SHIFTING VALUES IN SINCLAIR LEWIS by LESLIE ELLENOR B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f Durham, 1957 D i p . Ed., U n i v e r s i t y of O x f o r d , 1960 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n t h e Department of English We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming t o t h e required standard The U n i v e r s i r f y o f B r i t i s h Columbia September, 1969 In presenting t h i s thesis in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e for reference and Study. I further agree that permission for extensive for s c h o l a r l y purposes may by his representatives. be granted by the Head of my Department or It is understood that copying or p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain shall not be a 11 owed without my w r i t t e n permission. Department of ENGLISH The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada Date ^&^T, copying of this thesis ABSTRACT The purpose o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t o examine two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in t h e l i f e and works o f S i n c l a i r L e w i s : h i s ambivalence i n g e n e r a l , and.his p a r t i c u l a r unambivalent h o s t i l i t y towards religion. A l t h o u g h he h e l d i n c o n s i s t e n t and i n c o m p a t i b l e views on A m e r i c a , its p e o p l e , i n s t i t u t i o n s , and b e l i e f s , he was c o n s i s t e n t i n h i s d i s l i k e of American r e l i g i o u s practices. Chapter I examines L e w i s ' s ambivalence r e s p e c t i n g A m e r i c a and A m e r i c a n s , t h e M i d d l e West, t h e M i d d l e C l a s s and B u s i n e s s ; t h e r e i s a l s o an account o f L e w i s ' s p e r s i s t e n t h o s t i l i t y towards r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , the c l e r g y , and c h u r c h g o e r s . Chapter I I examines a s p e c t s o f t h e l i f e and p e r s o n a l i t y of S i n c l a i r Lewis f o r some o f t h e f a c t o r s which c o n t r i b u t e t o h i s a m b i v a l e n t views and a l s o t o h i s a n t i - r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k . Chapter I I I n o t e s t h e t i m e l i n e s s of L e w i s ' s n o v e l s , p u b l i s h e d i n the Twenties when people were confused about beliefs. their Chapter I I I t h e n a n a l y s e s i n d e t a i l f o u r n o v e l s , M a i n S t r e e t , A r r o w s m i t h , Elmer G a n t r y , and The God Seeker, which demonstrate how L e w i s ' s a t t i t u d e s change, except towards religion. Chapter IV s t u d i e s t h e s t y l e of S i n c l a i r L e w i s , and notes t h a t he c o n s t a n t l y a p p l i e s mocking or h o s t i l e terms t o c l e r g y and C h r i s t i a n s , w h i l e on o t h e r s u b j e c t s he e x p r e s s e s incomp a t i b l e views w i t h n o i s y a s s u r a n c e . Chapter I V a l s o suggests t h a t L e w i s ' s ambivalence and h i s a n t i - r e l i g i o n b o t h stem from a l a c k o f p r o f u n d i t y i n h i s thought and f e e l i n g . He i s u n a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d and a p p r e c i a t e f u l l y t h e t r u t h s o f American l i f e and t h e t r u t h s of religion. TABLE OF CONTENTS * Page Introduction Chapter I 1 • 4 Chapter I I 2 2 Chapter I I I 34 Chapter IV. , 7 1 B i b l i o g r a p h y .. . 85 INTRODUCTION I n a n a l y s i n g t h e l i f e and works o f S i n c l a i r L e w i s , t h e prime d i f f i c u l t y i s t o d e a l w i t h h i s c o n t r a d i c t o r i n e s s , i n c o n s i s t e n c y , and a m b i v a l e n c e . his He has no s e t t l e d p e r s p e c t i v e o r v i e w p o i n t ; p r i n c i p l e s are insecure. Escaping d e f i n i t i o n , he i s an " i n c o n s i s t e n t and p a r a d o x i c a l iconoclast."''' He assumes c o n t r a d i c t o r y r o l e s , " t h e p r o l e t a r i a n p l u t o c r a t , t h e b o u r g e o i s gypsy, t h e p a t r i o t i c 2 e x p a t r i a t e , t h e unmannerly c r i t i c of manners," t o be many S i n c l a i r L e w i s e s . so t h a t t h e r e seem One c r i t i c c a l l e d h i m " t h e v i c t i m o f 3 his own d i v i d e d h e a r t . " He i s C a r o l and K e n n i c o t t , heart and head, r a d i c a l and o r t h o d o x , p u r i t a n and man o f the w o r l d , " s t a n d i n g between East and West, Europe and A m e r i c a , Beacon S t r e e t and M a i n S t r e e t , t h e e x o t i c and t h e o r d i n a r y , c u l t u r e and v i g o r , r e f i n e m e n t and c r u d i t y , convention and f r e e d o m . " 4 L e w i s i s changeable and i r r e g u l a r and i n c o n s i s t e n t , a man o f m u l t i p l e p e r s o n a l i t y who " s h i f t s h i s p o i n t of view so o f t e n t h a t f i n a l l y we come t o wonder whether he has any."-' However, t h e r e a r e some c o n s i s t e n t a t t i t u d e s i n the l i f e and works o f S i n c l a i r L e w i s . progress, He b e l i e v e s i n b r o t h e r h o o d , s c i e n c e , and i n d i v i d u a l freedom. h y p o c r i s y and inhumane a c t s , a n d religion. He '.always h a t e s he has a steady d i s l i k e of o r g a n i s e d " A p a r t from a b r i e f c o n v e r s i o n , w h i l e L e w i s prepped f o r r Y a l e a t O b e r l i n , h i s h o s t i l i t y t o r e l i g i o n and i t s m i n i s t r y was constant."^ He d i s l i k e s c h u r c h e s , dogma, p a s t o r s , and f l o c k s ; and a l l h i s n o v e l s , from f i r s t t o l a s t , have a n t i - r e l i g i o u s elements. -2- T h i s study w i l l i n d i c a t e some o f t h e many a s p e c t s of A m e r i c a n about which L e w i s was a m b i v a l e n t , and i t w i l l a l s o show h i s d i s l i k e of r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s . life consistent -3Footnotes t o I n t r o d u c t i o n ^D.J. Dooley, The A r t o f S i n c l a i r L e w i s . U n i v e r s i t y o f Nebraska P r e s s , 1967), p. 58. Mark Schorer, S i n c l a i r Lewis: Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l , 1961), p. 483. 2 (Lincoln: An A m e r i c a n L i f e . (New ^Quoted i n D o o l e y , A r t , p. 223. ^ S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 166. ^Quoted i n D o o l e y , A r t , p. 252. Sheldon N. G r e b s t e i n , S i n c l a i r L e w i s . (New Haven: C o l l e g e and U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1962), p. 99. CHAPTER I L e w i s ' s ambivalence shows i t s e l f i n h i s t r e a t m e n t of A m e r i c a and A m e r i c a n s , t h e i r s t a n d a r d s and t h e i r b e h a v i o u r . He both a t t a c k s and p r a i s e s t h e M i d d l e West, t h e M i d d l e C l a s s , and most o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s . L i k e any s a t i r i s t , he a t t a c k s more o f t e n than he d e f e n d s , and i t i s e a s i e r t o see what he i s a g a i n s t than what he i s f o r . L e w i s ' s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s summed up i n h i s N o b e l speech, when he contended " t h a t A m e r i c a , w i t h a l l h e r wealth and power, has n o t y e t produced a c i v i l i z a t i o n good enough t o s a t i s f y t h e deepest wants o f human c r e a t u r e s . " ^ He d e s c r i b e d i t as a l a n d of s t e r i l i t y and emptiness and "narrow frustrated Q lives." L a c k i n g s e r e n i t y and m a t u r i t y , i t s o n l y d e f i n i t i o n o f l i f e i s materialistic — success, wealth, position. The Americans 9 have no t r u e home, no t r u e c h u r c h , no c o r p o r a t e l i f e ; b u t they take smug s a t i s f a c t i o n i n a c u l t u r e which l a c k s b e a u t y , decency, and tolerance. I t i s an u n i m a g i n a t i v e l y s t a n d a r d i z e d background, a s l u g g i s h n e s s of speech and manners, a r i g i d r u l i n g of t h e s p i r i t by t h e d e s i r e t o appear r e s p e c t a b l e . I t i s contentment . . . t h e contentment o f t h e q u i e t dead, who a r e s c o r n f u l o f t h e l i v i n g f o r t h e i r r e s t l e s s w a l k i n g . I t i s n e g a t i o n canonized as t h e one p o s i t i v e v i r t u e . I t i s the p r o h i b i t i o n of happiness. I t i s s l a v e r y s e l f - s o u g h t and s e l f - d e f e n d e d . It is d u l l n e s s made God. A s a v o r l e s s p e o p l e , g u l p i n g t a s t e l e s s food, and s i t t i n g a f t e r w a r d , c o a t l e s s and t h o u g h t l e s s , i n -5- r o c k i n g - c h a i r s p r i c k l y w i t h inane d e c o r a t i o n s , l i s t e n i n g to mechanical music, s a y i n g mechanical t h i n g s about the e x c e l l e n c e of F o r d automobiles and v i e w i n g themselves as the g r e a t e s t r a c e i n the world.10 S i n c l a i r Lewis suggests t h a t the motto of t h i s "grossly m a t e r i a l i s t i c , money-mad, smugly h y p o c r i t i c a l , p r o v i n c i a l should be changed from " I n God we civilization" t r u s t " t o "Government of the p r o f i t s , 12 by the p r o f i t s , f o r the p r o f i t s . " humane i d e a l s , no good l i f e , The Americans have no no honor of k n i g h t , a r t i s t , no t r u t h , beauty, or goodness, no i m a g i n a t i o n or f a i t h : understand democracy as l i t t l e as they understand rational or p r i e s t , "They Christianity."^ They cannot see the i m p e r f e c t i o n s and f a l s e v a l u e s of t h e i r c o u n t r y , but Lewis w i l l "de-bamboozle the American public. You cannot h e a l the problems of any one m a r r i a g e u n t i l you h e a l the problems of an e n t i r e c i v i l i z a t i o n founded upon s u s p i c i o n and s u p e r s t i t i o n ; and you cannot h e a l the problems o f a c i v i l i z a t i o n thus founded u n t i l i t r e a l i z e s i t s own b a r b a r i c n a t u r e , and r e a l i z e s that what i t thought was brave was o n l y c r u e l , what i t thought was h o l y was only meanness, and what i t thought was success was merely the paper helmet of a clown more nimble than h i s f e l l o w s , scrambling f o r a peanut i n the dust of an i g n o b l e circus.15 American or s o c i e t y i s opposed to any d i s i n t e r e s t e d effort c h a r i t a b l e a c t i o n , and any d e v i a t i o n from pack behaviour i s punished w i t h m a l i c e and v i o l e n c e . and Americans U.S. Main S t r e e t can be a nightmare, a r e c a p a b l e of o b s e s s i v e c r u e l t y and h o r r o r . "The i s not c i v i l i z e d ; " - ^ the i n d u s t r i a l g i a n t i s an emotional dwarf, a s p i r i t u a l pauper"*"^ -- and what i s worse — the U.S. is " f i r e d w i t h a z e a l , i n the name of h u m a n i t a r i a n i d e a l i s m , t o reduce 18 the r e s t of the w o r l d to i t s own meager s p i r i t u a l proportions." ± 0 Lewis c r i t i c i s e s -6" t h e cheapness o f a l l s t a n d a r d s , t h e shoddiness o f 19 a l l values," t h e s e e k i n g of money r a t h e r than wisdom. r e l i g i o u s m o r a l i t y i s superseded He complains that by b u s i n e s s m o r a l i t y and t h e e t h i c s o f s u c c e s s ; what i s e x p e d i e n t and p r o f i t a b l e i s r i g h t . To be s u c c e s s f u l and a c c e p t e d , one must l i e , dodge, compromise, and do t h e expected. When Dodsworth r e t u r n s t o A m e r i c a a f t e r y e a r s i n Europe he f i n d s " l i f e dehumanized by i n d i f f e r e n c e 20 or enmity t o a l l human v a l u e s . " There i s no f a i t h i n t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f man, t h e law o f p r o g r e s s , t h e u l t i m a t e r e i g n o f j u s t i c e , t h e conquest o f n a t u r e , or t h e s u f f i c i e n c y o f democracy The i d e a l s o f e a r l y A m e r i c a have been l o s t , and t h e p i o n e e r s have been r e p l a c e d "by people w i t h b a t h t u b s and coupes and porch f u r n i t u r e and speedboats and l a k e - c o t t a g e s , who a r e determined t h a t t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n of these p r e t t y t h i n g s s h a l l n o t be t h r e a t e n e d by r a d i c a l s and t h a t t h e i r comments on them 22 s h a l l n o t be i n t e r r u p t e d by mere s p e c u l a t i o n on t h e s o u l o f man." The " v i l l a g e v i r u s " saps hope and energy and r e b e l l i o n , as s m a l l minded s e t t l e m e n t s grow i n t o m e d i o c r e , i n h i b i t i n g , m a t e r i a l i s t i c c i t i e s . In A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e t h e r e i s a d i s c r e p a n c y between p u b l i c and p r i v a t e m o r a l i t y , between what i s s a i d and what i s done. Schmaltz, i n The Man Who Knew C o o l i d g e (1928), p r a i s e s p r o h i b i t i o n b u t enjoys d r i n k i n g ; and F r e d Cornplow i s s i m i l a r : " l i k e most Americans he was p r o f o u n d l y d e m o c r a t i c except perhaps as r e g a r d s 23 s o c i a l s t a n d i n g , w e a l t h , p o l i t i c a l power and c l u b membership." This hypocrisy i s p a r t o f an A m e r i c a n p r e f e r e n c e f o r doing a c t i v e good, " s e r v i c e " i n s t e a d o f o v e r - t h i n k i n g deeply and r i g h t l y . S i n c l a i r L e w i s i s not a deep t h i n k e r , but then a n o v e l i s t ' s work i s d i f f e r e n t from a p h i l o s o p h e r ' s . A n o v e l i s t does n o t come t o c o n c l u s i o n s about l i f e , b u t d i s c o v e r s a q u a l i t y i n i t , p r e s e n t s "a mode o f experience." L e w i s examines s e l e c t e d a s p e c t s of American l i f e , and presents h i s f i n d i n g s i n s a t i r i c a l novels; -7- but . h i s p e c u l i a r ambivalence makes him p r a i s e a t the same t i m e as he blames. He c r i t i c i s e s America's p a t r i o t i c a l l y loves h i s country: "The i m p e r f e c t i o n s , but only deeply rooted f a i t h L e w i s ever possessed /*was7 h i s f a i t h i n A m e r i c a . I n World So Wide, (1951), h i s l a s t n o v e l , Lewis p r a i s e s the U n i t e d S t a t e s as the t r u e s t s o u r c e of v a l u e s , a n a t i o n w i t h a d e s t i n y . The U.S. 25 w i l l r e s c u e the w o r l d . H i s r o m a n t i c optimism was dream of a p r o s p e r o u s , e n l i g h t e n e d A m e r i c a . to founded He wanted the c o u n t r y outgrow i d e o l o g i e s , and become f r e e and g r e a t . The i c o n o c l a s t of contemporary mores had, l i k e h i s f e l l o w 9 i c o n o c l a s t H.L. was on a Mencken, a deep f e e l i n g f o r t r a d i t i o n . " ft He a c o n s e r v a t i v e , b e l i e v i n g i n the p i o n e e r s ' h e r o i c v i r t u e s , which he knew were based on P u r i t a n b e l i e f s . S i n c l a i r L e w i s would 27 l i k e t o r e s t o r e the " w i n t r y P i l g r i m v i r t u e s " to h i s n a t i v e land. A t the same t i m e , he saw A m e r i c a as a new new„people, new s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , and new v a l u e s . land, requiring In t h i s connection, the M i d d l e West can r e p r e s e n t s e r e n i t y , wisdom, and beauty: I n the m i d s t of the b a b e l she found enchanted q u i e t u d e . A l o n g the r o a d the shadows from oak-branches were i n k e d on the snow l i k e bars of music. Then the s l e d came out on the s u r f a c e of Lake M i n n i e m a s h i e . Across the t h i c k i c e was a v e r i t a b l e r o a d , a s h o r t - c u t f o r f a r m e r s . On the g l a r i n g expanse of the l a k e - l e v e l s of h a r d c r u s t , f l a s h e s of green i c e blown c l e a r , c h a i n s of d r i f t s r i b b e d l i k e the sea-beach -- the m o o n l i g h t was o v e r whelming. I t stormed on the snow, i t t u r n e d the woods ashore i n t o c r y s t a l s of f i r e . The n i g h t was t r o p i c a l and v o l u p t u o u s . I n t h a t drugged magic t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e between heavy heat and i n s i n u a t i n g cold. C a r o l was dream-strayed. The t u r b u l e n t v o i c e s , even Guy P o l l o c k b e i n g c o n n o t a t i v e b e s i d e h e r , were n o t h i n g . She r e p e a t e d : -8- Deep on t h e c o n v e n t - r o o f t h e snows A r e s p a r k l i n g t o t h e moon. The words and t h e l i g h t b l u r r e d i n t o one v a s t i n d e f i n i t e h a p p i n e s s , and she b e l i e v e d t h a t some g r e a t t h i n g was coming t o h e r . She withdrew from t h e clamor i n t o a w o r s h i p o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e gods. The n i g h t expanded, she was c o n s c i o u s o f t h e u n i v e r s e , and a l l m y s t e r i e s stooped down t o h e r . ^ 2 For a l l h i s c r i t i c i s m of A m e r i c a n s , he o f f e r s no c l e a r a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e i r c o n v e n t i o n s , though he hopes they c a n c r e a t e : an i n t e l l e c t u a l w o r l d , a w o r l d o f c u l t u r e and g r a c e , o f l o f t y thoughts and t h e i n s p i r i n g communion o f r e a l knowledge, where creeds were n o t o f i m p o r t a n c e , and where man asked one a n o t h e r , n o t " I s your s o u l saved?'* b u t " I s your mind w e l l f u r n i s h e d ? " ^ 2 Some o f t h e i d e a l s t h a t S i n c l a i r Lewis i s a d v o c a t i n g f o r A m e r i c a a r e t o be found i n Europe. He admires European g r a c e , e l e g a n c e , and l e i s u r e d wisdom; b u t he d i s l i k e s t h e r i g i d i t y and l a c k o f democracy: "London i s n o t h i n g b u t a bunch o f f o g and o u t - o f - d a t e 30 buildings." He i s a m b i v a l e n t t o o about t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and' snobbery o f E a s t e r n S t a t e s , t h e f r i e n d l i n e s s and decency o f Western S t a t e s , and many o t h e r m a t t e r s , The i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t o f L e w i s ' s ambivalence i s u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h e mind o f t h e r e a d e r who i s never sure whether or n o t Lewis i s sincere: "That was always t h e t r o u b l e : r e a l l y cared a t a l l , never knowing whether he 31 f o r anybody o r a n y t h i n g except h i s work". P a r t o f L e w i s ' s b a f f l i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r i n e s s i s caused by h i s double purpose i n w r i t i n g -- t o t e l l a s t o r y and t o expose a s i t u a t i o n . 32 The " s o f t b o i l e d romancer" c l a s h e s w i t h t h e " h a r d b o i l e d c r i t i c ; " f a n t a s y and romance oppose s a t i r e and v e r i s i m i l i t u d e . i s t i c tone i s one o f l o v e - h a t e : His character- "He combines contemptuousness 33 n a i v e good h e a r t e d n e s s t o an i n c r e d i b l e degree." with He mocks and i d e a l i z e s , d e r i d e s and s y m p a t h i s e s , c r e a t i n g " t h e mature L e w i s i a n -9- i r o n y , t h a t p e c u l i a r a b i l i t y t o p r e s e n t a t once the r o m a n t i c surface 3 ^\ of new phenomena and the b e f o u l e d underside." He does n o t believe in s o l u t i o n s ; he i s "not d e t a c h e d , but c u r i o u s l y i n v o l v e d , i d e n t i f i e d in t u r n w i t h each of two 35 c o n f l i c t i n g sides." Sometimes h i s c r i t i c i s m of A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y i s n a i v e 36 and "half-baked ^ as when he d e s c r i b e s 1 go s n i f f i n g about, wondering S t r e e t w i t h him is "persons l i k e m y s e l f t h a t 37 what i t a l l means." everywhere he goes, and He takes Main i s so enmeshed i n what he f i g h t i n g t h a t he can n e i t h e r s e p a r a t e e v i l from i g n o r a n c e , be t r u l y r a d i c a l . A t o t h e r times he i s "a d i s t r e s s e d and gusted i d e a l i s t " - ^ w i t h an " a r d e n t , truthfulness,""^ or a Red dis- mocking, obscene l o v e Indian stalking his f o e s , ^ nor of analysing t h e outward forms of A m e r i c a n c i v i l i z a t i o n w i t h detachment: "He knew the d e t a i l s of A m e r i c a n l i f e as no one could e l s e d i d , but he 41 not t e l l what they added up to." Lewis's changeability i s confusing, different poses and as he adopts l o o k s a t t h i n g s w i t h b o t h l o v e and hate. However, i n almost every c a s e , h i s r e a c t i o n to r e l i g i o u s is one of d i s a p p r o v a l ; one of the few unchanging t e n e t s of L e w i s ' s changeable f a i t h Is h i s c o n s t a n t C h r i s t i a n i t y ' s God, matters d i s l i k e of r e l i g i o u s the c l e r g y , and the c h u r c h g o e r s . organizations, He repeatedly wages a c r u s a d e a g a i n s t a system which p r e v e n t s ' man's freedom and integrity. " I n s t i t u t i o n s a r e the enemies,"^ 2 f o r they aim t o s a f e - guard the e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r , i f n e c e s s a r y by c o n t r o l l i n g the whole world. and I n Gopher P r a i r i e , r e l i g i o n had become " r e p r e s s i v e puritanism p r u r i e n t e s p i o n a g e . U . S . r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s were based on -10- f e a r s and h a t r e d s , net C h r i s t i a n l o v e . L e w i s weighed American r e l i g i o n a g a i n s t C h r i s t ' s i d e a l s and t h e B i b l e ' s t e a c h i n g , and found i t w a n t i n g . He s a i d ; "Conventional r e l i g i o n s a r e among t h e most a c t i v e foes o f 44 progress." He found no j o y i n church p r i e t y and H e l l , a " v i c i o u s m i x t u r e t e a c h i n g s , o n l y f e a r o f impro- o f nonsense and r e p r e s s i o n . " ^ 4 He opposed as clumsy, outworn, and i g n o r a n t , a l l r e l i g i o u s systems, s o l u t i o n s , and i d e o l o g i e s . Una G o l d e n , t h e h e r o i n e o f The Job (1917), b e l i e v e d " t h a t l i f e i s t o o s a c r e d t o be taken i n war and f i l t h y i n d u s t r i e s and d u l l e d u c a t i o n ; and t h a t most forms and o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n h e r i t e d c a s t e s a r e n o t s a c r e d a t a l l . " ^ 6 L e w i s a t t a c k e d t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e c h u r c h e s , techniques Schools the business ("pep and p i e t y " ^ ) i n r e l i g i o n , t h e s u p e r f i c i a l i t y o f Sunday 48 7 and d e n o m i n a t i o n a l c o l l e g e s ( f a c t o r i e s f o r moral men ) the b u l l y i n g and d e c e i t of t h e Y.M.CiA., t h e " p h i l a n t h r o b b e r s " who used r e l i g i o u s emotions t o get g i f t s , and t h e e v a n g e l i s t s who were i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n e m o t i o n - s t i r r i n g methods and money, n o t people o r t r u t h : 49 "God save A m e r i c a from z e a l o u s i d e a l i s t i c o r g a n i z e d do-gooders." I n t h i s r e s p e c t he was echoing Thoreau's f e a r o f " s e l f - s t y l e d the g r e a t e s t bores of a l l . " - ^ so f u l l reformers, xhe r e l i g i o u s systems were so inhumane, o f " c h i l d i s h and d i s g u s t i n g absurdities"^''" t h a t s i n c e r e C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s could h a r d l y e x i s t , Lewis b e l i e v e d . whole magic and taboo system o f w o r s h i p i n g He hated " t h e t h e B i b l e and t h e m i n i s t r y , ' and a l l t h e o t h e r s k u l l - d e c o r a t e d v e s t i g e s o f h o r r o r t h e r e a r e i n so52 called Christianity!" Although on o c c a s i o n s Lewis quoted t h e B i b l e as a s t a n d a r d of moral wisdom, a p o s i t i v e i d e a l by which t o judge churches and people, he a l s o p o i n t e d out t h e nonsense, c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , i n d e c e n c i e s , and -11- f a l s e p r o p h e c i e s of God's Word -- Hebrew p o e t r y i s " n o b l e , moving, 5,3 and m e a n i n g l e s s . " superstitions," : He s c o r n e d " t h a t a n t i q u a t e d a n t h o l o g y of and a l s o t h e "time-honored d r o o l " - • and "damned 5 bad v e r s e " - ^ of c h u r c h s e r v i c e s . He blamed the churches f o r t u r n i n g young minds t o p r i e s t w o r s h i p and symbols — "trapping idiots i n t o h o l y m o n k e y - s h r i n e s " " ^ - - a n d was a p p a l l e d a t c h u r c h r i v a l r i e s . When Z i l l a "got r e l i g i o n , " she announced t h a t t h e o l d e r churches CO were g o i n g t o damnation: "Get saved our way or go t o H e l l . " U r i e l Ga-dd, the f a t h e r of the hero of The God Seeker (1959), r e f e r s t o "our c o n g r e g a t i o n a l God -- not t h a t of t h e g o d l e s s Roman C a t h o l i c I r i s h or t h e German L u t h e r a n s . " 5 9 L e w i s cannot u n d e r s t a n d how clergymen can b e l i e v e i n a God so c r u e l t h a t a f t e r c r e a t i n g human b e i n g s , he w i l l burn h a l f of 60 them i n H e l l : is! "Good L o r d , what a concept C h r i s t i a n i t y s God Here i s t h i s supreme e g o t i s t s i t t i n g up t h e r e who fashions c r e a t u r e s and puts them on e a r t h f o r the s o l e purpose o f w o r s h i p p i n g 61 62 him" -- a " l i t e r a r y , i n t r u s i v e , v i n d i c t i v e God," "who speaks i n r i d d l e s , and p u n i s h e s w i t h e t e r n a l t o r t u r e t h o s e who get t h e 63 wrong answers." The O l d Testament God who d e s i r e s r e e k i n g s l a u g h t e r i s , f o r L e w i s , a heathen hangover, an anachronism i n the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . 