A COMPARISON OF THE REVERSAL SHIFT TASK WITH TWO PIAGETIAN TASKS by JEAN BAIRD LAKE B. A., U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1949 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department o f E d u c a t i o n ) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA O c t o b e r , 1978 (d) Jean B a i r d Lake, 1978 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Jean B a i r d Lake Department of E d u c a t i o n The University of B r i t i s h Columbia 2075 Wesbrook P l a c e Vancouver, Canada V 6 T 1W5 Date October 10,.. 1978 ABSTRACT A study was undertaken t o compare the performance o f k i n d e r g a r t e n c h i l d r e n on the o p t i o n a l r e v e r s a l s h i f t t a s k w i t h their performance on two P i a g e t i a n t a s k s , the m a t r i x and the two-way classification tasks. The comparison was suggested by the f a c t t h a t the r e v e r s a l s h i f t t a s k has been used by K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r (1962) t o p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e o f a c o g n i t i v e change o c c u r r i n g i n c h i l d r e n between 5 and 7 y e a r s of age. Piaget (1964) has a l s o suggested a major change i n " c h i l d r e n ' s t h i n k i n g i n the same age range and has used the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m a t r i x t a s k s t o illustrate this change. Three major t h e o r e t i c a l v i e w s c o n c e r n i n g were examined: the r e v e r s a l s h i f t t a s k the m e d i a t i o n a l h y p o t h e s i s o f K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r (1962), the a t t e n t i o n t h e o r y v i e w p o i n t o f Zeaman and House (1963) and the p e r c e p t u a l differentiation view o f T i g h e and T i g h e (1968). w i t h the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s were reviewed. I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t (1964), K o f s k y s t u d i e s by I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t A number o f s t u d i e s d e a l i n g These i n c l u d e d s t u d i e s by (1966) and Smedslund (1964). (1964), Overton and B r o d z i n s k y Bruner and Kenney (1966) and Odom e t a l . (1965, 1971) Matrix task (1972) , were a l s o reviewed. The P i a g e t i a n and r e v e r s a l s h i f t t a s k s were a n a l y z e d t o t h e i r common f e a t u r e s . I t was argued t h a t a l l t h r e e t a s k s r e q u i r e d the c h i l d t o r e c o g n i z e the a b s t r a c t dimensions o f s t i m u l i the d i m e n s i o n v a l u e s a p p r o p r i a t e l y . i n the t h r e e t a s k s , i t was who identify and t o be a b l e t o Because o f the s i m i l a r i t i e s i n v o l v e d suggested t h a t a c h i l d i n the t r a n s i t i o n a l stage c o u l d p e r f o r m w e l l on the P i a g e t i a n t a s k s would a l s o t e n d t o make a r e v e r s a l s h i f t on the K e n d l e r task. use I t was therefore hypothesized that f o r c h i l d r e n i n the 5- t o 7-year age range t h e r e s h o u l d be a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between performance on the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m a t r i x t a s k s and the tendency t o make a r e v e r s a l s h i f t . An experiment was p e r f o r m i n g the t h r e e t a s k s : c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k and c a r r i e d out w i t h 34 k i n d e r g a r t e n subjects the o p t i o n a l r e v e r s a l s h i f t , the two-way the m a t r i x t a s k . Results o b t a i n e d on each t a s k were s i m i l a r t o those o f p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s b u t the h y p o t h e s i z e d r e l a t i o n s h i p not u p h e l d . I t was suggested t h a t a group of s u b j e c t s was including slightly o l d e r c h i l d r e n might show t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i n a s i m i l a r e x p e r i m e n t . Other p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r the l a c k of r e l a t i o n s h i p were examined including: t a s k f o r m a t , v e r b a l f a c t o r s , i n c o n s i s t e n t performance by i n the t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d , a t t e n t i o n a l and m o t i v a t i o n a l children f a c t o r s and d i f f e r e n - t i a l transfer effects. In conclusion, i t was f e l t t h a t the s t u d y r e i n f o r c e d the view t h a t more knowledge i s needed o f the f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g tasks. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s d r a w i n g on d i f f e r e n t approaches would appear t o be h e l p f u l i n i d e n t i f y i n g these f a c t o r s . iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1 Ideas R e g a r d i n g a Developmental Change 1 1. Stage v s . nonstage t h e o r i e s 1 2. The K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r d e v e l o p m e n t a l view 2 3. P i a g e t ' s view o f c o g n i t i v e development 8 The D i s c r i m i n a t i o n S h i f t Task and C o n c e p t u a l L e a r n i n g . 9 The P i a g e t i a n C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Tasks and C o n c e p t u a l Learning CHAPTER I I 10 The R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Two Approaches 12 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 13 Theories Regarding Reversal S h i f t Behavior 14 1. The m e d i a t i o n a l h y p o t h e s i s 14 2. A t t e n t i o n theory 16 3. Perceptual d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n 17 S t u d i e s o f C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and M a t r i x Problems 1. P i a g e t i a n s t u d i e s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m a t r i x problems 2. 3. 18 18 N o n - P i a g e t i a n s t u d i e s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m a t r i x problems 21 V y g o t s k y ' s v i e w s on c l a s s i f i c a t i o n 23 A Comparison o f V i e w p o i n t s Restatement o f t h e Problem CHAPTER I I I METHODOLOGY 24 . v 26 28 V The C h o i c e o f Tasks 28 1. The m a t r i x t a s k 28 2. R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m a t r i x tasks 29 3. The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k . , 31 4. The o p t i o n a l s h i f t t a s k 32 5. R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s h i f t t a s k and t h e m a t r i x and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s Experimental 34 Procedures 35 1. Subjects 35 2. Material 35 3. Procedure 39 Hypotheses and D e s i g n 43 CHAPTER IV RESULTS 44 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION 48 Explanation of Results 48 1. Lack o f s u p p o r t f o r h y p o t h e s i s 48 2. Agreement w i t h p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s 48 3. Another p o s s i b l e approach 50 D i f f e r e n c e s between t h e K e n d l e r and P i a g e t i a n Tasks . . 50 1. Task format 50 2. V e r b a l requirements 51 P r e v i o u s S t u d i e s Which Found a Lack o f R e l a t i o n s h i p among Tasks 52 1. Smedslund 52 2. F l a v e l l and W o h l w i l l 53 vi 3. K l a h r and W a l l a c e 53 4. Kofsky 54 5. Campione and Brown 55 The V a l u e Results Exploration Individual of the Problem . . . . 56 Tasks 57 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n task 58 1. The 2. The m a t r i x 3. The Summary BIBLIOGRAPHY of of Further task reversal shift 59 task 60 60 62 vii LIST OF TABLES page Table I Recoding of d a t a f o r c h i - s q u a r e a n a l y s i s 45 Table I I The c o r r e c t e d c h i - s q u a r e s 45 Table I I I Frequency t a b l e s f o r the t h r e e t a s k s 46 viii LIST OF FIGURES page Figure 1 A s i n g l e - u n i t (a) and m e d i a t i o n a l r e v e r s a l and e x t r a d i m e n s i o n a l (b) S-R a n a l y s i s of shifts Figure 2 I l l u s t r a t i o n o f the o p t i o n a l s h i f t RS-EDS d e s i g n Figure 3 Example o f s t i m u l u s c a r d f o r the o p t i o n a l r e v e r s a l 3 3 shift task 37 Figure 4 Examples o f s i z e s and shapes used i n the m a t r i x t a s k . . . . 38 Figure 5 C a r d t y p e s used i n the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k 40 ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would l i k e t o acknowledge w i t h g r a t i t u d e t h e a s s i s t a n c e g i v e n by Dr. P a t r i c i a A r l i n i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s thesis. 1 CHAPTER I T h i s s t u d y was d e s i g n e d INTRODUCTION t o compare t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of kindergarten c h i l d r e n o n two P i a g e t i a n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s w i t h t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t t a s k o f t h e type used by K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r 1972) . T h i s comparison K e n d l e r s have proposed t h a t a major developmental fortheir change o c c u r s i n young t h e s e t a s k s among o t h e r s views. Ideas Regarding 1. (1969, was s u g g e s t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t b o t h P i a g e t a n d t h e c h i l d r e n ' s c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s and they have used to o b t a i n evidence on a a Developmental Change Stage v s . Nonstage Theories Many s t u d i e s o f c h i l d r e n ' s c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t h a v e f o c u s e d o n t h e 5- t o 7 - y e a r a g e r a n g e occur (Brown a n d B e r k o , a s a p e r i o d when f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e s seem t o 1960; K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r , 1962, 1963; Kuenne, 1946; P i a g e t and I n h e l d e r , 1969; R a z r a n , 1933; Vygotsky, p a r t i c u l a r l y P i a g e t and t h e Genevan s c h o o l , l i n k 1962). V a r i o u s n e o b e h a v i o u r i s t s , i n c l u d i n g G o l l i n and Saravo (1962) a n d W h i t e occur a t c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l (1971), K e n d l e r and changes a g e s b u t h a v e r e a c h e d no d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s (1969) a n d Zeaman a n d H o u s e cognitive processes development. (1965), have i n f e r r e d t h a t q u a l i t a t i v e about t h e n a t u r e o f these changes. Gibson theorists, these changes t o t h e i d e a o f m a t u r a t i o n and an i n v a r i a n t sequence o f s t a g e s o f m e n t a l Kendler Some I n c o n t r a s t t o these i s the p o s i t i o n o f (1963) . are o p e r a t i n g throughout T h e y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e same ontogenesis. T h e y do n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f s t a g e s o r sudden changes i n t h e c h i l d ' s mental abilities. 2 Instead t h e y see c o g n i t i v e ability to discover 2. change as a g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e new r e l a t i o n s through h i s perceptual The K e n d l e r a n d K e n d l e r D e v e l o p m e n t a l Among t h o s e who b e l i e v e cognitive some o f ability in children, the most e x t e n s i v e system. View that there i s a developmental s h i f t K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r research. child's Many o f (1962, their 1970) h a v e investigations In t h e s e t a s k s Ss a r e t r a i n e d w i t h s e t s o f i n a t l e a s t one d i m e n s i o n and a r e t h e n t e s t e d w i t h to s h i f t t h e i r responses e i t h e r dimension (reversal shift) or nonreversal or extradimensional s h i f t ) . s t i m u l i which the p r e v i o u s l y irrelevant findings early age g r o u p s Their subjects and c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . they proposed a two-stage included them (a several school To e x p l a i n their theory of developmental mediation. The s t a g e i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e s i n g l e - u n i t model and t h e l a t e r one by m e d i a t i o n a l m o d e l a s shown i n F i g u r e The The s u b j e c t example of s i n g l e - u n i t m o d e l a s shown i n F i g u r e responds e i t h e r p o s i t i v e l y single-unit than a black c o r r i d o r to reach the food reward. shift In stimulus. chooses a white ,Preverbal children choice responses. i s simply a s h i f t the case of the to white or b l a c k . An rather are There i s the s t i m u l u s values p r e c e d i n g the 1, a reversal as t h e rewarded r e s p o n s e . describes l i n k e d to the or n e g a t i v e l y a s s u m e d t o f o l l o w t h e same m o d e l i n t h e i r A s shown i n F i g u r e 1(a) r e s p o n d i n g o c c u r s when a r a t intermediate transformation of the 1. l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n where the r e s p o n s e i s d i r e c t l y white differ correct dimension infrahuman s p e c i e s , p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n as young as t h r e e y e a r s , c h i l d r e n of d i f f e r e n t shift sets that require to a second v a l u e of to a previously done have d e a l t w i t h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e a r n i n g u s i n g the r e v e r s a l - n o n r e v e r s a l procedure. in no response. from b l a c k an e x t r a d i m e n s i o n a l to shift, SINGLE UNIT MODEL REVERSAL SHIFT EXTRADIMENSIONAL SHIFT FIGURE 1 A single-unit (a) and mediational (b) S-R analysis of reversal and extradimensional shifts. TRAINING OPTIONAL SHIFT + • • •u Black Positive TEST SERIES + + ^ White and Small Positive + •• • • Test Pair (Small vs. While + ~ White and Small Positive Figure 2. Illustration of the optional shift RS-EDS design. The two settings of training are randomly alternated as are left-right positions of the stimuli. After criterion on the optional shift phase, the two settings of the test series are presented alternately with position variable. 4 the new p o s i t i v e s t i m u l u s would be a v a l u e o f a new shape. I n the example shown i t i s a " c i r c l e . " d i m e n s i o n such as In e i t h e r case, there i s a s i n g l e l i n k between the s t i m u l u s and response; t h e r e f o r e , the theory s t a t e s t h a t the r e v e r s a l and e x t r a d i m e n s i o n a l s h i f t s s h o u l d be e q u a l i n difficulty. A diagrammatic d e s c r i p t i o n o f the m e d i a t i o n a l model i s shown i n Figure Kb). I t p r e s e n t s the s i t u a t i o n where the s t i m u l u s evokes a such as " b r i g h t n e s s . " The mediated response s e r v e s i n t u r n as the f o r the c h o i c e responses o f " b l a c k " o r " w h i t e . " c o r r e c t response, remains the same. new mediator stimulus F o r a r e v e r s a l s h i f t , the " b l a c k , " w i l l be r e p l a c e d by " w h i t e " b u t the mediator I n the case o f an e x t r a d i m e n s i o n a l s h i f t , however, the c o r r e c t response would come from another d i m e n s i o n and r e q u i r e a mediator, i n t h i s case "shape." The new mediator then l e a d s t o a a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h e i t h e r " c i r c l e " o r " t r i a n g l e " as the c o r r e c t Because t h e r e i s a new l i n k i n the s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e new new response. c h a i n , i t i s assumed t h a t the e x t r a d i m e n s i o n a l s h i f t i s more d i f f i c u l t when m e d i a t i o n i s i n v o l v e d . a. The s i n g l e - u n i t and m e d i a t i o n a l models. With infrahumans and young c h i l d r e n , l e a r n i n g i s s a i d t o t a k e p l a c e i n a s i n g l e - u n i t , nonmediational fashion. that a reversal s h i f t nonreversal s h i f t (NRS) The s i n g l e - u n i t model g i v e s r i s e t o the p r e d i c t i o n (RS) w i l l be more d i f f i c u l t t o l e a r n than a ( K e n d l e r , H i r s c h b e r g , and W o l f o r d , 1971). This i s because an RS r e q u i r e s the r e p l a c e m e n t o f a response t h a t has p r e v i o u s l y been r e i n f o r c e d w i t h a response t h a t p r e v i o u s l y has been e x t i n g u i s h e d . the NRS, p r e v i o u s t r a i n i n g has r e i n f o r c e d responses t o the new and n e g a t i v e s t i m u l i e q u a l l y o f t e n . positive Only one o f these a s s o c i a t i o n s must be e x t i n g u i s h e d and t h e r e f o r e the s h i f t s h o u l d be e a s i e r . In 5 The o t h e r model i n c l u d e s a m e d i a t i o n a l l i n k between the e x t e r n a l s t i m u l u s and the i n t e r n a l r e s p o n s e . or nonverbal This l i n k i s conceived r e s p o n s e , u s u a l l y c o v e r t , t o the r e l e v a n t d i m e n s i o n w h i c h produces cues t h a t l e a d t o the o v e r t response. p r e d i c t s a more r a p i d RS than NRS the f i r s t - l e a r n e d m e d i a t i o n be more d i f f i c u l t . The m e d i a t i o n a l model because o f the common m e d i a t i o n a l d u r i n g b o t h p r e - and p o s t s h i f t t r a i n i n g . The NRS link r e q u i r e s e x t i n c t i o n of and s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a new As p r e d i c t e d , c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s e x e c u t e an RS much f a s t e r than an NRS The o f as a v e r b a l one and thus s h o u l d and o l d e r c h i l d r e n (Kendler and K e n d l e r , 1962). e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between the two models i s t h a t i n the case o f the s i n g l e - u n i t model the s u b j e c t ' s b e h a v i o u r i s a response t o s p e c i f i c a t t r i b u t e s o f the s t i m u l i w h i l e i n the m e d i a t i o n a l model t h e r e i s a c o n c e p t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o r p r o c e s s i n g o f the s t i m u l u s a t t r i b u t e s as instances of conceptual b. categories. The o p t i o n a l s h i f t t a s k . Although o f v e r y young c h i l d r e n and o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s the d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e a r n i n g seemed t o f i t q u i t e w e l l i n t o these two models, t h e r e remained the q u e s t i o n o f when and how u n i t t y p e o f l e a r n i n g becomes t r a n s f o r m e d the t o the m e d i a t i o n a l t y p e . K e n d l e r s undertook a number o f s t u d i e s aimed a t throwong l i g h t on o r i g i n s and o p e r a t i o n s o f m e d i a t i o n a l mechanisms. o p t i o n a l s h i f t was single- A new technique The the of the d e v i s e d which a l l o w e d a d i r e c t measure o f performance o f v a