DAVID LINDSAY'S A VOYAGE TO ARCTURUS ALLEGORICAL DREAM FANTASY AS A LITERARY MODE by JACK S CHOFIELD B . A . , U n i v e r s i t y of Birmingham, 1969 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d s tandard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September, 19 72 tn presenting t h i s thesis in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis for s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives. It is understood that copying or p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s thesis f o r f i n a n c i a l gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of The University of B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada Date A b s t r a c t David L i n d s a y ' s A Voyage to A r c t u r u s must be read as an a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy f o r i t s m e r i t to be c o r r e c t l y d i s c e r n e d . L i n d s a y ' s c e n t r a l themes are i n t r o d u c e d i n a study o f the man and h i s work. (Ch. 1 ) . These themes are found to be common i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , the phenomen-o l o g i c a l background o f which i s e s t a b l i s h e d (Ch. 2 ) . A d i s t i n c t i o n can then be drawn between fantasy and romance, so as to de f ine a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy as a l i t e r a r y mode (Ch. 3 ) . A f t e r the b i o g r a p h i c a l , t h e o r e t i c a l and l i t e r a r y backgrounds of A Voyage have been e s t a b l i s h e d i n the f i r s t three chapter s , the second three chapters e x p l i c a t e the s t r u c t u r e of the book as an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y . F i n a l l y , the dichotomies which have been found i n L indsay (between L l o y d ' s u n d e r w r i t e r and v i s i o n a r y dreamer), between the dream and the r e a l w o r l d , between fantasy and romance, are found to be u n i f i e d by Norman N . H o l l a n d ' s theory of l i t e r a t u r e as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . CONTENTS Pre face Chapter 1. David L i n d s a y : The Man and H i s Work Chapter 2. Dream and A l l e g o r y : The Phenomenological Background of a L i t e r a r y Mode 30 Chapter 3. Fantasy and Romance: The L i t e r a r y Background of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s 62 Chapter 4. The Unholy War: A Voyage to A r c t u r u s as B a t t l e 97 Chapter 5 . The S t r a i g h t Way: A Voyage to A r c t u r u s as Progress 12 7 Chapter 6. The Winding Way: M a s k u l l ' s S p i r a l Inwards 160 Chapter 7. A l l e g o r i c a l Dream Fantasy : The Problem of S t y l e 192 Appendix B i b l i o g r a p h y Preface This t h e s i s i s a study of a book—A Voyage to A r c t u r u s — w h i c h has , u n t i l r e c e n t l y , been n e g l e c t e d , and which i s now, I would argue, misread . I t i s misread mainly because the genre to which i t be longs— a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy—has not been p r e c i s e l y d e f i n e d . My aim i s to e x p l i c a t e the book by s e t t i n g i t i n i t s t rue c o n t e x t . David L indsay (1878-1945) i s a d i f f i c u l t man to a s sess , p a r t l y because he was 'out of key w i t h h i s t i m e . ' 1920, j u s t a f t e r World War was the wrong year to p u b l i s h A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . M o r a l earnestness of L i n d s a y ' s e s s e n t i a l l y V i c t o r i a n s o r t d i d not have the sympathy of the p u b l i c , and i t must not s u r p r i s e us tha t the book f e l l ' s t i l l - b o r n from the p r e s s . ' Had the book come out i n 1895, s h o r t l y a f t e r She and i n the same year as Wells's The Time Machine, MacDonald's L i l i t h and M o r r i s ' s The Wood Beyond the W o r l d , i t might have been r e c e i v e d more s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y . But i n 1895, L indsay was only seventeen. I t should have been easy to see , i n 1920, t h a t A Voyage was 25 years behind the t imes . I t would have been d i f f i c u l t to guess that i t was a l s o 50 years ahead of them. Nonetheles s , when A Voyage was f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n paperback, 23 years a f t e r L i n d s a y ' s death , i t came to enjoy ' a vogue . ' This vogue i s , however, l e s s a r e s u l t of the book's p e c u l i a r q u a l i t i e s than i t s s u p e r f i c i a l resemblance to the work of enormously popular w r i t e r s , ' c u l t ' f i g u r e s , l i k e J . R. R. T o l k i e n and Herman Hesse. v i Contemporary readings of the book, i n one way or another , wrench A Voyage from i t s t rue c o n t e x t , and misread i t s genre. However, A Voyage i s n e i t h e r s u i gener i s nor o u t l a n d i s h l y i d i o s y n c r a t i c , but occupies a p r e c i s e l y d e f i n a b l e p l ace i n the l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n of a l l e g o r i c a l dream f anta sy . Seen thus i t i s a w e l l - d e s i g n e d , coherent and a r t i c u l a t e work. Though A Voyage i s not o b v i o u s l y a w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d book, and o b v i o u s l y not a w e l l w r i t t e n one in the accepted l i t e r a r y sense (nor , f o r that mat ter , are most Goth ic N o v e l s ) , once i t s s t r u c t u r e and m o t i f s have been uncovered, i t w i l l be found t h a t A Voyage has many aspects that make i t worthy of s tudy . I b e g i n w i t h a b r i e f account of L i n d s a y ' s l i f e and works , p a r t l y to d i s p e l the 'mythology ' w h i c h , i n the absense of f a c t s and w i t h m i s -l e a d i n g h e l p , has grown up around L i n d s a y , and p a r t l y to i n t r o d u c e some of h i s themes. L i n d s a y ' s c e n t r a l theme i s the o p p o s i t i o n between the r e a l and dream wor ld s w h i c h , w h i l e i t i s the b a s i s of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , i s more o b v i o u s l y d i s c e r n i b l e i n ' t h i s w o r l d l y ' nove l s such as The Haunted Woman and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , Sphinx . In Chapter Two I examine the phenomenol-o g i c a l b a s i s (phenomenology i s the p s y c h o l o g i c a l ph i lo sophy of sy s temat ized de lu s ion ) of L i n d s a y ' s dua l i sms . I . e . , I show why the p s y c h i c f a c t s of s leep and dreams l ead to a dichotomous w o r l d - v i e w , a n d how a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy i s an a p p r o p r i a t e l i t e r a r y expre s s ion of t h i s v i ew. In my t h i r d chapter I draw a d i s t i n c t i o n between fantasy and romance so as to de f ine a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy p r e c i s e l y as a l i t e r a r y mode, and to s e t A Voyage i n i t s appropr i a t e l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t . I show how v i i L indsay found h i s immediate i n s p i r a t i o n i n George MacDonald, N o v a l i s , and I c e l a n d i c l i t e r a t u r e . Having e s t a b l i s h e d the b i o g r a p h i c a l , the t h e o r e t i c a l , and the l i t e r a r y backgrounds, I move i n Chapters Four and F i v e to an examinat ion of the two dimensions of the a l l e g o r y . F i r s t , I e x p l i c a t e A Voyage as an a l l e g o r i c a l b a t t l e between powers of l i g h t and darkness , matter and s p i r i t , r e a l i t y and dream, and so on. (This can be thought o f as a v e r t i c a l a x i s . ) Second, I e x p l i c a t e A Voyage as a l i n e a r , a l l e g o r i c a l p rogre s s , organi sed around thematic images which are e s t a b l i s h e d i n the opening s e c t i o n of the book (on earth) and r e c c u r r i n the t r i p across Tormance. (The h o r i z o n t a l a x i s . ) The f i r s t f i v e chapters take us p r o g r e s s i v e l y c l o s e r to the t e x t . In Chapter S i x I t r ace the o u t l i n e of M a s k u l l ' s a c t u a l progress across Tormance, which i s found to be a s p i r a l inwards , through the body o f Crysta lman i n t o the i n n e r w o r l d of the s p i r i t , Muspe l . In the c o n c l u d i n g chapter I t a c k l e the problem of s t y l e : why a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s , A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i n p a r t i c u l a r , succeed i n g r i p p i n g the reader i n s p i t e of b e i n g apparent ly badly w r i t t e n . In t h i s chap te r , the s p l i t i n L indsay ( e x - L l o y d ' s u n d e r w r i t e r and v i s i o n a r y ) , i n the Manichaean phi lo sophy ( r e a l w o r l d and dream w o r l d ) , i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy i t s e l f (between c e r e b r a l a l l e g o r y and subconscious fantasy) and the message of a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s (the search f o r ' i n n e r l i g h t ' ) , are found to be u n i f i e d i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l terms by Norman N . H o l l a n d ' s view of l i t e r a t u r e as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . v i i i A great many people have he lped w i t h t h i s t h e s i s , though I can mention only a few. I t would not have been p o s s i b l e a t a l l w i t h o u t the e x t e n s i v e s e r v i c e s of Mr . N i c k Omelusik, of A c q u i s i t i o n s , and Ms. Margaret F r i e s e n , of I n t e r - L i b r a r y Loan, and t h e i r s t a f f s a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia L i b r a r y . I thank them, and I thank my t y p i s t s , Mrs . Susan W e l l s and Miss Jeanne C u r r i e . L a s t l y , I have been p r i v i l e g e d to work c l o s e l y w i t h my t h e s i s committee of Pro fe s sor s I r a N a d e l , E l l i o t t B. Gose and P a t r i c i a M e r i v a l e . As a c r i t i c and a man, E l l i o t t Gose has pro foundly i n f l u e n c e d my own a t t i t u d e to l i t e r a t u r e f a r more than my i n c i d e n t a l footnotes to him i n d i c a t e . But my main debt i s to my s u p e r v i s o r , Pat M e r i v a l e , w i t h o u t whose i n c i s i v e (and w i t t y ' . ) comments and always generous c h i d i n g t h i s t h e s i s would have been much e a s i e r to w r i t e , and a great d e a l l e s s worth w h i l e . U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia Jack S c h o f i e l d September, 1972 i x A b b r e v i a t i o n s and E d i t i o n s Used Page re ferences to a l l of L i n d s a y ' s works and to the one book- leng th c r i t i c a l s tudy of L indsay are g iven i n the t e x t a f t e r the appropr i a t e a b b r e v i a t i o n , as l i s t e d : VA : A Voyage to A r c t u r u s (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1968) THW : The Haunted Woman (London: V i c t o r G o l l a n c z , 1968) Sph : Sphinx (London: John Long, 1923) AMM : Adventures of Monsieur de M a i l l y (London: Andrew M e l r o s e , 1926) DT r : D e v i l ' s Tor (London: Putnam's , 1932) L : ' L e t t e r s to E . H . V i s i a k , ' Adam I n t e r n a t i o n a l Review, ~ No. 346-348 (1971), pp. 39-67. TSG : The Strange Genius of David Lindsay by C o l i n W i l s o n , J . B. P i c k & E . H. V i s i a k (London: John Baker , 1970). Any quota t ions from L i n d s a y ' s unpubl i shed TSS 'The V i o l e t A p p l e , ' ' W i t c h ' and ' Sketch Notes towards a New System of P h i l o s o p h y ' have , unless o t h e r -wi se s t a t e d , been taken from The Strange Genius . Page re ferences c i t e d are t h e r e f o r e to that book and not to the works themselves . Note : spaced e l l i p s e s are mine, unspaced e l l i p s e s are the a u t h o r s ' . X The d a y - s e l f i s p o l t r o o n or h e r o : The n i g h t - s e l f i s p i c a r o , p i e r r o t . The d a y - s e l f can choose to t e l l l i e s . The n i g h t - s e l f speaks t r u t h , or he d i e s . The v o i c e comes out of an emptiness . N i g h t - s e l f and d a y - s e l f f i n d here no h a b i t a b l e p l a n e t . John Wain, W i l d t r a c k What i s d i v i n e i n man i s e l u s i v e and i m p a l p a b l e , and he i s e a s i l y tempted to embody i t i n a c o l l e c t i v e form—a church , a c o u n t r y , a s o c i a l system, a l eader —so tha t he may r e a l i s e i t w i t h l e s s e f f o r t and serve i t w i t h more p r o f i t . Yet . . . the attempt to e x t e r n a l i s e the kingdom of heaven i n a temporal shape must end i n d i s a s t e r . I t cannot be c rea ted by char te r s or c o n s t i t u t i o n s , nor e s t a b l i s h e d by arms. Those who set out f o r i t alone w i l l reach i t t o g e t h e r , and those who seek i t i n company w i l l p e r i s h by themselves . Hugh K i n g s m i l l , The Poisoned Crown Chapter One: DAVID LINDSAY AND HIS WORKS1 For the p u b l i s h e r of D e v i l ' s Tor , David L indsay p r o v i d e d the f o l l o w i n g b r i e f summary of h i s l i f e : I was educated at B lackheath and i n S c o t l a n d . Up to the war I was i n bus ines s i n the C i t y o f London. I was i n the Army f o r upwards of two y e a r s , but saw no f o r e i g n s e r v i c e . On d e m o b i l i s a t i o n I took up l i t e r a t u r e , hav ing many years p r e v i o u s l y determined to do so sooner or l a t e r . A Voyage to A r c t u r u s ap-peared i n 1920; The Haunted Woman i n 1922; Sphinx i n 1923; Adventures of M. de M a i l l y i n 1926. I was marr i ed i n 1916, and am at present l i v i n g h a p p i l y w i t h my w i f e and two daughters , aged 12 and 9 . From 1919 to 1928 we l i v e d i n C o r n w a l l ; then moved to F e r r i n g i n Sussex. I have done the u sua l amount of f o r e i g n t r a v -e l l i n g , d i s l i k e s p o r t s , and take most of my present e x e r c i s e i n tramping the South Downs. My o l d e r b r o t h e r , the l a t e 'A lexander C r a w f o r d ' , a l so wrote some nove l s (The A l i a s e t c . ) which by now are a l -most f o r g o t t e n . I t r a c e my s tock to the main stem of the L i n d s a y s , whose h i s t o r y i s i n any book of S c o t t i s h f a m i l i e s . I v a r , j a r l of the Norse Uplanders , i s s a i d to have been the o r i g i n a l ances tor (TSG 6 ) . This bare s t of records suppresses the i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t " i n the C i t y " he was a L l o y d ' s u n d e r w r i t e r f o r f i f t e e n y e a r s , t h a t h i s army s e r v i c e was as a c l e r k i n the Grenadiers and, most n o t a b l y , that he was born on March 3, 1878 making him i n 1932 " r a t h e r o l d e r than i s p r o p e r " f o r a young w r i t e r to be (TSG 7 ) . However, the bare r e c o r d disabuses us of any i d e a t h a t , . a s Loren E i s e l e y s t a te s f l a t l y i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to the B a l l a n t i n e e d i t i o n of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , " D a v i d L indsay d ied young" (VA v i i ) , or that h i s masterpiece was the unpremeditated out -pour ing of a f r u s t r a t e d young man. 2 Lindsay seems to have spent most of h i s e a r l y l i f e ' i n t r a i n i n g f o r a n o v e l i s t ' a f t e r h i s grandmother prevented him from t a k i n g up the s c h o l a r s h i p he had won to u n i v e r s i t y . He educated h i m s e l f by read ing w i d e l y i n l i t e r a t u r e s a n d p h i l o s o p h y , l e a r n i n g German and r e a d i n g Schopenhauer and N i e t z s c h e i n the o r i g i n a l , and r e c o r d i n g h i s comments i n notebooks f o r fu ture use. These comments he c a l l e d apercues ( s i c ) . For the name and the concept Lindsay i s indeb ted , as f o r much e l s e , to the great German p e s s i m i s t Arthur- Schopenhauer. L indsay descr ibe s the apercu as a thought which " s p r i n g s from the a i r " (TSG 13) , r e c a l l i n g 4 —— Schopenhauer's use of the word f o r "an immediate i n t u i t i o n , , a n d as 2 such the work of an i n s t a n t , an appercu, a f l a s h of i n s i g h t . " A s — — Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s based on a decade's accumulat ion of these i n -s i g h t s . Dur ing the war, L i n d s a y , then t h i r t y - e i g h t , marr i ed a g i r l of twenty aga i n s t the wishes of both t h e i r f a m i l i e s . A f t e r the war he d i d not r e t u r n to L l o y d ' s , but went w i t h h i s w i f e to Nor th C o r n w a l l , where he was to b e g i n h i s career as a n o v e l i s t . In h i s notebook he records that when one steps out of the l a n d of dreams and l o n g i n g s , by reason of b e i n g s e i z e d by the i d e a of a c l e a r and d e f i n i t e p l a n f o r the f u t u r e , i t i s j u s t as i f one's l i f e had^got i n t o focus ; the vague and b l u r r e d i s a l l changed i n t o the d e f i n e d and b e a u t i f u l (TSG 10) . Of course , from the c o n v e n t i o n a l p o i n t of v i e w , he had stepped from w o r l d l y , m a t e r i a l i s t i c L l o y d ' s i n t o a dream w o r l d , i n l i v i n g un-r e a l i s t i c a l l y on a lump sum from h i s f i r m and a legacy which he i n -3 v e s t e d , i n a l a r g e house w i t h servants and a c a r r i a g e . Had he been s e n s i b l e , however, he would never have w r i t t e n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s , and would now be f o r g o t t e n . J a c q u e l i n e and C o r n w a l l i n s p i r e d and encouraged Lindsay t o produce s i x n o v e l s , three of them minor masterpieces i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e genres , between A p r i l 1919 and J u l y 1924. A l s o d u r i n g t h i s t ime L i n d s a y ' s w i f e bore him two daughters , Diana and H e l e n , who were l a t e r nicknamed by E . H . V i s i a k , one be ing dark l i k e the mother and the o ther f a i r l i k e the f a t h e r , ' N i g h t ' and 'Day' (TSG 97-98) . I t was, f o r the L i n d s a y s , a happy and p r o d u c t i v e p e r i o d . A Voyage to A r c t u r u s was completed i n March 1920 and immediately accepted by Methuen, who i n s i s t e d , however, that the book be reduced i n l e n g t h by some 15,000 words. The book was p u b l i s h e d l a t e r i n 1920, but i t s o l d b a d l y and many copies were remaindered. By then Lindsay was w e l l . o n w i t h The Haunted Woman, which he completed i n A p r i l 1921. Methuen re fused i t at f i r s t , but i t was (as A Voyage to A r c t u r u s had p r e v i o u s l y been) accepted f o r s e r i a l i s a t i o n by The D a i l y News sub jec t to a r e d u c t i o n o f 20,000 words. A g a i n , L indsay cut them. Methuen r e c o n s i d e r e d , and f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d the book i n February 1922. But L indsay was now ' a w r i t e r ' , w i t h a house to keep up, a w i f e and f a m i l y to suppor t . He was b e g i n n i n g to concern h i m s e l f more w i t h w r i t i n g what p u b l i s h e r s might accept and the p u b l i c might buy . A f t e r two commercial f a i l u r e s a p u b l i s h e r f o r h i s next book, Sphinx,, w r i t t e n between August 1921 and March 1922, was hard to f i n d . L indsay spent 4 two months r e v i s i n g the book and reduc ing i t s l e n g t h , a f t e r which Ronald Massey, a : l i t e r a r y agent , succeeded i n p l a c i n g i t , i n A p r i l 1923, w i t h John Long. Presumably s h a r i n g the sentiments of Lore Jenson, the composer-h e r o i n e of Sphinx , Of course i t ' s p o t - b o i l i n g ' . But i f I don ' t b o i l my p o t , are you going to b o i l i t f o r me? I suppose you t h i n k i t ' s bad a r t to have a p o t ! An a r t i s t ought to be above such t r i f l e s as food (Sph 72) , L indsay s t r u g g l e d w i t h the i n t r a c t a b l e m a t e r i a l of "The A n c i e n t Tragedy' w h i l e s imul t aneous ly w o r k i n g on a . comple te ly u n v i s i o n a r y romance of one 3 musketeer, Adventures of Monsieur de M a i l l v . Thi s i s unashamedly a p o t - b o i l e r , but a t l e a s t L indsay seems to have found the w r i t i n g o f i t f a i r l y easy. I t was completed between October 1922 and May 1923, and accepted by the seventh p u b l i s h e r t o whom i t was s e n t , Andrew M e l r o s e , who brought i t out i n England i n 1926, and one year l a t e r , as A Blade f o r S a l e , i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . L indsay had by then w r i t t e n (February t o J u l y 1924) and r e v i s e d 'The V i o l e t A p p l e , ' which was not to f i n d a p u b l i s h e r at a l l . Thus ended a p e r i o d of enormous c r e a t i v i t y , w i t h a remarkable l a c k of s u c c e s s . . L indsay might have been f o r g i v e n f o r g i v i n g i n . He d i d n o t . H i s next p u b l i c a t i o n , however, of the 'monster ' (L 59) D e v i l ' s T o r , was t o be h i s l a s t . In 1928 the Lindsays moved from C o r n w a l l to F e r r i n g , i n Sussex, where David rewrote 'The A n c i e n t Tragedy' as D e v i l ' s Tor and t r i e d , u n s u c c e s s f u l l y , to w r i t e another e n t i t l e d ' W i t c h . ' Though Putnam's , who p u b l i s h e d D e v i l ' s Tor i n 1932, seem to have made a r e a l e f f o r t t o 4 s e l l i t , and though the book r e c e i v e d some f a v o r a b l e rev iews , s a l e s 5 were poor enough to discourage anyone from r e p u b l i s h i n g A Voyage o r r i s k i n g another book by an e v i d e n t l y doomed w r i t e r . The r e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s was slow to dawn on a L indsay s t i l l i n t e n s e l y committed to h i s dream. He wrote to Putnam's : For my next p l a n s , I can only say t h a t I am at present b e g i n n i n g to see where they shou ld l i e . Between the p h i l o s o p h i e s o f A r c t u r u s and D e v i l ' s Tor there seems to be a chasm of c o n t r a d i c t i o n . As both books were s i n c e r e l y and independent ly w r i t t e n , and were long matured, no doubt the c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s more apparent than r e a l ; and i t seems to me that a l a r g e r s y n t h e s i s can be found, to i n c l u d e both p h i l o s o p h i e s . But i n tha t case, a new and h i g h e r t r u t h should emerge; and t h i s i s what I am a f t e r (TSG 30) . Though he worked on a new book, ' W i t c h ' . — P i c k c a l l s i t a " s t r a n g e , p o w e r f u l , c r e a k i n g , b e a u t i f u l , a r c h a i c , u n w o r l d l y , u n e a r t h l y book" (TSG 3 0 ) — u n t i l about 1939, the p u b l i c was never b l e s s e d by i t s ap-pearance. T y p i c a l l y , though he had much e a r l i e r r e a l i s e d t h a t A r c t u r u s "was w r i t t e n i n r a t h e r an unpopular s t y l e " (L 40) , i t was the p h i l o -sophy which mot iva ted h i m to w r i t e , i n s p i t e of the s t y l e which p r e -vented the books from s e l l i n g . We must remember tha t L indsay had spent many of the f i r s t f o r t y years o f h i s l i f e dreaming of and p r e p a r i n g f o r the time when he would ' t a k e up l i t e r a t u r e ' . He had f i n a l l y done so l e s s because he thought he c o u l d w r i t e — h e seems t o have attempted no c r e a t i v e work be fore A r c t u r u s — t h a n because he f e l t he had something to say , had a v i s i o n t o communicate. That v i s i o n was one which c o n t i n u a l l y opposed a sub-6 l ime and important ' o t h e r ' w o r l d to the v u l g a r and t r i v i a l ' r e a l ' w o r l d i n which he had been a bus ines s success . But the v i s i o n , em-bodied so f o r c e f u l l y i n the t o t a l l y unambiguous^ A r c t u r u s , had appar-e n t l y not been understood, and the commercial f a i l u r e of h i s nove l s must i n i t s e l f have been extremely d i s c o u r a g i n g . A f t e r A r c t u r u s , t h e r e f o r e , i n order to communicate, i n order to make p a l a t a b l e h i s message, L indsay began to compromise, moving f u r t h e r and f u r t h e r , book by book, from h i s o r i g i n a l , i f unrepea tab le , v i s i o n . A f t e r Arc turus human a c t i o n begins to count f o r l e s s , w h i l e Fate or Cosmic Des t iny p l ays a b i g g e r p a r t . The heroes become g r a d u a l l y more emasculated and l e s s independent—of t h e i r author as w e l l as of t h e i r surroundings—and the hero ines become f r i g i d l y wooden. M a s k u l l had fought h i s bloody way across Tormance to defeat i n t t h e arms of the q u i v e r i n g mass of power fu l f e m i n i n i t y t h a t was Su l lenbode . Judge and I s b e l i n The Haunted Woman, however, f a te h a v i n g thrown them t o g e t h e r , are both defeated by the t r i v i a l mechanics of a s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n : though they are ' sou l -mate s ' i n the s p i r i t w o r l d , i n ' r e a l ' l i f e she i s a l r eady engaged to someone e l s e . F u r t h e r , i n s t e a d of a whole new p l a n e t and enough s trange l i f e forms to s tock a u n i v e r s e , the dream w o r l d they can i n h a b i t i s l i m i t e d to a s m a l l s e c t i o n of garden, seen from an enchanted tower , and c rea ted not by the gods but by a man w i t h a k i n d of bass v i o l . T h i s garden they can i n h a b i t only b r i e f l y be fore i t crumbles around them ([.'she h e r s e l f was no more than h i s dream!" [THW 167]). In Sphinx, w h i c h , l i k e The Haunted Woman, never gets o f f the 7 ground, the i n v e n t o r , N i c h o l a s , and the composer, L o r e , do not even recogni se each other as s o u l mates on e a r t h ; they are only u n i t e d , at the end of the book, i n a dream a f t e r both t h e i r deaths . The dreamer i n t h i s case , S t u r t (but c f . S u r t u r i n A Voyage and Sur t i n The E l d e r Edda) , L o r e ' s f a t h e r , i s n e i t h e r god nor ant ique phantom, and h i s dream i s merely a way of s ee ing i n t o the h i g h e r w o r l d , n e i t h e r a p a r t nor a c r e a t o r o f i t . I f the f a t e d charac ter s i n D e v i l ' s T o r , I n g r i d and S a l t f l e e t , seem more i m p r e s s i v e , i t i s mainly because they a r e , a f t e r a l l , mere puppets , e x i s t i n g on ly to be brought t o g e t h e r , no matter what, by the machinat ions o f an a l l - p o w e r f u l Cosmic D e s t i n y . The p o i n t i s not that L i n d s a y ' s l a t e r works* are n e c e s s a r i l y i n -f e r i o r as l i t e r a t u r e to A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , but that they are narrower and of a l e s s impres s ive s c a l e as v i s i o n , and i t i s as a v i s i o n a r y , r a t h e r than as a w r i t e r , t h a t L indsay i s i m p o r t a n t . At l e a s t 150 pages (pages 233-388, between the d i s c o v e r y of D r a p i e r ' s body and I n g r i d 1 s " d r e a m l i k e entrance" ) c o u l d be e x c i s e d , i f r e p l a c e d by a conc i se p l o t summary, from the stodgy i n t e r i o r of D e v i l ' s T o r . But apart from the ' m o n s t e r ' , L i n d s a y ' s other p u b l i s h e d works have a charm of t h e i r own. The Haunted Woman, L i n d s a y ' s second book, has been p r e f e r r e d to A r c t u r u s by V i s i a k , and, l i k e the t h i r d n o v e l , Sphinx , i t i s at l e a s t economica l ly t o l d . They are both about dream w o r l d s , l i k e A Voyage, but i n these the dream i s a s m a l l but v i t a l p a r t of the ' r e a l ' w o r l d , i . e . the o r d i n a r y , everyday w o r l d purveyed by such n o v e l -i s t s as C. P . Snow. On the Snavian l e v e l ( to borrow a term from 8 Dr. M e r i v a l e ) i n The Haunted Woman and Sphinx we have the suburban, upper middle c l a s s E n g l i s h w o r l d of v i l l a s and country houses , wooded w a l k s , p a r t i e s , people ' a l i g h t i n g ' from t a x i - c a b s and t r a i n s . T h i s w o r l d , h i s a s p i r i n g L l o y d ' s u n d e r w r i t e r ' s w o r l d , L indsay t r i e s to i n -fuse w i t h a sense of the h i g h e r r e a l i t y of an unseen cosmic w o r l d of transcendent importance . In The Haunted Woman, the most important ' c h a r a c t e r ' i s R u n h i l l C o u r t , a manor house w i t h a haunted upper s t o r y ( improbably supposed to date from Saxon t i m e s ) . But t h i s i s not a ghost s t o r y , and U l f ' s Tower i s not haunted but enchanted. The s t a i r s l e a d i n g up to i t can only be d i s covered by the s p i r i t u a l l y s e n s i t i v e who, when they cl imb them, f i n d themselves i n a new w o r l d , where t h e i r r e a l , r a t h e r than t h e i r everyday s o c i a l , c h a r a c t e r comes to the f o r e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , on descending the s t a i r s the i n s i g h t i s l o s t , and the exper ience f o r g o t t e n . I s b e l , the t r a g i c h e r o i n e of the s t o r y , i s engaged to M a r s h a l l , and the p l o t turns on her meeting w i t h the ag ing widower, Judge, i n U l f ' s Tower. There they are "enabled t e m p o r a r i l y to drop the mask of c o n v e n t i o n " (THW 84) , to see each other as they r e a l l y a r e , and they f a l l i n l o v e ; t h e i r s p i r i t u a l natures are i n e s s e n t i a l harmony. But descending again to the everyday w o r l d , to the body s o c i a l , they f o r g e t the " s p i r i t u a l lesson"((THW 84) they have l e a r n e d . From the window of one of the tower ' s rooms, Judge and I s b e l l ook out onto an anc ient landscape, from which the f a m i l i a r , modern l a n d -marks of " f i e l d s , hedgerows, roads , l a n e s , h o u s e s , had vanished 9 e n t i r e l y " (THW 130) . A mot ionles s f i g u r e who " l o o k s l i k e an a n c i e n t Saxon come to l i f e " (THW 131) s i t s w i t h " h i s back to the house" (THW 131) p l a y i n g what sounds l i k e "a bass v i o l " (THW 127) : " I s b e l c o u l d almost fancy i t to be the v o i c e of the landscape. I t was h a u n t i n g l y b e a u t i f u l , and f u l l of queer s u r p r i s e s " (THW 132) . I s b e l , by now on f a m i l i a r , f i r s t -name terms w i t h Judge i n the enchanted rooms, a sks , "Henry , c a n ' t you understand tha t a l l t h i s has a meaning? Don' t you see that i t ' s c a r r y i n g us h i g h e r and h i g h e r ? " (THW 138). But l e a v i n g the rooms she forget s the meaning, she re turns to everyday r e a l i t y : " A r e we dreaming now, or were we dreaming b e f o r e ? " (THW 141). I s b e l i s thus t o r n between her s p i r i t u a l b e t r o t h e d , Judge, and her s o c i a l one, M a r s h a l l , between the ant ique s p r i n g - t i m e w o r l d around the mus ic i an and the v u l g a r England of the e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , between the dream and the r e a l i t y . When she f i n a l l y gets i n t o the dream landscape , and meets Judge t h e r e , they recogni se t h e i r j o i n t d e s t i n y , but f o r her i t q u i c k l y gets darker and s t a r t s to get m i s t y . W. H. Auden notes i n The Enchafed F lood that "The degree of v i s i b i l i t y = the degree of conscious knowledge. I . e . , fog and mis t mean doubt and s e l f - d e l u s i o n . " ^ For I s b e l , the v i s i o n begins to fade : 'Henry , I 'm g o i n g ! ' she s a i d , q u i e t l y detaching h e r s e l f from h i s e m b r a c e . . . . ' E v e r y t h i n g ' s f a l l i n g b a c k . . . . ' H i s face f e l l i n a l a rm. 'What 's the matter? What's happening to y o u ? . . . ' 'We're r e t u r n i n g to the o l d s t a t e . The sun's gone i n , and i t ' s growing mis ty and c o l d . . . . Oh, c a n ' t you see i t ? ' 'No, I c a n ' t . There ' s no d i f f e r e n c e at a l l — the day i s as g l o r i o u s as ever i t w a s . . . . Exer t your w i l l . * . . . ' (THW 164). 10 I s b e l lo ses her v i s i o n o f the enchanted dream w o r l d , and goes back to c a l l i n g Henry " M r . Judge" (THW 165) . He goes to wake up the s l e e p i n g m u s i c i a n , whose back was turned towards h e r , so tha t she c o u l d not see h i s f a c e , but Henry, who was s t a n d i n g e r e c t and mot ionles s beyond, was l o o k i n g r i g h t i n t o i t , and, from h i s e x p r e s s i o n , i t was as though he were b e h o l d i n g some a p p a l l i n g v i s i o n ! (THW 167). Jus t be fore the b a l l o o n comes down i n G. K. C h e s t e r t o n ' s o p t i m i s t i c nightmare f a n t a s y , The Man Who Was Thursday, G a b r i e l Syme c r i e s " w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r y emphasis" : S h a l l I t e l l you the s ec re t of the whole world? I t i s that we have on ly known the back of the w o r l d . We see e v e r y t h i n g from b e h i n d , and i t looks b r u t a l . That i s not a t r ee but the back of a t r e e . That i s not a c l o u d , but the back of a c l o u d . Can you not see t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s s toop ing and h i d i n g a face? I f we c o u l d only get round i n f r o n t — ( 8 ) . When, i n L i n d s a y ' s p e s s i m i s t i c dream book, Henry does "get round i n f r o n t " he f i n d s tha t to be more b r u t a l and " a p p a l l i n g " than the f r o n t . What he sees must be the e q u i v a l e n t c o l the v u l g a r g r i n of Crys ta lman, the mask of death, f o r he s i n k s to the ground, dead. I s b e l f a i n t s . M a r s h a l l comes a long to f i n d Judge's body, and the book ends w i t h the f a i n t promise of I s b e l and M a r s h a l l ' s re-engagementaarid, presumably, marr iage . Sphinx appeared i n 1923 i n John Long's s e r i e s of 'The L a t e s t L i b r a r y N o v e l s ' , among which were The M i s s i n g M i l l i o n by Edgar W a l l a c e , The Young P i t c h e r by Zane Grey, and many now even more com-p l e t e l y f o r g o t t e n o t h e r s . The book opens w i t h the sedate a r r i v a l 11 of N i c h o l a s Cabot at Newleigh S t a t i o n on h i s way to Mereway. N i c h o l a s has j u s t been rescued from be ing a l edger c l e r k by an i n h e r i t a n c e o f ^ 5 5 , 0 0 0 . When asked why he d i d not choose " a more c o n g e n i a l c a r e e r " he c u r t l y r e p l i e s , " I wanted to r e t a i n any o r i g i n a l i t y I might possess " (Sph 14) . Now, f r ee to pursue h i s r e a l i n t e r e s t i n c h e m i s t r y , N i c h o l a s i s p e r f e c t i n g a k i n d o f chemica l -c lockwork device f o r r e c o r d i n g and p l a y i n g back dreams. H o p e f u l l y these w i l l be deep dreams: !'we some-times have v i s i o n s , which are i d e n t i c a l " (Sph 33) . They are " the dreams we dream d u r i n g deep s leep and remember n o t h i n g of a f t e r w a r d s . The l i g h t dreams of the f r i n g e of consciousness are a d i f f e r e n t t h i n g a l t o g e t h e r " (Sph 33) . The Sphinx , N i c h o l a s t e l l s us , was " the goddess of dreams" (Sph 32) , and ' S p h i n x ' i s the t i t l e not on ly o f the whole book but a l s o of Lore Jenson ' s f i n e s t p i ece of mus ic . A youngish ex- l edger c l e r k w i t h £ 5 5 , 0 0 0 must, i t w i l l be u n i -v e r s a l l y acknowledged, be i n want of a w i f e . N i c h o l a s has a bevy of beaut ie s to choose from, and the ' r e a l ' or n o v e l i s t i c a c t i o n turns on h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h S t u r t ' s three daughters—members of the f a m i l y w i t h which N i c h o l a s i s a pay ing guest—and two l a d i e s who l i v e nearby , Lore Jenson the composer (who, we e v e n t u a l l y d i s c o v e r , i s S t u r t ' s i l l e g i t i m a t e daughter ) , and M r s . C e l i a H a n t i s h , an a t t r a c t i v e widow and femme f a t a l e . At l e a s t , I t h i n k t h i s i s what S t u r t means when he t e l l s N i c h o l a s , " I do not t h i n k i t js to mal ign her to p l ace her i n the f a t a l ca tegory" (Sph 67 ) . She makes a l l the r u n n i n g , even t a k i n g N i c h o l a s o f f i n t o the woods (Sph 120) . L a t e r , ' I n the W i l d e r -12 n e s s ' (Ch. XV) of which C e l i a says " I keep i t f o r my men f r i e n d s . Men always f e e l cramped i n a garden" (Sph 217) , they become engaged (Sph 220) . On the s p i r i t u a l l e v e l , however, N i c h o l a s ' s t rue s o u l mate, though he never r e a l i s e s i t , i s Lore Jenson. The second dream which N i c h o l a s manages to r e c o r d h i n t s a t t h i s . L i k e the f i r s t dream, he p l a y s i t back i n E v e l y n ' s presence so that we exper ience h i s (male) dream through her :(female) s e n s i b i l i t y . The N i c h o l a s of the dream i s w a l k i n g through a wood when he meets L o r e , "but not the Lore o f everyday l i f e . T h i s L o r e , who g l i d e d towards her [Evelyn] w i t h such awful smoothness and r e g u l a r i t y , was not human. She was a s p i r i t " " (Sph 159). ' E v e l y n ' "was moved by such g r i e f and h o r r o r that i t was as i f Lore were some-one very dear t o h e r . " Lore c r i e s out , "Do he lp me before i t ' s too l a t e ! I t w i l l soon be too l a t e ! " (Sph 159) , and the v i s i o n a b r u p t l y van i shes . N i c h o l a s r e a l i s e s t h i s " i s n ' t a f a n t a s y , l i k e o r d i n a r y dreams. I t ' s an o r a c l e . A message, i f you l i k e " (Sph 160). But i t i s not a message he seems to understand. In the t h i r d of h i s dreams t h a t N i c h o l a s shows h e r , Eve lyn f i n d s h e r s e l f " a g a i n i n t h a t wood" (Sph 201) . Lore i s " b e i n g moved un-w i l l i n g l y " (Sph 202) by some " t e r r i b l e unseen f o r c e " (Sph 203) " t o -wards [a] p o o l , which was i n her d i r e c t p a t h " (Sph2202). The agent i s e v i d e n t l y M a u r i c e , N i c h o l a s ' s workman and E v e l y n ' s beau, who i s " l e a n i n g aga ins t a t r e e " : "he was wear ing h i s o r d i n a r y c l o t h e s , but h i s face was the face of a d e v i l " (Sph 203) . In the f i n a l s e c t i o n of 13 t h i s c o n t i n u i n g dream-saga—after N i c h o l a s and M r s . Hant i sh have become engaged—'Evelyn ' wakes from a swoon aware that "Maur ice had k i l l e d L o r e " (Sph 233) : I t took shape i n her consciousness as an immense f ac t which f i l l e d the whole u n i v e r s e , and which would render a l l j oy and imocence i m p o s s i b l e t h e r e a f t e r , f o r everyone. By no p o s s i b i l i t y c o u l d th ings be the same i n the f u t u r e as they had been i n the pa s t . The i d e a l w o r l d was ended, and r e a l i t y had burs t i n to take possess ion (Sph 233) . The dream i s p r o p h e t i c . Lore drowns h e r s e l f . M a u r i c e ' s c i g a r e t t e case i s found a t the scene of the ' c r i m e ' and s u s p i c i o n f a l l s on h im. In s p i t e of the dream, when ques t ioned N i c h o l a s does a l l he can to a v o i d i n c r i m i n a t i n g M a u r i c e , to the p o i n t of l y i n g (Sph 266) , and t h i s leads t o h i s s epara t ion from M r s . H a n t i s h , who i s convinced of M a u r i c e ' s g u i l t . Now Eve lyn takes a hand. She g ives N i c h o l a s an ( u n f o r t u n a t e l y f a t a l ) overdose of s l e e p i n g c r y s t a l s to keep him q u i e t w h i l e she takes the dream recorder to her f a t h e r ' s b e d s i d e . He, S t u r t , i s j u s t r e -c o v e r i n g from the e f f e c t s of the death of h i s i l l e g i t i m a t e daughter . In h i s dream, Eve lyn f i n d s h e r s e l f l i s t e n i n g to "grave mus ic " i n " the other w o r l d " (Sph 301): "she made no attempt to analyse t h i s l i f e i n t o i t s e lements . She had no s tandard of comparison, f o r the common l i f e had passed from h e r " (Sph 303) . "Perhaps she had become t r a n s -p o r t e d to a new p l a n e t which was s t i l l i n i t s p r e h i s t o r i c p e r i o d . The dusky, w i l d l y - b e a u t i f u l landscape seemed the h a b i t a t of s p i r i t s 14 and gods" (jSgh 304). She looks down i n t o "a s m a l l , c i r c u l a r p o o l i n the naked s a n d , " " a n a t u r a l w e l l " (E>p_h 306) . Under the water i s " a rocky t u n n e l " a long which " v e r y s m a l l " Lore i s " w a l k i n g and s t u m b l i n g " (Sph 307): She was midway through the t u n n e l , and seemed i n deep d i s t r e s s a t her i n a b i l i t y to f i n d a passage out . . . . The grea tes t angu i sh , however, appeared on her f ea tures as o f ten as she turned them up-wards to the sky , as seen through the water s u r -f ace . The r e a l i s a t i o n of the l i g h t , f r e s h , f r e e , b e a u t i f u l w o r l d , l y i n g immediately overhead, which she was unable to r each , seemed to be more than she c o u l d bear (Sph 307-08). T h i s i s the r e a l L o r e , but she cannot s p r i n g up through the sur face of the p o o l because of her shadow-selves be low. "Underneath the rock t u n n e l " (Sph 308) i s another l e v e l of r e a l i t y , where Lore walks the " f o r e s t avenue" (Sph 308) of N i c h o l a s ' s dream. Below t h i s shadow Lore i s " a t h i r d L o r e , the shadow of a shadow" (Sph 309).- Thi s t h i r d Lore i s the Lore of ' r e a l ' l i f e , w a l k i n g by a r i v e r w i t h Maur ice F e r r e i r a . Each of the Lores i s w a l k i n g a long her enc losed passage, which was as a p r i s o n to h e r , each v a i n l y s t r u g g l i n g towards the open w o r l d which never came, each d e s p a i r i n g and agonised , but [none] apparent ly aware of the o t h e r ' s e x i s t e n c e . . . . The r e a l Lore of the t u n n e l wished to escape i n t o the f r ee w o r l d which she c o u l d see above h e r , whereas the shadow Lore of the f o r e s t avenue longed only to escape from her confinement. She was aware of no o ther p l a c e . And t h a t , perhaps , was what c o n s t i t u t e d her shadowhood (Sph 309) . A c t i o n on the three planes i s s imul taneous . When the r e a l Lore decides 15 to " s t e p " through the sur face of the p o o l , i n t o the " f r e e , pure atmos-phere of the open w o r l d " (Sph 311), the shadow Lores drown themselves : " t h e i r leaps i n t o the water were not w i l l e d , but n e c e s s i t a t e d " (Sph 312). Once f ree of her body, once out o f n a t u r e , Lore embraces her f a t h e r . Then she p o i n t s to " A dark coast . . . , mi l e s d i s t a n t , across the sea" (Sph 313) where she must go, wi thout h im. "You are not h e r e , d e a r ! " she t e l l h i m . " I am h e r e , because I am dead; but you are i n your body, dreaming e v e r y t h i n g . " He w i l l f o l l o w when the time comes. She i s no longer t rapped i n the p r i s o n of the body; most i m p o r t a n t l y , she has l e a r n e d tha t she was not running away from M a u r i c e , but " t o -wards something a l l t h e t t i m e " (Sph 313). Then N i c h o l a s appears , r i d i n g one horse and l e a d i n g another . Together they r i d e t o the d i s t a n t l a n d , the beasts q u i t t i n g " the rude sea , to take f l i g h t i n the upper a i r " (Sph 315). Lore and N i c h o l a s have escaped from the sea o f matter to be u n i t e d , a t l a s t , a f t e r death. In Sphinx and The Haunted Woman the fundamental elements ( i f not t h e i r mora l s i g n i f i c a n c e ) o f L i n d s a y ' s cosmology are made e x t r a o r d i -n a r i l y c l e a r . F i r s t l y , the r e a l w o r l d i s the w o r l d of the s p i r i t , of which the ' r e a l ' ( s o - c a l l e d r e a l ) w o r l d of m a t e r i a l ob jec t s i s but a shadow. The r e a l w o r l d i s complete ly and i n e l u c t a b l y beyond: beyond our comprehension and beyond our i m a g i n a t i o n . "That i s t o say , an i n c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d " w r i t e s L indsay (TSG 42) . However, though there may be "an unbroken l i n e o f " shadow wor ld s were our eyes acute enough 16 to see them (Sph 313) , there i s a w o r l d we know w h i c h , by ana logy , w i l l h e l p us to conceive of the i n c o n c e i v a b l e ; that i s , the w o r l d of the d r e a m - v i s i o n , which stands i n r e l a t i o n s to our w o r l d as the r e a l w o r l d stands to i t . Thus L indsay c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y works on three l e v e l s : r e a l w o r l d , s p i r i t w o r l d of haunted rooms and dream gardens, everyday w o r l d ; r e a l w o r l d , s p i r i t w o r l d of deep dreams, everyday w o r l d : i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , the wor lds of K r a g , N ight spore and M a s k u l l r e s p e c t i v e l y . Another way of expres s ing the i n e x p r e s s i b l e — f o r which i t i s t h e r e f o r e a symbol—is through music . L indsay w r i t e s , "Mus ic i s a microcosm of the f e e l i n g s . I t expresses them a l l , ye t only as A r t ; i t i s not the f e e l i n g s themselves" (TSG 13) . That i s , i t i s f r e e of the ' r e a l ' w o r l d , though i t stands i n r e l a t i o n to i t . In f a c t , l i t e r a l l y , f o r L i n d s a y , "music i s the exper ience of a s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d " (TSG 13) . Music i n L i n d s a y ' s books i s a gateway to the h i g h e r w o r l d , as the p l a y i n g of the man i n the garden, or L o r e ' s ' S p h i n x ' . L indsay h i m s e l f l oved the music of M o z a r t , Brahms, and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , Beethoven (TSG 23) . I t i n s p i r e d h im. A Voyage to A r c t u r u s begins w i t h a copy of the Temple Scene from The Magic F l u t e , which Lindsay g r e a t l y admired (TSG 13 ) , though he a l l ows F a u l l to v u l g a r i s e i t . Robert Barnes , a mus ic i an f r i e n d of L i n d s a y , t e l l s us tha t On read ing the chapter 'Wombflash F o r e s t ' I was always shaken w i t h deep emotion. He t o l d me that he was i n s p i r e d to so w r i t e t h a t chapter by the 5 th Symphony (B e e t ho ven) —espec i a l ly the drumming passage l i n k i n g the scherzo to the f i n a l e (TSG 2 3 ) . 17 In A Voyage to A r c t u r u s there i s a m u s i c i a n , E a r t h r i d , who p lays w i t h shapes as o r d i n a r y music ians do w i t h n o t e s . On h i s i n s t r u m e n t , M a s k u l l almost manages to crea te Muspe l . In h i s theory of M u s i c , L indsay seems to f o l l o w Schopenhauer q u i t e c l o s e l y . In The World as W i l l and Idea Schopenhauer takes the n e o - P l a t o n i c l i n e that a r t " repeats or reproduces the e t e r n a l Ideas grasped through pure c o n t e m p l a t i o n " ( T h i r d Book, sec . 