64 The c l e r g y a r e a l s o out of tune w i t h modern t i m e s , and from h i s Y a l e days L e w i s a t t a c k e d t h e "Ambassadors of C h r i s t . " ^ They were opposed t o t h e a r t s , s c i e n c e s , l e a r n i n g and a l l and they p e r p e t u a t e d o l d forms and r i t u a l s : " w o r d - s p l i t t i n g , text- t w i s t i n g , applause-hungry, j o b - h u n t i n g , medieval-minded raters." ideas, The were d e s c r i b e d by E z r a Pound: . - second- -12- These h e a v y w e i g h t s , these dodgers and t h e s e p r e a c h e r s , C r u s a d e r s , l e c t u r e r s , and s e c r e t l e c h e r s , Who wrought about h i s " s o u l " t h e i r s t a l e i n f e c t i o n . ^ C e r t a i n l y Lewis f e l t that godliness i n Elmer G a n t r y (1927) p o i n t e d committed by e r r i n g clergymen. and eros were c o n j o i n e d , and t o t h e g r e a t number o f s e x - c r i m e s What B a b b i t ' s women, " t h e r e v e r e n d eyes g l i s t e n e d . T h e m i n i s t e r t a l k e d of wicked c l e r g y "were a l l , indeed, absorbed i n v i c e . " ^ He c r i t i c i s e d them f o r t h e i r u n w i l l i n g n e s s to sacrifice themselves f o r C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s , t o f o l l o w Jesus i n t o l o n e l i n e s s , r i d i c u l e , and perhaps, d e a t h . ^ L i k e one of h i s c h a r a c t e r s i n The T r a i l o f t h e Hawk, (1915) L e w i s " d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t p r i e s t s and m i n i s t e r s , who seemed t o be o r d i n a r y men as r e g a r d s e a r t h l y t h i n g s , had any e s t r a o r d i n a r y knowledge o f t h e m y s t e r i e s "nasty and of h e a v e n . " ^ The 72 were no h e l p i n l i g h t e n i n g l i f e , 7"} gentlemen of God"' J t h e i r c l e r i c a l d u t i e s were s o c i a l and c o m m e r c i a l , n o t p i o u s . According t o L e w i s , t h e i d e a l s o f t h e Sermon on the Mount were n o t preached o r p r a c t i s e d by C h r i s t i a n s , who were more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s world not than t h e Kingdom o f Heaven. He a t t a c k e d C h r i s t i a n s f o r l i v i n g up t o t h e i r i d e a l s , but he a l s o f e l t t h a t t h e i d e a l s themselves were i n a p p r o p r i a t e and o u t - o f - d a t e . Ann r e j e c t s old-fashioned I n Ann V i c k e r s C h r i s t i a n names, " i n g r a t i a t i n g symbols l i k e C h a r i t y , Hope, F a i t h , and P a t i e n c e . But dumb p a t i e n c e , d u l l hope, and hang-jawed f a i t h , these were no l o n g e r t h e m e r i t s No, (1933), of females. h e r c h i l d should be named P r i d e , and p r i d e o f l i f e , p r i d e of l o v e , p r i d e o f work, p r i d e of b e i n g a woman should be h e r v i r t u e s . L e w i s was s u r e t h a t t h e c l e r g y must share h i s doubts conc e r n i n g t h e p r a c t i c a l i t y and r e l e v a n c e of C h r i s t i a n i t y . Rev. -13- Judson R o b e r t s , " b i g as a g r i z z l y , j o l l y as a s p a n i e l pup, as t e n suns," muttered: " I do w i s h I c o u l d get over t h i s d o u b t i n g . Reverend Frank S h a l l a r d commented: a l y i n g compromising radiant "Oh, L o r d , P h i l , what a j o b , what job, t h i s being a m i n i s t e r ! " ^ The clergy were seen as u s i n g p l a t i t u d e s and p o e t i c r h e t o r i c t o a v o i d t e l l i n g the t r u t h : "As we d o i n g any r e a l t h i n g i n the w o r l d a t all?"^ Lewis was angry a t the p r e t e n s i o n s of clergymen who 78 "prayed as God t o God," and c l a i m e d t o have "wiped out a l l s i n i n 79 the community." He was a f r a i d t h a t a h e l l f i r e p r e a c h e r l i k e B i s h o p P r a n g , "not the s t i l l a hellfire s m a l l v o i c e of God,"^0 might e a s i l y become fascist.^ A l o n g w i t h the c l e r g y , Lewis c r i t i c i s e d i m p o r t a n t , u n t h i n k i n g c o n g r e g a t i o n s who compelled r e s p e c t a b i l i t y : self- p r e v e n t e d freedom and "a m e c h a n i c a l r e l i g i o n -- a d r y hard c h u r c h , shut o f f from the r e a l l i f e of the s t r e e t s , 82 r e s p e c t a b l e as a t o p - h a t ; " their dull, inhumanly "solemn w h i s k e r y persons whose o n l y p l e a s u r e a s i d e from not d o i n g a g r e e a b l e t h i n g s was k e e p i n g o t h e r s QO from d o i n g them." They a r e u n c r i t i c a l c h u r c h f o i k s , whose w o r s h i p has become a s t a n d a r d i z e d p u b l i c rite. Church c o n g r e g a t i o n s a r e B a b b i t t s , l a c k i n g the of c i v i l i z e d l i f e . qualities They have no purposes, no' . r i t e s ; t h e i r m o r a l i t y and c h u r c h a t t e n d a n c e a r e m e a n i n g l e s s . T h e i r r e l i g i o n has become a c r e e d which they do not u n d e r s t a n d ; i t has ceased t o be, as i t was i n C a t h o l i c Europe, or even i n t h e o c r a t i c New E n g l a n d , a way of l i f e , a c h a n n e l of t h e i r hopes, an o r d e r w i t h meaning. -14They a r e c r e a t u r e s of t h e p a s s i n g moment who a r e v a g u e l y unhappy i n a b o r i n g and s e n s e l e s s e x i s t e n c e t h a t i s w i t h o u t d i g n i t y , w i t h o u t g r a c e , w i t h o u t purpose. These people b e l o n g t o a dead w o r l d of empty s h i b b o l e t h s , 85 a s o c i e t y marked by drabness, s t e r i l i t y , and j o y l e s s n e s s , ight brought ,86 about by a r e l i g i o n which l a c k s " r e a s o n , decency, and kindness.' A c c o r d i n g t o L e w i s , man must l e a v e r e l i g i o n s , i d e o l o g i e s , and supers t i t i o n , and stand on h i s own. autonomy, h e a l t h and i n t e g r i t y : ^ I n t h i s way he w i l l a c h i e v e freedom, 7 "Come out of death i n t o "The C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n i s a c r u t c h . life."88 U n t i l i t i s taken away we can on never b e g i n t o walk w e l l . " A l l Lewis's works a r e i n i m i c a l t o r e l i g i o n , because r e l i g i o n i s opposed t o b r o t h e r h o o d , p r o g r e s s , and s c i e n c e , which he n e a r l y always a f f i r m s . ing, These few b e l i e f s l i e a t the c e n t r e o f L e w i s ' s think- and animate h i s a t t a c k s on v a r i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s , c l a s s e s , and points of view. A t times h i s anger becomes s h r i l l , and he c u r s e s r e l i g i o n f o r causing or a l l o w i n g misery, f o r g i v i n g a f a l s e p i c t u r e of l i f e w i t h i t s poisonous t e a c h i n g . He p o r t r a y s C h r i s t as n e i t h e r 90 f o r g i v i n g nor tender, t h e B i b l e as e n s l a v i n g , and God as an e g o t i s t i c a l b u l l y . C l e a r g y and l a i t y a r e d e c e i v e r s , s e e k i n g power, l i m i t i n g thought and c u l t u r e : "Do n o t f o r g i v e them, L o r d , f o r they know what 91 they d o . ' j The w o r l d i s "a booby b l u n d e r i n g s c h o o l b o y , " clumsy, raw, 92 i g n o r a n t , slow, and " t e n p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n t . " I n extreme moments, Lewis f i n d s mankind u n r e g e n e r a t e , and passes b i t t e r judgment on t h e whole 93 damned human r a c e . or When he saw t h e drunken men and women b r a w l i n g l y i n g u n c o n s c i o u s i n t h e slums o f Glasgow, Red stopped and r a i s e d h i s c l e n c h e d f i s t s t o h i g h heaven. Tears were s t r e a m i n g down h i s cheeks. " I can't stand i t any more," he c r i e d . " I c a n ' t stand it." A l l t h e way back t o t h e h o t e l he c u r s e d and r a v e d . "God damn t h e s o c i e t y t h a t w i l l p e r m i t such p o v e r t y ! " "God damn t h e r e l i g i o n s t h a t stand f o r such a p u t r i d system. God damn them a l l ! " ^ ^ -15- L e w i s ' s a t t a c k s on r e l i g i o n a r e u s u a l l y i r r a t i o n a l prejudiced. ficialities: and He makes a s u p e r f i c i a l c r i t i c i s m of c h u r c h super"The amount of time and p a s s i o n t h a t t h e o l o g i a n s have spent on d e f i n i n g f a i r y - s t o r y words would, i f s e n s i b l y a p p l i e d , 95 have e l i m i n a t e d a l l war and bad c o o k i n g . " He h a t e s f a l s e religiosity, smug d e c e i t f u l b e l i e v e r s , u n e t h i c a l a c t s , and empty f o r m a l i t i e s : " A l l those mouldy barns of c h u r c h e s , and people coughing 96 hymns, and long-winded p r e a c h e r s " illiterate r e p e a t i n g " p e r f e c t l y meaning- 97 less doctrine." He makes Elmer G a n t r y a monster, war a g a i n s t the O l d Testament God, and uses him i n " h i s against l i t e r a l p u r i t a n i s m , h y p o c r i s y , b i g o t r y , c r u e l t y , and d o l l a r and through Elmer whole c h u r c h . interpretation, 98 evangelism," ( l i k e p r i e s t , l i k e people) Lewis judges the He mocks e s t a b l i s h e d creeds and makes a " c o a r s e m i s p l a c e d , cheap j e s t of e v e r y t h i n g t h a t y e t has v a l u e i n American c u l t u r e , t h a t i s t o say, r e l i g i o n . " ^ fl e m i s r e a d s t h e meaning and f a i t h of A m e r i c a , but h i s b i t t e r n e s s i s based on c o n c e r n , and a f e e l i n g t h a t something i s wrong w i t h r e l i g i o u s l i f e . I have d e c i d e d t h a t no one i n t h i s room, i n c l u d i n g your p a s t o r , b e l i e v e s i n the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n . Not one of us would t u r n t h e o t h e r cheek. Not one of us would s e l l a l l t h a t he has and g i v e t o the poor. Not one of us would g i v e h i s c o a t t o some man who .-took h i s o v e r c o a t . Every one of us l a y s up a l l t h e t r e a s u r e he can. We don't p r a c t i s e the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n . We don't i n t e n d t o p r a c t i s e i t . T h e r e f o r e , we don't b e l i e v e i n i t . T h e r e f o r e I r e s i g n , and I a d v i s e you to q u i t l y i n g and d i s b a n d . L e w i s c r i t i c i s e s C h r i s t i a n s f o r not l i v i n g up t o C h r i s t ' s t e a c h i n g s , and he s c o r n s t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n because he sees i t as f a l s e and i r r e l e v a n t . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d h i s d i s l i k e of r e l i g i o n , and h i s ambivalency w i t h r e s p e c t t o ether v a l u e s , i t i s -16- n e c e s s a r y t o make a study of t h e man and h i s l i f e . After;that, his works w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d i n the l i g h t of t h e s e t e n d e n c i e s i n h i s outlook. -17- F o o t n o t e s t o Chapter I ^ S i n c l a i r L e w i s , The Man from M a i n S t r e e t , e d s . H;E. Maule and M.H. Cane (New York: Random House, 1953), p. 6. ^Dooley, A r t , p. 44. ^Dooley, A r t , p. 113. • ^ S i n c l a i r L e w i s , M a i n S t r e e t (New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1920), p. 265) •'••'•Mark S c h o r e r , I n t r o d u c t i o n , A C o l l e c t i o n o f C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , ed. Mark S c h o r e r (Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1962), 17 S i n c l a i r L e w i s , I t Can't Happen Here (New York; C o l l i e r , 1935), p. 441. •^Vernon L. P a r r i n g t o n , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s : Our Own Diogenes" (1927), E s s a y s , p. 64. "^Robert Morss L o v e t t , "An I n t e r p r e t e r o f American L i f e " (1925) , E s s a y s , p. 34. • ^ S i n c l a i r L e w i s , Cass T i m b e r l a n e (New Y o r k : Random House, 1945), p. 373. •^Sinclair L e w i s , Dodsworth Dunlap, 1929), p. 96. (New York: G r o s s e t and • ^ F r e d e r i c k J . Hoffman, The Twenties (New York: C o l l i e r , 1953), p. 2 1 . l ^ C a r l L. Anderson, The Swedish A c c e p t a n c e of American L i t e r a t u r e ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y l v a n i a P r e s s , 1957), p. 63. • ^ V i n c e n t Sheean, Dorothy and Red ( B o s t o n : Houghton M i f f l i n , 1963), p. 167. 20 T . K . W h i p p l e , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s " (1928), E s s a y s , p. 72. P a r r i n g t o n , "Diogenes", E s s a y s , p. 69. 2 2 M a n From M a i n S t r e e t , p. 328. ^Sinclair L e w i s , The P r o d i g a l P a r e n t s , quoted i n E s s a y s , p. 160. 2 ^ D o o l e y , A r t , p. 234. -18Sinclair 1925), p. 416. L e w i s , A r r o w s m i t h (New York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 2 5 2 6 S h e e a n , p. 338. 2 7 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 26. 2 8 Main S t r e e t , p. 205. 9Q H a r o l d F r e d e r i c , The Damnation 1896), p. 198. M a i n S t r e e t , p. 415. 3 Q 3 of Theron Ware (New Y o r k , ^"Sheean, p. 336. 3 2 Grebstein, preface. 3 3 S h e e a n , p. 111. R o b e r t J . G r i f f i n , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s " , American Winners of t h e Nobel L i t e r a r y P r i z e , eds. W.G. F r e n c h and W.E. K i d d (Norman: U n i v e r s i t y of Oklahoma P r e s s , 1968), p. 48. 3Zf ^ D o o l e y , A r t , p. 54. 3 3 6 W a l t e r Lippmann, " S i n c l a i r L e w i s " (1927), E s s a y s , p. 91. 37 M a n from M a i n S t r e e t , p. 313. R o b e r t E. S p i l l e r e t a l . , The L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s (New York; M a c m i l l a n , 1953), p. 1225. 3 8 3 ^ S h e e a n , p. 4 4 i 4 0 W h i p p l e , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 77. 4 1 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 162. 4 2 M a i n S t r e e t , p. 430. 4 3 W h i p p l e , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 73. ^Quoted i n S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 219. ^ G r e b s t e i n , p. 105. Sinclair 1917), p. 185. 4 6 4 7 Sinclair L e w i s , The Job (New York: G r o s s e t and Dunlap, L e w i s , B a b b i t t (New York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1922), p. 188. 48A r r o w s m i t h , p. 9. -1949 5 0 I t Can't Happen Here, p. 426. Henry D. Thoreau, Walden ( E d i n b u r g h : Douglas, 1884), p. 167, "^H;L. Mencken, P r e j u d i c e s : Jonathan Cape, 1925), p. 75. Fourth Series (London: 5 2 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 372. 5 3 S i n c l a i r L e w i s , The God Seeker (New Y o r k : Random House, 1949), p. 82. -^Quoted i n S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 178. G r a c e Hegger L e w i s , With Love From G r a c i e (New York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1951), p. 92. 5 5 5 6 S e h o r e r , L i f e , p. 219. S i n c l a i r L e w i s , Elmer Gantry (New York: 1927), p. 180. 5 7 Harcourt, Brace, S i n c l a i r L e w i s , Our Mr. Wrenn (New York: H a r p e r , 1915), 5 8 p. 46. 59 God Seeker, p. 53. ^ W i l f r i e d Edener, D i e R e l i g i o n s k r i t i k i n den Romanen^von S i n c l a i r L e w i s , B e i h e f t e zum Jahrbuch f u r A m e r i k a s t u d i e n , No. 10. ( H e i d e l b e r g : C a r l x W i n t e r , 1963), p. 145. 61 Quoted by G. H. L e w i s , p. 302. 6 2 G o d Seeker, p. 176. 6 3 I b i d . , p. 211. ^ E d e n e r , p. 86. H . L . Mencken, P r e j u d i c e s : 1926), p. 114. 65 6 6 F i f t h S e r i e s (New York: Knopf, E l m e r G a n t r y , p . 89. , 67,Quoted i n Hoffman, T w e n t i e s , p. 28. 6 8 B a b b i t t , p. 394. 6 9 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 348. 7 0 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 449 S^ Si in nccllaaii r LLew e w i s , The T r a i l of the Hawk (New York: G r o s s e t and Dunlap, 1915), p. 383. 7 1 -2072 Mencken, P r e j d u c i e s : F i f t h , p.111. T h e Job, p. 261. 7 3 74 S i n c l a i r L e w i s , Ann V i c k e r s (Garden C i t y : Doran, 1933), p. 220. Doubleday, ^ E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 61. 7 6 Ibid., 77 H.G. W e l l s , Joan and P e t e r (New Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n , 1918), p. 10. p. 370. 78 God Seeker, p. 6. 7 9 A r r o w s m i t h , p. 258. 80 I t Can't Happen Here, 81, ''Ibid., p.65. p. 66. 82 B a b b i t t , p. 234. 8 3 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 333. 84 Lippmann, "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 90. 85 P a r r i n g t o n , "Diogenes," E s s a y s , p. 68. (New York: H o r t o n D a v i e s , A M i r r o r o f the M i n i s t r y i n Modern N o v e l s O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959), p. 30. 8 7 E d e n e r , p. 198. 88 God S e e k e r , p. 345. 89 Quoted i n S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 92. 9 Q 9 1 9 2 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 377. I t Can't Happen Here, p. 384. T h e Job, p..182. 93 George J . B e c k e r , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s : A p o s t l e t o the A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r , XXI (Autumn 1952), 425. Q/i ^Quoted from F r a z i e r Hunt i n G r e b s t e i n , p. 148. 9 5 G o d Seeker, p. 179. 9 6 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 87. Philistines", -21- 97 Elmer G a n t r y , p. 87. R o b e r t L i t t r e l l , "The P r e a c h e r F r i e d i n O i l , " R e p u b l i c , 50 (March 16, 1927), 108. 9 8 99 A n d e r s o n , p. 58. 1 0 0 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 385. New CHAPTER I I S i n c l a i r Lewis was b o r n and brought up i n t h e s m a l l Midwestern town o f Sauk C e n t r e , and he f u l l y understood i t s v a l u e s . He had an " a p p a l l i n g regard"'^''" f o r h i s f a t h e r , Dr. E . J . L e w i s , who thought t h a t t h e c h u r c h was a good t h i n g f o r t h e community ( " R e l i g i o n i s a f i n e t h i n g t o keep p e o p l e i n order"-'-^ ) , who b e l i e v e d 2 103 i n and p r a c t i s e d " t h e s t e r n e r and more p u r i t a n i c a l v i r t u e s " e s p e c i a l l y duty. -- From h i s f a t h e r , young H a r r y " i n h e r i t e d a con104 s i d e r a b l e respect f o r the P u r i t a n v a l u e s , " and though he r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t Sauk C e n t r e and Dr. E . J . he was not b l i n d t o t h e i r m e r i t s n o r •_. f r e e .fr.o'm t h e i r i n f l u e n c e . ^ 5 i n d e e d , i t has been observed t h a t he "developed an o v e r t p e r v e r s i t y and h a t r e d f o r 10 6 what he s e c r e t l y l o v e d and i n which he wanted t o s h a r e . " He longed t o j o i n i n the a c t i v i t i e s of h i s b r o t h e r C l a u d e , who was e v e r y t h i n g t h a t H a r r y was n o t -- " s e n s i b l e , s t e a d y , w e l l o r g a n i z e d , happy, g r e g a r i o u s , g o o d - l o o k i n g and w e l l - b u i l t , at gifted s p o r t s and a t h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g , u n i m a g i n a t i v e , shrewd w i t h 107 money and t h r i f t y , a m b i t i o u s . " To w i n a t t e n t i o n f o r h i m s e l f , H a r r y f e l t a c o m p u l s i o n t o show o f f , t o do t h e o p p o s i t e of what was expected o f him, t o d e l i g h t i n s a y i n g s u r p r i s i n g t h i n g s . complained: His father " H a r r y , why c a n ' t you do l i k e any o t h e r boy ought t o 108 do?" L e w i s ' s c h a r a c t e r developed i n t o one o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y -23c o n t r a d i c t i o n , and throughout h i s l i f e he won attention with his c o n t r a r y ways. The and i n s e c u r e . his dynamo of energy, i d e a s , and words was He r e a d a v i d l y and w i d e l y , and l i v e d i n w o r l d s of imagination. Sensing h i s s u p e r i o r endowments and he developed a degree of s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s and attended a l s o shy, l o n e l y , a l l the l o c a l c h u r c h e s , social inferiority, p i e t y . H e and a t Y a l e w r o t e : "I certainly have a keen i n t e r e s t i n the r e l a t i o n between the human s p i r i t and 110 That Power Not O u r s e l v e s . " He experienced a real need, and under t h e i n f l u e n c e of an O b e r l i n YMCA man, c a l l e d t o be a C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r y . " s a c r e d and n e c e s s a r y " ; He spiritual felt s a i d that prayer i s and""Cod's word i s e t e r n a l l i f e . " However, h i s q u e s t i o n i n g mind and h i s r e a d i n g o f books by Haeckel, himself and I n g e r s o l l undermined these new he w r o t e a paragraph c a l l e d "My Paine, religious feelings, R e l i g i o n " advocating and appreciation of the a r t s , k i n d n e s s , m i n d i n g one's b u s i n e s s , sympathy, p l a i n l i v i n g and h i g h t h i n k i n g . He was "committed t o c u r i o s i t y , t o l e r a n c e , and skepticism."''''''^ He had t u r n e d e a g e r l y t o the church f o r s p i r i t u a l wisdom and h e l p i n h i s l o n e l i n e s s ; but he soon found many t h i n g s 113 to b e l i e v e i n C h r i s t i a n theism. He became d i s i l l u s i o n e d C h r i s t i a n i t y , and a t Y a l e proposed the a b o l i t i o n o f the He was always r e b e l l i o u s , g r o p i n g , impossible dissatisfied. with chapel. He had a " r e s t - l e s s , dynamic, o v e r c h a r g e d , demanding personality,"''''''^ and h i s u g l y cancerous f a c e and affection: "he was w i l d t a l k prevented a meager and r u s t y - h a i r e d youth w i t h p r o t r u d i n g t e e t h and an uneasy t i t t e r change the w o r l d . him from a t t r a c t i n g . . . h i s voice s h r i l l with desire to -24Originally called "God F o r b i d , " he was Y a l e f o r h i s h a i r and h i s hazy Utopian s o c i a l i s m : renamed "Red" at " I f a l l the people worked as a team, we would have a p e r f e c t w o r l d . " B r o t h e r h o o d became a k i n d of r e l i g i o n . wanted t o improve the w o r l d and of people a n d p l a c e s , "Red" s o c i e t y ; he r e a l l y d i d c a r e about p e o p l e , and h i s c r i t i c i s m of s o c i e t y was d e s i r e d human p e r f e c t i o n . Throughout h i s l i f e , fundamentally To make " s y s t e m a t i c he t r a v e l l e d moral. He observations"-'--'- t o Europe and 7 t o Panama, and in 1906 he went t o work a t Upton S i n c l a i r ' s Utopian experiment i n communal l i v i n g , Helicon H a l l . He enjoyed d i s c u s s i n g i d e a s w i t h the "worthwhile 118 people" t h e r e , and a f t e r w a r d s completed h i s Y a l e s t u d i e s . He planned t o be a w r i t e r , but the n e x t y e a r s were "a m i s c e l l a n y of 119 f a l s e s t a r t s , l o s t j o b s , l o s t h o p e s , l o o s e ends, e r r a t i c wandering." He seemed t o have enormous and i n e x h a u s t i b l e enthusiasm, but h i s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s were many and b i t t e r . bumbling, poor, r e s t l e s s , He was r e j e c t e d , d e r i d e d , and l o n e l y , " a t once n a i v e and y e t f a m i l i a r w i t h a q u i t e tough e x p e r i e n c e When he met own of Grace L i v i n g s t o n e Hegger, p r e t t y , s p i r i t e d , smart, g i v e n t o a i r s , he f e l l 121 his gawky and divided being." life." arrogant, i n l o v e w i t h her because "she objectified The mixed q u a l i t y of L e w i s i s shown i n ^ t h i s p h r a s e , and i t i s a l s o shown i n the ambiguous tone of n o v e l t h a t he d e d i c a t e d t o G r a c i e , Our Mr. Wrenn the (1914). I t i s a p a t r o n i z i n g tone, not q u i t e s a t i r i c a l , t h a t t r i e s a t once t o make us take'Wrenn s e r i o u s l y and a t the same t i m e a l l o w us t o be s u p e r i o r t o him, a coy s e n t i m e n t a l i t y about h i s s e n t i m e n t a l i t y t h a t seems a t once t o want b o t h t o s a n c t i o n the c h o i c e as the w i s e , g e n e r a l c h o i c e , and t o d e r i d e him as an unimportant chooser -- an eaten-uneaten cake s i t u a t i o n . 