t i o n i n T r a n s i t i o n , 1880-1920, V, IV (1962), 1-20. L i t t r e l l , R o b e r t . "The P r e a c h e r f r i e d i n o i l . " New R e p u b l i c , 50 (March 16, 1927), 108. M i l l e r , P e r r y . "The i n c o r r u p t i b l e S.L." A t l a n t i c M o n t h l y , ( A p r i l 1951), 30-34. M u i r , Edwin. "Review o f Elmer G a n t r y . " ( A p r i l 23, 1927), 85. CLXXXVII N a t i o n and Athenaeum, 41 O'Connor, W.V. "The N o v e l and t h e ' t r u t h ' about A m e r i c a . " E n g l i s h S t u d i e s , XXXV (1945), 204-211. Palmer, Raymond H. "The Nobel J u r y Judges A m e r i c a . " X L V I I (1930), 1448. C h r i s t i a n Century, Rosenberg, C h a r l e s E. " M a r t i n A r r o w s m i t h : t h e s c i e n t i e s t as Hero." American Q u a r t e r l y , XV (1963), 447-458. S c h o r e r , Mark. "My L i f e and N i n e - Y e a r C a p t i v i t y w i t h S.L." New Y o r k Times Book Review (August 20, 1961), 7-26. S h i l l i t o , Edward. "Elmer G a n t r y and t h e Church i n A m e r i c a . " N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , 101 (May 1927), 739. -90T a n s e l l e , G. Thomas. "S.L. and F l o y d D e l l : Two Views of the Midwest." T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y L i t e r a t u r e , I X (1964), 175-184. Van Doren, C a r l . " S t . George and the P a r s o n . " L i t e r a t u r e , 3 (March 12, 1927), 639. Warren, D a l e . "Notes on a G e n i u s : C L V I I I (January 1954), 61-69. Saturday Review of S.L. a t h i s b e s t . " H a r p e r s , Waterman, M a r g a r e t . "S.L. as a t e a c h e r . " C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , X I I I (November 1951) , 87-90. W h i p p l e , Leon. 168. "Review of Elmer G a n t r y . " Survey, 58 (May 1, 1927), DISSERTATIONS Coleman, A r t h u r B. "The G e n e s i s of S o c i a l Ideas i n S.L." A b s t r a c t s , XV (1955), 1069 (New Y o r k ) . Dissertation Conroy, Stephen S e b a s t i a n . ."The A m e r i c a n C u l t u r e and the I n d i v i d u a l i n the N o v e l s o f S.L." IKA., XXVII (1966), 473 A (Iowa). Couch, W i l l i a m J r . "The Emergence, R i s e , and D e c l i n e o f the R e p u t a t i o n of S.L." C h i c a g o , 1954. D a n i e l , Benne B. "S.L.: N o v e l i s t and Speaker." Oklahoma, 1962. Dooley, D a v i d J . "The Impact of S a t i r e on F i c t i o n . " Iowa, G r e b s t e i n , Sheldon Norman. " S i L . : D.A., XIV ( 1 9 5 4 ) , 828. American S o c i a l 1955. Critic." H i l f e r , Anthony C. " R e v o l t of t h e V i l l a g e i n American L i t e r a t u r e . " N o r t h C a r o l i n a , 1963. L i g h t , M a r t i n . "A Study of C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i n S.L.'s F i c t i o n . " D.A., XXI ( 1 9 6 0 ) , 1567 ( I l l i n o i s ) .
- Library Home /
- Search Collections /
- Open Collections /
- Browse Collections /
- UBC Theses and Dissertations /
- Shifting values in Sinclair Lewis
Open Collections
UBC Theses and Dissertations
Featured Collection
UBC Theses and Dissertations
Shifting values in Sinclair Lewis Ellenor, Leslie 1969
pdf
Page Metadata
Item Metadata
Title | Shifting values in Sinclair Lewis |
Creator |
Ellenor, Leslie |
Publisher | University of British Columbia |
Date Issued | 1969 |
Description | The purpose of this thesis is to examine two characteristics in the life and works of Sinclair Lewis: his ambivalence in general, and his particular unambivalent hostility towards religion. Although he held inconsistent and incompatible views on America, its people, institutions, and beliefs, he was consistent in his dislike of American religious practices. Chapter I examines Lewis's ambivalence respecting America and Americans, the Middle West, the Middle Class and Business; there is also an account of Lewis's persistent hostility towards religious beliefs, the clergy, and churchgoers. Chapter II examines aspects of the life and personality of Sinclair Lewis for some of the factors which contribute to his ambivalent views and also to his anti-religious outlook. Chapter III notes the timeliness of Lewis's novels, published in the Twenties when people were confused about their beliefs. Chapter III then analyses in detail four novels, Main Street, Arrowsmith, Elmer Gantry, and The God Seeker, which demonstrate how Lewis's attitudes change, except towards religion. Chapter IV studies the style of Sinclair Lewis, and notes that he constantly applies mocking or hostile terms to clergy and Christians, while on other subjects he expresses incompatible views with noisy assurance. Chapter IV also suggests that Lewis's ambivalence and his anti-religion both stem from a lack of profundity in his thought and feeling. He is unable to understand and appreciate fully the truths of American life and the truths of religion. |
Subject |
Lewis, Sinclair, 1885-1951 |
Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
Type |
Text |
Language | eng |
Date Available | 2011-06-16 |
Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
DOI | 10.14288/1.0104165 |
URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/35513 |
Degree |
Master of Arts - MA |
Program |
English |
Affiliation |
Arts, Faculty of English, Department of |
Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
Campus |
UBCV |
Scholarly Level | Graduate |
Aggregated Source Repository | DSpace |
Download
- Media
- 831-UBC_1969_A8 E55.pdf [ 4.42MB ]
- Metadata
- JSON: 831-1.0104165.json
- JSON-LD: 831-1.0104165-ld.json
- RDF/XML (Pretty): 831-1.0104165-rdf.xml
- RDF/JSON: 831-1.0104165-rdf.json
- Turtle: 831-1.0104165-turtle.txt
- N-Triples: 831-1.0104165-rdf-ntriples.txt
- Original Record: 831-1.0104165-source.json
- Full Text
- 831-1.0104165-fulltext.txt
- Citation
- 831-1.0104165.ris
Full Text
Cite
Citation Scheme:
Usage Statistics
Share
Embed
Customize your widget with the following options, then copy and paste the code below into the HTML
of your page to embed this item in your website.
<div id="ubcOpenCollectionsWidgetDisplay">
<script id="ubcOpenCollectionsWidget"
src="{[{embed.src}]}"
data-item="{[{embed.item}]}"
data-collection="{[{embed.collection}]}"
data-metadata="{[{embed.showMetadata}]}"
data-width="{[{embed.width}]}"
async >
</script>
</div>

http://iiif.library.ubc.ca/presentation/dsp.831.1-0104165/manifest