36) . Of course , Schopenhauer r e a l i s e s t h a t " the ( P l a t o n i c ) Ideas are the adequate o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n of w i l l w h i l e music " i s e n t i r e l y independent of the phenomenal w o r l d " : i . e . music i s independent of the w o r l d which o b j e c t i f i e s the Ideas . T h e r e f o r e , Schopenhauer dec ides , music must be "as d i r e c t an o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n and copy of the whole w i l l as the w o r l d i t s e l f , nay , even as the Ideas , whose m u l t i p l i e d m a n i f e s t a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s the w o r l d of i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g s . Music i s thus by no means l i k e the o ther a r t s , the copy o f the I d e a s , , b u t the Copy of the w i l l i t s e l f , whose o b j e c t i v i t y the Ideas a r e . " Schopenhauer's c o n c l u s i o n i s that music does not t h e r e f o r e express t h i s or t h a t p a r t i c -u l a r and d e f i n i t e j o y , t h i s or that sorrow, or p a i n , or h o r r o r , or d e l i g h t , or merr iment , or peace of mind; but j o y , sorrow, p a i n , h o r r o r , d e l i g h t , merriment , peace of mind themselves ( T h i r d Book, sec . 52 ) . L i n d s a y ' s v i e w , quoted i n the preced ing paragraph^ , i s c l e a r l y a p a r a -phrase of t h i s . For both of them, music " e x h i b i t s i t s e l f as the meta-p h y s i c a l to e v e r y t h i n g p h y s i c a l i n the w o r l d " (Third^Book, s ec . 5 2 ) : music i s i t s own w o r l d , and i t i s a h i g h e r w o r l d than the p h y s i c a l o r phenomenal one. 18 T h i r d l y , L indsay u t i l i s e s the many o p p o s i t i o n s which are common to western c u l t u r e , which i s "not of one European country but of 9 Europe" as T. S. E l i o t says of D a n t e ' s . Indeed, Dante i s the f o u n t a i n -head o f European a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , and i t s g rea te s t p r a c t i -t i o n e r : He l i v e d i n an age i n which men s t i l l saw v i s i o n s . I t was a p s y c h o l o g i c a l h a b i t , the t r i c k of which we have f o r g o t t e n , but as good as any o f our own. We have n o t h i n g but dreams, and we have f o r g o t t e n t h a t see ing v i s i o n s — a p r a c t i c e now r e l e g a t e d to the aberrant and uneducated—was once a more s i g n i f i c a n t , i n t e r e s t i n g , and d i s c i p l i n e d k i n d of dreaming. We take i t f o r granted tha t our dreams s p r i n g from below: p o s s i b l y the q u a l i t y of our dreams s u f f e r s inrconsequence (10) . 11 Dreams are v i s u a l phenomena: "Dante ' s i s a v i s u a l i m a g i n a t i o n " and so , i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , i s L i n d s a y ' s . In a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy ' y o u are what you s e e ' : the image i s the meaning and the meaning i s m o r a l . The expre s s ion of the moral p o s i t i v e v a l u e of good, i n L indsay as much as i n Dante, i s l i g h t , which has two negat ions— dark and heavy. As na r ra t o r -D ante c l i m b s , e v e r y t h i n g gets b r i g h t e r and he gets l i g h t e r , w h i l e the day darkens f o r I s b e l when she loses the v i s i o n , and the o l d e s t p a r t of R u n h i l l must be the h i g h e s t , though t h i s i s not a p h y s i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y . S i m i l a r l y , Lore c l imbs out of the water i n t o a ' h i g h e r ' w o r l d i n both senses. Mountains and towers are z i g g u r a t s , ladders to heaven, There i s U l f ' s Tower and the observatory at S ta rknes s . Mountains are h i n t e d a t by such names as R u n h i l l , D e v i l ' s Tor , Tormance, A l p p a i n , a n d even K r a g . These o p p o s i t i o n s form pa t te rns 19 of imagery i n nove l s such as Sphinx and The Haunted Woman, but they are the very s t u f f of a l l e g o r i e s such as A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . L i n d s a y ' s acknowledged p iece of en ter ta inment , Adventures of M. de M a i l l y , a minor c l a s s i c i n i t s genre, i s h i s on ly book which does not draw on the c e n t r a l , co smolog i ca l v i s i o n or the u n d e r l y i n g iconography o f European c u l t u r e . I t i s a d e t e c t i v e s t o r y - c u m - h i s t o r i c a l romance. In The Strange Genius o f David Lindsay W i l s o n leaves i t "out of account because i t i s w r i t t e n p u r e l y as en te r t a inment " (TSG 75) , w h i l e V i s i a k de scr ibe s i t as " a s u r p r i s i n g f r e a k , or s p o r t , a complete departure from L i n d s a y ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v e i n " which "cannot be con-s i d e r e d i n the body o f [ h i s ] work" (TSG 135). In f a c t , i t can. Adventures of M. de M a i l l y begins q u i t e w e l l , at l e a s t four t imes . F i r s t the adventurer i s 'employed' to prevent the S i e u r de Jambac from b e i n g f o r c i b l y wed to a woman he does not—she b e i n g as o l d and ug ly as he—want to marry . M a i M y f a i l s , and a f t e r twenty- four pages the a c t i o n peters o u t . Then he i s h i r e d to b r i n g a younger man to the a l t a r w i t h a woman both younger and more a t t r a c t i v e than h i m s e l f . M a i l l y f a i l s again (though he makes some money by the way) and, a f t e r t h i r t y - t h r e e pages, the p l o t aga in r e turns to r e s t . H i s next a s s i g n -ment i n v o l v e s u n r a v e l l i n g the compl i ca t ions f o l l o w i n g upon a man marry ing the wrong h a l f of a p a i r of t w i n s . D i t t o a f t e r a . f u r t h e r s i x t y - t h r e e pages, d i t t o . The reader , of course , i s not tempted to compla in . He i s r ead ing a book o f ' adventure s ' ( o r i g i n a l l y , ' e n t e r p r i s e s ' ) , so t h e i r e p i s o d i c 20 nature does not bother h im, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e the s t o r i e s are e x c i t i n g and w e l l t o l d . A c r i t i c obsessed w i t h ' o r g a n i c u n i t y ' would probably not have s t a r t e d the book i n the f i r s t p l a c e . The three p r o g r e s s i v e l y longer episodes l ead to the f o u r t h , which takes up the r e s t o f a l o n g i s h book (319 pages) . Al though i t i s an adventure which s u p p l i e s M a i l l y w i t h the promise of tha t ( f o r him) needless acces sory , a w i f e , i t i s not one d i r e c t l y concerned w i t h m a r r y i n g , but w i t h p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e , b r i b e r y and a s s a s s i n a t i o n . M a i l l y i s summoned b e f o r e t k h e K M i n i s t e r of Secret S e r v i c e and M a r i n e , P o n t c h a r t r a i n , who t r i e s t o b l a c k m a i l h im i n t o k i l l i n g a Duke he charges w i t h p l o t t i n g aga ins t h i s , the M i n i s t e r ' s , l i f e . From t h i s p o i n t on the p l o t seems (and t h i s is the h i g h e s t accolade f o r a p o t -b o i l e r ) ' t o take on a l i f e o f i t s own, ' c o m p l i c a t i n g i t s e l f beyond b e l i e f u n t i l , as P i c k puts i t , " the reader i s e v e n t u a l l y l o s t i n the maze" (TSG 18) , though M a i l l y , of course , i s n o t . The p l o t develops from b l a c k m a i l (by P o n t c h a r t r a i n ) , through robbery (by Passy , who i s P o n t c h a r t r a i n ' s a s s i s t a n t ) and attempted a s s a s s i n a t i o n (by the Duke, he lped by Passy) to p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e (by Argenson, c h i e f of p o l i c e and P o n t c h a r t r a i n ' s r i v a l , who i s 'pr ime mover' i n e v e r y t h i n g ) , and f o r a l l of these M a i l l y i s to be the scapegoat. M a i l l y i s not to be used, even i n such a compl ica ted p l o t . He f o l l o w s the i n t r i c a t e 'Thread of D i v i n e L o g i c ' (the heading o f Chapter XIV) through a l l i t s c o m p l i c a t i o n s and, w i t h b r a v e r y , to f i n a l v i c t o r y . We may take an example of h i s r a t i o c i n a t i o n : 21 We s h a l l proceed w i t h the e n q u i r y . M d l l e Passy has not been e x p e l l e d , l e t us suppose, and I am i n her s o c i e t y . Then what i s to happen n e x t . Her husband i s u p s t a i r s , we assume. Thus he awaits my a r r i v a l be fore s t a r t i n g the wheels of h i s murder; and t h e r e f o r e he must know of my a r r i v a l . But he i s u p s t a i r s . Perhaps he works w i t h P o n t c h a r t r a i n i n the o ther house. I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t he w i l l be ab le to hear my e n -t r a n c e . From time to time he absents h i m s e l f from the M i n i s t e r , tha t he may l i s t e n over the s t a i r - r a i l . But the k i t c h e n - d o o r i s s h u t , we w i l l say , or there i s s i l e n c e between our v o i c e s ; and i f he creeps downsta irs to a s c e r t a i n more c l o s e l y , there i s the chance of d e t e c t i o n . Or i s i t has been arranged t h a t h i s w i f e s h a l l go up to i n f o r m h im, he may a t t h a t time be w i t h P o n t c h a r t r a i n , and she w i l l no t dare to l i n g e r , f o r f e a r I s h a l l eacape from the h o u s e . . . . T h e r e f o r e , a s i g n a l ! . . . And what k i n d o f s i g n a l ? S ince the house i s dark , a l i g h t ! A l i g h t e d cand le . And where must t h i s candle be s e t , i n order to be seen? He i s u p s t a i r s , she down; t h e r e f o r e i t must be somewhere i n the passage v i s i b l e from the s t a i r - h e a d . . . . Let us d i s -cover i f there i s an u n l i g h t e d candle t h e r e , ready to t r ansmi t such a s i g n a l " (AMM 161-62) . He does. There i s . The determined f o l l o w i n g through of ' the d i v i n e t h r e a d ' i s much l i k e the r a t i o c i n a t i o n o f , f o r example, Poe ' s d e t e c t i v e h e r o , Dup in . The d i f f e r e n c e i s that i n 'The P u r l o i n e d L e t t e r ' there i s an ' I ' to whom Dupin c a n ' t a l k , a Dr . Watson to h i s Holmes, whereas poor M a i l l y , the man o f a c t i o n i n Che darkened house, can only t a l k to h i m s e l f . Nonethe le s s , a f t e r three f a l s e s t a r t s , we can see that L indsay has d i s covered h i s t a l e n t f o r d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n , which makes M a i l l y not " a s u r p r i s i n g f r e a k " but the ' o t h e r f a c e , ' as i t were, of h i s t a l e n t f o r dream f a n t a s y , as Dupin i s of P o e ' s , Father Brown's of G. K. • 22 C h e s t e r t o n ' s , L o n n r o t ' s of B o r g e s ' . A l l e g o r y , l i k e d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n , i s e s s e n t i a l l y r a t i o c i n a t i v e . The main d i f f e r e n c e between them i s t h a t i n the d e t e c t i v e s t o r y we are g iven the stream of consciousness presumed i n s i d e the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s mind (or some o ther account of the substance of that stream), whereas i n the a l l e g o r y we are g iven the contents of the mind p r o j e c t e d f o r t h : the p e r c e i v e d w o r l d not o n l y corresponds t o , i t l i t e r a l l y i s the mental events of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s mind. The reader becomes a k i n d of d e t e c t i v e , and the a l l e g o r i c a l w o r l d i s the o b j e c t of h i s r a t i o c i n a -t i o n s as he t r i e s to ' t r a n s l a t e ' the a l l e g o r y . But i n both cases the i n t e l l e c t of the reader i s engaged by the s u r f a c e : i n M a i l l y , by what must happen n e x t , l o g i c a l l y ; i n A r c t u r u s , by what must happen n e x t , e m o t i o n a l l y . In the d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n the r a t i o c i n a t i o n s are an end i n themselves , i n tha t they prov ide the i n t e r e s t of the s t o r y ; i n the a l l e g o r y I suspect tha t the r e a d e r ' s reason (to which most a l l e g o r i s t s are h o s t i l e ) i s engaged to keep i t busy , w h i l e the r e s t of the mind i s f reed to respond more or l e s s unconsc ious ly to the a r c h e t y p a l pa t te rns of the s t o r y . This may a l s o be the case w i t h the author when he i s composing an a l l e g o r y . Both The Haunted Woman, which Robert Nye i n a rev iew i n The Scotsman c a l l e d " a metaphys ica l t h r i l l e r " (TSG 4 ) , and Sphinx cou ld have been w r i t t e n as d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s . Each of them has a c lo sed set of c h a r a c t e r s , the r i g h t k i n d of country house, and a dead body or two. The problem i s that d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s normal ly dea l w i t h the phenomenal 23 w o r l d . Any i n v e s t i g a t o r c o u l d q u i c k l y work out who k i l l e d N i c h o l a s , whether Lore committed s u i c i d e , or how Judge d i e d , but m e t a p h y s i c a l l y these are be s ide the p o i n t . L i n d s a y ' s charac te r s may d ie by appar-e n t l y n a t u r a l causes , such as apoplexy , but t h e i r deaths a r e , as we know, r e a l l y due to t h e i r contac t w i t h the r e a l w o r l d , which i s complete ly beyond the phenomenal w o r l d , and-.-'therefore beyond i n v e s -12 t i g a t i o n . The almost random and apparent ly melodramatic death of N i c h o l a s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u c c e s s f u l from t h i s p o i n t of v i e w : h i s death was n e c e s s i t a t e d by the u n i t i n g o f h i s r e a l s e l f and L o r e ' s . E v e l y n ' s s l e e p i n g p o t i o n c o n v e n i e n t l y disposes of the b o d i l y envelope from which the r e a l s e l f must be l i b e r a t e d . L i k e the o ther books, M a i l l y f a i l e d to s e l l . I t i s ev ident that J a c q u e l i n e p e r c e i v e d , sooner than her husband, tha t there would never be any money i n h i s w r i t i n g , and she had them move to a s m a l l e r house i n F e r r i n g , Sussex. L a t e r , j u s t before World W a r - I I , aga ins t D a v i d ' s wishes she borrowed some money i n order to buy a guest house i n B r i g h t o n . Ins tead of young l a d i e s from the c o n t i n e n t , however, the war r e s u l t e d i n her house be ing a b i l l e t f o r a succes s ion of n a v a l o f f i c e r s . David saw the war i t s e l f — n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the Germans' p r e -occupat ion w i t h ideas of Northern supremacy to which he had g iven expre s s ion i n D e v i l ' s Tor—as b e i n g a d i s a s t e r from which Europe cou ld never r e c o v e r . He became more and more withdrawn and r e c l u s i v e . J . B. P i c k t e l l s us : 24 The f i r s t bomb that f e l l on B r i g h t o n d i d not explode , but i t f e l l on the L i n d s a y s ' house. David was i n the c o l d bath he took every morning. The r o o f of the bathroom c o l l a p s e d and a l though Lindsay was not p h y s i c a l l y h u r t , he never recovered from the shock. He be-came grey and s i l e n t and i n June 1945 d ied before he was seventy (TSG 32) . Dur ing h i s l i f e - t i m e Lindsay d i d r e c e i v e some support and recog-n i t i o n . There were l e t t e r s from people such as L . H . Myers , who apprec i a t ed A Voyage; there was encouragement from E. H . V i s i a k , who wrote a s h o r t c r i t i q u e of A Voyage f o r Notes and Queries (March 30, 1940), and from V i c t o r G o l l a n c z , whose f i r m r e i s s u e d A Voyage w i t h V i s i a k ' s note as fo reword . Th i s was i n keeping w i t h a w i s h Lindsay had expressed t w e n t y - f i v e years before i n a l e t t e r to V i s i a k : In the event of the book ' s ever going i n t o another e d i t i o n — w h i c h at the present i s extremely prob-l e m a t i c a l — I am going to ask you to be k i n d enough to f u r n i s h a foreword , knowing t h a t you w i l l no t re fuse t h i s f avour . E v i d e n t l y , i t r e q u i r e s some e x p l a n a t i o n , and I am..aquainted w i t h no one so w e l l ab le to supply i t as y o u r s e l f (November 9 , 1921; L 43) . V i s i a k , as has a l ready been no ted , a c t u a l l y p r e f e r r e d The Haunted Woman, as L indsay r e a l i s e d . He wrote to V i s i a k on June 11 , 1936, about h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n , " I don ' t q u i t e connect [A Voyage] w i t h you . You know you have always r a t h e r concentra ted on the ' H . W . ' " (L 64) . L indsay seems to have become accustomed to the apparent o p a c i t y (one of B l a k e ' s names f o r Satan) of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s as rev iewer a f t e r rev iewer re fused to see i t as a n y t h i n g but "a r i o t of morbid f ancy" ( i n The Times L i t e r a r y Supplement; TSG 3) or "a grand p i e c e 25 o f w i l d i m a g i n i n g " ( J . B. P r i e s t l e y i n The Evening Standard; TSG 24) , but he craved unders tanding . W r i t i n g to V i s i a k on November 25, 1921, before h i s f i r s t n o v e l had q u i t e sunk i n t o apparent o b l i v i o n , he remarks, I t i s indeed g r a t i f y i n g to l e a r n that I have a s tudent of my 'Voyage '—I w o n ' t repeat your expres s ion and add 'an a d m i r e r ' , f o r I have s t r o n g doubts whether i t i s a book which anyone would admire w h o l e - h e a r t e d l y . P lease g ive the lady i n q u e s t i o n my k i n d regards , coupled w i t h the hope that she has succeeded—in p a r t , at a l l e v e n t s — i n e l u c i d a t i n g the mystery of the a l l e g o r y ! (L 45) . Nothing seems to have come of i t . A Voyage was not r e i s s u e d u n t i l 1946, a f t e r L i n d s a y ' s dea th . G o l l a n c z have s i n c e r e i s s u e d i t t w i c e , i n 1963 and i n 1968, as p a r t of t h e i r s e r i e s o f 'Rare Works o f Imaginat ive F i c t i o n , ' which i n c l u d e s The Haunted Woman (1968) as w e l l as works by M. P . S h i e l (The P u r p l e Cloud and The I s l e of L i e s ) and E. H. V i s i a k ' s Medusa. As T r i n c u l o remarks i n The Tempest, " M i s e r y aquaints a man w i t h strange b e d f e l l o w s . " Much more to the p o i n t has been C. S. L e w i s ' s great i n t e r e s t i n L i n d s a y , from whom he o b v i o u s l y l ea rned a great d e a l . Lewis had the r i g h t k i n d of i n t e r e s t i n a l l e g o r y and a profound r e l i g i o u s commit-ment, which made h im unusua l ly s e n s i t i v e to L i n d s a y ' s t r u e ( v i s i o n a r y ) 13 achievement. In an acute p i ece o f c r i t i c i s m i n Of Other Wor lds , Lewis pays h i s t r i b u t e to A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , b u t , i m i t a t i o n be ing the s i n c e r f i s t form of f l a t t e r y , as the o l d saw has i t , the t r i l o g y 14 begun by Out Of the S i l e n t P l a n e t i s a more f i t t i n g acco lade . 26 R. L . Green repeated many of C. S. L e w i s ' s p o i n t s (he r e f e r s us to L e w i s ' s essay) i n a chapter on 'Tormance and Malacandra ' i n h i s survey of s p a c e - f l i g h t i n f i c t i o n , Into Other Worlds . There were a r t i c l e s by J . B. P i c k i n Studies i n S c o t t i s h L i t e r a t u r e (1964) and C o l i n W i l s o n i n h i s book of essays Eagle and Earwig (1966). However, i t was not u n t i l a f t e r A Voyage was p u b l i s h e d , a t C o l i n W i l s o n ' s s u g g e s t i o n , i n paperback i n America by B a l l a n t i n e Books i n 1968, that i t became at a l l widely known. Joanna Russ took a few pot- shots a t i t almost immediately i n E x t r a p o l a t i o n i n December 1969 (but see my r e b u t t a l i n the May 1972 i s s u e of t h a t j o u r n a l ) , a s s o c i a t i n g L indsay w i t h another set of " s t range b e d f e l l o w s " : Poe, van Vogt and Redd. At l e a s t Miss Russ d i d not muddle Lindsay i n w i t h some of the o ther w r i t e r s p u b l i s h e d i n B a l l a n t i n e ' s ' A d u l t Fantasy ' s e r i e s ; w h i l e one of them i s h i g h l y r e l e v a n t (George MacDonald) , most of the r e s t are n o t . In p a r t i c u l a r we might mention J . R. R. T o l k i e n , whose p o p u l a r i t y has been the c e n t r a l f a c t o r i n the' enormous i n c r e a s e of i n t e r e s t i n fantasy and hence i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . I r o n i c a l l y , T o l k i e n ' s b e s t -s e l l i n g t r i l o g y The Lord of the R i n g s , a m o r a l l y s i m p l i s t i c and p r o -f e s s e d l y n o n - a l l e g o r i c a l adventure s t o r y , i s i n .--many ways the a n t i t h -e s i s Of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . However tha t may be , the r e s u l t i n g "unexpected vogue" (TSG v i i ) L indsay enjoys i n America has encouraged John Baker to p u b l i s h a whole book about h i m , The Strange Genius o f David L indsay by W i l s o n , P i c k and V i s i a k , and s c h o l a r l y i n t e r e s t i s on the i n c r e a s e . Nonethe le s s , L i n d s a y ' s o r i g i n a l complaint about even 27 "some q u i t e t o l e r a n t and good-natured reviews i n the papers "—that "now, as ever , I d o n ' t f e e l t h a t they touch me or my work" (L 51)— stands to t h i s date , to the extent tha t no one has taken the t r o u b l e to put A Voyage i n t o i t s l i t e r a r y context ( i t i s not , of course , S u i g e n e r i s 1 ^ ) , o r take the a l l e g o r y s e r i o u s l y enough to uncover the book's p r e c i s e and b e a u t i f u l s t r u c t u r e . L indsay w r i t e s to V i s i a k : Many thanks f o r your sympathet ic remarks r e -gard ing my book. I must say t h i s , tha t yours i s the on ly c r i t i c i s m — p u b l i c or p r i v a t e — which so f a r has l i f t e d the l i d o f f my l i t t l e pot to see what i s i n s i d e , and f o r t h i s I am a p p r o p r i a t e l y g r a t e f u l . I am a f r a i d that nowadays people only read f o r the s t o r y , but perhaps a race of ' s u p e r - r e a d e r s ' w i l l l a t e on a r i s e who w i l l make i t t h e i r f i r s t concern to grasp what the author i s d r i v i n g at be fore d e c i d i n g whether or not he has been success-f u l (January 6, 1924; L 51) . Th i s we s h a l l proceed to do. 28 Footnotes t o Chapter One "Slost of the b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n . t h e chapter has been drawn from J . B. P i c k ' s 'A Sketch o f L i n d s a y ' s L i f e as Man and W r i t e r ' (TSG 3-32) . A r t h u r Schopenhauer, 'The World as W i l l and Idea ' i n Schopenhauer: Se lec t ions . , ed . Dewi t t H . P a r k e r (New Y o r k : Char les S c r i b n e r ' s Sons, 1956), p . 9 ( F i r s t Book, sec . 6 ) . Subsequent re ferences to The World as W i l l and Idea are to t h i s s e l e c t i o n ; the book and s e c t i o n w i l l be c i t e d i n the t e x t . 3 L indsay w r i t e s to V i s i a k , a f t e r sending h im a copy, " I t i s most k i n d o f you to read 'De M a i l l y ' , but r e a l l y i t was merely in tended as a l i t t l e token of good w i l l , and at l e a s t you w i l l do me the favour not to comment on i t " (September 20, 1929; L 52-53) . 4 Not from J . B. P r i e s t l e y i n the Evening Standard o r H . E. Bates i n Everyman, but from Rebecca West i n . t h e D a i l y Te legraph , from Fausset i n the Manchester Guardian and from L. P . H a r t l e y i n the Weekend Review. " * "I t i s both h i s s t r e n g t h and h i s weakness tha t c e r t a i n of the ques t ions asked on Tormance, as w e l l as the responses to them, are l o c k e d i n that D e l p h i c ambiguity which torments our d a i l y l i v e s . " ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' by Loren E i s e l e y (VA x ) . ^In D e v i l ' s Tor , L i n d s a y ' s l a s t p u b l i s h e d work, there i s a c h a r a c t e r c l e a r l y model led on Schopenhauer (DT 108) , who i s a good dea l more l i k e L indsay than i s the young a r t i s t P e t e r Copping. This c h a r a c t e r , Magnus Colborne , observes b i t t e r l y : There i s assumed to be an i n t e l l i g e n t p u b l i c tha t i n t e r e s t s i t s e l f i n cosmica l problems. I t seems, however, that i t has f a i l e d h i t h e r t o to hear of my books; at l e a s t , i t has not bought them. Under-s tand w e l l , I never was i n need e i t h e r of money from my w r i t i n g s or of l i t e r a r y g l o r y ; s t i l l , you may conceive the s m a l l i n c l i n a t i o n I f e l t to go on spending mysel f i n a vacuum (DT 115). 7 W. H. Auden, The Enchafed F l o o d , or The Romantic Iconography of the Sea (New Y o r k : Vintage Books, 1967), p . 74. 29 g G. K. C h e s t e r t o n , The Man Who Was Thursday; A Nightmare (New Y o r k : Modern L i b r a r y , 1917), p . 257. 9 T. S. E l i o t , Dante (London: Faber and Faber , 1965), p . 11. 1 0 T . S. E l i o t , Dante, p . 15. 1 : L T . S. E l i o t , Dante, p . 15. 12 In f a c t , the techniques of d e t e c t i v e f i c t i o n and dream a l l e g o r y , cous ins though they be , are a s t o n i s h i n g l y d i f f i c u l t to combine. Poe never t r i e d . G. K. Chester ton made a b r i l l i a n t attempt i n The Man Who Was Thursday: A Nightmare, which C o l i n W i l s o n t h i n k s i s " the on ly s i m i l a r book" i n some respect s to A Voyage to A r c t u r u s (TSG 46; c f . TSG 36) , but Chester ton c o u l d only save h i s book from be ing complete ly broken-backed by making i t f a r c i c a l , thus n u l l i f y i n g the ' r e l i g i o u s ' power o f h i s metaphys i ca l argument. More r e c e n t l y Borges has , i f only i n very s h o r t works , s t r i v e n to u n i t e the two modes w i t h o u t admixing f a r c e , and h i s most s u c c e s s f u l f i c t i o n from t h i s p o i n t of v iew i s 'Death and the Compass.' 13 Thi s c o l l e c t i o n of essays was e d i t e d by W. Hooper and p u b l i s h e d posthumously by Geoffrey Bles i n 1966. 14 L i n d s a y ' s i n f l u e n c e on Lewis has been examined by P a t r i c i a Ann P i l l i n g i n her d i s s e r t a t i o n 'Form and Content i n S e l e c t e d Novels of C. S. L e w i s ' ( U n i v e r s i t y of London, 1971). I am g r a t e f u l to Miss P i l l i n g f o r sending me a copy of the appendix to her t h e s i s , ' D a v i d Lindsay and A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . ' 1 5 W i l s o n ' s c l a i m . ( T S G 36) . 30 Chapter Two: DREAM AND ALLEGORY: THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF LITERARY MODE We have seen tha t i n h i s 'me taphys i ca l t h r i l l e r s , ' The Haunted Woman and Sphinx , L indsay uses a fundamental o p p o s i t i o n between the dream w o r l d and the ' r e a l ' w o r l d , drawing on the t r a d i t i o n a l imagery which we have noted i n Dante. We s h a l l f i n d L indsay doing e x a c t l y the same t h i n g i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , though i t i s l e s s obvious because a l l e g o r i e s are not so d i s c u r s i v e as nove l s and because the ' r e a l ' w o r l d i s l e f t beh ind when the t r a v e l l e r s voyage to Tormance. T. S. E l i o t , commenting on the r e l a t i o n between the V i t a Nuova o f Dante and The Shepherd o f Hermas, remarks, " the s i m i l a r i t i e s might prove that a c e r t a i n h a b i t i n dream-imagery can p e r s i s t throughout many changes of c i v i l i s a t i o n . " " ' " Of course , c i v i l i s a t i o n s are t r a n s i -t o r y t h i n g s , whereas s leep and dreams are a fundamental f a c t o r i n the p h y s i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x i s t e n c e of man. As men must always have spent a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i r time on e a r t h s l e e p i n g , the d u a l i s t i c o p p o s i t i o n between the dream w o r l d and the waking r e a l i t y i s probably o l d e r than l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f . Dream l i t e r a t u r e n a t u r a l l y uses dream imagery, and t h i s g ives the t r a d i t i o n great c o n t i n u i t y even where d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e may not e x i s t . The E n g l i s h l i n e of dream works i n c l u d e s the s t o r y of Cynewulf , The Dream of the Rood, P e a r l , P i e r s Plowman, The F a e r i e Queen, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , J u b i l a t e Agno, A l i c e i n Wonderland, Phantastes and Finnegans Wake, to name o n l y the 31 most obvious examples. But there are dreams and dreams. Macrobius (ca 400) and John of S a l i s b u r y (ca 1120-1180) d i s t i n g u i s h e s s e n t i a l l y f i v e k i n d s : 1. insomnium, nightmare o r t r o u b l e d dream; 2. v i s i u m , a p p a r i t i o n or h a l l u c i n a t i o n ; 3. somnium, o r d i n a r y o r enigmat ic dream; 4. oraculum, o r a c u l a r or p r o p h e t i c dream; 5 . v i s i o , p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n or v i s i o n a r y dream (2) . A l l f i v e k inds can, of course , be found i n the B i b l e , and i n many works of l i t e r a t u r e , but i t i s the f i f t h k i n d , the v i s i o , w i t h which we s h a l l be mainly concerned. Some dreams, i n J u n g i a n , Freudian o r any other psychology , are e v i d e n t l y more s i g n i f i c a n t than o t h e r s : the v i s i o i s the most s i g n i f i c a n t , be ing the expre s s ion of the ' i n n e r s e l f or of God. i I t would be d i f f i c u l t to f o l l o w P l a t o ' s ' S o c r a t e s ' and ac t " i n 3 obedience to God's commands g iven i n o rac l e s and dreams" s i n c e , as Henry ' s f a t h e r says i n Henry o f Of terd i r igen , "dreams are f r o t h " : " t h e 4 times when Heavenly v i s i o n s were seen i n dreams have long passed b y . " Henry r e p l i e s tha t "every dream . . . makes an important r e n t i n the myster ious c u r t a i n which . . . h ides our inward natures from our v i e w . " Dreams " s h o u l d be regarded as Heavenly g i f t s , as f r i e n d l y gu ides , i n our pi lgrimmage to the h o l y , tomb." But Henry has h i m s e l f j u s t been " s lumber ing i n t o another w o r l d " 7 and i s i n no doubt as to the t r u t h of what he has seen. 'Dante ' h i m s e l f had been more s tubborn : he was so wayward i t d i d not h e l p , B e a t r i c e compla ins , To use v i s i o n s i n h i s dreams and c a l l h im back In o ther ways. They meant so l i t t l e to h i m . 32 He f e l l so f a r down tha t every means of Saving h im proved inadequate , o u t s i d e Of showing h im the people who are l o s t (8 ) . I r o n i c a l l y , the whole of The D i v i n e Comedy i s a dream v i s i o n , a v i s i o , the aim of which i s to g ive us what P l a t o c a l l s that " i n s p i r e d and t rue prophecy" which normal ly "we only achieve . . . when the power 9 of our understanding i s i n h i b i t e d i n s l e e p " : i . e . , when we dream. Schopenhauer s ays , Dante ' s greatness der ives from h i s posses s ion of the t r u t h of the dream, w h i l e o ther poets possess only the t r u t h of the r e a l w o r l d . He shows us e x t r a o r d i n a r y th ings e x a c t l y as we see those of our dreams, and they g ive us the same i l l u s i o n . One would suppose that he had dreamed each canto d u r i n g the n i g h t (10) . Many ( i f not most) dream w r i t e r s have been f o l l o w e r s of the g rea te s t of the Gnos t i c p h i l o s o p h e r - a r t i s t s , P l a t o . In the d u a l i s t i c P l a t o n i c cosmology—close ly f o l l o w e d by Dante, B l a k e , Schopenhauer and L indsay—the " s o u l i s a h e l p l e s s p r i s o n e r , chained hand and f o o t i n the body, compelled to view r e a l i t y not d i r e c t l y but on ly through i t s : , p r i s o n b a r s , " as we are t o l d i n the Phaedo. The aim of the s o u l i s , of course , to excape from the l i m i t a t i o n s of the body and 12 " t o go back to the s t a r s " — t o r e t u r n to the unchanging r e a l i t y , home. This means the death of the body. But the s o u l can make tem-porary escapes before t h i s f i n a l d i s s o l u t i o n f o r , i n Schopenhauer's words , "deep s leep i s , v i i i l e i t l a s t s , i n no way d i f f e r e n t from death , i n t o w h i c h , i n f a c t , i t o f t e n passes c o n t i n u o u s l y " (The World as W i l l and Idea , Four th Book, sec . 54) . Deep s l e e p , as we saw i n Sphinx , 33 prov ides the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r the v i s i o n a r y dream. A t t e n t i o n has a l ready been p a i d to the d u a l i s t i c s e p a r a t i o n between the ' o t h e r ' s p i r i t u a l w o r l d and the ' r e a l ' w o r l d of m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s . In many ( i f not most) dreams there i s a l s o a s t r o n g d u a l i t y : " a dream i s a h a l l u c i n a t e d behav ior episode . . . i n which the dreamer 13 i s u s u a l l y both a p a r t i c i p a n t and an o b s e r v e r . " On t h i s common ex-p e r i e n c e , a dichotomy between the s o u l , the ' I ' who observes , and the body, the ' I ' who a c t s , can be founded, as i t i s f o r example i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , where Night spore i s the dreaming ' I ' who observes and M a s k u l l the ' I ' who a c t s . I f , when dreaming we become two, we i d e n t i f y w i t h the d i s c o r p o r a t e observer r a t h e r than the b o d i l y a c t o r , then we a c h i e v e , i n e f f e c t , the sought -a f t e r escape from the body' s p r i s o n . But i t i s , as we say , ' o n l y a dream'. However, the d r e a m w o r l d i s , at l e a s t w h i l e we are i n i t , r e a l i t y i t s e l f : i . e r what we p e r c e i v e and t h e r e f o r e what e x i s t s . Sometimes we f i n d i t hard t o d i s t i n g u i s h between a dream and a memory of the phenomenal w o r l d : a l l our percept ions are mental event s . Thus there i s , perhaps , p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , room f o r the s p e c u l a t i o n s of a Chuang Chou: " I dreamt l a s t n i g h t t h a t I was a b u t t e r f l y and now I don ' t know whether I am a man who dreamt he was a b u t t e r f l y , o r perhaps 14 a b u t t e r f l y who now dreams tha t he i s a man." But i t i s not the p h i l o s o p h i c a l paradox, that i s i m p o r t a n t ; l i t i s the image. Dante has V i r g i l say, Do you not see that we are only worms Born to become a n g e l i c b u t t e r f l i e s ? (The D i v i n e Comedy, I I 11) . 34 The b u t t e r f l y i s a symbol o f the p o e t ' s escape: man i s a worm seventy inches long (hi s he igh t and h i s span i n y e a r s ) , born to metamorphose i n t o a b u t t e r f l y , and thus to enjoy the b r i l l i a n t , b e a u t i f u l f l i g h t which symbol izes a h i g h e r s t a t e of b e i n g . The f i r s t temptat ion i s to t r y to l i v e i n the dream w o r l d , or other mental r e a l i t y mainta ined e i t h e r by drugs or by d i s c i p l i n e and 15 f a s t i n g . The i d e a l i s r e p o r t e d to have been a t t a i n e d i n I n d i a by " the r e c l u s e " who c a r r i e d away by h i s m e d i t a t i o n s , g ives a m a t e r i a l e x i s t e n c e to the images of h i s dreams, i f he can only succeed i n s u s t a i n i n g them w i t h s u f f i c i e n t i n t e n s i t y . The dream then becomes l u c i d , d e l i b e r a t e , and c r e a t i v e . ( 1 6 ) . In l i t e r a t u r e t h i s i s the theme of H. P . L o v e c r a f t ' s The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath , which i s about Randolf C a r t e r ' s a r t i s t i c a l l y con-t r o l l e d dream. C a r t e r i s "an o l d dreamer,"' '" 7 " a f r ee and potent master 18 19 among dreamers , " who has dreamed such a "marve l lous sunset c i t y " t h a t the gods themselves "have f o r g o t t e n the h i g h p laces of e a r t h , and 20 the mountains that knew t h e i r y o u t h " and have gone to l i v e i n i t . The"-idea of dream c r e a t i o n has been extended by Borges i n h i s s t o r y 'The C i r c u l a r R u i n s , ' where each dreamer i s a s u b - c r e a t o r and, s i m u l -21 t a n e o u s l y , " a » . p r o j e c t i o n o f another man's dreams." In another Borges s t o r y , ' E v e r y t h i n g and N o t h i n g , ' one Great Author t e l l s another : 22 " I dreamed the w o r l d the way you dreamed your work, my Shakespeare . " This idea of s u b c r e a t i o n a l s o u n d e r l i e s a l l dream worlds of the T o l k i e n type . 35 More to the p o i n t i n a study of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s (where, a f t e r a l l , c r e a t i o n and s u b c r e a t i o n are e v i l ) i s the i d e a that the 23 r e l a t i o n between the "two poles o f human e x i s t e n c e " i s a metaphor-i c a l one. I n i t i a l l y we must again be prepared to confuse the s l e e p i n g and waking w o r l d s , so that a t h i r d term may be i n t r o d u c e d . When Ouspensky a s s e r t s t h a t " another i l l u s i o n i s tha t we are awake. When we r e a l i s e that we are as leep we w i l l see tha t a l l h i s t o r y i s made by people who are a s l e e p , " or when Archbishop Law c la ims tha t " the g rea te s t P a r t of Mankind . . . may be s a i d to be a s l e e p ; and that p a r -t i c u l a r Way of L i f e which takes up Man's M i n d , Thoughts, and A c t i o n s 25 may very w e l l be c a l l e d h i s p a r t i c u l a r Dream," t h e i r purpose i s to t e l l us to 'wake up' to a h i g h e r t r u t h than t h i s w o r l d a f f o r d s . The analogy i s i d e n t i c a l i n opera t ion to the one P l a t o uses f o r the same purpose i n h i s parab le o f the cave i n The R e p u b l i c : as the r e a l w o r l d (the phenomenal wor ld) stands i n r e l a t i o n to the dream or shadow w o r l d , so the h i g h e r w o r l d of Forms stands i n r e l a t i o n to the phenomenal one. Of course , here the p o s i t i v e values of the dream are be ing den ied , but we have a l ready seen t h a t s i n c e we dream w h i l e a s leep (or 'dead ' t o the phenomenal wor ld) that need not be the case. And the s o u l which we have seen to be l i b e r a t e d i n the dream exper ience may ( e x i t s from one stage b e i n g merely entrances somewhere e l s e ) wake up i n what P l a t o 26 c a l l s the " t r u e and uns leep ing r e a l i t y , " Dante the " w o r l d w i t h o u t / Human beings t h a t l i e s beyond the sun" (The D i v i n e Comedy, I 26 ) , L i n d s a y , Muspe l : beyond the f a l s e w o r l d o f the senses i s a r e a l w o r l d of Ideas . 36 The analogy may be extended y e t f u r t h e r . "The s l e e p i n g and the 2 dead, how a l i k e they a r e " observes U t n a p i s h t i m i n The E p i c o f Gi lgamesh. I f s leep i s l i k e death , as Schopenhauer s a i d , death may a l s o be l i k e s l e e p : "We are such s t u f f / As dreams are made on , and our l i t t l e l i f e / 28 Is rounded w i t h a s l e e p . " M e t a p h o r i c a l l y , as i n the t i t l e o f C a l d e r o n ' p l a y , ' l i f e i s a dream' , dreamt by our s l e e p i n g e t e r n a l s e l v e s w h i l e we are awake i n r e a l i t y . When we d i e ( f i n a l l y go to s l eep) on e a r t h , a f t e r many n i g h t s and days, we w i l l wake up a f t e r one n i g h t i n e t e r n i t y . " I f death i s l i k e t h i s , t h e n , " says P l a t o ' s ' S o c r a t e s , ' " I c a l l i t g a i n ; because the whole of t ime , i f you look a t i t i n t h i s way, can be r e -29 garded as no more than one s i n g l e n i g h t . " . T h i s i s the s i t u a t i o n i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , butDante used the i d e a d i f f e r e n t l y . In The D i v i n e Comedy, the Dante who makes the journey exper iences s e v e r a l days and n i g h t s , w h i l e the Dante who i s , as we e v e n t u a l l y l e a r n , dreaming the v i s i o n , takes only one n i g h t , as i s ev ident when B e a t r i c e says B u t , s i n c e the time i n which you are as leep Is f l y i n g , l e t us end h e r e , l i k e a good T a i l o r who cuts the gown to vhat c l o t h he has ( I I I 32) . In A Voyage, the concept i s c o n c r e t e l y embodied i n Tormance's t w i n suns. M a s k u l l , the e n e r g e t i c p r o t a g o n i s t , i s awake f o r a number of the o r d i n a r y sun ' s ( B r a n c h s p e l l ' s ) days, b u t , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , as leep f o r a s i n g l e one o f A l p p a i n ' s n i g h t s . A l p p a i n i s the sun of e t e r n i t y . Soon a f t e r M a s k u l l wakes up on Tormance he sees " the a f t e r g l o w of a gorgeous b l u e sunse t " (VA 66) , and from then on he i s a s leep to the r e a l w o r l d . He comes to r e a l i s e t h a t "we are each o f us l i v i n g i n a 37 f a l s e , p r i v a t e w o r l d o f our own, a w o r l d o f dreams and a p p e t i t e s and d i s t o r t e d p e r c e p t i o n s " (VA 166-67): that i s to say , i n a dream w o r l d . When the b l u e sun r i s e s a g a i n , n e c e s s a r i l y he d i e s . But L indsay has not g iven us a man who i s a t the same time both as leep and awake; he has embodied the ' s l e e p i n g p a r t n e r ' as N i g h t s p o r e . The d y i n g M a s k u l l asks "Where's N i g h t s p o r e ? " and i s t o l d , "You are N i g h t s p o r e . " M a s k u l l d i e s , goes to s l e e p ; Night spore i s b o r n , wakes up. Krag s ays , "The n i g h t i s r e a l l y past at l a s t , N i g h t s p o r e . . . . The day i s h e r e " (VA 277) . The two main concepts r e s u l t i n g from the o p p o s i t i o n between dream and r e a l i t y c o e x i s t i n most n e o - P l a t o n i c ph i lo sophy from P l a t o to Schopenhauer and i n most dream l i t e r a t u r e from Dante t o L i n d s a y . T h i s i s perhaps most c l e a r l y seen i n The Haunted Woman. L i f e i s a dream, i . e . a f a l s e w o r l d , but i n dreaming we can , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , r e -new our contact w i t h the r e a l w o r l d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , we have drunk o f the r i v e r of mat te r , Le the , and we have f o r g o t t e n the e t e r n a l w o r l d which i s our ture home. "Your memory w i l l be your worst f r i e n d " (VA 43) Krag t e l l s M a s k u l l when they are about to leave f o r Tormance from the tower at S t a rknes s . "Do you understand i t , or have your f o r g o t t e n ? " (VA 278) Krag asks Night spore be fore he c l imbs the tower of Muspe l . Night spore has n o t been complete ly cor rupted by h i s imprisonment i n the body. Through dreaming he has (as h i s name h i n t s ) mainta ined some con-t a c t w i t h the s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t y beyond the m a t e r i a l w o r l d . In h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to The Dream Adventure , an anthology of dream, s t o r i e s , Roger C a i l l o i s c la ims tha t " the dream has been used only 38 r e c e n t l y i n the l i t e r a r y p r o c e s s , " a s k i n g , "Can i t s t i l l be a dream 30 i f one has been warned i n advance tha t i t i s one?" This i s an arguable p o i n t i n many ways. However, what C a l l o i s ' i s t r y i n g to get a t i s the i d e a tha t some modern authors have w r i t t e n dream nove l s t h a t are s e l f - c o n t a i n e d , c r e a t i v e dreams i n which the d r e a m - r e a l i t y o p p o s i t i o n i s not o v e r t l y p r o c l a i m e d . We can see what he means i f we compare the dream novel s of K a f k a , which respond very w e l l , as H a l l 31 and L i n d have found, to standard p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l procedures such as content a n a l y s i s , w i t h the i n s i s t e n t r e p e t i t i o n s , "And I saw i n my d r e a m . . . , " of a Bunyan. However, the l i t e r a r y mode of a l l e g o r y , even when i t does not pre tend to be a dream, does have a number of t h i n g s i n common w i t h dreams themselves , as w e l l as the tendency to use the i d e a o f the dream m e t a p h o r i c a l l y . C e r t a i n l y , a l l e g o r i e s are much more l i k e dreams than are o r d i n a r y ' r e a l i s t i c ' n o v e l s . The p r e c i s e genre to which the important works we have mentioned, The D i v i n e Comedy, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , and 32 A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , be long i s a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y . A l l e g o r -i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s and dreams share three s a l i e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s e q u e n t i a l form w i t h manifes t and l a t e n t meaning ( a l l e g o r y ) w i t h i d e a t i o n through v i s u a l i s a t i o n (dream) and s e p a r a t i o n from the phenom-e n a l w o r l d ( fantasy or romance). As i s r e v e a l e d by such express ions as ' I must have been d r e a m i n g , ' the c e n t r a l f a c t about dreaming i s that i t reduces our contac t w i t h the phenomenal w o r l d : we ' l o s e touch ' w i t h r e a l i t y . Th i s reduced 39 contac t has i t s analogue i n romance and fantasy which are " l e s s com-33 m i t t e d to the immediate r e n d i t i o n of r e a l i t y than the n o v e l . " In a fantasy P e t e r S c h l e m i e l can s e l l h i s shadow to the d e v i l , who can r o l l i t up and put i t i n h i s pocket . Thi s freedom can be used e i t h e r 34 to escape from r e a l i t y , as i t i s i n ^ p o p u l a r romance or pornography, 35 or t o exp lore i n n e r p s y c h i c r e a l i t y : the t a n g i b l e shadow may be a symbol o f something i n t a n g i b l e (say, the s o u l ) . The a c t i o n i n fantasy always takes p lace i n a mental r a t h e r than a p h y s i c a l w o r l d , where apparent ly p h y s i c a l ob jec t s are a c t u a l l y mental r e a l i t i e s , which i s why they are no longer bound by the laws of the m a t e r i a l u n i v e r s e . The kingdom of God i s , as we know, w i t h i n us , which i s why He speaks t o us i n dreams. Most r e l i g i o n s r e c o g n i s e , a c c o r d i n g to Jung, " t h a t the v o i c e which speaks i n our dreams i s not our own but comes 36 from a source t ranscending us" — t h a t i s , i t acomes from the r e a l and ' o t h e r ' w o r l d beyond. The i n n e r w o r l d and the transcendent are i n f a c t i d e n t i c a l : the fantasy t ake s .u s i n t o the s p i r i t . Th i s i s the b a s i s of C. S. L e w i s ' s a p p r e c i a t i o n of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s : The p h y s i c a l dangers, which are p l e n t i f u l , here count f o r n o t h i n g : i t i s we ourse lves and the author who walk through a w o r l d o f s p i r i t u a l dangers which makes them seem t r i v i a l . There i s no r e c i p e f o r w r i t i n g of t h i s k i n d . But par t o f the s e c r e t i s tha t the author ( l i k e Kafka) i s r e c o r d i n g a l i v e d d i a l e c t . His Tormance