1 2 2 H i s n e x t n o v e l s had the c h e e r f u l exuberance and b r i g h t o p t i m i s m of the y e a r s b e f o r e A m e r i c a e n t e r e d the war. Amid the -25d i s i l l u s i o n and c r i t i c i s m a f t e r the war many Americans c l u n g t o a b e l i e f i n the s m a l l town as the f r i e n d l i e s t p l a c e , t h e r e a l A m e r i c a . S i n c l a i r L e w i s sometimes thought the same, but i n h i s b e s t - s e l l e r M a i n S t r e e t (1920) he p o r t r a y e d Gopher P r a i r i e as an u n p l e a s a n t f i x e d i n the r i g i d i t i e s of the p a s t . " H i s a t t i t u d e toward the West i s as ambiguous as h i s a t t i t u d e toward the m i d d l e c l a s s : place Middle both drawn as h o p e l e s s l y narrow, the f i r s t i s shown f i n a l l y as somehow the o n l y s e n s i b l e : p l a c e , and people." the second as somehow the o n l y s e n s i b l e 1 2 3 I n s p i t e of c o n f l i c t i n g elements i n the n o v e l , M a i n S t r e e t s o l d 500,000 c o p i e s , was gave a new t r a n s l a t e d i n t o n e a r l y every European language, phrase t o d i c t i o n a r i e s , and made Lewis a w o r l d f i g u r e . a l s o i n v o l v e d him i n a storm of c o n t r o v e r s y , but i n s t e a d of It worrying he e a g e r l y wrote o t h e r p r o v o c a t i v e books, B a b b i t t (1922), A r r o w s m i t h and Elmer Gantry (1927). social l i f e . The As a s u c c e s s f u l n o v e l i s t , L e w i s l e d a busy p a i n t e r C.R.W. N e v i n s o n c a l l e d him " r e s t l e s s , and i n t e n s e , " - as "he (1925), clownish, poured f o r t h the most remarkable monologue of l o v e and h a t e , shrewdness and s e n t i m e n t a l i t y . " 1 2 4 L e w i. s b e l i e v e d i n the v a l u e of i m a g i n a t i v e i n d e c i s i o n and doubt. " I don't know,"125 s a i d A a r o n Gadd, when s e e k i n g r e l i g i o u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A r r o w s m i t h and G o t t l i e b l o o k e d f o r s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h s , but always w i t h s c e p t i c i s m . Dodsworth t r i e d t o a n a l y s e the q u a l i t i e s of A m e r i c a and Europe w i t h o u t prejudice. I n h i s s e a r c h f o r knowledge, S i n c l a i r L e w i s s t u d i e d the i d e a s of S o c i a l i s t Eugene Debs, whom he c a l l e d a " C h r i s t s p i r i t " \ because he was w i s e and k i n d and f o r g i v i n g -- y e t a f i g h e r f o r t r u t h . 126 When Debs s a i d : "Be t r u e t o the God w i t h i n o n e s e l f , " L e w i s wept. He a l s o s t u d i e d the works of Thoreau and Emerson, who i n d i v i d u a l freedom, and wisely. taught that man believed i n c o u l d be r e l i g i o u s , but nobly, W i t h M e l v i l l e , Hawthorne, and Whitman, they c r e a t e d an American 1 t r a d i t i o n of r e v o l t . 97 ' L e w i s j o i n e d t h e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n of c r i t i c i s m o f A m e r i c a n r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s , based o r i g i n a l l y on E i g h t e e n t h Century French E n l i g h t e n m e n t ; he had r e a d t h e works of V o l t a i r e , F r a n k l i n , J e f f e r s o n and Paine ("My mind i s my own c h a p e l " ) . These a u t h o r s believed t h a t a r t c o u l d change l i v e s f o r t h e b e t t e r , and were s i n c e r e and courageous i n t h e s e a r c h f o r reason. B r i t i s h w r i t e r s a l s o helped and H.G. W e l l s form L e w i s ' s p o s i t i v e i d e a l s , taught t h a t mankind can, by t a k i n g thought, by r e a l e d u c a t i o n , a c q u i r e such s t r a n g e , c r i m s o n - s h o t , a l t o g e t h e r enchanted q u a l i t i e s as c h e e r f u l n e s s , k i n d n e s s , h o n e s t y , p l a i n decency, r e f u s a l t o make o u r s e l v e s m i s e r a b l e and g u i l t y j u s t t o p l e a s e some i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t f o r a c e n t u r y has been a w a l k i n g and t a l k i n g c o r p s e . I 2 9 L e w i s ' s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e church f o l l o w e d t h a t o f H.G. W e l l s , but i t was a l s o based on h i s awareness o f a p o w e r f u l , unapproachable God: "an overwhelming l i g h t w i t h streamers t h a t r e a c h out t o p i e r c e a 130 man's s o u l . " L e w i s ' s sense o f God was vague, b u t he had s i n c e r e r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g s , expressed i n h i s l o v e o f c h a r i t y and h o n e s t y , which made h i m a t t a c k t h e p r a c t i c e o f r e l i g i o n i n A m e r i c a . He r e f u s e d a l l o b l i g a t i o n s o f r e l i g i o n because no w o r s h i p s a t i s f i e d h i s own r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g s : "As a s a t i r i s t , he saw t o o c l e a r l y t h e f a u l t s and f o i b l e s and t h e undue p r e t e n s i o n s o f t h e church b r i n g h i m s e l f under i t s wing." -'12 I n addressing ever t o t h e Sunday evening forum o f t h e Community C h r i s t i a n Church, Kansas C i t y , on t h e s u b j e c t o f a r e l i g i o n f o r t h e modern man, he t r i e d t o i n t r o d u c e t h e i d e a t h a t God i s n o t t h e p e t t y avenging God of some men's i m a g i n a t i o n : t h i n k God i s l i k e t h a t . " " I don't 1 3 2 133 W i t h i s " c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e a k of a d o l e s c e n t p i e t y , " he'was a p p a l l e d a t the churches' presumption and s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s i n -27- p r o c l a i m i n g God, and hated smug s e l f - i m p o r t a n t c l e r g y who l i t t l e r e s p e c t and u n d e r s t a n d i n g showed f o r God: ... and t h a t , y e s , the Maker of the u n i v e r s e w i t h the s t a r s a hundred thousand l i g h t - y e a r s a p a r t was i n t e r e s t e d , f u r i o u s , and v e r y p e r s o n a l about i t i f a s m a l l boy p l a y e d b a s e b a l l on Sunday afternoon.134 From h i s Sunday School days t o h i s death — "supposing a f t e r they throw the l a s t s p a d e f u l of d i r t on u s , we f i n d out i t ' s a l l t r u e l " 1 3 S i n c l a i r L e w i s was t r y i n g t o f i n d out t r u t h s about God and -- 3 religion. He t a l k e d of the deep h e a r t ' s e x p e r i e n c e , the p e r s o n a l s e a r c h , and " t h e y e a r n i n g f o r u n i o n w i t h the d i v i n e . " The s e a r c h of the s o u l 137 f o r God he c a l l e d an " a d v e n t u r e , " Commitment was Rev. G.E. B e i l b y wrote, " R e l i g i o u s an i d e a t h a t caused him much t o r t u r e . . . He d i d sense p o s i t i v e elements i n C h r i s t i a n i t y , and, I t h i n k , a t l e a s t s u b c o n s c i o u s l y , he l o n g e d t o make them h i s own." L e w i s b e l i e v e d i n "decency and k i n d n e s s and f r i e n d s h i p , t o l e r a n c e , i n t e g r i t y , beauty, f a i t h i n j u s t i c e and p r o g r e s s . t h e purpose o f l i f e ? " — He was "Work." 1 4 1 intellect, 1 4 1 , 1 4 2 t h a t h i s aim was L ^ and a 3? democratic d r i v e n by t h e g o s p e l of work ("What's ) , and i n h i s n e a t n e s s , n e s s , sex embar.rassment, and g u i l t shows-"a profound and puritanism. reason,"• ' love l a c k of t e n d e r - provincial N e v e r t h e l e s s , w i t h a t y p i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n , he claimed t o l i v e f u l l y , t o e x p e r i e n c e beauty and j o y and l o v e . He wanted e/ery i n d i v i d u a l t o a c h i e v e s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n , t o be a " f r e e , 143 inquiring, c r i t i c a l spirit" d i c t a t e s of the churches. -- and t h i s meant l e a v i n g the f a b l e s and He d e s i r e d a w i s e r and more j u s t s o c i a l o r d e r , w i t h p r i d e and f u l f i l m e n t i n good work, and a new Humanitarianism, men and P r o g r e s s . " ^ 1 s h o u l d be p o i n t e d t o "uncharted T r i n i t y of "Reason, I n Elmer G a n t r y , he suggested plateaus c a l l e d Righteousness, Honesty, S a c r i f i c e , Beauty, S a l v a t i o n . " 1 4 that Idealism, 3 never r l y orr a ci ol ni sn ig s taetn tAmerican l y d e f i n efda u these i d e was als, a but he used He them i n h cilse aangry l t s . He -28satirist (more f u l l y d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I V ) p r e s e n t i n g d i s t o r t e d p i c t u r e s o f i n s t i t u t i o n s and b e l i e f s so t h a t r e a d e r s c o u l d p e r c e i v e them as i f f o r the f i r s t t i m e . H i s r e a c t i o n t o s o c i a l wrongs was immediate, i n t e n s e , and r e b e l l i o u s : "He l o v e d g e t t i n g angry, e s p e c i a l l y 146 i n a r i g h t e o u s cause," s a i d h i s second w i f e , Dorothy Thompson. She was a b r i l l i a n t and p o p u l a r newswoman, v i t a l , whose o p i n i o n s were m u l t i t u d i n o u s and f i r m . warm, and i n t e l l i g e n t , L e w i s was enchanted by h e r a t f i r s t j and proposed s e v e r a l t i m e s ; but she h e s i t a t e d about l o v i n g a man who l a c k e d d i r e c t i o n and had "something s l i p p e r y " him. 1 4 7 about They were m a r r i e d i n May, 1928, i n . ' c i v i l and r e l i g i o u s ceremonies, but t h e r e were b i t t e r c l a s h e s i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p . d i f f i c u l t man t o l i v e w i t h : L e w i s was a 148 "he h a t e d p r o h i b i t i o n of any k i n d . " He s a i d , "My m i s s i o n i n l i f e i s t o be t h e d e s p i s e d c r i t i c , t h e e t e r n a l fault-finder. I must c a r p and s c o l d u n t i l everyone d e s p i s e s me. what I was put h e r e for." That's 1 4 9 Thomas W o l f e admired t h e s i n c e r i t y b e h i n d t h e anger. He d e s c r i b e d Lewis-McHarg i n You Can't Go Home A g a i n : He knew how much i n t e g r i t y and courage and honesty was c o n t a i n e d i n t h a t tormented tenement o f f u r y and l a c e r a t e d h u r t s . R e g a r d l e s s of a l l t h a t was j a n g l e d , s n a r l e d , and t w i s t e d i n h i s l i f e , r e g a r d l e s s of a l l t h a t had become b i t t e r , h a r s h , and a c r i d , McHarg was o b v i o u s l y one o f the t r u l y good, the t r u l y h i g h , t h e t r u l y g r e a t p e o p l e of t h e w o r l d . 1 5 0 L e w i s aimed t o c a s t i g a t e A m e r i c a u n t i l i t was pure and worthy of h i s love.151 He f e l t a s e l f - a p p o i n t e d m i s s i o n t o r e f o r m by e x p o s u r e , . b e l i e v i n g t h a t the l o t of man c o u l d be improved i f i t s f a u l t s were p o i n t e d o u t ; and h i s f a v o u r i t e t a r g e t s were smugness, h y p o c r i s y , d i s h o n e s t y , c o n f o r m i t y , snobbery, and p r e j u d i c e . He made s l a s h i n g a t t a c k s on c r e e d s and p r a c t i c e s , d e r i d e d d u l l n e s s and f o r m a l i s m , and was i n d i g n a n t a t narrow p e o p l e f o r 152 t h e i r " c o n s t r i c t i o n o f the s o u l . " All t h e s e f a u l t s L e w i s found i n A m e r i c a ! r e l i g i o n , and f o r most o f h i s l i f e , he showed "a complete l a c k o f sympathy f o r any form -29of r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f . " 153 He mimicked clergymen and sang t a s t e l e s s about Jesus C h r i s t a t p a r t i e s , he dragged h i s s i c k w i f e down B i l l y "sawdust t r a i l " songs Sunday's f o r f u n , and l e f t i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t n o t h i n g of a r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e was t o occur i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h i s f u n e r a l . " ' ' 1 i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e o l o g y and a b s t r a c t d i s c u s s i o n , i m p r e s s i v e knowledge 1 5 5 He was not 4 but he had an of r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s , and i n c o l l e c t i n g m a t e r i a l f o r Elma r G a n t r y cross-examined h i s Sunday S c h o o l C l a s s of twenty Kansas C i t y clergymen w i t h such q u e s t i o n s a s , "Why pulpits?" He c a l l e d them "a f i n e bunch. don't you be honest i n your You get up and preach t h i n g s 156 t h a t n e i t h e r you nor your c o n g r e g a t i o n s b e l i e v e . " As i f t o show t h e i r i n s i n c e r i t y , he h i m s e l f e n t e r e d t h e i r p u l p i t s f o r "damned f o o l p r e a c h i n g ; " and on one c e l e b r a t e d o c c a s i o n , "spoke up t o Papa 1 5 7 God." S i n c l a i r L e w i s knew t h a t r e l i g i o n , which i s concerned w i t h man's deepest m y s t e r i e s , cannot be r a t i o n a l , cannot be a n a l y s e d -159 " I b e l i e v e because i t i s i m p o s s i b l e , " -- but he was determined t o w r i t e a t r a c t t o prove t h a t r e l i g i o n i s i m p o s s i b l e . L e w i s " g o t so e x c i t e d making I n w r i t i n g Elmer Gantry f a c e s a t God t h a t he f o r g o t h i s c r a f t s m a n s h i p . " 1 6 0 The s a t i r e goes too f a r ; C h r i s t i a n i t y i s made i n c o n c e i v a b l e , as a l l ^ r e l i g i o u s people a r e p r e s e n t e d as e i t h e r h y p o c r i t e s or morons. The s a t i r e f a i l s t o g e n e r a t e a r e a l i s t i c view of r e l i g i o n i n America'; i n s t e a d , i t i s j u s t p e e v i s h 161 "foaming a t t h e mouth." I t i n d i c a t e s L e w i s ' s r e v u l s i o n and l o a t h i n g f o r C h r i s t i a n p r a c t i c e s , perhaps a r e a c t i o n t o h i s own i m p u l s e t o be an e v a n g e l i c a l missionary.l^ 2 ... p a y i n g my compliments t o the M e t h o d i s t C a r d i n a l s , the L o r d s Day A l l i a n c e , t h e S.P.V., and a l l the r e s t -not s l i g h t l y and meekly as i n M.St, and B a b b i t t but a t : f u l l l e n g t h , and v e r y , v e r y i l o v i n g l y . I t h i n k i t ' l l be j u s t the r i g h t time f o r t h i s n o v e l , and I t h i n k I can do i t con amore ... I l o n g t o d e a l w i t h the r e l i g i o u s e r s soon. The book Elmer G a n t r y caused a s t o r m of c o n t r o v e r s y and p u l p i t f u r y , and L e w i s was t h r e a t e n e d w i t h j a i l and l y n c h i n g . A t the time he was -30t r a v e l l i n g i n Europe and r e v i s i n g Dodsworth (1929), the n o v e l i n which he t u r n e d back t o a r e a s s e r t i o n of t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s , middle-brow, and M i d d l e Western v a l u e s t h a t he had c r i t i c i s e d i n Main S t r e e t and B a b b i t t . However, the s t o c k market c r a s h d r a s t i c a l l y a l t e r e d the o l d - f a s h i o n e d v a l u e s , and a l s o m o d i f i e d L e w i s ' s p l a n s f o r a l a b o u r n o v e l , never completed. He was labors' I J won D H d r i n k i n g h e a v i l y because he l a c k e d the "arduous and of n o v e l w r i t i n g ; then suddenly he was n o t i f i e d that he the N o v e l p r i z e i n l i t e r a t u r e f o r 1930. the news; Dr. Henry Van Dyke w r o t e , "You bawdy t a l e . . . . had Americans were d i s g u s t e d a t say God's dead, and l i f e ' s You mock mankind w i t h lewd u n g a i n l y m i r t h ; " ^ a the 1 award showed t h a t the importance godly of new American l i t e r a t u r e was recognised i n Europe. L e w i s c l a i m e d t h a t h i s p u b l i s h e r s , H a r c o u r t , Brace and Company, had not t a k e n f u l l advantage of the Nobel p u b l i c i t y , and off h i s contract. broke He d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t A l f r e d H a r c o u r t sensed that L e w i s ' s v e r s i o n of A m e r i c a n r e a l i t y , which had brought them enormous s u c c e s s , was no l o n g e r r e l e v a n t i n t h e 1930's. H i s t o r y had l e f t Sinclair L e w i s b e h i n d , though he c o n t i n u e d t o be a p o p u l a r n o v e l i s t , and Ann V i c k e r s (1933) brought l a r g e d i v i d e n d s t o N e l s o n Doubleday, h i s new p u b l i s h e r s . Dorothy Thompson was v e r y much i n v o l v e d w i t h w o r l d a f f a i r s , and h e r knowl e d g e of N a z i Germany and H i t l e r p r o v i d e d m a t e r i a l f o r I t Can't Happen Here (1935), i n which L e w i s d e s c r i b e d a f a s c i s t t a k e o v e r of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s s u c c e s s f u l book was r e c e i v e d as a major p o l i t i c a l act, 166 not an a r t i s t i c achievement. L e w i s was c a l l e d "a p u b l i c i s t i n f i c t i o n " by R i c h a r d P. Blackmur, but he thought "I'm of h i m s e l f as p r i m a r i l y a n o v e l i s t : not i n the b u s i n e s s of e x p o s i n g t h i n g s . . . don't know what t h e h e l l t h i s c o u n t r y needs." Lewis's a t t i t u d e t o h i s own work was I w r i t e n o v e l s ... I According to h i s p u b l i s h e r s , one o f detachment, "the absence of 168 any genuine imag-.in.ative commitment t o h i s m a t e r i a l , " books were w r i t t e n w i t h g r e a t enthusiasm and i n d u s t r y . even though h i s T h i s detachment -30aa l l o w e d him t o p r e s e n t opposing views w i t h e q u a l c o n v i c t i o n , or t o be angry i n c o n f l i c t i n g , c a u s e s . I t Can't Happen Here does n o t have the i n t e l l e c t u a l coherence of A l d o u s Huxley or t h e p e r s u a s i v e v i s i o n of a nightmare f u t u r e of George O r w e l l , but i t caught p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n at j u s t the r i g h t time. L e w i s made.-ia s e r i e s , o f l e c t u r e t o u r s , t a l k i n g about politics and l i t e r a t u r e , and wrote The P r o d i g a l P a r e n t s (1938) which defended the A m e r i c a n b u s i n e s s and c a p i t a l i s t system. He a l s o t r i e d a c t i n g and p l a y - w r i t i n g , but h i s performances l a c k e d d i s c i p l i n e . However, he enjoyed the company of the young a c t r e s s , M a r c e l l a Powers, and w i t h her p l a y e d the clergyman i n Shadow and Substance. H i s n o v e l about a stage-eompany, B e t h e l M e r r i d a y (1940), was u n s u c c e s s f u l , and h i s b e h a v i o u r became marked by " n e r v o u s n e s s , t h e u n r e m i t t i n g a g i t a t i o n , the i n s i s t e n c e of h i s f i e r c e 169 and f r o t h y energy, the e n d l e s s p l a c i n g up and down, up and down." l o s t h i s f r i e n d s and was d i v o r c e d by Dorothy; h i s s o c i a l conduct was He un- p r e d i c t a b l e , and when he addressed u n i v e r s i t y c l a s s e s on the s u b j e c t of w r i t i n g , he made h i s s t u d e n t s wonder what he s t o o d f o r : " H i s l i t e r a r y judgments were always so whimsical."''" ^ 7 I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t he was " w i t h o u t self-deception"'^''" and r e c o g n i z e d tawdry r e p e t i t i o n and d e c l i n e i n h i s l a t e r work, but when he c a l l e d The God Seeker (1949) h i s b e s t , most s e r i o u s book, h i s b i o g r a p h e r noted: " h i s m i s c a l c u l a t i o n s about h i s own work 172 are p a r t of h i s m i s c a l c u l a t i o n s about everything." L e w i s was never a t ease -- " d r i v e n a l l h i s l i f e , a l l over t h e w o r l d , from house t o house, by h i s unmanageable r e s t l e s s n e s s , he was never a t home, o n l y always w i s h i n g to be." - " 17 5 # e drank t o e x c e s s , and s u f f e r e d two h e a r t a t t a c k s . No f r i e n d s v i s i t e d him i n h i s Rome h o s p i t a l , and he d i e d on January 10, 1951. H i s body was brought back t o A m e r i c a , the l a n d he l o v e d and h a t e d , documented and made aware of i t s e l f . w r i t i n g one cannot imagine modern A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e . w i t h o u t h i s w r i t i n g , we can h a r d l y imagine o u r s e l v e s . " "Without h i s T h i s i s because, -31F o o t n o t e s to Chapter I I 1 0 1 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 463. ^Main S t r e e t , p. 325. 1 0 3 S h e e a n , p. 353. 1 0 4 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 25. 1 0 5 G r e b s t e i n , p. 71. I b i d . , p. 2 1 . 1 0 6 1 0 7 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 20. 1 0 8 I b i d . , p. 264. 1 0 9 I b i d . , p. 40. 1 1 0 M a n from M a i n S t r e e t , p. 113. m S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 50. 1 1 2 I b i d . , p. 89. 1 1 3 I b i d . , p. 64, 77. 1 1 4 S h e e a n , p. 297. 1 1 5 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 7. 1 1 6 1 1 7 T r a i l o f t h e Hawk, p. 81. S c h o r e r , L i f e , p . 110. 1 1 8 I b i d . , p. 115. 1 1 9 I b i d . , p. 139. 120_.. . I b x d . , p. 207. 1 2 1 I b i d . , p. 207. 1 2 2 I b i d . , p. 212. 1 2 3 I b i d . , p. 295. 1 2 4 i d . , p. 395. I b 1 2 5 G o d Seeker, p. 380. 1 2 6 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 456. 127 'Man From M a i n S t r e e t , p. 242. -32- 128 Thomas P a i n e , The Age o f Reason -- Being an I n v e s t i g a t i o n of True and Fabulous Theology, p. 6. 1 2 9 M a n from M a i n S t r e e t , p. 249. 1 3 Q G o d Seeker, p. 95. G . H . L e w i s , p. 302. 131 I b i d . , p. 301. 1 3 2 1 3 3 E d e n e r , p. 55. 1 3 4 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 236. 13 ^ Q u o t e d i n G r e b s t e i n , p. 106. 136 T r a i l o £ t h e Hawk, p. 426. 1 3 7 G r e b s t e i n , p. 139. 1 3 8 G . H . L e w i s , p. 302. 1 3 9 E l m e r G a n t r y , p . 28. 1 4 0 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 355. 1 4 1 D o d s w o r t h , p. 20. 1 4 2 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 595. 1 Z f 3 1 4 4 I t Can't Happen h e r e , p. 433. Dooley, A r t , p. 240. 1 4 5 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 120. 1 4 6 S h e e a n , p. 147. 1 4 7 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p . 489. 1 4 8 G . H . L e w i s , p. 68. 1 4 9 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 311. Q u o t e d i n G e o f f r e y Moore, " S i n c l a i r L e w i s : Romantic" (1959), E s s a y s , p. 163. 1 5 0 1 5 1 S h e e a n , p.88. 1 5 2 G r e b s t e i n , p. 65. 1 5 3 Dooley, 1 5 4 E d e n e r , p. 70. 1 5 5 S h e e a n , p. 142. A r t , p. 228. A Last -331 5 6 Q u o t e d i n Dooley, A r t , p. 121. S i n c l a i r L e w i s , L e t t e r s , From Main S t r e e t t o Stockholm H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1952), p. 207. 1 5 7 (New York: 1 5 8 Q u o t e d i n S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 447. 1 5 9 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 71. 1 6 0 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 126. 1 6 1 I b i d . , p. 130. 1 6 2 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 480. 1 6 3 L e w i s , L e t t e r s , p. 150. 1 6 4 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 536. 1 6 5 I b i d . , p. 550. 1 6 6 I b i d . , p. 690. 1 6 7 I b i d . , p. 545. 1 6 8 I b i d . , p. 598. 1 6 9 I b i d . , p. 1 7 0 I b i d . , p. 709. 1 7 1 I b i d . , p. 726. 1 7 2 . 658. S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 776. 