r i o u s age groups so t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t a l comparisons c o u l d be made. The o p t i o n a l s h i f t study i s conducted i n t h r e e phases (see F i g u r e 2). I n the example i l l u s t r a t e d , the i n i t i a l t r a i n i n g phase p r e s e n t s the • s u b j e c t s w i t h two p a i r s o f s t i m u l i which d i f f e r i n b o t h s i z e and b r i g h t n e s s . One a t t r i b u t e o f one d i m e n s i o n i s r e i n f o r c e d , i n t h i s case b l a c k . One pair 6 o f t h e o r i g i n a l s t i m u l i i s used i n t h e second phase b u t w h i t e i s now t h e correct choice. S i n c e i n t h i s phase w h i t e i s a l s o t h e s m a l l s t i m u l u s , s u b j e c t s may l e a r n t o respond on t h e b a s i s o f b r i g h t n e s s o r s i z e (a n o n r e v e r s a l shift). (a r e v e r s a l s h i f t ) The t h i r d phase t h e n i s a t e s t phase i n w h i c h t h e p a i r used i n t h e second phase i s a l t e r n a t e d w i t h a d i f f e r e n t p a i r , such as l a r g e w h i t e and s m a l l b l a c k . is reinforced. With the a d d i t i o n a l p a i r e i t h e r choice I f t h e s u b j e c t chooses t h e w h i t e s t i m u l u s on a t l e a s t 8 o u t of 10 o f t h e t e s t t r i a l s he i s c l a s s e d as a r e v e r s a l - s h i f t r e s p o n d e r . i f he chooses t h e s m a l l s t i m u l u s 8 o u t o f 10 t i m e s , he i s c o n s i d e r e d nonreversal But a responder. A l l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t procedures i n c l u d i n g the o p t i o n a l - s h i f t technique have p r o v i d e d cultural differences. i n t e r e s t i n g d a t a i n t h e a r e a o f d e v e l o p m e n t a l and Perhaps t h e i r c h i e f v a l u e i s t h a t they can be used t o study a b a s i c type o f l e a r n i n g t h a t i s found i n a n i m a l s and i n human s u b j e c t s o f a l l ages. The g e n e r a l method has been d e r i v e d from p r o c e d u r e s w i d e l y used i n a n i m a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . M e c h a n i c a l means o f d i s p l a y i n g s t i m u l i , r e g i s t e r i n g responses and p r o v i d i n g feedback e l i m i n a t e t h e need f o r v e r b a l e x p l a n a t i o n s on t h e p a r t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r o r o f v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s on t h e p a r t o f t h e s u b j e c t . T h i s f e a t u r e can e l i m i n a t e a v e r y important c o n f o u n d i n g f a c t o r i n l e a r n i n g t a s k s , namely, v e r b a l competence (Braine, 1962) . Another advantage o f t h i s type o f t a s k i s t h a t v e r y elements can be used as s t i m u l i . simple As a r e s u l t , t h e same t a s k can be used t o compare t h e l e a r n i n g o f v e r y young c h i l d r e n w i t h o l d e r c h i l d r e n and o f normal w i t h r e t a r d e d s u b j e c t s . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t t a s k i s a d a p t a b l e t o a wide v a r i e t y o f s t i m u l i such as words and p i c t u r e s 7 and t o s t i m u l i o f v a r y i n g complexity. As w i t h many t a s k s used t o study l e a r n i n g and development, i t has been found t h a t t h e r e i s more i n v o l v e d i n s h i f t t a s k s than was o r i g i n a l l y believed. A number o f f a c t o r s have been suggested as h a v i n g a b e a r i n g on d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t performance: e.g., p e r c e p t u a l p r e t r a i n i n g ( T i g h e , 1972), o v e r t r a i n i n g (Eimas, 1966), v e r b a l i z a t i o n ( K e n d l e r , 1964; Mumbauer and Odom, 1967), cue dominance ( K e n d l e r , 1974), compound v s . component learning 1976). (Tighe, 1972), h y p o t h e s i s testing (Gholson, O'Connor and S t e r n , I n g e n e r a l , t h e r e appears t o be a c o n s i d e r a b l e range o f b o t h p e r c e p t u a l and c o g n i t i v e f a c t o r s which may be o p e r a t i n g i n a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t problem and presumably more o f t h e l a t t e r w i t h o l d e r s u b j e c t s . But the more these f a c t o r s can be r e c o g n i z e d and c o n t r o l l e d , t h e more t h e v a l u e t o be found i n t h i s approach. The K e n d l e r s (1975) have reviewed many s t u d i e s w h i c h a r e i n g e n e r a l agreement w i t h t h e i r own as w e l l as some w h i c h have o b t a i n e d d i f f e r e n t patterns of results. pointed out methodological I n t h e s t u d i e s which d i s a g r e e d , they have v a r i a t i o n s w h i c h may account f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e . In many cases they have r e p l i c a t e d t h e i r c r i t i c s ' work t o c o n t r o l t h e v a r i a b l e b e l i e v e d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i s p a r i t y and have o b t a i n e d i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e i r p r e v i o u s work. impressive. results The l a r g e body o f accumulated d a t a i s I t i s strong evidence t h a t the s h i f t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n task i s a v a l i d and r e l i a b l e t o o l w i t h which t o study human l e a r n i n g . Using the o p t i o n a l - s h i f t technique, Kendler 1970) and K e n d l e r (1968, amassed c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e which showed t h a t t h e tendency t o make a r e v e r s a l s h i f t r a t h e r than an e x t r a d i m e n s i o n a l s h i f t i n c r e a s e d as a f u n c t i o n o f age, w i t h an a c c e l e r a t e d change i n t h e 5- t o 7-year age range. T h e i r view o f a d e v e l o p m e n t a l s h i f t o c c u r r i n g i n these y e a r s was supported 8 by a number o f o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s , n o t a b l y , C o l e Cole 3. (1973), T i g h e , G l i c k and (1971), and T i g h e and T i g h e (1968, 1973). P i a g e t ' s View o f C h i l d r e n ' s C o g n i t i v e Development Meanwhile, P i a g e t and h i s co-workers i n Geneva have f o r m u l a t e d a more e x t e n s i v e stage t h e o r y encompassing t h e y e a r s from i n f a n c y t o a d o l e s cence o r e a r l y a d u l t h o o d . Piaget which c o r r e s p o n d s a p p r o x i m a t e l y (1964) d e s c r i b e s a p r e o p e r a t i o n a l stage t o t h e p e r i o d between 2 and 6 y e a r s . It i s d e f i n e d c h i e f l y by t h e absence o f c e r t a i n c o g n i t i v e o p e r a t i o n s such as s e r i a t i o n , c o n s e r v a t i o n , t r a n s i t i v i t y and c l a s s i n c l u s i o n . I t i s followed by t h e c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n a l stage i n w h i c h t h e c h i l d b e g i n s to acquire competence i n these l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . Between these major s t a g e s there i s a t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d which o c c u r s g e n e r a l l y somewhere between 5 and 7 years. I n t h e e a r l i e r stage t h e c h i l d i s s a i d t o base h i s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s on p e r c e p t u a l p r o p e r t i e s . without understanding the underlying p r i n c i p l e . adequate v e r b a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i s b e h a v i o u r problem. He can p e r f o r m v a r i o u s tasks He cannot y e t g i v e an n o r can he r e c o n s t r u c t t h e I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t r e f e r t o t h i s as s e n s o r i m o t o r l e a r n i n g and say t h a t i t " i n v o l v e s t h e t r a n s f e r o f a p e r c e p t u a l c o n t r a s t on t h e b a s i s o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t by s u c c e s s " (1964, p. 1 2 3 ) . I n t h e t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d t h a t f o l l o w s t h e r e i s a q u a l i t a t i v e change i n t h e way t h e c h i l d p e r c e i v e s , o r a n i z e s and responds t o t h e p h y s i c a l events i n h i s environment. According t o P i a g e t t h i s change comes about as a r e s u l t o f a change i n t h e c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s , o r network o f concepts o f t h e child.... The c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s d e a l w i t h t h e b a s i c sensory d a t a r e c e i v e d from t h e environment t h r o u g h t h e process t h a t P i a g e t r e f e r s t o as a s s i m i l a t i o n . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s a r e b e i n g r e o r g a n i z e d t o d e a l w i t h t h e knowledge t h a t 9 i s being a s s i m i l a t e d . The o u t s t a n d i n g change t h a t appears t o occur as t h e c h i l d moves from t h e p r e o p e r a t i o n a l t o t h e c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n a l stage i s t h a t t h e can r e p r e s e n t and d e a l w i t h h i s a c t i o n s i n t e r n a l l y . handle i n v e r s e a c t i o n s o r negations l o g i c a l operations. As a r e s u l t , he i s a b l e t o and t h e r e b y a c h i e v e r e v e r s i b i l i t y i n T h i s a b i l i t y a l l o w s t h e c h i l d among o t h e r t h i n g s t o c o o r d i n a t e two dimensions a t once i n a m u l t i p l e - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n double-entry matrix task or a ( I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t , 1964). P i a g e t has examined c h i l d r e n ' s performance on a wide range o f t a s k s as e v i d e n c e f o r h i s stage t h e o r y o f c o g n i t i v e development. I n doing so he has used an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t method from t h a t o f t h e b e h a v i o u r i s t s , namely, a c l i n i c a l o r a n e c d o t a l approach. I t i s interesting i s t h i s agreement between P i a g e t and t h e K e n d l e r s then t h a t t h e r e t h a t a t a c e r t a i n age a fundamental change t a k e s p l a c e i n c h i l d r e n ' s t h i n k i n g and p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g abilities. The q u e s t i o n a r i s e s as t o whether o r n o t they a r e b o t h b a s i n g t h e i r developmental hypotheses on t h e same phenomena o b s e r v e d from t h e i r respective viewpoints. The D i s c r i m i n a t i o n S h i f t Task and C o n c e p t u a l L e a r n i n g Kendler and K e n d l e r (1975) have d i s c u s s e d t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t t a s k as a method o f s t u d y i n g t h e development o f c o n c e p t u a l processes. They p o i n t o u t t h a t i f a s u b j e c t can make a common response t o a s e t o f dissimilar s t i m u l i , i t has been concluded t h a t he i s capable o f f o r m i n g concepts. B u t Osgood (1953) o b j e c t e d t o t h i s c o n c l u s i o n because he found i t q u e s t i o n a b l e t h a t a r a t c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d an a b s t r a c t concept l i k e 10 triangularity. Osgood b e l i e v e d t h a t a t r u e concept was t h e r e s u l t o f a mediated s y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a s e t o f common f e a t u r e s . This i s the view adopted by t h e K e n d l e r s . The d e v e l o p m e n t a l change t h a t t h e K e n d l e r s see o c c u r r i n g between s i n g l e - u n i t and m e d i a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g i s a s h i f t from r e s p o n d i n g t o d i s c r e t e s t i m u l i t o a p r o c e s s i n g o f s t i m u l i as i n s t a n c e s o f c o n c e p t u a l categories. Sigel I n a d d i t i o n , t h e K e n d l e r s have i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e S a l t z and (1967) enlargement h y p o t h e s i s m e d i a t i o n a l model. o f conceptual development i n t o t h e i r They suggest t h a t t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f young c h i l d r e n a t t h e s i n g l e - u n i t l e v e l i s g u i d e d by s t i m u l u s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . As c h i l d r e n d e v e l o p and move t o t h e m e d i a t i o n a l level, their symbolic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s l e a d them t o make narrow concepts a t f i r s t b u t i n time t h e i r c o n c e p t s become b r o a d e r . To s u p p o r t t h e i r p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s an ontogeny o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t b e h a v i o u r and t h a t c o n c e p t u a l processes are r e s p o n s i b l e , the Kendlers (Kendler, Kendler undertook a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s u s i n g v e r b a l s t i m u l i . presumably avoided r a t h e r than p e r c e p t u a l Verbal the e f f e c t of s e l e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n . r e l a t e d words from a common c o n c e p t u a l category and S a n d e r s , 1967) stimuli They found t h a t are e a s i e r t o reverse than u n r e l a t e d words. The P i a g e t i a n C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Tasks and C o n c e p t u a l Turning Learning now t o P i a g e t ' s r e s e a r c h , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t c e r t a i n of h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n tasks are probing processing that the Kendlers t h e same l e v e l o f c o n c e p t u a l have s t u d i e d by t h e s h i f t paradigm. Inhelder 11 and P i a g e t (1959) d e s c r i b e d an o r d e r i n g o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s i n 11 s t e p s , o f w h i c h two appear t o be most s i m i l a r i n t h e i r t a s k r e q u i r e m e n t s t o t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t paradigm. These two a r e t h e c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k and t h e m a t r i x i n i t s s i m p l e s t t w o - e n t r y form. the c h i l d t o d e a l w i t h two dimensions a t once. These t a s k s r e q u i r e I f , f o r i n s t a n c e , he can d e a l w i t h a l l o f t h e i n s t a n c e s o f c o l o u r as i n s t a n c e s o f t h e c o n c e p t " c o l o u r " and a l l o f t h e shapes as i n s t a n c e s o f "form," he w i l l t h e o r e t i c a l l y be a b l e t o a c h i e v e c o r r e c t c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s u s i n g categories. these The same use o f c o n c e p t u a l dimensions i s r e q u i r e d i n t h e m a t r i x t a s k , w i t h t h e added d i f f i c u l t y , a c c o r d i n g t o P i a g e t , t h a t t h e two dimensions must be c o n s i d e r e d The simultaneously. d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t t a s k uses t h e same s o r t o f s t i m u l i as those used i n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s . I n t h e f i r s t phase o f t h e t a s k , the s u b j e c t can l e a r n t o p e r f o r m c o r r e c t l y e i t h e r by a p e r c e p t u a l r e s p o n s e t o p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s o f a c a t e g o r y o r by n o t i n g t h e c o n c e p t u a l which i s rewarded, e.g., c o l o u r . I n t h e case o f t h e o p t i o n a l s h i f t v e r s i o n o f t h e t a s k , he w i l l then g i v e a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e c o l o u r was used by c h o o s i n g category category t h e o t h e r c o l o u r i n t h e r e v e r s a l phase o f t h e t a s k . I f he chooses a r e v e r s a l s h i f t , i t can be s a i d t h a t he i s u s i n g t h e same conceptual c a t e g o r y as a b a s i s f o r h i s c h o i c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e t a s k . i f t h e s u b j e c t chooses t h e n o n r e v e r s a l o r e x t r a d i m e n s i o n a l However, s h i f t , he i s s w i t c h i n g from one d i m e n s i o n t o a n o t h e r and we cannot be s u r e what method of s o l u t i o n he i s u s i n g . 12 The R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Two Approaches According to Piaget's t h e o r y , one o f t h e c r i t e r i a which define the change i n t h e c h i l d ' s c o g n i t i v e development from p r e o p e r a t i o n a l concrete operational t h i n k i n g i s the f i r m understanding of c l a s s T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s shown i n t h e a b i l i t y t o s o r t o b j e c t s using to properties. i n t o groups t h e dimensions c o n s i s t e n t l y and a l s o i n t h e a b i l i t y t o change dimensions and s o r t t h e o b j e c t s another way. The c h i l d who does n o t u n d e r s t a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i l l make such m i s t a k e s as f o r m i n g a p i c t u r e o u t o f t h e o b j e c t s , o r changing t h e b a s i s o f t h e g r o u p i n g b e f o r e c o m p l e t i n g t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , o r s o r t i n g a c c o r d i n g t o a l l dimensions s i m u l t a n e o u s l y and i g n o r i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s t o form two p i l e s . A c h i l d ' s performance on t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s h o u l d t e l l us something about h i s s t a g e l e v e l i n t h e 5- t o 8-year age p e r i o d . From t h e K e n d l e r s ' v i e w p o i n t t h e c h i l d ' s r e v e r s a l s h i f t b e h a v i o u r i s a l s o i n d i c a t i v e o f a change t o a m e d i a t i o n a l processing. and more a b s t r a c t l e v e l o f I f these h y p o t h e s i z e d d e v e l o p m e n t a l changes have v a l i d i t y , one would e x p e c t t h a t t h e c h i l d who has a t t a i n e d a c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n a l level i n terms o f P i a g e t i a n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s would be l i k e l y t o p r e f e r a r e v e r s a l s h i f t i n an o p t i o n a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t a s k . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e c h i l d who has reached t h e c o n c e p t u a l l e v e l where he chooses t h e o p t i o n o f a r e v e r s a l shift s h o u l d be more l i k e l y t o p e r f o r m w e l l on c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s and m a t r i x tasks. The problem t h e n t h a t w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h i s study i s whether o r n o t a r e l a t i o n s h i p can be found between t h e r e v e r s a l performance o f k i n d e r g a r t e n shift c h i l d r e n and t h e i r performance on t h e c l a s s i f i - c a t i o n and m a t r i x t a s k s o f P i a g e t . 