i s a r e g i o n of the s p i r i t . He i s the f i r s t w r i t e r to d i s c o v e r what ' o t h e r p l a n e t s ' are r e a l l y good f o r i n f i c t i o n . No merely p h y s i c a l s trangeness or merely s p a t i a l d i s t a n c e w i l l r e a l i s e tha t i d e a o f otherness which i s what we are always t r y i n g to grasp i n a s t o r y about voyaging through space: you must go i n t o another d imens ion. To conduct 40 p l a u s i b l e and moving ' o t h e r w o r l d s ' you must draw on the only r e a l ' o t h e r w o r l d ' we know, tha t of the s p i r i t (37) . I t i s obvious t h a t fantasy l i t e r a t u r e w i l l be p a r a b o l i c , a l l e g o r -i c a l or s y m b o l i c , as are at l e a s t the ' s p e c i a l ' dreams a l lowed f o r by dream psycholog ie s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y , the J u n g i a n ) . That i s , dream works , l i k e a c t u a l ' s i g n i f i c a n t ' dreams, must be i n t e r p r e t e d . They have both a manifest content—the a c t u a l events—and a l a t e n t content—what the 38 p a t t e r n of events s i g n i f i e s . In parables ( e . g . of the k i n d w r i t t e n by K a f k a ) , the a e s t h e t i c d i s t ance between the two contents enc iphered may be q u i t e l a r g e , so tha t the dream or dream work w i l l have a number of s i g n i f i c a n c e s or 'meanings ' . In n a i v e a l l e g o r y , where, f o r example, 39 C h r i s t i a n f a l l s i n t o a s lough and the s lough i s c a l l e d Despond, the l e v e l s are c l o s e together and the dream i s t ransparent r a t h e r than opaque. A g a i n , i t i s a d i f f e r e n c e of degree r a t h e r than of k i n d , . a n d most a c t u a l dream works are somewhere between pure fantasy and n a i v e a l l e g o r y , and t h e i r o p a c i t y c o n t i n u a l l y v a r i e s : i . e . , they are what we g e n e r a l l y c a l l ' s y m b o l i c ' . We have a l ready quoted T. S. E l i o t to the e f f e c t tha t "Dante ' s 40 i s a v i s u a l i m a g i n a t i o n . " References to Spenser ' s ' r i c h t a p e s t r y ' have a s i m i l a r impor t . In f a c t , ' v i s i o n ' i s not only s ee ing i n t o the transcendent w o r l d , i t i s s ee ing i t s e l f . A l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s and dreams dea l i n concepts ( l a t e n t meaning), but one cannot v i s u a l i s e 41 a disembodied concept : .i,. the l a t e n t must be made m a n i f e s t , the ab-s t r a c t made concre te . A l l e g o r i s t s express themselves , f o r t h i s rea son , 41 i n p i c t u r e s . Dreams a l s o a r e — s i n c e when dreaming we have ' l o s t t o u c h ' w i t h r e a l i t y — m a i n l y i n p i c t u r e s , and t h i n k i n g i n p i c t u r e s represent s a p r i m i t i v e form of i d e a t i o n . U n c i v i l i s e d men and c h i l -dren a l s o tend to t h i n k i n p i c t u r e s , and f o r most s l eeper s dreaming 42 seems to i n v o l v e a r e g r e s s i o n to a more p r i m i t i v e l e v e l of thought . This r e g r e s s i o n i n l i t e r a t u r e can l ead the i n s e n s i t i v e c r i t i c to say tha t an author "does g ive that impres s ion of b e i n g much more than r i p e 43 f o r p sychoana lys i s which pervades much f a n t a s y " or even, though l e s s s n i d e l y , t h a t " a l l the great f a n t a s i e s , I suppose, have been w r i t t e n 44 by emot iona l ly c r i p p l e d men." However, the r e g r e s s i o n i s a v i t a l p a r t of the f a n t a s i s t ' s attempt to get beyond the l i m i t s of both language and everyday r e a l i t y i n order to exp lore the i n n e r r e a l i t y . I d e a t i o n through v i s u a l i s a t i o n leads i n dreams to condensat ion . Condensing two p r o v e r b s , we might c l a i m t h a t every p i c t u r e t e l l s a s t o r y worth a thousand words . In both dreams and f a n t a s i e s the v i s u a l -i z a t i o n i s s y m b o l i c ; i t a l l o w s an enormous amount of a c t u a l ex-per ienceoto be encapsula ted i n i conograph ic form. Where these r e p -r e s e n t a t i o n s are common to a c u l t u r e ( v i z . found i n the ' c o l l e c t i v e unconsc ious ' ) they are c a l l e d a rchetypes . I t i s the use of these 45 w h i c h , as Maud Bodkin must be c r e d i t e d w i t h showing, enable dream f a n t a s i e s such as The D i v i n e Comedy and The Rime of the A n c i e n t M a r i n e r , as w e l l as works b e l o n g i n g to l e s s e r l i t e r a r y genres such as the f a i r y t a l e and G o t h i c romance, to generate such emot ional power. Condensation i s a l s o at work i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s when 42 we f i n d the sudden displacement of symbol ic meaning from the l a n d -scape to the f i g u r e . A l l e g o r i c a l f a n t a s i e s and dreams both work through p i c t u r e s , not i n t e r i o r i s a t i o n and c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n . In a l l e g o r i e s there are no charac ter s i n the sense we use the word when t a l k i n g of p s y c h o l o g i c a l n o v e l s , there are only embodied concepts . The a l l e g o r i s t i s most important device f o r making s i g n i f i c a n t h i s embodiments i s through t h i s d i sp lacement . As A . D. N u t t a l has ob-served , exampling us w i t h a s o p h i s t i c a t e d and a n a i v e w r i t e r , " w i t h Dante, as w i t h Bunyan, i t i s the landscape t h a t keeps the a l l e g o r y 46 v i g o r o u s . " Thi s i s the case i n a l l a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y . A c c o r d i n g to Angus F l e t c h e r , who s l i p s i n an e x t r a name, " the heroes 4 i n Dante and Spenser and Bunyan seem to c rea te the worlds about them." Indeed they do. But i t i s from the displacement of s i g n i f i c a n c e from the landscape tha t the e m o t i o n a l , r a t h e r than the i n t e l l e c t u a l , s i g n i f -icance of the embodiment comes. This i s an extremely important p o i n t . Landscape i n a l l e g o r y i s , as we say , 'by the w a y , ' l o g i c a l l y , but i t i s one source o f a l l e g o r y ' s emot iona l power. L a s t l y , dreams and a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s have i n common s e q u e n t i a l form. Joanna Russ t a l k s of " the t r u d g i n g r e g u l a r i t y of the events i n A r c t u r u s " and says dream s t o r i e s "are e n t i r e l y e p i s o d i c , w i t h c o n s i s t e n t and apparent ly d e l i b e r a t e avoidance of emphasis, complex i ty 48 o r change" so that " the r e s u l t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a s e r i e s of t a b l e a u s . " Such th ings may w i t h equa l j u s t i c e be s a i d of The D i v i n e Comedy or w i t h g rea te r j u s t i c e of The F a e r i e Queen. In f a c t , such remarks about 43 ' t a b l e a u s ' are the c l i c h e s of Spenser c r i t i c i s m , and a r i s e from the same p a t h e t i c i n a b i l i t y to take a l l e g o r y s e r i o u s l y . Of course , A Voyage to A r c t u r u s and The D i v i n e Comedy are both b e a u t i f u l l y con-s t r u c t e d books, but there are many f i n e dream works which are c l o s e r to ' p u r e ' f a n t a s y . In books which are not t i g h t l y organi sed around a p r e c i s e moral f o rmula , such as Amos T u t u o l a ' s The Palm-Wine D r i n k a r d or George MacDonald's Phantastes, the order o f the i n c i d e n t s may o f t en be s imply random. F l e t c h e r admit s , " t h e progress need not be p l a u s i b l e , 49 as long as the momentum of symbol ic i n v e n t i o n i s g r e a t . " Most c r i t i c s of A Voyage have p r a i s e d i t p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r i t s wea l th o f i n v e n t i o n , and t h i s may be why the economical o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e has so long r e -mained h i d d e n . When S i g n i f i c a n t I n c i d e n t s f o l l o w one another w i t h great r a p i d i t y , as they tend to i n dreams and dream a l l e g o r i e s , the reader i s u n l i k e l y to cons ider t h e i r order deeply . Be s ide s , even i n dream a l l e g o r i e s , there may not be any reason why one event should f o l l o w r a t h e r than precede another . Should C h r i s t i a n meet F a i t h f u l before H o p e f u l , or pass through V a n i t y F a i r b e f o r e , r a t h e r than a f t e r , the V a l l e y o f the Shadow of death? In a c t u a l dreams we accept the a s t o n i s h i n g w i t h equanimi ty , and quest ions that would be asked by the waking consciousness—-were i t on ly awake—are s imply not asked. However, here dream and a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy p a r t company. When we read a l i t e r a r y work (as opposed to a p i e c e o f enter ta inment ) of whatever genre, we should not put our reasons to s l e e p . Even though they both have s e q u e n t i a l form, and a l l 44 the o ther s i m i l a r i t i e s we have no ted , a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s are 51 des igned; they are works of a r t , and dreams are n o t . A l l e g o r i e s are two d i m e n s i o n a l , and the two s t r u c t u r a l forms which they take have been d i s t i n g u i s h e d as the b a t t l e and the progre s s . Of the form of the b a t t l e are The Holy War and The B a t t l e of the Books. Of the form of the progress are The P i l g r i m ' s Progress and G u l l i v e r 1 ' s T r a v e l s . Of course , a l l a l l e g o r i e s are to some extent b o t h , though a few ( e . g . the works of Bunyan and Swi f t c i t e d above) are almost w h o l l y one o r the o t h e r . In g e n e r a l , as C. S. Lewis argues , the form of the progress i s to be p r e f e r r e d : Seneca, w i t h h i s imagery of l i f e as a j o u r n e y , was nearer to the mark than P r u d e n t i u s ; f o r Seneca o u t l i n e d the theme of the P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , and the P i l g r i m ' s Progress i s a b e t t e r book than the Holy War. I t i s not hard to see why t h i s should be so . The journey has i t s ups and downs, i t s p l ea san t r e s t i n g - p l a c e s enjoyed f o r a n i g h t and then abandoned, i t s unexpected meet ings , i t s^rumours of dangers ahead, and, above a l l , the sense of a g o a l , a t f i r s t f a r d i s t a n t and dimly heard o f , but growing nearer a t every t u r n of the road . Now t h i s represents f a r more t r u l y than any combat i n a champ c l o s the p e r e n n i a l s t rangeness , and the sensuous forward movement o f fche-inner l i f e . I t needs the long road and mountain prospects of the f a b l e to match the <x1T£ipov w i t h i n (52) . Even ' p u r e ' dream f a n t a s i e s l i k e A l i c e i n Wonderland and The Palm-Wine D r i n k a r d have some k i n d of f i n a l g o a l , even i f i t i s only a way of ending the s t o r y . But i n a l l e g o r i e s which c a r r y a s p i r i t u a l message, there i s a c o n t i n u a l s t r i v i n g towards a f i n a l v i s i o n or v i s i o n a r y exper i ence , as C. S. Lewis has n o t e d . 45 The a l l e g o r y which i s s t r u c t u r a l l y a b a t t l e i s one organi sed around the c o n f l i c t between good and e v i l i n some form, whether the opposing camps be c a l l e d Heaven and H e l l or S u r t u r and Crystalman or whatever. So much i s easy. The a l l e g o r y which i s s t r u c t u r a l l y a progress i s one organi sed around a j o u r n e y . Such a l l e g o r i e s tend to have a f o u r - p a r t s t r u c t u r e , made up o f two major elements (the progress proper and the f i n a l v i s i o n ) a a n d two minor elements which act as a frame (the t r a n s i t i o n from the phenomenal t o the s p i r i t u a l w o r l d and the promise of r e t u r n ) . We n o r m a l l y beg in i n the ' r e a l ' c o r everyday w o r l d : i n a dark wood i n The D i v i n e Comedy/, . i n Anodos 's room at home i n Phanta s te s , i n F a u l l ' s House i n A Voyage. The a l l e g o r i s t ' s f i r s t task i s to get us from there to the w o r l d of the s p i r i t . The t r a n s i -t i o n may be b a r e l y n o t i c e a b l e : N . K. Sandars, i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to The E p i c of Gi lgamesh, a c u t e l y observes tha t Gi lgamesh's second journey can be based on no h i s t o r i c a l event ; the topog-raphy i s o t h e r - w o r l d l y i n a manner which before i t was n o t . The planes of romantic and o f s p i r i t u a l adventure have coa le sced . Al though c l o t h e d i n the appearances of p r i m i t i v e geog-raphy i t i s a s p i r i t u a l landscape as much as Dante ' s Dark Wood, Mounta in , and P i t (53). The t r a n s i t i o n i n Phantastes i s b e a u t i f u l l y managed: Anodos 's bedroom m a g i c a l l y metamorphoses i n t o f a i r y l a n d : the carpet becomes a sward, 54 carved becomes r e a l i v y , the faucet over f lows and becomes a stream. Mr. Vane i n L i l i t h has i n h i s house an u p s t a i r s which i s unknown to h im, a g a r r e t w i t h "an uncanny look""'" ' which may be the immediate source o f U l f ' s Tower i n The Haunted Woman. In t h i s g a r r e t i s a m i r r o r 46 through w h i c h , r a t h e r i n the manner of A l i c e , Mr. Vane stumbles i n t o 5 6 another w o r l d , e v i d e n t l y on another p l ane t which occupies the same 57 space as the e a r t h . Lindsay and C. S. Lewis take us i n t o the s p i r i t w o r l d by hav ing t h e i r heroes l i t e r a l l y t r a n s p o r t e d to o ther p l a n e t s . Of t h i s C. S. Lewis says I am i n c l i n e d to t h i n k that f r a n k l y s u p e r n a t u r a l methods are b e s t . I took a hero once to Mars i n a space - sh ip , but when I knew b e t t e r I had angels convey h im to Venus (58) . Lewis has j u s t been complementing H. G. Wel l s on " h i s choice of a q u i t e 59 i m p o s s i b l e compos i t ion c a l l e d c a v o r i t e " to power h i s space-ship i n F i r s t Men i n the Moon: This i m p o s s i b i l i t y i s o f course a m e r i t , not a d e f e c t . A man of h i s i n g e n u i t y c o u l d e a s i l y have thought up something more p l a u s i b l e . But the more p l a u s i b l e , the worse . That would merely i n v i t e i n t e r e s t i n a c t u a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s of r e ac h i n g the moon, a m i n t e r e s t f o r e i g n to h i s s t o r y (60) . The t r a d i t i o n a l method of g e t t i n g i n t o the s p i r i t w o r l d , f a l l i n g as leep and h a v i n g one or more dreams as i n P i e r s Plowman and The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , seems to have gone out of f a s h i o n . The s p i r i t w o r l d i n modern fantasy tends to be not i n i n n e r but i n outer space, though the two may be, i n the end, the same. Once i n the s p i r i t w o r l d , the progress proper o f the a l l e g o r y takes p l a c e . Angus F l e t c h e r descr ibes t h i s by s a y i n g that "a system-a t i c a l l y compl ica ted charac te r w i l l generate a l a r g e number of o ther 61 p r o t a g o n i s t s who r e a c t a g a i n s t or w i t h h im i n a s y l l o g i s t i c manner" a l l e g o r i e s abandon mimesis , f o r the charac ter s do not have to " i n t e r a c t 47 p l a u s i b l y , or a c c o r d i n g to p r o b a b i l i t y , as long as they i n t e r a c t w i t h 62 a c e r t a i n l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t y . " Then, "by a n a l y z i n g the p r o j e c t i o n s , we determine what i s going on i n i t h e mind of the h i g h l y i m a g i n a t i v e 6 3 p r o j e c t o r . " U n l i k e charac te r s i n n o v e l s , charac te r s i n a l l e g o r i e s do not have i n t e r i o r w o r l d s . A n o v e l i s t may t e l l us tha t h i s hero i s unhappy and depressed, or ;(for example) g ive us samples o f h i s stream of consciousness so ordered that we i n f e r the f a c t . In a l l e g o r y , where mental processes are e x t e r i o r i s e d , the hero w i l l f a l l i n t o a Slough of Despond of some k i n d . Thus the p r o t a g o n i s t generates landscapes and charac te r s (though that word i s more a p p r o p r i a t e to the ' r e a l ' people of a nove l ) who are the t r a n s i t o r y embodiments of the problems he i s f a c i n g . Each problem faced and disposed of i s a s tep forward i n the progress of the a l l e g o r y . The progress of the a l l e g o r y c l e a r l y takes p l a c e on two l e v e l s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y : on one l e v e l (manifest) we have the s t o r y of a t r a v e l l e r and h i s e p i s o d i c adventures , on another ( l a t e n t ) we have a m e t a p h y s i c a l s t o r y of the progress of the s o u l . Thus the a l l e g o r y " a s p i r e s to 64 enc ipher two contents i n one f o r m , " and i t has been much c r i t i c i s e d f o r t h i s , even by s o p h i s t i c a t e d a l l e g o r i s t s such as B lake and Poe. Both T o l k i e n and^C. S. Lewis repea ted ly a f f i r m t h a t t h e i r own f a n t a s i e s 65 are not a l l e g o r i c a l . Aware that a l l e g o r y i s frowned upon ( i f i t s t i l l i s ) i n ' t h e age of the n o v e l , ' both J . B. P i c k and C o l i n W i l s o n are eager to deny that L indsay i s an a l l e g o r i s t , even though i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s he o b v i o u s l y i s . W i l s o n says A Voyage i s " a s o r t of 48 P i l g r i m ' s Progre s s—except , I must emphasise, tha t i t i s not an a l -l e g o r y but a s t o r y w i t h deeper meanings" (TSG 49) . S a i d of A Voyage, i t i s d o u b t f u l whether t h i s means anyth ing even to W i l s o n . At any r a t e , i t does not hamper h i s c r i t i c i s m g r e a t l y , f o r he procedes to work through the progress sugges t ing (o f ten a c u t e l y ) p o s s i b l e a l l e g o r -i c a l meanings. P i c k , however, i s a much more determined a n t i - a l l e g o r i s t . P i c k chides "The Times L i t e r a r y Supplement r e v i e w e r " f o r l e a p i n g a t the most obvious w o r d — ' a l l e g o r y ' . L indsay was n o t an a l l e g o r i s t . In D e v i l ' s Tor one ,of h i s charac ter s says : ' A symbol i s a m y s t i c s i g n of the C r e a t o r . An a l l e g o r y i s a w a l l d e c o r a t i o n w i t h a l a b e l attached* 5 (TSG 5 ) . The c h a r a c t e r P i c k quotes i s the p a i n t e r P e t e r Copping. We have a l -ready seen t h a t L i n d s a y ' s views i n D e v i l ' s Tor (1932) were v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t from those i n A Voyage (1920): L indsay h i m s e l f comments on the "chasm of c o n t r a d i c t i o n " (TSG 30) . We have a l ready noted that the c h a r a c t e r i n D e v i l ' s Tor most l i k e l y to be a mouthpiece f o r L indsay h i m s e l f i s not Copping but the ag ing w r i t e r of books on co smica l prob-66 lems, Magnus Colborne . A g a i n , Colborne "reminded one of Schopenhauer" (DT 108) . This a l l f i t s toge ther . Had P i c k read h i s Schopenhauer as w e l l as L indsay he would have found i n The World as W i l l and Idea a passage s t r o n g l y c r i t i c a l o f a l l e g o r y i n the p l a s t i c a r t s , which Schopenhauer i s aga i n s t f o r the same reason as Copping: the l a b e l on the s t a t u e , p a i n t i n g or w a l l d e c o r a t i o n which says , f o r example, ' F a i t h , ' takes us from the p e r c e p t i o n o f the concrete t h i n g - i n - i t s e l f t o a l i m i t i n g a b s t r a c t i o n . But Schopenhauer p o i n t s out t h a t the m a t e r i a l 49 of l i t e r a t u r e i s i n i t s e l f a b s t r a c t , concepts expressed i n words , and t h e r e f o r e i n t h i s case a l l e g o r y takes us from the a b s t r a c t _to the concrete ; - , when the word i s made f l e s h . T h e r e f o r e , says Schopenhauer, a l l e g o r y has an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n t o poetry from that which i t has to p l a s t i c and p i c t o r i a l a r t ; and a l though i t i s o b j e c t i o n a b l e i n the l a t t e r , i t i s q u i t e admissable and very e f f e c t i v e i n the former ( F i r s t Book, sec . 50) (67) . Borges g ives us a concrete i l l u s t r a t i o n of Schopenhauer's p o i n t when he says B e a t r i c e i s not a s i g n o f . t h e word f a i t h ; she i s a s i g n o f a c t i v e v i r t u e and the s e c r e t i l l u m i n a t i o n tha t t h i s word i n d i c a t e s — a more p r e c i s e s i g n , a r i c h e r and happ ie r s i g n than the monosy l l ab le f a i t h (68) . Borges f u r t h e r p o i n t s out tha t a l l e g o r i s t s are P l a t o n i s t s f o r whom " i d e a s are r e a l i t i e s " whereas f o r A r i s t o t e l i a n s " they are g e n e r a l i -z a t i o n s " from p a r t i c u l a r s * . - .^Novelists are A r i s t o t e l i a n n o m i n a l i s t s because they d e a l w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s , w h i l e a l l e g o r i s t s are P l a t o n i c 69 r e a l i s t s because they dea l w i t h Ideas . We have seen t h a t L indsay was, f o l l o w i n g Schopenhauer, a P l a t o n i s t who b e l i e v e d i n a r e a l w o r l d . No doubt he c o u l d have j u s t i f i e d h i s use of a l l e g o r y p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , had he f e l t the need to apo log i s e f o r i t . He d i d n o t . In the l e t t e r s t o V i s i a k he hopes t h a t h i s young student w i l l succeed " i n e l u c i d a t i n g the mystery of the a l l e g o r y " (L 45) and i s g r a t e f u l to V i s i a k f o r t a k i n g the a l l e g o r y s e r i o u s l y , even i f i t i s from a s p e c i f i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n (and there fore l i m i t e d ) p o i n t o f v iew. What P i c k and W i l s o n agree on i s that w h i l e Lindsay i s not an 50 a l l e g o r i s t , he i s a v i s i o n a r y and mys t i c l i k e "Boehme, Swedenborg and W i l l i a m B l a k e " (TSG 5 ) . ^ Lindsay i s a v i s i o n a r y , of course , when we reach the t h i r d stage o f the a l l e g o r y . Tak ing us from the phenomenal w o r l d to the s p i r i t w o r l d , and across the s p i r i t w o r l d i n the p rogre s s , i s the necessary p r e p a r a t i o n f o r the f i n a l v i s i o n i t s e l f . Angus F l e t c h e r has n o t i c e d that "though a l l e g o r y may be in tended to r e v e a l , i t does so only a f t e r v e i l i n g a delayed message which i t would r a t h e r keep from any very ready or f a c i l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . " ^ " ' " ' V e i l i n g ' i s an a p p r o p r i a t e metaphor h e r e , f o r the f i n a l aim of the a l l e g o r y i s to take us through the v e i l of Maya and g ive us a v i s i o n of the transcendent w o r l d . But i t must be worked f o r : The process of e x p l i c a t i o n , a gradua l u n f o l d i n g , i s s e q u e n t i a l i n form. There i s n o r m a l l y a g radua l increa se of comprehension, as the reader pursues the f a b l e , and yet most a l l e g o r i e s of major importance have u l t i m a t e l y very obscure images, and these are a source of t h e i r g rea t -ness . (72) . 73 A f t e r the "pas s ionate s p i r i t u a l j o u r n e y " we move to the v i s i o n , and When an a l l e g o r y becomes p u r e l y v i s i o n a r y , when f o r example The P i l g r i m ' s Progress shows us the Heavenly C i t y , i t does so only a f t e r a s t r u g g l e to reach tha t g o a l . The stage p r i o r to f i n a l v i s i o n seems to b e . q u a l i t a t i v e l y u n l i k e that f i n a l v i s i o n ; the l a t t e r i s a moment of l i b e r a -t i o n . The former i s a sequence of d i f f i c u l t l a b o r s , o f ten t a k i n g the form of the h e r o ' s en-slavement to a f a t a l d e s t i n y . The psychomachia and the progress are n a r r a t i v e images of t h i s s t r u g g l e . They are b a t t l e s f o r , and journeys toward, the f i n a l l i b e r a t i o n of the hero (74) . The hero i s l i b e r a t e d by m y s t i c a l i n s i g h t , which i s why S t . Bernard r a t h e r than B e a t r i c e leads 'Dante ' to the f i n a l v i s i o n . The m y s t i c a l 51 i n s i g h t i s knowledge o f the w o r l d beyond the v e i l of Maya, i . e . g n o s i s . The ' f i n a l l i b e r a t i o n ' l e a d s , of course , to r e b i r t h , and most a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s a r e , on a l a rge s c a l e , examples of what Maud Bodkin d i s t i n g u i s h e s as the " R e b i r t h Arche type " or ( conf i rming our i n s i s t e n c e on the dream aspect of a l l e g o r i e s ) the " N i g h t J o u r n e y , " whose c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are s t r u g g l e , r e l a x a t i o n and then i l l u m i n a t i o n . Maud Bodkin w r i t e s tha t In i t s s i m p l e s t form t h i s i n t e r p l a y may be recogn ized as a rhythm c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a l l conscious and organ ic l i f e . In the more com-p l e x form t h a t generates the need f o r expres-t s i o n , there i s t e n s i o n and c o n f l i c t . A sense o f p a i n and g u i l t a t tends p e r s i s t e n c e i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r mode o f a d a p t a t i o n , or s e l f -a s s e r t i o n , whose abandonment i n the c o n d i t i o n of surrender and quiescence g ives o p p o r t u n i t y f o r the a r i s i n g impulse o f some new form of l i f e (75) . M a s k u l l ' s b loody t r i p across Tormance i s the s t r u g g l e , a t tended by " p a i n and g u i l t " . On the f l o a t i n g i s l a n d M a s k u l l reaches complete quiescence when he t e l l s Gangnet " I have l o s t my w i l l " (VA 275) . Soon a f t e r , he d i e s , and the " a r i s i n g impul se " of the 'new form of l i f e ' ( that i s , N ight spore ) takes over . In a l l e g o r i e s , the r e b i r t h i s g e n e r a l l y back i n t o the phenomenal w o r l d . Thus Dante i s reborn when he reawakes to w r i t e h i s dream v i s i o n as The D i v i n e Comedy, Bunyan t o w r i t e The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s . Anodos d ies and i s b u r i e d , 7 ^ but he must s i n k from t h i s " s t a t e o f i d e a l b l i s s i n t o the w o r l d o f shadows" 7 7 and f i n d h i m s e l f once more at 'home' on e a r t h . Night spore has t o face the most t e r r i b l e t h i n g o f a l l : r e b i r t h i n t o Crys ta lman ' s w o r l d (VA 279) . The r e b i r t h through reawakening or the promise of r e t u r n t o the phenom-52 e n a l wor ld—though a w o r l d changed by the dream e x p e r i e n c e — i s the second h a l f of the frame which surrounds the progress p roper , the l a s t of the a l l e g o r y ' s four s e c t i o n s and, g e n e r a l l y , the b r i e f e s t . A l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s as a whole are a k i n d of dream ex-per ience f o r the reader . In the a p o l o g e t i c doggerel which prefaces The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , Bunyan asks " W o u l d s ' t thou be i n a Dream, and 78 y e t not s l e e p ? " Dream books , as has been e x p l a i n e d , are l i k e a c t u a l 79 dreams, but the reader cannot read f o r ever.- ' any more than the author can dream f o r e v e r : both must r e t u r n to the phenomenal w o r l d . But the dream i s on ly the manifes t content o f the dream book: the Latent con-t e n t i s l e f t f o r the reader to work o u t . Thus Bunyan c loses The P i l g r i m ' s Progress w i t h more doggere l : Now, Reader, I have t o l d my Dream to thee ; See i f thou c a n s ' t i n t e r p r e t i t to me, Or to t h y s e l f (80) . Anodos at the end of Phantastes r e turns "somewhat i n s t r u c t e d , I hoped, by the adventures t h a t had b e f a l l e n me i n F a i r y - l a n d . Could I t r a n s l a t e 81 the exper ience of my t r a v e l s ' there, i n t o common l i f e ? " Dante appeals t o us repea ted ly to work f o r the l a t e n t content : 0 you who have good i n t e l l e c t s , look c l o s e l y At the l e s s o n t h a t l i e s hidden beneath The v e i l of myster ious verses (I 9 ) . The mora l messages of d i f f e r e n t a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s w i l l , 82 of course , be d i f f e r e n t i n each a l l e g o r y . MacDonald's i n Phantastes i s , f o r example, the oppos i te o f L i n d s a y ' s i n A Voyage t o A r c t u r u s . However, we have seen the genre of a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy to be a 53 remarkably homogenous one, and the f a c t s of b e l i e f i n a transcendent w o r l d and the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c embodiment of the ' r e b i r t h a r c h e t y p e ' l e a d tormost a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s (at l e a s t , I can t h i n k of no excep t ions ) h a v i n g a common message bes ides the s p e c i f i c mora l one. This message i s t h a t we are a l i e n s , but tha t we have, i n the r e a l w o r l d , a t rue home. Thus the p r o t a g o n i s t leaves h i s e a r t h l y home f o r a s p i r i t u a l one. C h r i s t i a n puts " h i s f i n g e r s i n h i s e a r s " so as not t o hear h i s w i f e and c h i l d r e n c a l l i n g a f t e r h i m , and runs on " c r y i n g L i f e ! L i f e ' . E t e r n a l L i f e . ' " " E v e n t u a l l y he reaches h i s t rue home, which i s the C e l e s t i a l C i t y . In MacDonald's L i l i t h the raven l u r e s Mr. Vane from h i s e a r t h l y home, s a y i n g "Everybody who i s n o t . a t home, has to go home. You thought t h a t you were at home where I found y o u : 84 i f tha t had been your home you c o u l d not have l e f t i t . " ' Most c l e a r l y t h i s m o t i f i s expressed by N o v a l i s i n h i s romance Henry o f O f t e r d i i i g e n . Henry leaves h i s p a r e n t s , but f e e l s "as i f i n r e a l i t y he was j o u r n e y i n g 85 ^ homewards." " In 'The F u l f i l l m e n t ' when he asks " W i t h e r are we go ing? " 86 he i s t o l d , "Ever homewards." We found t h i s theme i n Sphinx, where 87 N i c h o l a s and Lore are f r e e d by death to r i d e t o t h e i r r e a l home, and we s h a l l f i n d i t aga in i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . 54 Footnotes to Chapter Two T. S. E l i o t , Dante (London: Faber and Faber , 1965), p . 56. This passage i s a l s o quoted by Maud Bodkin i n her p i o n e e r i n g study A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n Poet ry (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963), p . 177. Her comments on Dante are most i n s t r u c t i v e . 2 This t a b l e has been taken from Constance B. H l e a t t ' s The R e a l i s m of Dream V i s i o n s : The P o e t i c E x p l o i t a t i o n of the Dream-Experience i n Chaucer and h i s Contemporaries (The Hague: Mouton, 1967), p . 27. 3 P l a t o , ' A p o l o g y ' i n The Last Days of S o c r a t e s , t r a n s . Hugh Tredennick (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1954), p . 40. In 'Phaedo' i n t h i s volume, ' S o c r a t e s ' t e l l s us he has been composing poetry on ly " i n the attempt to d i s c o v e r the meaning o f c e r t a i n dreams" (p. 77) . 4 N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n : A Romance (New Y o r k : H . H. Moore, 1853), p . 27. ^ N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 28. N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 29. ^ N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 23. g Dante, The D i v i n e Comedy, t r a n s , Lou i s B i a n c o l l i (New Y o r k : Washington Square P r e s s , 1968), p . 294. The q u o t a t i o n i s from Book I I , Canto.,,30. Subsequent re ferences to t h i s e d i t i o n w i l l be to book and canto and i n c l u d e d i n the t e x t , v i z . ( I I 30) . P l a t o , Timaeus, t r a n s , H . D. P . Lee (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1965), p . 97. The passage cont inues a l i t t l e l a t e r : "and i t i s the f u n c t i o n of someone i n h i s r i g h t mind to consture what i s r e -membered . . . and to g ive a r a t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i r v i s i o n s . " "^Schopenhauer, Samtl iche Werke (Reclam, 1921), I V , p . 391. Quoted from Jean-Pau l Weber's The Psychology of A r t , t r a n s , J . A . E l i a s (New Y o r k : De lacor te P r e s s , 1969), p . ^4-, T l a t o , 'Phaedo' i n The Las t Days, p . 109. 55 12 "To go back to the s t a r s / A c c o r d i n g to the thought expressed by P l a t o , " says B e a t r i c e , much to Dante ' s s u r p r i s e . But she adds, "What Timaeus, who e v i d e n t l y spoke as / He f e l t , had to say about the human s o u l / Is not the same as what i s seen up h e r e " ( I I I 4 ) . 13 H a l l and L i n d , Dreams, L i f e , and L i t e r a t u r e : A Study o f Franz Kafka (Chapel H i l l : U n i v e r s i t y of North C a r o l i n a P r e s s , 1970), p . 7. C f . "we go through the exper ience of becoming two every n i g h t i n our dreams" and " the s o u l or the double i s a t w i n " i n Geza Roheim's The Gates of the Dream (New Y o r k : I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t i e s P r e s s , 1952), p . 433. 14 Quoted from E r i c h Fromm, The Forgot ten Language (New Y o r k : R i n e h a r t , 1951), p . 5 . Fromm n e i t h e r i d e n t i f i e s the poet nor c i t e s h i s source . "^Aldous H u x l e y , Heaven and H e l l (London: Chatto and Windus, 1956). See Appendix I I f o r d i e t a r y reasons why " i n the Western w o r l d v i s i o n a r i e s and mys t i c s are a good dea l l e s s common than they used to be" (p. 59) . X6 Roger C a i l l o i s , The Dream Adventure (New Y o r k : Or ion Books, 1963). 1 7 H . P . L o v e c r a f t , The Dream-Quest B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1970), p . 122... 1 8 H . P . L o v e c r a f t , The Dream-Quest 1 9 H . P . L o v e c r a f t , The Dream-Quest 2 ° H . P . L o v e c r a f t , The Dream-Quest 21 Jorge Lu i s Borges , F i c t i o n s , ed. Anthony K e r r i g a n (London: John C a l d e r , 1965), p . 57. 22 Jorge L u i s Borges , A P e r s o n a l Antho logy , ed. Anthony K e r r i g a n (New Y o r k : Grove P r e s s , 1967), p . 117. 23 E r i c h Fromm, The Forgot ten Language, p . 28. 56 24 P . D. Ouspensky, The Fourth Way (London: Routledge and Kegan P a u l , 1957), p . 29. 2 5 W i l l i a m Law, 'The S p i r i t o f P r a y e r , ' Works (1762), V I I 3. 26 P l a t o , Timaeus, p . 71. 27 The E p i c of Gi lgamesh, Ed . and t r a n s . N . K. Sandars (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1971), p . 104. ^ ^ W i l l i a m Shakespeare, The Tempest ( I V . i . 1 5 6 - 5 8 ) . These l i n e s were f a v o r i t e s o f Jean P a u l R i c h t e r , as J . W. Smeed t e l l s us i n Jean P a u l ' s 'Dreams' (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966), p . 9. 29 P l a t o , 'Apo logy ' i n The Last Days, p . 49. 30 Roger C a - l l o i s , The Dream Adventure , p . x x x i i . a l l and L i n d , Dreams, L i f e , and L i t e r a t u r e : A Study of Franz 3 1 H Kafka . 32 An I t a l i a n v i s i o (C13th) , an E n g l i s h a l l e g o r y (C17th) , a German Romance (C18th) and a S c o t t i s h space fantasy (C20th) . 33 R i c h a r d Chase, The American Novel and I t s T r a d i t i o n (Garden C i t y : Doubleday, 1957), p . 13. Chase i s deve lop ing Hawthorne's o p p o s i t i o n between the n o v e l and the romance, which " w i l l veer toward m y t h i c , a l l e g o r i c a l , and s y m b o l i s t i c f o r m s . " For f u r t h e r development see E l l i o t t B. Gose J r , Imaginat ion Indulged : The I r r a t i o n a l i n the N i n e - teenth Century N o v e l (Montrea l and London: M c G i l l - Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972), pp. 15-28. 34 In her p i ece o f po lemic aga ins t dream w r i t e r s i n g e n e r a l and David L indsay i n p a r t i c u l a r , Joanna Russ c a l l s dream s t o r i e s " the pornography o f p o e t r y " ; E x t r a p o l a t i o n (Dec. 1969), p . 13. 35 See B. D. Lewin , Dreams and the Uses of Regress ion (New Y o r k : I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t i e s P r e s s , 1958). 36 C. G. Jung, Psychology and R e l i g i o n (New Haven: Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1938), p . 45. 57 37 C. S. L e w i s , Of Other Worlds (London: Geoffrey B l e s , 1966), pp. 11-12; 38 Running u p s t a i r s may, to take a Freudian example, s i g n i f y s exua l i n t e r c o u r s e , a ccord ing to the p a r t i t p l a y s i n the r e s t of the dream, but i t does not n e c e s s a r i l y mean or s i g n i f y t h a t . 39 s John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s Progress (London: J . M. Dent, 1927), Bunyan not only uses n a i v e a l l e g o r y , he g ives a running commentary (h i s waking consciousness i s r e c o u n t i n g the dream): "as the s i n n e r i s awakened about h i s l o s t c o n d i t i o n , there a r i s e t h i n h i s s o u l many fear s and doubts" which are e v i d e n t l y watery f o r they " s e t t l e i n t h i s p l a c e : And t h i s i s the reason of the badness of t h i s ground" (p. 18) . C f . the swamp M a s k u l l gets i n t o w i t h Sul lenbode (VA 254) . 40 T. S. E l i o t , Dante, p . 15 . 41 That i s , an Idea or Form. They can be seen, and t h i s i s the aim of P l a t o n i c and n e o - P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h y , but they s t i l l cannot be v i s u a l i s e d , and t h e r e f o r e they cannot be d e s c r i b e d . Hence 'Dante ' i n an important s e c t i o n of The D i v i n e Comedy goes b l i n d ( I I I 25-26) . Lesser v i s i o n a r i e s l i k e M a s k u l l and Ransom ( i n Perelartdra) have s i m i l a r problems w i t h new c o l o u r s and s e n s a t i o n s . 42 See Sigmund Freud , A M e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l Supplement to the Theory of Dreams (1917 [1915]) , S. E . X I V , p . 222; I n t r o d u c t o r y Lectures on P s y c h o - A n a l y s i s : P a r t I I : Dreams (1916), S. E. XV, p . 171; The I n t e r - p r e t a t i o n of Dreams (1900-1901), S. E . V , p . 608. See a l s o B. D. Lewin , Dreams and the Uses of R e g re s s i on . ^ \ i n g s l e y Amis on H. P . L L o v e c r a f t i n New Maps o f H e l l (London: New E n g l i s h L i b r a r y , 1969), p . 36. 44 Damon K n i g h t , In Search of Wonder (Chicago: Advent , 1969), p . 38. 45 Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n P o e t r y : P s y c h o l o g i c a l S tudies o f Imaginat ion (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963). 46 A. D. N u t t a l l , Two Concepts of A l l e g o r y (London: Routledge and Kegan P a u l , 1967), p . 31 . 58 47 Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y : The Theory of a Symbolic Mode ( I t h a c a , New Y o r k : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1964), p . 35. 48 Joanna Russ, 'Dream L i t e r a t u r e and Science F i c t i o n ' i n E x t r a p o l a t i o n (Dec. 1969), p. 9. 49 Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 153. " ^ C . S. Lewis says L indsay " leads us up a s t a i r of u n p r e d i c t a b l e s . In each chapter we t h i n k we have found h i s f i n a l p o s i t i o n ; each t ime we are u t t e r l y mis taken . He b u i l d s whole wor lds of imagery and p a s s i o n , any one of which would have served another w r i t e r f o r a whole book, o n l y to p u l l each o f them to p ieces and pour scorn on i t " (Of Other Wor lds , p . 11) . C o l i n W i l s o n says " L i n d s a y ' s c a p a c i t y f o r pure i n -v e n t i o n — c r e a t i n g a s t range landscape—must be unsurpassed i n s c i ence f i c t i o n ; here h i s genius i s so p l a i n that no one c o u l d deny i t " (TSG 50 ) . "'"'"See Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n P o e t r y , pp, 61-68, and C. B. H i e a t t , The R e a l i s m of Dream V i s i o n s , M a r j o r i e N . How's e a r l y s tudy of Dreams and Vi s ions i n E n g l i s h Poe t ry (London: U n i v e r s i t y of London P r e s s , 1916) ignores a c t u a l dream exper ience and i s t h e r e f o r e , from our p o i n t o f v i e w , u s e l e s s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , How does not seem to be aware t h a t her own pre- Jung ian a t t i t u d e to dreams—they a re w i s h -f u l f i l l m e n t i n a masturbatory way—colours her c r i t i c i s m : Chaucer wrote h i s House of Fame " t o 'work o f f f a n c i e s and i d e a s " and the Tennyson o f 'Day-Dream' had a "tendency to use t h i s form as a means of g e t t i n g r e l i e f " (p. 8 ) . 52 C. S. Lewi s , The A l l e g o r y of Love: A Study i n M e d i e v a l T r a d i t i o n (New Y o r k : Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958), p . 69. 53 The E p i c of Gilgamesh, p . 35. 54 George MacDonald, Phantastes (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 19 70) , pp. 6-7. "^George MacDonald, L i l i t h (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1969), pp. 6-7, 13-15. Between Phantastes and L i l i t h MacDonald got to know Lewis C a r r o l l , whose i n f l u e n c e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r i n L i l i t h i n the w i t t y and p a r a d o x i c a l d ia logue between Mr . Vane and the raven . "^George MacDonald, L i l i t h , p . 8. 59 George MacDonald, L i l i t h , p . 49, p . 83 e t c . 5 8 C. S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , pp. 68-69. 59 C. S. L e w i s , Of Other Wor lds , p . 64. Lewis borrows W e l l s ' s s p h e r i c a l space- sh ip , but not i t s motive power, f o r Out of the S i l e n t P l a n e t . Weston, however, the 'mad' s c i e n t i s t o f the book, seems to be a c r u e l parody of the Utopian W e l l s . 60 C. S. Lewi s , Of Other W o r l d s , , p . : 6 4 . A f o r e i g n e r who was i n -t e r e s t e d i n g e t t i n g to-."the moon, J u l e s Verne , shot h i s t r a v e l l e r s from a gun i n h i s r e a l i s t i c n o v e l i s t ' s way, and r i d i c u l e d W e l l s f o r h i s l a c k o f mimesis . 61 Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 35. 62 Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 182. 6 3 Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 35. 64 Jorge L u i s Borges , 'From A l l e g o r i e s t o N o v e l s ' i n Other I n q u i s i -t i o n s ( A u s t i n : U n i v e r s i t y o f Texas P r e s s , 1964), p . 155. T o l k i e n w i t h good reason , f o r The Lord of the Rings i s an adventure s t o r y too m o r a l l y s i m p l i s t i c f o r a l l e g o r y ; Lewis w i t h good reason i f he can j u s t i f y h i s t r i l o g y as mythopeia , though i t comes q u i t e c l o s e to a l l e g o r y i n the 'Garden o f Eden' s t o r y of .Voyage to Venus ( P e r e l a n d r a ) . 66 See Chapter One, note 6. 6 7 Thi s passage i s quoted from The World as W i l l and R e p r e s e n t a t i o n , t r a n s , E. F . J . Payne (Colorado: F a l c o n ' s Wing, 1958). Schopenhauer c la ims to know three a l l e g o r i e s , two of which (Don Quixote and G u l l i v e r ' s T r a v e l s ) are " c o n c e a l e d . " The t h i r d i s presumably The D i v i n e Comedy, which i s not " c o n c e a l e d " because Dante many t imes i n v i t e s us to l i f t the v e i l of the a l l e g o r y . 68 Jorge L u i s Borges , Other I n q u i s i t i o n s , p . 155. C f . "Not Honesty i n the a b s t r a c t , but Honest i s my name: i n John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , p . 247. 60 69 Jorge Lu i s Borges , Other I n q u i s i t i o n s , pp . 156-57. ^ P i c k ' s words. Wi l son e n t i t l e s h i s essay i n TSG, 'L indsay as N o v e l i s t and M y s t i c ' ' L indsay a s ' A l l e g o r i s t ' would have been s i m p l e r and more to the p o i n t . In A Voyage, m y s t i c i s m , i n the f i g u r e s . o f Corpang and perhaps Panawe, i s found to be a f a l s e way (see below, Chapter 6) ^Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 330. 72 Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 73. 7 3 C . S. L e w i s , Of Other W o r l d s , p . 19. 74 Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y , p . 22 i . . 7~*Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n P o e t r y , p . 74. 76 George MacDonald, Phanta s te s , p . 206. ^^George MacDonald, Phanta s te s , p . 209. 78 John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , p . 7. 79 Unless he i s r ead ing tha t masterpiece of a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy Finnegans-Wake, and he i s the ' i d e a l reader w i t h the i d e a l i n s o m n i a . ' 80 John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , p . 162. 81 George MacDonald, Phanta s te s , p. 210. 82 "What we c a l l e v i l i s the only and best shape, w h i c h , f o r the person and h i s c o n d i t i o n at the t i m e , c o u l d be assumed by the best good . " George MacDonald, Phantas te s , p . 212. This i s a view now out of f a s h i o n . 83 John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , p . 13 . 84 George MacDonald, L i l i t h , p . 46. 85 N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 38. 61 N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 203. 8 7 For some i n e x p l i c a b l e reason C o l i n W i l s o n misses t h i s p o i n t comple te ly . He s a y s , " I t i s cur ious t h a t L indsay a l lows N i c h o l a s to d ie at the end of the book, a l though f o r no very c l e a r reason. I would have been f a r more e f f e c t i v e to have h i m v a n i s h i n g , w i t h h i s dream machine, towards new hor i zons and p r o s p e c t s " (!) (TSG 44) . In f a c t the combinat ion of the N i c h o l a s - E v e l y n - M a u r i c e and N i c h o l a s - L o r e -Maurice p l o t s here i s probably the happies t n o v e l i s t i c t w i s t t h a t L indsay managed i n any of h i s books. Given the f a c t of the n e c e s s i t y f o r N i c h o l a s ' s d e a t h — i . e . h i s b i r t h i n t o the r e a l w o r l d — t h e n the un-important d i s p o s a l of the body i n the phenomenal w o r l d had b e t t e r be u n c o n v i n c i n g , or the reader w i l l t h i n k i t has s i g n i f i c a n c e . 