173 tanley. I . K u n i t z , T w e n t i e t h Century A u t h o r s : — F i r s t Supplement (New Y o r k : W. H. W i l s o n , 1955), p. 578. S 1 7 4 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 813. CHAPTER I I I Many of S i n c l a i r L e w i s ' n o v e l s made t h e i r c r i t i c i s m s a t j u s t the r i g h t t i m e . The Twenties r e j e c t e d V i c t o r i a n i s m and P u r i t a n i s m , a t t a c k e d p r o v i n c i a l i t y , and l a c k of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and c u l t u r e , w i t h an i n t e l l e c t u a l superiority based on s c i e n c e , s o c i o l o g y , and p s y c h o l o g y . p r o c l a i m e d s c e p t i c i s m and " c r y s t a l l i z e d the m i s g i v i n g s o f The American Mercury thousands," 5 i7 To t h e s e r e a d e r s , Main S t r e e t , B a b b i t t , A r r o w s m i t h , Elmer G a n t r y and I t Can't Happen Here were u p - t o - d a t e , r e a l i s t i c and i m p o r t a n t books. 1 7 fi Lewis "tapped a s w o l l e n mood o f i n c o n o c l a s m and escapism." Like h i s r e a d e r s , he r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t o l d r e s t r i c t i o n s and was i n s e c u r e about new i d e a s . He made people and i n s t i t u t i o n s s e l f - c r i t i c a l , b u t d i d n o t persuade to e r a d i c a t e t h e i r f a u l t s . them H i s books s o l d w e l l because, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of Elmer G a n t r y , they p r e s e n t e d a l l t a s t e s and a l l p o i n t s o f v i e w . Elmer Gantry appeared i n " t h e most h o t l y charged atmosphere s i n c e t h e Salem w i t c h burnings,"''' 77 religious when t h e Scopes T r i a l was b e i n g debated w i t h p a s s i o n a t e e x c i t e m e n t , when B i l l y Sunday, Aimee Semple McPherson, and o t h e r h e l l f i r e e v a n g e l i s t s were c o n d u s t i n g t h e i r c o n v e r s i o n campaigns, when B i b l e F u n d a m e n t a l i s t s and Ku K l u x Klansmen marched through t h e l a n d . There was l i v e l y c o n t r o v e r s y as m o d e r n i s t t h e o l o g y i n t e r p r e t e d t h e B i b l e as myths, and as s o c i o l o g y blamed environment, r a t h e r than s i n , f o r man's evil- d o i n g . S c i e n c e promised an e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e , and a l l c o n c e p t s based on s p i r i t u a l i n t u i t i o n s and b e l i e f s r a t h e r than on s c i e n t i f i c p r o o f s were made s u s p e c t . Americans i n t h e Twenties were l i v i n g i n p l e n t y , and as w e a l t h i n c r e a s e d , 17 8 f e a r of t h e d e v i l d e c r e a s e d ' and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n : i n witchcraft."-'- 79 The church was viewed as a p u r e l y s o c i a l "our p r e s e n t churches a r e as absurd as a b e l i e f MAIN STREET ( 1 9 2 0 ) * i s marked by L e w i s ' s a m b i v a l e n t views on the U n i t e d S t a t e s , Gopher P r a i r i e and i t s p e o p l e , c u l t u r e and b e a u t y , c l a s s - d i s t i n c t i o n and democracy, thought and a c t i o n , women's r i g h t s , l o v e and m a r r i a g e , C a r o l and K e n n i c o t t ; b u t on t h e s u b j e c t o f r e l i g i o n , Lewis i s a n t a g o n i s t i c t h r o u g h o u t . A m e r i c a i s g e n e r a l l y c r i t i c i s e d i n M a i n S t r e e t as l a c k i n g "the s c i e n t i f i c s p i r i t , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l mind, which would make i t g r e a t " ( p . 2 6 7 ) , because i t i s made up o f Gopher P r a i r i e s and t h e i r philosophy of d u l l s a f e t y : are to are " N i n e - t e n t h s o f t h e American towns so a l i k e t h a t i t i s t h e c o m p l e t e s t bor^lcm t o wander from one a n o t h e r " ( p . 2 6 8 ) . F a c t o r i e s , houses, shops, c l o t h e s and people standardized. Americans move on because they hope t o f i n d a d v e n t u r e of t h e s p i r i t i n changing t h e i r h o r i z o n ( p . 2 4 7 ) . Those who s t a y a r e i n f e c t e d w i t h the V i l l a g e V i r u s ( p . 1 5 6 ) , and f o r g e t the ideals of " l i f e , l i b e r t y , and t h e p u r s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s " ( p . 1 1 7 ) . F o r e i g n immigrants do n o t p r a c t i s e t h e i r customs, b u t a r e " i r o n e d i n t o mediocrity" (p. 266). Americans d r e s s e d up remain unchanged ( p . 3 0 3 ) . When they t r a v e l on v a c a t i o n they l o n g f o r f a m i l i a r s i t u a t i o n s ( p . 4 0 4 ) ; when they go t o t h e t h e a t r e , t h e y demand n o t h i n g " i m p r o p e r " ( p . 2 1 8 ) . One o f t h e i r movies i s d e s c r i b e d : The f e a t u r e f i l m p o r t r a y e d a b r a v e young Yankee who conquered a South American r e p u b l i c . He t u r n e d the n a t i v e s from t h e i r barbarous h a b i t s o f s i n g i n g and l a u g h i n g t o t h e v i g o r o u s s a n i t y , t h e Pep and Punch and Go, o f t h e N o r t h . . . . He changed n a t u r e i t s e l f . A mountain which had borne n o t h i n g b u t l i l i e s and *Note: F o r t h e remainder o f t h i s c h a p t e r , t e x t u a l r e f e r e n c e s w i l l be found i n p a r e n t h e s e s a f t e r q u o t a t i o n s . -3.6- c e d a r s and l o a f i n g c l o u d s was by h i s H u s t l e so i n s p i r i t e d t h a t i t broke out i n . . . p i l e s of i r o n o r e . (p. 198) The q u a l i t i e s of V i g o r and E n t e r p r i s e a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of A m e r i c a n s , a c c o r d i n g t o Mr. Blausser the Booster: genuwine, honest-to-God homo A m e r i c a n i b u s he's a f r a i d t o t a c k l e . "you take a and t h e r e a i n ' t a n y t h i n g Snap and Speed a r e h i s m i d d l e name. He'll put her a c r o s s i f he has t o r i d e from h e l l t o b r e a k f a s t . . . ." (p. 414) S i n c l a i r L e w i s , t h e " a l i e n c y n i c " (Head P i e c e ) , c r i t i c i s e s t h i s mad r u s h of energy because I t l a c k s s p i r i t u a l He i s s a r c a s t i c (Head P i e c e ) , and understanding. "Main S t r e e t i s the c l i m a x of c i v i l i z a t i o n " just look at it! There a r e redeeming f e a t u r e s of A m e r i c a . When K e n n i c o t t sees h i s t o r i c F o r t S n e l l i n g and t h e work of the p i o n e e r s , he " I t ' s a good c o u n t r y , and I'm proud of i t . those o l d boys dreamed about" (p. 1 7 ) . L e t ' s make i t a l l t h a t V i d a Sherwin, whose reforms a r e slower and more r e a l i s t i c than C a r o l ' s , s a y s : So much t o c o n s e r v e . "I'm a conservative. A l l t h i s t r e a s u r e of American i d e a l s . and democracy and o p p o r t u n i t y " (p. 65). cries: She has Sturdifie&s . "overwhelming b e l i e f i n the b r a i n s and h e a r t s o f our n a t i o n , our s t a t e , our town" (p. 66). A m e r i c a i s compared t o the o u t s i d e w o r l d , which i s " t o p s y t u r v y " (p. 4 4 1 ) , and a l s o " t h e w o r l d of g a i e t y and adventure, of music and t h e i n t e g r i t y of b r o z e , of remembered m i s t s from t r o p i c i s l e s and P a r i s n i g h t s and the w a l l s of Bagdad" ( p . I l l ) , C a r o l dreams r o m a n t i c a l l y of Mentone, "a p i c t u r e drenched w i t h g o l d and h a r d b r i g h t b l u e s " (p. 234), o f " s t a r t l i n g e x o t i c t h i n g s " (p. 270), and of "a think, black-bearded, and^drink c y n i c a l Frenchman who would s i t about and s i n g opera and t e l l bawdy s t o r i e s and l a u g h a t our proprieties -37and quote R a b e l a i s and n o t be ashamed t o k i s s my hand" ( p . 2 7 0 ) . C a r o l ' s n o t i o n s o f c i v i l i z e d l i v i n g a r e vague, b u t she l o o k s f o r c u l t u r e i n Washington, D.C. P e o p l e go t o t h e E a s t t o conquer themselves ( p . 440), and they f i n d good and bad. The E a s t e r n c i t i e s have eager e n t h u s i a s m and mystery (p. 426), b u t they a l s o s u f f e r from "a thie;k s t r e a k o f M a i n S t r e e t " ( p . 427), c a u t i o u s d u l l n e s s and g o s s i p . easy g e n t l e n e s s , c h e e r f u l n e s s and e f f i c i e n c y C i t y p e o p l e have ( p . 4 2 8 ) ; but t h e Bohemians shock C a r o l ( p . 1 0 ) , and she h a t e s "creamy s k i n n e d f a t women, smeared w i t h grease and c h a l k , . . . p l a y i n g b r i d g e w i t h p u f f y pink-mailedjjeweled f i n g e r s , women who a f t e r much e x p e n d i t u r e o f l a b o r and bad temper s t i l l lap-dogs" g r o t e s q u e l y resemble t h e i r own f l a t u l e n t (p. 25). C a r o l r e t u r n s t o t h e West: " t h e newest empire o f t h e w o r l d ; t h e N o r t h e r n M i d d l e w e s t ; a l a n d o f d a i r y h e r d s and e x q u i s i t e l a k e s , o f new a u t o m o b i l e s towers, and t a r - p a p e r s h a n t i e s and s i l o s l i k e r e d of clumsy speech and a hope t h a t i s b o u n d l e s s " (p. 24). T h i s mixed v i e w i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f L e w i s ' s a m b i v a l e n c e . the b l e a k n e s s , "the vastness "the unprotected He d e s c r i b e s and t h e emptiness o f t h e l a n d " where houses would crouch t o g e t h e r i n t e r r o r o f storms g a l l o p i n g out o f t h e w i l d waste" ( p . 3 3 ) , " t h e p a n t i n g summer and the s t i n g i n g w i n t e r " ( p . 8 2 ) . Though t h e l a n d can be f r i g h t e n i n g (p. 2 5 ) , i t has " d i g n i t y and g r e a t n e s s " ( p . 58) and b e a u t y . L i k e e a r l i e r w r i t e r s c r i t i c i s i n g America, Lewis i s d i s t r e s s e d a t t h e descrepancy between t h e promises o f t h e New World j u s t i c e , e q u a l i t y , and h a p p i n e s s f o r a l l men - - a n d t h e r e a l i t y . has a r o m a n t i c — He l o n g i n g f o r what might have been, b u t h i s a n a l y s i s i s m a i n l y concerned with current conditions. Sometimes -38- L e w i s b e l i e v e s i n A m e r i c a and A m e r i c a n myths, and a t o t h e r times he a t t a c k s them. " I t ' s one of our f a v o r i t e American myths t h a t broad p l a i n s n e c e s s a r i l y make broad minds" ( p . 343), b u t the p i o n e e r s tamed t h e l a n d (pp. 150-151) w i t h h a r d s h i p philosophies who and j o y have narrow ( p . 1 5 2 ) . A n o t h e r t r a d i t i o n i s t h a t " t h e American v i l l a g e remains t h e one sure abode o f f r i e n d s h i p , h o n e s t y , and c l e a n sweet m a r r i a g e a b l e girls" ( p . 264); but M a i n S t r e e t was w r i t t e n t o show t h e d u l l deadness o f s m a l l towns. America i s great, but i t k i l l s the s p i r i t : a dominion which w i l l r i s e t o unexampled g r e a t n e s s when o t h e r empires have grown s e n i l e . B e f o r e t h a t time .-. . a hundred g e n e r a t i o n s o f C a r o l s w i l l a s p i r e and go down i n tragedy d e v o i d o f p a l l s and solemn c h a n t i n g , the humdrum i n e v i t a b l e tragedy o f s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t i n e r t i a , ( p . 450) (f But C a r o l would n o t be u t t e r l y d e f e a t e d . She was g l a d o f h e r r e b e l l i o n . The p r a i r i e was no l o n g e r empty l a n d i n t h e s u n - g l a r e . . . i n t h e v i l l a g e s t r e e t s were shadows of h e r d e s i r e s and t h e sound o f h e r marching and t h e seeds o f mystery and g r e a t n e s s , ( P . 442) She w i l l l o o k a t e v e r y t h i n g , and a s k why i t i s , and who f i r s t down t h e law t h a t i t had t o be t h a t way. the s p i r i t of t h a t b e w i l d e r e d laid "A r e b e l l i o u s g i r l i s empire c a l l e d t h e A m e r i c a n M i d d l e w e s t " (P- 1 ) . A l l t h e bewilderment i s summed up i n Gopher P r a i r i e , the u n a t t r a c t i v e s m a l l town: unapologetic " I t was n o t o n l y t h e u n s p a r i n g u g l i n e s s and t h e r i g i d overwhelmed h e r . straightness that I t was t h e planlessness, t h e f l i m s y t e m p o r a r i n e s s of t h e b u i l d i n g s , t h e i r faded u n p l e a s a n t c o l o r s " ( p . 3 7 ) . However, Bea Sorenson f i n d s Gopher P r a i r i e b e a u t i f u l , and C a r o l l e a r n s t o enjoy i t : "everybody bowed t o h e r , s t r a n g e r s and a l l , a n d made h e r f e e l t h a t they wanted h e r , t h a t she belonged h e r e " (p. 62). The l o c a l c i t i z e n s b e l i e v e " i t ' s a darn p r e t t y town" (p. 1 4 ) , but t o a newcomer i t i s "a f r o n t i e r camp. . . not a p l a c e to l i v e " (p. 2 7 ) , " t h i s j u n k - h e a p l " (p. 29) "Main S t r e e t was b l a c k swamp from c u r b t o c u r b . . . the town was bleak sky. houses b a r r e n under a the S o f t e n e d n e i t h e r by snow n o r by waving boughs the s q u a t t e d and s c o w l e d , r e v e a l e d i n t h e i r unkempt h a r s h n e s s " (p. 139). C a r o l ' s dreams of c r e a t i n g a b e a u t i f u l town a r e l u d i c r o u s "she f e l t a f o r b i d d i n g s p i r i t which she c o u l d never conquer" (p. 34) Her house squeaks, "Choke h e r - choke h e r - smother h e r " (p. 3 1 ) . C o n v e r s a t i o n ' d o e s not e x i s t i n Gopher P r a i r i e (p. 4 6 ) , but everybody g o s s i p s . C a r o l i s f u l l y d i s c u s s e d , and judged t o be "showing o f f " and " f r i v o l o u s " derision: (p. 9 5 ) . She cannot endure their "she had t r i p p e d i n t o a meadow t o t e a c h the lambs a p r e t t y e d u c a t i o n a l dance and found t h a t the lambs were w o l v e s . There was no way was out between t h e i r p r e s s i n g gray s h o u l d e r s . surrounded by fangs and s n e e r i n g eyes" (p. 9 9 ) . She The town i s " f i l l e d w i t h b u s y b o d i e s , t h a t have p l e n t y o f time t o s t i c k t h e i r noses i n t o o t h e r f o l k s ' b u s i n e s s " (p. 395). C a r o l moans: " I came h e r e t r u s t i n g me w i t h rods of d u l l n e s s . how them. They don't know, they don't u n d e r s t a n d a g o n i z i n g t h e i r complacent d u l l n e s s i s " (p. 364). c i t i z e n s b e l i e v e they a r e l i v i n g t h a t they a r e b o r e d , l i v i n g They beat i n a p a r a d i s e , but C a r o l p e r c e i v e s l i v e s of "vacuousness and s p i t e f u l g o s s i p " (p. 284). Gopher P r a i r i and bad manners W i l l Kennicott protests: "This i s -40an independent town, not l i k e t h e s e E a s t e r n h o l e s where you have t o watch your step- a l l the t i m e , and l i v e up t o f o o l demands and s o c i a l customs, and a l o t o f o l d t a b b i e s always busy Everybody's criticizing. f r e e h e r e t o do what he wants t o " (p. 9 8 ) . K e n n i c o t t i s a l o c a l , and p e r c e i v e s t h i n g s d i f f e r e n t l y from C a r o l . When she sees h o p e l e s s houses, v i l e garbage, s c a r e - crow p e o p l e , he sees new (p. 408). f e n c i n g , improved s i g n s , and She r e s o l v e s t o " l o v e the f i n e W i l l K e n n i c o t t q u a l i t y t h a t t h e r e i s i n Gopher P r a i r i e . (p. 405). friends The n o b i l i t y of good sense" She r e a l i z e s t h a t the p r y i n g c u r i o s i t y and g o s s i p of the c i t i z e n s i s a form of a f f e c t i o n : "Nobody i n Washington c a r e d enough f o r h e r to f r e t about her s i n s as Sam-did" (p. 4 3 2 ) . She remembers w i t h sympathy h e r husband's d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e p e o p l e : "a l o t of p r e t t y good f o l k s , w o r k i n g h a r d and t r y i n g t o b r i n g up t h e i r f a m i l i e s the b e s t they can" (p. 4 4 2 ) . Gopher P r a i r i e not be as w o n d e r f u l as the town d e s c r i b e d i n the Commercial may Club b o o k l e t (p. 4 1 6 ) , but i t i s much b e t t e r than many o t h e r p l a c e s (p. 429). Gopher P r a i r i e c i t i z e n s b e l i e v e they a r e s u p e r i o r t o the/L simple hardworking farmers. and;,/profit s h a r i n g . patriotic: The town l e a d e r s a r e opposed t o s o c i a l i s m J a c k E l d e r becomes e x c i t e d and b e l l i g e r e n t and " I s t a n d f o r freedom and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s . l i k e what I pay 'em, or they get out" (p. 5 0 ) . . . they A l l agitators s h o u l d be hanged, agrees K e n n i c o t t . The a r i s t o c r a c y of Gopher P r a i r i e c o n s i s t s of " a l l persons engaged i n a p r o f e s s i o n , or e a r n i n g more than t w e n t y - f i v e hundred d o l l a r s a y e a r , or possessed o f grandparents born i n A m e r i c a " (p. 7 4 ) . They b e l i e v e i n democracy -- the d o c t o r hunts w i t h the t a i l o r and the u n d e r t a k e r (p. 42) — but they d e s p i s e t h e i r s e r v a n t s . "Juanita • -41Haydock r a t t l e d , 'They're u n g r a t e f u l , a l l t h a t c l a s s o f p e o p l e . . . I don't know what t h e c o u n t r y ' s coming t o , w i t h these Scandahoofian c l o d h o p p e r s demanding every cent you save, and so i g n o r a n t and i m p e r t i n e n t ' . " ( p . 89) C a r o l l o v e s common workmen ( p . 4 ) , sees the S c a n d i n a v i a n s as " t h e h a r d i e s t and b e s t p e o p l e " ( p . 8 9 ) , and i s f r i e n d l y w i t h h e r maid ( p . 6 2 ) ; but she dares not share .her t a b l e w i t h Bea and M i l e s ( p . 2 0 4 ) . C a r o l i s happy t o be i n v i t e d t o t h e T h a n a t o p s i s : are the r e a l people. "These When t h e housewives, who bear t h e burdens, a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n p o e t r y , i t means something" ( p . 2 0 4 ) . The s e l f ^ s a t i s f i e d women f i n i s h t h e E n g l i s h poets i n a s i n g l e meeting -" t h e y have t h e i r c u l t u r e s a l t e d and hung up" ( p . 1 2 7 ) . Shaw's p l a y s a r e r e j e c t e d because they a r e " r i s k y " ( p . 2 1 8 ) , and B a l z a c ' s novels a r e taken o f f the l i b r a r y s h e l v e s . The Gopher P r a i r i e L i b r a r i a n i n s i s t s t h a t t h e f i r s t duty of a c o n s c i e n t i o u s l i b r a r i a n i s t o p r e s e r v e t h e books, r a t h e r t h a n t o g e t people t o r e a d ( p . 9 2 ) . C a r o l r e t o r t s t h a t h>ooks a r e cheaper than minds; and i s d e l i g h t e d when she i s a p p o i n t e d t o t h e town l i b r a r y b o a r d , f o r she c o n s i d e r s h e r s e l f t h e o n l y one w i t h knowledge o f books and l i b r a r y methods. Her c o n d e s c e n s i o n i s r u i n e d when she d i s c o v e r s t h a t t h e men on t h e board a r e e x t r e m e l y w e l l - r e a d — even though they l e a v e t h e l i b r a r y "as dead as Moses" ( p . 2 3 2 ) . Such committees as t h e l i b r a r y - b o a r d a r e hampered by l a c k of f u n d s . pocket-books" taste: Every r e f o r m i s b l o c k e d by s t u p i d i t y and " s c a r e d ( p . 1 3 8 ) , and t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f d e c i d i n g m a t t e r s of " I t ' s a r t b u t i s i t p r e t t y ? " ( p . 66) K e n n i c o t t p o i n t s out the f o o l i s h n e s s o f " a r t i s t i c guys" l i k e Raymie Wutherspoon and E r i k "Elizabeth" Valborg. Most a r t i s t s , he s a y s , a r e " g r i n d i n g out a bum -42l i v i n g " (p. 3 9 7 ) . C a r o l has i d e a s about a r t and beauty and romance: We're g o i n g t o f i n d e l e p h a n t s w i t h g o l d e n howdahs from which peep young maharanees w i t h n e c k l a c e s o f r u b i e s , and a dawn s e a c o l o r e d l i k e the breast o f a dove, and a green house f i l l e d w i t h books and s i l v e r t e a - s e t s . (p. 424) but h e r n o t i o n s a r e vague and o f t e n s i l l y , and soon swamped by t h e deadness o f M a i n S t r e e t : "She f e l t o o z i n g through t h e w a l l s t h e s p i r i t o f s m a l l houses and r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e " (p.409). Her attempts t o r e d e c o r a t e the house and e n l i v e n t h e p a r t y a r e p a t h e t i c and she i s n o t a r t i s t i c enough t o answer Mr. B l a u s s e r ' s (p. 70), claim that the town has "as much r e f i n e m e n t and c u l t u r e as any burg on the whole b l o o m i n ' expanse of God's Green F o o t s t o o l " (p. 416). does n o t l a y down canons o f t a s t e i n t h e n o v e l : c u l t u r e and s a t i s f a c t i o n i n l i f e a r e i n d e f i n i t e . S i n c l a i r Lewis H i s longings In this for respect he d i f f e r s from h i s models, V o l t a i r e and D i c k e n s , s a t i r i s t s who suggest or i n f e r v e r y r e a l v a l u e s by which t o measure t h e f a u l t s o f s o c i e t y . L e w i s i s vague about s t a n d a r d s , b u t h i s mockery i s c l e a r : "Whatsoever E z r a does n o t know and s a n c t i o n , t h a t t h i n g i s h e r e s y , w o r t h l e s s f o r knowing and w i c k e d t o c o n s i d e r " The of;-poverty respectability (Head P i e c e ) . o f Gopher P r a i r i e i s " r e i n f o r c e d by vows and c h a s t i t y i n the m a t t e r o f knowledge . . . t h e c i t i z e n s a r e proud o f t h a t achievement o f i g n o r a n c e " (p. 266). The p e o p l e do not think:.(p. 2 0 ) , b u t remain peasants " s o sunk i n the mud" ( p . 2 2 ) . Carol i s disgusted w i t h her: a t t h e s i g h t and s m e l l of t h e farm f o l k who t r a v e l "a s o i l e d man and woman . . . a l a r g e b r i c k - c o l o r e d Norwegian . . . and an o l d woman whose t o o t h l e s s mouth shuts l i k e a mud t u r t l e ' s " ( p . 2 1 ) . -43K e n n i c o t t defends them: " t h e s e farmers are mighty keen and up-and-coming" (p. 2 2 ) , aid they l i v e in-"good h u s t l i n g b u r g s " (p. 23) -- but he w i l l not a l l o w them p o l i t i c a l power (p. Gopher P r a i r i e l e a d e r s agree w i t h him: solemnly and "the o t h e r s nodded, i n t u n e , l i k e a shop-window of f l e x i b l e comic mandarins and toys, judges and ducks and clowns" (p. 5 0 ) . Their are "monotonous, t h i c k , emphatic . . . h a r s h l y pompous" (p. and frighten Carol: " G o l d h e l p me i f I were an o u t s i d e r ! " (p. but become " h o r r i b l y h y p o c r i t i c a l " (p. 158). l i f e miserable" (p. 158). just for pleasure" N a t u r e i s tamed, so men (p. 158) , a c c o r d i n g t o Guy to of making " r a i s e the Pollock. 52) 142), They a r e a f r a i d " I t ' s the h i s t o r i c a l Anglo-Saxon way voices 52), The Gopher P r a i r i e r i c h do not h e l p the poor (p. act.,on i m p u l s e : 57). He devil does not t r y t o wake up and r e f o r m Gopher P r a i r i e , because he i s t i m i d (p. 202) and knows how impossible i t i s . Had she a c t u a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t she c o u l d p l a n t a seed of l i b e r a l i s m i n the b l a n k w a l l of m e d i o c r i t y ? How had she f a l l e n i n t o the f o l l y of t r y i n g t o p l a n t a n y t h i n g whatever i n a w a l l so smooth and sun-glazed, and so s a t i s f y i n g t o the happy s l e e p e r s w i t h i n ? (p. 144) U n c l e W h i t t i e r and Aunt B e s s i e a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of v i l l a g e n o t i o n s . They are s t a g g e r e d t o l e a r n t h a t C a r o l can b e l i e v e " t h a t men drunk wine y e t not d i e d i n the g u t t e r ; t h a t the c a p i t a l i s t i c of d i s t r i b u t i o n and have system the B a p t i s t wedding-ceremony were not known i n the Garden of Eden . . . t h a t t h e r e are M i n i s t e r s of the G o s p e l who a c c e p t e v o l u t i o n " (p. 245). However, t h e i r bewilderment and of l o v e . They want to do t h i n g s h i t upon the tragedy t h a t i t s l o v e and of o l d age. i n t e r f e r i n g a r e a form f o r the K e n n i c o t t s . "Thus C a r o l . . t h a t i t i s not needed by y o u t h ; prosy sageness. . . a r e r e j e c t e d w i t h l a u g h t e r " (p. 447). -44C a r o l l e a r n s t o u n d e r s t a n d Midwest p e o p l e , t o a c c e p t t h e i r l a c k o f p o l i s h as a form o f r e l a x a t i o n ( p . 171), t o f e e l " t h e secure q u i e t o f Gopher P r a i r i e " ( p . 2 1 0 ) . Carol's a c t i v e hatred o f t h e town and i t s people runs out. She r e c a l l e d t e n d e r l y t h e young awkwardness of M a i n S t r e e t . . . she p i t i e d t h e i r shabbiness and i s o l a t i o n ; had compassion f o r t h e i r a s s e r t i o n o f c u l t u r e . . . f o r t h e i r p r e t e n s e o f g r e a t n e s s . She saw M a i n S t r e e t i n the d u s t y p r a i r i e s u n s e t , a l i n e o f f r o n t i e r s h a n t i e s w i t h solemn l o n e l y people w a i t i n g f o r h e r . ( p . 