13 CHAPTER I I LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND This review of the l i t e r a t u r e t h e o r e t i c a l views regarding deal with concerned w i t h studies classification is also then t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m a t r i x t a s k s done uncovered but new h y p o t h e s e s viewpoints A short description theories the use of of Vygotsky's t a s k s have been used e x t e n s i v e l y learning processes. these t a s k s has a l s o s t i m u l a t e d the The t h r e e most s i g n i f i c a n t w i l l be r e v i e w e d h e r e . They a r e : the a t t e n t i o n e l a b o r a t e d b y Zeaman a n d H o u s e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n hypothesis (1963, theory viewpoint 1974) a n d o t h e r s ; and t h e such as Smedslund extend traditional t o d e v e l o p more s t a n d a r d i z e d v e r s i o n s their usefulness learning theorists for There have been of comparative s t u d i e s . have used t h e i r Vygotsky ideas about c l a s s i f i c a t i o n behaviour. efforts and and t h e same t i m e , e x p e r i m e n t a l methods with conclusions 1 9 6 6 ; Odom, 1 9 7 8 ; O v e r t o n a n d B r o d z i n s k y , The R u s s i a n t h e o r i s t , to At go (1964) these tasks P i a g e t i a n t a s k s a n d h a v e i n many c a s e s d i s p u t e d P i a g e t ' s (Bruner and Kenney, perceptual (1968). s i n c e by a d h e r e n t s thereby been c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m a t r i x p e r f o r m a n c e the P i a g e t i a n s c h o o l , (1972). (1962) , h a s a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d His analysis of hypothesis which has 1959. (1966) phenomena theoretical b a c k t o the I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t a n a l y s i s o f Kofsky In formation the m e d i a t i o n a l p r o p o s e d by T i g h e and T i g h e P i a g e t i a n s t u d i e s of of view by have been c a l l e d upon t o e x p l a i n the and t h e o r i e s . o f K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r ; It important will i n t h e p a s t two d e c a d e s t o s t u d y some c a s e s , o l d e r with three included. Discrimination shift nebehaviourists deal f i r s t discrimination s h i f t behaviour. by P i a g e t i a n s and n o h - P i a g e t i a n s . of will suggests areas much of 14 agreement w i t h the P i a g e t i a n c o n s t r u c t i v i s t mediational The M e d i a t i o n a l Regarding Reversal S h i f t (1956), K e l l e h e r between age g r o u p s response But i f reinforcement Spence (1956) organisms. The (1946) learning faster Buss (1956) (or during that problem f o r m u l a t e d by K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r reversal over nonreversal shifts nonreversal) to to account f o r s c h o o l c h i l d r e n and The m e d i a t i o n a l S - R h y p o t h e s i s says t h a t age. Children of s o l v e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n problems by u s i n g "a s i n g l e - u n i t a shift. nonarticulate was the s u p e r i o r i t y of adults. the tendency discrimination learning increases with not learned d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t behaviour (1962) for theory children but students the solution continuity h i m s e l f agreed t h a t h i s model a p p l i e d o n l y The m e d i a t i o n a l m o d e l o f continuous, were r e v e r s e d college t h a n an e x t r a d i m e n s i o n a l theory. correct "preverbal" found that been continuity showed t h a t and behaviour t o make t h a t theory would p r e d i c t the d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e a r n i n g of "verbal" children. (1936) contingencies However, Kuenne shift Kendler in discrimination shift i n c r e a s e d the tendency w o u l d be r e t a r d e d . reversal Buss l e a r n i n g i n a m u l t i t r i a l s i t u a t i o n was continuity of e.g., (1955), Kendler, terms by S p e n c e ' s presolution period, could predict and s i x t i e s , a n i m a l s p e c i e s and y o u n g c h i l d r e n h a d a l r e a d y T h i s t h e o r y assumed t h a t choice again. and D'Amato the d i f f e r e n c e s in behaviourist t h a t each c o r r e c t Behaviour and b e t w e e n a d u l t humans a n d a n i m a l s . of various accounted f o r i n the f i f t i e s (1956), Kendler (1960), revealed behaviour Kendlers' Hypothesis Numerous e x p e r i m e n t s Wells and w i t h t h e view. Theories 1. view to mediate nursery school mechanism i n which age 15 responses are under d i r e c t s u b j e c t s make u s e o f c o n t r o l of e x t e r n a l stimulation" while " a m e d i a t i o n a l mechanism i n w h i c h b e h a v i o u r c o n t r o l l e d by s e l f - g e n e r a t e d s y m b o l i c cues t h a t r e p r e s e n t categories" older (Kendler, K e n d l e r and W a r d , 1 9 7 2 , p . The n a t u r e o f is conceptual 102). t h e m e d i a t i o n a l p r o c e s s was l e f t open-ended but K e n d l e r s have s u g g e s t e d t h a t a s e t o f d i f f e r e n t mechanisms might be all of them t r a n s f o r m i n g i n c o m i n g s t i m u l i i n v a r i o u s The K e n d l e r s d o n o t s a y w h e t h e r Their s t u d i e s , however, American c h i l d there starting Evidence for (Kendler, c h i l d r e n 5 . 8 t o 19 y e a r s Kendler (Kendler K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r for the o p t i o n a l r e v e r s a l shift the responding 1962) a n d t h e second r e s p o n s e t o a l l members o f is t h e o t h e r member o f the only In and K e n d l e r varying feasible their in brightness with s h o u l d be t h e m o s t l i k e l y r e s p o n s e the h i e r a r c h y (Hull, 1943). is reinforced. the h i e r a r c h y , The due probability positive When r e i n f o r c e m e n t the p r e v i o u s l y negative stimulus, alternative. first (Kendler, 3.6 argued t h a t where s y m b o l i c m e d i a t i o n stimulus gains i n strength because i t ceases, was 1971). to the arousal of the h a b i t family h i e r a r c h which increases the of average the f i r s t w i t h c h i l d r e n and K e n d l e r , (1968) specify t h i s developmental progression and L e a r n a r d , a to mediational i s an a c c e l e r a t e d i n c r e a s e i n r e v e r s a l in kindergarten. 10.4 years occurs, They a l s o do n o t have i n d i c a t e d t h a t obtained i n studies using geometric s t i m u l i , to ways. age when t h e c h i l d moves f r o m s i n g l e - u n i t functioning. involved, t h e age t r e n d o c c u r s b e c a u s e o f change i n c a p a c i t y o r as a m a t t e r o f p r e f e r e n c e . a particular the developmental study w i t h t h i s K e n d l e r and L e a r n a r d , and s i z e . technique 1962) u s e d g e o m e t r i c They found t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n Kendler patterns of optional 16 RS increased s i g n i f i c a n t l y from 3.6 study (Kendler and K e n d l e r , 1971) c o l o u r - f o r m , c o l o u r - s i z e , and for each compound and t o 10.4 y e a r s o f age. the s t i m u l u s size-form. I n a second compounds used were R e s u l t s were e s s e n t i a l l y s i m i l a r the combined d a t a were s i m i l a r t o the f i r s t A d d i t i o n a l d a t a i n a subsequent study (Kendler and Ward, 1972) mathematical r e l a t i o n s h i p : years). o f age c o n t i n u i t y model o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e a r n i n g may y e a r s b u t w i t h i n c r e a s i n g age 2. (between 3.6 T h i s f i n d i n g gave s u p p o r t f o r the view t h a t the c h i l d ' s performance w i l l indicated a t h a t the p r o b a b i l i t y o f an o p t i o n a l s h i f t i s a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n o f the l o g a r i t h m study. reversal and 19.8 single-unit be v a l i d f o r the v e r y e a r l y t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s i n g l i k e l i h o o d t h a t f i t the m e d i a t i o n a l model. A t t e n t i o n Theory A d i f f e r e n t view of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e a r n i n g has been put by the the a t t e n t i o n t h e o r i s t s , e.g., Trabasso and Bower (1968) and M a c K i n t o s h (1965), S u t h e r l a n d Zeaman and House (1963). (1959), These t h e o r i s t s generally agree t h a t l e a r n i n g i s l a r g e l y a m a t t e r of a t t e n t i o n t o stimuli. They a l s o agree t h a t a t t e n t i o n i s t r a i n a b l e and be t a u g h t t o a t t e n d forward relevant that children can t o r e l e v a n t cues i n o r d e r t o p e r f o r m more e f f i c i e n t l y on d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o r c o n c e p t u a l tasks. S p e c i f i c c r i t i c i s m s o f the K e n d l e r t h e o r y have been made by Zeaman and House (1963) who f o r m u l a t e d the m e d i a t i o n a l attention theory. One p r i m a r y assumption of t h e i r model was two components, the f i r s t a t t e n t i o n a l , the second an i n s t r u m e n t a l response. In t h e i r study w i t h r e t a r d a t e s i n speed o f l e a r n i n g were due attend that discrimination learning choice they hypothesized t h a t v a r i a t i o n s to d i f f e r e n c e s t o the r e l e v a n t d i m e n s i o n and has i n the r a t e o f l e a r n i n g not t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n the r a t e to of 17 l e a r n i n g a s s o c i a t i o n s between the r e l e v a n t reaction. cues and t h e c o r r e c t T h i s h y p o t h e s i s was s u p p o r t e d b y a number o f compared i n t r a d i m e n s i o n a l w i t h extradimensional shifts a n d Z e a m a n , 1 9 6 5 ; D i c k e r s o n , 1 9 6 6 ; Mumbauer a n d Odom, choice studies which (Campione, Hyman 1966). The m e d i a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n t h e o r y a s s u m e d t h a t a t t e n t i o n were independent of development t h a t h i s r e s u l t s were ontogeny of initial discrimination. for d e v e l o p m e n t a l changes Perceptual has been d e r i v e d concluded exists H i s m e t h o d o l o g y was c r i t i c i z e d b y Their r e p l i c a t i o n of h i s slow l e a r n e r s p r o v i d e d (Kendler, s u b j e c t s who f a i l e d study without strong evidence K e n d l e r and Ward, school of the from G i b s o n ' s ability special 1972). (1950, 1959) p e r c e p t u a l t h e o r y . to d i f f e r e n t i a t e the r e l e v a n t T h i s v i e w was s u p p o r t e d b y behaviour Tighe found to f a c i l i t a t e a r e v e r s a l S t u d i e s by Johnson and White ability shift (1967) said to execute a r e v e r s a l the r e l e v a n t (McConnell, and dimension from studies i n which d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n emphasizing the p e r c e p t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of shift. training d i m e n s i o n was 1964; T i g h e , a l s o showed a c o r r e l a t i o n to d i f f e r e n t i a t e stimulus values the 1965). between and t h e i r tendency to The p e r c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f o r m u l a t i o n s u p p o r t s the view that choose a r e v e r s a l is the for thought regarding d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t t o t a l p e r c e p t u a l f i e l d would a f f e c t h i s a b i l i t y children's an the (1968) p r o p o s e d a p e r c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n h y p o t h e s i s w h i c h that a subject's there (1970) Differentiation Another Tighe Campione included special training for t r a i n i n g procedures 3. 1967). " i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the notion that there shift behaviour." Kendlers because i t (Eimas, processes shift. an o n t o g e n y of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t behaviour. It assumes that 18 there are d e v e l o p m e n t a l changes i n a b i l i t y stimulus arrays. A s c h i l d r e n grow o l d e r c a p a c i t y t o i s o l a t e and use the r e l e v a n t and as a r e s u l t and K e n d l e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n view as b a s i c a l l y dimension i n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s not s u f f i c i e n t . In own m o d e l . is verbal a study (Kendler, 1. guarantee training with a cognitive shifts g r o u p was s u p e r i o r . operator t h a t any m e d i a t i o n w i l l for q u e s t i o n a d d r e s s e d i s how c h i l d r e n groups t a s k s h a v e b e e n one a p p r o a c h t o conceptual thinking. come t o r e c o g n i z e that approach t o t h i s problem. s t u d i e d i n d e p t h by P i a g e t and o t h e r s shift. by using his techniques the The t h e same d e p e n d i n g upon w h i c h a t t r i b u t e s C l a s s i f i c a t i o n tasks are another the occur. Problems in their a t h i s p r o c e s s b u t does n o t P i a g e t i a n S t u d i e s o f C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and M a t r i x p r o b l e m o f how c h i l d r e n p r o g r e s s cue-training They argue t h a t Problems The d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t but with compared t o S t u d i e s o f C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and M a t r i x can b e l o n g t o d i f f e r e n t responses behaviour." to mediate the r e v e r s a l P e r c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n may b e r e q u i r e d itself perceptual G l a s m a n a n d W a r d , 1972) improved r e v e r s a l the v e r b a l - l a b e l label provides There p e r c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n may be n e c e s s a r y they found t h a t both procedures group but "whether of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n w h i c h compared v e r b a l - l a b e l control shifts. i n agreement w i t h t h e i r to e x p l a i n the ontogeny They f e e l t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e problems perceptual and t h a t of increasing appear to accept the one i s s u e o n w h i c h t h e y d i s a g r e e are s u f f i c i e n t it (1975) attributes t h e y a r e s a i d t o have an a r e more l i k e l y t o make r e v e r s a l Kendler is to d i f f e r e n t i a t e are specific object relevant. They have (Inhelder been and 19 P i a g e t , 1959; K o f s k y , 1966; P i a g e t regards Smedslund, 1964). c l a s s i f i c a t i o n problems as i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o problems o f i n f e r e n c e i n g e n e r a l because c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s depend upon "the a b s t r a c t i o n o f unambiguous c r i t e r i a , " d e f i n e the c l a s s . i . e . , the p a r t i c u l a r a t t r i b u t e s t h a t He b e l i e v e s t h a t c h i l d r e n a r r i v e a t t h e i r understanding o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by t h e a c t i o n s they c a r r y out w i t h a c t u a l o b j e c t s o r by " v i r t u a l a c t i o n s " performed " i n the c h i l d ' s head" ( I n h e l d e r and Piaget, 1964). I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t (1959) h y p o t h e s i z e d a b i l i t y d e v e l o p s i n a sequence o f 11 s t e p s . that c l a s s i f i c a t i o n They e x p l a i n e d t h a t c h i l d r e n b e g i n t o c l a s s i f y by p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r two o b j e c t s t h a t l o o k a l i k e i n some way. I n o t h e r words, they s i m p l y use the p e r c e p t u a l f e a t u r e s . The s t e p i s c o n s i s t e n t s o r t i n g and e x t e n d i n g the group beyond two T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by e x h a u s t i v e s o r t i n g . These s i m p l e r s k i l l s a r e next objects. the f o u n d a t i o n f o r f u r t h e r s t e p s w h i c h r e p r e s e n t a c o n s i d e r a b l e advance i n ability. I n o r d e r t o d e a l w i t h m u l t i p l e c l a s s membership the c h i l d must r e c o g n i z e t h a t o b j e c t s may belong t o more than one c a t e g o r y . When he can use f i r s t one and t h e n a n o t h e r a t t r i b u t e as the b a s i s f o r g r o u p i n g , he i s able to handle " h o r i z o n t a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . " The f i n a l s t e p s are a c q u i s i t i o n o f h e i r a r c h i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and c l a s s i n c l u s i o n the abilities. P r o g r e s s up these s t e p s extends o v e r the c h i l d h o o d y e a r s s t a r t i n g i n the p r e o p e r a t i o n a l p e r i o d and c o n t i n u i n g through the c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n a l s t a g e . Kofsky (1966) undertook t o t e s t P i a g e t ' s t h e o r y t h a t t h e r e i s a f i x e d o r d e r i n which c l a s s i f i c a t o r y concepts are a c q u i r e d . She t r a n s l a t e d the 11 s t e p s i n t o t a s k s which used g e o m e t r i c b l o c k s o f 3 shapes and colours. Her s u b j e c t s were 4-9 years o l d . She confirmed the o r d e r o f d i f f i c u l t y o f the s t e p s . 4 found t h a t h e r r e s u l t s However, t h e r e was no set 20 o r d e r o f mastery o f t a s k s such t h a t f a i l u r e on one t a s k was f o l l o w e d by f a i l u r e on a l l o f t h e more d i f f i c u l t ones. The s u b j e c t s who f a i l e d t h e h o r i z o n t a l r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t e s t (which c a l l e d f o r s o r t i n g o b j e c t s i n d i f f e r e n t ways a c c o r d i n g t o d i f f e r e n t a t t r i b u t e s ) d i d so because they could not form c o n s i s t e n t c l a s s e s o r because they c o u l d n o t e x e c u t e t h e r u l e s p e c i f i c t o the task. The younger c h i l d r e n who f a i l e d were n o t always t h e inconsistent sorters. Younger s u b j e c t s were b e t t e r than p r e d i c t e d i n f o r m i n g more than one t a s k a t a t i m e . Kofsky's r e s u l t s d i d not d i s c o n f i r m P i a g e t ' s broad o u t l i n e o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n development b u t d i d q u e s t i o n i t i n s p e c i f i c s because i n many i n d i v i d u a l cases t h e p r e d i c t e d sequence was n o t obtained. Two experiments by K o f s k y and O s i e r (1967) d e a l t s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h q u e s t i o n s a r i s i n g o u t o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n problem: when do c h i l d r e n a c q u i r e t h e a b i l i t y t o d e a l w i t h two dimensions a t a t i m e and what p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s cause d i f f i c u l t y ? T h e i r s u b j e c t s were t h r e e groups o f c h i l d r e n , aged 5, 8, and 11. Three s e t s o f g e o m e t r i c s t i m u l i were employed. The s e t s d i f f e r e d i n number o f d i m e n s i o n s , number o f v a l u e s o f form and c o l o u r and a l s o i n number o f s t i m u l i . t o s o r t t h e s t i m u l i and d e s c r i b e t h e groups formed. t o do i t a n o t h e r way. The c h i l d r e n were asked Then they were asked A s o r t was c o n s i d e r e d adequate i f i t was c o n s i s t e n t and e x h a u s t i v e . The e x p e r i m e n t e r s completely r e p o r t e d t h a t a l l t h r e e age groups were a b l e t o s o r t s e t s i n t o l o g i c a l groups b u t t h e 5 - y e a r - o l d c h i l d r e n made f a r fewer adequate s o r t s and e x p e r i e n c e d d i f f i c u l t y i n shifting c r i t e r i a for sorting. considerable F o r a l l age groups t h e s t r u c t u r e and s i z e o f t h e s e t a f f e c t e d t h e type o f e r r o r s made. A l l subjects were a f f e c t e d by a t t r i b u t e p r e f e r e n c e b u t t h e younger c h i l d r e n t o a g r e a t e r degree. 