62 Chapter Three: FANTASY AND ROMANCE: THE LITERARY BACKGROUND OF A VOYAGE TO ARCTURUS A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , and tha t genre we have examined. I t i s a l so to some extent a romance, and an e a r l y work of s c i ence f i c t i o n . L indsay was i n f l u e n c e d by non-mimetic modes other than a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , and these w i l l be examined i n t h i s chapter . In p a r t i c u l a r we s h a l l t r a c e the i n f l u e n c e of I c e l a n d i c l i t e r a t u r e , and o f German Romance w h i c h — i n f l u e n c i n g E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e through C a r l y l e and MacDonald—had a profound e f f e c t on L i n d s a y . One reason f o r t h i s e f f e c t may be t h a t romance of t h i s k i n d has the same i n t e r e s t s as a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy but i t i s w r i t t e n i n prose , whereas the ' g r e a t t r a d i t i o n ' o f f antasy we have been examining i s (except f o r Bunyan) i n v e r s e . Prose as a medium lends i t s e l f more r e a d i l y to mimetic ends than does v e r s e , and prose fantasy thus tends towards ' s u b c r e a t i o n ' , which i s the essence of romance. C. S. Lewis sees t h i s happening as e a r l y as the middle ages when "under the p r e t e x t of a l l e g o r y something e l s e has s l i p p e d i n " : " I mean the ' o t h e r w o r l d ' not of r e l i g i o n , but of i m a g i n a t i o n ; the l and of l o n g i n g , the E a r t h l y Paradise."" ' " To someone comfortably p laced i n the mainstream of l a t e V i c t o r i a n and modern f i c t i o n , fantasy and romance may seem only too s i m i l a r . From our p o i n t of v i e w , however, who have plunged i n t o t h i s t r i b u t a r y , they are oppos i te and opposing s i d e s of the s tream. Fantasy and romance 63 as we f i n d them i n dream w r i t e r s are fundamental ly d i f f e r e n t i n o r i g i n and i n t e n t i o n , as w i l l be demonstrated. The c e n t r a l s i m i l a r i t y between fantasy and romance i s that n e i t h e r operates i n , o r attempts to r e c r e a t e , the everyday, e x p e r i e n t i a l w o r l d we presume we share . Both a l l o w an escape from the known and thus the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r excitement and e x o t i c adventure . Both genres , t h e r e -f o r e , tend to u t i l i s e the quest , and the mythology of the quest , be-cause t h i s p rov ides the g rea te s t freedom f o r the p e r i p a t e t i c p r o t a g o n i s t , who may t r a v e l p l a u s i b l y from adventure to adventure . Because of t h e i r s e p a r a t i o n from the phenomenal w o r l d , and because of t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n a c t i o n r a t h e r than in-complex c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , both fantasy and romance tend to be m o r a l l y s i m p l i s t i c : good i s good because i t i s Good and f u r t h e r s the quest , e v i l i s E v i l and h i n d e r s i t . But f antasy and romance are set i n d i f f e r e n t k inds of non-phenomenal w o r l d . The romance p r o v i d e s an escape from t h i s w o r l d , and i t s s e t t i n g s are t h e r e f o r e nowhere, even i f supported by maps, geo-g r a p h i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s , accounts of the voyage t h i t h e r or whatever , as S w i f t ' s parody of these devices i n G u l l i v e r ' s Trave l s shou ld l e a d us to suspect . Whether the romance i s se t i n darkest A f r i c a , such as H . R i d e r H a r r a r d ' s She, or i n the pseudo-medieval p a s t , such as W i l l i a m M o r r i s ' s The W e l l a t the W o r l d ' s End, or nowhere i n p a r t i c u l a r , such as m i d d l e - e a r t h i n T o l k i e n ' s The Lord of the R i n g s , none o f these p laces can p o s s i b l y be v i s i t e d ; they are o u t o p i a s . But the w o r l d ' s c rea ted i n f a n t a s i e s are no-places i n a d i f f e r e n t sense: they are not 64 p laces which are no-where, they are o f ten not even p laces a t a l l . In f a c t , they are s t a t e s of mind. Thus t h e i r geography i s g e n e r a l l y sketchy i n the extreme. No one would want a map of the l and t r a v e l l e d 2 by C h r i s t i a n i n The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , or of the mountain c l imbed by 'Dante ' i n The D i v i n e Comedy. A diagram perhaps , but c e r t a i n l y not a map. And the only reasonable name f o r the more s u b s t a n t i a l fantasy wor lds c rea ted by George MacDonald i n Phantastes or H . P . L o v e c r a f t i n The Dream-Quest o f Unknown Kadath i s f a i r y l a n d . ' F a i r y - l a n d ' i s a term tha t covers a m u l t i t u d e of v i r t u e s , but C o l e r i d g e de f ined i t s u c c i n c t l y enough when he wrote of Spenser ' s The F a e r i e Queene that " i t i s t r u l y i n the l and of Faery , tha t i s , of 3 mental space. The poet has p l a c e d you i n a dream, a charmed s l e e p . " Fantasy i s dream l i t e r a t u r e and, l i k e dreams, as we have s e e n , i s se t i n "menta l s p a c e . " Romance i s dream l i t e r a t u r e i n another sense: i t 4 i s day-dream r a t h e r than n i g h t dream l i t e r a t u r e , which i s why we o f ten tend to a s s o c i a t e i t w i t h escapism. Where fantasy f rees the mind and takes us beyond the p h y s i c a l i n t o a s p i r i t u a l rea lm, romance f rees the body from the ennui of p h y s i c a l l i f e and t r a n s p o r t s us to what Lewis c a l l s " t h e l a n d of l o n g i n g , the E a r t h l y P a r a d i s e . " The main aim of romance i s the s u b c r e a t i o n of some k i n d of e a r t h l y parad i se w h i c h , as Lewis p o i n t e d out , i s not based on r e l i g i o n — o n the true and unchanging r e a l i t y of Heaven or of the w o r l d of Ideas—but which i s a s u b c r e a t i o n of the a r t i s t : "not of r e l i g i o n , but of i m a g i n a t i o n . " Whi le we voyage to a fantasy w o r l d by dying or f a l l i n g as leep to t h i s w o r l d , we get to 65 a romance w o r l d which pretends to be on the same l e v e l of r e a l i t y as we are (no matter how d i f f e r e n t ) e i t h e r by boat o r , i n modern t imes , space sh ip , or s imply by opening abbook and f i n d i n g ourse lves t h e r e . C. S. Lewis has s a i d , " I know the geography of Tormance b e t t e r than tha t of T e l l u s . " ^ To the extent tha t Tormance has a geography— and we may note t h a t i t has a great d e a l more of a geography than MacDonald's Phanta s te s , f o r example—then A Voyage i s a romance. A l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s g e n e r a l l y have something l e s s s c i e n t i f i c , l e s s n o v e l i s t i c , than 'geography' and that i s l andscapes . These are what "keeps the a l l e g o r y v i g o u r o u s , " i n N u t t a l l ' s words . Landscape i s the ' o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e ' of c h a r a c t e r i n a l l e g o r y — t h e Ifdawn Marest i s the expre s s ion o f Oceaxe's ' w i l l t o power ' , f o r example— and i t seems ' r e a l ' enough when our a t t e n t i o n i s focussed on i t . When the p r o j e c t o r looks away, however, i t d i s appear s . Thi s i s not the case i n t rue romance, of which one can draw maps and f o r which one can g ive c a l e n d a r s . The m i d d l e - e a r t h of T o l k i e n i s not s o l i p s i s t i c : i n the w o r l d of the book i t r e a l l y e x i s t s , no matter who looks at i t , or even i f anyone i s n ' t l o o k i n g . The handsome and k n i g h t l y Ralph i s a c h a r a c t e r i n romance, and he i n h a b i t s the romance w o r l d which W i l l i a m M o r r i s subcrea ted . M a s k u l l i s an a l l e g o r i c a l p r o t a g o n i s t i n a f a n t a s y . I t would be i m p o s s i b l e f o r M a s k u l l , i f he s u r v i v e d , to r e t r a c e h i s steps across Tormance, as Ralph r e t r a c e s h i s i n The W e l l a t the W o r l d ' s End, and f i n d the same f a i r damsels l i v i n g i n the same f a i r p l aces and a l l eager to ask how 66 he succeeded i n h i s ques t . For one t h i n g , the damsels were never r e a l l y t h e r e , as c h a r a c t e r s : they were the t r a n s i t o r y embodiments of temptat ions the p r o t a g o n i s t was f a c i n g , and there fore h i s p r o j e c t i o n s . For another , they cannot s t i l l be there because i n most cases the concept they repre sented , the i l l u s o r y i d e a they embodied, has been faced by the p r o t a g o n i s t , and the defeat of the i d e a has been conf irmed by the p h y s i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n of the i d e a ' s v e h i c l e . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r i n the case o f Su l lenbode , who t e l l s M a s k u l l " I have no o ther l i f e but what you g ive me" and tha t " the term of your love i s the term of my l i f e . When you love me no l o n g e r , I must d i e " (VA 254) . E l l i o t t B. Gose w r i t e s a c u t e l y i n Imaginat ion Indulged that accord ing to the f i n d i n g s of t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , f antasy and dream, romance and f a i r y t a l e g ive r e p r e s e n t a t i o n to otherwise hidden dynamics of mental l i f e . They express an i n n e r r e a l i t y tha t i s not s imply sub l imated , u n r e a l i s t i c escape. I n t e r i o r c o n f l i c t s and b a t t l e s are as r e a l and important as any i n the outer w o r l d (7 ) . But t h i s lumping together of genres we have been endeavoring to keep d i s t i n c t reminds us t h a t fantasy and romance a r e , i n our metaphor, only oppos i te s ide s of the same s tream. Few a c t u a l works are e i t h e r one o f the o t h e r , and most are a mix ture of fantasy and romance. That the l o n g , meandering, pseudo-medieval adventures of Ralph cont inue to h o l d the r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n argues tha t The W e l l at the W o r l d ' s End, d i s t a n t from s p i r i t u a l and phenomenal r e a l i t i e s as i t must seem, i s g i v i n g form to some of the hidden forces of the p s y c h o l o g i c a l under-w o r l d . Conver se ly , i t must be admitted t h a t i n s p i t e of a l l e g o r y ' s 67 " l a c k of mimetic n a t u r a l n e s s " i t has been the f i e l d f u l l of f o l k and V a n i t y and i t s F a i r which have kept great dream a l l e g o r i e s l i k e P i e r s Plowman and The P i l g r i m ' s Progress a l i v e d u r i n g a p e r i o d when a l l e g o r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y because of what C o l e r i d g e c a l l e d i t s 'mechanic ' (as opposed to ' o r g a n i c ' ) form, has not been taken s e r i o u s l y . In the end i t has been the s u b c r e a t i v e aspect of Tormance, the t e r r i f i c mountains of the Ifdawn Marest and the Blakean exuberance of the r i v e r of M a t t e r p l a y , tha t have kept A Voyage to A r c t u r u s more o r l e s s a l i v e f o r the l a s t f i f t y y e a r s . However, we h o l d to our d i s t i n c t i o n . The W e l l a t the W o r l d ' s End i s a romance. A r c t u r u s i s an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y . Sheer l e n g t h here i s a c l u e . Subcrea t ing takes t i m e . Tormance i s impermanent compared to the w o r l d which M o r r i s s u p p l i e s Ralph f o r h i s four books of adventures . Were Tormance a subcreated w o r l d i n the romance sense i t would be good f o r at l e a s t a t r i l o g y of books , l i k e T o l k i e n ' s or P e a k e ' s , and p o s s i b l y , l i k e James Branch C a b e l l ' s Po ic tesme, f o r a good many more. Subcrea t ion has become, i n c i d e n t a l l y , one of the major genres o f contemporary l i t e r a t u r e , c e r t a i n l y i f measured by the number 9 of books w r i t t e n and s o l d . Many of these works are a l s o s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n . There have been long arguments i n s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n c i r c l e s about when the genre a c t u a l l y began. Those whose s t r e s s i s on s c i e n c e tend to choose the p u b l i c a t i o n of Ralph 124C41+ by Hugo Gernsback ( a f t e r whom Hugo awards are named) i n Modern E l e c t r i c s i n 1911 . "^ Those whose s t r e s s i s on f i c t i o n tend t o choose the p u b l i c a t i o n by H. G. Wel l s o f 68 The Time Machine i n 1895, a s t o r y which W e l l s had s t a r t e d as 'The Chron ic Argonauts ' as e a r l y as 1 8 8 8 . 1 1 The Time Machine was q u i c k l y f o l l o w e d by The I s l a n d of D r . Moreau (1896) and The War of the Worlds (1897). The V i c t o r i a n age,..had, probably because of i t s i n s i s t e n t r a t i o n a l i s m , produced a l o t of great f a n t a s t i c a l nonsense, though a l l too o f ten (as we too o f ten s t i l l do) the V i c t o r i a n s r e l e g a t e d i t to the n u r s e r y : Lewis C a r r o l l ' s A l i c e i n Wonderland and Through the Looking G l a s s , K i n g s l e y ' s The Water-Babies , L e a r ' s A Book of Nonsense and, r a t h e r l a t e r , Grahame's The Wind i n the W i l l o w s , Gernsback's i s a new k i n d of nonsense: he took ' I s n ' t s c i e n c e w o n d e r f u l ? ' s e r i o u s l y 12 and gave h i s R a l p h , "one of the g rea te s t l i v i n g s c i e n t i s t s , " l o t s of gadgets l i k e the Telephot (what we now c a l l a vidphone) to p l a y w i t h . What Wel l s d i d was take V i c t o r i a n s c i e n c e , which had e f f e c t i v e l y c l o s e d o f f almost a l l the areas of the e a r t h where h e r o i c fantasy was s t i l l p o s s i b l e , and t u r n i t aga ins t i t s e l f . By us ing sc ience and pseudo-s c i e n c e , W e l l s was ab le to f i n d room (or time) to put the b i t e back i n t o romance. C r i t i c s de sc r ibed i t as " a morbid a b e r r a t i o n of s c i e n t i f i c 13 c u r i o s i t y . " In The D a i l y News of January 21 , 1898, a r ev iewer says of The War of the Wor lds : There are episodes tha t are so b r u t a l , d e t a i l s so r e p u l s i v e , that they cause i n s u f f e r a b l e d i s t r e s s to the f e e l i n g s . The r e s t r a i n t of a r t i s m i s s i n g . We would en t rea t Mr . W e l l s to r e t u r n to h i s e a r l i e r methods—to the saner , serener beauty o f those f i r s t romances t h a t cas t t h e i r s p e l l upon our i m a g i n a t i o n , and appealed to our f i n e r s e n s i b i l i t i e s (14) . 69 The Time Machine and The War of the Worlds were not w r i t t e n f o r the l a t e - V i c t o r i a n n u r s e r y . In the same year that The Time Machine appeared, 1895, when Lindsay was seventeen, George MacDonald p u b l i s h e d L i l i t h and W i l l i a m M o r r i s The Wood Beyond the W o r l d , h i s f i r s t f i c t i o n a l pseudo-medieval n a r r a t i v e , ^ which he f o l l o w e d w i t h The W e l l at the W o r l d ' s End (1896) . MacDonald's problem was that h i s i n t e n t was s e r i o u s , but h i s mode—fairy-tale f o r grown-ups—did not seem to be . I t was dream a l l e g o r y , and o b v i o u s l y was not d e a l i n g w i t h the m a t e r i a l i s t i c problems of the modern w o r l d . W i l l i a m M o r r i s c l e a r l y d i d t r y to dea l w i t h those problems, i n h i s l i f e and i n h i s Utopia News From Nowhere (1891), but h i s l a t e r works , daydream romances set i n subcreated w o r l d s , aga in must seem ' m e r e l y ' e s c a p i s t . The s o l u t i o n was, of course , to take both the dream fantasy and the romance and f o l l o w W e l l s , i n t o space. Thi s i s p r e c i s e l y what L indsay d i d . L indsay h i m s e l f was a c t u a l l y , i n 1920, a l a t e V i c t o r i a n w r i t e r , and d i d w e l l to t r y to h i d e h i s age. The b i g g e s t s i n g l e l i t e r a r y 16 i n f l u e n c e on him was George MacDonald, and we f i n d b i t s and p ieces of the l a t t e r popping up a l l over A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . The grea te s t i n f l u e n c e on both MacDonald and C a r l y l e , the o ther Scot whom L indsay 17 admired, were the German R o m a n t i c i s t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y N o v a l i s . L indsay may have d i s covered them e i t h e r through MacDonald, who took epigraphs from them for.some chapters i n Phantastes and was not a man to cover h i s t r a c k s , o r through C a r l y l e ' s essays and t r a n s l a t i o n s . At any r a t e , he 70 e v i d e n t l y thought h i g h l y of them. In a l e t t e r dated May 18, 1922, L indsay wrote to V i s i a k : Your l e c t u r e on T ieck would have i n t e r e s t e d me much, as I had a t one time—and s t i l l have—a queer, vague s o r t of a d m i r a t i o n f o r h i s s t o r i e s , which perhaps resemble music more than l i t e r a t u r e and produce the same s o r t of unse i zab le e f f e c t on one as music (L 48) . L i t e r a t u r e , we remember, a s p i r e s to be l i k e music " t h e exper ience of a s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d " (TSG 13) . Great works are l i k e great symphonies; l e s s e r works have the same genius on a s m a l l e r s c a l e : In g e n e r a l , the works of the e a r l y German Romant i c i s t s are l i k e s p r i n g songs—how d i f f e r e n t from the p r o s a i c drawing-room s t u f f turned out by the thousand today! (L 48-49). Many of these s t o r i e s a r e , to borrow L i n d s a y ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of Sphinx , " a b l e n d of common and s u p e r n a t u r a l l i f e " (L 47) . We may take as an example—because i t i s i n i t s e l f a good s t o r y , because i t i s f a i r l y t y p i c a l i n i t s themes, and because i t became extremely w e l l known i n England i n a t r a n s l a t i o n by C a r l y l e — E . T. A . Hoffmann's s t o r y The Golden P o t . One of Hoffmann's c e n t r a l themes, and a common one i n German 18 4 1 Romance, was the double or doppeltgariger as the term was co ined by Jean P a u l R i c h t e r . . The i d e a i t s e l f i s as o l d as Cas tor and P o l l u x , the heavenly t w i n s . Shakespeare used the idea i n Twel f th Night and (doubly) i n The Comedy of E r r o r s , which deals w i t h the s i m p l e s t form of double , i d e n t i c a l t w i n s . But. something more i n t e r e s t i n g l u r k s be-neath the s u r f a c e : "One of these men i s genius to the o t h e r ; / And 71 so of these . Which i s the n a t u r a l man, / And which the s p i r i t ? " (The Comedy of E r r o r s , V . i . 3 3 1 - 3 3 ) . The idea stems from the common ex-per i ence of becoming two i n dreams, and the consequent f r e e i n g of the s o u l or " g e n i u s , " which i s w^y the m o t i f o f the double i s a common one i n dream l i t e r a t u r e . The p r i m i t i v e b e l i e f we f i n d embodied i n dream f a n t a s i e s , t h a t the s o u l may walk f o r t h i n dreams, threatens a r a t i o n a l i s t and e m p i r i c i s t l i k e Locke so much tha t he i s at great pains to t r y to dispose of i t , i n v o k i n g our o l d f r i e n d ' S o c r a t e s ' to t r y and r e f u t e the i d e a " t h a t Socrates as leep and Socrates awake i s not the same person ; but h i s s o u l , when he s l e e p s , and Socrates the man c o n s i s t i n g of body and s o u l , 19 when he i s waking , are two p e r s o n s . " Locke cannot e n t e r t a i n the i d e a because he i s complete ly h o s t i l e to the apparent ly i r r a t i o n a l na ture of dreams. He "wonder[s] that our dreams should be , f o r the most p a r t , 20 so f r i v o l o u s and i r r a t i o n a l , " f o r "where a l l i s but dream, reasoning 21 and arguments are of no use, t ruthan 'd iknowledgeanothing . " Locke wishes to speak " o f th ings as they r e a l l y are and not of dreams and , . „22 f a n c i e s . The s tudent Anselmus i n 'The Golden P o t ' i s t o r n between the two main a t t i t u d e s to dreams and dream w o r l d s . On the one hand there i s the common-sense r a t i o n a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e expressed by Locke and by 23 Henry ' s f a t h e r i n N o v a l i s ' s romance, tha t "dreams are f r o t h , " and which i s h e l d i n 'The Golden P o t ' by Conrector Paulmann. He t e l l s Anselmus, 72 I have always taken you f o r a s o l i d young man: but to dream, to dream w i t h your eyes wide open, and t h e n , a l l a t once, to s t a r t up and t r y t o jump i n t o the water ! T h i s , begging your pardon, i s what only f o o l s or madmen would do (24) . On the o ther hand there i s t h e . m e o - P l a t o n i c idea of dreams as the gateway to a h i g h e r r e a l i t y than the common w o r l d , which we have e x p l i c a t e d i n our d i s c u s s i o n of a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , and which i s h e l d i n 'The Golden P o t ' by A r c h i v a r i - u s L i n d h o r s t , by the n a r r a t o r , and e v e n t u a l l y by Anselmus h i m s e l f . When Anselmus i s 'awake' he l i v e s i n the w o r l d of the C o n r e c t o r , b lue-eyed V i r g i n i a and R e g i s t r a t o r Heerbrand, when he i s ' a s l e e p ' i n a dream-fantasy w o r l d of L i n d h o r s t the Salamander and h i s b lue-eyed snake-daughter S e r p e n t i n a . These two p a r a l l e l wor lds o v e r l a p , and Anselmus i s t o r n , f o r a t i m e , between them, c o n s t a n t l y waking up or 25 26 " r e t u r n i n g to h i m s e l f " "as from a deep dream." There i s a b a t t l e between the phenomenal w o r l d and " t h e faery r e g i o n of g l o r i o u s wonders" which i s i n the " r e g i o n which the s p i r i t l a y s open to us i n dreams," and which i s the " g l o r i o u s kingdom" which the n a r r a t o r i s " s t r i v i n g 27 to show [us] i n the s i n g u l a r s t o r y of the Student Anse lmus . " Thi s 2 g i s " another h i g h e r w o r l d " — i t turns out to be A t l a n t i s — a n d , as i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , we are c a l l e d to i t by p a i n (though i t i s " rapturous p a i n " ) : So, as was h i n t e d , the Student Anselmus, ever s i n c e that evening when he met w i t h A r c h i v a r i u s L i n d h o r s t , had been sunk i n a dreamy musing, which rendered him i n s e n s i b l e to every outward touch of common l i f e . He f e l t tha t an unknown Something 73 was awakening h i s inmost s o u l , and c a l l i n g f o r t h t h a t rapturous p a i n , which i s even the mood of l o n g i n g t h a t announces a l o f t i e r e x i s t e n c e to man(29). In >:The Golden P o t ' we f i n d the t r a d i t i o n a l imagery f o r the i m -prisonment o f the s o u l i n the body, of the s p i r i t i n the r i v e r of mat te r , but the most important image i s Hoffmann's own and, s i n c e i t may have suggested L i n d s a y ' s Crys ta lman, we must look at i t more c l o s e l y . The N i n t h V i g i l ends w i t h Anselmus, whose f a i t h has wavered, s t u c k i n s i d e 30 " a w e l l - c o r k e d c r y s t a l b o t t l e . " Of course , he compla ins . But h i s s i m i l a r l y b o t t l e d companions t e l l h im to shut up, f o r "we have never been b e t t e r o f f than at p r e s e n t . " They decide tha t " the s tudent i s mad; he f a n c i e s h i m s e l f to be s i t t i n g i n a g l a s s b o t t l e , and i s s t a n d i n g 31 on the E l b e Br idge and l o o k i n g r i g h t down i n t o the w a t e r . " They have f o r g o t t e n t h e i r immorta l p a r t s , and do not r e a l i s e tha t they are only r e f l e c t i o n s of the s p i r i t i n the r i v e r of mat te r : that by drowning themselves , as Lore does i n Sphinx , they might s e t themselves f r e e . They do not r e a l i s e they are impr i soned because the b o t t l e s ! are of c r y s t a l : i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s we are a l l b o t t l e d thus by Crys ta lman, whose rainbow of c r e a t i o n h ides the one t rue l i g h t . I f t h i s i n s i g h t has not been g iven us i n our "most v i v i d dreams," the n a r r a t o r asks our " f l y i n g i m a g i n a t i o n " — t h e s p i r i t u a l p a r t of us, f r e e from g r a v i t y — to be o b l i g i n g enought to enclose i t s e l f f o r a few moments i n the c r y s t a l . You are drowned i n d a z z l i n g sp lendour ; e v e r y t h i n g around you appears i l l u m i n a t e d and b e g i r t w i t h beaming rainbow hues : i n the sheen e v e r y t h i n g seems to q u i v e r and waver and c l a n g and drone. You are swimming,'jbut you are powerless and cannot move, as i f you were imbedded i n a f i r m l y 74 congealed e ther which squeezes you so t i g h t l y that i t i s i n v a i n tha t your s p i r i t commands your dead and s t i f f e n e d body. Heav ie r and h e a v i e r the mountainous burden l i e s on y o u ; more and more every b r e a t h exhausts the t i n y b i t of a i r t h a t s t i l l p l a y s up and down the t i g h t space around you ; your pul se throbs madly; and cut through w i t h h o r r i d a n g u i s h , , every nerve i s q u i v e r i n g and b l e e d i n g i n your dead agony (32) . Worst of a l l , Anselmus's reason has taken c o n t r o l : h a v i n g become a r a t i o n a l i s t , " i n s t e a d of the words which the s p i r i t used to speak 33 from w i t h i n him he now heard only the s t i f l e d din. 3.of madness." Anselmus's pu l se throbs madly (as though Krag i s b e a t i n g on h i s h e a r t ) and he i s ready to throw o f f the p r i s o n of the body and i t s d e a d w e i g h t . He s t i l l b e l i e v e s i n S e r p e n t i n a , i . e . s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t y , and t h i s saves h i m : i t i s gnosis t h a t the serpent b r i n g s : f r u i t of the Tree of Knowledge. In the end he wins the golden pot and goes to l i v e w i t h Serpent ina i n A t l a n t i s : he "has ca s t away the burden of 34 everyday l i f e " and gone to l i v e i n the h i g h e r w o r l d of the s p i r i t . But he has l e f t behind a p a l t r y , everyday s e l f i n the person of Reg i s t r a tor—now Hofra th—Heerbrand , who marr ies V e r o n i c a , S e r p e n t i n a ' s counterpar t i n the phenomenal w o r l d . Thus the s p l i t t i n g of Anselmus leads to e v e n t u a l harmony i n 'The Golden P o t ' where the two embodied p a r t s of Anselmus are not i n c o n f l i c t . Of course , the c o n f l i c t i s p o t e n t i a l l y t h e r e , s i n c e Heerbrand f u l f i l l s Anselmus 's e a r t h l y g o a l s , becoming Hof ra th and marry ing V e r o n i c a , but i t i s not developed i n the s t o r y , where Heerbrand i s a minor charac te r and Anselmus has o ther 35 i n t e r e s t s . What we do have i s s imply the s p i r i t ' s s t r u g g l e to escape 75 i n t o the dream w o r l d and, u i l i k e the p u r e l y a l l e g o r i c a l A Voyage where the aim i s the same, the body does not have to be d isposed of to make t h i s p o s s i b l e . . In 'The Golden P o t , ' both Anselmus and Heerbrand e x i s t , i n the b e g i n n i n g , on the same l e v e l of f i c t i o n a l r e a l i t y , but we have something more complex than the d o u b l e - b y - d u p l i c a t i o n of The Comedy of E r r o r s : that i s , d o u b l e - b y - d i v i s i o n . Thi s a l lows f o r the e x p r e s s i o n of powerfu l p s y c h i c f o r c e s , e s p e c i a l l y those of the repressed unconscious , such as we f i n d i n the works of Hoffman's progeny, Stevenson, Poe and D o s t o e v s k i . In t a k i n g a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy i n t o prose and making i t more mimet ic , Hoffmann i n 'The Golden P o t ' used the psychomachia form: the s t r u g g l e f o r Anselmus 's s o u l . F r i e d r i c h von Hardenberg, g e n e r a l l y known by h i s pseudonym of N o v a l i s , d i d the same t h i n g but u s ing the progress form of a l l e g o r y . In f a c t , Henry of Of terd ingen i s n e i t h e r a coherent n a r r a t i v e , i n the n o v e l i s t i c sense, nor i s i t an a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy i n a s t r i c t sense: i t i s a s e r i e s of dreams and f ab le s which a r i s e out of Henry ' s p r o s a i c journey w i t h a group of merchants , though i t must be s t r e s s e d tha t the dreams and f ab le s of the h i g h e r w o r l d , and the events of the journey i n the phenomenal w o r l d are c a r e -f u l l y in terwoven . In the i n t r o d u c t i o n to h i s E n g l i s h v e r s i o n of Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n : A Romance, the anonymous t r a n s l a t o r says t h a t N o v a l i s "resembles among 37 l a t e w r i t e r s the subl ime Dante a l o n e . " N o v a l i s ' s B e a t r i c e was the young Sophie von Kuhn, who d i e d at the age of f i f t e e n , and h i s V i t a 76 Nuova the Hymnen an d i e Nacht . But h i s main work i s n o t , as Dante ' s c l e a r l y i s , a dream, though i t begins w i t h one. Henry dreams he i s 39 40 " i n einem dunkeln Walde a l l e i n , " Dante ' s "una s e l v a o b s c u r a . " He 41 c l imbs a mountain and sees "a mighty beam of l i g h t . " A l i t t l e l a t e r , he dreams he sees the e v e n t u a l goa l of h i s ques t : not the whi te rose but ' d i e b laue B lume . ' The b l u e f lower has a woman's f a ce . Then he wakes up. Where Dante ' s dream i s , as we have e x p l a i n e d , a v i s i o , where meaning i s found u l t i m a t e l y beyond n a t u r e , the dream N o v a l i s g ives to Henry i s an oraculum. S p e c i f i c a l l y , meaning i s to be found i n n a t u r e , and the face i n the f l ower p r e f i g u r e s the a c t u a l g i r l i n marriage to whom the quest (Henry of Ofterdir igen remaining u n f i n i s h e d when N o v a l i s died) shou ld end. In Henry of Ofterdir igen the aim of the quest . ' . i s , l i k e those of 'Dante ' and of M a s k u l l i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , l i k e t h a t of C h r i s t i a n i n The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , M r . Vane i n L i l i t h and Anodos i n Phanta s te s , to r e t u r n home. A f t e r h i s f i r s t dream, Henry leaves h i s home on a journey to Augsburg, but " h i s mother was w i t h h i m . The w o r l d he was 42 l e a v i n g d i d not y e t appear, e n t i r e l y l o s t . " And, s i n c e "he was r e -t u r n i n g to h i s f a t h e r l a n d " i t was "as i f i n r e a l i t y he was j o u r n e y i n g 43 homewards." The journey prov ides a r e a l i s t i c framework f o r a s e r i e s of dreams and adventures or marchen, which r e t e l l i n a f r a n k l y m y t h i c a l and a l l e g o r i c a l form the p o i n t o f f e r e d more or l e s s r e a l i s t i c a l l y i n the whole s t o r y . But dream and r e a l i t y are in terwoven : "The dream i s 44 W o r l d . The w o r l d i s Dream." In the f i r s t p a r t of the book, The E x p e c t a t i o n , Henry completes h i s j o u r n e y , hav ing found M a t i l d a , whose 77 face i s that of the f l o w e r , and who i s h i s i n s p i r a t i o n or ' b r e a t h of l i f e ' . He says , "She w i l l d i s s o l v e me i n t o mus ic . She w i l l become 45 my inmost s o u l , the guardian s p i r i t of my ho ly f i r e . " He c a l l s to the s t a r s , " F o r M a t i l d a w i l l I l i v e " and " t h e morning of e t e r n a l day i s a l s o opening f o r me. The n i g h t i s p a s t . I k i n d l e myse l f to 46 the r i s i n g sun , f o r an i n e x t i n g u i s h a b l e o f f e r i n g . " In the second p a r t , The F u l f i l l m e n t , we f i n d " i n deep thought a p i l g r i m . . . w a l k i n g a long a narrow f o o t - p a t h which ran up a mountain s i d e . " ^ 7 Thi s i s the s p i r i t - H e n r y , now l i b e r a t e d . He meets the g i r l who i s h i s t rue l o v e , presumably s p i r i t - M a t i l d a , who t e l l s h im they are going 'Immer nach 48 Hause ' : " E v e r homewards." The r e s t i s p h i l o s o p h y . Of p a r t i c u l a r re levance to A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s the marchen t o l d by K l i n g s o h r (who i s model led on Goethe): i n Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , but s i n c e t h i s i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y the same co smolog i ca l myth that i s sung by the S y b i l i n ' V o l u s p a , ' we may pass on to examine the i n f l u e n c e of I c e l a n d i c l i t e r a t u r e on W i l l i a m M o r r i s and David L i n d s a y . L indsay was, as he p o i n t e d out to Putnam's , o r i g i n a l l y descended from " I v a r , J a r l of the Norse Uplander s " (TSG 6 ) , and there are many s i m i l a r i t i e s between C e l t i c and Scandinavian mythology. L i n d s a y ' s kinsman, C a r l y l e , s ings a panegyr ic to the ISbrse gods i n h i s f i r s t l e c t u r e , 'The Hero as D i v i n i t y , ' i n On Heroes, Hero-W o r s h i p and the H e r o i c i n H i s t o r y : To me there i s i n the Norse System something very genuine, very great and m a n l i k e . A broad s i m p l i c i t y , r u s t i c i t y , so very d i f f e r e n t from the l i g h t grace-fu lness of the o l d Greek Paganism, d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h i s Scandinavian System. I t i s Thought; the genuine Thought of deep, rude , earnest minds, f a i r l y opened 78 to the th ings about them; a f a c e - t o - f a c e and h e a r t - t o - h e a r t i n s p e c t i o n of the t h i n g s , — t h e f i r s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l good Thought i n a l l t i m e s . . . . a c e r t a i n homely t r u t h f u l n e s s and r u s t i c s t r e n g t h , a great rude s i n c e r i t y , d i s -c loses i t s e l f here (49) . But w h i l e C a r l y l e was ' t h e V o i c e of Germany i n E n g l a n d , ' the v o i c e of I c e l a n d was W i l l i a m M o r r i s . C a r l y l e and L indsay were a t t r a c t e d to Norse myth by i t s w i l d and rugged d i r e c t n e s s , and t h i s was how C a r l y l e saw I c e l a n d : b u r s t - u p , the g e o l o g i s t s say , by f i r e from the bottom of the sea ; a w i l d l a n d of barrenness and l a v a ; swallowed many months of every year i n b l a c k tempests, ye t w i t h a w i l d gleaming beauty i n summer-time; towering up t h e r e , s t e r n and g r i m , i n the North Ocean; w i t h i t s snow j o k u l s , r o a r i n g geysers , s u l p h u r - p o o l s and; h o r r i d v o l c a n i c chasms, l i k e the waste c h a o t i c b a t t l e -f i e l d of F r o s t and F i r e (50) . I t was e l e m e n t a l ; j u s t the.place f o r the " Impersonat ion of the v i s i b l e workings of N a t u r e , " " ' 1 and f o r a l l e g o r y on a grand s c a l e . M o r r i s ' s a p p r e c i a t i o n of I c e l a n d was more subdued. He found the h i l l s "mourn-f u l l y empty and b a r r e n " w i t h "grey c l o u d s , dragging over die h i l l t o p s or l y i n g i n the h o l l o w s " — y e t a l l these "had something, I d o n ' t know 52 what, of p o e t i c and a t t r a c t i v e about them" — I was most deeply impressed w i t h i t a l l , ye t can s c a r c e l y t e l l you why; i t was l i k e n o t h i n g I had ever seen, but s t r a n g e l y l i k e my o l d imag ina t ions of p laces f o r sea-wanderers to come to (53) . I t was not the v i v i d and c l e a r l y de f ined ruggedness of I c e l a n d that a t t r a c t e d M o r r i s , but an e l u s i v e sense of mystery , which i s why he made long rambl ing romances out of i t , i n s t e a d o f a l l e g o r i e s . 79 When, w i t h the he lp of Magnusson, M o r r i s t r a n s l a t e d the sagas— and t h i s i s t rue of the fo rna ldar sogur ( m y t h i c a l - h e r o i c sagas) as of the Germanic r iddara sogur ('Sagas of K n i g h t s ' or romances of c h i v a l r y ) — he seems to have been i n t e r e s t e d i n them because they represented "an e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e , removing him as f a r as p o s s i b l e from the (to him) d i s t a s t e f u l l i f e of contemporary E n g l a n d . " " ^ At any r a t e , M o r r i s ' s t r a n s l a t i o n s are f u l l of ' a n t i q u e ' l o c u t i o n s , such as ' s h o u l d chide him t h e r e f o r e , ' ' that b e f e l l n o t , ' ' l a y not q u i e t , ' and pseudo-medieval p e r i p h r a s t s : 'Then they t i l t e d over a wa in i n most seemly w i s e ' f o r "They put a canopy over a s p l e n d i d c a r r i a g e ' i n H r e i m s k r i n g l a . These usages c l u t t e r the d i r e c t in te rchanges , d i s t u r b the f low of the n a r r a t i v e 55 and sometimes even obscure the sense. I t i s c l e a r that when M o r r i s says "My work i s the embodiment of dreams""^ he i s t a l k i n g of day-dreams. He was a w r i t e r of dream-romance, sub c r e a t i n g worlds where dream and r e a l i t y merge i n t o an enchanted rea lm, m e l t i n g and langorous , of revery and t r a n c e . I c e l a n d i c l i t e r a t u r e p r o -v i d e d an i n s p i r a t i o n , a mythology, and a source of m a t e r i a l . The tone and s t y l e of the t r a n s l a t i o n s , though i n i m i c a l to the o r i g i n a l s , gave M o r r i s a modus operandi f o r h i s l a s t romances, such as The W e l l at the W o r l d ' s End, where he has , i n a way t o t a l l y unsaga l i k e , "Made l i f e a wondrous dream / And death the murmur of a r e s t f u l s t r e a m . " " ' 7 But t h i s g e n e r a l i s e d and r o m a n t i c i s e d 'Nor thernness ' has pro foundly i n f l u e n c e d dream-romance r i g h t to the p re sent . Reading M o r r i s , and H. R i d e r Haggard's E r i c B r i g h t e y e s , moved E. R. Eddison to teach h i m s e l f Old Norse and go to I c e l a n d , a t r i p M o r r i s h i m s e l f had made t w i c e . C. S. Lewis was i n -80 f luenced by M o r r i s ' s S i g u r d the Volsung and Edd i son ' s The Worm Ouroboros. J . R. R. T o l k i e n , L e w i s ' s f r i e n d , and E m i l P e t a j a have cont inued the t r a d i t i o n to the p r e s e n t . But these are subcreators and romance w r i t e r s , and we have d i s t i n g u i s h e d romance from a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y . However, i t i s p r e c i s e l y here t h a t , by c o n t r a s t , L i n d s a y ' s a c h i e v e -ment i n A Voyage becomes c l e a r . An important t r a n s l a t o r of The Saga of G r e t t i r the S t r o n g , G. A . H i g h t , n o t i c e s the same " n a t u r a l romance" of which M o r r i s made so much. But he draws our a t t e n t i o n to the l a c k of i t i n the sagas: In lands as teeming w i t h n a t u r a l romance as I c e l a n d and Norway, i t may seem s t range tha t so l i t t l e n o t i c e i s taken of the wonders of landscape and scenery . Here and there the s a g a - t e l l e r shows us what he c o u l d do i f he wi shed , as when t e l l i n g of G r e t t i r ' s r e t r e a t i n the g l a c i e r s of G e i t l a n d i n Chapter L X I , where w i t h a few magic touches he g ives an e n t r a n c i n g gl impse i n t o an e a r t h l y parad i se of happiness and r e s t . But he cares n o t h i n g f o r t h i s , and d r i l y cont inues tha t G r e t t i r found i t d u l l there and would not stay (58) . Hight cont inues h i s s l y l i t t l e j oke l a t e r , remarking that he has " o c c a s i o n a l l y c o n s u l t e d , i n cases of d i f f i c u l t y , the t r a n s l a t i o n of Mssr s . Magnusson and M o r r i s , and have borrowed a few nicknames t h e r e -59 f r o m . " H i g h t ' s own t r a n s l a t i o n i s b l u n t and to the p o i n t . He admits that " a reader who approaches the sagas f o r the f i r s t time i s apt to f e e l a l i t t l e b e w i l d e r e d . They seem crowded w i t h people w i t h uncouth names and r i d i c u l o u s nick-names , whose occupat ion i s mostly d i v i d e d 60 between murdering each other and r i d i n g to the T h i n g . " Had " t h e t h i n g " been Muspe l , t h i s might almost have been s a i d of A Voyage to 81 A r c t u r u s . Of a l l books , A Voyage i s most l i k e H i g h t ' s t r a n s l a t i o n of G r e t t i r i n terms of tone and s t y l e . Each i s b l u n t l y t o l d , w i t h a minimum of a u t h o r i a l comment. Each deals i n death and v i o l e n c e on a grand s c a l e . The charac ter s have uncouth names. I n Old Norse l i t e r a t u r e , " f a m i l y 61 names were n o n - e x i s t e n t , and each person had by r i g h t only one name." Thus, G r e t t i r has h i s one name, and a nick-name which descr ibes h im 62 as ' t h e s t r o n g . ' The " o d d l y Scandinav ian personae" i n A Voyage, be ing a l l e g o r i c a l ( M a s k u l l and Night spore c l e a r l y be long to a d i f f e r e n t w o r l d from Montague F a u l l ) , have only one name, but t h i s name i s a l s o a d e s c r i p t i o n : Krag ' s name t e l l s us he i s rough and u n p o l i s h e d . Most i m p o r t a n t l y , though he a l s o resembles B l a k e ' s Los , Krag i n A Voyage has q u i t e c l e a r l y been model led on G r e t t i r h i m s e l f : Krag i s a thumb-n a i l ske tch of one whom H i g h t t e l l s us i s "one of the most complex 6 3 [ charac ter s ] ever c o n c e i v e d . " Both Krag and G r e t t i r are r e d - h a i r e d , s tocky and enormously s t r o n g ; both are rough mannered, seemingly quarrelsome, and care n o t h i n g f o r r the f i n e r p o i n t s of s o c i a l e t i q u e t t e ; 64 both are w e l l - p r a c t i c e d i n the a r t of i n f l i c t i n g p a i n . A . Margaret A r e n t says o f G r e t t i r ' s name that " e t y m o l o g i c a l l y , i t goes back to g r a n t j a n and to d e r i v a t i v e words meaning ' t o sneer , s n a r l , make a wry 65 f a c e ' " —and these a c t i o n s are as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Krag as of G r e t t i r . 66 F u r t h e r , Arent t e l l s us of an " a s s o c i a t i o n of the name w i t h the snake" and Krag ' s r o l e i n A Voyage i s t h a t of the wise s e r p e n t , b r i n g e r of i j . 6 7 knowledge or gnos i s . 82 But A Voyage to Arc turus and The Saga o f G r e t t i r the S t r o n g , though they have many s i m i l a r i t i e s , be long i n the end to d i f f e r e n t l i t e r a r y genres. When " i n a l l the c l a s s i c a l sagas, n o t h i n g i s con-doned or v i l i f i e d (except by i m p l i c a t i o n ) ; the author does not take 6 8 s ide s or m o r a l i s e " t h i s i s because " the i n t e r e s t of our saga i s 69 w h o l l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l " : r e a l l y complex charac ter s can only be presented through a c t i o n : G r e t t i r i s too complex f o r reason to r a t i o n a l i s e . In A Voyage the p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t i s m i n i m a l : the p a u c i t y of a u t h o r i a l comment i s not good psychology , i t i s good a l l e g o r y : i f the image is_ the meaning i t w i l l r e q u i r e no a u t h o r i a l comment. G r e t t i r i s so organi sed that " the charac te r of the hero develops i t s e l f " " 7 ^ through a c t i o n . A Voyage i s organi sed so as to make a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o i n t , andthe a c t u a l charac te r of M a s k u l l i s — p r o v i d e d that he i s o r d i n a r y enough for 1, us to i d e n t i f y w i t h h i m — more or l e s s i r r e l e v a n t . F i n a l l y , w h i l e A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f an ta sy , The Saga of G r e t t i r the Strong i s not i n any sense a dream book. Of course , " f rom i t s e a r l i e s t beginnings u n t i l the present day I c e l a n d i c l i t e r a t u r e has been remarkably r i c h i n symbol ic dreams and v i s i o n s . Georg ia Dunham K e l c h n e r has noted 530 dream references i n Old I c e l a n d i c prose and p o e t r y , and h e r survey i s f a r from e x h a u s t i v e . " P r o p h e t i c dreams, oraculum, are p a r t i c u l a r l y important i n the sagas. The E l d e r Edda, the p o e t i c canon, i s a d i f f e r e n t mat ter : i t i s not p s y c h o l o g i c a l but m y t h i c a l . C a r l y l e d i s t i n g u i s h e s between myth and 83 a l l e g o r y as f o l l o w s : Pagan R e l i g i o n i s indeed an A l l e g o r y , a symbol of what men f e l t and knew about the U n i v e r s e . . . . But i t seems to me a r a d i c a l p e r v e r s i o n , and even i n v e r s i o n , of the b u s i n e s s , to put that forward as the o r i g i n and moving cause, when i t was r a t h e r the r e s u l t and t e r m i n a t i o n . To get b e a u t i f u l a l l e g o r i e s , a p e r f e c t p o e t i c symbol , was not the want of men; but to know what they were to b e l i e v e about t h i s U n i v e r s e , what course they were to s t e e r i n i t . . . . The P i l g r i m ' s Progress i s an A l l e g o r y , and a b e a u t i f u l , j u s t and s e r i o u s one: but cons ider whether Bunyan's A l l e g o r y c o u l d have preceded the F a i t h i t symbol i se s ! The F a i t h had to be a l ready there , s t and ing b e l i e v e d by everybody ;—of which the A l l e g o r y cou ld then bec-come a shadow (73) . Myth i s pr imary and a l l e g o r y i s secondary, but the two are c l o s e . In The E l d e r Edda, one of the mythic poems, ' V o l u s p a , or 'The Song of the S y b i l , ' i s a l s o a dream work, and the dream i s of category v , v i s i o , to whicfawehave a l ready as s igned The D i v i n e Comedy and o ther a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s . ' V o l u s p a ' i s a l a y i n The E l d e r Edda which conta ins the c o s m o l o g i c a l mythology of the o l d Norsemen, and i t s i n f l u e n c e on L i n d s a y ' s cosmology i n A Voyage i s r e a d i l y d i s c e r n i b l e . The c e n t r a l ideas i n A Voyage are indeed g n o s t i c , P l a t o n i c and Schopenhauerian ( P l a t o b e i n g a g n o s t i c , Schopenhauer a n e o - P l a t o n i s t ) , but L indsay perhaps found these ideas most c o n c r e t e l y embodied i n 74 ' V o l u s p a . ' From t h i s , at any r a t e , he took h i s most important names: the S u r t u r of A r c t u r u s i s the Sur t of ' V o l u s p a ' (and of ' V a l f r u t h n i r ' and 'Loka senna ' ; he i s S u r t a r and S u r t r i n some i n f l e c t i o n a l cases , the 75 ' r ' b e i n g n o m i n a t i v a l ) . In the apocalypse f o r e t o l d i n ' V o l u s p a ' Sur t comes from the s o u t h , from Muspelheim ( L i n d s a y ' s Muspel) w i t h the s i n g e r -84 o f - t w i g s , which i s the f i r e tha t Promethean M a s k u l l must t r a v e l to Muspel to s t e a l i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . ' V o l u s p a ' i s unique i n The E l d e r Edda i n be ing a v i s i o and i n b e i n g c o s m o l o g i c a l , but i t has many analogues i n the mythologies of o ther r ace s . I f V e l i k o v s k y i s c o r r e c t i n Worlds i n C o l l i s i o n , these e n d - o f - t h e - w o r l d myths are a l l very s i m i l a r because they are based on events which happened i n the (by co smolog i ca l s tandards) recent p a s t : v i z . the capture of the comet Venus by the s o l a r system, and the c o l l i s i o n s of Mars (angry, red god o f war) and Venus (hew-born goddess of beauty , t r a i l i n g h e r b e a u t i f u l v e i l s ) w h i l e t h i s was t a k i n g p l a c e . 