442) The happy e n d i n g i s d i s t u r b i n g . I f Gopher P r a i r i e i s so bad, does S i n c l a i r L e w i s make C a r o l a c c e p t i t ? The m a t e r i a l o f t h e n o v e l i s ; p r o s a i c b u t t h e u n d e r l y i n g mood i s r o m a n t i c : "She was of some s i g n i f i c a n c e because she was commonplace, t h e o r d i n a r y the age made a r t i c u l a t e and p r o t e s t i n g " ( p . 439). l o v e s t h e Midwest: why l i f e of L e w i s h a t e s and "Why, t h e f a u l t s y o u f i n d i n t h i s town a r e s i m p l y human n a t u r e , and never w i l l be changed" ( p . 2 8 4 ) . M i l e s B j o r n s t a m , t h e s o c i a l i s t , would o v e r h a u l Gopher P r a i r i e c o m p l e t e l y , b u t he admits h i s i d e a s a r e " h a l f - b a k e d " When he a c q u i r e s ( p . 115i). a f a m i l y and a farm, he t r i e s t o conform t o Main S t r e e t s t a n d a r d s , b u t i s c r u e l l y r e j e c t e d , i n t h e most moving i n c i d e n t i n t h e n o v e l , when people come t o o l a t e t o h e l p h i s d y i n g w i f e , Bea. V i d a Sherwin i s a p a t i e n t r e f o r m e r , who b e l i e v e s i n w o r k i n g from t h e i n s i d e ( p . 138) t o a l t e r o n l y d e t a i l s : "things- i n - g e n e r a l were comely and k i n d and immutable" (p. 2 5 4 ) . She i s n o t a destructive " r e v o l u t i o n i s t " l i k e Carol moderate a d v i c e : conventional scrupulously" ( p . 254), b u t she g i v e s " t h i n k how much b e t t e r you can c r i t i c i z e customs i f you y o u r s e l f l i v e up t o them, ( p . 373). They t a l k e n d l e s s l y , " t h e e t e r n a l Mary -45and M a r t h a -- an i m m o r a l i s t Mary and a r e f o r m i s t M a r t h a " (p. I s t a l k b e t t e r than work? t h i n k " (p. 422). C a r o l wants " t o be q u i e t She admires the poets and 271). and t h o u g h t f u l w r i t e r s and r e l i s h e s the d i s c u s s i o n s of Washington f r i e n d s ; but she can h e a r Kennicott grunting: sittin' "They're s i m p l y a bunch of w i l d i m p r a c t i c a l t h e o r i s t s round chewing the r a g " (p. 428). " c r y i n g out f o r j o y of freedom r e g a i n e d The woodland gods s t i l l to admiration life!'" (p. 146) C a r o l runs i n t o the woods, a f t e r W i n t e r . . . 'I b e l i e v e ! But a t o t h e r times she f o r her p r a c t i c a l d o c t o r husband: turns "We're a p a i r of h y p e r c r i t i c a l l o a f e r s . . . w h i l e he q u i e t l y goes and does t h i n g s " (p. 180). I t i s noteworthy t h a t on her r e t u r n t o Gopher P r a i r i e , C a r o l works (p. 445). She has been busy i n a Washington o f f i c e . i s d u l l and u n h e a l t h y , affairs. The war The routine but i t g i v e s freedom and a sense of w o r l d i s " t o b r i n g a b a s i c change i n p s y c h o l o g y , t o p u r i f y and u p l i f f e e v e r y t h i n g from m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s t o n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s " (p. 275), but why The war s h o u l d P r u s s i a n s be h a t e d and bayonetted? (p. 276) i n v o l v e s "common p e o p l e " : The c o n c e p t i o n of m i l l i o n s of workman l i k e M i l e s t a k i n g c o n t r o l f r i g h t e n e d h e r , and she s c u t t l e d r a p i d l y away from the thought of a time when she might no l o n g e r r e t a i n the p o s i t i o n of Lady B o u n t i f u l t o the Bjornstams and Beas and O s c a r i n a s whom she l o v e d — and p a t r o n i z e d , (p. 276) Guy P o l l o c k has s i m i l a r doubts: "Democracy i s a l l r i g h t theoretically, and I ' l l admit t h e r e a r e i n d u s t r i a l i n j u s t i c e s , but I'd r a t h e r have them than see t h e w o r l d reduced t o a dead l e v e l of m e d i o c r i t y " The (p. 202). i n d u s t r i a l l e a d e r , P e r c e Bresnahan, i s "a good, d e c e n t , f r i e n d l y , e f f i c i e n t man" (p. 279); but he i s a l s o "a s p i r i t u a l bully", an a c t o r and a h y p o c r i t e ( p . 2 7 8 ) . He preaches h i s g o s p e l -- " l o v e of o u t d o o r s , P l a y i n g t h e Game, l o y a l t y t o f r i e n d s " (p. .285) — and answers t h e i c o n o c l a s t C a r o l w i t h " a g i l i t y and c o n f u s i n g s t a t i s t i c s " (p. 285). He t e l l s h e r t h a t t h e r e a r e thousands o f women as d i s s a t - i s f i e d as h e r s e l f : "Women haven't any p l a c e i n p o l i t i c s . They would l o s e t h e i r d a i n t i n e s s and charm i f they became i n v o l v e d i n . . . t h i s a w f u l p o l i t i c a l s t u f f " ( p . 1 4 3 ) . But C a r o l i s c o n s c i o u s " d i s c o n t e n t " i n women. "What i s i t we want -- and need?" of c h i l d r e n and h a r d work ( p . 296), b u t "a more c o n s c i o u s of a Not l o t s life" ( p . 201) "we-»want our U t o p i a now" ( p . 2 0 2 ) . From r e a d i n g many modern books "she g o t t h e same confused d e s i r e which t h e m i l l i o n other women f e l t ; t h e same d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o be c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s w i t h o u t c o v e r i n g t h e c l a s s o f which she was t o be c o n s c i o u s " dis- (p. 263). "Confused d e s i r e " a p t l y d e s c r i b e s C a r o l K e n n i c o t t , and S i n c l a i r L e w i s ' s i n t e n t i o n s i n u s i n g h e r as h i s . p r o t a g o n i s t : " t h e l i n e s a r e b r o k e n and u n c e r t a i n o f d i r e c t i o n " ( p . 430). Carol i s v i t a l l y a l i v e ( p . 2) y e t a dreamer ( p . 5 ) . She wants t o "do something w i t h l i f e " ( p . 8) but she has no system ( p . 7 3 ) . One minute she i s "drunk w i t h h e a l t h , m i s t r e s s o f l i f e " the n e x t she i s b r o o d i n g in (p. 8 4 ) ; ( p . 8 4 ) . She y e l l s " Y i p p e e l " and jumps t h e snow, then t u r n s i n t o t h e sedate Mrs. D r . K e n n i c o t t (p..86). She i s d i s t r e s s e d a t Gopher P r a i r i e c r i t i c i s m ( p . 9 5 ) , then takes Bjornstam's a d v i c e : " K i c k 'em i n t h e f a c e l Say, i f I were a s e a g u l l and a l l over s i l v e r , t h i n k I ' d c a r e what a pack o f d i r t y s e a l s thought about my f l y i n g ? " ( p . 118) She l o v e s p o e t r y , b u t i s n o t t r a n s p o r t e d t o Camelot ( p . 1 2 1 ) . She l o a t h e s v u l g a r movies, but t i t t e r s ( p . 1 2 1 ) . -47When she d i s c o v e r s the c i v i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s of Gopher P r a i r i e , she i s "a proud and p a t r i o t i c c i t i z e n , a l l evening" (p. 128); and when she l e a r n s the town's h i s t o r y , she d e c l a r e s " t h e G.P. had the c o l o r of A l g i e r s and the g a i e t y of M a r d i Gras" ( p . 136): but u s u a l l y she i n s i s t s t h a t " t h i s morass" i s "not h e r home" (p. 139), and p l a n s t o r u n away. in town she laments: tried. . . . I'm She i s c o n t e n t a t the l a k e (p. 149), but " I ' v e f a i l e d a t every p o s i t i v e t h i n g a t i n y l e a s h e d hawk, pecked t o death by I've these l a r g e , w h i t e , f l a b b y , wormy hens" (p. 160). Her husband c r i t i c i s e s h e r f o r f e e l i n g so s u p e r i o r t o f o l k s , w i t h o u t cause (p. 173), and she i s a p p a l l e d a t b e i n g a r e f o r m e r l i k e Widow Bogart (p.186). of all. I'm Her p l a y i s "the worst d e f e a t beaten" (p. 228), but she c a r r i e s on. a l w a y s , an u n r e s o l v e d B u t ? " (p. 410) " I s a l l my life, To the c a s u a l eye she i s not d i s c o n t e n t e d , but i n s i d e she rages mutely a g a i n s t t h e i n d i f f e r e n t gods: (p. " I am I I . . . I'm 273) n o t c o n t e n t . . . . Damn a l l of them!" Bresnahan says t h a t she j u s t l i k e s b e i n g d i f f e r e n t (p. 284), V i d a t e l l s h e r , "You're n o t a sound r e f o r m e r a t a l l . You're an impossiblist. Kennicott And you g i v e up too e a s i l y " (p. 271). complains t h a t she had no p a s s i o n (p. 307), and C a r o l sees h e r s e l f as " t h a t wedded s p i n s t e r " (p. 354), a b l o o d l e s s , m o r a l , small-town woman. Y e t she i s w o n d e r f u l as the n u r s e t o the Bjornstams and she wants t o be h e r s e l f , w i t h " g r e a t n e s s of l i f e " (p. 4 2 2 ) . runs away from K e n n i c o t t , but remembers h i s t e n d e r n e s s : h e r freedom, and i t was empty" (p. 423). ( p . 321), "she had One y e a r l a t e r , when he v i s i t s h e r i n Washington, she f e e l s " n o t h i n g d e f i n i t e t o a g o n i z e o v e r " (p. 4 3 6 ) . On h e r r e t u r n t o Gopher P r a i r i e , she i s " n e i t h e r She g l a d n o r s o r r y t o be back" ( p . 444). She expects t o be " a t once a h e r e t i c and a r e t u r n e d h e r o ; she was v e r y r e a s o n a b l e about i t ; and i t h u r t j u s t as much as e v e r " thoroughly and merry ( p . 4 4 8 ) . She i s beaten by Gopher P r a i r i e ; b u t she has fought a good f i g h t and kept t h e f a i t h ( p . 4 5 1 ) . C a r o l ' s f a i t h i s a vague and changing t h i n g , and L e w i s ' s a t t i t u d e t o C a r o l keeps a l t e r i n g . he mocks. Sometimes he a d m i r e s , sometimes The n o v e l i s p r i m a r i l y an exposure o f American s m a l l town f a u l t s , w i t h C a r o l as t h e v i e w e r and s u f f e r e r , w i t h as t h e u p h o l d e r o f A m e r i c a n and s m a l l town v i r t u e s . Will Kennicott Kennicott i s "a t h i c k t a l l man of t h i r t y - s i x or -seven, w i t h s t o l i d brown h a i r , l i p s used t o g i v i n g o r d e r s , eyes which f o l l o w e d good-naturedly" everything ( p . 1 2 ) . He i s k i n d and p o s i t i v e and v i r i l e (p. 15), and C a r o l l i k e s and m a r r i e s him. When he t a l k s o f home, she suddenly sees h i m as "a s t r a n g e r , " n o t o f h e r k i n d , w i t h "none of t h e magic of shared a d v e n t u r e s and eagerness" ( p . 2 6 ) . However, he i s com- f o r t i n g and s t r o n g , and she f i n d s " i n t h e courage and k i n d n e s s o f her man a s h e l t e r from t h e p e r p l e x i n g w o r l d " (p. 30). He i s awed by h e r beauty ( p . 7 4 ) , and clumsy i n c r i t i c i s m (p. 8 0 ) , but he g i v e s up tobacco-chewing and other h a b i t s t o p l e a s e her ( p . 1 0 4 ) . He scorns t h e o t h e r v doctors i n the crudest terms (p. 164), b u t Bresnahan p r a i s e s him: " I t ' s t h e o l d doc t h a t keeps a community w e l l , mind and body. And s t r i k e s me t h a t W i l l i s one of t h e s t e a d i e s t and c l e a r e s t - h e a d e d country p r a c t i t i o n e r s " (p. 283). K e n n i c o t t i s mean about money, and when he c r i t i c i s e s C a r o l f o r a r g u i n g , he r e a r s up h i s t h i c k s h o u l d e r s , " i n absurd p i n k and green f l a n e l e t t e pajamas. He s a t s t r a i g h t , and i r r i t a t i n g l y snapped h i s f i n g e r s , and g r o w l e d " ( p . 1 6 8 ) . -.42However, he i s courageous i n making arduous n i g h t c a l l s (p. 177) and a d m i r a b l e i n h i s o p e r a t i o n on A d o l p h Morgenroth ( p . 1 9 2 ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, C a r o l knows h i s anger and mockery, and d e s p i s e s " h i s g u t t e r p a t o i s " ( p . 199), h i s d r e a d f u l c l o t h e s ( p . 2 8 9 ) , and h i s t a b l e manners: "He v i o l e n t l y chased fragments o f f i s h about h i s p l a t e w i t h a k n i f e and l i c k e d t h e k n i f e a f t e r g o b b l i n g them" ( p . 2 8 9 ) . Sometimes he i s t h e b u l l y i n g A m e r i c a n p a t r i o t : "There's t o o much f r e e speech and f r e e gas and f r e e beer and f r e e l o v e and a l l the r e s t of your damned mouthy freedom, and i f I had my way I ' d make you f o l k s l i v e up t o t h e e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s of decency even i f I had t o t a k e you --" ( p . 420) K e n n i c o t t has f i v e h o b b i e s : m e d i c i n e , l a n d - i n v e s t m e n t , C a r o l , m o t o r i n g , and h u n t i n g . " I t i s n o t c e r t a i n i n what o r d e r he p r e f e r r e d them" ( p . 195). He i s "as f i x e d i n r o u t i n e as an i s o l a t e d o l d man" ( p . 2 9 1 ) , and complains t h a t "she's always t r y i n g t o make me over from a p e r f e c t l y good M.D. i n t o a damn poet w i t h a s o c i a l i s t n e c k - t i e " (p. 306). He t u r n s t o Maud Dyer f o r c o m f o r t , b u t when C a r o l i s f o o l i s h about E r i k V a l b o r g he i s "mature and s l o w , y e t b e s e e c h i n g " ( p . 3 9 6 ) , and a s k s : " C a r r i e , do you u n d e r s t a n d my work?" ( p . 7 9 6 ) . He i s t h e s c i e n t i s t of Gopher P r a i r i e , who works a l l h o u r s t o h e a l everybody, r i c h or poor, and a l l he needs i s t o have C a r r i e welcome h i m . She i s h i s s o u l ( p . 3 9 6 ) . C a r o l . does not r e a l i s e t h a t W i l l has " b e w i l d e r m e n t s and concealments as i n t r i c a t e as h e r own" ( p . 4 3 9 ) . M a i n S t r e e t i s , i n some ways, a l o v e s t o r y . making o f C a r o l and W i l l i s o r d i n a r y : The l o v e - "They were b i o l o g y and m y s t e r y ; t h e i r speech was s l a n g phrases and f l a r e s o f p o e t r y ; t h e i r were contentment or shaky c r i s e s " silences (p. 1 5 ) . They l i k e each o t h e r h o n e s t l y , and put o f f c h i l d r e n u n t i l W i l l has more money: "perhaps he had made -50- a l l t h e mystery o f l o v e a m e c h a n i c a l c a u t i o u s n e s s " ( p . 8 5 ) . C a r o l i s n o t s t i r r e d by W i l l , b u t she depends on h i m ( p . 1 6 1 ) . She has t o a s k f o r money, and i n t h e e n s u i n g argument h a t e s him (p. 1 7 3 ) . Then she sees she has n o t been j u s t , and " t h a t December she was i n l o v e w i t h h e r Husband" ( p . 1 7 6 ) . She t h i n k s o f games and s u r p r i s e s t o v a r y t h e days, r e f u s i n g t o l i s t e n t o h i s t h e o r y t h a t " a l l t h i s romance s t u f f i s s i m p l y moonshine" ( p . 1 8 1 ) . When h e r baby i s born she f i r s t h a t e s i t then l o v e s " w i t h a l l t h e d e v o t i o n and i n s t i n c t a t which she had s c o f f e d " (p. 2 4 1 ) . K e n n i c o t t w i l l g i v e Hugh d i s c i p l i n e , but C a r o l w i l l g i v e h i m t h e r i g h t s o f a human b e i n g ( p . 4 4 8 ) . K e n n i c o t t ' s r e l a t i v e s a r e u n b e a r a b l e t o C a r o l ; she d i s c o v e r s " t h a t t h e one t h i n g t h a t can be more d i s c o n c e r t i n g than i n t e l l i g e n t h a t r e d i s demanding l o v e " ( p . 2 4 4 ) . She babbles h e r t r o u b l e s t o M r s . W e s t l a k e , d o c t o r ' s w i f e and g o s s i p , who approves of h e r h a v i n g a s e p a r a t e bedroom: "Why, c h i l d , every woman ought t o g e t o f f by h e r s e l f and t u r n o v e r h e r thoughts -- about c h i l d r e n , and God, and how bad h e r c o m p l e x i o n i s . . . and how much p a t i e n c e i t t a k e s t o endure some t h i n g s i n a man's l o v e . " ( p . 295) C a r o l , " s n a r l e d w i t h l i e s and foggy a n a l y s e s and d e s i r e s " ( p . 3 6 6 ) , i s n o t as l o v i n g t o W i l l as he w i s h e s . She cannot put on an a c t , though she wants t o l o v e him: "Am I t o o honest -- a funny t o p s y t u r v y h o n e s t y -- t h e f a i t h f u l n e s s o f u n f a i t h ? " ( p . 367) She wants to be l e t a l o n e , b u t " m a r r i a g e weaves people t o g e t h e r " ( p . 3 9 8 ) . The m a r r i a g e s t o r y of C a r o l and W i l l K e n n i c o t t i s f u l l o f t w i s t s and changes. Sometimes Lewis preaches the v i r t u e s o f l o y a l t y and obedience, a t o t h e r times he advocates freedom and open mindedness. Sometimes he i s on t h e s i d e o f W i l l ; a t o t h e r times he sympathises -51with Carol. He p r a i s e s will f o r b e i n g steady and blames him f o r b e i n g f i x e d i n h i s ways; he approves C a r o l ' s adventurous i d e a s and her f l i g h t i n e s s . criticises The n o v e l d i f f e r s from an o r d i n a r y l o v e - s t o r y because of the L e w i s i a n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and q u e s t i o n i n g s w i t h r e s p e c t t o the v a l u e s w h i c h a r e embedded i n the c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r situations. However,there i s no a m b i v a l e n c e i n the r e f e r e n c e s t o r e l i g i o n i n Main S t r e e t : S i n c l a i r L e w i s c o n s t a n t l y a t t a c k s the church and i t s t e a c h i n g s and i t s p e o p l e . The g i r l s who ask God t o guide t h e i r f e e t a r e the "bulbous-browed and pop-eyed maidens" (p. 3 ) . V i d a prays to J e s u s , " o f f e r i n g him the t e r r i b l e power of her a d o r a t i o n , a d d r e s s i n g him as the e t e r n a l l o v e r , growing p a s s i o n a t e , e x a l t e d , l a r g e . . . . 'Bius she mounted t o endurance and "dear nebulous L o r d " i s so foggy" surcease" (p. 251). C a r o l prays t o the (p. 32) when she i s s c a r e d , and admits, "My religion (p. 6 5 ) ; but she w i l l not a l l o w an i g n o r a n t young man f r o c k c o a t t o s a n c t i o n Hugh by c h r i s t e n i n g : t o any d e v i l c h a s i n g r i t e s i " (p. 241) She " I refuse to subject i s "an uneasy and in a him dodging a g n o s t i c " (p. 328), w h i l e K e n n i c o t t , whose f a i t h i s h i s B u i c k , b e l i e v e d i n t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , and never thought about i t ; he b e l i e v e d i n t h e c h u r c h , and seldom went near i t ; he was shocked by C a r o l ' s l a c k of f a i t h , and wasn't q u i t e s u r e what was the n a t u r e of the f a i t h t h a t she l a c k e d , (p. 328) The P e r r y s a r e c o m p l e t e l y sure: "The B a p t i s t Church i s the p e r f e c t , the d i v i n e l y o r d a i n e d s t a n d a r d i n m u s i c , o r a t o r y , p h i l a n t h r o p y , and ethics. . ,j . What we need i s t o get back to the t r u e Word of and a good sound b e l i e f i n h e l l " added on the New (p. 152). God, This P r a i r i e P u r i t a n i s m i s England P u r i t a n i s m (p. 4 4 1 ) , w h i c h i s s l i g h t l y less crude andvunthinking, so t h a t C a r o l i s "dismayed t o f i n d the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , i n America, i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , as abnormal as Z o r o a s t r i a n i s m — w i t h o u t t h e splendor" (p. 328). I t i s f u l l of p r i m i t i v e e r o t i c symbols and gory C h a l d e a n phrases -- a " s a n g u i n a r y compelling respectability. and a l i e n t h e o l o g y " (p. 328) -52A l l the courageous i n t e l l i g e n t people a r e f i g h t i n g M a i n S t r e e t ' s god, the god of Mrs. " I went to a denominational B o g a r t who c o l l e g e and spake i n d o g g e r e l hymns (p. learned that since d i c t a t i n g the B i b l e , and h i r i n g a p e r f e c t r a c e of m i n i s t e r s t o e x p l a i n i t , has never done much but creep around and it" (p. 156). cunningly. Mrs. She (p. 185) She t r y t o c a t c h us God disobeying B o g a r t a l s o c r e e p s around, her l a r g e f a c e " w r i n k l e d showed the decayed t e e t h i n a r e p r o v i n g s m i l e , i n the c o n f i d e n t i a l v o i c e of one who she b r e a t h e d : scents s t a l e bathroom and scandal 'You don't know the t h i n g s t h a t go on under cover'." i s the o n l y p e r s o n i n town not l i v i n g i n shame, but f o l k s can be c u r e d by k n e e l i n g a t Wednesday P r a y e r - m e e t i n g w i t h her and "0 God, 384): I would be a m i s e r a b l e s i n n e r except f o r thy g r a c e " (p. saying, 186). T h i s d r e a d f u l woman's son causes a s c a n d a l i n v o l v i n g h i s t e a c h e r , F e r n M u l l i n s , and the board d i s c u s s e s the c a s e . On the board i s the Reverend Z i t t e r e l -- " S i s t e r B o g a r t about h a l f r u n s h i s church, so of c o u r s e h e l l t a k e h e r say-so" (p. 386). "a thin,-, swart, i n t e n s e young man" does as Mrs. Bogart t e l l s him. (p. 329) Reverend Z i t t e r e l , w i t h a " h o l y l e e r " (p. 387)", They b o t h b e l i e v e t h a t the g r e a t w i t h t h i s n a t i o n i s l a c k of s p i r i t u a l f a i t h (p. 70); he i s g i v e n trouble one hundred d o l l a r s by P e r c e Bresnahan " f o r A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n work" (p. M i l e s B j o r n s t a m contends t h a t " t h e d o l l a r - s i g n has the c r u c i f i x c l e a n o f f t h e map" (p. 115). When C a r o l asks 282). chased the T h a n a t o p s i s t o h e l p t h e poor of the town, Mrs. Warren,the clergyman's w i f e , agrees t h a t c h a r i t y i s "the c h i e f adornment of the t r u e C h r i s t i a n and the Church" (p. 142), but " t h e s e s h i f t l e s s f o l k s " must r e a l i s e i t i s c h a r i t y , not a r i g h t , and be much more g r a t e f u l . Mrs. w i l l r e b u i l d Gopher P r a i r i e when a l l the e v a n g e l i c a l churches a r e u n i t e d , " o p p o s i n g C a t h o l i c i s m and C h r i s t i a n S c i e n c e , Warren -53and p r o p e r l y g u i d i n g a l l movements t h a t make f o r m o r a l i t y and p r o h i b i t i o n " (p. 132). Even though c h u r c h suppers are f r i e n d l y and human (p. 328), the c h u r c h people w i l l not welcome a " p i o u s " M i l e s B j o r n s t a m (p. 318), and Washington " v e r y unhappy and l o n e l y " (p. 4 2 7 ) . c h u r c h e s , t h e i r b e l i e f s , and church members make C a r o l S i n c l a i r Lewis damns the practices. I n A r r o w s m i t h (1925), s c e p t i c i s m i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the h e r o , M a r t i n A r r o w s m i t h , who argues t h a t " t r u t h i s a s k e p t i c a l a t t i t u d e to l i f e " (p. 284). The p o s i t i v e elements of L e w i s ' s b e l i e f s a r e e x p r e s s e d i n t h i s nor e l , o r i g i n a l l y named The Gods of M a r t i n A r r o w s m i t h . Q xhe book shows Arrowsmith's 1S and s e l f l e s s d e d i c a t i o n t o t r u t h . spiritual I t i s a "moralistic allegory j" -'1 8 a P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s w i t h the T w e n t i e t h Century man of p i e t y i n pur- s u i t of t h e T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y d e i t y , s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h . new Red C r o s s K n i g h t , s a v i n g l i v e s . on the o t h e r V i r t u e He i s the On one s i d e i s V i c e ( P i c k e r b a u g h ) , (Gottlieb). G o t t l i e b ' s name means ' l o v e of God', C h r i s t of the new r e l i g i o n , S c i e n c e . i n t e g r i t y , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and l o v e . and he i s the G o t t l i e b has i n t e l l e c t and He b e l i e v e s t h a t man i s not dijvine or i m m o r t a l , but a machine d e s i g n e d by God the m a t h e m a t i c i a n . prays: He "God g i v e me a q u i e t and r e l e n t l e s s anger a t p r e t e n c e and a l l p r e t e n t i o u s work and a l l work l e f t s l a c k or u n f i n i s h e d . . | . God g i v e me s t r e n g t h n o t t o t r u s t t o God!" (p. 139). The s c i e n t i s t advances mankind, but r e j e c t s respectability. He i s s i n c e r e l y a l t r u i s t i c , y e t people c o n s i d e r him a c r a n k . So he i s o l a t e s -54- h i m s e l f from a s o c i e t y which m e r e l y wants to keep t h i n g s as are. they He i s concerned w i t h h i s s c i e n t i f i c work, not i t s meta- p h y s i c a l or p h i l o s o p h i c a l meanings. A r r o w s m i t h works w i t h a f i n e i n t e l l i g e n c e and i n t e r e s t e d motives, even i n d e f e a t . dis- f a c i n g i s s u e s o f l i f e and death w i t h L e w i s ' s standards and integrity, l o y a l t i e s are c l e a r ; know where he s t a n d s , a p p r e c i a t e h i s frame of r e f e r e n c e . we Just as r e l i g i o n i s r e p e a t e d l y r i d i c u l e d by L e w i s , s c i e n c e i s one k i n d of t r u t h he c o n s i s t e n t l y r e c o g n i z e s ; he possessed "a humani s t i c f a i t h i n s c i e n c e and a c o n c e r n w i t h the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of man's 182 p e r f e c t i b i l i t y through h i s own efforts." p a r a d i s e on e a r t h , can a b o l i s h "war, S c i e n c e can make a p o v e r t y , c a s t e , uncouthness, i • nl83 clumsiness." L e w i s ' s s i n c e r i t y about s c i e n c e makes the book p o s i t i v e in i t s idealism. f a t e and I t - i s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l n o v e l , concerned w i t h f r e e w i l l , and man's s e a r c h f o r l i f e ' s s e c r e t s . p a r t of what S i n c l a i r L e w i s b e l i e v e d i n i s expressed p u b l i c h e a l t h , war, " l i e - h u n t e r s " , surgeons and scientists: (p. 266) c h a r a c t e r s a r e changeable -- though L e o r a r e t o r t s : I'm wealth, c u l t u r e , b e a u t y , l o v e , n a t u r e , the West, c u r s e i t , i s n ' t a n y t h i n g i n the w o r l d s i m p l e ? " to be c o n s i s t e n t . great i n Arrowsmith. There i s a m b i v a l e n c e i n A r r o w s m i t h c o n c e r n i n g power, s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r , A a mere woman." (p. 227) "Oh, The " I don't have There i s an important c o n f l i c t between s c i e n c e ( l e t t i n g h a l f the n a t i v e s be ' c o n t r o l s , ' and maybe d i e ) and humanity ( g i v i n g the phage t o every M a r t i n preaches t o h i m s e l f : islander). -55th e l o y a l t y of d i s s e n t , the f a i t h of b e i n g v e r y d o u b t f u l , the g o s p e l of not b a w l i n g g o s p e l s , the wisdom of a d m i t t i n g the p r o b a b l e i g n o r a n c e of one's s e l f and of everybody e l s e . (p. 237) R e f e r e n c e s to r e l i g i o n i n A r r o w s m i t h are-.