21 K o f s k y and O s i e r had u n d e r t a k e n t h e i r study i n o r d e r t o l o c a t e sources o f d i f f i c u l t y i n c o n c e p t a t t a i n m e n t problems. They had hypothesized t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s d i f f i c u l t i e s might be due t o i n a b i l i t y t o form l o g i c a l classes or to s h i f t c r i t e r i a . They concluded t h a t 5-year-olds can s o r t c o n s i s t e n t l y b u t t h e i r c h i e f d i f f i c u l t y i s i n changing c r i t e r i a . I n one study u s i n g the m a t r i x t a s k I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t (1964) found t h a t the youngest group (4-5-^year-olds) performed b e t t e r than m i d d l e group ( 6 - 7 - y e a r - o l d s ) . I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t suggested the t h a t the younger s u b j e c t s were u s i n g a p e r c e p t u a l s o l u t i o n r a t h e r than a l o g i c a l one. t h e i r words, "One In ( s o l u t i o n ) i s f i g u r a l and based on p e r c e p t u a l symmetries, the o t h e r i s o p e r a t i o n a l , i t r e s t s on a double c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and draws on genuine i n f e r e n c e s . " They d e c l a r e t h a t the o n l y way t o determine which method the c h i l d i s u s i n g t o s o l v e the m a t r i x i s t o ask him f o r a v e r b a l explanation of h i s choice. A f u r t h e r check a g a i n s t p e r c e p t u a l s o l u t i o n s and g u e s s i n g i s t o ask the c h i l d i f any o t h e r s o l u t i o n i s p o s s i b l e . i s w i l l i n g to change a c o r r e c t s o l u t i o n , i t suggests about the r e q u i r e m e n t s o f the t a s k . t h a t he i s not I f he clear I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t t h e r e f o r e d i d not c r e d i t the c h i l d w i t h a c o r r e c t s o l u t i o n o f the m a t r i x u n t i l he had made three responses: (1) f i n d i n g the c o r r e c t i t e m , (2) j u s t i f y i n g t h i s c h o i c e , (3) s t a t i n g whether one o r two o f the o t h e r items might f i t as w e l l o r b e t t e r . 2. Non-Piagetian S t u d i e s o f C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and M a t r i x Problems O v e r t o n and B r o d z i n s k y (1972) s p e c i f i c a l l y t e s t e d t h e hypothesis t h a t some c h i l d r e n use a p e r c e p t u a l s o l u t i o n t o the m a t r i x problem. They compared r e s u l t s u s i n g a s t a n d a r d square m a t r i x and a l i n e a r arrangement o f the f o u r c e l l s . concluded They found no e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t the h y p o t h e s i s . t h a t a t b o t h the 4-5- They and 6-7-year l e v e l s p e r c e p t u a l f a c t o r s do 22 not f a c i l i t a t e and p o s s i b l y h i n d e r s u c c e s s f u l performance. They a l s o found t h a t t h e 6-7-year-olds performed b e t t e r when t h e l i n e a r arrangement o f t h e s t i m u l i was used and when i n s t r u c t i o n s emphasized t h e r u l e r e l a t i n g t h e s t i m u l u s dimensions used i n the problem. B r u n e r and Kenney (1966) d e s c r i b e d some i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f m u l t i p l e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n u s i n g the m a t r i x t a s k w i t h c h i l d r e n 3-7 y e a r s o l d . Their p r o c e d u r e c a l l e d f o r a 3><3 m a t r i x and 9 c y l i n d e r s v a r y i n g i n h e i g h t and diameter. I n t h e l i g h t o f more r e c e n t s t u d i e s t h i s t a s k seems u n n e c e s s a r i l y complex f o r s m a l l c h i l d r e n . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t young c h i l d r e n c o u l d p e r f o r m the o p e r a t i o n s c a l l e d f o r , i t appeared t h a t they were g u i d e d by t h e p e r c e p t u a l a s p e c t s o f t h e t a s k and by a s i n g l e f e a t u r e a t a t i m e . When r e p r o d u c t i o n o f the m a t r i x was c a l l e d f o r , t h e younger c h i l d r e n seemed t o remember t h e d i s p l a y as an image. The o l d e r ones appeared t o t r a n s l a t e t h e image i n t o a v e r b a l e n c o d i n g and a s e t o f v e r b a l r u l e s f o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . E a r l i e r i t was p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a p e r c e p t u a l differentiation h y p o t h e s i s had been proposed t o account f o r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t (Tighe and T i g h e , 1968). behaviour A s i m i l a r e x p l a n a t i o n has been advanced by Odom (1978) f o r d e v e l o p m e n t a l change and d e c a l a g e r e l a t i o n s on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s . Odom has extended Gibson's (1969) i d e a s on p e r c e p t i o n by p r o p o s i n g t h a t p e r c e p t u a l s e n s i t i v i t y i n c r e a s e s as a r e s u l t o f p e r c e p t u a l experience. F u r t h e r m o r e , i f t h e organism i s s e n s i t i v e t o c e r t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n then t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n has a h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y o f b e i n g c o g n i t i v e l y e v a l u a t e d f o r problem s o l u t i o n . I n o r d e r t o t e s t h i s i d e a s , Odom m a n i p u l a t e d t h e p e r c e p t u a l s a l i e n c e o f t h e s t i m u l u s dimensions o f a m a t r i x t a s k and Cunningham, 1965). (Odom, A s t o r , He r e p o r t e d t h a t when "the s o l u t i o n - r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n was h i g h l y s a l i e n t f o r young c h i l d r e n , t h e i r performance can r e f l e c t a l e v e l of cognitive processing that i s often a t t r i b u t e d only t o 23 o l d e r c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s . " On t h e o t h e r hand, when t h e i r r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n i s h i g h l y s a l i e n t , performance a c c u r a c y i s low compared t o o l d e r s u b j e c t s (Odom and Mumbauer, 1971). 3. V y g o t s k y ' s Views on C l a s s i f i c a t i o n A major t h e o r i s t i n t h e developmental f i e l d who has w r i t t e n the r o l e o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n c o n c e p t u a l l e a r n i n g i s V y g o t s k y about (1962). H i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e changes i n t h e c h i l d ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b e h a v i o u r i s r a t h e r s i m i l a r t o P i a g e t ' s e x c e p t t h a t i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d he sees t h e c h i l d p r o c e e d i n g from g r a p h i c p e r c e p t i o n t o t h e s t a g e o f concept f o r m a t i o n . He says t h a t t h e c h i l d notes c e r t a i n a t t r i b u t e s o f o b j e c t s and c a t e g o r i z e s them by r e l a t i n g them t o a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t s . He s t r e s s e s t h e use o f words t o e x p r e s s a b s t r a c t i o n s and t h e e f f e c t o f s c h o o l i n g i n a r r i v i n g a t t h i s level. D e s c r i b i n g Vygotsky's views, L u r i a (1976, p. 52) s a y s , " a t t h e c o r e of c o n c e p t u a l c a t e g o r i c a l t h i n k i n g i s t h e s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e o f s o c i e t y conveyed t h r o u g h i t s l i n g u i s t i c system." Vygotsky b e l i e v e d t h a t the development o f complex c l a s s i f i c a t o r y a b i l i t y and c o n c e p t u a l t h i n k i n g was dependent on t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c t i v i t i e s . S c h o o l i n g produces c o n c e p t s , " t h e s o r t t h a t we use i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s . "academic In certain s o c i e t i e s , such as p r i m i t i v e nomads and h u n t e r s , t h e s e concepts a r e n o t useful. The t y p e o f concepts t h e s e p e o p l e use r e f l e c t t h e r e a l i t i e s o f their daily lives. V y g o t s k y ' s i n s i s t e n c e on t h e c e n t r a l r o l e o f language i n c o n c e p t u a l p r o c e s s e s appears t o agree w i t h t h e K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r p o s i t i o n on t h e f u n c t i o n o f m e d i a t i o n . 24 A Comparison of The K e n d l e r s , technique, through have c o n c l u d e d t h a t investigations there is cognitive development deal with complex s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n s . i n which there d e f i n e d b u t may i n c l u d e w o r d s , The explanation of Viewpoints a transition period the ideas of this The symbols o r model except attention theory view involved in tasks. successfully attention of their It dimensions feel that theorists. of by t h e a t t e n t i o n issue. Followers development that The K e n d l e r s h a v e p r e s e n t e d Most is of position that It the p e r c e p t u a l to d i f f e r e n t i a t e Kendlers (1975) assumes t h a t t h e r e have suggested that agree w i t h the d u a l - s t a g e model. differentiating (black a dimension is studies have f o r w a r d by evidence the in of (1968) discrimina- are d e v e l o p m e n t a l changes instance, (brightness, (black, Only l a t e r form) in in stimulus arrays. The to t h e young c h i l d i n the t h e components square). favour unsettled. an ontogeny attributes of dimensions t h i s model c o u l d be r e f o r m u l a t e d For s t a g e may b e a b l e t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e s i n g l e s t i m u l u s compound there the simply a matter their further issue remains tion s h i f t behaviour. ability of the The p e r c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n m o d e l o f T i g h e a n d T i g h e 1 of do n o t a p p e a r t o b e a t o d d s w i t h some c r i t i c i s m s t h a t h a v e b e e n p u t agrees w i t h the K e n d l e r s not theorists to solve problems. (1975) b e l i e v e this to the mediation i s t o a t t e n d t o and use the r e l e v a n t developmental views but child's images. i n order cognitive The K e n d l e r s countered i n the emphasizes the importance on t h e o n t o g e n e t i c acquiring increasing ability nature s h i f t behaviour group o f r e s e a r c h e r s Kendlers' shift i s an i n c r e a s i n g use o f m e d i a t i o n h a s o f f e r e d some a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t s . attending to the relevant u s i n g the r e v e r s a l square) i s he c a p a b l e from p a i r s of early from a of stimulus 25 compounds (black square, white c i r c l e ) . p e r c e p t i o n then, t h i s model resembles the d u a l - s t a g e T u r n i n g now behaviour, Except f o r i t s emphasis to Piaget's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of he d e s c r i b e s the problem as one attributes that define a class. problems. (Kendler, 1971). classification of i d e n t i f y i n g the particular P i a g e t does not appear t o have been concerned w i t h such matters as m e d i a t i o n , d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n although model on a t t e n t i o n and perceptual they are a l l p o t e n t i a l f a c t o r s i n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n P i a g e t , o f c o u r s e , has noted t h a t the f i r s t s t e p s i n the child's a b i l i t y to do c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s appears t o i n v o l v e r e c o g n i z i n g p e r c e p t u a l similarities. He does not e x p l a i n how t h i s perceptual a b i l i t y i s acquired. Presumably, i t i s a n a t u r a l consequence o f development. Kofsky's s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t the most d i f f i c u l t a s p e c t of a double c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k f o r young c h i l d r e n l i e s i n changing the b a s i s of their categorization. When c o n f r o n t e d w i t h r e d and b l u e t r i a n g l e s and squares, have no d i f f i c u l t y but may the c h i l d may i n s o r t i n g on the b a s i s of have t r o u b l e r e c l a s s i f y i n g on the b a s i s of form. question: I s the d i f f i c u l t y here one T h i s r a i s e s the t h a t can be d e s c r i b e d i n terms o f m e d i a t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c y , or f a i l u r e of a t t e n t i o n a l mechanisms, or perceptual d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ? b e t t e r understood by colour inadequate I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t the d i f f i c u l t y may l o o k i n g a t i t from one o f these theoretical be viewpoints but t h i s has not been done to our knowledge. Vygotsky's d e s c r i p t i o n o f the development of b e h a v i o u r agrees w i t h P i a g e t ' s stage o u t l i n e . classification However, Vygotsky the more advanced l e v e l s as a matter o f i n c r e a s i n g v e r b a l and a b i l i t y r a t h e r than a growth of l o g i c a l a b i l i t y . are more compatible The conceptual In t h i s r e s p e c t h i s views w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l l e a r n i n g theory s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g the m a t r i x describes than are P i a g e t ' s . t a s k suggest t h a t the c h i l d may 26 s o l v e t h i s problem i n v a r i o u s ways: p e r c e p t u a l l y (Bruner and Kenney, I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t , 1964), by u s i n g a r u l e ( I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t , Bruner and Kenney, 1966; Overton and B r o d z i n s k y , (Bruner and Kenney, 1966). 1966; 1964; 1972), by u s i n g an image These o b s e r v a t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y c o m p a t i b l e with the K e n d l e r s ' two-stage t h e o r y i n which p e r c e p t u a l s o l u t i o n s are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the younger c h i l d r e n and m e d i a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n s (images and verbal r u l e s ) a t the more advanced s t a g e . A l s o , i n r e g a r d t o the m a t r i x , Odom (1965, 1971) the p e r c e p t u a l s a l i e n c e o f the dimensions i s an i m p o r t a n t the d i f f i c u l t y o f the t a s k f o r an p o i n t s out that factor affecting individual. Restatement o f the Problem I t i s apparent t h a t t h e r e a r e many d i f f e r e n t ways o f l o o k i n g a t c h i l d r e n ' s c o n c e p t u a l development. The K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r and P i a g e t i a n p o s i t i o n s though s e e m i n g l y q u i t e d i f f e r e n t a r e i n agreement i n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a v e r y b a s i c change o c c u r s a t some p o i n t i n the c h i l d h o o d y e a r s . o f these approaches has o b t a i n e d e v i d e n c e from a v a r i e t y o f t a s k s . Each In t h i s s t u d y , I have t r i e d t o i d e n t i f y s i m i l a r elements i n some o f t h e i r t a s k s and p i c k out those from each s c h o o l o f thought w h i c h seem t o o f f e r the most c l e a r l y d e f i n a b l e comparisons. The t a s k s which I d e c i d e d t o compare are the o p t i o n a l r e v e r s a l s h i f t t a s k o f K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r , and the two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m a t r i x t a s k s o f P i a g e t . Making s i m p l e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s are b a s i c processes i n f o r m u l a t i n g concepts. A t the h e a r t o f these p r o c e s s e s i s the r e c o g n i t i o n and use o f a b s t r a c t a t t r i b u t e s such as c o l o u r , s i z e , e t c . The 27 r e c o g n i t i o n and use o f a b s t r a c t a t t r i b u t e s i s common t o b o t h t h e r e v e r s a l s h i f t task and t h e P i a g e t i a n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s may be the b a s i c s i m i l a r i t y w h i c h has l e d t o t h e common view o f t h e K e n d l e r s and Piaget t h a t t h e r e i s a fundamental change o b s e r v a b l e i n l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s i n t h e 5-7-year age p e r i o d . I f t h e changes suggested by t h e two approaches have a common b a s i s , we would e x p e c t t h a t t h e c h i l d who can p e r f o r m c o n s i s t e n t l y w e l l on the two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m a t r i x t a s k s w i l l a l s o be l i k e l y t o make r e v e r s a l s h i f t s i n t h e o p t i o n a l s h i f t paradigm. The problem then i s : can a r e l a t i o n s h i p be shown between c h i l d r e n ' s performance on t h e r e v e r s a l s h i f t t a s k and performance on t h e m a t r i x and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n The h y p o t h e s i s t o be t e s t e d i s : tasks? t h a t i n a sample o f c h i l d r e n drawn from t h e 5-7-year age range t h e r e w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t positive c o r r e l a t i o n (a) between performance on t h e P i a g e t i a n two-way classification t a s k and o p t i o n a l r e v e r s a l s h i f t r e s p o n d i n g , and (b) between m a t r i x performance and o p t i o n a l r e v e r s a l s h i f t r e s p o n d i n g . task 28 CHAPTER I I I METHODOLOGY The C h o i c e o f Tasks Three t a s k s were chosen f o r t h i s s t u d y because they appear t o r e q u i r e t h e same l o g i c a l o r c o n c e p t u a l p r o c e s s e s . I t i s necessary now t o examine t h e r a t i o n a l e o f these t a s k s i n some d e t a i l and e x p l a i n how t h e v e r s i o n s used i n t h i s study were d e r i v e d . 