7 7 C u r i o u s l y enough, t h i s m y t h - c u m - s c i e n t i f i c f a c t i s a l s o , as was e a r l i e r remarked, the substance of K l i n g s o h r ' s t a l e at the end o f N o v a l i s ' s romance, Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n . Not only i s ' V o l u s p a ' d i f f e r e n t :from the r e s t of The E l d e r Edda, but the saga we have d i s cus sed i n connect ion w i t h A Voyage, The Saga of G r e t t i r the S t r o n g , i s d i f f e r e n t from the o ther sagas, and i n a comparable way. Not on ly i s , as was noted by H i g h t , na ture imagery r a r e l y used, but " l i g h t or rad iance symbolism [occurs] on ly i n f r e q u e n t l y 78 i n the Sagas." We f i n d i t i n G r e t t i r . When, f o r example, G r e t t i r meets Glam's ghos t , "The moon was s h i n i n g very b r i g h t l y o u t s i d e , w i t h l i g h t c louds pa s s ing over i t and h i d i n g i t now and a g a i n . A t the 79 moment Glam f e l l , the moon shone f o r t h . " L i g h t or rad iance symbolism i s c e n t r a l to A Voyage, where M a s k u l l f o l l o w s the muspel rad iance across Tormance, and i t i s c e n t r a l to ' V o l u s p a ' and to K l i n g s o h r ' s t a l e , i n both of which the sun turns b l a c k . 85 By the time N o v a l i s wrote Henry of Of t e r d i n g e n , he had a f u l l y developed ' r a d i a n c e symbo l i sm, ' which, he had worked out i n Hymnen an d i e Nacht . The f i r s t hymn appears to be a c e l e b r a t i o n of l i g h t as 80 " K o n i g der i r d i s c h e n N a t u r " ( l o r d of e a r t h l y na ture ) which makes v i s i b l e the splendour of the w o r l d . But the w o r l d i s not s p l e n d i d , 81 and " t h e second hymn laments the i n t r u s i o n of d a y l i g h t " i n t o n i g h t ' s dominion^ which N o v a l i s descr ibes as t i m e l e s s and s p a c e l e s s . A s e r i e s of o p p o s i t i o n s are then e s t a b l i s h e d between day and n i g h t , the outer and i n n e r w o r l d s , sur face and depth, sense and Gemut: tha t i s , between the n ight-dream w o r l d and the common, everyday r e a l i t y . In:_the f i f t h hymn, N o v a l i s " i n t r o d u c e s ( fo r the f i r s t time) God's countenance as a 82 ' n o c t u r n a l s u n ' . " T h i s i s the e q u i v a l e n t of Dante ' s ' o t h e r ' sun and of L i n d s a y ' s A l p p a i n . In the apocalypse , the sun of thi s w o r l d w i l l be destroyed and tha t ' o t h e r ' , now ' n o c t u r n a l ' sun , w i l l sh ine f o r t h . I n both ' V o l u s p a ' and K l i n g s o h r ' s t a l e , the sun of t h i s w o r l d i s des t royed . ' V o l u s p a ' descr ibes the co smolog i ca l upheaval q u i t e b r i e f l y : Sun turned from the s o u t h , S i s t e r of Moon, Her r i g h t arm r e s t e d on the r i m of Heaven; She had no i n k l i n g where h e r h a l l was, Nor Moon a n o t i o n of what might be had , The p l ane t s knew not where t h e i r p l ace s were (83) . Then, Sur t w i t h the bane-of-branches comes From the sou th , on h i s sword the sun of the Va lgods , Crags t o p p l e , the crone f a l l s headlong , Men t r e a d H e l ' s Road, the Heaven s s p l i t open (84) . 86 I t i s the end of the w o r l d : E a r t h s i n k s i n the sea , the sun turns b l a c k , Cast down from Heaven are the hot s t a r s , Fumes reek , i n t o flames b u r s t , The sky i t s e l f i s scorched w i t h f i r e (85) . In K l i n g s o h r ' s t a l e i n Henry of Of terd ingen we have, as V e l i k o v s k y 86 might have argued, the same t?.? co smolog i ca l events d e s c r i b e d . The hero (Mars?) i s c a l l e d i n t o a house by F r e y a , " the b e a u t i f u l daughter of A r c t u r u s " ('.) who s i t s on " a throne a r t f u l l y f a sh ioned from a huge 87 p y r i t e - c r y s t a l " and streams w i t h l i g h t . She i s e v i d e n t l y the comet Venus. When the e a r t h passes through the comet's t a i l we are t o l d that 88 " S o p h i a ' s b lue v e i l . . . was waving over the e a r t h . " A c c o r d i n g to V e l i k o v s k y there must have been an exchange-6f p o t e n t i a l , i . e . a spark or e l e c t r i c a l d i s charge , between the two p l a n e t s . We f i n d t h i s i n N o v a l i s when, approaching F r e y a , the hero puts h i s sword handle aga ins t h i s ches t , p o i n t s the b lade of i t a t h e r , and "a b r i g h t spa rk " leaps 89 between them. We have seen t h i s i n ' V o l u s p a ' when Surt comes, "on h i s sword the sun of t h e V a l g o d s . " Dark S u r t u r has been i d e n t i f i e d w i t h b l a c k smoke, "out o f which f l a s h e d a tongue of f lame, l i k e a s h i n i n g 90 91 s w o r d , " B i g John Buscema's p i c t u r e o o f him as an enormous red monster seems more l i k e l y , i f we c o n s i d e r tha t Sur t must have been the p l a n e t Mars . Surt comes to destroy the e a r t h and the e a r t h ' s gods, whose t w i l i g h t t h i s i s . H i s coming i s de sc r ibed thus i n Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n : The sun s tood i n heaven, f i e r y - r e d w i t h rage . The p o w e r f u l flame imbibed i t s s t o l e n l i g h t ; 87 and the more f i e r c e l y the sun s t rove to preserve i t s e l f , ever more p a l e and spo t t ed i t became. The flame grew w h i t e r and more i n t e n s e , , as the sun faded.' I t a t t r a c t e d the l i g h t more and more s t r o n g l y ; the g l o r y around the s t a r of day was soon consumed, and i t s tood there a p a l e , g l immering d i s k , every new a g i t a t i o n of s p i t e and rage a i d i n g the escape of the f l y i n g l i g h t - w a v e s . F i n a l l y , nought of the sun remained but a b l a c k , exhausted dros s , which f e l l i n t o the sea . The splendour of the flame was beyond d e s c r i p t i o n . I t s l o w l y ascended, and borettowards the n o r t h (92) . 93 And the k i n g , A r c t u r u s , says-: " n i g h t i s p a s s e d . " Krag echoes t h i s : "The n i g h t i s r e a l l y pa s t a t l a s t , N i g h t s p o r e . . . . The day i s h e r e " (VA 277). A t the end o f ' V o l u s p a , ' when the n i g h t has passed, the S y b i l s ays , I see E a r t h r i s i n g a second time Out of the foam, f a i r and green; Down from the f e l l s , f i s h to cap ture , Wings the eag le ; waters f low (94) . 95 Thus, "out of p a i n i s the new w o r l d b o r n . " I t i s the r e t u r n of the Golden Age: Boards s h a l l be found of a beauty to wonder a t , Boards of go ld i n the grass long a f t e r , The chess boards they owned i n the olden days (96) . 97 Henceforward, " a l l war i s conf ined to t h i s s l a b and to these f i g u r e s . " Around t h i s myth, the a l l e g o r y of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s b u i l t . Krag ' s name on E a r t h i s p a i n (VA 287) : he i s the b r i n g e r of gnosis and of the new w o r l d : he i s a l s o S u r t u r , whose Muspel f i r e i s to burn up the o l d w o r l d . But i n L i n d s a y ' s v e r s i o n of the myth, the apocalypse i s to be a long-drawn out a f f a i r , as Night spore d i s c o v e r s : Muspel was no a l l - p o w e r f u l U n i v e r s e , t o l e r a t i n g from pure i n d i f f e r e n c e the e x i s t e n c e s i d e by s i d e w i t h i t of another f a l s e w o r l d , which had no r i g h t 88 to be . Muspel was f i g h t i n g f o r i t s l i f e — a g a i n s t a l l t h a t i s most shameful and f r i g h t f u l — a g a i n s t s i n masquerading as e t e r n a l beauty, aga ins t baseness masquerading as Na ture , ag a in s t the D e v i l masquerading as God (VA 286). The o l d w o r l d and the new ( ' o t h e r ' ) w o r l d a l ready e x i s t s i d e by s i d e . The o l d w o r l d i s to be not so much des troyed as p a t i e n t l y uncrea ted , not because i t i s e v i l — t h o u g h i t i s e v i l — b u t because c r e a t i o n i s e v i l . C r e a t i o n i s the o r i g i n a l s i n . Therefore there can be no Golden Age to look forward to at the end of A Voyage. A l l c r e a t i o n i s , i n L i n d s a y ' s v iew, " r o t t e n w i t h i l l u s i o n " (TSG 42) , b u t , behind c r e a t i o n " l i e s the r e a l , tremendous and awful M u s p e l - w o r l d , which knows n e i t h e r W i l l , nor U n i t y , nor I n d i v i d u a l s ; that i s to say , an i n c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d " (TSG 42) . ' V o l u s p a ' i s s imply the s t o r y of " t h e e t e r n a l war fare waged by the 98 kingdom of l i g h t aga i n s t the kingdom of d a r k n e s s . " K l i n g s o h r ' s t a l e i s more c o m p l i c a t e d , f o r i n some p laces " l i g h t and shade seem [ . . . ] 99 to have changed t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e o f f i c e s , " and we must support the values of the seeming dark which i s the one t rue l i g h t . L indsay takes l i t e r a l l y and develops N o v a l i s ' s i d e a i n Hymnen an d i e Nacht of the ' n o c t u r n a l s u n , ' so tha t A Voyage to A r c t u r u s becomes not so much a b a t t l e between l i g h t and darkness (though i t i s t h i s a l s o ) , but between the l i g h t of the w o r l d and the l i g h t from beyond the w o r l d . To t h i s b a t t l e we must now t u r n . 89 Footnotes To Chapter Three C. S. L e w i s , The A l l e g o r y of Love : A Study i n M e d i e v a l T r a d i t i o n (New Y o r k : Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958), p . 75. 2 Loui s MacNeice, i n V a r i e t i e s of Parab le (Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965), says t h a t "mapping P i l g r i m ' s Progress would be l i k e mapping the N i l e V a l l e y , only worse . A l l l o n g i t u d e and p r a c t i c a l l y no l a t i t u d e : that i s the t r o u b l e w i t h a s t r a i g h t and narrow path and i t i s on ly the ups and downs which keep i t d r a m a t i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g , the H i l l D i f f i c u l t y , the V a l l e y of H u m i l i a t i o n " (p. 43) . 3 Samuel T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e , M i s c e l l a n e o u s C r i t i c i s m , ed . T. M. Raysor (London: Constable & C o . , 1936), p . 36. 4 Joanna Russ i n 'Dream L i t e r a t u r e and Science F i c t i o n ' i n E x t r a p o l a - t i o n (Dec. 1969) d i s t i n g u i s h e s between day-dream and night-dream l i t e r a t u r e , and f i n d s the l a t t e r v a s t l y p r e f e r a b l y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y she i n c o r r e c t l y c la s se s L indsay as a day-dream w r i t e r and a t t a c k s h im on t h i s ground, w i t h o u t n o t i c i n g t h a t A Voyage i s b u i l t around the same d i s t i n c t i o n . See my r e b u t t a l i n E x t r a p o l a t i o n (May 1972). ^C . S. L e w i s , 0f_ Other W o r l d s , ed . W. Hooper (London: Geoffrey B l e s , 1966), p . 6. A . D. N u t t a l l , Two Concepts of A l l e g o r y (London: Routledge and Kegan P a u l , 1967), p . 31. ^ E l l i o t t B. Gose J r . , Imaginat ion Indu lged : The I r r a t i o n a l i n the Nineteenth Century Nove l (Montrea l and London: M c G i l l - Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972), p . 42. g Angus F l e t c h e r , A l l e g o r y : . The Theory of a_ Symbolic Mode ( I t h a c a , New Y o r k : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1964), p . 107. 9 W i l l i a m M o r r i s ' s output i s enormous, and i n c l u d e s The Water of the Wondrous I s l e s and The Wood Beyond the W o r l d , as w e l l as The W e l l a t the W o r l d ' s End. E . R. Eddison wrote a t r i l o g y about Z imiamvia , The Worm Ouroboros, M i s t r e s s of M i s t r e s s e s and A F i s h Dinner i n Memison, w h i l e a f o u r t h book, The Mezent ian Gate, remains u n f i n i s h e d . C l a r k Ashton Smith and H. P . L o v e c r a f t have g iven us , at great l e n g t h , the mythologies of Zothique and C t h u l h u r e s p e c t i v e l y . James Churchward and John Norman have w r i t t e n at l e a s t h a l f - a - d o z e n books each about the subcreated wor lds of Mu and Gor r e s p e c t i v e l y . Recent 'Hugo' winners 90 i n the f i e l d i n c l u d e Frank H e r b e r t ' s Dune and U r s u l a K . LeGuinn ' s The L e f t Hand of Darkness . B e s t - s e l l e r i n the f i e l d i s s t i l l The L o r d of the Rings and i t s companion The Hobbit,-: 3 w h i l e the most long winded must be James Branch C a b e l l ' s i n t e r m i n a b l e s e r i e s The Biography of Manuel . And these are on ly the obvious examples. "^Sam J . L u n d w a l l , Sc ience F i c t i o n : What i t ' s a l l about (New Y o r k : Ace Books, 19 71), pp . 17-19. 11 Sam J . L u n d w a l l , Sc ience F i c t i o n , pp . 36-37. 12 Quoted by L u n d w a l l from Ralph 124C41+ i n Sc ience F i c t i o n , p . 19. 13 Quoted by L u n d w a l l i n Sc ience F i c t i o n , p . 37. 14 Quoted by Lundwal l i n Sc ience F i c t i o n , p . 37. From L u n d w a l l ' s survey I take t h i s a t t i t u d e to be t y p i c a l . ^ M o r r i s ' s romances are the development of S i gurd the V o l s u n g , s e t i n the a n c i e n t R h i n e l a n d , . a n d The L i f e and Death of Jason, borrowed from Greek mythology. " ^ V i s i a k : "The author who had most i n f l u e n c e d h im, he t o l d me, was George MacDonald" (TSG 98 ) . " ^ V i s i a k : " H i s kinsman, Carlyle—whom he f a c i a l l y resembled, and admired—achieved the f a c u l t y of w r i t i n g as he spoke, and L indsay t r i e d e v e n t u a l l y to i m i t a t e h i s s t y l e " i n Witch (TSG 9 7 ) . 18 A thorough study o f the double i n German l i t e r a t u r e has been done by Ralph Tymms c a l l e d Doubles i n L i t e r a r y Psychology (Cambridge: Bowes and Bowes, 1949). More r e c e n t , more t e c h n i c a l , more comprehensive and r a t h e r poorer i s R. Rogers ' A P s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l Study of The Double i n L i t e r a t u r e ( D e t r o i t : ' Wayne S ta te U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1970). Both Tymms and Rogers d e a l w i t h the double by d i v i s i o n and the double by m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . N e i t h e r seems t o have thought of a t h i r d k i n d , the double by i m i t a t i o n , which u n d e r l i e s such d iver se works as P i e r s P low- man (the i m i t a t i o n of C h r i s t ) and The R e a l L i f e of Sebas t ian Knight (where V becomes S e b a s t i a n ) . 19 John Locke , An Essay Concerning Human Unders tanding , ed . J . W. Y o l t o n (London: J . M. Dent, 1961), v o l . I , p . 82. H e r e a f t e r t h i s e d i t i o n w i l l be c i t e d as EHU. Locke a l s o asks us to "suppose the s o u l 91 of Cas tor separated dur ing h i s s leep from h i s body, to t h i n k a p a r t . L e t us suppose, too , tha t i t chooses f o r i t s scene of t h i n k i n g the body of another man, e . g . P o l l u x , who i s s l e e p i n g w i t h o u t a s o u l . . . " (EHTJ I , p . 83) . 20 John Locke , EHU I , p . 85, 21 John Locke , EHU I I , p . 144. 22 John Locke , EHU I I , p . 16 7. 23 N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n : A Romance (New Y o r k : H . H . Moore, 1853), p . 27. 9 / E . T . A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden P o t ' i n The Best Ta le s of Hoffmann, ed. E . F . B l e i l e r (New Y o r k : Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1967), p . 8. 'The Golden P o t ' i s r e p r i n t e d i n a c leaned up v e r s i o n (without " the S c o t t i s h -ness and e c c e n t r i c i t y " [p. x x x i i i ] ) of C a r l y l e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n . 25 E . T . A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot 26 E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot 27. E . T . A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot 28. E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot 29 E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot 30 E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden. Pot 31 E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot 32 E. T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot 33. E . T . A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot 34 E . T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Golden Pot p . 55 . p . 48. p . 18. p . 19. p . 18. p . 56. p . 57. p . 56. p . 56. p . 69. 35 E . F. B l e i l e r notes i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n to The Best Ta les of Hoffmann t h a t " a c c o r d i n g to t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , Anselmus i s s imply a 92 p r o j e c t i o n of the R e g i s t r a t o r which disappears i n the w o r l d of f a n t a s y , w h i l e the R e g i s t r a t o r , g i v i n g up h i s dreams, marr ies V e r o n i c a . She, i n t u r n , recognizes t h a t she cannot possess the Anselmus complex but must be content w i t h the Conrec tor- turned-Gehe imrat " (p. x i x ) . 36 t Both Hoffmann and N o v a l i s used marchen, which N o v a l i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as be ing " l i k e a dream v i s i o n . . . beyond l o g i c . . . an assembly of wonder-f u l th ings and happenings" (quoted by B l e i l e r i n The Best T a l e s , p . xx) . These marchen, B l e i l e r t e l l s us , " o f t e n appeared as symbol ic k e r n e l s or germs w i t h i n the l a r g e r context of a s t o r y , o f f e r i n g i n f r a n k l y p o e t i c and m y t h i c a l form the p o i n t o f f e r e d more o r l e s s r e a l i s t i c a l l y i n the f u l l s t o r y " (p . x x ) . MacDonald used t h i s form f r e q u e n t l y , as f o r example i n the s t o r y of Cosmo i n Phanta s te s , but L i n d s a y , w r i t i n g some4-' t h i n g much more l i k e pure a l l e g o r y , much l e s s l i k e romance, used the form r a r e l y : Panawe's s t o r y and the s t o r y of Hator are b r i e f examples. A Voyage i s s e t thoroughly i n the s p i r i t or n ight-dream w o r l d , and t h e r e -fore i s at war w i t h the w o r l d of the body. 37 p . xvx . 38 This obvious comparison has a l s o been made by W. A . S trauss i n Descent and R e t u r n : The Orph ic Theme i n Modern L i t e r a t u r e (Cambridge, M a s s . : Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1971), p . 26. Our anonymous t r a n s l a t o r t e l l s us N o v a l i s was h a p p i l y "uncorrupted by precedent s " (p. x v i ) . 39 A l l c i t a t i o n s i n German are t o ' H e i n r i c h von O f t e r d i n g e n ' i n N o v a l i s Dichtungen (Hamburg':' Rowohlt , 1963). ^ I n f e r n o , 1, l i n e 2. of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 25 . of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 37. of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 37. of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 195. of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 132. o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 134. of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 193. iSIovalis, Henry 42 N o v a l i s , Henry 43 N o v a l i s , Henry 44 N o v a l i s , Henry 45 N o v a l i s , Henry ^ N o v a l i s , Henry 47 N o v a l i s , Henry 93 48 N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 203. 49 Thomas C a r l y l e , On Heroes , Herd-Worship and the H e r o i c i n H i s t o r y , ed . C a r l Niemeyer ( L i n c o l n : U n i v e r s i t y of Nebraska P r e s s , 1966), p . 19. "^Thomas C a r l y l e , On Heroes , p . 16. "'"'"Thomas C a r l y l e , On Heroes , p . 17. 52 W i l l i a m M o r r i s quoted by J . W. M a c k a i l i n The L i f e of W i l l i a m M o r r i s (London: Longmans, 1901), I , p . 244. ^ ^ W i l l i a m M o r r i s quoted by M a c k a i l , L i f e , I , p . 247. " ^ E i n e r Haugen, 'On T r a n s l a t i n g from the S c a n d i n a v i a n ' i n Old Norse L i t e r a t u r e and Mythology : A Symposium, ed. E . C. Polome ( A u s t i n : U n i v e r s i t y of Texas P r e s s , 1969), p . 13. "'"'See Dorothy M. Hoare , The Works of W i l l i a m M o r r i s and Yeats i n R e l a t i o n to E a r l y Saga L i t e r a t u r e (1937; r p t . New Y o r k : R u s s e l l and R u s s e l l , 19 71) , pp. 50-55. 56 W i l l i a m M o r r i s quoted by M a c k a i l , L i f e , I , p . 107. 57 W i l l i a m M o r r i s , 'To The Muse of the N o r t h ' i n Poems by the Way & Love i s Enough (London: Longmans, Green, 1912), p . 32. 5 8 G. A . H ight i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n to The Saga of G r e t t i r the S trong (London: J . M. Dent , 1913), p . x i i . 59 G. A . H i g h t i n G r e t t i r , p . x i v . ^ G . A . H ight i n G r e t t i r , p . v i i . ^"4ciner Haugen i n Polome's Old Norse L i t e r a t u r e , p . 17. 62 Anonymous review of The Strange Genius i n The Times L i t e r a r y Supplement (November 20, 19 70), p . 1346. 63 G. A . H ight i n G r e t t i r , pp. x - x i . 94 K r a g , however, does not seems to when, f o r example, he horse because he does not want i n f l i c t p a i n n e e d l e s s l y , as G r e t t i r s t r i p s the h i d e o f f h i s f a t h e r ' s l i v e to look a f t e r i t . A . Margaret A r e n t , 'The H e r o i c P a t t e r n : Old Germanic Helmets , Beowulf , and G r e t t i s s a g a ' i n Old NOfse L i t e r a t u r e and Mythology: A Symposium, ed . E . C. Polome^ ( A u s t i n : U n i v e r s i t y of Texas P r e s s , 1969), pp. 184-^85. A r e n t ' s s u b j e c t i s the s i m i l a r i t y of mot i f s i n Beowulf and G r e t t i r . She n o t i c e s tha t "one of the most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c elements of the f a i r y tale ,- however, the f r e e i n g of a p r i n c e s s , enter s i n t o n e i t h e r " (p. 185). I t does, of course , e n t e r i n t o A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , when M a s k u l l wakes Sul lenbode w i t h a k i s s . 66 / A . Margaret Arent i n Polome's Old Norse L i t e r a t u r e , p . 185. 6 7 J . B. P i c k assures me i n a p r i v a t e l e t t e r dated January 4, 1971, tha t G r e t t i r was a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on L i n d s a y . P i c k has accesss to L i n d s a y ' s notebooks, w h i c h , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , I have n o t . 6 8 J . W. Swanne l l , W i l l i a m M o r r i s and Old Norse L i t e r a t u r e (London: W i l l i a m M o r r i s S o c i e t y , 1961), p . 13. 69 G. A . H i g h t i n G r e t t i r , p . x . 70 G. A . H i g h t , G r e t t i r , p . x . P a u l S c h a c h , , ' S y m b o l i c Dreams of Future Renown i n Old I c e l a n d i c L i t e r a t u r e 1 i n Mosa i c , I V , 4 (Summer 1971), p . 51 . See a l s o E . 0 . G. T u r v i l l e - P e t r e . , 'Dreams i n I c e l a n d i c T r a d i t i o n ' i n F o l k l o r e , 69 (1958), pp. 93-111. 72 See P e t e r H a l l b e r g , 'Dreams and D e s t i n y ' i n The I c e l a n d i c Saga, t r a n s . P a u l Schach ( L i n c o l n : U n i v e r s i t y of Nebraska P r e s s , 1962), pp. 81-96. 73 Thomas C a r l y l e , On Heroes , p . 6. 74 I n c i d e n t a l l y , i n one of the l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g par t s of ' V o l u s p a ' T o l k i e n found a l i s t of dwarves' names to borrow. 75 See the I c e l a n d i c t e x t e d i t e d by P. H . Salus and P. B. T a y l o r , Vo luspa : The Song of the S y b i l , t r a n s . P . B. T a y l o r and W. H. Auden (Iowa C i t y : Windhover P r e s s , 1968), s t . 41, 45. The t r a n s l a t i o n i n 95 t h i s e d i t i o n , r e p r i n t e d i n the same a u t h o r s ' The E l d e r Edda, i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g i n tha t i t ' t r a n s l a t e s ' some of the ' a l l e g o r y ' "From the east through Venom V a l l e y runs / Over jagged rocks the R i v e r Gruesome" ( s t . 31). 76 See Lee M. H o l l a n d e r , The P o e t i c Edda (1928; r e v . e d . , A u s t i n : U n i v e r s i t y of Texas P r e s s , 1962), pp. 3, 45, 51 , 59, 99. Sur tur comes to burn up B r a n c h s p e l l . 7 7 Immanuel V e l i k o v s k y , Worlds i n C o l l i s i o n (New Y o r k : D e l l , 1967). 78 P a u l Schach i n ' Symbol ic Dreams, ' p . 71. 7 9 G r e t t i r , p . 98. 80 N o v a l i s , 'Hymnen an d i e Nacht ' i n N o v a l i s Dichtungen, p . 55. "^Hf. A . S t r a u s s , Descent and R e t u r n : The Orphic Theme i n Modern L i t e r a t u r e (Cambridge, Mas s . : Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1971), p . 29. See Strauss f o r a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n of the Hymn en. A l s o see Bruce Haywood, N o v a l i s : The V e i l of Imagery (Cambridge, M a s s . : Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959), pp. 52-77. 82 W. A . S t r a u s s , Descent and R e t u r n , p . 34. 83 The E l d e r Edda: A S e l e c t i o n , t r a n s . P . B. T a y l o r and W. H . Auden (New Y o r k : Vintage Books, 19 70), p . 145. 8 4 T h e E l d e r Edda, p . 151. 85 The E l d e r Edda, p . 152. 86 He d o e s n ' t . I don ' t t h i n k he read N o v a l i s . 87 N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 156. 88 N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 179. 89 N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 186. 96 W. Wagner, Asgard and the Gods: The Tales and T r a d i t i o n s o f our Nor thern A n c e s t o r s , adapted M. W. MacDowal l , ed . W. S. W. Anson (London: W. Swan Sonnenschein, 1884), pp. 56-57. 91 The Mighty Thor , M a r v e l Comics, 200 (June 1972), pp. 17-18. This s p e c i a l 200th i s s u e r e t e l l s the l a y of ' V o l u s p a . ' N o v a l i s , Henry ojf Of t e r d i n g e n , p . 177. ^ N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 179. 4 The E l d e r Edda, p . 152. " 'Nova l i s , Henry of Of t e r d i n g e n , p . 184. 6 The E l d e r Edda, p . 152. ^ N o v a l i s , Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , p . 185. 8 i i W. Wagner, Asgard and the Gods, p . 55. N o v a l i s , Henry of Of terd i r igen , p . 169. In N o v a l i s , "each f i g u r e e x h i b i t e d a p e c u l i a r shade of b l a c k , and cas t beh ind a p a l e g l immer . " In L i n d s a y , " t h e shadows of the three men ca s t by A l p p a i n were not b l a c k , but were composed of w h i t e d a y l i g h t " (VA 275) . 9 7 Chapter Four : THE UNHOLY WAR: A VOYAGE TO ARCTURUS AS BATTLE A l l e g o r i e s are of two k i n d s , b a t t l e and progre s s , the l a t t e r be ing b e t t e r s u i t e d to the e p i s o d i c n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e of the dream f anta sy . But a l l progresses are a l s o b a t t l e s , s i n c e they are organi sed around d ichotomies : God and d e v i l , C h r i s t and Satan, Good and E v i l , l i g h t and darkness , l i g h t n e s s and w e i g h t . B l a k e ' s proverb i s most apt i n t h i s c o n t e x t : "Without C o n t r a r i e s i s no progress ion."" ' " Were we to judge by the n e o - A r i s t o t a l i a n canons of p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y a p p r o p r i a t e t o , say , some k i n d s of n o v e l , such d u a l i t i e s must seem to be on a p r i m i t i v e l e v e l of thought . Indeed they a r e . Dreams themselves are a p r i m i t i v e form of i d e a t i o n , and they are i n h e r e n t l y d u a l i s t i c . The schematic dua l i sm of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s e n t i r e l y a p p r o p r i a t e to i t s s t r u c t u r e as an a l l e g o r i c a l b a t t l e , as i s the s i m i l a r l y s c h e m a t i c — i f not d i agrammat ic—struc ture of thought i n the works of o ther n e o - P l a t o n i s t s such as Spenser, M i l t o n , B l ake (who was, though, the f ac t i s r a r e l y mentioned, l i k e many of h i s f r i e n d s — F l a x m a n , F u s e l i , Cumberland—a p a r t i c i p a n t i n the 'Greek r e v i v a l ' ) , S h e l l e y and Y e a t s . This schematic dua l i sm i s appropr i a te i n another sense a l s o , i n t h a t i t belongs to the w o r l d of G e n e r a t i o n , as B lake c a l l s i t , which, most of us i n h a b i t , and which i n the f i n a l v i s i o n we and the genera t ing p r o t a g o n i s t : must progress beyond: the apparent l i m i t a t i o n of dua l i sm i s p a r t of i t s s t r e n g t h . 98 A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s organised around a number of d u a l i t i e s , some of which are u b i q u i t o u s i n European c u l t u r e , and some of which L indsay has developed. These d u a l i t i e s are l i g h t and darkness , l i g h t -ness and w e i g h t , B r a n c h s p e l l ' s l i g h t and A l p p a i n ' s l i g h t , h e i g h t and depth, M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e , th_e r e a l w o r l d and the dream w o r l d , appearance and r e a l i t y , the rhythm of the w a l t z and the rhythm of the march, the male and the female , matter and s p i r i t , and, f i n a l l y , n o t h i n g and n o t h i n g . Probably the most i n n o v a t i v e of these i s the use, as proc la imed by the t i t l e , of the d i s t a n t s t a r , A r c t u r u s , which L indsay makes i n t o a double s t a r to s u i t h i s a l l e g o r i c a l purposes . A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s a m i s l e a d i n g t i t l e f o r a book i n w h i c h ' there i s l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n space t r a v e l — M a s k u l l s leeps a l l the way there (VA 44 ) , and the space-ship i s s c i e n t i f i c a l l y l u d i c r o u s — b u t L indsay wanted to s t r e s s h i s r e a l s t a r , not h i s subcreated p l a n e t . Our everyn ight exper ience of s t a r s i s of th ings pure and b e a u t i f u l , cons tant , c o l d ( e m o t i o n a l l y , not l i t e r a l l y ) , and i m p o s s i b l y d i s t a n t . S tar s are not g e n e r a l l y to be v i s i t e d i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s , which take p l ace not i n p h y s i c a l b u t , i n C o l e r i d g e ' s phrase , i n "menta l s p a c e . " In e a r l i e r times an untouched corner of the e a r t h had s u f f i c e d . By the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , even voyages to the moon, popular s i n c e 2 astronomer K e p l e r ' s Somnium (1634), were b e i n g d i s c r e d i t e d by the i n c r e a s e i n s c i e n t i f i c knowledge, though W e l l s managed to se t a romance there (1901) by f i n d i n g l i f e underground, w h i l e Verne ' s t r a v e l l e r s (1865) gl impsed l i f e on the moon's h idden s i d e . Some w r i t e r s , such as George MacDonald (1858, 1895), used a d i f f e r e n t space f o r t h e i r mental 99 space w h i l e o t h e r s , such as W i l l i a m M o r r i s (1895) , took up sub-c r e a t i n g and made t h e i r own secondary w o r l d s . Most w r i t e r s s imply moved w i t h the expanding f r o n t i e r , f u r t h e r out i n t o space. A f t e r the obse rva t ion of channels or c a h a l i on Mars , " b e g i n n i n g i n the 1880's Mars becomes the f o c a l p o i n t of s p e c u l a t i o n u n t i l not on ly does i t commandthe popular press but a l s o , by World War I , becomes 3 the u sua l d e s t i n a t i o n of any i n t e r - p l a n e t a r y voyage . " Edgar Rice Burroughs c a l l e d i t Barsoom, C. S. Lewis Malacandra . But L indsay wanted not a wandering but a f i x e d s t a r f o r h i s t i t l e , and a new p lanet f o r h i s s p i r i t w o r l d , so he takes us across the galaxy to A r c t u r u s . L indsay presumably chose A r c t u r u s as h i s s t a r f o r the name's at tachments . A r c t u r u s i s a very b r i g h t s t a r ; hence i t was named a long time ago—the Bootes of Greek astronomy—and has accumulated a penumbra of e x t r a - a s t r o n o m i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Ca ther ine V a l e W h i t w e l l t e l l s her daughter : . " C a l l i s t h o , perhaps Nimrod, was s a i d to be the son ( s i c ) of that c o n s t e l l a t i o n , and a f t e r h i s decease h i s s o u l was thought to take i t s abode i n A r c t u r u s . iri.",Bootes, that i t might w i t h 4 u n i n t e r r u p t e d a t t e n t i o n perpetuate i t s o b s e r v a t i o n s . " Close observa-t i o n i s the keynote of the use of A r c t u r u s by Herman M e l v i l l e i n M a r d i : the s h i p the n a r r a t o r deserts i s c a l l e d the A r c t u r i o n , and l a t e r something i s s a i d " I n good t r u t h , and as i f an i m p a r t i a l i s t from A r c t u r u s spoke i t . " ~ * Gordon M i l l s has g los sed t h i s w i t h the i n f o r m a t i o n tha t i n 1840-42 the Duyckink b r o t h e r s , f r i e n d s of M e l v i l l e , p u b l i s h e d a magazine c a l l e d A r c t u r u s . In the ' P r o l o g u e ' to the f i r s t number, they say they do not 100 "vouch f o r the l i t e r a r y charac te r of the i n h a b i t a n t s of A r c t u r u s as patrons of the present u n d e r t a k i n g ; i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t h a t A r c t u r u s i s a s t a r that shines h i g h and b r i g h t l y , and looks down w i t h a keen glance on the e r r o r s , f o l l i e s and m a l - p r a c t i c e s of men." That L indsay was i n t e r e s t e d i n t a k i n g such ' a keen g l a n c e ' at f o o l i s h n e s s i n t h i s w o r l d i s e v i d e n t from the opening chapter of A Voyage, which concerns i t s e l f w i t h the suburban theosophy of Blackhouse the medium, who i s , as L indsay d r o l l y observes , " a f a s t - r i s i n g s t a r i n the p s y c h i c w o r l d " (VA 11) . I t i s much to the p o i n t t h a t many theosophi s t s (Edgar Cayce i s an example) have mainta ined the i d e a expressed by P l a t o and echoed by Dante t h a t the souls of the departed r e t u r n to the s t a r s . Those who d ie on e a r t h may be reborn on A r c t u r u s , o r one of i t s p l a n e t s . The i d e a i s used amusingly by H . G. W e l l s at the end of h i s s h o r t s t o r y ' A V i s i o n of Judgment, ' where God takes a l l the l i t t l e people from h i s coa t - s l eeves onto " the p lanet t h a t w h i r l e d about green S i r i u s f o r a s u n " 7 to s t a r t a l l over a g a i n . This i s , i n e f f e c t , what happens to M a s k u l l , as we s h a l l see. Our own s t a r , S o l , was u n a v a i l a b l e because L indsay needed a double s t a r f o r a l l e g o r i c a l reasons : doubles , d u a l i s m , dichotomies are fundamental to the nature of a l l e g o r y as both b a t t l e and dream. A r c t u r u s i s n o t , i n f a c t , a double s t a r ; but L indsay made i t one. One of W i l s o n ' s l e s s happy observa t ions i n The Strange Genius i s that " I t may have been unconscious symbolism that made L indsay choose the double s t a r , A r c t u r u s , as the scene o f h i s major n o v e l " (TSG 41 ) . The reasons , very d e l i b e r a t e l y worked through i n the a l l e g o r y , are 101 many and good. Most i m p o r t a n t l y , L indsay i s reworking the symbolism of l i g h t and darkness which i s c e n t r a l to Western c i v i l i s a t i o n : we t a l k of b e i n g ' i n the dark ' and, when ' e n l i g h t e n e d , ' of b e i n g able ' t o see i t a l l now. ' The sun appears to have been our f i r s t god, g and whole p h i l o s o p h i e s have been b u i l t around H i s l i g h t . In C h r i s t i a n i t y we f i n d the abso lute s e p a r a t i o n of l i g h t from heat (Heaven) and heat from l i g h t ( H e l l ) , most n o t a b l y used by Dante i n h i s great r e l i g i o u s a l l e g o r y . C l o s e l y connected w i t h t h i s i s the r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e of mountains , e s p e c i a l l y D a n t e ' s , which leads to Heaven. Mountains are c l o s e r to the l i g h t , b e i n g h i g h e r , and g i v e , l i t e r a l l y and m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , a ' w i d e r p e r s p e c t i v e , ' a ' h i g h e r v i e w ' of t h i n g s . Most mythologies are concerned w i t h the e t e r n a l b a t t l e between l i g h t and darkness , between s p i r i t and m a t t e r : the s p i r i t i s l i g h t and l i g h t , matter i s dark and heavy. From t h i s c o n f l i c t , a ccord ing to G n o s t i c i s m , the un iver se was b o r n . The w o r l d we know i s on the i n t e r f a c e between the two E t e r n a l P r i n c i p l e s , and i s made up of a mix ture of l i g h t and darkness , s p i r i t and m a t t e r , good and e v i l . Because o f the mixed nature of the w o r l d , there must be some d i f f i c u l t y i n m a i n t a i n i n g the view that God i s w h o l l y good, because of ( i n C. S. 9 L e w i s ' s t i t l e ) ' t h e problem of p a i n . ' Or e l s e ( s i n c e not to do good, i f one i s a b l e , i s e v i l ) i t cannot be mainta ined that God i s omni-p o t e n t . Those who have refused to cede an i n c h o f H i s goodness have e i t h e r invoked a d u a l i s t i c c r e a t i o n , such as the l i g h t - d a r k of G n o s t i c i s m , or the i n t r a c t a b i l i t y of the m a t e r i a l at God's d i s p o s a l , 102 as does P l a t o i n the Timaeus, or argued t h a t the w o r l d was made by a l e s s e r God, Demiurge o r d e v i l , of which Prometheus i s a type . A l l these amount to much the same t h i n g : they e x p l a i n the ' f a l l i n g o f f between the Idea and the e x e c u t i o n , which i s to say , the o r i g i n a l s i n inherent i n c r e a t i o n . The phenomenal w o r l d we i n h a b i t , b e i n g on the i n t e r f a c e , must be conceived of as a b a t t l e f i e l d where, l i k e C h r i s t i a n , we need to g i r d our l o i n s and put our s p i r i t u a l armour on. E v e r y t h i n g has a d u a l n a t u r e : ploughshares may be turned i n t o swords, there i s no l i g h t 11 w i t h o u t shadow, no mercy w i t h o u t o p p r e s s i o n . As D i s c o r d asks i n Ca lderon ' s La E s t a t u a De Prometeo, "Do you not know that there i s no f i r e wi thout smoke?" Whether the c r e a t i o n , as Prometheus's g i f t of f i r e , i s seen as a Good E v i l or an E v i l Good seems main ly a mat ter of t a s t e . R e a l i s t s , who b e l i e v e i n the r e a l w o r l d , l i k e P l a t o , Schopenhauer, Jean P a u l and L i n d s a y , are p e s s i m i s t s and take the l a t t e r view ( E v i l Good), w h i l e A r i s t o t e l i a n n o m i n a l i s t s , who b e l i e v e i n the m a t e r i a l and phenomenal w o r l d , are o p t i m i s t s and take the former one. The forces of good, however, are the ' l i g h t ' elements of a i r and f i r e ( s p i r i t , ' b rea th of l i f e , ' pneuma, v i t a l spark , phos-phorous) and the forces of e v i l are the ' d a r k ' and heavy elements of 12 water and e a r t h . Man h i m s e l f has a dua l n a t u r e : the b r e a t h or s p i r i t has been impri soned i n the r i v e r of m a t t e r ; the d i v i n e spark of s t o l e n ( e . g . muspel-) f i r e has been trapped i n a crude compound o f the base elements water and e a r t h , or c o l d c l a y . " B r i e f l y , whatsoever h a t h a 103 body i s n o t h i n g but curd led smoke, wherein a p a r t i c u l a r p r e d e s t i n a t i o n l i e t h h i d . . . . Man i s a coagulated fume," i n the immorta l words of 13 P a r a c e l s u s . " H i s s o u l i s c o n s u b s t a n t i a l w i t h the d i v i n e L i g h t ; h i s 14 body, w i t h the e v i l d a r k n e s s . " Therefore "Man i s born to t r o u b l e i n the body" Smart observes , "as the sparks f l y upwards i n the s p i r i t . " " ' So long as a man has any regard f o r t h i s c o r p s e - l i k e b o d y , ' w r i t e s the Hindu monk Shankavacharya, 'he i s impure, and s u f f e r s from h i s enemies as w e l l as from b i r t h , d i sease and d e a t h . . . . Throw f a r away 16 t h i s l i m i t a t i o n of a body which, i s i n e r t and f i l t h y by n a t u r e . ' " Death i s one escape: as the t h i r t e e n t h century P e r s i a n m y s t i c A z i z N a s a f i s ays , On the death of any l i v i n g c rea ture the s p i r i t r e turns to the s p i r i t u a l w o r l d , the body to the b o d i l y w o r l d . I n t h i s however only the bodies are s u b j e c t to change. The s p i r i t u a l w o r l d i s one s i n g l e s p i r i t who stands l i k e unto a l i g h t behind the b o d i l y w o r l d (17) . As we have a l ready p o i n t e d o u t , s l eep i s another . In A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , the d u a l i t y of man may be taken as the 18 foundat ion of e v e r y t h i n g . The embodied r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the e t e r n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , and the double sun i t s e l f , r e i n f o r c e t h i s dichotomy: M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e , Crystalman and S u r t u r , Gangnet and K r a g , B r a n c h s p e l l and A l p p a i n . The p r o t a g o n i s t o f A Voyage i s not the dreaming ' I ' who observes but M a s k u l l , who i s , as h i s name t e l l s us , mask and s k u l l : the r a t i o n a l everyday s e l f of each of us . P h y s i c a l l y he i s " a k i n d of g i a n t , but of broader and more robust physique than most g i a n t s . He wore a f u l l beard . H i s f ea tures were t h i c k and heavy, coa r se ly modeled" (VA 18) . H i s complementary double ( M a s k u l l and 104 Night spore are doubles by d i v i s i o n ) i s N i g h t s p o r e , who seems to be "consumed by an i n t e n s e s p i r i t u a l hunger" (VA 18) : he i s what remains of s p i r i t , the a sexua l spore of the n i g h t l i b e r a t e d i n dreams from the coarse m a t e r i a l i t y of the body. But here we have an i n v e r s i o n . M a s k u l l i s the d a y - s e l f , and t h e r e f o r e l i g h t i s h i s ; Night spore i s a c rea ture of darkness . L i g h t i s good, darkness i s e v i l . At the suprahuman l e v e l , the embodied god of l i g h t M a s k u l l seeks i s , i n the end, the b e a u t i f u l Gangnet, w h i l e N i g h t s p o r e ' s counterpar t i s the i n s o l e n t and r e p u l s i v e , apparent ly e v i l , Krag: " the author of e v i l and m i s e r y , " says J o i w i n d , "whom you c a l l D e v i l " (VA 56 ) . On the a s t r o n o m i c a l l e v e l , however, the a l l e g o r y i s made c l e a r . B r a n c h s p e l l — t h e y e l l o w , everday sun—is the sun which l i g h t s M a s k u l l ' s way across Tormance, w h i l e N ight spore i s i n darkness only because he i s a s leep dur ing A l p p a i n ' s n i g h t . Be ing as leep to the ' r e a l ' w o r l d enables Night spore to be awake to the r e a l , o ther w o r l d of the s p i r i t : M a s k u l l ' s l i g h t i s darkness , and h i s good e v i l ; N i g h t s p o r e ' s darkness i s l i g h t , and h i s e v i l good. The m o t i f of the double sun i s an uncommon one. L indsay may have had i t suggested to him by an as ide i n The D i v i n e Comedy, where Dante says Rome once had "two suns , which made people see one road and the / Other—the w o r l d ' s road and the road of God" ( I I 16) . The i d e a i s a l s o b r i e f l y mentioned by Jean P a u l i n the dream at the end of 19 F l e g e l j a h r e , where b i r t h i n t o the w o r l d i s p o r t r a y e d as death. In h i s many dream works Jean P a u l has the same message as L i n d s a y , " t h a t l i f e on e a r t h i n i t s e l f — r e g a r d l e s s of whether i t i n v o l v e s i n t e n s e 105 s u f f e r i n g — i s h o r r i b l e to the man of ' h i g h e r ' s e n s i b i l i t i e s . " Twin suns are a l so used at the end of W i l l i a m Hope Hodgson's o t h e r -wise almost complete ly mediocre fantasy The House on the Border land 21 (1908). But the most l i k e l y source of i n s p i r a t i o n would seem to be N o v a l i s ' s Hymnen an d i e Nacht , where, as has been mentioned, God appears as a n o c t u r n a l sun. L indsay uses h i s double suns as a c e n t r a l m o t i f from the b e g i n n i n g of h i s a l l e g o r y . In the second chap te r , M a s k u l l looks at A r c t u r u s through K r a g ' s l ens and sees tha t " the s t a r , which to the naked eye appeared :.as a s i n g l e y e l l o w p o i n t of l i g h t , now became c l e a r l y s p l i t i n t o two b r i g h t but minute suns , the l a r g e r of which was s t i l l y e l l o w , w h i l e i t s s m a l l e r companion was a b e a u t i f u l b l u e " (VA 27) . M a s k u l l sees A r c t u r u s aga in from S ta rknes s : "One of the suns shone w i t h a g l a r i n g w h i t e l i g h t ; the o ther was a w e i r d and awful b l u e . " "He had seen the s i g h t b e f o r e , through K r a g ' s g l a s s , but then the s c a l e had been s m a l l e r , the co lours of the twin suns had not appeared i n t h e i r naked r e a l i t y . . . . These co lours seemed to him most marvelous , as i f , i n see ing them through e a r t h eyes , he was not see ing them c o r r e c t l y " M a s k u l l s t a re s " the longest and the most e a r n e s t l y " (VA 37) at Tormance, which i s , as Krag e a r l i e r remarked, " the r e s i d e n t i a l suburb of A r c t u r u s " (VA 24) . I t r evo lves around the y e l l o w sun. The b l u e sun, t h e r e f o r e , cannot always be v i s i b l e from Tormance. E i t h e r the y e l l o w one must p e r i o d i c a l l y e c l i p s e i t , or e l s e i t can never be seen from the southern pa r t s of Tormance (see Appendix ) . When M a s k u l l does a r r i v e 106 on Tormance, the b lue sun , A l p p a i n , has j u s t set : "The sky immediate ly above the mountains was of a v i v i d , in tense b l u e . " I t i s " the a f t e r g l o w of a gorgeous b l u e sunset " (VA 66) . M a s k u l l f e e l s " tormented by tha t l i g h t " (VA 66) . "How can i t be o t h e r w i s e " asks Panawe, "when two suns, of d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e s , are drawing you at the same t ime?" (VA 67) . And because there are two suns , there are two sets o f pr imary c o l o u r s . That i s , s i n c e b l u e i s common to both s e t s , M a s k u l l must l e a r n two new c o l o u r s : j a l e and u l f i r e . "He f e l t u l f i r e to be w i l d and p a i n f u l , and j a l e dream-l i k e , f e v e r i s h and voluptuous (VA 53) . The co lours have a l l e g o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e (VA 238) , and, s i n c e A l p p a i n i s N i g h t s p o r e ' s sun , these are N i g h t s p o r e ' s c o l o u r s . But w h i l e M a s k u l l i s f i g h t i n g h i s way across Tormance, N ight spore i s a s l e e p , a c t i v e e l sewhere . A f t e r M a s k u l l has woken up on Tormance, he sometimes wonders i f he i s not dreaming, but B r a n c h s p e l l ' s l i g h t d i s p e l s h i s doubts : " M a s k u l l would have f e l t i n c l i n e d to b e l i e v e he was t r a v e l l i n g i n dreamland, but f o r the i n t e n s i t y of the l i g h t , which made e v e r y t h i n g v i v i d l y r e a l " (VA 52) . Indeed, he i s t r a v e l l i n g i n the dreamland of an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f an ta sy , but f o r him Tormance i s the ' r e a l ' or phenomenal w o r l d . However, as S l o f o r k t e l l s Panawe, " t h e r e ' s another wor ld—not Shaping ' s— and there a l l t h i s i s unknown, and another order of th ings r e i g n s . That would we c a l l Nothing—but i t i s not N o t h i n g , but Something" (VA 72) . The Nothing that i s Something i s n o t h i n g . L indsay has another name f o r t h i s key concept , taken from The E l d e r Edda, and tha t i s M u s p e l . In ' Ske tch Notes ' L indsay says , "Schopenhauer's ' N o t h i n g ' , which i s the l e a s t understood p a r t of h i s system, i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h my Muspe l ; t h a t 107 i s , the r e a l w o r l d " (TSG 9 ) . M a s k u l l ' s quest i s f o r the r e a l w o r l d . He t r i e s to e x p l a i n i t to P o l e c r a b i T h i s w o r l d of your—and perhaps of mine too , f o r tha t mat ter—doesn ' t g ive me the s l i g h t e s t impres s ion of a dream, or an i l l u s i o n , or anyth ing of that s o r t . I know i t ' s r e a l l y here at t h i s moment, and i t ' s e x a c t l y as we ' re see ing i t , you and I . Yet i t ' s f a l s e . I t ' s f a l s e i n t h i s sense, P o l e c r a b . S ide by s i d e w i t h i t another w o r l d e x i s t s , and that o ther w o r l d i s the true one, and t h i s one i s f a l s e and d e c e i t f u l to the very core . And so i t occurs to me t h a t r e a l i t y and f a l senes s are two words f o r the same t h i n g (VA 164-65). Polecrab i s a s imple f i sherman, and l i t t l e i n t e r e s t e d i n meta-p h y s i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n , but he r e a l i z e s , . " I l i v e by k i l l i n g , and so does everybody. Th i s l i f e seems to me a l l wrong. So maybe l i f e of any k i n d i s wrong, and S u r t u r ' s w o r l d i s not l i f e at a l l , but something e l s e " (VA 165). " S t r i f e may be f o l l o w e d through the whole o f n a t u r e ; indeed nature e x i s t s on ly through i t " says Schopenhauer, " f o r each animal can on ly m a i n t a i n i t s e x i s t e n c e by the constant d e s t r u c t i o n o f some o t h e r . Thus the w i l l to l i v e everywhere preys upon i t s e l f , and i n d i f f e r e n t forms i s i t s own nour i shment" (The World as W i l l and Idea , Second Book, sec . 