-nearly always adverse. D e a l i n g w i t h a cadaver damages M a r t i n ' s " a l r e a d y f e e b l e b e l i e f i n man's d i v i n i t y and i m m o r t a l i t y " (p. 1 6 ) . "No s t e e r ever bellowed more enormously" than I r a H i n k l e y , the " b r i g h t and Happy C h r i s t i a n " (p. 15) who killing " r e v e r e n t i a l l y accepted e v e r y t h i n g " (p. 3 8 ) , who but l o v e s s i n g i n g hymns about b l o o d hates (p. 3 8 ) , and who is a "maniac" about the damned s o u l s o f t h e n a t i v e s (p. 380). Gottlieb mocks p r e a c h e r s and who t a l k meaninglessly about S i n and T r u t h Honesty (p. 144), and he w i l l not " s t o o p i n f e a r b e f o r e t h e i r God of Wrath" (p. 145). To win p a t i e n t s , a d o c t o r s h o u l d a t t e n d c h u r c h , he b e l i e v e s the s t u f f or n o t " (p. 184); and, once d i s t r u s t e d , M a r t i n i s a t t a c k e d by " a l l the f a s h i o n a b l e churches" S o n d e l i u s , the d y i n g a g n o s t i c , c r i t i c i s e s God "whether (p. 274). for laughingly p u t t i n g d i s e a s e i n t o the b e a u t i f u l t r o p i c s (p. 394). The book ends w i t h a h y p o c r i t e C h r i s t i a n e n j o y i n g the m i n i s t e r ' s g l o a t i n g : "The r i g h t e o u s , even the C h i l d r e n of L i g h t , they s h a l l be rewarded w i t h a g r e a t reward and t h e i r f e e t s h a l l w a l k i n g l a d n e s s , s a i t h the L o r d of H o s t s ; but the mockers, the Sons of B e l i a l , they s h a l l be s l a i n betimes and c a s t down i n t o darkness and f a i l u r e , and i n the busy marts s h a l l they be f o r g o t . " (p. The f i r s t p a r t o f Elmer Gantry (1927) d e s c r i b e s Elmer's B a p t i s t e d u c a t i o n , h i s o r d i n a t i o n , h i s f i r s t p u l p i t , and h i s escape from L u l u ; the second d e s c r i b e s h i s c a r e e r as an e v a n g e l i s t w i t h f a n t a s t i c Sharon F a l c o n e r ; the t h i r d d e s c r i b e s h i s e x p e r i e n c e of the New 464) -56Th ought and h i s r i s e i n Methodism, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e d e c l i n e o f h i s m a r r i a g e t o C l e o and h i s escape from H t e t t i e , who t h r e a t e n s t o b r i n g him t o p u b l i c r u i n , b u t who i s h e r s e l f r o u t e d a s , i n t h e f i n a l s e n t e n c e , Elmer promises: "We s h a l l y e t make t h e s e U n i t e d S t a t e s a moral n a t i o n . " ( p . 432) There i s some ambivalence i n Elmer G a n t r y , b u t i t i s c o m p l e t e l y overshadowed by L e w i s ' s c o n s t a n t d i s l i k e oM r e l i g i o n . He aimed t o g i v e r e l i g i o u s c h a r l a t a n r y a f a t a l blow i n a " d r a g o n - k i l l i n g exhibition," 184 " S t . George and t h e P a r s o n . " The b a t t l e i s b e l l i g e r e n t l y o n e - s i d e d -185 "a p a u s e l e s s s e r i e s of knockdowns." With " t h e b i g o t r y o f t h e a n t i -1 religious," o r L e w i s p o r t r a y s a s e r i e s o f wicked clergymen and con- f u s e d , i g n o r a n t , narrow-minded, and d u l l c h u r c h e s ; then he bashes them w i t h rough and tumble anger, and e x p e c t s a t o r n a d o o f boos and a p p l a u s e . L e w i s does n o t base h i s c r i t i c i s m on a deep u n d e r s t a n d i n g of C h r i s t i a n p h i l o s o p h y , b u t h i s c r i t i c i s m s of American religious p r a c t i c e s , even t h e d i s t o r t i o n s o f G a n t r y ' s c h u r c h , a r e based on 187 C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s , such a s : "Ye cannot s e r v e God and Mammon." His h i g h e s t p r a i s e o f t h e church o c c u r s when McGarry answers t h e q u e s t i o n : "Why have a c h u r c h a t a l l ? " I t has t h e unique p e r s o n a l i t y and t e a c h i n g s o f Jesus C h r i s t , and t h e r e i s something i n J e s u s , t h e r e i s somet h i n g i n t h e way he spoke, t h e r e i s something i n t h e f e e l i n g o f a man when he suddenly has t h a t i n e x p r e s s i b l e e x p e r i e n c e o f knowing t h e M a s t e r and h i s p r e s e n c e , which makes the c h u r c h o f Jesus d i f f e r e n t from any o t h e r merely human i n s t i t u t i o n o r i n s t r u m e n t whatsoever! Jesus i s n o t s i m p l y g r e a t e r and w i s e r than S o c r a t e s or V o l t a i r e ; he i s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t . Anybody can i n t e r p r e t and t e a c h S o c r a t e s or V o l t a i r e — i n s c h o o l s or books o r c o n v e r s a t i o n . But t o i n t e r p r e t t h e p e r s o n a l i t y and t e a c h i n g s o f J e s u s r e q u i r e s an e s p e c i a l l y c a l l e d , chosen, t r a i n e d , c o n s e c r a t e d body o f men, u n i t e d i n an e s p e c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n -- t h e c h u r c h . ( p . 376) -57Elmer G a n t r y i s a f o r m i d a b l e warning a g a i n s t h y p o c r i s y , s k i n - d e e p c o n v e r s i o n , and a narrow s u p e r f i c i a l C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r e . The p i o u s humbugs succeed, and the good m i n i s t e r s f a i l ; Elmer's church i s not i n t e r e s t e d i n r a t i o n a l , h o n e s t , humble, t o l e r a n t , humane i d e a s or p e r s o n s . The book i s an account of morbid symptoms of r e l g i o n i n a l a n d where t h e r e l i g i o u s s p i r i t i s dead. No fraud, quackery, h y p o c r i s y , or i n i q u i t y i s ' o m i t t e d -- " n o t h i n g i s ^ m i s s i n g but religion."•'•88 p o r Elmer G a n t r y i s not a symbol of the death 189 of r e l i g i o n ; h i s essence i s s w i n i s h n e s s . I n h i s essay " S i n c l a i r L e w i s and the Method of H a l f - T r u t h s , " S c h o r e r says Elmer i s " t o t a l death."190 He r e p r e s e n t s a decayed, dehumanized, barren r e l i g i o n ; and he has no genuine human v a l u e s t o f i g h t a g a i n s t . On the f r i n g e s o f the n a r r a t i v e , L e w i s p e r m i t s a few shadowy f i g u r e s of good, such as S h a l l a r d and P e n g i l l y , t o appear, but they do n o t impede Elmer's "barbarous r i s e from c o u n t r y boob t o i n f l u e n t i a l preacher."191 L e w i s shares S h a l l a r d ' s b e l i e f i n i n d i v i d u a l freedom and P e n g i l l y ' s sense of r i g h t e o u s n e s s , but he i s more i n t e r e s t e d i n a clergyman who can r e j e c t such i d e a l s . L e w i s i m p l i e s f a c e t s of human b e h a v i o u r t h a t he admires by s a t i r i z i n g f a c e t s of human b e h a v i o u r t h a t he h a t e s i n Elmer G a n t r y , t h a t b r u t a l , s e n s u a l , l y i n g , s n e a k i n g b u l l y , w i t h o u t honour, decency or a s p i r a t i o n . He i s monster, a g r o t e s q u e 192 h o b g o b l i n , a c a r i c a t u r e , " t o o s a t a n i c t o be r e a l . " i s inhuman, w i t h o u t f u l f i l m e n t . His sexuality He i s i n c a p a b l e of f e e l i n g ("Elmer c o u l d n o t c o n s i d e r the c o n v e r t s human" p. 119) or thought ("he had n e v e r been^sure but t h a t t h e r e might be something t o t h e d o c t r i n e s he had preached" (p. 2 2 9 ) , though he has shrewdness and a n i m a l c u n n i n g . To him, p r e a c h i n g i s an easy j o b , w i t h "no b a c k - t a l k or c r o s s e x a m i n a t i o n a l l o w e d . " (p. 51) -5,8- " I may n o t , " Elmer m e d i t a t e d , "be as s w e l l a s c h o l a r as o l d Toomis, b u t I can i n v e n t a l o t of s t u n t s and e v e r y t h i n g t o wake t h e church up and a t t r a c t t h e crowds, and t h a t ' s worth a whole l o t more than a l l t h i s yowl i n g about t h e prophets and t h e o l o g y l " ( p . 278) 193 Elmer Gantry i s "a mendacious w o l f i n p a s t o r a l c l o t h i n g " , a melodramatic f i g u r e c a p a b l e of f o r c e f u l i n f l u e n c e . He i s f r i g h t e n i n g 194 because he r e p r e s e n t s t h e " s i n i s t e r f o r c e s of r i g h t e o u s n e s s " , the s e l f - i n t e r e s t of some c h u r c h l e a d e r s . He i s p a r t of t h e " r e l i g i o u s 195 vaudeville",' and c a r r i e s t h e r e l i g i o n of success i n t o t h e c h u r c h , 196 197 making a d e a l w i t h Mammon. He i s "Mr. O p p o r t u n i s t ' ^ insisting t h a t a " S o u l Saver" must " s e l l t h e goods." ( p . 208) Elmer resembles " t h e v u l g a r e s t contemporary pulpit-thumping m a t e r i a l i s t " ' - type of He i s of t h e same c l a y as h i s p e o p l e , n o t s e t a p a r t by l e a r n i n g or i n t e g r i t y or s p i r i t u a l i t y : "Mr. G a n t r y , why don't you b e l i e v e i n God?" ( p . 367) of He i s i n c a p a b l e deep s e l f - e x a m i n a t i o n . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , D. A a r o n has written: The weight of t h e s a t i r e f a l l s on an e d u c a t i o n a l system t h a t p e r m i t s an i g n o r a n t boor t o pass as educated, and a cunning a n i m a l , t o o t h i c k h e a d e d t o be s c e p t i c a l , t o p r o f e s s a t h e o l o g y t h a t he does not understand and t e a c h a C h r i s t i a n i t y which he understands o n l y i n i t s f o r m u l a s and i t s p r o f i t a b l e fmiits. Elmer Gantry "had, i n f a c t , got e v e r y t h i n g from t h e c h u r c h and Sunday S c h o o l , e x c e p t , perhaps, any l o n g i n g whatever for decency and k i n d n e s s and r e a s o n . " ( p . 28) him i n t h e churches d e s c r i b e d i n t h e n o v e l . H i s f a i l i n g s promote An e g o t i s t w i t h o u t any c a l l i n g , s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , or i d e a s , he somehow b e l i e v e s ( l i k e Sharon F a l c o n e r ) t h a t God w i l l t u r n h i s s i n s t o g l o r y , ( p . 174) be " t h e most p o w e r f u l man s i n c e the b e g i n n i n g of h i s t o r y ^ He w i l l .... -59"l'm g o i n g t o be t h e emperor o f A m e r i c a -- maybe o f t h e w o r l d . " (p. 410) We do n o t b e l i e v e i n Elmer as a p e r s o n ; he i s an e f f i g y w i t h out human l i k e n e s s d e s i g n e d f o r a p u b l i c w i t c h b u r n i n g : fried i n o i l . " ^ 2 "The p r e a c h e r S i n c l a i r Lewis, the revolted p u r i t a n , attacks the whole c h u r c h a t Elmer's l e v e l . He i s n o t b e i n g n o v e l i s t b u t p r o s e c u t i n g 201 attorney. There a r e moments when he h i n t s a t opposing n o t i o n s — the j o y o f c h u r c h C h r i s t m a s , t h e h a p p i n e s s o f Elmer's mother a t h i s conversion, saving and t h e t e n d e r n e s s of o l d p r e a c h e r s who b e l i e v e they a r e t h e w o r l d . Even Sharon F a l c o n e r w o r l d ' s "poor t r o u b l e d s o u l s " ( p . 226). recognises t h e need t o h e l p t h e Among C h r i s t i a n s a r e honest t h i n k e r s l i k e B r u n o Z e c h l i n and s i n c e r e s e a r c h e r s l i k e F r a n k S h a l l a r d ; and t h e c h u r c h has elements of p o e t r y and power. Elmer i s moved by the beauty o f l a n d and sea; he r e j o i c e s i n h i s work o f p r e a c h i n g God's word and a b o l i s h i n g s o c i a l e v i l s . Nevertheless, t h e book i s p r i m a r i l y a c a r i c a t u r e o f A m e r i c a n r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s which Lewis sees as b e i n g b r u t a l and h a t e f u l . His attack i s i n l i n e with a long t r a d i t i o n of r e l i g i o u s criticism. The P r o t e s t a n t i s m of Lewis's upbringing grew f i n a l ^ out of L u t h e r ' s and C a l v i n ' s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e Roman C a t h o l i c Church. Their doctrines of the priesthood o f a l l b e l i e v e r s and man's need o f Grace were brought t o America by t h e P i l g r i m s and P u r i t a n s , who had r e j e c t e d t h e e s t a b l i s h e d churches i n Europe. t h e r e were d i s p u t e s From the f i r s t , over c h u r c h and B i b l e a u t h o r i t y -- by what r i g h t c o u l d a c h u r c h f o r c e d o c t r i n e and conduct on a b e l i e v e r w i t h light?" The second g e n e r a t i o n P u r i t a n s were " g o s p e l - g l u t t e d , "inner sermon- 202 proof," and i n t e r e s t e d i n l i v i n g w e l l i n A m e r i c a . A c q u i r i n g of r i c h e s was a c c e p t e d as a s i g n o f grace by t h e P u r i t a n s , even i n t h e OA s i n f u l world. K i l l i n g o f I n d i a n s ("limbs of Satan") O J and e x p l o i t i n g t h e i r l a n d demonstrated man's courage, i n g e n u i t y , and s e l f - r e l i a n c e , -60r a t h e r than God's p l a n . "Where do the m i s s i o n a r i e s come i n t o your p i c t u r e ? " "They don't!"204 The righteousness "My P u r i t a n s o u l - s e a r c h i n g l e d b o t h t o overweening s e l f and t o n e u r o t i c i s m i n f e a r of an a r b i t r a r y inhumane God: h e a r t i s f i l t h and p o l l u t i o n , contaminated w i t h loathsome s o f t n e s s 205 and decay!" Preachers exaggerated man's h e l p l e s s n e s s and S c o t t i s h P r e s b y t e r i a n s took C a l v i n i s t d o c t r i n e t o the H i l l s , where the Book o f G e n e s i s was account o f man's o r i g i n s , and s i n , and Appalachian h e l d t o be the o n l y p o s s i b l e to the Mid-West p l a i n s , where developed the P r a i r i e P r o t e s t a n t i s m t h a t Lewis knew. The A m e r i c a n C o l o n i e s became more w o r l d l y and commercial -" t h e man and of b u s i n e s s i s not o n l y n o b i l i t y but judge and p r i e s t " the gap between t h e i r p r a c t i c a l l i f e and t h e i r symbolic 2 0 aura ^ -- increased, though m i n i s t e r s i n s i s t e d the more s t r o n g l y t h a t New England was "an 207 emblem of God's thought." God's Word was the B i b l e , and the P u r i t a n s were deeply concerned w i t h words, but not always w i t h the i d e a s behind the words. "Does a l l t h a t mean a n y t h i n g ? Or i s i t j u s t a r a s h of 208 words?" T h e i r j u g g l e d terms of d i a l e c t i c d i v e r g e d from r e a l and P a i n e mocked " t h e C h r i s t i a n system of a r i t h m e t i c , t h a t t h r e e one, experience, are and one i s t h r e e . " J e f f e r s o n wrote: ' The r e l i g i o u s b u i l d e r s have so d i s t o r t e d and deformed the d o c t r i n e s of J e s u s , so m u f f l e d them i n m y s t i c i s m s , f a n c i e s , and falsehoods, have c a r i c a t u r e d them i n t o forms so monstrous and i n c o n c e i v a b l e , as t o shock r e a s o n a b l e t h i n k e r s . 2 1 0 2 0 9 Even though t h e r e were changes and d e v e l o p m e n t s _ i n American churches throughout the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , S i n c l a i r L e w i s i s shocked by t h e i r l a c k of reason and t h e i r undue i n f l u e n c e : ' i t i s t h i n k e r s l i k e Dr. /Elmer/ G a n t r y . . . who f i n a l l y determine our philosophy, -61- our i d e a l s , our judgment i n l i t e r a r y and a r t i s t i c m a t t e r s , and 211 our e t h i c s i n b u s i n e s s . " L i k e many o f h i s contemporaries, L e w i s r e j e c t s t h e churches and t h e i r dogma, b u t remains aware of t h e f o r c e o f C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s . In t h e moral c o n f u s i o n o f a c h a r a c t e r such as George F. B a b b i t t we see something o f the dilemma of modern man -- eager t o g i v e h i m s e l f over t o complete enjoyment o f them because o f vague s c r u p l e s o f c o n s c i e n c e ; b e l i e v i n g i n t h e American i d e a l s o f Work and P r o g r e s s , w i t h o u t any r e a l o b j e c t i n l i f e t o make them w o r t h w h i l e ; d e p r i v e d o f t h e p o s s i b l i t y of r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n , yet f u l l of i n d e f i n i t e l o n g i n g s and d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s ; s t u m b l i n g i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f husband and f a t h e r , o n l y to be caught i n a d u l l and p e t t y r o u t i n e o f domestic b i c k e r i n g and v u l g a r i t y . T r u l y , t o paraphrase t h e b r i l l i a n t words o f Matthew A r n o l d , B a b b i t t i s l o s t between two w o r l d s , t h e one dead t o h i m f o r e v e r , and t h e other powerless t o be born. -'2 One o f S i n c l a i r L e w i s ' s c a t c h i n g t h e temper of h i s t i m e s . 2 prime g i f t s was h i s s k i l l i n He understood t h e moral c o n f u s i o n and t h e d i s l i k e o f r e l i g i o n i n B a b b i t t and many modern A m e r i c a n s . He was " t h e c o n s c i e n c e o f h i s g e n e r a t i o n , d e s c r i b i n g the 214 s e c u l a r p i l g r i m a g e of the twentieth century; b u t i n one n o v e l he d e s c r i b e s A m e r i c a i n t h e 1840's. Because o f i t s h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g , The God Seeker (1949) i s d i f f e r e n t from L e w i s s o t h e r n o v e l s , b u t t h e u s u a l a m b i g u i t i e s a r e e v i d e n t . The e a r l y s e t t l e r s o f M i n n e s o t a a r e p o r t r a y e d as 1 -62- v u l g a r , i g n o r a n t , and b i g o t e d : "When any of these outlaw breeds -- n i g g e r s or I n d i a n s or Jews or the Y t a l i a n s or the w i l d I r i s h or any of them - - s e e m l i k e t h e y ' r e b r i g h t and decent and even r e l i g i o u s t h e y ' r e j u s t i m i t a t i n g us, l i k e monkeys!" (p.217) o f t e n a r e bad farmers: They " S i x out of t e n b r e a k e r s of l a n d a r e no good -- o t h e r w i s e they wouldn't have f l e d t o .the w i l d e r n e s s " (p. 299). ness" They a r e f u l l of C h u z z l e w i t " o r a t o r i c a l (p. 109): rambunctious- but t h i s gang of farmers and f u r t r a d e r s , s u r v e y e r s and s t o r e k e e p e r s , w i t h a blacksmith, a country school teacher, a t a i l o r , a d o c t o r - d r u g g i s t , and the m i s s i o n a r y Gideon Pond, founded a j u s t , o r d e r l y , and e n d u r i n g commonwealth, (p. 368) The w h i t e s e t t l e r s a r e b l e s s e d (p. 131), but s t e a l the I n d i a n s ' l a n d (p. 128) f i n e gun, (p. 128). "We they i n exchange f o r " f i n e k e t t l e , f i n e b l a n k e t , the b i g pox, the s m a l l pox and r e l i g i o n " The cunning t r a d e r , Caesar L a n a r k , t e l l s Aaron: have g i v e n the I n d i a n s consumption, i n f l u e n z a , measles, s y p h i l i s , and the hymns of C h a r l e s Wesley" (p. 177). -63- In the n o v e l , Lewis' u s u a l l y sympathises w i t h t h e I n d i a n s . They a r e "grave and e r e c t " and d i g n i f i e d : " t h e s e t a l l and softly s t e p p i n g men d i d not seem i n f e r i o r t o God's own chosen p e o p l e the (p. 128). Yankees" heaven? — Maybe they a r e of the e l e c t and go t o The I n d i a n r i t e of 'hambeday' i s a form of God-seeking, a c o n s c i o u s n e s s of d i v i n e power (p. 1 7 6 ) ; M e d i c i n e S p i d e r i s the e t e r n a l Church Mother (p. 210). However,there i s much c r i t i c i s m of t h e " S i o u x or Dakota savage I n d i a n s , h e l l - f l a m e d , g o r g e - r a i s i n g , m u r d e r i n g , a d u l t e r o u s , s a b b a t h - b r e a k i n g sons of B e l i a l " The ones who (p. 4 5 ) . l i v e b e h i n d t h e agency a r e " d i r t y beggars" (p. 118) t o A a r o n , " i n e r a d i c a b l y damned" (p. 119) t o the m i n i s t e r . When B l a c k Wolf i s murdered by t h e Ojibway, A a r o n h a t e d a l l I n d i a n s and was t e r r i f i e d of them w h i l e he y e t l o v e d B l a c k Wolf and was dismayed t h a t h i s r e v o l t had been ended by o u t l a w murder. N o t h i n g seemed c l e a r . . . . (p. 321) A a r o n Gadd, the God Seeker, i s f u l l of u n c e r t a i n t i e s ; he i s as changeable as S i n c l a i r L e w i s : "He was the immemorial who h a t e d t h e K i n g b u t l o v e d the crown" (p. 2 2 ) . One minute he sees the C h r i s t i a n C a p t a i n Pipman as "a s p l e n d i d f e l l o w and no Ought I t o be a s o l d i e r ? " (p. 295): "Pipman i s a c l o d h o p p e r ! rebel the n e x t minute, A a r o n prig. thinks, No, I ' l l never be a s o l d i e r ! " (p. 296). When he reads B l a c k W o l f ' s a n a l y s i s of C h r i s t i a n i t y , " t h e s u b t l e t i e s of tEeason b e d e v i l e d him f o r days" (p. 275). "Sometimes he was h e a r t i l y f o r B l a c k W o l f , sometimes he complained t o S e l e n e " ( p . 318). He i s c o n f u s e d about h i s l o v e f o r Huldah and h i s l o v e f o r S e l e n e : "his p l a n s f o r her changed every hour" (p. 318). m a r r i e d , Selene says t o him: you h e r e t i c ! " (p. 372) A f t e r they a r e " I don't change coaches l i k e you -- He r e p l i e s : "There a r e many t h i n g s I -64- don't ever expect t o know, and I'm preaching tight. not going t o devote m y s e l f t o about them but t o b u i l d i n g wood sheds so t r u e and . . ." (p. 380) S e l e n e L a n a r k i s " h a l f gypsy and h a l f snob" (p. 202). She d e s c r i b e s h e r s e l f : The e l e g a n t S a y - l a y - n a y , the f i n e l a d y , w i t h her f a i r j e w e l e d hand h o l d i n g the s p a r k l i n g b e a k e r ! A m i s e r a b l e b r u l e e -- a squaw t h a t ought to be t o t i n g wood! That's me1 (p. 78) "I'm c l e a n flummuxed about i t . Sometimes I l o v e the w h i t e s . . . sometimes I l o v e the Dakota." (p. 78) Her f a t h e r , Caesar L a n a r k , " t a l l and Marcus A u r e l i u s brow" (p. 167) amiable, slender, with a seems t o be "hundreds of y e a r s o l d : l e a r n e d , sharp-eyed" (p. 167); but he cheats d r i v e s out h i s d a u g h t e r , and the I n d i a n s , i s "a f a i r l y competent a t h e i s t " (p. He i s the spokesman of the s e c u l a r view -- but Lewis seems by t o have l o s t p a r t of h i s f a i t h i n w o r l d l y wisdom. L a n a r k , and h a t e him" S q u i r e Harge, whose f i r s t m i s s i o n was against l i f e ' s current: earnestly sincere: (p. (p. 185). " I do l o v e the L o r d God and 185). a cave, i s a t h r e s h e r " R e l i g i o n i s not peace i n a v a l l e y f i g h t i n g on the windy h i l l t o p s " 1949 Aaron r e f l e c t s ; "When I know them enough, I t h i n k I ' l l l a u g h a t the S q u i r e , l o v e him; and I ' l l admire Mr. 185). He i s courageous but and w i t h my whole s o u l , and I want t o make a savory s a c r i f i c e t o him, but Satan comes and makes me b o t c h i t " (p. 183). mockery (p. 6 1 ) . He i n v i t e s a d m i r a t i o n " I n h u m i l i t y and i r a t e c h e e r f u l n e s s " (p. he f a i l s t o c o n v e r t the I n d i a n s : g l o r y of the L o r d " his preaching (p. 45) (p. 222). i s wrong: and 190), but he i s " c i r c l e d round w i t h " I m p a t i e n t l y p a t i e n t " (p. 191), " t h e p u l p i t i s where you t e a r o f f the the -65garments of i n i q u i t y and p r i d e , and show t h e b l a c k , c l o t t e d e v i l beneath t h e s h i n i n g raiment" (p. 147). Aaron i s embarrassed by t h e nakedness o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s ' p i e t y (p. 145). When he goes h u n t i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n s , he keeps " t e l l i n g h i m s e l f t h a t he ought t o be g i v i n g them a h o l y message, but every hour he was l e s s c e r t a i n what t h a t message might be" (p. 2 4 1 ) . The I n d i a n s t h i n k t h a t i f A a r o n l e a r n s humbly t o share t h e i r l i f e , and l i s t e n t o t h e s p i r i t s o f a n i m a l s and streams and w i n d , "he might y e t become a saved s o u l and a Man" (p. 2 4 1 ) . The f r e s h a i r i s a sacrament. The l a n d i s b e a u t i f u l : There was t h e s o f t g o l d o f t h e p r a i r i e autumn, b a t h i n g him,.washing out a l l t h e c a r e f u l meannesses o f t h e t i g h t - f o l d e d h i l l s ; soft gold, radiant gold i n waves, and t h e h i g h cumulus c l o u d s overhead, ( p . 