1. The M a t r i x Task The task. two P i a g e t i a n t a s k s a r e t h e m a t r i x t a s k and t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n The m a t r i x t a s k i s a method o f a s s e s s i n g m u l t i p l i c a t i v e abilities. T h i s a b i l i t y c a l l s f o r simultaneous classification c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of objects i n t o two o r more c a t e g o r i e s o r t h e o r d e r i n g o f o b j e c t s as t h e i n t e r s e c t o f two o r more c l a s s e s . When s t u d y i n g m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , P i a g e t and h i s c o l l a b o r a t o r s have g e n e r a l l y used t h e m a t r i x c o m p l e t i o n task. The m a t r i x problem i s one which i s s e t o u t i n a g r i d p a t t e r n . I t involves stimuli which c a n be c l a s s i f i e d on two o r more d i m e n s i o n s . In the standardized p r o c e d u r e used by P i a g e t and a l s o used i n Raven's P r o g r e s s i v e M a t r i c e s , t h e lower r i g h t space o f t h e g r i d i s t o be f i l l e d i n w i t h an i t e m which w i l l a c h i e v e p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h t h e items a l r e a d y p r e s e n t e d . For instance, i f t h e r e i s a l a r g e square above a l a r g e c i r c l e on t h e l e f t s i d e and a s m a l l square i n t h e upper r i g h t p o s i t i o n , t h e n t h e expected s o l u t i o n i s a s m a l l c i r c l e p l a c e d i n t h e empty space. In a chapter d e a l i n g w i t h m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , and P i a g e t (1964) p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e m a t r i x i s more c o m p l i c a t e d Inhelder than 29 a d d i t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n from a l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view because i t r e q u i r e s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n based on two o r more c r i t e r i a a t t h e same t i m e . On t h e o t h e r hand, they note t h a t t h e g r a p h i c form o f p r e s e n t a t i o n seems t o a s s i s t children i n arriving at a solution. I n some cases c h i l d r e n appear t o s o l v e a m a t r i x problem on t h e b a s i s o f p e r c e p t u a l symmetry. That i s t o s a y , they choose an element t o f i l l o u t t h e m a t r i x so t h a t t h e two columns o r t h e two rows w i l l appear s y m m e t r i c a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o each o t h e r . Since Piaget c o n s i d e r s t h a t a p e r c e p t u a l s o l u t i o n i s n o t an adequate one, he t e s t s t h e c h i l d f u r t h e r by a s k i n g f o r a v e r b a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e c h o i c e . i s c o n s i d e r e d t o have mastered t h e m a t r i x t a s k and i t s The c h i l d simultaneous c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s when he can g i v e an adequate e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e c o r r e c t c h o i c e and when he r e f u s e s t o a c c e p t o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s than t h e c o r r e c t one. 2. R e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e M a t r i x and C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Tasks I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t (1964) note t h a t m u l t i p l i c a t i v e classifications are mastered a t about t h e same time as o t h e r types o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , a t about age 7 t o 8. T h i s f a c t suggests t h a t t h e r e may be an i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e between t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s . they found a continuous I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t s t a t e as a c o n c l u s i o n t h a t p a r a l l e l i s m between a d d i t i v e and m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s b u t they p r e s e n t no c l e a r c u t e v i d e n c e f o r t h i s s t a t e m e n t . A l o n g w i t h t h e m a t r i x I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t l o o k e d a t cross-classification. By t h i s they mean s o r t i n g a number o f elements i n t o a f i x e d number o f c l a s s e s ( f o u r a t f i r s t ) and t h e n combining these t o form larger classes. P i a g e t has s e t up t h i s t a s k u s i n g a box w i t h p a r t i t i o n s analogous t o t h e m a t r i x . The c h i l d r e n were e x p e c t e d t o s o r t t h e b l o c k s o r cards i n t o t h e f o u r c u b i c l e s and then remove t h e p a r t i t i o n s t o c r e a t e l a r g e r 30 classes. In t h i s form, the c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n task i s quite s i m i l a r to the m a t r i x b u t i f the c h i l d i n i t i a l l y s o r t s r e d and b l u e c i r c l e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n t o d i a g o n a l compartments, he may f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o see a rearrangement would h e l p him form a l a r g e r c l a s s o f c i r c l e s on one o f the how side box. Cross-classification a c c o r d i n g t o I n h e l d e r : and P i a g e t i s "a m a t t e r o f c l a s s i f y i n g o b j e c t s i n terms o f two simultaneous t h a t producing cross-classifications and u n d e r s t a n d i n g criteria." They s t a t e appears t o u n d e r l i e c o r r e c t performance o f the m a t r i x problem. A c c e p t i n g P i a g e t ' s a n a l y s i s , the m a t r i x t a s k can be thought o f as a special form o f the c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k and the t a s k i n t u r n as a form o f two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . cross-classification I n the o r d i n a r y two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k the s u b j e c t i s r e q u i r e d t o s o r t o b j e c t s i n t o two on the b a s i s o f one a t t r i b u t e on the b a s i s o f a d i f f e r e n t and then r e a r r a n g e attribute. t a s k the c h i l d does e s s e n t i a l l y sets them t o form two new In Piaget's sets cross-classification the same o p e r a t i o n b u t i n two steps. The group o f o b j e c t s i s f i r s t s o r t e d i n t o f o u r c l a s s e s u s i n g two v a l u e s o f attributes (red, blue; c i r c l e , square). Then the c h i l d o b s e r v e s how combine these c l a s s e s i n two d i f f e r e n t ways on t h e b a s i s o f one ( c o l o u r ) and then the o t h e r (form). This two-step process two he can attribute i s o f t e n the way the c h i l d approaches the two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p r o b l e m , t h a t i s , f i r s t making s e t s o f a l l the s i m i l a r o b j e c t s and then combining them. The c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n method o f P i a g e t does n o t h i n g more than s e t out problem i n a m a t r i x p a t t e r n . I t i l l u s t r a t e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p the between the m a t r i x and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b u t i s not a good t a s k t o a d m i n i s t e r because o f the d i f f i c u l t y noted above. Both the m a t r i x and the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s r e q u i r e the c h i l d t o 31 be a b l e t o see t h a t an o b j e c t can b e l o n g simultaneously. t o two d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s A r e d c i r c l e can be c l a s s e d w i t h o t h e r r e d o b j e c t s or w i t h c i r c l e s of other colours. I n the case o f the m a t r i x t a s k , the c h i l d must complete the m a t r i x w i t h the i t e m w h i c h produces a c l a s s based on one d i m e n s i o n f o r the rows and a d i f f e r e n t c l a s s based on a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n f o r the columns. I n the two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k , he must form a c l a s s based on one dimension f o r h i s f i r s t s o r t and then use a d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n t o c r e a t e a new classification. So f u n d a m e n t a l l y the problems appear t o be similar. There a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n the format o f these t a s k s which may be s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g performance: (1) The m a t r i x t a s k i s a c o m p l e t i o n task while the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k hinges on r e a r r a n g i n g the elements (2) There a r e g e n e r a l l y more s t i m u l i t o d e a l w i t h i n the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k than i n the two-way m a t r i x . 3. The C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Task The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k used i n the p r e s e n t study b e l o n g s i n a range of t a s k s t h a t were a n a l y z e d and d e s c r i b e d by I n h e l d e r and (1959). They h y p o t h e s i z e d p a r t i a l l y ordered t h a t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a b i l i t y develops i n a sequence o f 11 s t e p s . Kofsky (1966) attempted t o t r a n s l a t e the s t e p s i n t o a s e t o f f a i r l y s t a n d a r d i z e d t a s k s and Geometric b l o c k s o f 3 shapes and 4 c o l o u r s were used as s t i m u l i . o f a c t i v i t y t h a t I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t had Kofsky Piaget called labelled horizontal reclassification. were b l o c k s combining 2 shapes and 4 c o l o u r s . procedures. The sort cross-classification, I n her v e r s i o n , the s t i m u l i Each s u b j e c t was asked (a) t o s o r t a l l the o b j e c t s t h a t were a l i k e i n t o groups, (b) t o s o r t a 32 d i f f e r e n t way and (c) t o e x p l a i n each complete g r o u p i n g . To pass the test the c h i l d had t o s o r t c o m p l e t e l y by c o l o u r a t one time and by shape a t another t i m e . T h i s g e n e r a l scheme was f o l l o w e d f o r the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n task o f the p r e s e n t study e x c e p t t h a t o n l y 2 c o l o u r s were used. N e i t h e r K o f s k y nor I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t attempted t o compare t h i s t y p e o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k t o the m a t r i x b u t P i a g e t and I n h e l d e r (1970) d e s c r i b e the s i t u a t i o n o f a c h i l d d o i n g a c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i t h 2 shapes and 2 c o l o u r s and i n the p r o c e s s matrix. a r r a n g i n g the o b j e c t s i n the form o f a T h e i r d i s c u s s i o n suggests a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the two In a l a t e r study, Kofsky and O s i e r p a r a l l e l s between s o r t i n g b e h a v i o u r tasks. (1967) e x p l o r e d p o s s i b l e and concept i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . They used some c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s o f s i m i l a r d e s i g n t o the above b u t v a r y i n g the number o f dimensions and s t i m u l i . the s u b j e c t s I n the second e x p e r i m e n t o f t h i s (5-, 8- and 11-year-olds) o f s t i m u l i i n t o two groups. study were i n s t r u c t e d t o arrange the s e t I f they made more than two, they were asked t o combine these groups u n t i l two c l a s s e s were o b t a i n e d . This procedure was used t o see i f c h i l d r e n c o u l d p e r f o r m i n a manner s i m i l a r t o t h a t r e q u i r e d i n a two-choice concept problem. study because i t was The same p r o c e d u r e was used i n the f e l t t h a t the t h r e e t a s k s b e i n g compared c o u l d present be c o n s i d e r e d as t w o - c h o i c e concept problems. 4. The O p t i o n a l S h i f t Task The o p t i o n a l s h i f t t e c h n i q u e was performance of i n d i v i d u a l age groups. d e v e l o p e d as a method o f comparing The mandatory s h i f t t e c h n i q u e had been used i n many e a r l i e r s t u d i e s o f s h i f t b e h a v i o u r simply which provided group averages o f the number o f t r i a l s t o s o l u t i o n f o r a r e v e r s a l o r nonreversal s h i f t . s o l u t i o n how W i t h the o p t i o n a l t a s k the s u b j e c t i n d i c a t e s by h i s he i s u s i n g the s t i m u l u s v a l u e s . He can t h e r e b y be assessed 33 as a s u b j e c t who i s making a r e v e r s a l s h i f t o r an e x t r a d i m e n s i o n a l s h i f t or neither. The d e f i n i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e s h i f t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t a s k i s t h e unannounced change i n t h e d i m e n s i o n w h i c h i s t o be rewarded. A f t e r the s u b j e c t has s o l v e d t h e problem o f f i n d i n g t h e r e l e v a n t d i m e n s i o n i n t h e f i r s t phase o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , he i s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a new problem. the In case o f a mandatory s h i f t , t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r may e i t h e r change t h e v a l u e of t h e r e l e v a n t d i m e n s i o n p r o d u c i n g a r e v e r s a l s h i f t o r may choose a new d i m e n s i o n t o be rewarded which i s an e x t r a d i m e n s i o n a l s h i f t . The o p t i o n a l s h i f t paradigm i s d i f f e r e n t i n t h a t i n t h e second d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h e s t i m u l u s t h a t i s rewarded i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h d i m e n s i o n s . After c r i t e r i o n i s reached on t h e f i r s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , one s t i m u l u s p a i r i s p r e s e n t e d w i t h rewards r e v e r s e d . The s u b j e c t must s h i f t h i s response b u t may respond t o e i t h e r d i m e n s i o n o r b o t h . I n t h e f i n a l phase o f t h e experiment t h e t e s t p a i r , on w h i c h any c h o i c e i s rewarded, i s a l t e r n a t e d w i t h a t r a i n i n g p a i r on which o n l y t h e c o r r e c t p a i r i s rewarded. The o p t i o n a l s h i f t as p r e s e n t e d by t h e K e n d l e r s (1962) i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 2 and w i l l be e x p l a i n e d i n more d e t a i l . In t h e f i r s t phase o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , s u b j e c t s a r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h s t i m u l u s c a r d s showing a l a r g e b l a c k square (LB) p a i r e d w i t h a s m a l l w h i t e square (SW) o r a l a r g e w h i t e square (LW) w i t h a s m a l l b l a c k square (SB). Order and p o s i t i o n a r e randomized and each concept (L,B,S,W) i s c o r r e c t f o r one f o u r t h o f t h e s u b j e c t s . In t h e case o f a s u b j e c t f o r whom b l a c k i s t h e c o r r e c t concept and s i z e i s i r r e l e v a n t , t h e c h o i c e o f e i t h e r SB o r LB i s rewarded. When he reaches c r i t e r i o n on t h i s problem, a second d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d which i n v o l v e s o n l y one o f t h e s t i m u l u s p a i r s , e.g., LB and SW, and SW i s 34 now rewarded as t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . The c h i l d can r e a c h c r i t e r i o n on t h i s phase by c h o o s i n g w h i t e , i n w h i c h case he i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be making a r e v e r s a l response t o another v a l u e o f the b r i g h t n e s s d i m e n s i o n . a l s o be r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s m a l l n e s s o f SW. He could T h i s c h o i c e can be e x p e c t e d from nonmediators s i n c e i n the f i r s t phase s m a l l was rewarded h a l f o f the time and w h i t e n e s s n o t a t a l l . The c h i l d can a l s o respond t o b o t h the s m a l l n e s s and w h i t e n e s s o f the s t i m u l u s . The K e n d l e r s t a k e t h i s t o be another nonmediating response which i s c a t e g o r i z e d as " i n c o n s i s t e n t . " In o r d e r t o determine the way to i n which the c h i l d has been r e s p o n d i n g the second phase o f the t a s k , a t h i r d s e r i e s i s i n t r o d u c e d w i t h o u t interruption. Both s t i m u l u s p a i r s a r e used b u t the p a i r t h a t was n o t used i n the second phase (LW and SB) a r e now a t e s t p a i r . E i t h e r choice i s rewarded on t h i s p a i r b u t a c t u a l c h o i c e s are r e c o r d e d f o r 10 p r e s e n t a t i o n s . On the b a s i s of these c h o i c e s the c h i l d i s s c o r e d as a r e v e r s a l s u b j e c t i f W i s chosen a t l e a s t 8 o u t o f 10 t i m e s , a n o n r e v e r s a l s u b j e c t i f S i s chosen a t l e a s t 8 o u t o f 10, and i n c o n s i s t e n t i n o t h e r c a s e s . 