27 ) . L i v i n g i s w i l l i n g ; w i l l i n g i s k i l l i n g . A l l l i v i n g th ings are l i k e the " f a n t a s t i c l i t t l e c r e a t u r e " w i t h three l e g s , which M a s k u l l sees when w i t h J o i w i n d : " I t ' s always w a l t z i n g , and always i n a h u r r y , but i t never seem to get anywhere" (VA 5 8 ) . I t w a l t z e s to Shap ing ' s , to Crys ta lman ' s tune. I t does not march forward to S u r t u r ' s drumtaps, towards the sublime Muspel r a d i a n c e . The r e a l w o r l d of S u r t u r "has no connect ion w i t h r e a l i t y " (VA 165). I t s Muspel rad iance causes M a s k u l l to "tumble over i n a f a i n t that resemble[s] death" (VA 154) : "He 108 could not g ive [the l i g h t ] a c o l o r , or a name" (VA 185) ; " i t cast no shadows" (VA 221) . I t i s the l i g h t from beyond the w o r l d . The Muspel w o r l d i s beyond M a s k u l l ' s apprehension—and ours t o o , except imaginat ive ly-—but the Muspel f i r e may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h (though i t i s not the same as) one of the c o l o u r s of A l p p a i n . ' A l p p a i n ' i s a l p , a mountain and a h i g h e r p o i n t of v i e w , and p a i n , K r a g ' s name on e a r t h . B r a n c h s p e l l i s connected w i t h c r e a t i o n by ' b r a n c h ' , s i n c e i n the Norse mythology the f i r s t men were made from t r e e s , and the w o r l d i t s e l f i s the W o r l d - A s h , Y g g d r a s i l . In the apocalypse which Sur t b r i n g s , c r e a t i o n w i l l be burnt up by the "bane-o f - b r a n c h e s , " f i r e . F u r t h e r , B r a n s p e l l i s the sun which ( ' s p e l l ' ) has us i n t h r a l l : p r i s o n e r s i n the w o r l d . I t i s the o r d i n a r y sun which makes t h i s w o r l d seem r e a l , as we have seen; i t s b l u e " i s e x i s t e n c e . " "As regards the A l p p a i n c o l o r s , b l u e stands i n the middle and i s t h e r e f o r e not e x i s t e n c e , but r e l a t i o n . U l f i r e i s e x i s t e n c e ; so i t must be a d i f f e r e n t s o r t of e x i s t e n c e , " Corpang argues (VA 238) . When M a s k u l l f i n a l l y reaches Barey he sees p l a n t s a s l eep : Krag t e l l s h i m , " B r a n c h s p e l l i s a second n i g h t to them. T h e i r day i s A l p p a i n " (VA 263) . So i s N i g h t s p o r e ' s . " D a y l i g h t i s n i g h t to t h i s o ther d a y l i g h t " (VA 274) , and when A l p p a i n r i s e s the shadows i t cast "were not b l a c k , but were composed . wh.:.t«-.: of w h i t e d a y l i g h t " (VA 275) . When A l p p a i n r i s e s , M a s k u l l d ies and Night spore wakes up to be t o l d " the n i g h t i s r e a l l y past at l a s t , N i g h t s p o r e . . . . The day i s h e r e " ( e l l i p s i s L i n d s a y ' s ; VA 277) . The Corpus Hermeticum advises us to " t u r n ye away from the dark l i g h t " ( I , 28 ) . The b r i g h t l i g h t , the l i g h t from beyond the w o r l d , f i n a l l y l i b e r a t e s the s p i r i t from the 109 p r i s o n of the body. Thus we have a double p r o t a g o n i s t , M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e , and a double s t a r , B r a n c h s p e l l and A l p p a i n , by which L indsay compl icates the more u sua l o p p o s i t i o n of day and n i g h t , l i g h t and dark , i n t o day and more-than-day. S i m i l a r c o m p l i c a t i o n s are found i n the o p p o s i t i o n s between God and D e v i l , C h r i s t and Satan. The God of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s the c r e a t o r of the w o r l d i n a l l i t s beauty , and he i s Shaping ( i n German the c r e a t i o n i s d ie Schopfung). L i k e the god of E a r t h , however, he takes many forms and has many names, such as Crystalman and Faceny. Sometimes he i s confused (by J o i w i n d , f o r example) w i t h S u r t u r . One of the r e a d e r ' s problems i n A Voyage, and one of M a s k u l l ' s problems, i s i d e n t i f y i n g the god of the r e a l w o r l d b e i n g sought , and that i s S u r t u r . S u r t u r i s the God of Muspe l , which i s " the p r i m e v a l w o r l d of f i r e ; e x i s t i n g before heaven and e a r t h , and 22 which w i l l e v e n t u a l l y destroy them." S u r t u r i s drawn from the Sur t of The E l d e r Edda who i n ' V o l u s p a ' " w i t h the bane-of-branches comes / 23 From the s o u t h " to burn up the w o r l d , and to destroy Frey and a l l the gods of t h i s w o r l d . S u r t , The Swart , i s r u l e r over Muspelheim, the 24 home of Muspe l ; i n A r c t u r u s , over n o t h i n g . Shaping o r Crystalman i s the god of t h i s w o r l d ( s p e c i f i c a l l y , Tormance) which i s de s t ined to be destroyed or uncrea ted . S u r t u r ' s embodied form i s Krag and, s i n c e he i s the enemy of the w o r l d where p lea sure i s ' w o r s h i p p e d , ' he i s the d e v i l . H i s resemblance to G r e t t i r the S t rong , an outlaw who had every hand aga ins t h i m , has a l ready been remarked. G r e t t i r makes a bad impres s ion on us b y , f o r 110 example, w r i n g i n g the necks of the geese he i s se t to look a f t e r , 25 and o ther b o y i s h excesses . Krag in t roduces h i m s e l f by dash ing , u n i n v i t e d , i n t o F a u l l ' s house and " w i t h h i s h a i r y hands" w r i n g i n g the neck of the m a t e r i a l i s e d shape, the "specimen g o b l i n " from Tormance (VA 22-23) . When M a s k u l l wakes up on Tormance, a f t e r be ing deserted ( l i t e r a l l y , too) by h i s t r a v e l l i n g companions, he i s t o l d by the b e a u t i f u l J o i w i n d tha t "we must f i g h t K r a g , " " K r a g — the author of e v i l and misery—whom you c a l l D e v i l " (VA 56) . Krag reappears at odd moments to w r i n g M a s k u l l ' s neck as the s p i r i t and to stab him i n the back i n a v i s i o n , be fore c o l l e c t i n g M a s k u l l a f t e r he has " r u n through the gamut" (VA 262) . From then on , Krag gets more and more r e p u l s i v e and i l l - m a n n e r e d u n t i l M a s k u l l , f a l l i n g under the i n f l u e n c e of the b e a u t i f u l Gangnet, f i n a l l y r e j e c t s h i m . Krag i s i n s o l e n t , breaks M a s k u l l ' s eggs (VA 270) , crushes Gangnet's hat (VA 272) and i s g e n e r a l l y as d i s agreeab le as p o s s i b l e . He has a " y e l l o w , r e p u l s i v e f a c e " (VA 2 73) and " d i s c o l o r e d t e e t h " (VA 269) ; when he s leeps he i s "an u g l y , w r i n k l e d m o n s t r o s i t y " (VA 275) . Krag says , "as long as p lea sure i s worshiped [ s i c ] , Krag w i l l always be the d e v i l " b u t , from h i s p o i n t of v i e w , as embodied r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the r e a l w o r l d , " the r e a l d e v i l i s Crys ta lman" (VA 264) . Krag i s , i t must be admi t ted , " the author of e v i l and m i s e r y " (VA 56) . Gagnet i s , f i t must be admi t t ed , the author of the w o r l d , which i s b e a u t i f u l and dedica ted to p l e a s u r e . But the r e a l nature of l i f e i s w i l l i n g and there fore k i l l i n g : Gangnet's w o r l d i s an e v i l good. And Krag does not i n f l i c t p a i n f o r i t s own sake, but to wake us I l l up to the r e a l w o r l d : K r a g ' s p a i n i s a good e v i l . N i e t z s c h e says i n The J o y f u l Wisdom, " I doubt whether such p a i n ' improves ' u s , but 26 I know tha t i t deepens u s . " Thus C a t i c e sends M a s k u l l down " t o 27 Wombflash, where [he] w i l l meet the deepest minds" (VA 148) . C a t i c e i s the f i r s t person to mention Muspel to M a s k u l l , and he does so i n connect ion w i t h two key concepts , the o p p o s i t i o n between p lea sure and p a i n , and home. M a s k u l l a sks , "Why does p lea sure appear so shameful to us?" "Because i n f e e l i n g p l e a s u r e , we forge t our home." "And t h a t i s - - " " M u s p e l " (VA 148) . We are at home i n the r e a l w o r l d . In the phenomenal w o r l d we are 2 8 " s t r anger s i n a s trange l a n d . " Man i s , as N o v a l i s t e l l s us i n h i s d r e a m - v i s i o n , Hymnen an d ie Nacht , "der h e r r l i c h e F r e m d l i n g , " the 29 noble s t r a n g e r . The way of s a l v a t i o n i s g n o s i s , knowledge. The G n o s t i c V a l e n t i n u s expresses i t b e a u t i f u l l y : the knowledge of who we were , what we became; where we were , where into we have been thrown; whereto we speed, wherefrom we are redeemed; what b i r t h i s , and what r e b i r t h (30) . We are a l l , l i k e M a s k u l l on Tormance, a l i e n s , wandering through an unknown w o r l d . Our duty i s _to know, and by knowing to f ree the e t e r n a l l i g h t impri soned i n our m o r t a l bodies from the g r i p of the c r e a t o r (Crys ta lman, the d e v i l ) . 31 G n o s t i c i s m i s a " d u a l i s t i c t ranscendent r e l i g i o n o f s a l v a t i o n " which t e l l s us of "a drama of pre-cosmic persons i n the s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d , of which the drama of man i n the n a t u r a l w o r l d i s bu t a d i s t a n t 32 e c h o . " Gn o s t i c i sm i s thus very c lo se to a l l e g o r y , which i s a drama of the s p i r i t i n the dream w o r l d , which i s a shadow of the cosmic drama 112 i n the s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d . I n G n o s t i c i s m , the c r e a t i o n i s the r e s u l t of the capture of some of the D i v i n e L i g h t by Darkness . A g a i n , so i t i s w i t h a l l e g o r y , where "dark and cloudy words . . . do but h o l d / The 33 t r u t h , as Cabinets i n c l o s e the G o l d . " In G n o s t i c i s m , God's na ture i s there fore " a l i e n to that of the u n i v e r s e , which i t n e i t h e r created 34 nor governs and to which i t i s the complete a n t i t h e s i s . " Man i s the c r e a t i o n of the d e v i l , who crea ted man i n god's image because t h a t r e -ceptac le was f i t t e s t f o r i m p r i s o n i n g as much as p o s s i b l e o f the s t o l e n 35 l i g h t . Woman was c r e a t e d , as Mani t e l l s us , " i n order to seduce Adam" and by b reed ing d i sper se the fragments of l i g h t , making them harder to r e c o v e r : " the main weapon of the w o r l d i n i t s great s educ t ion i s ' l o v e . ' " We have a l ready d i scovered two of the three main tenets of G n o s t i c i s m i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , t h a t c r e a t i o n i s e v i l and that man i s an a l i e n , and we do not have to look very f a r to f i n d the t h i r d , the common b e l i e f that women are the c h i e f ins truments of the d e v i l . Gangnet, the embodied Crys ta lman , i s h i m s e l f remarkably f emin ine . " H i s v o i c e " i s " s t r a n g e l y womanish i n i t s modulat ion and v a r i e t y of tone" (VA 266) . Krag c a l l s Gangnet a "man-woman" (VA 266) , and snatches o f f h i s h a t , a sk ing h i m , "Why do you d i s g u i s e y o u r s e l f l i k e a woman?" (VA 272) . A l l the women M a s k u l l has met on h i s t r a v e l s have been, to a g r e a t e r or l e s s e r e x t e n t , agents o f Crys ta lman, temptresses . Oceaxe l e d M a s k u l l to h i s f i r s t murder; Tydomin almost took over h i s body; Sul lenbode succeeds i n d i s t r a c t i n g him from h i s quest f o r Muspe l . Only J o i w i n d , of the women i n the book, does not d i e , and does not wear, t h e r e f o r e , Crys ta lman ' s death mask. She had her husband i d e n t i f y S u r t u r 113 w i t h Crys ta lman, but they p r a c t i c e a k i n d of non-attachment to Na ture , l i v i n g only on water w h i c h , accord ing to the ' N e p t u n i s t ' theory of the un iver se p o p u l a r i z e d i n Germany by N o v a l i s ' s teacher of m i n e r o l -ogy, Abraham Got t lob Werner, was the p r i m a l substance from which a l l the others were d e r i v e d . In Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , N o v a l i s c a l l s water " the whi te b l o o d of the m o t h e r . " J o i w i n d h e r s e l f has w h i t e b l o o d , a t r a n s f u s i o n of which she g ives M a s k u l l . Panawe and J o i w i n d have no c h i l d r e n , and they l i v e i n A r c a d i a n innocence . I t i s d i f f i c u l t to b e l i e v e that they are damned. Indeed, J o i w i n d c la ims that "what you and I are now doing i n s i m p l i c i t y , wi se men w i l l do h e r e a f t e r i n f u l l knowledge" (VA 56) . However, i n G n o s t i c i s m , knowledge i s s a l v a t i o n , and we have gone too f a r to t r y and recapture our l o s t innocence , even were innocence not a l i m i t e d s t a t e of b e i n g . The s o c i e t y which i s recommended as the be s t p o s s i b l e one f o r the o r g a n i s a t i o n of human l i f e i s the country of Sant ( H e a l t h ) . Of course , 37 i t i s " a s o c i e t y of s i n g l e men." The s o c i e t y was founded by Hator (Hater w i t h a h i n t of mounta in) , " the famous f r o s t man" who cou ld " w i t h s t a n d the b r e a t h , s m i l e s , and perfume of a g i r l , " who has trapped and i s t r y i n g to seduce h i m , u n t i l she drops dead (VA 136). In Sant they have so lved the problem of women by never l e t t i n g them i n . The f o l l o w e r s of Hator r e j e c t women "inasmuch as a woman has i d e a l l o v e , and cannot l i v e f o r h e r s e l f . Love f o r another i s p leasure f o r the loved one, 38 and t h e r e f o r e i n j u r i o u s to h i m " (VA 138) . Examining t h i s k i n d of p o s i t i o n , Maud Bodkin quotes from " a m e d i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t " who, t a k i n g a M i l t o n i c l i n e , 114 has suggested t h a t the r e l a t i o n between man and woman, as determined by r a c i a l h i s t o r y , might be diagrammati-c a l l y rendered by two c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s , man h a v i n g h i s p l ace on the o u t e r , woman on the i n n e r c i r c l e . 'When man looks outward he sees the w o r l d , when he looks i n -ward he sees the woman and her c h i l d . H i s escape from h e r i s i n t o the w o r l d . The woman, however, l o o k i n g out -ward sees the man, through whom only she touches the outer w o r l d of r e a l i t y and whose favor she must seek to ga in h e r w i s h e s ' " (39 ) . Women l i v e v i c a r i o u s l y through men, and w i t h t h e i r " s o f t love and l o y a l t y " they 'drag down t h e i r i d e a s ' (VA 148) . More than t h i s , "women are s n a r e s " ^ who d i s t r a c t men from f o l l o w i n g t h e i r t rue course towards Muspe l . They entrap i n w o r l d l y homes men who should be seeking t h e i r t rue home. In t h i s , t h e i r c h i e f weapon i s ' l o v e . ' More than t h i s , women are sub c r e a t o r s : they bear c h i l d r e n . C r e a t i o n i s wrong; l i f e i t s e l f i s wrong; and y e t women b r i n g new l i f e i n t o b e i n g , p r e v e n t i n g the r e - c o l l e c t i o n of the s c a t t e r e d d i v i n e sparks . I t i s a h o r r i b l e moment f o r Night spore when, at the end, he sees " s u b d i v i d e d sparks of l i v i n g f i e r y s p i r i t " b e i n g " i m p r i s o n e d " and thereby "e f feminated and c o r r u p t e d " i n envelopes of mushy p lea sure (my i t a l i c s ; VA 283) . I t must be w i t h something l i k e h o r r o r that we now t u r n to the s t o r y of Prometheus, the demiurge who d e l i b e r a t e l y s t o l e some of the f i r e of the A l l f a t h e r to animate h i s w o r l d of c o l d c l a y . Thus the flawed nature of the phenomenal w o r l d , and, i n the myth, thus the b i n d i n g of Prometheus ( s y m b o l i c a l l y , to h i s c r e a t i o n ) : " C r e a t i o n i s 41 per se a s i n . I t i s the S i n of S i n s . I t i s O r i g i n a l S i n . " The 115 b i n d i n g of Prometheus presents a problem to which there are three p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s . As Aeschylus probably showed, a f t e r due repent-ence on the p a r t of Prometheus there i s due mercy from Zeus; the god-head i s made whole (the b i n d i n g of Prometheus b e i n g a l s o ' t h e f a l l of Zeus ' ) and—as at the end of ' V o l u s p a ' and Henry of Of terd ingen—the Golden Age r e s t o r e d . As i n S h e l l e y ' s Prometheus Unbound, the r e b e l Prometheus overthrows the t y r a n t Zeus (becoming h i m s e l f another Zeus 42 i n the p roce s s , c f . B l a k e ' s O r c - U r i z e n c y c l e ) , and r e s t o r e s the Golden Age. As i n L i n d s a y , the A l l f a t h e r i s (at l e a s t m o r a l l y ) v i c -t o r i o u s , and a c t u a l l y v i c t o r i o u s i n s o f a r as he can a n n i h i l a t e Prometheus by u n c r e a t i n g the w o r l d . That i s , as i n the G n o s t i c M a n i ' s d o c t r i n e a t t acked by S t . August ine i n De Natur 'a-Boni , by r e c l a i m i n g the s c a t t e r e d sparks of pneuma. In f a c t , both the l a s t two s o l u t i o n s are Manichaean i n t h e i r i r r e c o n c i l a b l e s e p a r a t i o n of Good and E v i l , Darkness and L i g h t , but what they lo se i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l s u b t l e t y they can make up i n meta-p h y s i c a l paradox and dramatic power. M a s k u l l , though unknowingly at f i r s t , i s a type of Prometheus. Panawe says M a s k u l l ' s name "must have a meaning , " but a l l he can t h i n k of i s " a man i n . y o u r w o r l d who s t o l e something from the maker of the 43 univer se i n order to ennoble h i s f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s " (VA 61) . By the end of h i s t h i r d day on Tormance, M a s k u l l has l ea rned the name of M u s p e l , and begun to see h i s journey as a quest . The v i s i o n a r y Dreamsinter (h i s name vouches f o r h i s i n s i g h t ) i s able to make the i d e n t i t y e x p l i c i t : "You came to s t e a l M u s p e l - f i r e , to g ive a deeper l i f e to man" (VA 152) . M a s k u l l ' s Prometheanism, i t i s important to emphasize, connects him 116 w i t h Crystalman who—as i s r evea led i n the f i n a l v i s i o n — i s p e r p e t u a l l y s t e a l i n g the f i r e o f Muspe l : The Muspel-s tream was Crys ta lman ' s food . The stream from the o ther s i d e . . . i n a double c o n d i t i o n . P a r t of i t reappeared i n t r i n s i c a l l y u n a l t e r e d , but s h i v e r e d i n t o a m i l l i o n f r a g m e n t s . . . . The other p a r t of the stream had not escaped. I t s f i r e had been a b s t r a c t e d , i t s cement was wi thdrawn, and, a f t e r b e i n g f o u l e d and sof tened by the h o r r i b l e sweetness of the h o s t , i t broke i n t o i n d i v i d u a l s , which were the w h i r l s of l i v i n g w i l l (VA 285) . M a s k u l l i s h i m s e l f such a w i l l . He i s mask and s k u l l : the awful Crystalman g r i n which prov ides the Q.E .D. f o r a l l the s y l l o g i s m s of the a l l e g o r i c a l progress i s , i t seems reasonable to suppose, the g r i n n i n g mask of the s k u l l . "Not one now to mock your own g r i n n i n g — q u i t e c h a p - f a l l ' n ? Now get you to my l a d y ' s chamber, and t e l l h e r , l e t h e r p a i n t an i n c h t h i c k , to t h i s favour she must come; make h e r laugh at t h a t , " says Hamlet. M a s k u l l , s t i l l a l i v e , does, i n f a c t , a l ready possess one of the fragments o f the D i v i n e L i g h t t h a t has passed through Crys ta lman ' s body: tha t i s , h i s o ther p a r t , the dormant N i g h t s p o r e . Krag b a t t l e s Gangnet over M a s k u l l on ly f o r N i g h t s p o r e , who i s M a s k u l l ' s e s s e n t i a l s e l f . M a s k u l l t e l l s Dreamsinter that S u r t u r "brought me here from E a r t h . " Dreamsinter peers i n t o h i s face and says , "Not you , but N i g h t s p o r e " 44 (VA 152) , and g ives him a b i t t e r f r u i t to chew, which W i l s o n suggests i s se l f -knowledge (TSG 5 5 ) . M a s k u l l then has a v i s i o n i n which he sees h i m s e l f , Krag and Nightspore w a l k i n g through the f o r e s t . Krag r a i s e s " a l o n g , murderous- looking k n i f e " and stabs " the phantom M a s k u l l " who f a l l s dead: "Night spore marched on a l o n e , s t e r n and unmoved" w h i l e 117 " M a s k u l l f e l t h i s s o u l l o o s e n i n g from i t s b o d i l y e n v e l o p e . " Muspel rad iance begins to g l o w : "Night spore moved s t r a i g h t towards i t " and " a l l of a sudden [Maskul l ] tumbled over i n a f a i n t that resembled death" (VA 153-4) . "What d i d Dreamsinter mean by h i s 'Not y o u , bu t N i g h t s p o r e ' ? Am I a secondary c h a r a c t e r ? " M a s k u l l asks h i m s e l f . L indsay i s n o t h i n g i f not c l e a r and unambiguous. The " b o d i l y enve lope" i s d i s p e n s i b l e : the e s s e n t i a l s e l f marches a long w i t h o u t i t . The body b e l o n g s , i n f a c t , to Crys ta lman, to whom Krag re s igns i t : "As long as I have the substance , you may have the shadow" (VA 266) . "One may s t e a l — a n d not even know one i s s t e a l i n g . One may take the purse and leave the money" (VA 273) . F i n a l l y , " M a s k u l l was h i s , but Night spore i s mine" (VA 277) . There i s a paradox at the hear t of M a s k u l l ' s damnation, which i s a good e v i l . A l p p a i n , which we have a s s o c i a t e d w i t h N i g h t s p o r e , i s a c t u a l l y , as Krag s ays , " C r y s t a l m a n ' s trump c a r d " (VA 269) . As the Archons , powers of Darkness , i m i t a t e d God when making man, so C r y s t a l -man has i m i t a t e d the sun of the h i g h e r w o r l d i n making A l p p a i n . The wise f i sherman, who l i v e s by k i l l i n g , P o l e c r a b , passes on to M a s k u l l some of B r o o d v i o l ' s wisdom: S u r t u r ' s w o r l d does not l i e on t h i s s i d e of the one, which was the b e g i n n i n g of l i f e , but on the o ther s i d e ; and to get to i t we must repass through the one. But t h i s can on ly be by renouncing our s e l f - l i f e , and r e u n i t i n g ourse lves to the whole of Crys ta lman' s w o r l d . And when t h i s has been done, i t i s on ly the f i r s t stage of the j o u r n e y ; though many good men imagine i t to be the whole journey (VA 166). The rainbow of c r e a t i o n obscures the one true l i g h t . But i t i s no use 118 running away from Crys ta lman: that only takes you f u r t h e r from M u s p e l . The sparks t r y to r e t u r n to Muspe l , bu t the w i l l s "never saw beyond the Shadow, they thought that they were t r a v e l l i n g toward i t " (VA 284) . L indsay w r i t e s of the w i l l i n ' Ske tch N o t e s , ' To understand the t rue nature of the w o r l d , i t i s necessary to r e a l i s e that i t i s a d i r e c t c r e a t i o n of the W i l l , and t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i n i t ( i n c l u d i n g l o v e , s e l f - s a c r i f i c e e t c . ) i s e i t h e r the a s s e r t i o n or the d e n i a l of the W i l l (Schopenhauer); but that the Muspel-World does not possess t h i s i n n e r core of W i l l , but something e l s e , of which the W i l l i s a corrupted v e r s i o n (TSG 9 ) . We have noted that M a s k u l l i s a modern Prometheus. Lou i s Awad draws our a t t e n t i o n to " the profound i r o n y " of the Promethean problem: That Prometheus was the i n c a r n a t i o n of W i l l was a l ready d i scovered i n the n i n e t e e n t h century by the German t r a n s -c e n d e n t a l i s t s and was g iven ample treatment i n the works of Schopenhauer and N i e t z s c h e . The i r o n y c o n s i s t s i n the f ac t t h a t W i l l , u s u a l l y equated w i t h f ree v o l i t i o n and opposed to N e c e s s i t y , i s n o t h i n g but N e c e s s i t y grown out of p r o p o r t i o n and l a y i n g c l a i m to autonomy. W i l l i s the d r i v i n g fo rce behind a l l a c t i v i t y and there fore behind a l l c r e a t i o n (45) . M a s k u l l f a i l s as Prometheus when, under the i n f l u e n c e of A l p p a i n ' s l i g h t , he says " I have l o s t my w i l l ; I f e e l as i f some f o u l tumor had been scraped away, l e a v i n g me c lean and f r e e " (VA 275) . W i l l i s e v i l , of course ; but the absence of W i l l — t h e w i l l to r e t u r n to our Muspel home—is abso lute de fea t . M a s k u l l has been t o t a l l y absorbed i n t o Crys ta lman ' s w o r l d : he has become one w i t h i t as Po lecrab s a i d B r o o d v i o l recommended. But Night spore has not l o s t the something e l s e which com-p e l l s h im toward Muspe l , and M a s k u l l ' s defeat p a r a d o x i c a l l y enables Night spore to succeed i n p e n e t r a t i n g through the shadow, the v e i l of 119 Crysta lman which obscures the r e a l w o r l d . What Night spore a c t u a l l y sees i n the real w o r l d i s : n o t h i n g . Panawe, t r a v e r s i n g a p r e c a r i o u s p a t h , as he t e l l s M a s k u l l , met S l o f o r k the s o r c e r e r . They sa t down to decide which of them would walk over the o ther (VA 72) . "What i s g rea te r than P l e a s u r e ? " S l o f o r k asked suddenly (VA 73) : ' P a i n , ' I r e p l i e d , ' f o r p a i n d r i v e s out p l e a s u r e . ' 'What i s g rea te r than P a i n ? ' I r e f l e c t e d . 'Love . Because we w i l l accept our loved one ' s share of p a i n . ' 'But what i s g rea te r than Love? ' he p e r s i s t e d . ' N o t h i n g , S l o f o r k . ' 'And what i s N o t h i n g ? ' 'That you must t e l l me. ' ' T e l l you I w i l l . Th i s i s Shaping ' s w o r l d . He that i s a good c h i l d h e r e , knows p l e a s u r e , p a i n , and l o v e , and gets h i s rewards. But t h e r e ' s another wor ld—not Shaping 's—and there a l l t h i s i s unknown, and another order of th ings r e i g n s . That w o r l d we c a l l N o t h i n g — but i t i s not N o t h i n g , but Something (VA 72). L indsay wrote that "Schopenhauer's ' N o t h i n g ' . . . i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h my Muspe l ; that i s , the r e a l w o r l d " (TSG 9 ) . In Schopenhauer we f i n d a p a r a d o x i c a l o p p o s i t i o n between two k inds of n o t h i n g , and t h i s d u a l i t y i s an important m o t i f i n A Voyage. Schopenhauer says that the surrender of w i l l , " the d e n i a l and surrender of a l l v o l i t i o n , and thus d e l i v e r a n c e from a wor ld whose whole e x i s t e n c e we have found to be s u f f e r i n g . . . appears to us as a pas s ing away i n t o empty no th ingnes s " (The World as W i l l and Idea , Four th Book, sec . 71) . L a t e r , Schopenhauer c o n t i n u e s : we must ban i sh the dark impres s ion of t h a t nothingness which we d i s c e r n behind a l l v i r t u e and h o l i n e s s as t h e i r f i n a l g o a l , and which we fear as c h i l d r e n f ea r the dark ; we must not even evade i t l i k e the I n d i a n s , through myths and meaningless words , such as r e a b s o r b t i o n i n Brahma o r the N i r v a n a o f the B u d d h i s t s . Rather do we f r e e l y acknow-ledge tha t what remains a f t e r the e n t i r e a b o l i t i o n of w i l l 120 i s f o r a l l those who are s t i l l f u l l of w i l l c e r t a i n l y n o t h i n g ; b u t , c o n v e r s e l y , to those i n whom the w i l l has turned and has denied i t s e l f , t h i s our w o r l d , which i s so r e a l , w i t h a l l i t s suns and m i l k y ways—is n o t h i n g . Whichever s ide of the v e i l of Maya you are on , the o ther s ide i s n o t h i n g . L indsay makes t h i s concept a l i t t l e e a s i e r to grasp by typograph-i c a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g h i s n o t h i n g s . The crux comes when M a s k u l l has been cleansed of h i s w i l l by A l p p a i n , and says "Why, Gangnet—I am n o t h i n g ! " Gangnet q u i e t l y c o r r e c t s h i m : "No, you are n o t h i n g " (VA 2 75) . On the phenomenal s i d e of the v e i l , the shadow of Crys ta lman, l i f e i s n o t h i n g . M a s k u l l sees t h i s when he i s i n M a t t e r p l a y , where ' l i f e d e l i g h t s i n l i f e . ' A monster M a s k u l l i s l o o k i n g at suddenly d i sappear s : Where the crustacean had s t o o d , there was n o t h i n g . Yet through t h i s ' n o t h i n g ' he could not see the landscape . Something was s t and ing there that i n t e r c e p t e d the l i g h t , though i t possessed n e i t h e r shape, c o l o r , nor substance. And now the o b j e c t , which could no longer be p e r c e i v e d by v i s i o n , began to be f e l t by emotion. A d e l i g h t f u l , s p r i n g -l i k e sense of r i s i n g sap, of qu i cken ing p u l s e s — o f l o v e , adventure , mystery , beauty , f e m i n i n i t y — t o o k pos ses s ion of h i s b e i n g . . . . I t was as i f f l e s h , bones, and b lood had been d i s c a r d e d , and he were face to face w i t h naked L i f e i t s e l f (VA 191). Thi s i s the n o t h i n g of Crys ta lman ' s w o r l d , b e a u t i f u l and feminine and m y s t e r i o u s : i t i s "naked L i f e i t s e l f . " But there i s another w o r l d which "we c a l l N o t h i n g " but which i s "Something" , and that i s the r e a l w o r l d , beyond the phenomenal w o r l d and d i sconnected from i t . Th i s i s the w o r l d of which M a s k u l l can never be an i n h a b i t a n t , but i t i s what Night spore f inds-when he c l imbs onto the roof of the tower and " i s l o o k -i n g round f o r h i s f i r s t gl impse of Muspe l . There was n o t h i n g " (VA 286) . Noth ing i s the w o r l d of the body and of phenomena: i t i s the w o r l d of 121 man. There fore , as S p a d e v i l s ays , "he that i s not more than a man i s n o t h i n g " (VA 135). The more-than-man i n M a s k u l l i s N i g h t s p o r e , a l l e g o r i c a l embodiment of the d i v i n e spark , and he can penetrate through to what i s , from our human p o i n t of v i e w , n o t h i n g . L i n d s a y ' s problem i s t h a t he i s a t tempt ing the i m p o s s i b l e . He i s t r y i n g to g ive us an exper ience of "an i n c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d " (TSG 46 42) of n o t h i n g , the m y s t i c a l subl ime of the uncreated w o r l d . To t h i s end are the dichotomies arranged: M a s k u l l takes us to the l i m i t of human e x p e r i e n c e , and Nightspore takes us beyond i t . A l p p a i n i s not Muspe l , but Muspel i s beyond comprehension. However, as A l p p a i n i s to B r a n c h s p e l l , so Muspel i s to A l p p a i n . S i m i l a r l y , as the dream w o r l d i s to the r e a l w o r l d , so the Muspel w o r l d i s to the dream w o r l d ; as Night spore i s to M a s k u l l , so Krag i s to N i g h t s p o r e . I t i s P l a t o ' s analogy of the cave r e t o l d on a l a r g e s c a l e . The dichotomies of the a l l e g o r y as b a t t l e form themselves i n t o a n a l o g i c a l t r i n i t a r i a n arrange-ments which p a r a l l e l the s t r u c t u r e of the a l l e g o r y as progress—we move from the r e a l to the dream w o r l d , from the dream w o r l d to the r e a l world—and t h i s we s h a l l d i scuss i n the next chapter . 122 Footnotes to Chapter Four William B l a k e , 'The Marr iage of Heaven and H e l l ' i n The Complete W r i t i n g s of W i l l i a m B l a k e , ed . Geoffrey Keynes (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966), p . 149. 2 K e p l e r was an astronomer at Tycho Brahe ' s observatory at Hven, c a l l e d Uran iborg ( ' the c a s t l e of the h e a v e n s ' ) . Somnium has not been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h , but the p l o t i s summarised by P a t r i c k Moore i n Science and F i c t i o n (London: George C. Harrap , 1957). The m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r was the s c i e n t i f i c c o n f i r m a t i o n by G a l i l e o of mountains , v a l l e y s , and ' seas ' on the moon. Other moon-voyages have been l i s t e d by M a r j o r i e N i c o l s o n i n Voyages to the Moon (New Y o r k : M a c M i l l a n , 1948). 3 Johnson and C l a r e s o n , 'The I n t e r p l a y of Sc ience and F i c t i o n : The Canals of M a r s ' i n E x t r a p o l a t i o n (May 1964), p . 37. 4 Cather ine Vale W h i t w e l l , An A s t r o n o m i c a l Catechism: o r , Dialogues between a Mother and her Daughter (London: P r i n t e d f o r the A u t h o r , 1818), p . 2 72. 5 The Works of Herman M e l v i l l e (London: Cons tab le , 1922), I I , p . 175. ^Quoted by Gordon M i l l s i n 'The S i g n i f i c a n c e o f ' A r c t u r u s ' i n M a r d i ' i n American L i t e r a t u r e , XIV (1942) , p . 160. 7 H . G. W e l l s , The Works of H. G. W e l l s , A t l a n t i c E d i t i o n (London: T. F i s h e r Unwin, 1925), X , p . 552. g For example, F . I . L o r b e a r ' s Ph i lo sophy of L i g h t (Los Ange le s : W e t z e l , 19 32) . 9 A c c o r d i n g to L i n d s a y , p a i n i s not a problem, i t i s the s o l u t i o n . ^ P l a t o , Timaeus, t r a n s . H . D. P . Lee (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1965): "God t h e r e f o r e , w i s h i n g tha t a l l th ings should be good, and so f a r as p o s s i b l e n o t h i n g be i m p e r f e c t " (p . 42) i m i t a t e d a p e r f e c t and e t e r n a l Form "as f a r as was p o s s i b l e " (p. 5 0 ) . 11 " P i t y would be no more / I f we d i d not make somebody P o o r , " B lake a s t u t e l y observes . The Complete W r i t i n g s , p . 217. 123 12 This may be s p e c i f i c a l l y Western. In I n d i a , by c o n t r a s t , where the sun i s too h o t , what i s sought i s the re l ea se of l i f e - g i v i n g w a t e r s , as when Indra uses a thunderbo l t to s t r i k e down V i t r a , the serpent who has swallowed those wate r s . In Myths and Symbols i n I n d i a n A r t and C i v i l i s a t i o n (New Y o r k : Pantheon Books, 1946), H e i n r i c h Zimmer says " the monster had a p p r o p r i a t e d the common b e n e f i t , massing h i s a m b i t i o u s , s e l f i s h h u l k between heaven and e a r t h " (p. 3 ) , r a t h e r i n the manner of Crys ta lman. However, not a c t u a l l y i n the manner of Crys ta lman. Dorothy Norman, i n The Hero : Myth/Image/Symbo1 (New Y o r k : World P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 1969), p o i n t s out t h a t "Due . . . to V i t r a ' s hav ing e x i s t e d be fore what was cons idered to be the i m p e r f e c t i o n of c r e a t i o n , and h a v i n g attempted o r i g i n a l l y to prevent i t , there were a l so those who viewed the serpent i n . . . even f avorab le f a s h i o n " (p. 27) . Ophi t i sm i s G n o s t i c . 13 P a r a c e l s u s , M y s t e r i e s of C r e a t i o n (Works, 1616) I I I , 3-4, p . 58. " ^ A . A . Moon i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n to The 'De Natura B o n i ' of Sa in t August ine (Washington: C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of America P r e s s , 1955), p . 16. George MacDonald i n Phantastes (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 19 70) w r i t e s , " T r u l y , man i s but a pa s s ing f lame, moving u n q u i e t l y amid the sur rounding nes t of n i g h t , w i t h o u t which he y e t could not be , arid whereof he i s i n p a r t compounded" (p . 61) . " '"^Christopher Smart, J u b i l a t e Agno, ed . W. H . Bond (London: Rupert H a r t - D a v i e s , 1954) , verse 238. See a l s o , more i m p o r t a n t l y , Job V . 7 . "^Joseph Campbel l , The Hero w i t h a. Thousand Faces (New Y o r k : M e r i d i a n Books, 1956), p . 123. "^Quoted by Erwin Schrodinger i n Mind and M a t t e r (Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958). 18 A . A . Moon: " the heroes of l i g h t look and s u f f e r l i k e human b e i n g s , de sp i te the h y l i c o r i g i n of the l a t t e r " (p. 18) . 19 Jean P a u l F r i e d r i c h R i c h t e r , ' F l e g e l j a h r ' i n Jean P a u l : Werke, 6 v o l s . (Munich: C a r l Hanser , 1959), I I , see pp. 1061-65. 20 J . W. Smeed of A l b a n o ' s Dream i n Jean P a u l ' s 'Dreams' (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966), p . 33. Smeed says " there i s v i r t u a l l y no l i n k w i t h the h e l l of the medieva l i m a g i n a t i o n and i t s b o d i l y torments . Jean P a u l ' s h e l l i s born o f r e v u l s i o n aga ins t e a r t h l y l i f e " (p. 32) . A l s o see Smeed's Appendix I I on F l e g e l j a h r e t r a u m . 124 21 Green suns are r a r e , W i l l i a m Hope ModgSon i n The House on the Border l and (London: Holden and Hardingham, 1908) may have taken h i s cue from an as ide of MacDonald's i n Phanta s te s : "No s h i n i n g b e l t or gleaming moon, no red and green g l o r y i n a s e l f - e n c i r c l i n g t w i n - s t a r , but has a r e l a t i o n w i t h the hidden th ings o f a man's s o u l , and, i t may b e , w i t h the s ec re t h i s t o r y of the body as w e l l " (p. 89) . 22 L i n d s a y ' s ' Sketch Notes ' quoted from J . B. P i c k ' s 'The Work of David L i n d s a y ' i n S tudies i n S c o t t i s h L i t e r a t u r e ( Jan. 1964), p . 175. 23 The E l d e r Edda, t r a n s . Auden and T a y l o r (New Y o r k : Vintage Books, 19 70) , p . 151. 24 The E l d e r Edda: ' L o k i ' s F l y t i n g 1 (p. 139) , 'The Lay of V a f t h r u d n i r ' (p. 77) , "The Lady of G r i m n i r ' (p. 66 ) , e t c . 25 The Saga of G r e t t i r the S t r o n g , t r a n s . G. A . Hight (London: J . M. Dent, 1911) , pp. 27-28. 26 Quoted by C o l i n W i l s o n i n Eagle and Earwig (London: John Baker , 1966) , p . 27 In Wombflash M a s k u l l eats a b i t t e r f r u i t , sees h i m s e l f s tabbed, endures t e r r i b l e shocks and f a l l s i n a f a i n t resembl ing death. 2 8 George MacDonald, L i l i t h (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1969): " I would not leave the house, and a l ready I was a s t r anger i n the s t range l a n d ! " (p. 19) . Robert H e i n l e i n , a s c i ence f i c t i o n w r i t e r of middle-brow s e n s i b i l i t y and t a b l o i d s t y l e , has made the phrase famous w i t h h i s long and b o r i n g n o v e l , S t ranger i n a Strange Land (New Y o r k : B e r k l e y P u b l i s h -i n g C o r p o r a t i o n , 1968). 29 See Bruce Haywood, N o v a l i s : The V e i l of Imagery (Cambridge, Mas s . : Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959), p . 54. 30 Quoted by Hans Jonas i n The G n o s t i c R e l i g i on : The Message of the A l i e n God and the Beginnings of C h r i s t i a n i t y , 2nd ed. (Boston: Beacon P r e s s , 1963), p . 45. 31 Hans Jonas , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 32. 32 Hans Jonas , The Gnos t i c R e l i g i o n , p . x i i i . 125 33 John Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s Progress (London: J . M. Dent, 1927) , p . 4. Cf . B l a k e ' s c r y s t a l cab inet and Hoffmann's c r y s t a l j a r s . And L i n d s a y ' s Crystalman? 34 Hans Jonas , The Gnos t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 42. 35 Quoted by Jonas i n The Gnos t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 228. 36 Hans Jonas , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 72. 37 " I t i s of i n t e r e s t that K a f k a ' s concept ion of U t o p i a was a s o c i e t y of s i n g l e men, from which marr i ed men and a l l women were e x c l u d e d . " H a l l and L i n d , Dreams, L i f e , and L i t e r a t u r e : A Study of Franz Kafka (Chapel H i l l : U n i v e r s i t y o f Nor th C a r o l i n a P r e s s , 1970), p . 51 . 38 Thi s i s a c t u a l l y a h i g h view of women, e s p e c i a l l y compared to Schopenhauer's ( accord ing to whom they are e s s e n t i a l l y c h i l d i s h ) . The hero ines are the most important charac ter s i n L i n d s a y ' s m e t a p h y s i c a l t h r i l l e r s , and though there are only f i v e female embodiments i n A Voyage, aga ins t three times as many male , the women dominate the book. J o i w i n d , Oceaxe, Tydomin, G l e a m e i l and Sul lenbode are a l l complex and powerfu l f i g u r e s . They a l l know e x a c t l y what they want, and a c t i v e l y and indepen-d e n t l y s e t about the bus iness of g e t t i n g i t . 39 Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n Poet ry (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963), p . 306. Bodkin i s quot ing from B e a t r i c e M. H i n k l e ' s The R e c r e a t i n g of the I n d i v i d u a l ( A l l e n and Unwin, 1923), p . 306. 40 "Women are snare s , which l i e i n w a i t f o r men on a l l s ide s i n order to drag them i n t o the merely f i n i t e . " Quoted from G. Janouch, Conversa- t i o n s w i t h K a f k a , t r a n s . G. Rees (London: V e r s c h o y l e , 1953), p . 101. In ' K a f k a ' s Modern Mythology ' i n the B u l l e t i n of the John Rylands L i b r a r y (Autumn 19 70) , I d r i s P a r r y asks , "How i s man r e l a t e d to the gods? The w r i t e r ' s search f o r form i s the p u r s u i t o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p ; Kafka has no d i f f i c u l t y at a l l i n see ing h i m s e l f as a Modern Prometheus" (p. 210). Prometheus was tempted w i t h a woman of c l a y . "The great d i s t r a c t i o n i s , of course , marr i age ; and here Kafka a n t i c i p a t e s h i s own l a t e r r e l u c t a n c e when he i s crushed between h i s n a t u r a l d e s i r e f o r marr iage and the fear that marriage w i l l rob him of h i s s p i r i t u a l i s o l a t i o n , the source of v i s i o n " (p. 217) . The Prometheus who accepts Pandora i s not Prometheus, but h i s b r o t h e r - d o u b l e Epimetheus. M a s k u l l has Su l lenbode . The L indsay who w r i t e s A Voyage i s m a r r i e d . 41 Loui s Awad, The Theme of Prometheus i n E n g l i s h and French L i t e r a t u r e ( C a i r o : M i n i s t r y of C u l t u r e , 1963), p . 13. 126 42 Prometheus has robbed Zeus of h i s c r e a t i v e a t t r i b u t e s and l e f t him what he always wanted to be , a p e r f e c t but u n c r e a t i v e mind. 43 Panawe, remember, l i k e h i s w i f e J o i w i n d , l i v e s i n a s t a t e o f innocence and c a n ' t t e l l Sur tur from Shaping. 44 In G n o s t i c a l l e g o r y , which c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y turns th ings upside down, Prometheus may be supported aga ins t Zeus—as the Romantics supported h im. Then Prometheus becomes " the type of the ' s p i r i t u a l ' man whose l o y a l t y i s not to the God of t h i s w o r l d but to the t r a n s -cendent one b e y o n d , " as Jonas says i n The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 9 7. I t i s t h i s k i n d of Prometheus t h a t we f i n d , i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , not i n M a s k u l l but i n K r a g . 45 Loui s Awad, The Theme of Prometheus, pp. 20-21. 46 The aim of A Voyage i s not s u b c r e a t i o n , which i s why Lindsay i s w r i t i n g a l l e g o r y not romance of the M o r r i s to T o l k i e n type . Tormance i s , i f s l i g h t l y s o l i p s i s t i c a l l y , sub-crea ted , i n c i d e n t a l l y , but to the extent t h a t i t i s subcrea ted , L indsay i s damned by h i s own metaphys ic . A r t i s t - P l a t o had a s i m i l a r problem when he was excluded from the R e p u b l i c by P h i l o s o p h e r - P l a t o . 