126) But t h e r e i s a l s o f e a r — " o v e r t h e drab immensity o f t h e l a n d comes the p r a i r i e f e a r , t h e f e a r o f s o l i t u d e " (p. 1 2 7 ) . There i s danger -- " t h e snow was t h i c k e r , h a r d e r d r i v e n a g a i n s t t h e i r f a c e s by a v i c i o u s wind" (p. 328). Running from the m i s s i o n , A a r o n and S e l e n e a r e caught i n a snowstorm. "The steady w a i l o f t h e b l i z z a r d s l a c k e n e d , thought he heard . . . t h e v o i c e of a woman r e a d i n g and he from t h e B i b l e . He caught some of t h e words. . .." (p. 333) The B i b l e words a r e a a b l e s s i n g t o him. R e l i g i o n i s communicated by words, and he c a n get drunk on words (p. 1 8 5 ) ; y e t he i s t r o u b l e d by words: I get a philosophy t h a t i s n ' t b u i l t o f uncemented His brother, the j u s t but impatient words?" "Can't ( p . 222) E l i j a h , says t h a t "such words as C h a r i t y , I d e a l s , Democracy, Freedom, F a i t h , L o y a l t y , P a t r i o t i s m , Industry, R e s p o n s i b i l i t y " are " l i k e the caresses warm but v o m i t a b l e " (p. 386). of a p r o s t i t u t e , -66- In t h i s s e n t e n c e , S i n c l a i r Lewis seems t o be under- c u t t i n g e v e r y t h i n g t h a t he has s a i d and w r i t t e n i n f o r t y y e a r s . Of c o u r s e i t i s o n l y a q u o t a t i o n from a f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r , b u t doubts about L e w i s ' s b e l i e f s p e r s i s t . I n s p i t e of the t i t l e , i s a g r e a t d e a l o f a n t i - r e l i g i o u s sentiment there i n the novel, beginning w i t h t h e b l e a k and v i c i o u s C h r i s t i a n , U r i e l Gadd. He seemed t o A a r o n l i k e t h e God o f Wrath as he b l a r e d , " S a l v a t i o n i s t h e only i m p o r t a n t t h i n g i n t h i s w o r l d I And I see my own sons and my daughter w a l l o w i n g i n s i n and i g n o r a n c e , t o o muddleheaded t o r e a l i z e they a l r e a d y scorched by the flames o f h e l l , which i s t h e reward o f them t h a t r e s i s t t h e t e n d e r i n v i t a t i o n of t h e L o r d J e s u s , and now g i t out and c u r r y them h o s s e s l " (P. 7) A a r o n Gadd i s sometimes f i l l e d with unnatural fears because o f r e l i g i o n -- "doom i s doom" ( p . 205) -- and he cannot reason h i m s e l f i n t o r e l i g i o u s p a s s i o n ( p . 9 4 ) : b e a p r i g t o be a good C h r i s t i a n " (p.. 229). "Oh do you have t o C h r i s t i a n s e c t s a r e seen as " v i c i o u s l y b e l l i g e r e n t t r i b e s " ( p . 9 9 ) , and t h e Reverend Noah Cudway curses them a l l (p. 91). R e l i g i o u s t a l k i s a fashion (p. 232). Missionaries are f u l l o f l u s t and h a t r e d : try "Look! I f they really t o i m i t a t e J e s u s , why do they h a t e t h e s i n f u l heathen?" ( p . 2 4 5 ) . C h r i s t i a n s , "so s e l f - s a t i s f i e d " , l o v e t o r e a d about t h e " F u t u r e Punishment o f t h e Wicked U n a v o i d a b l e " ( p . 257). meanness" ( p . 345) make e v e r y t h i n g shameful. The "pure i n B l a c k Wolf d e s c r i b e s C h r i s t i a n i t y as "an i d o l a t r o u s r e l i g i o n w i t h many gods" ( p . 2 6 6 ) , a "borrowed and fable-crammed r e l i g i o n ( o r r a t h e r , s e t o f r e l i g i o n s ) " (p. 271), and C h r i s t i a n s as "moral d w a r f s " ( p . 268) f u l l of c o r r u p t i o n . The God Seeker i s c l e a r l y a n t i - r e l i g i o u s , b u t , u n l i k e Elmer G a n t r y , L e w i s ' s ambivalence had c r e p t i n t o t h i s a s p e c t o f h i s t h i n k i n g and f e e l i n g , and t h e n o v e l i s oddly p r o - r e l i g i o u s a t t i m e s : -67- "Most m i n i s t e r s a r e such n i c e f o l k s -- d r e a d f u l l y s i m p l e , f r i e n d l y and good" (p. 391). but .Aaron has a n o t i o n " t h a t the Church was not merely a f o r t r e s s a g a i n s t the y e l p i n g h o s t s of h e l l , a l s o a p l e a s a n t and even mannerly c o l l e c t i o n of people" Aaron's s o u l i s l i k e a l o n e l y l i t t l e dog, s h e l t e r of the m i s s i o n ( p . 5 7 ) . f a m i l y a l l over the w o r l d Conversion (p. 1 6 ) . matters and l a b o r i n g " (p. 191) c o u l d have would be t o i n t e r p r e t A the missionary's " y e a r s , decades, g e n e r a t i o n s , w a i t i n g and so t h a t people may " B r o t h e r , you c a n ' t know how of the e t e r n a l word" f e e l the need f o r r e l i g i o n : t h i r s t y I get f o r the s p a r k l i n g waters (p. 9 7 ) . A a r o n Gadd sees Jesus C h r i s t as a man, but s t i l l God. (p. 95). the g l o r i o u s (p. 5 4 ) , and A a r o n i s moved by the m i s s i o n a r i e s ' enduring patience: be" there To Deacon Popplewood, " t h e to a l l the poor i g n o r a n t f o l k s " (p. 1 6 ) . l i f e i s noble (p. 3 2 3 ) . c l e a n s i n g (p. 4 9 ) , and t a l k i n g about "heavenly deepest h a p p i n e s s t h a t a man w i l l o f God s e e k i n g t h e warmth and (p. 68), the "Good P e o p l e " p r o s p e c t s of the f a i t h f u l " (p. 1 5 ) . He l o n g s t o be a p a r t of the m i s s i o n a r y i s a miraculous i s j o y i n p r a y e r and but "God was l i k e a brother, f i r e , and as unapproachable as f i r e must Even though A a r o n c o n s i d e r s Samuel W i l l i a m Pond's words u n r e a l and m e s m e r i z i n g , they a r e moving: "The t r u e r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e i s , f i r s t , anrv^unmistakable p e r c e p t i o n of God, through the r e a s o n and through a l l the senses. . . .Then, second, i t i s a wondering r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t God i s so much g r e a t e r than a n y t h i n g e l s e t h a t we know or can know — b r i g h t e r than l i g h t , v a s t e r than the u n i v e r s e y e t smalfcrthan t h e bee, and more t e n d e r than a l l human l o v e t o g e t h e r s i n c e time was; and t h i r d , i t i s a s u r r e n d e r t o God so complete t h a t you s i m p l y can not remember what i t was l i k e t o have been o u t s i d e the r a p t u r e of i t s m a j e s t i c power" (p. 343). -68- A a r o n f e e l s awed and a f r a i d under t h e s p e l l o f Samuel W i l l i a m Pond's a d d r e s s , b u t he t h i n k s : i f t h e y ' r e p o e t i c and n o b l e , a r e s t i l l "These words of h i s , even o n l y words. . . . I'm g o i n g t o keep Selene from b e i n g mesmerized" ( p . 3 4 3 ) . L i k e H u l d a h , he b e l i e v e s , "The Ponds a r e w o n d e r f u l l y devout, b u t . . . t h e y ' r e wrong" (p. 3 4 3 ) . Always A a r o n r e t u r n s t o t h e problem of words and t h e exp r e s s i o n of t r u t h . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , t h e words of S i n c l a i r Lewis w i l l be a n a l y s e d t o see i f h i s s t y l e changes i n k i n d and i n t e n s i t y when d e a l i n g w i t h r e l i g i o n . -69F o o t n o t e s t o Chapter I I I •L^Edener, p. 3 0 . W a r r e n Beck, "How good i s S i n c l a i r L e w i s ? " C o l l e g e E n g l i s h . I X (January 1948), 173. 1 7 6 1 7 7 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 130. 1 7 8 Mencken, Prejudices: 1 7 9 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 381. 1 8 0 G . H . L e w i s , p. 256. 1 8 1 G r e b s t e i n , p. 87. 1 8 2 I b i d . , p. 100. 1 8 3 T h e Job, p. 130. F i f t h , p. 110. C a r l Van Doren, Saturday Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , 3 (March 12, 1927), 639. 1 8 4 L i t t r e l l , New R e p u b l i c , 50 (March 16, 1927), 108. 1 8 5 1 8 6 L i p p m a n n , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 93. 1 8 7 M a t t h e w v i . 24. 1 8 8 W h i p p l e , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 74. 1 8 9 G r e b s t e i n , p. 102. 190 s c h o r e r , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s and t h e Method o f H a l f T r u t h s " ( 1 9 5 6 ) , E s s a y s , p. 52. M a r k S c h o r e r , " H a l f - T r u t h s , " E s s a y s , p. 54. 1 9 1 1 9 2 d e n e r , p. 129. E 1 9 3 G r i f f i n , p. 39. 1 9 5 G r i f f i n , Nobel Winners, p. 42. 196 LyH;U.S.,..p.q228. 1 9 7 G e o f f r e y Moore, " L o s t Romantic," E s s a y s , p. 159. l J o s e p h Wood K r u t c h , "Mr. B a b b i t t ' s S p i r i t u a l Guide" 9 8 (1927) E s s a y s , p. 36. D a n i e l A a r o n , " S i n c l a i r L e w i s : M a i n S t r e e t , " The American N o v e l , ed. W a l l a c e Stegner (New York: B a s i c Books, 1965), p. 637. 1 9 9 -70- 2 0 0 Littrell, p. 108. A a r o n , p. o J 7 . R.W. H o r t o n and W.H. Edwards, Backgrounds o f American L i t e r a r y Thought (New York; A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1952), p. 41. 202 2 0 3 I b i d . , p. 43. 2 0 4 G o d Seeker, p. 299. 2 0 5 I b i d . , p. 148. 2 0 6 I b i d . , p. 262. C h a r l e s F e i d e l s o n , Symbolism and American L i t e r a t u r e (Chicago: C h i c a g o U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1953), p. 80. 2 G 7 2 0 8 G o d Seeker, p. 391. 2 0 9 F e i d e l s o n , p. 97. T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n , The W r i t i n g s o f Thomas J e f f e r s o n T a y l o r and Maury, 1854), V o l . 7, p. 210. 210 (Washington: S i n c l a i r L e w i s , The Man Who Knew C o o l i d g e (New York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1928), p. 253. 2 1 1 2 -*- Horton and Edwards, p. 48. 2 2 1 3 G r e b s t e i n , Preface. 2 1 4 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 267. CHAPTER IV L e w i s ' s s t y l e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of h i s r e l i g i o u s as W i l f r i e d Edener demonstrates von S i n c l a i r L e w i s . criticism, i n D i e R e l i g i o n s k r i t i k i n den Romanen L e w i s ' s aim i s t o make the r e a d e r share h i s f e e l i n g s and p o i n t of v i e w , and sometimes h i s w r i t i n g becomes crude propaganda. There i s a " c o a r s e n i n g of s t y l e " i n Elmer G a n t r y , most b r a y i n g , g u f f a w i n g , b e l c h i n g n o v e l " i n American "The literature. L e w i s s e l e c t s and p u b l i c i z e s A m e r i c a n f a u l t s , but h i s v a l u e s except f o r the most b a s i c ones i n v o l v i n g h o n e s t y , i n t e g r i t y , j u s t i c e , and k i n d ness a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t and h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s not p r o f o u n d . The key t o L e w i s ' s s t y l e i s d i c t i o n , e x p e c i a l l y the p i v o t a l a d j e c t i v e ("pop-eyed m a i d e n s " - ^ ) , 2 t h e adverb, and t h e v e r b : Wrenn's mustache i s " u n s u c c e s s f u l . " He approaches a t h e a t e r " p r i m l y . " H i s l a n d l a d y e a t s enormous heaps of food " s l o w l y and r e s e n t f u l l y . " H i s room i s " a b j e c t l y r e s p e c t a b l e . " He p l a n s " c o y l y i m p r o b a b l e t r i p s . " Wrenn " t r o t s " t o t h e t h e a t e r , " p e e r s " a t the t i c k e t - t a k e r , and " t r e m b l e s " i n t o t h e doorway.217 Lewis d e s c r i b e s C h r i s t i a n s w i t h a tone of amused superiority: a churchgoer i s p r e s e n t e d as "a b l e a c h e d man, g o a t i s h w h i s k e r s and a s a n c t i m o n i o u s w h i t e n e c k - c l o t h , who puritanically, ethically, Roomily, with was r e l i g i o u s l y a t h e i s t i c . " 2 1 8 j ^ e con- s c i e n c e of Gopher P r a i r i e , Mrs. Bogart,'was not the a c i d type of Good Influence. She was the s o f t , damp, f a t , s i g h i n g , i n d i g e s t i v e , m e l a n c h o l y , d e p r e s s i n g l y h o p e f u l kind."219 clinging, i h e clergyman i n B a b b i t t , Dr. Drew, "had a l r e a d y f l o p p e d down b e s i d e h i s d e s k - c h a i r .... B a b b i t t a l s o k n e l t , w h i l e Drew g l o a t e d . " ^ 2 2 Sometimes Lewis uses word-play: " I am E p i s c o p a l i a n -2 2*1 n o t so much H i g h Church as h i g h l y i n f r e q u e n t c h u r c h . " + Some- times t h e s y n t a x of h i s sentences i s marked by i n c o n g r u i t y : "He kept stammering t h e most absurd p l a t i t u d e s about how happy h i s mother must be i n heaven r e g a r d i n g which he d i d n o t seem t o have 929' v e r y r e c e n t or v e r y d e f i n i t e knowledge." p r e a c h e r s use meaningless ~ L e w i s ' s gas-bag phrases i n t h e i r sermons: " I hope t h a t i n t h e d e v o t i o n t o the i d e a l s of t h e B a p t i s t Church we s h a l l strive 223 ever onward and upward. . . ." and T h e i r c o n g r e g a t i o n s mix s l a n g doctrine: P r i c e s i s a l l g o i n g up so, Ah d e c l a r e , Ah was j u s t s a y i n g t o Lee Theresa Ah dunno what we're a l l g o i n g t o do i f the dear L o r d don't l o o k out f o r u s . 2 2 4 C h a r a c t e r s made f u n of by Lewis a r e g i v e n p e c u l i a r names (Mudge, Smeeth, Z i t t e r e l , P i c k e r b a u g h , Speezer) and odd mannerisms i n the t r a d i t i o n of D i c k e n s . g r a n d c h i l d r e n of the Americans speech ( L e w i s ' s people a r e the 225 i n Martin Chuzzlewit. ) Mrs. Mudge's v o i c e " f l o w e d on r e l e n t l e s s l y , w i t h o u t one comma, t i l l B a b b i t t was h y p n o t i z e d . ollllllways Her f a v o r i t e word was 226 . . ." 'always', which she pronounced C h a r a c t e r s a r e put i n e x t e r n a l s e t t i n g s which accentuate Lewis's a t t i t u d e s . The B a p t i s t church where t h e Reverend Mr. Z i t t e r e l d e l i v e r s "a p r a y e r i n f o r m i n g A l m i g h t y God o f t h e news of the p a s t week" i s " h a l f b a r n and h a l f Golpher P r a i r i e parlor. The s t r e a k y brown w a l l p a p e r was broken i n i t s d i s m a l sweep o n l y by framed texts." 2 2 7 •73C o l o u r s g i v e tone t o r e l i g i o u s s e t t i n g s : "the w a l l s were p a i n t e d c h e e r i l y i n t h r e e s t r a t a -- green, watery b l u e , and 228! khaki;'-' Elmer G a n t r y s c i t y church i s "a hideous gray-stone h u l k w i t h g r a v y - c o l o r e d windows . . . and a l t e r n a t e l a y e r s o f t i l e s 229 i n d i s t r e s s i n g r e d and green." The e v a n g e l i c a l temple i s f l a m - boyant -- "an immense s t r u c t u r e , b u i l t o f cheap k n o t t y p i n e , painted a h e c t i c red with gold s t r i p e s . " Sharon c h r i s t e n e d i t "The Waters of J o r d a n T a b e r n a c l e , " added more and redder p a i n t , more g o l d e n g o l d , and e r e c t e d an enormous r e v o l v i n g c r o s s , l i g h t e d a t n i g h t w i t h y e l l o w and ruby e l e c t r i c bulbs.230 Another b a s i c technique i s L e w i s ' s employment o f f i g u r a t i v e language, i n c l u d i n g a wide range o f types and v a r i e t i e s : metaphor, p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n , s i m i l e , metonyme, synecdoche, zeugma, and o t h e r s . "With one o f h i s damp hands Smeeth i m p r i s o n e d paw w h i l e he c h a n t e d . " 231 • Babbitt's large A r r o w s m i t h was r e c e i v e d "by the p a s t o r and a committee o f t h r e e , w e a r i n g morning c l o t h e s and a manner 232 of C h r i s t i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y . " 233 " L i k e a l l ardent agnostics, M a r t i n was a r e l i g i o u s man." L e w i s ' s use of language p r e d e t e r m i n e s t h e r e a d e r ' s r e a c t i o n t o c h a r a c t e r s and s i t u a t i o n s . We a r e f o r c e d t o share L e w i s ' s f e e l i n g , tone, and i n t e n t i o n ; and i t i s almost i m p o s s i b l e t o escape from 234> the f i c t i o n a l w o r l d of t h e n o v e l t o make s e p a r a t e c r i t i c a l judgements. I n r e a d i n g , we f i n d no enigmas, no m y s t e r i e s , no c o m p l e x i t y of personality. We do n o t n o t i c e a m b i v a l e n c e , b u t we a r e swept a l o n g on t h e f l o o d o f r h e t o r i c , L e w i s ' s r e f u g e from i n t e l l e c t u a l a n a l y s i s : " L e w i s ' s prime r u l e f o r t h e h a n d l i n g of i d e a s : be b r i s k w i t h them and count on t h e f l o w o f words t o sweep t h e r e a d e r r i g h t p a s t 235 implications." their -74- L e w i s ' s books a r e amusing p i c t u r e s o f d u l l n e s s . He i s most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c as a f i n e f o l k s y commentator p o i n t i n g out examples o f American smugness, p r o v i n c i a l i s m , i g n o r a n c e , b i g o t r y , and h y p o c r i s y . ^ H i s s a t i r e i s broad, v u l g a r , good-natured, and 2 3 exaggerated -- what James Branch C a b e l l c a l l e d "a minim o f r e a l i t y 237' exaggerated i n t o B r o b d i n g n a g i a n i n c r e d i b i l i t y . " In .fact, " h i s Mid-West humor gave him a d e l i g h t i n p o r t r a y i n g extreme, 238 overdrawn, e x c e s s i v e , g r o t e s q u e l y absurd events and c h a r a c t e r s . " H i s works a r e l i k e movies, or a d v e r t i s e m e n t s , c r u d e l y c o l o u r e d and obvious enough f o r any f o u r t e e n y e a r o l d t o under23 9 s t a n d , •-: and t h e cases f o r and a g a i n s t a r e s t a t e d , proved, documented, and hammered home. Lewis i s "outrageously, p e r s i s t e n t l y , b r a i n ,240. s p l i t t i n g l y noisy." . H i s l o o s e l y e p i s o d i c c h r o n i c l e s have no s u s t a i n e d p r e s s u r e of p l o t , no p r i m a r y c o n f l i c t , t o a c h i e v e a complex d e f i n i t i o n of v a l u e . awareness, C h a r a c t e r s a r e n o t f o r c e d i n t o new s e l f - and t h e r e a r e no."dynamics of s o c i a l a c t i o n . " ' His t y p i c a l approach ( l e a r n e d from H.G. W e l l s ) was t o choose an 242 i n s t i t u t i o n , or c l a s s o f p e o p l e , d e c i d e t h e p o i n t of v i e w , then w i t h t i r e l e s s c u r i o s i t y and energy, t h e " c o n s c i e n t i o u s thoroughness 243 of Z o l a , " t o c o l l e c t masses of d a t a . The g a t h e r i n g t o g e t h e r of f a c t s , n o t a t i o n s , and s o r d i d d e t a i l s i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of N a t u r a l i s t i c writing. N a t u r a l i s m i s based on t h e t h e o r y of " s c i e n t i f i c d e t e r m i n i s m , " 4 4 which s t a t e s t h a t man i s t h e p r o d u c t of b i o l o g i c a l , s o c i a l , and economic f o r c e s over which he has no c o n t r o l . w i t h o u t autonomy or moral r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . He i s a puppet, N a t u r a l i s m makes man an a n i m a l w i t h o u t c h o i c e and w i t h o u t s i n . Romanticism on t h e o t h e r hand, makes man " i n f i n i t e l y good, i n f i n i t e l y p e r f e c t i b l e , and p o t e n t i a l l y , -75when not a c t u a l l y , God." 245 L e w i s d i d not r e a l l y b e l i e v e i n the e n v i r o n m e n t a l u n d e r l y i n g N a t u r a l i s m but r a t h e r i n the triumph of the spirit. individual H i s c h a r a c t e r s tower above t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s : d e s p i t e h e r f o o l i s h n e s s and Carol, i m p r a c t i c a l i t y , i s e n t i t l e d to r e s p e c t ; Arrowsmith i s genuinely h e r o i c , accomplishing a g a i n s t enormous odds; Dodsworth a c h i e v e s our great things s p i r i t u a l independence over the American v i c e of k e e p i n g up w i t h the Joneses. L e w i s was theory I t would seem t h a t a N a t u r a l i s t i c w r i t e r o n l y i n h i s c o l l e c t i n g of d a t a . From out of h i s mass of i n f o r m a t i o n , he prepared an o r d e r l y s t r u c t u r e f o r each n o v e l , w i t h p r e c i s e and c o p i o u s out- l i n e s of c h a r a c t e r s , p r o f e s s i o n s , and characters, places. His whether r e b e l s or c o n f o r m i s t s , cannot escape from t h e i r environment; they are f i x e d i n the t r a d i t i o n s , h i s t o r y , and v a l u e s Western A m e r i c a . Middle T h e i r c r e a t o r i s more i n t e r e s t e d i n outward than i n i n n e r l i f e , and behavior they are shells, s e l f - s a t i s f i e d , i n t o l e r a n t , b e l i e v i n g i n the s t a n d a r d s of the h e r d . "bread of l i f e ; " of they a r e the " g a l v a n i z e d They cannot f i n d dead." * 24 the 5 "With h i s t y p i c a l i n c o n s i s t e n c y , L e w i s sometimes h i d e s t h e monstrousness of h i s f i g u r e s and p o r t r a y s them as l i k e a b l e human b e i n g s . " and The 2 4 7 c h a r a c t e r s s h i f t i n s i z e , sometimes l a r g e f r i g h t e n i n g , sometimes s m a l l and i s t i c s are stressed. silly, as d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r - W i l l K e n n i c o t t can be s e n s i t i v e and considerate, i. or he can be v u l g a r and b i g o t e d . S q u i r e Harge i s n o b l e a t r e v i v a l m e e t i n g , crude i n h i s home, and p a t h e t i c i n h i s the prayers. To p o i n t h i s i n d e c i s i v e moral v i e w s , L e w i s m a n i p u l a t e s h i s c h a r a c t e r s , making them change oddly: "old C a r o l f e l t "young and d i s s i p a t e d " then and r u s t i c and p l a i n . " 2 4 8 L e w i s ' s c o n f l i c t s of a l l e g i a n c e con- -76- t r i b u t e t o the a m b i v a l e n t q u a l i t y of h i s n o v e l s . However, i n w r i t i n g Elmer G a n t r y , L e w i s ' s h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e to r e l i g i o n made h i s work c r u d e l y o n e - s i d e d . I n p r e p a r i n g h i s book on r e l i g i o n , Lewis took p a i n s t o g a t h e r a huge mass of d a t a , an 24 9 " a m a z i n g l y complete account o f t h e shades o f r e l i g i o u s c o n t r o v e r s y . " He r e a d over 90 books and h i s t o r i e s ; he s t u d i e d the p e r i o d i c a l s r e a d by M e t h o d i s t and B a p t i s t p r e a c h e r s , he c o l l e c t e d newspaper r e p o r t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y items about e r r a n t clergymen and religious fanatics). He went t o Kansas C i t y s e e k i n g clergymen as they r e a l l y are, cross-examined 2 5 0 and Birkhead. the " c y c l o p o e d i a of data,"251 Rev. Dr. He s t u d i e d every a s p e c t of r e l i g i o u s l i f e i n Kansas C i t y , even p o s i n g as a B i b l e salesman t o i n t e r v i e w r u r a l c l e r g y . He h e l d a weekly Sunday S c h o o l C l a s s of M i n i s t e r s , t o whom he 252 boasted: " I know more about r e l i g i o n than y o u ' l l ever know." However, L e w i s ' s e n e r g e t i c s e a r c h f o r knowledge was on i m p a t i e n c e and h o s t i l i t y . his based Reading o n l y s u p p l i e d d e t a i l s f o r o l d grudge, as he d i s h o n e s t l y s e l e c t e d m a t e r i a l s t o prove t h a t much of American c h u r c h l i f e i s c o r r u p t . Writing to h i s publishers about t h e need t o a t t e n d Kansas C i t y churches r e g u l a r l y , he s t a t e d : "Gawd how I dread i t . " 2 5 3 p r o m o u o n e - s i d e d d e t a i l s -- h a l f - t r u t h s . to m a t t e r s of t r u t h and d i g n i t y . p r e j u d i c e and t; Q f t h e mass of d a t a he selected He p r e f e r r e d damning d e t a i l s The work i s marked by irrational propaganda. You always answer opponents by r e p r e s e n t i n g them as h a v i n g o b v i o u s l y absurd n o t i o n s which they do not p o s s e s s , t h e n w i t h tremendous v i g o r showing t h a t t h e s e n o n - e x i s t e n t t r a i t s a r e o b v i o u s l y a b s u r d , and i g n o r i n g any e x p l a n a t i o n . 