5. R e l a t i o n s h i p between the S h i f t Task and the M a t r i x and Classification Tasks I t was argued p r e v i o u s l y t h a t the m a t r i x and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s r e q u i r e d the s u b j e c t t o i d e n t i f y and use f i r s t one c o n c e p t u a l d i m e n s i o n and then another i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e s o l u t i o n s . seemingly i d e n t i f y those s u b j e c t s who The d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t t a s k s can c o n s i s t e n t l y use a c o n c e p t u a l dimension t o s o l v e b o t h i n i t i a l and r e v e r s a l phases o f the problem. For i n s t a n c e , i f a c h i l d d i s c o v e r s t h a t "red" i s the c o r r e c t s o l u t i o n i n the f i r s t phase, he w i l l ( i f a r e v e r s a l responder) n a t u r a l l y t r y the c o l o u r d i m e n s i o n i n the second phase. A c h i l d who tends t o use the c o n c e p t u a l 35 dimensions t o s o l v e a r e v e r s a l s h i f t , s h o u l d t h e o r e t i c a l l y be a b l e t o use s i m i l a r conceptual categories to achieve c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s or matrix Those o t h e r s u b j e c t s who do not use a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t u a l dimensions such as c o l o u r o r form t o s o l v e the r e v e r s a l s h i f t t a s k may solutions. (the n o n r e v e r s a l responders) be p r o c e s s i n g the s t i m u l u s f e a t u r e s s o l e l y on a p e r c e p t u a l l e v e l as r e d squares o r r e d c i r c l e s . I f these s u b j e c t s a r e , i n f a c t , u n a b l e t o see a c o n c e p t u a l s o l u t i o n t o the s h i f t t a s k , then they may w e l l have the same d i f f i c u l t y i n a c h i e v i n g a c o n c e p t u a l s o l u t i o n t o the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n matrix tasks. or matrix They may be unable t o use the d i m e n s i o n as a b a s i s f o r s o r t i n g completion. Experimental 1. and Procedures Subjects S u b j e c t s were 34 c h i l d r e n i n a k i n d e r g a r t e n c l a s s i n a m i d d l e - c l a s s suburban elementary s c h o o l i n N o r t h Vancouver. They v a r i e d i n age from 5 y e a r s , 3 months t o 6 y e a r s , 2 months w i t h a median age o f Males outnumbered females 22 t o 12. 2. 5.11. A l l s u b j e c t s completed a l l o f the t a s k s . Material a. The s h i f t task. Three t a s k s were a d m i n i s t e r e d . One was o p t i o n a l r e v e r s a l s h i f t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n as employed by K e n d l e r and T h i s was r e f e r r e d t o as the s h i f t t a s k . the Kendler. The o t h e r two were based on the c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k and the m a t r i x c o m p l e t i o n t a s k d e s c r i b e d by I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t (1964). They were r e f e r r e d t o as the classification t a s k and the m a t r i x t a s k , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A l l t h r e e t a s k s used s i m i l a r s t i m u l i , namely, geometric forms 36 ( c i r c l e , square, t r i a n g l e ) v a r y i n g i n s i z e (large o r small) o r colour ( r e d , b l u e , o r orange). I n t h e s h i f t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t a s k o n l y t h e square shape was used and i t was v a r i e d on two d i m e n s i o n s : (blue o r o r a n g e ) . size ( l a r g e o r s m a l l ) and c o l o u r Because t h e s h i f t t a s k was a f a i r l y l o n g e x e r c i s e f o r young c h i l d r e n , i t was c o n s i d e r e d t o o demanding t o use a l l c o m b i n a t i o n s o f the t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s . K e n d l e r and K e n d l e r The c o l o u r - s i z e c o m b i n a t i o n was used because i n t h e (1970) study u s i n g t h e same t h r e e dimensions i t was found t o be t h e p a i r i n g which most n e a r l y agreed w i t h t h e combined r e s u l t s of a l l three p a i r i n g s . I n f a c t , f o r t h e k i n d e r g a r t e n s u b j e c t s t h e r e was no significant difference. The s t i m u l i c o n s i s t e d o f a s e t o f 4><6-inch c a r d s . shown i n F i g u r e 3. An example i s A l i n e a c r o s s t h e c a r d d i v i d e d i t i n t o two e q u a l each d i s p l a y i n g a square o f c o l o u r e d paper p a s t e d i nplace. squares were 4.2 cm p e r s i d e and t h e s m a l l ones were 2.6 cm. areas, The l a r g e On each c a r d the squares were always opposed t o each o t h e r on b o t h d i m e n s i o n s . b. The m a t r i x t a s k . F o r t h e m a t r i x t a s k t h e s t i m u l i were g e o m e t r i c shapes ( c i r c l e , s q u a r e , t r i a n g l e ) c u t o u t o f m a s o n i t e and p a i n t e d b r i g h t r e d or blue. The squares were 4.2 cm o r 3.6 cm p e r s i d e , t h e t r i a n g l e s 5.2 cm o r 3.7 cm, and t h e c i r c l e s had d i a m e t e r s o f .5 cm o r 3.3 cm (see F i g u r e 4 ) . These d i m e n s i o n s produced an approximate s i m i l a r i t y i n a r e a among t h e l a r g e ones and among t h e s m a l l ones. Since the matrix completion t a s k was t o be a s i m p l e 2x2 t y p e , a w h i t e c a r d was used which was d i v i d e d i n h a l f each way by a b l a c k l i n e thus c r e a t i n g 4 c e l l s . On t h i s t h e m a t r i x p r o b l e m was l a i d out. c. The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k . The m a t e r i a l f o r t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n Figure 3 Example o f s t i m u l u s c a r d f o r the o p t i o n a l r e v e r s a l s h i f t task Figure 4 Examples o f s i z e s and shapes used i n the m a t r i x task 39 t a s k c o n s i s t e d o f a s e t o f 6.2x7.5 cm c a r d s each o f w h i c h had on i t one o f the t h r e e g e o m e t r i c forms, e i t h e r r e d o r b l u e , l a r g e o r s m a l l 5). The dimensions were g e n e r a l l y t h e same as those used i n t h e o t h e r tasks. 3. (see F i g u r e There were s e v e r a l d u p l i c a t i o n s o f each p a r t i c u l a r s t i m u l u s type. Procedure The t a s k s were a d m i n i s t e r e d a. The m a t r i x t a s k . i n t h e same o r d e r f o r a l l s u b j e c t s . The m a t r i x t a s k was p r e s e n t e d c h i l d r e n were a t t r a c t e d t o t h e c o l o u r e d forms and were i n t e r e s t e d i n t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e " t h i n k i n g game." first. immediately The c h i l d r e n were f i r s t asked t o i d e n t i f y a l l o f t h e v a l u e s and dimensions o f t h e s t i m u l i . were o n l y two o r t h r e e c h i l d r e n who c o u l d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y There i d e n t i f y the t r i a n g l e o r square by name b u t they were o b v i o u s l y a l l f a m i l i a r w i t h shapes. The these The e x p e r i m e n t e r l a i d o u t 3 s t i m u l i on t h e w h i t e c a r d , e.g., t h e l a r g e r e d t r i a n g l e , t h e s m a l l r e d t r i a n g l e and t h e l a r g e r e d c i r c l e , l e a v i n g t h e lower r i g h t c e l l empty. these The c h i l d was t h e n a s k e d , "Which o f (E p o i n t i n g t o t r a y o f s t i m u l i ) goes b e s t i n t h i s p l a c e ? " After making h i s c h o i c e , t h e c h i l d was asked, "Why d i d you choose t h i s one?" He was t h e n a s k e d , "Can a n y t h i n g e l s e go i n t h e empty p l a c e j u s t as w e l l ? " I n s t r u c t i o n s were g e n e r a l l y p a t t e r n e d on those used by I n h e l d e r and P i a g e t (1964) . Each c h i l d was p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h r e e d i f f e r e n t arrangements o f incomplete m a t r i x so t h a t a l l c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e t h r e e dimensions were used; i . e . , c o l o u r - f o r m , f o r m - s i z e , and c o l o u r - s i z e . The o r d e r o f t h e t h r e e subtasks was r o t a t e d from s u b j e c t t o s u b j e c t . Scoring. The c h i l d was s c o r e d one p o i n t f o r each c o r r e c t c h o i c e i f he s t a y e d w i t h i t , t h a t i s , i f he d i d n o t change h i s r e s p o n s e when asked 40 Figure 5 Card t y p e s used i n the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n task 41 i f any o t h e r c h o i c e would be as good. He was g i v e n a n o t h e r p o i n t i f he could e x p l a i n the reason f o r h i s choice. Therefore a s c o r e o f 6 p o i n t s was possible for a l l 3 parts. b. The s h i f t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t a s k . The s h i f t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t a s k was a d m i n i s t e r e d n e x t and i n t h e same s e s s i o n . Instructions. be q u i t e easy. "Now we w i l l p l a y another t h i n k i n g game. Look a t these c a r d s . What do they have on them?" sure c h i l d can i d e n t i f y a l l elements.) each c a r d . one It will (Make "There a r e always two t h i n g s on I am g o i n g t o choose one o f them and I want you t o guess which I have chosen and p o i n t t o i t . I ' l l t e l l you i f you guess r i g h t . we w i l l do t h e same t h i n g w i t h t h e o t h e r c a r d s . Then L e t ' s s t a r t now and y o u w i l l soon see how i t goes." F o r each c h o i c e t h e c h i l d was t o l d "Yes" o r "No," and a n o t h e r c a r d was immediately turned over. The cards were p r e a r r a n g e d so t h a t t h e c o r r e c t s t i m u l i would occur e q u a l l y o f t e n on each s i d e and a l s o no more than t h r e e c o n s e c u t i v e times on one s i d e . C r i t e r i o n f o r t h i s phase o f t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t a s k was 10 successive correct choices. quite rapidly. Most c h i l d r e n caught on f a i r l y q u i c k l y , some The o t h e r s were encouraged t o keep t r y i n g u n t i l they were t i r e d and u n w i l l i n g t o t r y a g a i n . When a c h i l d completed t h e f i r s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s u c c e s s f u l l y , he was immediately p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e second phase o f t h e t a s k . I f the c o r r e c t c h o i c e i n t h e f i r s t p a r t had been " l a r g e , " i t would now be " s m a l l . " c a r d s now had o n l y two s t i m u l i , l a r g e orange and s m a l l b l u e . c r i t e r i o n was 10 s u c c e s s i v e c o r r e c t c h o i c e s . The Once a g a i n , The c h i l d r e n caught on t o t h e s h i f t q u i t e r a p i d l y , u s u a l l y a f t e r t h e f i r s t i n c o r r e c t guess. I n t h e f i n a l phase o f t h e t a s k , cards showing t h e t r a i n i n g p a i r 42 f o r which t h e r e was the t e s t p a i r . o n l y one c o r r e c t c h o i c e were p r e s e n t e d For the t e s t p a i r e i t h e r c h o i c e was the a c t u a l c h o i c e was r e c o r d e d on the p r o t o c o l . c o u l d be determined whether the c h i l d was on a s w i t c h from l a r g e to s m a l l (a n o n r e v e r s a l s h i f t ) . the c h i l d was alternately d e c l a r e d c o r r e c t but From these responses i t b a s i n g h i s second d i s c r i m i n a t i o n (a r e v e r s a l s h i f t ) o r from l a r g e t o b l u e I f a t l e a s t 8 out of 10 c h o i c e s were c o n s i s t e n t , s c o r e d as a r e v e r s e r or a n o n r e v e r s e r . c o n s i s t e n t c h o i c e s , he was I f he made fewer l a b e l l e d as n o n s e l e c t i v e . A t the o u t s e t of the d i s c r i m i n a t i o n task each of the s t i m u l u s v a l u e s was p o s i t i v e f o r one The t e n days l a t e r . dimensions w i t h two C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Task administered a t another There were t h r e e subtasks v a l u e s of each. "I want you piles. had A s e t o f 12 cards were p r e s e n t e d s o r t e d them s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t o two p i l e s , he was doing for his sorting. i t a d i f f e r e n t way. Then he was He was in a Instructions the t h i n g s t h a t go t o g e t h e r . Make sure t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n t k i n d i n each p i l e . " reasons and t o put t o g e t h e r session each i n v o l v i n g two s c a t t e r e d arrangement on the t a b l e i n f r o n t of the c h i l d . were: four q u a r t e r of the s u b j e c t s . A simple c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k was approximately with Make When the two child asked t o e x p l a i n the asked i f he c o u l d make two more p i l e s , s c o r e d one mark f o r each c o r r e c t s o r t i n g e x p l a n a t i o n , thus g i v i n g a maximum o f 6 p o i n t s f o r t h i s task. 43 Hypotheses and D e s i g n The hypotheses t o be t e s t e d were: (1) That t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between scores on the m a t r i x task and on the r e v e r s a l (2) shift task That t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between s c o r e s on the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k and on the r e v e r s a l statistical s h i f t task. In terms f o r 34 s u b j e c t s t h i s means t h a t the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s s h o u l d exceed .28 a t the .10 l e v e l . The d e s i g n o f t h i s experiment simply r e q u i r e d the comparison o f r e s u l t s o f the t h r e e t a s k s a d m i n i s t e r e d t o one group o f s u b j e c t s . The s u b j e c t s r e p r e s e n t i n g the 5-7-year age group were t o be k i n d e r g a r t e n enrolled i n an elementary s c h o o l . Pearson c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s . analysis pupils Task r e s u l t s were t o be compared by I t was a l s o d e c i d e d t o use a c h i - s q u a r e a f t e r d i c h o t o m i z i n g the r e s u l t s o f each t a s k t o agree w i t h p r e s e t d e f i n i t i o n s o f competent t a s k performance. 44 CHAPTER IV RESULTS The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d d i d n o t s u p p o r t t h e hypotheses t h a t t h e r e would be p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between performance on t h e m a t r i x and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s , and t h e tendency t o make a r e v e r s a l s h i f t . The c o r r e l a t i o n s were p o s i t i v e b u t n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . The c o r r e l a t i o n o f m a t r i x t a s k r e s u l t s w i t h t h e s h i f t was .19, and t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k w i t h t h e s h i f t was .11; n e i t h e r b e i n g s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .10 l e v e l . I t was a l s o found t h a t t h e m a t r i x and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s had a n o n s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n (.12). Age had a s l i g h t n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e t h r e e t a s k s b u t was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . C o r r e l a t i o n w i t h sex was a l s o i n s i g n i f i c a n t . I n t h e case o f t h e s h i f t t a s k , a check was made t o see i f cue p r e f e r e n c e might have a f f e c t e d performance'. The f o u r p o s i t i v e s t i m u l i i n the f i r s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n were c o r r e l a t e d w i t h r e s u l t s on t h i s t a s k . It was found t h a t t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t . Chi-square t e s t s were a l s o performed. I n t h i s case t h e d a t a were recoded as i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e I . The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s r e c o d i n g was t h a t we w i s h e d t o a n a l y z e performances o f t h e c h i l d r e n on t h e s i m p l e r l e v e l , o f whether they chose t h e r e v e r s a l s h i f t o r n o t , and whether o r n o t they c o u l d do t h e m a t r i x and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s a d e q u a t e l y one form. i n at least 45 Table I Recoding o f the d a t a f o r c h i - s q u a r e a n a l y s i s Task Matrix Score Criteria 2 task c o r r e c t performance and e x p l a n a t i o n on a t l e a s t one a l l o t h e r responses 1 Classification Shift 2 1 a t l e a s t one two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n achieved a l l o t h e r responses 2 1 reversal shift a l l others I t can be seen from T a b l e I I t h a t the c h i - s q u a r e t h a t t h e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t Table I I The shift Classification Matrix with with analysis indicated r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the t a s k s as r e c o d e d . corrected chi-squares Chi-square Matrix with subtest shift classification Significance .003 .95 .000 .98 .405 .52 level T a b l e I I I Frequency t a b l e s f o r t h e t h r e e Scores Number o f subjects Percentage reversal shift 4 16 47.1 nonreversal 3 7 20.6 nonselective 2 4 11.8 u n a b l e t o do f i r s t discrimination 1 7 20.6 Scores Number o f subjects Percentage 0 2 5.9 1 1 2.9 2 5 14.7 3 8 23.5 4 4 11.8 5 6 17.6 6 8 23.5 Scores Number o f subjects Percentage 0 2 5.9 1 6 17.6 2 5 14.7 3 1 2.9 4 4 11.8 5 5 14.7 6 11 32.4 Task Shift: Task Classification Task Matrix tasks 47 Frequencies f o r the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n task show that 8 subjects scored 3 points which represented 3 correct one-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and no points f o r two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s . There were also 8 subjects who scored 6 points f o r performing the two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s p e r f e c t l y . The other scores (except 0) indicate inconsistent performance and possibly the e f f e c t of the preference. As examples of inconsistency across tasks, there were three cases of children who achieved perfect scores on the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n task but who scored only one or two points on the matrix. I t may be s i g n i f i c a n t that one of these children chose the reversal s h i f t . There were three cases of children who did the matrix completion perfectly but who were unable to sort the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n stimuli i n more than one way. One of these chose a reversal s h i f t . On the other hand, there were only four subjects who achieved perfect scores on both the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and matrix tasks. these subjects chose a reversal s h i f t . In each case This finding suggests that the relationship we were looking for i n this study might be found i n a s l i g h t l y older group of children. 48 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION Explanation of Results 1. Lack o f Support f o r H y p o t h e s i s There a r e t h r e e p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e l a c k o f s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c h i - s q u a r e t e s t s were n e g a t i v e : (1) I t may be t h a t t h e t a s k s do n o t c a l l f o r t h e same s k i l l s ; t a s k s may n o t have been made e q u a l i n d i f f i c u l t y ; (2) The (3) Other f a c t o r s may have been o p e r a t i n g t o mask an a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e same c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t i e s a r e c a l l e d f o r i n these t a s k s may be i n v a l i d . On t h e o t h e r hand, i t may be t h a t t h e c h i l d has t h e a b i l i t y t o r e c o g n i z e and use t h e t a s k dimensions and change c r i t e r i a when c a l l e d f o r b u t he i s e n c o u n t e r i n g i n the tasks. The problem o f f i n d i n g e v i d e n c e f o r h y p o t h e s i z e d o p e r a t i o n s has been noted many times Kofsky, o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s which a r e i n h e r e n t 1966; Smedslund, 1964). cognitive (e.g., F l a v e l l and W o h l w i l l , 1969; T h i s problem w i l l be taken up i n more d e t a i l later. 