12 7 Chapter F i v e : THE STRAIGHT WAY: A VOYAGE TO ARCTURUS AS PROGRESS A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s too r i c h to be mistaken f o r ' n a i v e ' a l l e g o r y , too meaningful to be taken as pure f a n t a s y , and the w o r l d i t subcreates i s too t r a n s i t o r y f o r i t to be regarded as a romance. Though i t takes us i n t o space, i t i s too u n s c i e n t i f i c to be s c i ence f i c t i o n . A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s an a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy—a genre which has c l o s e t i e s w i t h the aforementioned, as d i scussed i n the second and t h i r d chapters of t h i s t h e s i s . But because the a l l e g o r y i s ' s o p h i s t i c a t e d , ' that i s no reason f o r denying that i t i s an a l l e g o r y at a l l , as we have seen prev ious c r i t i c s of L indsay do. J . B. P i c k , f o r example, i n s p i t e o f hav ing access to L i n d s a y ' s ' Ske tch Notes ' and o ther unpubl i shed papers , s t a te s f l a t l y tha t "L indsay was not an a l l e g o r i s t " (TSG 5 ) , which e x p l a i n s h i s d e c i s i o n : i f one t r i e s to v iew A Voyage as a f i e l d f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l a n a l y s i s , as a p u z z l e r e q u i r i n g a b s t r a c t c l a r i f i c a t i o n , i t appears tha t the l e v e l s on which any e x p l a n a t i o n must be made are h o p e l e s s l y mixed, so that the i n c i d e n t s cannot be i n t e r p r e t e d c o n s i s t e n t l y i n a necessary and coherent order (TSG 4 ) . Of course , n o t h i n g could be f u r t h e r from the t r u t h . W i l s o n i s a b s o l u t e l y c o r r e c t when he says " A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s cons t ruc ted l i k e a s e r i e s of Chinese boxes , one i n s i d e the o t h e r " (TSG 46) , and that " i t s s t r e n g t h , and gen ius , l i e s i n the almost mathematica l p r e c i s i o n of i t s d e s i g n " (TSG 45) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y these are merely o b s e r v a t i o n s , and W i l s o n does n o t h i n g to demonstrate the v a l i d i t y of h i s i n s i g h t s . We s h a l l have to do i t f o r h im. S ince A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s almost The World as W i l l and Idea 128 d i s s o l v e d and r e c r y s t a l l i s e d as f i c t i o n , i t should not s u r p r i s e us that Schopenhauer has something i n t e r e s t i n g to say about de s ign : Few w r i t e i n the way i n which an a r c h i t e c t b u i l d s ; who, before he sets to work, sketches out h i s p l a n , and t h i n k s i t over down to i t s s m a l l e s t d e t a i l s . Nay, most people w r i t e on ly as though they were p l a y i n g dominoes; and as i n t h i s game the p ieces are arranged h a l f by de s i gn , h a l f by chance, so i t i s w i t h the sequence and connect ion of t h e i r sentences . They on ly j u s t have an i d e a of what the genera l shape of t h e i r work w i l l be , and of the aim they set before themselves . Many are i g n o r a n t even of t h i s , and w r i t e as the c o r a l - i n s e c t s b u i l d ; p e r i o d j o i n s to p e r i o d , and Lord knows what the author means ( 2 ) . I t i s the whole that i s impor tan t , and the whole i s the Idea : the form i m i t a t e s the Form. Few genres a l l o w as much d i r e c t i o n l e s s n e s s as f an ta sy , though i n some cases t h i s can be turned to good account , as i t i s by MacDonald when h i s hero i s c a l l e d Anodos or ' p a t h l e s s ' . On the o ther hand, few genres have as much form, as r i g i d d i r e c t i o n , as a l l e g o r i e s : the s t r a i g h t and.narrow pa th of C h r i s t i a n , the s t r a i g h t and w i n d i n g one 3 4 of Dante. In a l l e g o r i e s , the thought tends to be p o s i t i v e l y diagrammatic . A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s bo th an a l l e g o r y and a f a n t a s y . I t i s as apparent ly a imless as Phantastes and The Palm-Wine D r i n k a r d , f o l l o w i n g the contours of a powerful p s y c h i c underwor ld . I t i s a r i g i d l y s y l l o g i s t i c and c e r e b r a l as The P i l g r i m ' s Progress and The D i v i n e Comedy as i t e s t a b l i s h e s i t s d u a l i s t i c metaphys ic . A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s an a l l e g o r y which ends w i t h a v i s i o n ; these are two of i t s p a r t s . I t b e g i n s , however, w i t h an i n t r o d u c t o r y s e c t i o n of four chapters ,"* dur ing which a l l the necessary m o t i f s f o r the under-s t and ing o f the a l l e g o r y are e s t a b l i s h e d , and the v u l g a r ' r e a l ' w o r l d i s s a t i r i z e d to make the n e c e s s i t y f o r the a l l e g o r i c a l escape c l e a r . The 129 f i f t h chapter completes the i n t r o d u c t i o n and he lps to form a frame f o r the fantasy i n be ing a p r e c o g n i t i o n of the f i n a l v i s i o n : here M a s k u l l f a i l s to c l imb a tower, w h i l e i n the f i n a l chapter Night spore succeeds i n c l i m b i n g one. By a neat i n v o l u t i o n which i m p l i e s the un-r e a l i t y of t ime , the opening o f the book i s hooked to the middle when M a s k u l l submits to Tydomin (Chapter xo) a n d wakes up on the couch i n the seance room to be s t r a n g l e d by K r a g . Thi s m o t i f reappears j u s t before the f i n a l v i s i o n when, on a r a f t - i s l a n d on S u r t u r ' s Ocean, Krag a c t u a l l y does s t r a n g l e M a s k u l l (Chapter 20) to f r ee N i g h t s p o r e . M a s k u l l ' s f a i l u r e to c l imb the tower f o l l o w s , the f i r s t s t r a n g l i n g ; N i g h t s p o r e ' s success i n c l i m b i n g the tower f o l l o w s the second. The i n t r o d u c t i o n and the promise of r e b i r t h on e a r t h f o r Night spore form the o ther two pa r t s of the a l l e g o r y , the frame. In many a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s , the dreamer reawakes to the phenomenal w o r l d a f t e r a c h i e v i n g the f i n a l v i s i o n , b u t , M a s k u l l b e i n g dead, Night spore has no body to reawake i n . However, r e b i r t h i n t o the w o r l d comes to e x a c t l y the same t h i n g . Thus A Voyage has the f o u r - p a r t s t r u c t u r e w h i c h , as we saw i n Chapter Two above, i s s tandard i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y . The main p a r t of the book begins when Krag and Night spore d i sappear , and M a s k u l l wakes up on Tormance, and i t ends when Krag and Nightspore reappear and M a s k u l l d ies (goes to s leep) on Tormance. The journey of M a s k u l l across Tormance i s l i t e r a l l y the progress of the a l l e g o r y , and t h i s has a t h r e e - p a r t s t r u c t u r e of i t s own. Jean P a u l b e l i e v e d t h a t " w h i l e on e a r t h , on ly our dreams can g ive us i n t i m a t i o n s of the h i g h e r r e a l i t y " ^ and he wrote a number o f a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s . In one of them, 130 'Der Tod i n der l e t z e n zwieten W e l t , ' he expresses " the i d e a of a s e r i e s of ' d e a t h s ' " as " a g radua l approach to a p e r f e c t s t a t e of b e i n g . " 7 This i s e x a c t l y the progress of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , where each of the three s e c t i o n s begins w i t h images o f the b i r t h of M a s k u l l , and ends w i t h images of h i s death. In the l a s t s e c t i o n , of course , M a s k u l l l i t e r a l l y d i e s . Each of these three s e c t i o n s has a c l imax i n which d e f i n i t i v e a l l e g o r i c a l statements are made. Each s e c t i o n i s on a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l , and the process i s r a t h e r l i k e W i l s o n ' s Chinese boxes , or Peer Gynt p e e l i n g h i s o n i o n , except tha t there i s something i n the m i d d l e : the v i t a l spark . Nature here i s not w i t t y , but t r a g i c . T h i s s p i r a l progress inwards w i l l be examined i n the next, chapter . M a s k u l l ' s journey i s , as i s common i n dream f a n t a s i e s , a quest to d i s c o v e r ( i n t h i s case, uncover) h i s t rue i d e n t i t y i to f i n d h i s r e a l nature (at p r e s e n t , masked) and h i s t rue name. "Who i n the w o r l d am I ? " A l i c e asks h e r s e l f . " A h , t h a t ' s the great p u z z l e . " I t i s n ' t . The great p u z z l e i s , who she i s Out of the w o r l d . In a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s , the embodiments' names and natures are one: the honest man i n The P i l g r i m ' s Progress i s c a l l e d Honest . P r o t a g o n i s t s , however, tend to be double , or of a dua l n a t u r e . Even A l i c e i s "ve ry fond of p re tend-9 i n g to be two p e o p l e . " M a s k u l l i s two people i n t h a t he i s a l s o N i g h t s p o r e : he i s both n o t h i n g and n o t h i n g . L i k e Thingumbob i n The Hunt ing of the 10 Snark—who "came as a b a k e r " but who w i l l n o t , l i k e the o t h e r s , accept h i s t rade as h i s name—Maskull meets a d r e a d f u l Boojum of Nothingness , Crys ta lman, and d i s cover s tha t he i s , i n the w o r l d , n o t h i n g . But j u s t be fore h i s dea th , M a s k u l l i s t o l d by K r a g , "you are N i g h t s p o r e " (VA 277) : 131 he does, a f t e r a l l , have an i d e n t i t y out of the w o r l d , and that i s , n o t h i n g . Mr . Vane i n L i l i t h f o l l o w s a s i m i l a r quest : " I became at once aware that I could g ive [Mr. Raven] no n o t i o n of who I was. . . . Then I understood that I d i d not know myse l f . . . . As f o r the name I went by i n my own w o r l d , I had f o r g o t t e n i t , and d i d not care to r e c a l l i t , f o r i t meant n o t h i n g . " 1 ' ' " When M a s k u l l , a f t e r .the mask has been s t r i p p e d o f f i n the p rogre s s , does get to know h i m s e l f , he d i s cover s tha t he i s r e a l l y N i g h t s p o r e , as , i n the same way, a f t e r h i s much s h o r t e r but more concentrated progress up the tower, Night spore d i scover s tha t he i s r e a l l y M u s p e l , and t h e r e f o r e , r e a l l y Krag a l s o . The g n o s t i c Irenaeus t e l l s us that knowledge i s s a l v a t i o n of the i n n e r man; and i t i s not c o r p o r e a l , f o r the body i s c o r r u p t i b l e ; nor i s i t p s y c h i c a l , f o r even the s o u l i s a product of the defect and i s as a l o d g i n g to the s p i r i t : s p i r i t u a l t h e r e f o r e must a l s o be s a l v a t i o n (12) . M a s k u l l and Night spore are day- and n i g h t - s e l f o p p o s i t e s ; Krag and Gangnet form a corresponding d u a l i t y . But i n the a l l e g o r y as progress we have a t r i n i t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e corresponding to the t h r e e f o l d nature of the human b e i n g . Man i s made up of body and s o u l , and "enc lo sed i n the s o u l i s the s p i r i t , or 'pneuma' ( c a l l e d a l s o the ' s p a r k ' ) , a p o r t i o n of the 13 d i v i n e substance from beyond which has f a l l e n i n t o the w o r l d . " That i s , a fragment of n o t h i n g . As Night spore i s the e s s e n t i a l s e l f of M a s k u l l , as leep w i t h i n h i m , so Krag i s the spark submerged w i t h i n N i g h t -spore . In i t s unredeemed s t a t e the pneuma thus immersed i n s o u l and f l e s h i s unconscious of i t s e l f , benumbed, a s l e e p , or i n t o x i c a t e d by the po i son of the w o r l d : i n b r i e f , i t i s ' i g n o r a n t . ' I t s awakening and l i b e r a t i o n i s e f f e c t e d through 'knowledge' (14) . 132 M a s k u l l t e l l s N i g h t s p o r e , " I ' m b e g i n n i n g to regard you as a second K r a g " (VA 34) . By c l i m b i n g the tower, Night spore i s l i b e r a t e d by the knowledge of the r e a l s t a t e of the w o r l d . Ju s t as M a s k u l l became N i g h t s p o r e , now Night spore has become K r a g : the Krag w i t h i n him has , l i t e r { 3 . a l l y > s u r f a c e d . I t has o f t en been n o t i c e d that the P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h e r m y t h o l -ogises w h i l e the P l a t o n i c poet p h i l o s o p h i s e s . B l a k e , S h e l l e y and Yeats are examples of the l a t t e r ; L indsay h i m s e l f wrote ' Ske tch Notes Towards a New System of P h i l o s o p h y . ' For the P l a t o n i c poe t , a g a i n , ph i lo sophy means, by and l a r g e , metaphys ics : that i s , as the recent outgrowth o f ' l i n g u i s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s ' has not t i r e d of r e i t e r a t i n g , the w o r l d o f 15 which we can know n o t h i n g . The poets would i t a l i c i s e t h i s d i f f e r e n t l y : through l i t e r a t u r e , they would argue, we can know n o t h i n g . L indsay pays V i s i a k the very h i g h e s t of compliments when he says of the l a t t e r ' s Medusa t h a t i t " t ranscends poetry and seems to enter the realm of metaphys ics , as a l l su rpa s s ing poetry does" (L 53) . Thi s k i n d of j u d g -ment i s the b a s i s o f L i n d s a y ' s defense of D e v i l ' s T o r : There are two orders of i m a g i n a t i v e w r i t e r s — t h o s e who descr ibe the w o r l d and those who e x p l a i n i t . The f i r s t — by f a r the l a r g e r c l a s s — a r e the poets or poe t i c -minded , even though t h e i r merchandise be c y n i c i s m or s o r d i d n e s s : they aim only at s e t t i n g f a m i l i a r th ings i n new and s t r i k i n g l i g h t s . But the second have the m u s i c a l temper —between metaphysics and music i s t h i s i n e x p l i c a b l e l i n k of c o n s a n g u i n i t y . T h e i r aim i s the p r e s e n t a t i o n of p a s s i o n , emotion, and the e lementa l forces g e n e r a l l y . They w i s h to get down to the roots of the w o r l d (TSG 27) • In K e a t s ' s phrase , poetry " i s not so f i n e a t h i n g as p h i l o s o p h y . " But music i s . 133 The mus ic i an can "awaken tha t i n e x p r e s s i b l e f e e l i n g , a k i n to n o t h i n g e l s e on ea r th—the sense of a d i s t a n t s p i r i t w o r l d , and of 16 our own h i g h e r l i f e i n i t , " a ccord ing to Hoffmann. "Mus ic i s the exper ience of a s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d " (TSG 13) , a c c o r d i n g to L i n d s a y . Much l a t e r , L indsay wrote that D e v i l ' s Tor was conceived i n a s p i r i t of mus ic . A prev ious book of mine, A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , was s i m i l a r l y generated ; and the g rea te s t compliment i t ever r e c e i v e d was from the mouth o f an a r t i s t and m u s i c i a n , who found i t s whole c o n s t r u c t i o n and compo-s i t i o n e s s e n t i a l l y ' m u s i c a l ' (TSG 28) . The o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s t h r e e f o l d : I n t r o d u c t i o n to the c e n t r a l themes ( E a r t h ) , e x p o s i t i o n and development (Tormance), c o n c l u s i o n (the tower ) . The c e n t r a l s e c t i o n i s of the 'theme and v a r i a t i o n s ' k i n d : each embodiment M a s k u l l meets i s an ins t rument of C r y s t a l m a n ' s . The name of the technique, , the l e i t m o t i f , i s a l s o borrowed from mus ic . The thought of A Voyage i s expressed through r e c u r r i n g images. For example, Krag r e f e r s to the "specimen g o b l i n " (VA 23) m a t e r i a l i s e d 17 by Backhouse as a f r u i t of Tormance. One of the f i r s t t h i n g s M a s k u l l p i c k s up on Tormance i s a "hard f r u i t . . . . of the s i z e of a l a r g e a p p l e , and shaped l i k e an egg" (VA 53) . J o i w i n d w i l l not a l l o w him to eat i t - -"We don ' t eat l i v i n g t h i n g s . The thought i s h o r r i b l e to u s " (VA 53)— and he throws i t away. Panawe produces out o f h i m s e l f " a d e l i c a t e l y b e a u t i f u l egg-shaped c r y s t a l of p a l e green" (VA 6 3 ) , w h i c h he throws away, s a y i n g " n o t h i n g comes from i t but v a n i t y " (VA 63) . Panawe and J o i w i n d c u l t i v a t e non-attachment to the w o r l d . Oceaxe, by c o n t r a s t , t r i e s to dominate the w o r l d by sheer w i l l - t o - p o w e r . She uses " a l i g h t - e m i t t i n g s tone" (VA 82) , "a pebble the s i z e of a hen ' s egg" (VA 83) , to convert 134 M a s k u l l to h e r way of s e e i n g . Dreamsinter g ives M a s k u l l a b i t t e r f r u i t to e a t , " a hard round n u t , of the s i z e o f a f i s t " (VA 152) , and t h i s induces a new k i n d of v i s i o n , of Muspel r a d i a n c e . In M a t t e r p l a y M a s k u l l f i n d s a f r u i t . . . l y i n g on the ground, of the s i z e and shape of a lemon, but w i t h a tougher s k i n . He p i c k e d i t up, i n t e n d i n g to eat the conta ined p u l p ; but i n s i d e , i t was a f u l l y formed young t r e e , j u s t on the p o i n t of b u r s t i n g i t s s h e l l (VA 192) . M a s k u l l f i n d s Sul lenbode "under a huge t r e e " which bears " a m u l t i t u d e of red f r u i t " : " h e r forearms were l i g h t l y f o l d e d , and i n one hand she h e l d a h a l f - e a t e n f r u i t " (VA 242) . L a s t l y , Gangnet takes "two or three ob jec t s that resembled eggs" from " t h e foot of one of the t r e e s " i n Barey (VA 269) . M a s k u l l eats two be fore Krag snatches " t h e remaining egg out of h i s hand and f l u n g i t aga ins t a t r e e t r u n k , where i t broke and s t u c k , a s p l a s h of s l i m e " (VA 270) . " I s there a s i g h t f i l t h i e r than a smashed p l e a s u r e ? " asks Krag (VA 270) . The image of the egg- s i zed f r u i t recurs through A Voyage to A r c t u r u s as a m o t i f . Of course , there i s no one meaning common to each occurrence : the meaning of the f r u i t depends on who uses i t and why. J o i w i n d and Panawe have not been e x p e l l e d from Eden: they throw t h e i r f r u i t away, whereas Sul lenbode i s a temptress , l i k e Eve , who has eaten the f r u i t and w i l l now seduce M a s k u l l i n t o c a r n a l i t y . Dreamsinter g ives M a s k u l l a hard nut w i t h an " i n t e n s e l y d i s a g r e e a b l e " (VA 152) p u l p ; Gangnet g ives him a f r a g i l e egg w i t h a s l i m y i n t e r i o r . Each f r u i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e to the g i v e r . The t h i n g that i s common to these l a s t two examples i s the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the i n s i d e and the o u t s i d e : Gangnet's f r u i t i s an 135 e v i l good and Dreams inter ' s a good e v i l . The r e l a t i o n s h i p of M a s k u l l and Nightspore i s a l s o one o f ou t s ide to i n s i d e : M a s k u l l i s the s h e l l , N ight spore the k e r n e l . In mus ic , a l e i t m o t i f i s a theme a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a person or a thought which recurs when the person appears on the stage or the thought becomes prominent i n the a c t i o n of the drama to which the music i s an accompaniment. In A Voyage, the drum taps of S o r g i e , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h S u r t u r , are l i t e r a l l y a l e i t m o t i f , but there are s e v e r a l o ther themes e s t a b l i s h e d i n the opening s e c t i o n which i n l i t e r a t u r e we may t h i n k of as b e i n g l e i t m o t i f s a l s o . For example, the images of b i r t h and death tha t we have a l ready mentioned, the problem of weight and the c l i m b i n g of the tower , the Crystalman g r i n , and the phenomenon of b a c k - r a y s . We must n o t , as prev ious c r i t i c s have done, e i t h e r pretend t h a t A Voyage begins on Tormance (Joanna Rus s ) , or w i s h tha t i t d i d ( W i l s o n ) . A Voyage to A r c t u r u s does b e g i n i n the suburban res idence (people always ' r e s i d e ' i n suburbs) of Montague F a u l l , and not w i t h v i s i o n but w i t h theosophy and s p i r i t u a l i s m . In t h i s opening s e c t i o n , however, the main m o t i f s e s s e n t i a l f o r the unders tanding of the a l l e g o r y are i n t r o d u c e d , and we must examine i t i n some d e t a i l . In her po lemic i n E x t r a p o l a t i o n , Joanna Russ complains, tha t A Voyage to A r c t u r u s conta ins too l i t t l e s p e c i f i c i t y , or p a r t i c u l a r i t y , or con-creteness ( three terms wi th , bu t a s i n g l e thought) . In the opening chapter , however, there i s enough concreteness to s i n k almost any n o v e l . In the very f i r s t sentence we are g iven the month and the time of day, the name of a house and i t s s i t u a t i o n , the names of two charac ter s and the p r o f e s s i o n 136 of one of them. So i t goes on . The scene i s very thoroughly s e t . 18 We are i n a room decked out f o r a p s y c h i c event : Backhouse i s to ' m a t e r i a l i s e ' a s p i r i t . Yeats would have been f a s c i n a t e d . The s e t t i n g i s " a r e p l i c a , or n e a r l y so , of the Drury Lane p r e s e n t a t i o n of the temple scene from The Magic F l u t e " (VA 16) , and a "h idden o r c h e s t r a " 19 p lays " the b e a u t i f u l and solemn s t r a i n s of M o z a r t ' s ' t emple ' m u s i c . " The s p e c t a t o r s — t h e people L indsay hates most, who c a r r y over t h e i r m a t e r i a l i s m i n t o the s p i r i t w o r l d — i n c l u d e " P r i o r , the prosperous C i t y coffee i m p o r t e r , and Lang, the s t o c k j o b b e r , w e l l known i n h i s own c i r c l e as an amateur p r e s t a d i g i t a t o r " (VA 14) , and F a u l l , the South American Merchant h i m s e l f . A Voyage to Arc turus b e g i n s , i n f a c t , as good dream a l l e g o r i e s i n prose tend to do (MacDonald's Phantastes and L i l i t h , L e w i s ' s That Hideous S t r e n g t h ) , l i k e a very bad n o v e l . Into t h i s w o r l d , though c l e a r l y from another k i n d of w o r l d , e n t e r M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e . N a t u r a l l y , i n t r o d u c t i o n s are d i f f i c u l t : "One r e j o i c e s i n the name of M a s k u l l " says M r s . Trent (VA 15) , who has i n v i t e d them. She cannot t e l l the assembled company what these two do ' i n the C i t y ' : tha t i s n ' t where t h e y ' r e from. And t h e i r names are not ' n e u t r a l ' : t h e i r names are what they e s s e n t i a l l y a r e . When M a s k u l l and Nightspore e n t e r the room, there i s " a loud and t e r r i b l e crash o f f a l l e n masonry" which causes " the assembled p a r t y to s t a r t up from t h e i r c h a i r s i n con-s t e r n a t i o n . I t sounded as i f the e n t i r e upper p a r t of the b u i l d i n g had c o l l a p s e d " (VA 18) . But no one o u t s i d e the room has heard a n y t h i n g , and 20 n o t h i n g i s amiss . Night spore says—and these are h i s f i r s t w o r d s — " i t was s u p e r n a t u r a l " i n o r i g i n (VA 18) . This i s evidence t h a t "we are 137 surrounded by a t e r r i b l y queer unseen u n i v e r s e " (1, 43) , which i s the r e a l w o r l d . Of the ' temple scene ' L indsay says , "what words are to M u s i c , i n d i v i d u a l s are to the Subl ime" (TSG 13) . What music g ives us i s a sense of the sub l ime : the subl ime i s " the shadow of the beauty of another w o r l d " (DT 6 8 ) . L indsay w r i t e s , "Long s i n c e ( f o r my own use) I have p o s t u l a t e d the e x i s t e n c e of a ' s u b l i m e ' w o r l d , the word b e i n g employed f o r want of a b e t t e r . But t h i s ' s u b l i m e ' i s not i d e n t i c a l 21 w i t h the ' s u b l i m e ' i n common u s e . " And l a t e r , "Schopenhauer, f o r example, opposes the subl ime to the b e a u t i f u l . I should w i s h to oppose i t to the v u l g a r " (L 50 ) . L indsay here t r i v i a l i s e s Schopenhauer, who a c t u a l l y says i n The World as W i l l and Idea that " the proper oppos i te of the sublime i s something which would not at f i r s t glance be recog-22 n i s e d as such : the charming or a t t r a c t i v e ( T h i r d Book, sec . 40) . T h i s i s a c t u a l l y q u i t e c l o s e to what L indsay means by the v u l g a r : something which e x c i t e s the w i l l , something which o f f e r s immediate (o f ten t r i v i a l ) s a t i s f a c t i o n . M o z a r t ' s temple music i s sub l ime , but i n the context i t i s b e i n g put to v u l g a r use. F a u l l ' s i n t e r e s t i n s p i r i t u a l i s m i s v u l g a r , and Backhouse sees " the concealed b a r b a r i a n i n the complacent gleam of h i s eye" (VA 15) . Backhouse i s enormously g i f t e d — " I dream w i t h open e y e s , " he s ays , "and others see my dreams" (VA 13)—but , i n s p i t e of h i s p r o t e s t a t i o n s , he i s p r o s t i t u t i n g h i s t a l e n t : he too i s 23 v u l g a r . When J o i w i n d asks M a s k u l l why he l e f t e a r t h , he i s ab le to say , " I was t i r e d of v u l g a r i t y " (VA 62) . The opening chapter prov ides the v u l g a r i t y which makes the escape to Tormance neces sary , and aga ins t 138 which the s u b l i m i t y of the v i s i o n i n the l a s t chapter w i l l c o n t r a s t . Into t h i s v u l g a r Hampstead w o r l d , then , b u r s t s the f i e r y K r a g , a s t r anger and i n t r u d e r . He guffaws, thumps F a u l l on the back , and s t r a n g l e s " w i t h h i s h a i r y hands" the b e a u t i f u l s p i r i t tha t the medium has m a t e r i a l i s e d . One might have s a i d Krag came i n ' l i k e a b rea th of f r e s h a i r ' were i t not f o r the r e s u l t : the body f e l l i n a heap to the f l o o r . I t s face was uppermost. The guests were u n u t t e r a b l y shocked to observe that i t s expre s s ion had changed from the myster ious but f a s c i n a t i n g smi le to a v u l g a r , s o r d i d , b a s t i a l g r i n , which cast a c o l d shadow of moral n a s t i -ness i n t o every h e a r t . The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was accompanied by a s i c k e n i n g s tench of the graveyard (VA 22) . Thus i s a c e n t r a l m o t i f i n t r o d u c e d . N i g h t s p o r e , who through dreaming has mainta ined some contact w i t h the r e a l w o r l d , r e a l i s e s that t h a t i s " C r y s t a l m a n ' s e x p r e s s i o n on i t s f a c e " (VA 2 3 ) . The u l t i m a t e mockery of the body and the phenomenal w o r l d i t i n h a b i t s i s the g r i n of the s k u l l . There i s the s m e l l of the graveyard , and we may r e c a l l the s m e l l of the graveyard i n which Hamlet p h i l o s o p h i z e s over the s k u l l of the former j e s t e r , "Not one now to mock your own g r i n n i n g " (Hamlet, V . i . 1 8 7 ) . The g r i n o f the s k u l l , the face of Crys ta lman, i s worn i n death by a l l of H i s c h i l d r e n on Tormance: Crimtyphon, Tydomin, G l e a m e i l , L e e h a l l f a e , and Su l lenbode . I t i s the s i g n o f damnation. I t i s " the t r u e l i k e n e s s of Shap ing" : " I t i s Shaping s t r i p p e d of i l l u s i o n " (VA 147). M a s k u l l h i m s e l f i s one of Crys ta lman ' s c h i l d r e n , and, h i s name assures u s , he too must wear i t i n death , when the mask of i l l u s i o n , i s s t r i p p e d o f f , and the g r i n n i n g s k u l l r e v e a l e d . The Night spore l i b e r a t e d by M a s k u l l ' s death f i n d s the g r i n to be the whole nature of the shadow, the darkness that i s 139 Crysta lman: " the darkness around h i m , on a l l four s i d e s , was g r i n n i n g " (VA 286) . In the words of the S y b i l , "Nowhere was there ea r th nor 24 heaven above, / But a g r i n n i n g gap . " At the end of the f i r s t and at the b e g i n n i n g of the second chapter , K r a g ' s rough humour cont ra s t s b e a u t i f u l l y w i t h the s t i l t e d n a r r a t i o n ("The guests were u n u t t e r a b l y shocked to observe . . .") appropr i a t e to the w o r l d of v u l g a r s u b u r b a n - v i l l a theosophy of the opening . Krag s ays , " T r y and s i m p l i f y your i d e a s , my f r i e n d . The a f f a i r i s p l a i n and s e r i o u s " (VA 25 ) . I t sounds i n c r e d i b l e . M a s k u l l i s asked i f he would " l i k e to see the l and where t h i s s o r t of f r u i t Ithe "specimen g o b l i n " ] grows w i l d " (VA 2 2 ) ; that i s , Tormance, which i s " the r e s i d e n t i a l suburb of A r c t u r u s " (VA 24 ) . Much as through a " P e r s p e c t i v e G l a s s " C h r i s t i a n i s shown " the 25 Gates of the C e l e s t i a l C i t y " by the Shepherds, M a s k u l l i s shown, through a l e n s , a c lose-up view of the double s t a r and i t s p l a n e t , as a s i g n . A few days l a t e r , M a s k u l l and Night spore t r a v e l northwards to the b l e a k observatory of Starkness ( s t re s sed as a spondee) , i n S c o t l a n d . Th i s i s the f i r s t stage of a l o n g j o u r n e y , taken c o n s i s t e n t l y northwards . The l i g h t of. A l p p a i n can sometimes be seen i n the Nor thern sky (VA 112) ; B r a n c h s p e l l , l i k e our own sun, se t s i n the west (VA 142). On e a r t h , the n o r t h i s ' t h e l and of the midnight s u n ' , and A l p p a i n i s , as we have seen, a k i n d of ' n o c t u r n a l s u n ' , l i g h t i n g God's road r a t h e r than the w o r l d ' s . A g a i n , on e a r t h the n o r t h has been the home of the Norsemen, whom Lindsay admired and claimed as h i s a n c e s t o r s , and the country of the Norsemen has a w i l d and subl ime grandeur (as noted by C a r l y l e and M o r r i s ) unknown i n e f f e t e southern c l i m e s . L a s t l y , a l though Surt 'comes 140 from the south at the end of the w o r l d , i n I c e l a n d i c l i t e r a t u r e " the n o r t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y the l and of death and the l a n d of man's 26 27 enemies . " " H e l i s a l s o somewhat to the n o r t h as w e l l as downward." In the apoca lypse , accord ing to the 'Song of the S y b i l , ' "Men t r e a d 2 8 H e l ' s Road . " M a s k u l l f o l l o w s a s t r a i g h t and narrow path to H e l l accord ing to "an i n f a l l i b l e r u l e , " he t e l l s Corpang: " I always go due n o r t h " (VA 224) . Thi s must lead him to h i s death i n the hands of h i s enemy, Crys ta lman. M a s k u l l ' s death i s a l s o the end of the w o r l d , s i n c e the w o r l d (any w o r l d , Schopenhauer would argue) i s on ly h i s i d e a : Tormance i s the p r o j e c t i o n of M a s k u l l ' s mind. When M a s k u l l d i e s , i t d i s s o l v e s , and Night spore f i n d s h i m s e l f c l i m b i n g a tower which must be the same as the tower of S t a rknes s , from which the voyage began. The observatory at Starkness i s " a square tower of g r a n i t e masonry, 29 seventy fee t i n he ight " . (VA 29) w i t h s i x windows a l l f a c i n g east ( sunr i s e ) and l o o k i n g over the sea . In l i t e r a t u r e the tower i s a t r a d -i t i o n a l i c o n , l i t e r a l l y p r o v i d i n g and f i g u r a t i v e l y s y m b o l i s i n g an i n c r e a s e i n v i s i o n . None may ascend, Bacon p o i n t e d o u t , except by the wind ing s t a i r . Many poets have used t h i s i c o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y M i l t o n , R i l k e and Y e a t s , but s t a n d i n g behind the whole p o e t i c t r a d i t i o n , most i m p o r t a n t l y , i s Dante. Gilgamesh r e a l i s e s that " o n l y the gods l i v e f o r ever w i t h g l o r i o u s Shamash, but as f o r us men, our days are numbered, our occupa-t i o n s are a b r e a t h of w i n d " and he asks, . "Where i s the man who can clamber 30 to heaven?" In The D i v i n e Comedy, t h i s i s what 'Dante ' does, hut i t i s on ly a v i s i o n , and h i s poem but a b r e a t h of w i n d . The s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n w r i t e r , A r t h u r C. C l a r k e , w r i t e s , 141 Of a l l the n a t u r a l f o r c e s , g r a v i t y i s the most myster-ious and the most i m p l a c a b l e . I t c o n t r o l s our l i v e s from b i r t h to death, k i l l i n g or maiming us i f we make the s l i g h t e s t s l i p . No wonder t h a t , conscious of t h e i r earth-bound s l a v e r y , men have always looked w i s t f u l l y at b i r d s and c l o u d s , and have p i c t u r e d the sky as the abode o f the gods. The very e x p r e s s i o n 'heavenly b e i n g ' i m p l i e s a freedom from g r a v i t y w h i c h , u n t i l the p r e s e n t , we have known only i n our dreams (31) . 'Dante ' has the extreme good for tune to grow l i g h t e r as he c l i m b s . V i r g i l t e l l s h i m , "Such i s t h i s mountain , / That i t i s always arduous s t a r t i n g up, / But the f u r t h e r up one goes, the l e s s i t h u r t s " ( I I 4 ) . Jus t the reverse i s the case f o r M a s k u l l when he t r i e s to cl imb the z i g g u r a t or pathway to heaven t h a t i s the tower a t S t a rknes s : Hard ly had he mounted h a l f a dozen s t e p s , however, be fore he was compelled to pause, to ga in b r e a t h . He seemed to be c a r r y i n g u p s t a i r s not one M a s k u l l , but t h r e e . As he proceeded, the s e n s a t i o n of c rush ing w e i g h t , so f a r from d i m i n i s h i n g , grew worse and worse . I t was n e a r l y p h y s i c -a l l y i m p o s s i b l e to go on ; h i s lungs could not take i n enough ©xygen, w h i l e h i s h e a r t thumped l i k e a s h i p ' s engine (VA 36) . Even at the end of A Voyage, when Nightspore has been f reed of the burden of the f l e s h which i s M a s k u l l , N ight spore exper iences a great dea l of d i f f i c u l t y i n c l i m b i n g the tower , the " l a d d e r to heaven" (VA 281) : A f t e r he had mounted a dozen steps o r so , he paused to take b r e a t h . Each s tep was i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t to ascend; he f e l t as though he were c a r r y i n g a heavy man on h i s s h o u l d e r s . I t s t r u c k a f a m i l i a r chord i n h i s mind (VA 281) . The ascent grew more and more e x h a u s t i n g , so much so tha t he had f r e q u e n t l y to s i t down, u t t e r l y crushed by h i s own deadweight. S t i l l , he got to the t h i r d window (yA 282) . 142 Nightspore had a foreknowledge tha t the s i x t h window would prove to be the l a s t . Noth ing would have kept him from ascending to i t , f o r he guessed that the nature of Crystalman h i m s e l f would there become m a n i f e s t . Every s tep upward was l i k e a b l o o d y - l i f e - a n d - d e a t h s t r u g g l e . The s t a i r s n a i l e d him to the ground; the a i r pres sure caused b l o o d to gush from h i s nose and e a r s ; h i s head clanged l i k e an i r o n b e l l (VA 284-^85) . Night spore exper iences such d i f f i c u l t y because he i s pa s s ing through the opaque body of Crys ta lman; he i s , l i t e r a l l y , c l i m b i n g out of c r e a t i o n , out of the r i v e r of m a t t e r : "As soon as h i s head was above the t r a p , b r e a t h i n g the f ree a i r , he had the same p h y s i c a l s e n s a t i o n 32 as a man s tepp ing out of w a t e r " (VA 286) . M a s k u l l ' s r i g i d l y northward t r i p across Tormance has some ups and downs to keep i t d r a m a t i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . These are not towers , but more n a t u r a l z i g g u r a t s : mountains , l i k e D a n t e ' s . "We have made the mountain-top a symbol f o r a c o n d i t i o n of mind open to every i n f l u e n c e of the sky and dominating the vas t landscape of e a r t h " w r i t e s Maud 33 B o d k i n , when d i s c u s s i n g Dante. J . A . MacCul loch has found tha t there 34 i s . . . evidence of mountain worship among I the a n c i e n t c e l t s ] . " We have a l ready p o i n t e d out that some of L i n d s a y ' s names c o n t a i n suggest ions of mountains : Tormance, A l p p a i n , K r a g . C o l i n W i l s o n has suggested that o ther names i n A Voyage "seem to be d e r i v e d from S c o t t i s h names. One has only to l ook at the names of peaks v i s i b l e from Ben Nevis to see the resemblance: Corpach, G u l v a i n , Ben S g r i o l , Ladhar B h e i n n , w h i l e Loch Hourn immediately b r i n g s D i s c o u r n [ s i c ] to mind" (TSG 48) . There are three important mountain areas on Tormance: the Ifdawn Mare s t , Sant , and L i c h s t o r m . 143 M a s k u l l f l i e s on a shrowk, a monster r e m i n i s c e n t of Dante ' s Geryon (I 17 ) , w i t h Oceaxe, to the mountains of the Ifdawn Mares t . Th i s i s , as the name suggests , a l and where almost anyth ing i s pos-s i b l e . The "mountains have most e x t r a o r d i n a r y shapes. A l l the l i n e s are s t r a i g h t and perpend icu l a r—no s lopes or curves " (VA 89) . Oceaxe says " t h a t ' s t y p i c a l of I fdawn. Nature i s a l l hammer blows w i t h us . Nothing s o f t and g r a d u a l . " I t i s " a p l ace of qu ick d e c i s i o n s " (VA 89) . I t i s the w o r l d as w i l l . Everyone ac t s from naked w i l l to power. M a s k u l l has j u s t l e f t Panawe and J o i w i n d , who have renounced w i l l a l -t o g e t h e r , who l i v e on w a t e r , and i n innocence . W i t h Oceaxe, M a s k u l l has t r a v e l l e d to a w o r l d of e x p e r i e n c e , where the view i s that "animals were made to be ea ten , and s imple natures were made to be absorbed" (VA 88) . There has been some i n c r e a s e i n consciousness ( there are mounta ins ) , but i t i s p r e c a r i o u s : mountains and v a l l e y s appear and disappear e r r a t i c a l l y . M a s k u l l sees a l a r g e t r a c t o f f o r e s t not f a r ahead, b e a r i n g many t ree s and r o c k s , suddenly subs ided w i t h an awful r o a r and crashed down i n t o an i n v i s i b l e g u l f . What was s o l i d l and one minute became a c l e a n - c u t chasm the next (VA 99) . I t i s a w o r l d of k i l l and be k i l l e d ; l i f e on a k n i f e edge. Sant i s much more s o l i d and r e l i a b l e than Ifdawn. I t i s not mountainous at a l l , but a very h i g h p l a t e a u . M a s k u l l i s now t r a v e l l i n g w i t h Tydomin and S p a d e v i l , whose law i s duty (VA 133). S h o r t l y be fore sunset they a r r i v e d at the e x t r e m i t y of the upland p l a i n , above which towered the b l a c k c l i f f s of the Sant L e v e l s . A d i z z y , a r t i f i c i a l l y cons t ruc ted s t a i r c a s e , of more than a thousand steps of v a r y i n g depth , t w i s t i n g and f o r k i n g i n order to conform to the angles of the p r e c i p i c e s , l e d to the w o r l d overhead (VA 140) . 144 From here " the huge pyramid" of D i s s c o u r n , h i g h e s t peak of I fdawn, " l o o k e d n o t h i n g more than a s l i g h t s w e l l i n g on the face of the e a r t h " (VA 140)• But the law of duty the t r a v e l l e r s b r i n g i s r e j e c t e d by C a t i c e on b e h a l f of the men of Sant. T h e i r s o c i e t y i s not p e r f e c t , but i t i s the bes t t h a t can be managed. For one t h i n g , i t i s an a l l -male s o c i e t y , and C a t i c e i s not about to a l l o w any women i n t o i t . For another , duty i s "but a c l o a k under which we share the p lea sure of o ther peop le " (VA 145). M a s k u l l dec ides , Henceforward, as l ong as I l i v e , I s h a l l f i g h t w i t h my n a t u r e , and refuse to f e e l p l e a s u r e , f o r the w o r l d w i t h i t s sweetness seems to me a s o r t of c h a r n e l house. I f e e l a l o a t h i n g f o r e v e r y t h i n g i n i t , i n c l u d i n g mysel f (VA 145) . The land of Sant may be f l a t and u n e x c i t i n g (Wayne Booth says "Even 35 the most e l e v a t e d p l a t e a u i s l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g than a mounta in" ) but i t i s secure and r e l i a b l e and the bes t tha t can be got . To hate p lea sure and avo id women i s the bes t way to avo id Crys ta lman ' s t r a p s . M a s k u l l does n o t , o f course , remember what he has l ea rned i n Sant when pur su ing other i n t e r e s t s i n o ther l andscapes , o therwise he would not f a l l f o r Su l l enbode , who l i v e s on the mountain c a l l e d S a r c l a s h i n the l and of L i c h s t o r m . This l and i s a l i t t l e l i k e Ifdawn, but w i t h o u t I fdawn's mercenary v u l g a r i t y . The Mornstab Pas s , seen by the l i g h t of Tormance's moon, T e a r g e l d , has a " w i l d , n o b l e , l o n e l y beauty" (VA 248) " S a r c l a s h was a mighty mountain mass i n the shape of a horseshoe. I t s two ends p o i n t e d wes t , and were separated from each o ther by a m i l e or more of empty space. The n o r t h e r n end became the r i d g e on w h i c h they 145 s tood" (VA 249) . I t i s a long t h i s r i d g e , which corresponds to the kn i fe -edge p r e c i p i c e j o i n i n g Panawe's homeland to the Ifdawn Marest (VA 70-71), that M a s k u l l , Sul lenbode and Corpang t r a v e l . A long the r i d g e , " the road descended by an easy g r a d i e n t , and was f o r a l o n g d i s t ance comparat ive ly smooth" (VA 251) . The going i s e a s y — d o w n h i l l . V i r g i l t e l l s the c l i m b i n g Dante to r i s e up, and master your exhaus t ion With the s p i r i t , which wins every b a t t l e , Prov ided the body does not drag i t down ( I 2 4 ) . We have seen bo th M a s k u l l and N i g h t s p o r e , i n c l i m b i n g the tower to heaven, f i g h t i n g w i t h the weight of c r e a t i o n . A l s o , l i g h t has an oppos i te i n dark as w e l l as i n heavy. Dante i s c l i m b i n g towards the l i g h t , and even he "cannot t r a v e l up by n i g h t " : You c o u l d not even Pass beyond t h i s l i n e , once the sun had gone. Not that anyth ing but the dark of n i g h t Could h i n d e r you from making the a scent . That dark a lone makes the w i l l powerless ( I I 7 ) . In h i s f i r s t attempt to c l imb the tower, M a s k u l l attempts to l i g h t h i s own way w i t h a few h a s t i l y s t r u c k matches (VA 36-37) : they are a poor s u b s t i t u t e f o r Muspel f i r e . Krag i s the bearer of the l i g h t , though on e a r t h i t i s on ly a " f e e b l y g l immering l a n t e r n " (VA 39) . The three men cl imb the tower together a f t e r M a s k u l l and Night spore have had t h e i r arms s l a s h e d : they are now dead to E a r t h and the tower i s not a z i g g u r a t but a l aunch ing p l a t f o r m . Krag goes f i r s t w i t h the l a n t e r n : " the others hastened a f t e r h i m , to take advantage of the l i g h t " (VA 40) . M a s k u l l stops to look out of a window. "Krag and Night spore meanwhile had gone on ahead w i t h the l i g h t , so that he had to complete the ascent i n darkness" (VA 41) . 