2 5 4 Dr. K e n n i c o t t warned Lewis not t o " k i d me i n t o s a y i n g t h e t h i n g s you've a l r e a d y made up your mind you're g o i n g t o make me s a y . " Lewis i s u n f a i r i n d e s c r i b i n g preachers. are H i s clergymen merely c h a r a c t e r i z e d by human f a i l i n g s , and he makes an a r b i t r a r y c o n n e c t i o n between t h e i r f a u l t s and t h e i r b e l i e f s , j u s t t o support his antagonistic c l a i m s . ^ 2 5 them as v i l l a i n s . He h a t e s f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s and d e s c r i b e s U n s c r u p u l o u s l y , he s e t s out t o s t e r e o t y p e the f u n d a m e n t a l i s t , as an Elmer G a n t r y . " H i s method was h i s o l d d e v i c e o f a s s e m b l i n g d e t a i l s , but i n h i s c h o i c e o f d e t a i l s he was i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n those which were u t t e r l y damning." This i s t h e method o f t h e p r o p a g a n d i s t , b u t i t i s w i t h o u t t r u t h o r dignity: "A n o v e l i s t who p r e t e n d s t o be w r i t i n g i n b e h a l f o f a c i v i l i z e d l i f e ought n o t h i m s e l f t o behave l i k e a b a r b a r i a n . " 2 5 7 A n o v e l i s t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y have t o be o b j e c t i v e , but i n Elmer G a n t r y L e w i s over-employs h i s method, e x a g g e r a t i n g i n o r d e r satirize. He i s not aware o f t h e deeper problems man. He cannot f i n d s p i r i t u a l i n s i g h t , o r express h i s own s p i r i t ; he cannot, f o r example, share A r r o w s m i t h ' s of o f a mature f a i t h i n the r e l i g i o n s c i e n c e . L e w i s knows t h e e x t e r n a l d e t a i l s o f r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s , b u t has no t r u e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e reL i g i o u s needs and f e e l i n g s which make men w o r s h i p ; y e t a s u c c e s s f u l satirist must have a t l e a s t a good sense o f t h e q u a l i t y whose l a c k he mocks i n others: " t h e g e n e r a l a i m and end o f s a t i r e i s t o show t h e i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y between t h e t r a d i t i o n a l moral s t a n d a r d s and t h e a c t u a l ways o f l i v i n g . " 2 5 8 requirements of a s a t i r i s t : I n three r e s p e c t s , Lewis f u l f i l s the f i r s t , t h e s a t i r i s t s t r i p s the o b j e c t s a t i r i z e d o f the . f i l m of f a m i l i a r i t y which n o r m a l l y r e c o n c i l e s us -78t o i t , and makes us see i t as i t r e a l l y i s . S i n c l a i r L e w i s ' s n o v e l s make p e o p l e l o o k as i f f o r the f i r s t time a t many f a c e t s of American l i f e -- s m a l l towns, E a s t e r n s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , medicine, t r a v e l , prisons, boosting, h o t e l s , office-work, r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e , m a r r i a g e , and women's r i g h t s . Second, t h e s a t i r i s t must miss the t r u t h which most people a c c e p t , and must 259 ignore the explanation of t h e t h i n g s a t i r i z e d . S i n c l a i r Lewis describes t h e s i t u a t i o n but does not e x p l a i n how i t came t o be t h a t way. For example, he g i v e s a p i c t u r e of b u s i n e s s l i f e i n B a b b i t t , but does not a n a l y s e the economics of American c a p i t a l i s m . T h i r d , the s a t i r i s t d e c l i n e s t o u n d e r s t a n d , and be c o n s t r u c t i v e e x c e p t by i m p l i c a t i o n . S i n c l a i r L e w i s i s n o t t r y i n g t o educate, t o r e f o r m or t o e v a n g e l i z e , merely t o show what i s wrong. "True s a t i r e i m p l i e s t h e condemnation of s o c i e t y by r e f e m i c e t o an i d e a l . The s a t i r i s t i s engagedin measuring t h e 2fi0 monstrous a b e r r a t i o n from the i d e a l . " ° For S w i f t , Pope, and V o l t a i r e , t h e i d e a l was Reason and N a t u r e and the v a l u e s of P l a t o and C i c e r o . The g r e a t s a t i r i s t s b e l i e v e d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n the B e a u t i f u l Order, but were p a i n f u l l y aware, i n a c t u a l l i v i n g , fwhl&^.depravity man had made of h i m s e l f . the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n i s the equivalent S w i f t i s n o t s u r e that of Reason and N a t u r e , but he upholds the s t a n d a r d s of the Chruch of E n g l a n d . t h e Yahoo i s h a t e f u l f o r f a i l i n g of sense and of For him, man to'-.adhere t o Houyhnhnm p r i n c i p l e s order. L e w i s f a i l s as a s a t i r i s t because he does not have a c o n s i s t e n t i d e a l by which t o measure A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y . must be f i n e r , more complex than h i s s u b j e c t s , " w i t h s e n s i t i v e n e s s of l i f e . " The artist enhanced P s e u d o - s a t i r i s t s , l a c k i n g p e r s o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n and urbane judgment, oppose the a b e r r a t i o n s of other men w i t h t h e i r own c a p r i c e , and l a r g e l y out of t h e i r own f r u s t r a t i o n s o r v a n i t i e s . 2 6 2 L e w i s ' s treatment of issues i s c a p r i c i o u s . He a t t a c k s some b e l i e f s , and w r i t e s s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y o f o t h e r s , so t h a t he i s 263 d i f f i c u l t to c l a s s i f y . his A w r i t e r of f i c t i o n i s p e r m i t t e d p o i n t of v i e w f r e e l y , but a s a t i r i s t o r p u b l i c i s t t o change demonstrating what he sees as wrong o r u n r e a s o n a b l e should see l i f e more s t e a d i l y . Lewis i s capable terms; o f p r a i s i n g o r b l a m i n g o p p o s i t e views i n t h e same " F r i e n d s who heard him a r g u i n g any p o i n t which a t the moment took h i s f a n c y " observed " t h e h y p e r b o l e ing made c o n v i n c i n g , t h e s t a g g e r - g e n e r a l knowledge, t h e annoying f a c i l i t y f o r bending t h a t knowledge to h i s u s e s , , t h e i i n t o l e r a n c e ( f o r t h e moment) of any c o n t r a r y v o i c e ; and a t t h e end, so o f t e n , a d i z z y i n g r e v e r s a l of p o s i t i o n i n which he knocked out a l l h i s own arguments and l e f t h i s h e a r e r s ,,264 gasping." L e w i s ' s mind was c a p a b l e v i r t u o s i t y , b u t i t was not c a p a b l e p r o f o u n d way. o f speed and e x t r a o r d i n a r y of d e a l i n g w i t h i d e a s i n any H i s n o v e l s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by u n c e r t a i n b e l i e f s and a t t i t u d e s , though e x p r e s s e d i i n f o r t h r i g h t language. few s u b j e c t s on which he was n o t g e n e r a l l y a m b i v a l e n t One of t h e was r e l i g i o n ( a l t h o u g h some a s p e c t s of The God Seeker show a change of h e a r t ) , and i n d e a l i n g w i t h dogma, c l e r g y and C h r i s t i a n s , he wrote w i t h steady hostility. The two q u a l i t i e s .of L e w i s ' s w r i t i n g which have been examined i n t h i s study have been h i s ambivalence w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e v a l u e s embedded i n h i s w o r l d , and h i s g e n e r a l d i s l i k e of r e l i g i o n . Both t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s stem from a l a c k o f p r o f u n d i t y i n L e w i s ' s thought and f e e l i n g . He had a v a s t knowledge of A m e r i c a n l i f e , and -80- his q u i c k i n t e l l i g e n c e f l a s h e d upon many i n s t i t u t i o n s and b e l i e f s t y p e s , but t h e r e was way it is. no deep u n d e r s t a n d i n g I n the same way, o f r e l i g i o u s l i f e , and and 6f what makes A m e r i c a the he knew a l o t about the e x t e r n a l s though he d i s l i k e d w h a t he saw, t o comprehend the deeper m y s t e r i e s of r e l i g i o u s he was not able experience. 9 AS L e w i s ' s t h i n k i n g was l i t t l e i n the c o u r s e . s h a l l o w and u n o r i g i n a l , of a madly a c t i v e l i f e . He was he learned "the E t e r n a l 266 Amateur of n a t i o n a l l e t t e r s , " i n t e l l e c t u a l vacuum.. Even h i s own d i s p l a y i n g w i t and v i t a l i t y i n an c h a r a c t e r , Dr. W i l l Kennicott, r e p r o a c h e d him w i t h -- " I f o n l y you d i d some r e a l h a r d t h i n k i n g , " ^ 2 9 e c h o i n g Rebecca West: I£ he would s i t s t i l l so t h a t l i f e c o u l d make any deep i m p r e s s i o n on him, i f he would a t t a c h h i m s e l f t o the human t r a d i t i o n by o c c a s i o n a l l y r e a d i n g a book which would s e t him a standard of p r o f u n d i t y , he c o u l d g i v e h i s genius a chance. * 2 He admired Sam Dodsworth who 38 stopped b u s t l i n g — " I would 269 l i k e to v i s i t with myself, A r r o w s m i t h who important and get a c q u a i n t e d , " and Martin s a i d , l i k e Thoreau, " t h i n k i n g about l i f e i s the most p a r t of l i v i n g ; " ' - ' but he d i d not i m i t a t e them. 2 7 not " f i n d the Why, the underneath p r i n c i p l e . " 7 1 2 He He p o i n t e d out n e c e s s i t y of t a k i n g thought, but showed l i t t l e d i s p o s i t i o n t o i t himself: "The did the take p r o c e s s of t a k i n g thought seems l a r g e l y c r i t i c a l , d e s t r u c t i v e , and n e g a t i v e ; i t a l s o seems to mean the f l i p p a n t e v a s i o n of c o m p l e x i t i e s r a t h e r than t h e i r s e r i o u s d i s c u s s i o n . " i t t h a t you l a d s who is defend the church a r e so f a c e t i o u s when you r e a l l y get down t o d i s c u s s i n g the r o o t s of religion?" A n o v e l i s t should e x p l o r e the p r o f o u n d e s t of the human s p i r i t , "Why 2 7 3 possibilities but L e w i s d i d not l o o k i n s i d e h i s c h a r a c t e r s : 275 "he never r e a l l y p e n e t r a t e d t h e s o u l . " Most of h i s c h a r a c t e r s , -81- whether s a t i r i z e d or n o t , have no " i n n e r n e s s " ; i n t e l l i g e n c e , human g r a c i o u s n e s s , 27 6 they l a c k c u l t u r a l charm, d i g n i t y , and an elevated 277 sense of l i f e qualities. He -- p r o b a b l y saw because Lewis a l s o l a c k e d these the e x t e r n a l s of t h i n g s , and the l i t e r a r y t h a t he developed t o an e x t r a o r d i n a r y degree was but he d i d not c r e a t e more t h a n observed f a c t . t h e g i f t of m i m i c r y , He saw the o b j e c t , w^at q u a l i f i e d i t ; he d i d n o t understand the h i s t o r y b e h i n d s i t u t a t ' i o n , nor the f u t u r e consequences. He p a r t of the American c o n s c i e n c e , enough t o p e r c e i v e and and a t t i t u d e s . the i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the a m p l i t u d e of h i s e v a l u a t i o n , not i t s p r o f u n d i t y : aware of many d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s gift he makes people of A m e r i c a n l i f e , and still pricks but he i s not g i f t e d or s e n s i t i v e e x p l a i n the deeper causes of such s i t u a t i o n s Though he i s a b l e t o " l o d g e a p i e c e of a continent 27 9 i n our i m a g i n a t i o n , " i t i s vague, and i t s deeper s t r a t a a r e 280 281 completely uncharted. " H i s A m e r i c a s l i p p e d out of hand." not 2 7 8 -82- F o o t n o t e s t o Chapter I V 2 1 5 S c h o r e r , "Half-Truths," 2 1 6 Main 2 1 7 Grebstein, S t r e e t , p. 3. p. 42. 2 1 8 0 u r Mr. Wrenn, p. 110. 2 1 9 M a i n S t r e e t , p. 69. 2 2 0 Babbitt, p. 394. 2 2 1 Trail 2 2 2 T h e Job, p. 103. 2 2 3 Trail 224p 2 2 5 u r M of t h e Hawk, p. 290. r of t h e Hawk, p. 116. Wrenn, p. 151. > Grebstein, p. 33. 2 2 6 B a b b i t t , p. 357. 2 2 7 Main 2 2 8 E l m e r G a n t r y , p. 4 3 . S t r e e t , p. 329. I b i d . , p. 321. 2 2 9 2 E s s a y s , p. 57. 30 I b id., p. 225. 2 3 I Babbitt, p. 379. 2 3 2 A r r o w s m i t h , p. 214. I b i d . , p. 177. 2 3 3 2 3 4 Edener, p. 15. 2 3 5 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 107. A l f r e d K a z i n , "The New R e a l i s m : L e w i s " (19421. E s s a y s , p. 123. 2 3 6 Sinclair 237 D o o i y e } A r t , p. x i . 2 3 8 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 289. 2 3 9 W h i p p l e , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 8 1 . • 240 D o o l e y j Art 3 p . 72. Sherwood Anderson and -832 4 1 S c h o r e r , " H a l f - T r u t h s " , E s s a y s , p. 58. 2 4 2 M o o r e , " L o s t Romantic", 161. E s s a y s , p. L o v e t t , " I n t e r p r e t e r " , E s s a y s , p. 33. 2 4 4 (Baton Rouge: R a n d a l l S t e w a r t , American L i t e r a t u r e and C h r i s t i a n D o c t r i n e L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958), p. 107. Ibid,, 2 4 5 p. 124. 2 4 6 Whipple, "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 2 4 7 D o o l e y , A r t , p. 69. 2 4 8 M a i n S t r e e t , p. 431. 2 4 9 L e w i s , L e t t e r s , p. 2 5 0 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 230. 440. L e w i s , L e t t e r s , p. 2 5 2 74. 202. S c h o r e r , L i f e , p.762. 253 L e w i s , L e t t e r s , p. 2 5 4 204. M a n from M a i n S t r e e t , p. 319. 255 Ibid., p. 315. E d e n e r , p. 217. L i p p m a n h , "S.L.", E s s a y s , p. 93. B a s i l W i l l e y , The E i g h t e e n t h Century Background C h a t t o and Windus, 1940), p. 100. 2 5 6 2 5 7 2 5 8 2 5 9 Ibid., p . (London: 104. J . M i d d l e t o n M u r r y , The P r o b l e m of S t y l e . (London: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1936), p. 65. 2 6 0 2 6 1 R e b e c c a West, " S i n c l a i r L e w i s I n t r o d u c e s Elmer (1927), E s s a y s , p. 44. 2 6 2 B e c k , C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , x i (January 1948), 2 6 3 S c h o r e r , L i f e , p. 2 f ) 4 H a r r y E. Maule, Man 180. 415. From M a i n S t r e e t , p. 301. Oxford Gantry" -842 65 G r e b s t e i n , p. 154. 2 6 6 2 6 7 Maxwell Geismar, "The Land o f F a e r y " (1947), E s s a y s , p. 136. M a n from M a i n S t r e e t , p. 316. 2 68 West, " I n t r o d u c e s Elmer G a n t r y , " E s s a y s , p. 45. 269 Dodsworth, p. 168. A r r o w s m i t h , p. 37. 2 7 1 I b i d . , p. 54. 272 Dooley, A r t , p. 251. 273 Elmer G a n t r y , p. 375. 2 M o o r e , " L o s t Romantic," 74 E s s a y s , p. 151. 275 Dorothy Thompson, quoted by Sheean, p. 352. 276 Moore, " L o s t Romantic," E s s a y s , p. 161. 277 Beck, C o l l e g e E n g l i s h , p. 173. K r u t c h , "S.L." E s s a y s , p. 150. E . M . F o r s t e r , "Our Photography: S i n c l a i r Lewis" E s s a y s , p. 95. 280 B e c k e r , American S c h o l a r , . p . 425. 281 Dodsworth, p. 170. 2 7 8 2 7 9 (1929), SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY WORKS BY SINCLAIR LEWIS Novels Our Mr. Wrenn. New York: The T r a i l o f t h e Hawk. The Job. New York: The I n n o c e n t s . Free A i r . Babbitt. New Y o r k : New Y o r k : H a r p e r , 1917. H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1920. H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1922. New Y o r k : New York: Elmer G a n t r y . H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1925. H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1926. New York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1927. The Man Who Knew C o o l i d g e . Dodsworth. H a r p e r , 1915. H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1919. New Y o r k : Arrowsmith. Mantrap. New Y o r k : H a r p e r , 1917. New Y o r k : Main S t r e e t . H a r p e r , 1914. New York: New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1928. H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1929. Ann V i c k e r s . Garden C i t y : Doubleday, Doran, 1933. Work of A r t . Garden C i t y : Doubleday, Doran, 1934. I t Can't Happen Here. Carden C i t y : Doubleday, Doran, 1935. The P r o d i g a l P a r e n t s . Garden C i t y : Doubleday, Doran, 1938. Bethel Merriday. Gideon P l a n i s h . Garden C i t y : New Y o r k : Cass T i m b e r l a n e . The God-Seeker. World So Wide. Random House, 1943. New York: Kingsblood Royal. Random House, 1945. New Y o r k : New Y o r k : New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1940. Random House, 1947. Random House, 1949. Random House, 1951. -86Selections Selected Short S t o r i e s . Garden C i t y : Doubleday, Doran, 1935. From M a i n S t r e e t t o Stockholm: L e t t e r s of S i n c l a i r L e w i s , 1919-1930. S e l e c t e d and w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n by H a r r i s o n Smith. New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , 1952. The Man from M a i n S t r e e t : S e l e c t e d Essays and Other W r i t i n g s , 19041950. E d i t e d by H a r r y E. Maule and M e l v i l l e H. Cane. New Y o r k : Random House, 1953. I'm a S t r a n g e r Here M y s e l f and Other S t o r i e s . • S e l e c t e d , w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n , by Mark S c h o r e r . D e l l L a u r e l e d i t i o n s . New Y o r k : D e l l , 1962. . WRITINGS ABOUT SINCLAIR LEWIS More complete b i b l i o g r a p h i e s a r e t o be found i n Mark S c h o r e r , S i n c l a i r L e w i s ; D.J. Dooley, The A r t of S i n c l a i r L e w i s ; Sheldon G r e b s t e i n , S i n c l a i r L e w i s ; W i l f r i e d Edener, R e l i g i o n s k r i t i k . A l l r e f e r e n c e s t o Essays a r e found i n S i n c l a i r L e w i s : A C o l l e c t i o n of C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , ed. Mark Schorer... Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1962. S i n c l a i r L e w i s i s a b b r e v i a t e d t o S.L. BOOKS A a r o n , D a n i e l . "S.L.: M a i n S t r e e t " , The American N o v e l , e d . W a l l a c e S t e g n e r . New York: B a s i c Books, 1965. A l l e n , W a l t e r . The Modern N o v e l i n B r i t a i n and t h e U^S. Y o r k : D u t t o n , 1964. New Anderson, C a r o l . The Swedish A c c e p t a n c e of American L i t e r a t u r e . Stockholm: A l m q u i s t and W i k s e l l , 1957. Angoff, Charles. The Tone o f t h e T w e n t i e s . New Y o r k : Beach, Joseph Warren. The T w e n t i e t h Century N o v e l . A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1932. C a b e l l , James B r a n c h . G o b l i n s i n Winnemac. Barnes, 1966. New Y o r k : New Y o r k : M c B r i d e , 1930. D a v i e s , H o r t o n . A M i r r o r o f the M i n i s t r y i n Modern N o v e l s . O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959. D e r l e t h , August. 1963. Three L i t e r a r y Men. New Y o r k : New Y o r k : Candlelight Press, -87- Dooley, D.J. The A r t of S^L. P r e s s , 1967. Lincoln: U n i v e r s i t y of Nebraska Edener, W i l f r i e d . D i e R e l i g i o n s k r i t i k i n den Romanen Von S.L. B e i h e f t e zum Jahrbuch f u r A m e r i k a s t u d i e n , No. 10. H e i d e l b e r g : C a r l W i n t e r , 1963. Fadiman, C l i f t o n . P a r t y of One. New Y o r k : World, 1955. F e i d e l s o n , C h a r l e s . Symbolism and American L i t e r a t u r e . C h i c a g o U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1953. G r e b s t e i n , Sheldon Norman. S.L. New Y o r k : Chicago: Twayne, 1962. G r i f f i n , Robert J . "S.L.," American Winners of t h e N o b e l L i t e r a r y P r i z e , eds. W.G. F r e n c h and W.E. K i d d . Norman: U n i v e r s i t y of Oklahoma P r e s s , 1968. Hoffman, F r e d e r i c k J . The T w e n t i e s . New Y o r k : V i k i n g , 1955. H o l l i s , C. C a r r o l l . "S.L. r e v i v e r of c h a r a c t e r , " F i f t y y e a r s of the American N o v e l : A C h r i s t i a n A p p r a i s a l , ed. H a r o l d C. G a r d i n e r , S.J. New Y o r k : S c r i b n e r s , 1952. H o r t o n , R.W. and H.W. Edwards. Backgrounds o f American L i t e r a r y Thought. New Y o r k : A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1952. Kramer, M a u r i c e . "S.L. and the H o l l o w C e n t e r , " The Twenties P o e t r y and P r o s e : 20 C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , eds. R.E. L a n g f o r d , W.E. T a y l o r . De Land: E v e r e t t Edwards P r e s s , 1963. L e w i s , Grace Hegger. B r a c e , 1951. Mencken, H.L. 1925. . W i t h Love from G r a c i e . Prejudices; Prejudices: Fourth Series. F i f t h Series. . A Book of P r e f a c e s . 1927. New Y o r k : London: New Y o r k ; New Y o r k : M i l l g a t e , M i c h a e l . American S o c i a l F i c t i o n : E d i n b u r g h : O l i v e r and Boyd, 1964. Jonathan Cape, Knopf, Garden C i t y The Problem of S t y l e . 1926. Publishing, from James t o Cozzens. M i z e n e r , A r t h u r . The Sense of L i f e i n the Modern N o v e l . Houghton M i f f l i n , 1964. Murry, J . M i d d l e t o n . P r e s s , 1936. Harcourt, London: Boston: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y R o s e n t h a l , T.G. A m e r i c a n F i c t i o n , N a t i o n a l Book League Reader's G u i d e . Cambridge, Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1961. -88S c h o r e r , Mark. S.L. U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a Pamphlets on American W r i t e r s , No. 27. M i n n e a p o l i s : U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a P r e s s , 1963. . S.L.: An American L i f e . New Y o r k ; M c G r a w - H i l l , 1961. . "The Burdens of B i o g r a p h y . " To the Young W r i t e r , ed. A.L. Bader. Ann A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n P r e s s , 1965. Sheean, V i n c e n t . 1963. Dorothy and Red. New Y o r k : Houghton M i f f l i n , S p i l l e r , Robert E. et a l . The L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . New Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n , 1953. S t e w a r t , R a n d a l l . American L i t e r a t u r e a n d C h r i s t i a n D o c t r i n e . Rouge: L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958. Van Doren, C a r o l . The American N o v e l 1789-1939. M a c m i l l a n , 1940. Wagenknecht, Edward. H o l t , 1952. New York: C a v a l c a d e o f t h e American N o v e l . W i l l e y , B a s i l . The E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y Background. and Windus, 1940. Baton New York: London: Chatto ARTICLES A n g o f f , C h a r l e s . " R e f l e c t i o n s upon a s p e c t s ^ o f A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e . " L i t e r a r y Review, X: 1 (Autumn 1966), 5-17. A l d e r , Benne B. 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New Y o r k Times Book Review, Durham, F r a n k . "Not a c c o r d i n g t o t h e book: M a t e r i a l i s m and t h e A m e r i c a n N o v e l . " G e o r g i a Review, XX, I ( S p r i n g 1966), 90-98. Friedman, P h i l i p A l l a n . " B a b b i t t : S a t i r i c R e a l i s m i n Form a n d j C o n t e n t . " S a t i r e N e w s l e t t e r , IV (1966), 20-24. Geismar, M a x w e l l . "S.L.: 25, 1960), 29-30. F o r g o t t e n Hero." Saturday Review (June . " D i a r i s t o f the M i d d l e - C l a s s . " Saturday Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , XXX (November 1, 1947), 9-10, 42-45. Genthe, C h a r l e s V. "The Damnation o f Theron Ware and Elmer G a n t r y . " Research S t u d i e s (Washington S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ) , XXXII (1964), 334-343. , G r e b s t e i n , Sheldon. " E d u c a t i o n of a R e b e l : S.L. a t Y a l e . " England Q u a r t e r l y , X X V I I I (September 1955), 372-382. New J o n e s , Howard Mumford. "Review o f The God Seeker." 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