2. Agreement w i t h P r e v i o u s Studies The t a s k s s h o u l d have been e q u a l i n d i f f i c u l t y i n o r d e r t o make m e a n i n g f u l comparisons between them. O v e r a l l r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t they were s i m i l a r i n d i f f i c u l t y f o r t h e group as a whole. t a s k 52.9% o f s u b j e c t s s c o r e d 4 o r more p o i n t s In the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ( i n d i c a t i n g t h a t they could do t h e two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n a t l e a s t one i n s t a n c e and g i v e an adequate e x p l a n a t i o n ) . F o r t h e m a t r i x t a s k 58.8% o f s u b j e c t s s c o r e d 4 o r 49 more points. The percentage of reversal s h i f t subjects was 47.1%. The fact that the results obtained for each of the three tasks were s i m i l a r to findings i n previous studies lends support to the view that the experimental method could not be blamed for the f a i l u r e to confirm hypothesis. the With regard to the reversal s h i f t study, Kendler and Kendler (1975) have found i n t h e i r studies with large groups of children that there are generally about 50% reversal s h i f t s with kindergarten children. In the case of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n task, a s i m i l a r version used by Kofsky and Osier (1967) showed 50% of the 5-year-old group doing adequate sorting (two-way with explanation). Piaget and Inhelder (1970) indicate 57% operational solutions for a two-attribute matrix using 6-year-old subjects (14 subjects). These comparisons seem to indicate that neither the subjects nor the methods used were l i k e l y to produce unusual r e s u l t s . 3. Another Possible Approach While the hypothesized r e l a t i o n s h i p between discrimination s h i f t performance and multiple c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a b i l i t y was not supported by the results of this study, i t i s s t i l l possible that this r e l a t i o n s h i p holds with s l i g h t l y older children. One possible new approach would be to t e s t a group of 6- or 7-year-olds and select two groups that could be c l e a r l y categorized as preoperational or concrete operational using a battery of Piagetian tasks. performance. subjects who f i n a l study. Then the groups could be compared for reversal s h i f t The disadvantage of this type of study i s that many t r a n s i t i o n a l would not f i t either category would have to be dropped from the 50 D i f f e r e n c e s between t h e K e n d l e r and P i a g e t i a n Tasks W h i l e t h e t a s k s used i n t h i s experiment were d e s i g n e d s i m i l a r s t i m u l i and t o r e q u i r e s i m i l a r l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , t o present t h e r e were a t l e a s t two i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e P i a g e t i a n t a s k s and t h e s h i f t task. One d i f f e r e n c e was o b v i o u s i n t h e t a s k format and s o l u t i o n r e q u i r e - ments, t h e o t h e r i n t h e language 1. requirements. Task Format R e v e r s a l and n o n r e v e r s a l s h i f t s a r e r e v e a l e d i n a t a s k format where t h e r e a r e many t r i a l s and c o n t i n u a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t . The s u b j e c t , i f he can do t h e t a s k a t a l l , i s l e d t o c o n t i n u e h i s e f f o r t s toward a s o l u t i o n . By t h e end o f t h e t a s k he has p r o b a b l y i n d i c a t e d j u s t how w e l l he can d e a l w i t h t h e problem a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r t i m e . The P i a g e t i a n t a s k s , on t h e o t h e r hand, a r e much more open-ended i n t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s . When t h e c h i l d chooses an o b j e c t t o f i l l o u t t h e m a t r i x , he i s n o t t o l d t h a t i t i s r i g h t or wrong. if He i s s i m p l y prompted t o r e c o n s i d e r h i s c h o i c e by b e i n g t h e r e i s any o t h e r c h o i c e t h a t w i l l f i l l the c e l l c o r r e c t l y . asked I f he were t o l d c l e a r l y t h a t h i s c h o i c e i s wrong, he might c o n t i n u e w o r k i n g on t h e problem b u t as i t i s , he i s f r e e t o s t a y w i t h h i s o r i g i n a l c h o i c e . When asked t o j u s t i f y h i s c h o i c e , he can s i m p l y s t a t e t h a t " i t l o o k s r i g h t t h a t way." I t may be argued, however, t h a t even though t h e c h i l d d i d n o t understand t h e t a s k demands i n i t i a l l y , he may s t i l l be capable of f i n d the s o l u t i o n i f he i s made aware o f t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o r i n c o r r e c t n e s s o f h i s choices. In short, then, the d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h i f t task i s a l e a r n i n g task f w h i l e t h e m a t r i x o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s a r e methods o f a s s e s s i n g t h e c h i l d ' s understanding o f a problem as i t i s p r e s e n t e d . This difference i n 51 procedure would perhaps be considered unimportant i n Piaget's view because he would say that i f the c h i l d i s capable of doing the task, the usual questioning procedure should be s u f f i c i e n t to reveal'that c a p a b i l i t y . Whether the Piagetian tasks do reveal the child's i s a matter of some debate. understanding For instance, regarding the sorting task, Inhelder and Piaget (1959) claimed that the subjects spontaneously i n t e r p r e t the instructions i n the most sophisticated manner of which they are capable. But Braine (1962) disagreed and pointed out that i s i s impossible to be sure that the subject has given the best response of which he i s capable. Braine argues that when the subject gives several correct sortings i t i s probably safe to conclude that he understands the abstract concept involved i n the expression "same kind" or " a l i k e . " However, i f the subject does not sort s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , one cannot be confident that he i s incapable of a better performance—at least "one has much less confidence than one has i n a learning task where correct responses are reinforced" (p. 43) . 2. Verbal Requirements The other very important difference between the Piagetian tasks and the s h i f t task i s that the former require verbal methods, while the l a t t e r does not depend on the child's understanding of language. The s h i f t task i n the present study was preceded by a verbal introduction and the reinforcement consisted of a "yes" or "no" from the experimenter, but the subjects had no r e a l need to understand or use language i n the course of their performance. Braine (1962) was also concerned about the use of verbal methods in Piaget's problems. He f e l t that when a c h i l d had to respond to words whose meanings were not clear to him, h i s responses could not be properly 52 evaluated. I n many t a s k s , i f t h e c h i l d understands t h e meaning o f t h e v e r b a l i n s t r u c t i o n s , i t f o l l o w s t h a t he must u n d e r s t a n d t h e concept i n v o l v e d . For i n s t a n c e , when t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r r e f e r s t o " t h i n g s t h a t go t o g e t h e r , " i t may be i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e c h i l d as t h i n g s t h a t have t h e same a t t r i b u t e , i n which case he w i l l u n d e r s t a n d t h e c l a s s c o n c e p t . But i f the experimenter's words a r e i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean t h i n g s t h a t l o o k w e l l t o g e t h e r and t h e c h i l d responds t o t h a t meaning, i t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t he i s i n c a p a b l e o f c l a s s i f y i n g o b j e c t s by t h e i r a t t r i b u t e s . K o f s k y (1966) a l s o p o i n t e d t o t h e e f f e c t o f d i f f e r i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s as one e x p l a n a t i o n scalogram s t u d y . verbal f o r t h e many i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s r e v e a l e d i n h e r I n her o p i n i o n a l s o , tasks r e q u i r i n g the c h i l d t o v e r b a l i z e a r e i n h e r e n t l y d i f f e r e n t from those r e q u i r i n g m a n i p u l a t i o n of material. Previous 1. S t u d i e s Which Found a Lack o f R e l a t i o n s h i p among Tasks Smedslund The l a c k o f correspondence o f r e s u l t s between t h e two P i a g e t i a n tasks i n t h i s study i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y s u r p r i s i n g i n the l i g h t of e a r l i e r findings. concrete Smedslund (1964) l o o k e d reasoning were 5 - 8 - y e a r - o l d s . f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among e i g h t t e s t s o f adapted from P i a g e t and h i s c o l l a b o r a t o r s . One o f h i s t e s t s was s i m i l a r t o t h e m a t r i x H i s subjects task. In t h i s , as i n t h e o t h e r t a s k s , he found t h a t s u b i t e m r e s p o n s e s were inconsistent. Smedslund g e n e r a l l y found t h a t t h e r e was a low i n d e x o f homogeneity among h i s s e t o f items and c o n c l u d e d t h a t " c o n c r e t e reasoning has a v e r y l i m i t e d g e n e r a l i t y d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f a c q u i s i t i o n . " On t h e 53 b a s i s o f h i s r e s u l t s he f e l t t h a t t h e r e was no c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t c h i l d r e n a p p l i e d t h e same i n f e r e n c e p a t t e r n s c o n s i s t e n t l y i n d i f f e r e n t t a s k s and with different stimuli. I n a l a t e r study Smedslund (1966) attempted t o keep t h e s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n s c o n s t a n t w h i l e v a r y i n g t h e i n f e r e n c e p a t t e r n s between t a s k s . He found t h a t t h e same l o g i c a l t a s k s t r u c t u r e w i t h i d e n t i c a l p e r c e p t u a l features s t i l l r e s u l t e d i n widely d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n frequencies. One f a c t o r which was found t o i n f l u e n c e r e s u l t s was t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e t a s k i n the s e r i e s . Smedslund concluded t h a t t a s k s r e q u i r e d much more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s b e f o r e making comparisons from them. 2. F l a v e l l and W o h l w i l l I t i s n o t o n l y t h e t a s k s t h a t l e a d t o problems w i t h c o m p a r i s o n s , but the subjects themselves. We can e x p e c t t o f i n d t h a t c h i l d r e n who a r e i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d w i l l be i n c o n s i s t e n t i n t h e i r performance and W o h l w i l l , 1969). (Flavell S i n c e new s t r u c t u r e s a r e b e i n g formed, t h e c h i l d ' s responses w i l l v a r y from one o c c a s i o n t o t h e n e x t and w i l l be p a r t i c u l a r l y susceptible to task-related variables. P i a g e t h i m s e l f has d e s c r i b e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d as one when s t a b i l i z a t i o n o c c u r s and has noted t h a t t h e r e are d i f f e r e n c e s i n performance a c r o s s t a s k s . d i f f e r e n c e s " h o r i z o n t a l decalages." He has l a b e l l e d these U n f o r t u n a t e l y , he has n o t proposed s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s t o account f o r them. 3. K l a h r and W a l l a c e K l a h r and W a l l a c e (1970) hoped t o a r r i v e a t a more complete and s p e c i f i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f the processes u n d e r l y i n g performance on P i a g e t i a n t a s k s by u s i n g an i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g a n a l y s i s . for seven o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k s used by K o f s k y They f o r m u l a t e d (1966). routines One o f these 54 was the h o r i z o n t a l r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k which i s the same as c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k i n the p r e s e n t s t u d y . an e x h a u s t i v e time." the They d e s c r i b e i t as s o r t done t w i c e , w i t h a d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a l T h e i r a n a l y s i s i s b r i e f l y as f o l l o w s : "essentially a t t r i b u t e each A t f i r s t the r o u t i n e n o t i c e s an o b j e c t , then a v a l u e of the o b j e c t , and then the a t t r i b u t e o f noticed value. exhaustive The a t t r i b u t e then c o n t r o l s the f i r s t s o r t . the A f t e r the first s o r t i s completed, the e x p e r i m e n t e r i n t e r v e n e s t o reassemble the s t i m u l i and t o g i v e f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s , such as " I want you t o p u t b l o c k s t o g e t h e r a d i f f e r e n t way." the The r o u t i n e s h i f t s a t t e n t i o n from o b j e c t to v a l u e t o a t t r i b u t e once more, b u t w i t h an added s t e p t o ensure t h a t the same a t t r i b u t e i s not used a g a i n f o r the second s o r t . Such a r o u t i n e has the l i m i t a t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s no e n c o d i n g o f the p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n , the l i n g u i s t i c r e q u i r e m e n t s , m o t i v a t i o n a l and a t t e n t i o n a l f a c t o r s . though the r e a s o n i n g p r o c e s s e s or i n t e r a c t i o n s o f K l a h r and W a l l a c e concluded i n a s e t o f t a s k s may be p a r a l l e l , attempt t o remove sources o f v a r i a t i o n between t a s k s may t h a t even any be doomed t o f a i l u r e because m o t i v a t i o n a l and a t t e n t i o n a l f a c t o r s a r e always p r e s e n t w i l l produce i n c o n s i s t e n c y . and T h e i r c o n c l u s i o n would appear t o be v a l i d f o r the t a s k s used h e r e . 4. Kofsky Going back t o the K o f s k y (1966) s t u d y , the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d appeared t o s u p p o r t the K l a h r and W a l l a c e a n a l y s i s . Kofsky found little c o n s i s t e n c y i n her s u b j e c t s ' performance not o n l y between t a s k s b u t on one task. Exhaustive there any She n o t e d t h a t many s u b j e c t s f a i l e d the two s o r t i n g t a s k s , S o r t i n g and H o r i z o n t a l R e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , e i t h e r because they were unable t o form c o n s i s t e n t c l a s s e s o r because they c o u l d not use the specific 55 r u l e r e q u i r e d by the t a s k . who Kofsky hypothesized t h a t the younger c h i l d r e n f a i l e d s h o u l d have done so because they were i n c o n s i s t e n t s o r t e r s b u t such was not the c a s e . form more than one s u b j e c t s but i t was She a l s o n o t e d t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l l y the i n a b i l i t y t a s k a t a time s h o u l d be more f r e q u e n t among younger not. K o f s k y suggested s e v e r a l reasons why her study d i d not support the i d e a o f a f i x e d sequence o f s t a g e s i n a c q u i r i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n One r e a s o n was because t h e y do n o t f e e l a need t o be c o n s i s t e n t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n a b r i e f sample of t h e i r b e h a v i o u r may r e l i a b l e measure o f t h e i r a b i l i t i e s . simplest s k i l l s probably Therefore ability. t h a t young c h i l d r e n are as a g e n e r a l r u l e u n r e l i a b l e i n t h e i r performance p r o b a b l y w h i c h they may to not p r o v i d e A n o t h e r p o i n t was a t h a t even the r e q u i r e a f a i r l y long p e r i o d of c o n s o l i d a t i o n during be used c o r r e c t l y i n some s i t u a t i o n s but not i n o t h e r s . i t w i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o d e c i d e degree o f mastery on any two tasks. i f a c h i l d has a c h i e v e d the same As f o r the t a s k s t h e m s e l v e s , v a r i a t i o n s i n i n s t r u c t i o n s and m a t e r i a l c o u l d be a p o s s i b l e s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on performance. 5. Campione and Brown Other s t u d i e s have shown t h a t where t a s k s r e q u i r e the same r u l e knowledge, k i n d e r g a r t e n - a g e c h i l d r e n do not e f f e c t i v e l y t r a n s f e r t h a t knowledge from one t a s k t o another of a d i f f e r e n t format (Campione Brown, 1974) . s t r u c t u r e o f the t a s k i t s e l f i s seemingly a p a r t o f problem. The Campione and Brown found i n t h e i r r e s e a r c h t h a t t r a n s f e r g r e a t e r when the same s t i m u l i were used i n t r a i n i n g and t r a n s f e r . f i n d i n g s l e d t o t h e i r c o n t e x t u a l elements h y p o t h e s i s . says t h a t c o n t e x t u a l cues p r e s e n t This and the was These hypothesis d u r i n g t r a i n i n g s e r v e as r e t r i e v a l cues 56 t o determine which a s p e c t s o f the s i t u a t i o n t o r e t a i n and use on subsequent problems. Such cues may f a v o u r t r a n s f e r o r work a g a i n s t i t . I n the case o f the s u b j e c t s used i n the p r e s e n t e x p e r i m e n t , they were f a m i l i a r w i t h the s o r t o f s t i m u l i used i n the study because the k i n d e r g a r t e n t e a c h e r had used s i m i l a r g e o m e t r i c forms i n a p e r c e p t u a l t r a i n i n g programme. designs. The c h i l d r e n had used these shapes t o c r e a t e v a r i o u s T h i s type o f a c t i v i t y may have l e d them t o approach the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m a t r i x t a s k s as problems w h i c h demanded d e s i g n c r e a t i o n . A t any r a t e , c r e a t i n g d e s i g n s was responses i n these t a s k s . one o f the most f r e q u e n t i n c o r r e c t A c e r t a i n amount o f p r o m p t i n g was used t o d i v e r t them from t h i s type o f response w i t h v a r y i n g degrees o f s u c c e s s . experience the c h i l d r e n had had w i t h p e r c e p t u a l t r a i n i n g may The have c o n t r i b u t e d t o the f a c t t h a t most o f them were q u i t e competent i n c l a s s i f y i n g t o shape, c o l o u r and s i z e u s i n g these dimensions one a t a t i m e . the t a s k s r e q u i r e d the simultaneous t h i s was a new problem f o r them. according However, d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f two d i m e n s i o n s F o r some c h i l d r e n n e g a t i v e t r a n s f e r may have been o p e r a t i n g t o cause them t o respond i n an accustomed way o f t o the e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s and instead instructions. The V a l u e o f F u r t h e r E x p l o r a t i o n o f the Problem I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t numbers o f r e s e a r c h e r s have e n c o u n t e r e d d i f f i c u l t y when comparing v a r i o u s t a s k s t o f i n d out about c h i l d r e n ' s c o g n i t i v e development. I t seems t h a t the t a s k s t r u c t u r e , s t i m u l u s language, e t c . , are always p a r t o f the problem a l o n g w i t h the concept, r u l e or inference p a t t e r n t h a t i s being s t u d i e d . values, specific Nevertheless, i t s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o a s s e s s the r o l e o f a l l these f a c t o r s more p r e c i s e l y 57 and t o s t r u c t u r e experiments so t h a t t h e r e a r e fewer v a r i a b l e s t o contend with. F o r t h i s end, the P i a g e t i a n t a s k s p r e s e n t q u i t e a c h a l l e n g e . Although t h e r e have been attempts t o c r e a t e more s t a n d a r d i z e d forms, i t seems t h a t much more c o u l d be done i n t h i s a r e a . There a l s o appear t o be e n d l e s s p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r b e h a v i o u r i s t methodology Piagetian and theory. One study u s i n g such an approach was O'Connor and S t e r n undertaken by G h o l s o n , (1976) i n o r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the c h i l d ' s P i a g e t i a n stage l e v e l and h i s method o f s o l v i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n problems. These were s i m p l e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n problems o f the s o r t used i n the f i r s t phase o f the s h i f t t a s k . the type o f h y p o t h e s i s the c h i l d was The i n v e s t i g a t o r s were i n t e r e s t e d i n u s i n g ; e.g., position alternation, focusing, etc. stimulus preference, This i s a d i f f e r e n t l i n e of i n v e s t i g a t i o n from the p r e s e n t study b u t the r e s u l t s are s u g g e s t i v e . authors found s t r o n g s u p p o r t is The f o r the P i a g e t i a n view t h a t c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t y (at l e a s t i n p a r t ) stage dependent. However, t h e r e was a l s o support for the h y p o t h e s i s t h a t s t i m u l u s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n t r a i n i n g w i t h feedback would improve performance. The a u t h o r s suggested t h a t a s y n t h e s i s o f the P i a g e t i a n p e r s p e c t i v e and c o n v e n t i o n a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y was required to describe d e v e l o p m e n t a l phenomena r e l a t i n g t o problem s o l v i n g . R e s u l t s o f I n d i v i d u a l Tasks 1. The C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Task The suggested two r e s u l t s of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a s k used i n t h i s sources o f d i f f i c u l t y f o r these s u b j e c t s . study The m a j o r i t y o f the c h i l d r e n c o u l d do a one-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i t h a l l t h r e e s t i m u l u s s e t s 58 b u t when asked t o c l a s s i f y t h e s e t a d i f f e r e n t way, t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f s u c c e s s f u l responses immediately 41.1% dropped t o 52.8% f o r one c o r r e c t s e t , f o r two, and 23.5% f o r a l l t h r e e s e t s . d i m e n s i o n was a major source o f d i f f i c u l t y . Thus s o r t i n g on a new T h i s problem o f s h i f t i n g the c r i t e r i a f o r s o r t i n g was d e s c r i b e d by K o f s k y and O s i e r p r i n c i p a l reason f o r f a i l u r e f o r t h e i r 5-year-old (1967) as t h e subjects. I t i s a l s o apparent from the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s c o r e s (Table I I I , p. 47) t h a t t h e s t i m u l u s dimensions ( c o l o u r , s i z e , form) were a n o t h e r f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g s o l u t i o n ; o t h e r w i s e , i f the c h i l d c o u l d do one two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n he s h o u l d have been a b l e t o do them a l l . The f a c t o r o p e r a t - i n g here might be e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f p e r c e p t u a l s a l i e n c e (Odom, A s t o r and Cunningham, 1965). Odom found t h a t when t h e s o l u t i o n - r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n was h i g h l y s a l i e n t f o r t h e c h i l d , performance was improved. A l s o , when r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n was low i n s a l i e n c e , s o l u t i o n s were r e t a r d e d . The p e r c e p t u a l s a l i e n c e view c o u l d be advanced as a p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the i n c o n s i s t e n t r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by t h e c h i l d r e n i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t . If the d i m e n s i o n was s a l i e n t f o r them, they c o u l d a c h i e v e a s o l u t i o n b u t i f i t was n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y s a l i e n t , they failed. I t i s n o t easy t o see how t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f m e d i a t i o n perceptual d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n reclassification (Kendler and K e n d l e r , 1962) o r (Tighe and T i g h e , 1968) s i n c e most s u b j e c t s were a b l e t o d e a l w i t h t h e v e r y same s t i m u l u s dimensions i n the one-way classification. However, a t t e n t i o n t h e o r y may be a b l e t o o f f e r a t l e a s t a p a r t i a l explanation. The c h i l d r e n c o u l d be s a i d t o have t r o u b l e a t t e n d i n g to the r e l e v a n t s t i m u l i f o r r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Having chosen t o s o r t f i r s t on the b a s i s o f one a t t r i b u t e such as s i z e , they t h e n had d i f f i c u l t y changing the f o c u s o f t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o a new a t t r i b u t e such as form. 59 The K l a h r and W a l l a c e (1970) i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g a n a l y s i s agrees w i t h the n o t i o n t h a t a t t e n t i o n a l mechanisms a r e c r u c i a l i n t h i s t a s k . P i a g e t , o f c o u r s e , has o b s e r v e d t h i s problem and d e s c r i b e d i t i n terms o f " a b s t r a c t i n g t h e c r i t e r i a o f a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n " P i a g e t , 1964) . ( I n h e l d e r and He e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e l o g i c i n v o l v e d i n t h i s o p e r a t i o n grows out o f t h e a c t i o n s o f g r o u p i n g and r e g r o u p i n g . I t i s also possible to t h i n k o f the a c t i o n s o f the c h i l d i n grouping and r e g r o u p i n g increased a t t e n t i o n to the relevant s t i m u l i . I f t h i s i s s o , then t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n from e x p e r i e n c e would be an i m p o r t a n t c h i l d ' s success i n t h i s task. f a c t o r i n the I t would a l s o be t h e case t h a t a t t e n t i o n t h e o r y and P i a g e t a r e i n agreement i n t h i s 2. as l e a d i n g t o matter. The M a t r i x Task The m a t r i x t a s k produced a b i m o d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s u l t s ; the c h i l d r e n e i t h e r performed v e r y w e l l (32% w i t h p e r f e c t s c o r e s ) o r q u i t e poorly (23.5% s c o r e d 1 o r 0 p o i n t s ) . no r e a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g The low s c o r e r s c o u l d be s a i d t o have o f t h e m a t r i x s i n c e they c o u l d have o b t a i n e d one p o i n t s i m p l y by g u e s s i n g . I t s h o u l d a l s o be noted t h a t m a t r i x r e s u l t s d i d not c o r r e l a t e with the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n task, although a n a l y s i s suggested t h a t s i m i l a r p r o c e s s e s their task Piaget's were i n v o l v e d i n b o t h . These f a c t s suggest t h a t t h e m a t r i x may p r e s e n t s p e c i a l problems f o r c h i l d r e n because o f i t s format. I t may be t h a t c h i l d r e n r e q u i r e some e x p e r i e n c e with the g r i d p a t t e r n and some s p e c i a l i n s t r u c t i o n s on t h e i d e a o f p a r a l l e l i s m i n b o t h t h e rows and columns b e f o r e they can master t h i s t a s k . by Overton and B r o d z i n s k y (1972) s u p p o r t s The s t u d y t h i s argument s i n c e they found t h a t a l i n e a r arrangement o f t h e s t i m u l i and s p e c i a l i n s t r u c t i o n s on t h e r u l e i n v o l v e d l e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s o l u t i o n s . 60 3. The R e v e r s a l S h i f t Task During the course o f a d m i n i s t e r i n g the r e v e r s a l s h i f t task some i n t e r e s t i n g responses were noted. I n the i n i t i a l phase o f the t a s k , the i d e a o f c o n t i n u i t y l e a r n i n g was- n o t borne out w i t h most c h i l d r e n . I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the p r o t o c o l s r e v e a l e d t h a t most c h i l d r e n responded at a chance l e v e l up t o a c e r t a i n p o i n t , then seemed t o a r r i v e a t a c o r r e c t h y p o t h e s i s and s o l v e the d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . The K e n d l e r s ' m e d i a t i o n a l h y p o t h e s i s was supported by the p a t t e r n of responses on the second phase o f the s h i f t . cases of I n the g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f (71%) the second d i s c r i m i n a t i o n was s o l v e d w i t h i n 20 t r i a l s . I n 53% c a s e s , c r i t e r i o n was a t t a i n e d w i t h i n 11 t r i a l s , meaning t h a t a f t e r the c h i l d guessed c o r r e c t l y o r i n c o r r e c t l y on the f i r s t t r i a l , the remaining responses were c o r r e c t . T h i s f i n d i n g suggests t h a t these c h i l d r e n r e v e r s e d t h e i r p r e v i o u s c o r r e c t response. rapidly However, when t h e experiment c o n t i n u e d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l s t i m u l i these s u b j e c t s d i d n o t always end up b e i n g c l a s s e d as r e v e r s e r s . T h i s response p a t t e r n a l o n g w i t h v a r i o u s comments made by the c h i l d r e n i n d i c a t e d t h a t some o f them were u s i n g more e l a b o r a t e hypotheses than n e c e s s a r y f o r t h i s t a s k . Some o f them may have abandoned t h e i r r e v e r s a l response when they observed the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new stimuli. Summary While the t a s k s c o n s i d e r e d i n d i v i d u a l l y produced results i n agreement w i t h p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s , the expected r e l a t i o n s h i p s among them were not supported by the e v i d e n c e . The absence o f s u p p o r t i n g evidence may have been due t o the r e s t r i c t e d age range o f the s u b j e c t s . But, i n g e n e r a l , 61 those who performed w e l l on one t a s k d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y do w e l l on t h e others. CD Some reasons have been suggested f o r t h i s l a c k o f agreement: d i f f e r e n c e s i n t a s k f o r m a t , (2) d i f f e r e n c e s i n v e r b a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , (3) d i f f e r e n c e s i n the a t t e n t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t a s k s , (4) d i f f e r e n c e s i n s k i l l s , knowledge and s e t s t r a n s f e r r e d from o t h e r t a s k s , factors, (6) l a c k o f c o n s i s t e n c y (5) m o t i v a t i o n a l i n c h i l d r e n ' s performance. A l t h o u g h t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s study were i n c o n c l u s i v e , i t d i d suggest a v a l u e i n a t t e m p t i n g t o i n t e g r a t e methods and hypotheses from the t r a d i t i o n a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y approach w i t h P i a g e t i a n methods and Both s c h o o l s theory. have c o n t r i b u t e d t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e way c h i l d r e n l e a r n concepts and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s . A v a r i e t y o f t h e o r e t i c a l v i e w p o i n t s may, i n f a c t , be n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e f u r t h e r i n s i g h t i n t o c h i l d r e n ' s learning. 62 BIBLIOGRAPHY B r a i n e , M.D.S. P i a g e t on r e a s o n i n g : A m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c r i t i q u e and a l t e r n a t i v e p r o p o s a l s . I n W. Kessen and C. Kuhlman (Eds.) Thought i n the young c h i l d . Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago P r e s s , 1962. Brown, R. W. and B e r k o , J . 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I n t e l l e c t u a l o p e r a t i o n s and t h e i r development. I n I . J . Athey and D. O. Rubadeau (Eds.) E d u c a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f P i a g e t ' s t h e o r y . Waltham, Mass.: G i n n - B l a i s d e l l , 1970. R a z r a n , G.H.S. C o n d i t i o n e d responses i n c h i l d r e n : A b e h a v i o r a l and q u a n t i t a t i v e c r i t i c a l review of experimental studies. Archives of P s y c h o l o g y , 1933 (No. 148). S a l t z , E. and S i g e l , I . E. Concept o f o v e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n c h i l d r e n . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1967, 12_, 1-8. Smedslund, J . Concrete r e a s o n i n g : A study of i n t e l l e c t u a l development. Monographs o f the S o c i e t y f o r Research i n C h i l d Development, 1964. S m i l e y , S. S. and W e i r , N. W. The r o l e o f d i m e n s i o n a l dominance i n r e v e r s a l and n o n r e v e r s a l s h i f t b e h a v i o r . 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A comparison of the reversal shift task with two piagetian tasks Lake, Jean Baird 1978
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Title | A comparison of the reversal shift task with two piagetian tasks |
Creator |
Lake, Jean Baird |
Date Issued | 1978 |
Description | A study was undertaken to compare the performance of kindergarten children on the optional reversal shift task with their performance on two Piagetian tasks, the matrix and the two-way classification tasks. The comparison was suggested by the fact that the reversal shift task has been used by Kendler and Kendler (1962) to provide evidence of a cognitive change occurring in children between 5 and 7 years of age. Piaget (1964) has also suggested a major change in children's thinking in the same age range and has used the classification and matrix tasks to illustrate this change. Three major theoretical views concerning the reversal shift task were examined: the mediational hypothesis of Kendler and Kendler (1962), the attention theory viewpoint of Zeaman and House (1963) and the perceptual differentiation view of Tighe and Tighe (1968). A number of studies dealing with the classification tasks were reviewed. These included studies by Inhelder and Piaget (1964), Kofsky (1966) and Smedslund (1964). Matrix task studies by Inhelder and Piaget (1964), Overton and Brodzinsky (1972), Bruner and Kenney (1966) and Odom et al. (1965, 1971) were also reviewed. The Piagetian and reversal shift tasks were analyzed to identify their common features. It was argued that all three tasks required the child to recognize the abstract dimensions of stimuli and to be able to use the dimension values appropriately. Because of the similarities involved in the three tasks, it was suggested that a child in the transitional stage who could perform well on the Piagetian tasks would also tend to make a reversal shift on the Kendler task. It was therefore hypothesized that for children in the 5- to 7-year age range there should be a positive correlation between performance on the classification and matrix tasks and the tendency to make a reversal shift. An experiment was carried out with 34 kindergarten subjects performing the three tasks: the optional reversal shift, the two-way classification task and the matrix task. Results obtained on each task were similar to those of previous studies but the hypothesized relationship was not upheld. It was suggested that a group of subjects including slightly older children might show this relationship in a similar experiment. Other possible explanations for the lack of relationship were examined including: task format, verbal factors, inconsistent performance by children in the transition period, attentional and motivational factors and differential transfer effects. In conclusion, it was felt that the study reinforced the view that more knowledge is needed of the factors involved in learning tasks. Investigations drawing on different approaches would appear to be helpful in identifying these factors. |
Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
Type |
Text |
Language | eng |
Date Available | 2010-02-26 |
Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
DOI | 10.14288/1.0103871 |
URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/21036 |
Degree |
Master of Arts - MA |
Program |
Education |
Affiliation |
Education, Faculty of |
Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
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UBCV |
Scholarly Level | Graduate |
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