146 On Tormance, important s y m b o l i c a l va lue i s a t tached to the l i g h t of the twin suns , B r a n c h s p e l l and A l p p a i n , as M a s k u l l t r a v e l s from B r a n c h s p e l l ' s day to A l p p a i n ' s , from the south to the n o r t h . These suns we d i scussed i n Chapters Three and Four . Tormance i s a l s o l i t by a t h i r d heavenly body, the moon Tearge ld . This p l ays only a s m a l l p a r t i n the a l l e g o r y , and i t s genera l s i g n i f i c a n c e seems to be roughly tha t of our own moon. F i r s t l y i t makes landscapes myster ious and b e a u t i f u l , and i s t h e r e f o r e an agent of Crys ta lman, who l i k e s the myster ious and b e a u t i f u l . H i s w o r l d i s r e a l l y , of course , a " c h a r n e l house" (VA 145) of w i l l i n g and k i l l i n g . I t i s Tearge ld t h a t g ives L i c h s t o r m i t s " w i l d , n o b l e , l o n e l y beauty" (VA 248) . Secondly the moon, s i n c e i t waxes and wanes p e r i o d i c a l l y , s i n c e i t i s i n c o n s t a n t , and s i n c e i t shines by r e f l e c t e d l i g h t , i s a s soc i a t ed w i t h woman, whom the Archons designed to keep man bound to the w o r l d . Teargeld l i g h t s the journey of M a s k u l l and Su l lenbode , and t h a t o f M a s k u l l and G l e a m e i l —her name suggests a fragment of moonl ight—on Swaylone's I s l a n d . T h i r d l y , as the female muse, the moon l i g h t s the w o r l d o f poet s . Keats i s an e a r t h l y example, E a r t h r i d a Tormantic one. When M a s k u l l and G l e a m e i l go to see E a r t h r i d p l a y h i s l a k e - l i k e ins trument I r o n t i c k , he must w a i t f o r the moon to r i s e be fore s t a r t i n g . He creates a w o r l d of shapes which i s a d i f f e r e n t r e a l i t y from the r e a l i t y of the w o r l d (he i s e a r t h - r i d ) , but i t i s not the t rue r e a l i t y of Muspe l . H i s music comes from the subconscious (the l a k e ) , not from the w o r l d beyond. I t i s l i t not by the n o c t u r n a l sun , but by the o r d i n a r y moon. Accord ing to E a r t h r i d , there are two k inds of mus ic : tha t based on 147 p lea sure and that based on p a i n . He t e l l s M a s k u l l , "my music i s founded on p a i n f u l tones ; and thus i t s symmetry i s w i l d , and d i f f i c u l t to d i s c o v e r ; i t s emotion i s b i t t e r and t e r r i b l e " (VA 181) . The m a t e r i a l a t the Demiurge's d i s p o s a l proved i n t r a c t a b l e , bu t I f Shaping ' s p lans had gone s t r a i g h t , l i f e would have been l i k e t h a t o ther s o r t of mus ic . He who seeks can f i n d t r ace s of that i n t e n t i o n i n the w o r l d of n a t u r e . But as i t has turned o u t , r e a l l i f e resembles my music and mine i s the t rue music (VA 181). E a r t h r i d i s not p l a y i n g Crys ta lman ' s tune , even i f he i s not p l a y i n g S u r t u r ' s : though E a r t h r i d i s k i l l e d , we are not t o l d t h a t i n death he wears the Crystalman g r i n (VA 187) . In f a c t , u s i n g E a r t h r i d ' s i n s t r u m e n t , M a s k u l l i s ab le to conjure up the Muspel r a d i a n c e , a longs ide which "Tear-ge ld looked f a i n t and p a l e " (VA 185) , and " f i n a l l y disappeared e n t i r e l y . " " M a s k u l l p layed h e r o i c a l l y on" (VA 185): The rad iance grew t e r r i b l e . I t was everywhere, but M a s k u l l f a n c i e d that i t was f a r b r i g h t e r i n one p a r t -i c u l a r q u a r t e r . He thought t h a t i t was becoming l o c a l i z e d , prepara tory to c o n t r a c t i n g i n t o a s o l i d f o r m . . . . Immediately a f terward the bottom of the l ake subs ided . I t s waters f e l l through, and h i s ins trument was b roken . The M u s p e l - l i g h t v a n i s h e d . The moon shone out a g a i n , but M a s k u l l cou ld not see i t . A f t e r that u n e a r t h l y s h i n i n g , he seemed to h i m s e l f to be i n t o t a l b lackness (VA 185-86). A r t of the r i g h t k i n d ( p a i n f u l and d i f f i c u l t ) may be u s e f u l i n g i v i n g us an i d e a of the w o r l d of Muspe l , but i t cannot b r i n g the w o r l d i n t o b e i n g . I t s ins t ruments cannot cope w i t h the s t r a i n . As was p o i n t e d out i n Chapter Four , Crys ta lman ' s tune i s a w a l t z , w h i l e S u r t u r ' s i s a march rhythm on a drum. We have to go on a l i t t l e e x c u r s i o n from Starkness f o r t h i s m o t i f to be i n t r o d u c e d , though i t i s 148 i m p l i c i t i n M a s k u l l ' s exper ience c l i m b i n g the tower f o r the f i r s t t i m e , on h i s r e t u r n from the e x c u r s i o n ( "h i s hear t thumped l i k e a s h i p ' s eng ine " [VA 36] ) . Night spore takes M a s k u l l to " a showplace" (VA 34) , the gap of Sorg ie (from the German sorge , c a r e ) . To get there they have to t r a v e r s e a narrow ledge , w i n d i n g a long the face of the p r e c i p i c e a few yards beneath where they were s t a n d i n g . I t averaged from f i f t e e n to t h i r t y inches i n w i d t h . . . . The s h e l f d i d not extend f o r above a quar te r of a m i l e , but i t s passage was somewhat u n n e r v i n g ; there was a sheer drop to the sea four hundred feet below (VA 34-35) . At the end of t h i s ledge i s a " f a i r - s i z e d p l a t f o r m of r o c k " o v e r l o o k i n g " a narrow i n l e t of the s e a . " Thi s i s the Gap of S o r g i e . M a s k u l l f o l l o w s N i g h t s p o r e ' s example i n " l y i n g at f u l l l e n g t h , face downward" and s t a r i n g " s t r a i g h t down at the w a t e r . " " W h i l e he was i n e f f e c t u a l l y g a z i n g , he heard what sounded l i k e the b e a t i n g of a drum. . . . I t was very f a i n t , but q u i t e d i s t i n c t . " "The beats were i n no way drowned by the f a r l ouder sound of the s u r f , but seemed to be long to a d i f f e r e n t w o r l d " (VA 35) . Night spore prophes ies that M a s k u l l w i l l hear the sound again and says , "Only t r y always to hear i t more and more d i s t i n c t l y " (VA 36) . M a s k u l l does hear the sound a g a i n . In f a c t , he f o l l o w s i t a l l the way across Tormance, and the d i s c o v e r y o f i t s o r i g i n w i l l c o n s t i t u t e h i s own f i n a l v i s i o n . Soon a f t e r a r r i v i n g on Tormance, when w i t h Panawe and J o i w i n d , M a s k u l l repeats the exper ience he has had w i t h N i g h t s p o r e . He walks out onto a l a k e , " l a y down at f u l l l e n g t h , and peered i n t o the depths. I t was w e i r d l y c l e a r : he cou ld see down f o r an i n d e f i n i t e d i s t a n c e , w i t h o u t a r r i v i n g a t any bottom" (VA 6 5 ) . H i s t r i p to Tormance has brought M a s k u l l 149 much c l o s e r to the s u r f a c e , v i z . of the m a t e r i a l w o r l d (which seems r e a l but i s dreamlike) and to p e n e t r a t i n g through to the r e a l i t y . He hears " the rhythm of a drum" (VA 66) : The sound appeared to him to belong to a d i f f e r e n t w o r l d from that i n which he was t r a v e l i n g . The l a t t e r was m y s t i c a l , d r e a m l i k e , and u n b e l i e v a b l e — t h e drumming was l i k e a very dim undertone of r e a l i t y (VA 66) . In t h i s case—though no l o g i c a l connect ion i s i m p l i e d — t h e exper ience of the drumming i s f o l l o w e d by M a s k u l l ' s b e i n g " tormented" (VA 66) by the b lue l i g h t of A l p p a i n , which has j u s t s e t . I f the drum-taps are " l i k e a very dim undertone of r e a l i t y " (VA 66 ) , then t h i s w o r l d must be f a l s e . T h i s i s the c o n c l u s i o n M a s k u l l reaches when he has " f l u n g h i m s e l f at f u l l l e n g t h on h i s ches t , to see what c o u l d be seen of the l a k e of f i r e " (VA 127) i n which Tydomin i s b u r y i n g Crimtyphon: A f a i n t sound of drumming came up. He l i s t e n e d i n t e n t l y , and as he d i d so h i s hear t quickened and the b l a c k cares r o l l e d away from h i s s o u l . A l l the w o r l d and i t s a c c i d -ents seemed at that moment f a l s e , and w i t h o u t meaning (VA 127). I f the drumming reminds us we are a l i e n s i n a f a l s e w o r l d , then i t must a l s o remind us of our t rue home: The drum beats had t h i s p e c u l i a r i t y — t h o u g h odd and m y s t i c a l , there was n o t h i n g a w e - i n s p i r i n g i n them, but on the cont ra ry they reminded [Maskul l ] of some p lace and some l i f e w i t h which he was p e r f e c t l y f a m i l i a r (VA 151). Our t rue home i s the w o r l d of Muspe l . But that i s , as we have seen, the w o r l d which N i g h t s p o r e , not M a s k u l l , w i l l e v e n t u a l l y reach . F u r t h e r , M a s k u l l must d ie to make t h i s p o s s i b l e . This i s s i g n i f i e d by the v i s i o n M a s k u l l sees when he has eaten the f r u i t g iven to him by Dreamsinter . 150 "The now f a m i l i a r drum rhythm was h e a r d — t h i s t ime accompanied by the tramp of marching f e e t " (VA 153). M a s k u l l sees phantom M a s k u l l , Krag and Nightspore marching past him to " the pu l se of the drum" (VA 153). Phantom Krag stabs phantom M a s k u l l i n the back w h i l e phantom "Nightspore marched on a l o n e , s t e r n and unmoved" (VA 154) towards the Muspel l i g h t which i s now a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the drumming. " M a s k u l l f e l t h i s s o u l l o o s e n i n g from i t s b o d i l y e n v e l o p e . " " H i s body was incapable of endur ing such shocks , and a l l of a sudden he tumbled over i n a f a i n t tha t resembled death" (VA 154). The r e a l Night spore i s , of course , i n s i d e M a s k u l l , who must d ie f o r h i s complementary double to be r e l e a s e d . When t h i s happens, we d i s c o v e r the source of the drumming. In the re ferences to the drumming, L indsay has repea ted ly mentioned the b e a t i n g of M a s k u l l ' s h e a r t . On the steps of the tower, " h i s hear t thumped l i k e a s h i p ' s engine" (VA 36) ; above the l ake of f i r e " h i s hear t qu ickened" (VA 12 7 ) . Hear ing the drumming w i t h Corpang, " M a s k u l l ' s h e a r t beat q u i c k l y " (VA 221) ; h e a r i n g i t w i t h Sul lenbode M a s k u l l ' s hear t beat w i l d l y . H i s body was l i k e a p r i s o n . He longed to throw i t o f f , to s p r i n g up and become i n c o r -porated w i t h the subl ime un iver se which was b e g i n n i n g to u n v e i l i t s e l f (VA 259) . When M a s k u l l f i n a l l y d ies on S u r t u r ' s Ocean, the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s e x p l i c i t l y made: H i s h e a r t was thumping h e a v i l y and q u e e r l y ; i t s b e a t i n g reminded him of the drum taps . He gazed l a n g u i d l y at the r i p p l i n g w a t e r , and i t seemed to him as i f he cou ld see r i g h t through i t . . . away, away down . . . to a s trange f i r e . . . . 151 The water d i sappeared . The two suns were e x t i n g u i s h e d . The i s l a n d was transformed i n t o a c l o u d , and M a s k u l l — a l o n e on i t—was f l o a t i n g through the a t m o s p h e r e . . . . Down be low, i t was a l l f i r e — t h e f i r e of Muspe l . The l i g h t mounted h i g h e r and h i g h e r , u n t i l i t f i l l e d the whole w o r l d . . . . He f l o a t e d toward an immense p e r p e n d i c u l a r c l i f f of b l a c k r o c k , wi thout top or bottom. Halfway up i t K r a g , suspended i n m i d a i r , was d e a l i n g t e r r i f i c blows at a b l o o d -red spot w i t h a huge hammer: The r h y t h m i c a l c l a n g i n g sounds were h i d e o u s . P r e s e n t l y M a s k u l l made out that these sounds were the f a m i l i a r drum bea t s . "What are you d o i n g , Krag? " he asked. Krag suspended h i s work, and turned around. " B e a t i n g on your h e a r t , M a s k u l l , " was h i s g r i n n i n g r e -sponse (VA 276-77) . "You know only the sparks of the s p i r i t : but you do not see the a n v i l 36 which the s p i r i t i s , nor the f e r o c i t y of i t s hammer!" says Z a r a t h u s t r a . D i s c o v e r i n g the f e r o c i t y of that hammer costs M a s k u l l h i s l i f e . " A f r i g h t f u l pang passed through M a s k u l l ' s h e a r t , and he d ied immedia te ly " (VA 277) . Before d y i n g , M a s k u l l asks K r a g , "Who are you?" (VA 277) , but he gets 37 no r e p l y . Krag i s S u r t u r . L i k e B l a k e ' s Los (who i n Blake i s i d e n t i c a l 38 w i t h C h r i s t ) , Krag comes to f ree man from the p r i s o n of the body, to 39 break the f e t t e r s of t ime , and r e s t o r e us to e t e r n i t y . Thus, M a s k u l l ' s death i s a l s o N i g h t s p o r e ' s b i r t h : Night spore reawakes to c l imb the tower which M a s k u l l f a i l e d to c l imb at the b e g i n n i n g of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . In c l i m b i n g the tower , Night spore leaves the f a l s e day-dream w o r l d of c r e a t i o n b e h i n d , and re turns to h i s t rue home. This use of the i c o n of the tower i s t r a d i t i o n a l , but L indsay has another symbol f o r the d e s i r e of the s p i r i t to r e t u r n home, and that i s the back rays which power the space-s h i p . Again the i d e a of back r a y s , as w i t h so much e l s e i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , may have been suggested by George MacDonald. In L i l i t h , Mr . 152 Vane sees l i g h t d i sappear ing i n t o a m i r r o r , and not be ing r e f l e c t e d out a g a i n . "Where are the sunrays gone?" he asks . " ' T h a t I cannot t e l l , ' r e turned Mr. Raven; " ' — b a c k , perhaps , to where they came from f i r s t " ' (40 ) . A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s not on ly a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , i t i s a l s o space f an ta sy . The voyage to Tormance i s to be made from the top of the tower at Starkness i n what i s , f o r 1920, r a t h e r an o l d - f a s h i o n e d 41 space- sh ip : i t i s a " torpedo of c r y s t a l " (VA 43) " f o r t y f ee t l o n g , e i g h t w i d e , and e i g h t h i g h " (VA 44) . The main d i f f e r e n c e between t h i s and, f o r example, Hugh M a c C o l l ' s ' S h o o t i n g S t a r ' (1899) i s t h a t L i n d s a y , l o g i c a l l y , puts the f u e l tank at the f r o n t . Very e a r l y s p a c e - f l i g h t s t o r i e s tended to use f a n t a s t i c — o f t e n lud icrous—ways of g e t t i n g to our s a t e l l i t e : Bishop Godwin's a s t ronaut was towed by a team of w i l d geese (1638), K e p l e r ' s by demons (1634)—a method r e ^ s u r r e c t e d r e c e n t l y by the a n t i - s c i e n t i f i c C. S. L e w i s . In the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Joseph A . H e r l e y s t a r t e d something of a new t rend i n h i s A Voyage to the Moon (1827) by u s ing a newly ' d i s c o v e r e d ' substance a t t r a c t e d to the moon 42 and c a l l e d , a p p r o p r i a t e l y enough, l u n a r i u m . Mark Wicks i n To Mars v i a the Moon (1911) found ' m a r t i a l u m ' to have s i m i l a r p r o p e r t i e s . Such devices are convenient and p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c : they do not mean a n y t h i n g . L i n d s a y ' s space- sh ip , however, w h i l e i t i s powered by a s i m i l a r d e v i c e , does have meaning, and so do the A r c t u r a n back rays which power i t . L i n d s a y ' s space-ship i s a womb. Damon K n i g h t , i n a c o l l e c t i o n of reviews of s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n , says , " I t h i n k i t i s safe to p o s t u l a t e that 'an a l i e n lands i n a space - sh ip ' i s dream-talk f o r ' a baby i s b o r n , ' and 153 that the passengers of such sh ips are bound to be f o e t a l . " For t h i s reason , perhaps , the three t r a v e l l e r s s t r i p naked before embarking. When M a s k u l l wakes up, a l o n e , on Tormance, he i s new-born: h i s 'mother ' i s J o i w i n d . To be reborn one must d i e . M a s k u l l has been s y m b o l i c a l l y 44 murdered by K r a g , who has s l a shed h i s arm (VA 40) i n order to enable him to cl imb the tower to the s p a c e - s h i p , and thus to be t r a n s p o r t e d by the back-rays an enormous d i s t a n c e homewards. When w a i t i n g w i t h Nightspore i n the tower at S t a rknes s , M a s k u l l a c c i d e n t a l l y knocks over a b o t t l e l a b e l e d ' S o l a r Back Rays ' (VA 31) . The b o t t l e d i sappears . N ight spore e x p l a i n s : The v a l v e became unfas tened. The contents have escaped through the open window, toward the sun , c a r r y i n g the b o t t l e w i t h them. But the b o t t l e w i l l be burned up by the e a r t h ' s atmosphere, and the contents w i l l d i s s i p a t e , and w i l l not reach the sun (VA 32) . S o l a r Back Rays r e t u r n to the sun , i f they can; A r c t u r i a n Back Rays r e t u r n to A r c t u r u s , t a k i n g a long w i t h them the s p a c e - s h i p . Back rays c o n s i s t of " L i g h t that goes back to i t s source " (VA 32) . Th i s i s , of course , the whole theme of the book. I t encapsu la te s , i n m i n i a t u r e , the d e s i r e of the fragments of Muspel f i r e to r e t u r n to t h e i r source , and of the d i s s i p a t e d fragments o f D i v i n e L i g h t , i n the Gnos t i c myth-o l o g y , to be r e s t o r e d to the Godhead. L i k e S h e l l e y ' s A l a s t o r l o o k i n g a t the swan, l i k e MacDonald's Anodos l o o k i n g f o r h i s mother, l i k e Henry i n N o v a l i s ' s Kunstmarchen, the l i g h t journeys homewards. But w h i l e the s p i r i t i s w i l l i n g , as the proverb puts i t , the f l e s h i s weak. I f the b o t t l e i s burned up i n the atmosphere, the back rays w i l l never reach 154 the sun. M a s k u l l i s a l so a v e s s e l : h i s f u n c t i o n — i t i s almost a sacred f u n c t i o n — i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s to ca r ry the fragment of l i g h t he conta ins ( impri sons) to the l i m i t of Crys t a lman ' s w o r l d , where i t can f i n a l l y escape to Muspe l . M a s k u l l i s defeated , bu t h i s defeat i s no empty one. H i s bloody journey across Tormance makes v i c t o r y p o s s i b l e . 155 Footnotes to Chapter F i v e In Eagle and Earwig (London: John Baker , 1966), C o l i n W i l s o n says "a ca rp ing c r i t i c might f i n d A Voyage to A r c t u r u s no more than an attempt to w r i t e The World as W i l l and Idea as a n o v e l " (p . 150). 2 A r t h u r Schopenhauer, The E s s e n t i a l Schopenhauer (London: Unwin Books, 1962), pp. 49-50. 3 For Dante, as f o r the wool -carder s o f H e r a c l e i t u s ' fragment, " the s t r a i g h t way and the wind ing way are one and the same." 4 The p o i n t i s made at l e n g t h by Kath leen Raine i n her s t u d i e s of Dante, M i l t o n , B lake and Yeats i n Defending A n c i e n t Spr ings (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1967). Raine mentions A Voyage i n a chrono-l o g i c a l l i s t of great f a n t a s y , p l a c i n g i t between She and P e t e r Pan (p. 125). ^This i s a longer i n t r o d u c t i o n than i s common. C. S. Lewis s u b t i t l e s That Hideous S t rength (London: The Bodley Head, 1969), the t h i r d book i n h i s t r i l o g y , " a modern f a i r y t a l e f o r grown-ups" " i n the hope that no one who d i s l i k e s fantasy may be m i s l e d by the f i r s t two chapters i n t o read ing f u r t h e r , and then complain of h i s d i sappointment . I f you ask w h y — i n t e n d -i n g to w r i t e about mag ic i ans , d e v i l s , pantomine a n i m a l s , and p l a n e t a r y ange l s—I n e v e r t h e l e s s beg in w i t h such humdrum scenes and persons , I r e p l y that I am f o l l o w i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l f a i r y - t a l e " (p . 7 ) . C u r i o u s l y enough, t i t l e and epigraph are from the o ther David L i n d s a y . J . W. Smeed, Jean P a u l ' s 'Dreams' (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969), p . 9 . 7 J . W. Smeed, Jean P a u l ' s 'Dreams' , p . 27. Lewis C a r r o l l ^ The Adventures of A l i c e i n Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass (London: The He i r loom L i b r a r y , 1954), p . 24. 9 Lewis C a r r o l l , A l i c e i n Wonderland, p . 19. Lewis C a r r o l l , The Hunt ing of the Snark: An Agony i n E igh t F i t s (London: M a c M i l l a n , 1913), p . 8. 156 George MacDonald, L i l i t h (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1969), p . 11. Read i n the l i g h t of A r c t u r u s , every phrase of t h i s q u o t a t i o n has two meanings. 12 Hans Jonas , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n : The Message of the A l i e n God and the Beginnings of C h r i s t i a n i t y , 2nd ed . (Boston: Beacon P r e s s , 1963) , p . 176. 13 Jonas c o n t i n u e s , "and the Archons created man f o r the express purpose of keeping i t t h e r e " (The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 44) . Crystalman i s an Archon . "*"^Hans Jonas , The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 44. "'""'The most famous statement i s W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s "Whereof one cannot speak, thereo f one must remain s i l e n t . " 1 6 E. T. A . Hoffmann, 'The Automata' i n The Best Tales of Hoffmann, ed . E . F . B l e i l e r (New Y o r k : Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1967), p . 95. 1 7 M a n as f r u i t may sound s t r a n g e , but i t i s n ' t . On a f a r c i c a l l e v e l , f o r example, i n The Man Who Was Thursday (New Y o r k : Modern L i b r a r y , 1917), D r . B u l l i s t o l d , " I dare say i t ' s the s o r t of face t h a t grows on one . . . i n f a c t , i t grows on you ; and who am I to quarrel". , w i t h the w i l d f r u i t s upon the t ree of l i f e " (p. 132) . More s e r i o u s l y , i n The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n , Hans Jonas says " the V a l e n t i n i a n s . . . drew an a l l e g o r -i c a l p a r a l l e l between [Jesus] and the f r u i t from the t r e e : by b e i n g a f f i x e d to a 'wood , ' he 'became a F r u i t o f the Knowledge of the F a t h e r , which d i d n o t , however, b r i n g p e r d i t i o n upon those who ate i t ' " (p. 9 4 ) . 18 'Backhouse' would not seem to be a re ference to ' t h e room out the b a c k , ' i . e . the l a v a t o r y . R. M. Rennick s u p p l i e s the i n f o r m a t i o n that "Backhouse was the 14th Century E n g l i s h bakehouse and was g iven as a name to a person who worked i n or f o r a bakery" i n 'Obscene Names and Naming i n F o l k T r a d i t i o n , ' Names, 16 (1968) , p . 214. 19 L indsay p a r t i c u l a r l y admired t h i s scene. He w r i t e s , What words are to M u s i c , i n d i v i d u a l s are to the Subl ime. This i s e x c e l l e n t l y shown i n the Temple scene of the Magic F l u t e . The massive gloom of the i n t e r i o r , the g i g a n t i c s t a tue s i l h o u e t t e d aga ins t the gleaming s k y , M o z a r t ' s hymn; cont ra s ted w i t h the declamat ion of the High P r i e s t , and the double row of whi te - robed p r i e s t s who a s s i s t h i m . Both words and men.appear a b s o l u t e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t and meaning-l e s s be s ide the music and the solemn grandeur of the Temple (TSG 13) . 15 7 20 Thi s a l s o can be t raced to an i n c i d e n t i n L i n d s a y ' s own l i f e . In a l e t t e r dated 9 t h September 1921, he w r i t e s to V i s i a k : A few weeks be fore the death of my only b r o t h e r , some years back , I was awakened i n the middle of the n i g h t by a tremendous c r a s h , as though a chimney s t a c k had crashed through the roof overhead. That i t was not i m a g i n a t i o n i n any case i s proved by the f ac t tha t my aunt , who s l e p t i n the room above, came f l y i n g down-s t a i r s f o r he lp—she a l s o had heard the n o i s e , and was f r i g h t e n e d n e a r l y out of h e r senses . The o ther two inmates of the house heard n o t h i n g , and i n the morning no damage could be detected e i t h e r to our house or to any other i n the road (L 43 ) . Thi s crash appears twice i n A Voyage: when M a s k u l l and Night spore enter F a u l l ' s house (VA 18) and when, r e - e n a c t i n g the scene on Tormance, M a s k u l l and Tydomin enter a cave (VA 121). 21 In a l e t t e r dated November 25, 1921, quoted by W i l s o n (TSG 46) . 22 In a l e t t e r dated May 12, 1923. Schopenhauer does indeed oppose or c o n t r a s t the subl ime and the b e a u t i f u l , but not i n the way L indsay i m p l i e s . Schopenhauer f i n d s both the subl ime and the b e a u t i f u l to be produced by pure contemplat ion ( i . e . of Ideas or Forms): where t h a t which r a i s e s us to contemplat ion i s sub jec t to the w i l l , we are f i l l e d w i t h a sense of beauty , but where they have " a h o s t i l e r e l a t i o n to the human w i l l i n g e n e r a l " ( to the b o d y ) , then we are f i l l e d w i t h a sense of the sub l ime . See The World as W i l l and Idea ( T h i r d Book, s ec . 39) . Muspel i s , of course , complete ly h o s t i l e to the human w i l l and t h e r e f o r e , accord ing to Schopenhauer's system as w e l l as L i n d s a y ' s , i s sub l ime . 23 See VA 12-13 f o r Backhouse's complaints about the s e t t i n g : " the f r i v o l o u s a e s t h e t i c i s m of o t h e r s " i s "obnoxious to h i s g r i m , b u r s t i n g h e a r t ; but he was o b l i g e d to l i v e , and, to pay h i s way, must put up w i t h these i m p e r t i n e n c e s " (VA 19) . Krag c a l l s him "my l i t t l e mercenary f r i e n d " (VA 22) . The problem of paying one's way soon became an acute one f o r L i n d s a y , who shows more sympathy f o r i t i n h i s t h i r d book, Sphinx . 24 'Song of the S y b i l ' i n The E l d e r Edda: A S e l e c t i o n , t r a n s . P a u l B. T a y l o r and W. H . Auden (New Y o r k : Vintage Books, 1970), p. 145. We have a l ready d i scussed the d u a l i s t i c o p p o s i t i o n of n o t h i n g (Crys ta lman ' s wor ld) and n o t h i n g (Muspel ) : " I n the moment of death" the face lo se s a l l i t s " p e r s o n a l charac te r . . . g i v i n g p l ace to a v u l g a r , g r i n n i n g mask which expressed n o t h i n g " (VA 103) . 158 ^ J o h n Bunyan, The P i l g r i m ' s Progress (London: J . M. Dent, 1927) , p . 123. 2 6 Quoted from the I n t r o d u c t i o n by P e t e r H . Salus and P a u l B. T a y l o r to The E l d e r Edda, p . 31. 27 I n t r o d u c t i o n to The E l d e r Edda, p . 31. 2 8 'Song o f the S y b i l ' i r i The E l d e r Edda, p . 151. 29 Man i s a worm 70 inches long—seventy years and 5 ' 10"—seven decades or ' age s ' . The tower has s i x windows, and Night spore has s i x i n t e r i m v i s i o n s c l i m b i n g i t (VA 281-86) . Because the f i n a l v i s i o n may not be through a window of g lass or c r y s t a l , at the end, Night spore cl imbs out i n t o r e a l i t y . 30 The E p i c of Gi lgamesh, t r a n s . N . K. Sandars (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1964), p . 69. 31 A " x t h u r C. C l a r k e , P r o f i l e s of the Future (New Y o r k : Bantam Books, 1964), p . 46. 32 Cf . S t e i n i n Lord J im by Joseph Conrad (New Y o r k : R i n e h a r t , 1957): "A man that i s born f a l l s i n t o a dream l i k e a man who f a l l s i n t o the sea " (p . 184) . S t e i n sends J im to l i v e i n h i s dream w o r l d : "Had S t e i n arranged to send him i n t o a s t a r . . . the change could not have been g r e a t e r . He l e f t h i s e a r t h l y f a i l i n g s beh ind him and . . . there was a t o t a l l y new se t o f c o n d i t i o n s f o r h i s i m a g i n a t i v e f a c u l t y to work upon" (pp. 188-89). For a thorough a n a l y s i s of the dream/rea l w o r l d o p p o s i t i o n o f Patna and Patusan see E l l i o t t B. Gose J r , Imag ina t ion Indulged (London and M o n t r e a l : McGi l l—Queen ' s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972). ^^Maud B o d k i n , A r c h e t y p a l P a t t e r n s i n Poet ry (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963), p . 146. C f . " L i f e wants to r a i s e i t s e l f on h i g h w i t h p i l l a r s and s t e p s ; i t wants to gaze i n t o the f a r d i s t ance and out upon j o y f u l sp lendour—that i s why i t needs h e i g h t " says Z a r a t h u s t r a i n F r e i d r i c h N i e t z s c h e ' s Thus Spoke Z a r a t h u s t r a , t r a n s . R. J . H o l l i n g d a l e (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1961), p . 125. 34 J . A . M a c C u l l o c h , The R e l i g i o n o f the A n c i e n t C e l t s (Edinburgh: C l a r k , 1911), p . 39. 35 Wayne Booth , The R h e t o r i c of F i c t i o n (Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago P r e s s , 1961), p . 60. 159 36 F r e i d r i c h N i e t z s c h e , Thus Spoke Z a r a t h u s t r a , p . 125. 37 Los i s the E t e r n a l B l a c k s m i t h who f rees us from the Promethean Cycle (Orc-Ur izen) i n Jerusa lem. "The blow of h i s Hammer i s J u s t i c e , the swing of h i s Hammer Mercy, / The force of L o s ' s Hammer i s e t e r n a l f o r g i v e n e s s " ( P l a t e 88) ; see The Complete W r i t i n g s of W i l l i a m B l a k e , ed . Geoffrey Keynes (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966), p . 734. 38 "Then Jesus appeared . . . And the D i v i n e Appearance was the l i k e n e s s & s i m i l i t u d e of Los " ( P l a t e 9 6 ) ; W i l l i a m B l a k e , ' J e ru sa l em' i n The Complete W r i t i n g s , p . 743. 39 In N o v a l i s ' s Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , one of the t h i n g s A r c t u r u s symbol izes seems to be Time. 40 George MacDonald, L i l i t h , p . 42. 41 As every schoolboy knows, r e a l space-ships are not shaped l i k e torpedoes , s i n c e there i s no wind r e s i s t a n c e i n deep space. The shape i s reserved f o r g r o s s l y underpowered and extremely s h o r t range rocket s b u i l t on underdeveloped p lane t s such as S o l Three. 42 A substance working by r e p u l s i o n from e a r t h i s more d i f f i c u l t to h a n d l e — e s p e c i a l l y on the r e t u r n journey—but Percy Greg uses ' apergy ' thus i n Across the Zodiac (1880), and Hugh M a c C o l l uses an unnamed v a r i a n t i n M r . S t r a n g e r ' s Sealed Packet (1899). See Roger L . Green's I n t o Other Wor ld s : S p a c e - F l i g h t i n F i c t i o n , from Lucan to Lewis (London and New Y o r k : Abelard-Schuman, 1957), f o r i n f o r m a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s of these and o ther forms of motive power. 43 Damon K n i g h t , In Search of Wonder ( rev . e d . , Chicago: Advent , 1967) , p . 278. 44 This i s a h a b i t w i t h K r a g : he k n i f e s M a s k u l l twice (VA 40, 154) and twice wrings h i s neck (VA 123, 277) . 160 Chapter S i x : THE WINDING WAY: MASKULL'S SPIRAL INWARDS A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s a schematic book. We have d i scussed i t as a b a t t l e between two opposing camps, and as a p rogre s s . However, A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s not s imply an a l l e g o r i c a l b a t t l e i n the way t h a t Bunyan's The Holy War i s , nor i s i t s imply a progress as i s The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s . M a s k u l l , l i k e Dante, f o l l o w s not a s t r a i g h t and narrow path but a s t r a i g h t and w i n d i n g one: a s p i r a l . The theme of the progress i s the d e s i r e to r e t u r n home, which we have seen to be common i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s . The i d e a i s e x p l i c i t i n that Night spore repeats M a s k u l l ' s c l i m b i n g of the tower, and i t i s i m p l i c i t i n the i d e a of c l i m b i n g a tower i t s e l f : " the i n d i v i d u a l , changed and e n r i c h e d by h i s exper ience as he f o l l o w s t h i s [ s p i r a l ] p a t h , must r e t u r n to the p o i n t of o r i g i n at a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l . " ' ' ' For t h i s reason , 2 Nabokov c a l l s the s p i r a l "a s p i r i t u a l i z e d c i r c l e . " Dante i s s p i r i t -u a l i z e d by c l i m b i n g a w i n d i n g s t a i r i n The D i v i n e Comedy. However, M a s k u l l ' s i s not a s p i r a l l i k e D a n t e ' s , which takes us upwards, i t i s a s p i r a l which takes us inwards . I t i s a s p i r a l which takes us r i g h t i n t o the centre of Crys ta lman, who i s "a g i g a n t i c , s e l f - l u m i n o u s sphere" (VA 282) , and beyond, i n t o the i n c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d of Muspe l . The f i r s t s e c t i o n of the progress begins w i t h M a s k u l l ' s ' b i r t h , ' when he wakes up to the w o r l d of Tormance, and h i s surrogate mother, J o i w i n d (Chapter 6 ) . Thi s c y c l e i s completed at the end of the t h i r d day, a f t e r the problems of man i n s o c i e t y have been t r e a t e d , when a 161 "deep and heavy unconsciousness" s e i z e s M a s k u l l (VA 149) . The second s e c t i o n begins w i t h the r e b i r t h of the Wombflash f o r e s t and the v i s i o n induced by Dreamsinter (Chapter 13) . Thi s second c y c l e deals w i t h the problem of how l i f e can be l i v e d out of s o c i e t y , on a p e r s o n a l l e v e l . I t ends w i t h M a s k u l l ' s re-emergence from Corpang's underground c o u n t r y , which i s the t h i r d r e b i r t h f o r M a s k u l l . The t h i r d s e c t i o n , b e g i n n i n g w i t h Chapter 18, cont inues the process of s t r i p p i n g down the l a y e r s of e a r t h l i n e s s to ' p u r e , unaccommodated man' and woman, the main charac ter s i n t h i s s e c t i o n b e i n g Haunte and Sul lenbode . Each o f the prev ious s e c t i o n s has ended w i t h an appearance of the Muspel rad iance and M a s k u l l ' s r e b i r t h . In the t h i r d s e c t i o n , under the l i g h t of A l p p a i n , M a s k u l l d ies and the progress ends (Chapter 20 ) , l e a v i n g Nightspore to achieve the f i n a l v i s i o n of n o t h i n g and to be promised r e b i r t h . Such i s the "a lmost mathematical p r e c i s i o n " of the d e s i g n , and one wonders why i t has not been n o t i c e d b e f o r e . The three c y c l e s i n M a s k u l l ' s e x p l o r a t i o n of the nature of Crysta lman and h i s w o r l d should be thought of as l y i n g i n s i d e one another . C r y s t a l -man's w o r l d c o n s i s t s b a s i c a l l y of three ' sphere s ' of a c t i v i t y : how man r e l a t e s to the e x t e r n a l w o r l d and to s o c i e t y , how man r e l a t e s to h i m s e l f , and how man r e l a t e s to God. Of course , none of these l e v e l s can be separated a b s o l u t e l y , and L indsay does not t r y to do so . However, each l e v e l has i t s c e n t r a l i n t e r e s t s , to which the i n t e r e s t s of o ther l e v e l s , b e i n g cont iguous , are impor tant . But s i n c e the movement of the book i s i n c r e a s i n g l y inwards , the outer l e v e l s are l e s s important to the i n n e r than v i c e v e r s a . The process i s , as has a l ready been remarked, 162 r a t h e r l i k e p e e l i n g an o n i o n , and t h i s a l s o i s an image r e l e v a n t to g n o s t i c i s m . For example, A r n o b i u s , Serv ius and Macrobius a l l g ive accounts of the descent of the s o u l through the spheres , by which i t i s c o r r u p t e d . Hermes Tr i smeg i s tus i n Poimandres, and, i n c i d e n t a l l y , Dante i n The D i v i n e Comedy, g ive p a r a l l e l accounts of the reverse journey through the spheres by which the s o u l i s f r e e d . The s o u l c l e a r l y i s of God ( L i g h t ) and belongs w i t h God. However, there has been a ' f a l l ' (from God on high) and a c r e a t i o n , these two t h i n g s , as i n the myth of Prometheus, b e i n g i d e n t i c a l . P l o t i n u s and Blake t e l l us that the immortals f e l l i n love w i t h t h e i r images i n the r i v e r of mat te r , d ied to e t e r n i t y and were born on e a r t h , f e l l as leep to e t e r n i t y and woke up on e a r t h hav ing f o r g o t t e n t h e i r t rue home. M a c r o b i u s ' s account i s b a s i c a l l y the same, but compl ica ted by the a c c r e t i o n s of the f a l l through the spheres : Looking down from the h i g h e s t summit and p e r p e t u a l l i g h t , and hav ing w i t h s ec re t d e s i r e contemplated the appetence of the body and i t s " l i f e , " so c a l l e d on e a r t h , the s o u l by the very weight of t h i s i t s e a r t h l y thought g r a d u a l l y s i n k s down i n t o the ne ther w o r l d . . . . In each sphere [which i t passes] i t i s c l o t h e d w i t h an e t h e r i a l e n v e l -opment, so that by these i t i s i n stages r e c o n c i l e d to the company of t h i s ear then garment. And thus i t comes through as many deaths as i t passes spheres to what here on e a r t h i s c a l l e d " l i f e " ( 3 ) . Thus there i s the n e c e s s i t y f o r a s e r i e s of "so c a l l e d 'dea ths ' "—as i n Jean P a u l ' s dream—through which the s o u l can be reborn again to the w o r l d of e t e r n i t y . Hans Jonas w r i t e s t h a t , a ccord ing to t h i s v i e w , the r e s u l t a n t t e r r e s t i a l " s o u l " i s comparable to an onion w i t h so many l a y e r s , on the model of the cosmos i t s e l f , on ly i n i n v e r s e o r d e r : what i s outermost there i s i n n e r -most h e r e , and a f t e r the process i s completed w i t h i n c a r n a -t i o n , what i s innermost i n the s p h e r i c a l scheme of the cosmos, the e a r t h , i s as body the outer garment of man ( 4 ) . 163 From the sphere of the e a r t h , ' u p ' i s i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s outwards , 'down' i n a l l cases inwards . The normal method of g n o s t i c a l l e g o r y i n v o l v e d the r e v e r s a l of the t r a d i t i o n a l va lues embodied i n extant myths and a l l e g o r i e s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e c u r i o u s l y appropr i a t e t h a t L indsay should reverse the va lue system of the s p h e r i c a l cosmos. In A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , the w o r l d of Muspel i s somewhere through and beyond (wherever t h a t i s ) the centre of the sphere , inwards , w h i l e outwards ( 'up ' ) i s Crys ta lman ' s w o r l d . The f a l l i s outwards, from the centre to the c i r cumference . L indsay i s a p e s s i m i s t : the cosmos i s not L i g h t w i t h a few spots of Darkness ; the L i g h t i s surrounded by the Darkness : N ight spore reaches n o t h i n g to f i n d "darkness was a l l around h i m " and "he understood that he was w h o l l y surrounded by Crys ta lman ' s w o r l d " : The t r u t h forced i t s e l f on him i n a l l i t s c o l d , b r u t a l r e a l i t y . Muspel was no a l l - p o w e r f u l U n i v e r s e , t o l e r a t i n g from pure i n d i f f e r e n c e the e x i s t e n c e s i d e by s i d e w i t h i t of another f a l s e w o r l d , which had no r i g h t to be . Muspel was f i g h t i n g f o r i t s l i f e (VA 286) . M a s k u l l i s the body of e a r t h , the outermost sphere , and h i s t r i p across Tormance i n v o l v e s the s t r i p p i n g away of e a r t h l y a c c r e t i o n s u n t i l n o t h i n g i s l e f t . W. H . Auden begins h i s s tudy of ' t h e romantic iconography of the s ea ' i n The Enchafed F lood w i t h d i s c u s s i o n s of " the double-natured h e r o " who i s h a l f " the dedicated man, the Kn ight of F a i t h who would r e s t o r e the Age of G o l d " (Maskull" ' ) and h a l f e x i l e ( N i g h t s p o r e ) , and of the p a i r e d symbols , the desert and the sea .^ M a s k u l l i s born on Tormance i n the desert and, d ies (Nightspore i s born) on the sea ; tha t i s , M a s k u l l ' s voyage i s from 164 the desert to the sea . Auden notes tha t the w i t h d r a w a l to the desert may be " a f i n a l r e j e c t i o n o f the wicked c i t y of t h i s w o r l d , a dy ing to the l i f e of the f l e s h and an assumption of a l i f e devoted w h o l l y t o " 7 the l i f e of the s p i r i t , as i t i s i n the case of M a s k u l l , w h i l e g the sea i s " the p l ace of p u r g a t o r i a l s u f f e r i n g . " But there may be water i n the desert as there may be l and i n the sea . M a s k u l l ends h i s journey on a l i t t l e f l o a t i n g i s l a n d , which l i k e the oas i s i n the 9 desert may be " the image of the happy P r e l a p s a r i a n P l a c e . " I t i s to such a p l ace tha t mother- Jo iwind takes b a b y - M a s k u l l at the b e g i n n i n g of the j o u r n e y . M a s k u l l has d ied to e a r t h , to " the wicked c i t y of t h i s w o r l d , " and he i s reborn on Tormance. M a s k u l l begins to see the desert of s c a r l e t sand (VA 44-45) only g r a d u a l l y . He c r i e s out "a t i r r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s " (VA 45) . When h i s 'mother ' J o i w i n d a r r i v e s he i s " s i t t i n g at her f e e t , naked and h e l p l e s s " (VA 47) . She dresses h i m , g ives him a " m i l k y " (VA 49) f l u i d , and takes him to " the cup-shaped mounta in" (VA 52) which i s home. P o o l i n g d r e d i s , however, the home from which we a l l b e g i n : i t i s not the home toward which we a l l must s t r i v e . In t h i s , L indsay d i f f e r s most markedly from h i s most important p r e c u r s e r and f o l l o w e r , MacDonald and Lewis r e s p e c t i v e l y . Anodos i n Phantastes t e l l s us "my mother d ied when I was a b a b y , " ^ and h i s pa th le s s wander-11 ings are i n search of h i s mother or a m o t h e r - s u b s t i t u t e . The quest of Ransom i n Out o f the S i l e n t P l a n e t ends at Oyarsa , which i s a combin-a t i o n of g a r d e n - i s l a n d , mount of Venus and "cup-shaped mountain" or b r e a s t : 165 r i g h t below him l a y an almost c i r c u l a r l a k e — a sapphire twelve m i l e s i n diameter se t i n a border of purp le f o r e s t . Amidst the l ake there rose l i k e a low and g e n t l y s l o p i n g pyramid , or a woman's b r e a s t , an i s l a n d of pa le r e d , smooth to the summit (12) . Both MacDonald and Lewis are concerned w i t h the recovery of l o s t i n -nocence, which f o r MacDonald i s a r e t u r n to babyhood, and f o r Lewis i n v o l v e s a re-enactment of the f a l l i n which man (or r a t h e r , woman) doesn ' t f a l l . M a s k u l l begins h i s quest by f i n d i n g that " P r e l a p s a r i a n P l a c e " of A r c a d i a n innocence w i t h Panawe and J o i w i n d , but h i s quest i s f o r the o u t o p i a of the uncreated w o r l d . Panawe and J o i w i n d l i v e i n harmony w i t h Crys ta lman ' s w o r l d , but c u l t i v a t e a k i n d of 'non-attachment ' to i t . They take as l i t t l e p a r t as p o s s i b l e i n the w i l l i n g and k i l l i n g : they k i l l n o t h i n g , and l i v e 13 only on w a t e r , N o v a l i s and Werner ' s " the whi te b l o o d of the m o t h e r . " N e i t h e r do they i m p r i s o n L i g h t i n the Darkness o f the body by p r o -c r e a t i o n : there i s "no t the l e a s t t r ace of sex" (VA 54) i n J o i w i n d ' s ca re s s , and she has no c h i l d r e n or o ther " s e l f i s h po s se s s ions " (VA 5 7 ) . When b o r n , Panawe was " w i t h o u t sex" (VA 6 9 ) , and hav ing become male , s t e r n l y r e j e c t s the female recept ivenes s which on e a r t h would have made him an a r t i s t , poet or m u s i c i a n (VA 6 3 ) . J o i w i n d says , "What you and I are now doing i n s i m p l i c i t y , wi se men w i l l do h e r e a f t e r i n f u l l knowledge" (VA 56 ) . That i s , the innocence of Panawe and J o i w i n d i s r e a l l y i g n o r -ance: they do not posses the s a v i n g knowledge or gnosis which was the g i f t of the wise se rpent . This l i m i t a t i o n i s brought out by Panawe's complete i n a b i l i t y to understand h i s encounter w i t h S l o f o r k . S l o f o r k t e l l s Panawe, remember, of the o ther w o r l d which "we c a l l Nothing—but 166 i t i s not N o t h i n g , but Something" (VA 74) . He then demonstrates h i s own complete non-attachment to the w o r l d by jumping " t r a n q u i l l y from the p a t h , down i n t o the empty v o i d " (VA 74) . S l o f o r k ' s judgment of Panawe i s "You w i l l never r i s e above m y s t i c i s m . . . . But be happy i n your own way" (VA 74) . Panawe and J o i w i n d l i v e i n harmony w i t h the w o r l d , i n innocence , by not s t r i v i n g and not e x e r t i n g t h e i r w i l l s . M a s k u l l d i s cover s tha t the newfound Innocence they have g iven him can be r a p i d l y undermined by Exper i ence . H i s next mentor i s Oceaxe, who i s possessed by a Nie tz schean ' w i l l to power ' . She says b l u n t l y that "You may be as moral as you l i k e , M a s k u l l , but the f a c t remains , animals were made to be ea ten , and s imple natures were made to be absorbed" (VA 88) . K i l l or be k i l l e d ; on ly the f i t t e s t w i l l s u r v i v e . And the landscape she i n h a b i t s , the Ifdawn M a r e s t , i s " h i g h , w i l d , b e a u t i f u l , and dangerous" (VA 80) : "Nature i s a l l hammer blows w i t h us . Noth ing s o f t and g r a d u a l " (VA 89) , says Oceaxe. On Tormance i t i s as i f each of one's d e s i r e s were to cost one the o b l i g a t i o n thenceforward to n o u r i s h and support an a d d i t i o n a l member. An i n f e r n a l m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of one's substance , occas ioned by the s l i g h t e s t thought ! Each dream of f l i g h t adds another l i n k to my heavy c h a i n ! (14) . Having f lown to the dream-world of Tormance, M a s k u l l f i n d s h i m s e l f w i t h three new organs , the magn and poigns (names probably d e r i v e d from magn-a n i m i t y and poignance) which b r i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y the a b i l i t y to love and the a b i l i t y to understand and sympathize w i t h th ings , and the b r e v e . These organs are a p p r o p r i a t e to the A r c a d i a n s o c i e t y which M a s k u l l i n h a b i t s 167 w i t h Panawe. and J o i w i n d . Oceaxe, however, c a l l s these "women's organs" (VA 82) , and advises M a s k u l l that he i s going to " a man's c o u n t r y " where they w i l l be u s e l e s s . M a s k u l l uses a drude to convert h i s organs , and the breve i n h i s forehead becomes a t h i r d eye , a s o r b , through which "he saw n o t h i n g as s e l f - e x i s t e n t — e v e r y t h i n g appeared as an ob jec t of importance or non-importance to h i s own needs" (VA 83) . Such an organ i s a p p r o p r i a t e to l i f e on the h i g h peaks of the Ifdawn M a r e s t . Once he has moved from Innocence to E x p e r i e n c e , from non-attachment, to s e l f - i n t e r e s t , from not w i l l i n g to w i l l i n g and k i l l i n g , then M a s k u l l has a c h o i c e : he can e i t h e r be a murderer or a v i c t i m . As soon as he a r r i v e s i n Ifdawn he k i l l s .Cr imtyphon , Oceaxe's l o v e r , but he i s so r e v o l t e d by t h i s t h a t he f a l l s i n t o the c l u t c h e s of Cr imtyphon's o ther w i f e , Tydomin, who preaches to M a s k u l l the v i r t u e s of s e l f - s a c r i f i c e : r e n u n c i a t i o n of the w i l l t o power and there fore of the w i l l to l i v e . Tydomin doesn ' t a c t u a l l y want M a s k u l l ' s l i f e , only h i s body. She wants to take i t over , l i t e r a l l y : " I w i s h to s t a r t a new e x i s t e n c e i n your body. I w i s h t o be a male . I see i t i s n ' t worth w h i l e b e i n g a woman" (VA 115). M a s k u l l ' s s p i r i t w i l l , i n t u r n , become (disembodied) a ghost . M a s k u l l and Tydomin enter a cave. " A t t h a t very moment" they hear "a s i c k e n i n g c r a s h , l i k e heavy thunder j u s t over t h e i r heads" (VA 121) . M a s k u l l l i e s down on " a stone s l a b , or couch" and the chamber begins " t o grow l i g h t " (VA 122) . He f anc ie s he hears mus ic , and "someone scream f a i n t l y " (VA 122) . Then he f i n d s h i m s e l f back i n F a u l l ' s house, only as the phantom on the carved couch. He sees h i m s e l f , and N i g h t s p o r e . Then Krag rushes i n to s t r a n g l e h i m : 168 he grasped h i s neck w i t h a p a i r of h a i r y hands. M a s k u l l f e l t h i s bones bending and b r e a k i n g , e x c r u c i a t i n g pains passed through a l l the nerves of h i s body, and he exper-ienced a sense of impending death . He c r i e d o u t , and sank h e l p l e s s l y on the f l o o r , i n a heap (VA 123) . He f i n d s h i m s e l f back on Tormance, and t e l l s Tydomin " I ' v e seen K r a g . I 'm awake" (VA 124) . Thus M a s k u l l r e j e c t s the temptat ion of s e l f -s a c r i f i c e on Tormance, but i t i s , of course , a s a c r i f i c e he has a l ready made on e a r t h , i n order to get to Tormance i n the f i r s t p l a c e . We can t h i n k of the tower as b e i n g a p h a l l u s , the space-ship not a womb but a sperm. M a s k u l l r e l i v e s h i s e a r t h l y l i f e (as a c h i l d w i t h J o i w i n d , as an adolescent w i t h Oceaxe) on Tormance, u n t i l on Tormance he reaches the p o i n t he has p r e v i o u s l y reached on e a r t h . From now on , he w i l l be l e a r n i n g r a t h e r than r e l i v i n g t h i n g s . M a s k u l l has passed through Innocence and Exper ience to a l i e n a t i o n . Oceaxe asked, " I s n ' t the whole w o r l d the handiwork of innumerable p a i r s of l o v e r s ? And ye t you t h i n k y o u r s e l f above a l l t h a t . You may t r y to f l y away from n a t u r e , but where w i l l you f i n d a h o l e to h i d e y o u r s e l f i n ? " (VA 86) . As V i s i a k has observed, " L i n d s a y v i r t u a l l y equates Crystalman w i t h N a t u r e " (TSG 110) , and that i s indeed from whom M a s k u l l t h i n k s he i s f l e e i n g . F u r t h e r , M a s k u l l i s now "above a l l t h a t , " and he i s l o o k i n g (on the s o c i a l l e v e l ) not f o r a ' f e m i n i n e ' " h o l e to h i d e . . . i n " but the ' m a s c u l i n e ' mountain-top of D i s s c o u r n , ^ ^ on which l i v e the people of Sant . T h i s s o c i e t y i s h e a l t h y , main ly because women are not a l lowed i n i t . The people of Sant are f o l l o w e r s of the prophet H a t o r , who knew t h a t " a l l the w o r l d was a snare , a l imed t w i g " : 169 Knowing t h a t p lea sure was everywhere, a f i e r c e , mocking enemy, crouching and w a i t i n g a t every corner of the road of l i f e , i n order to k i l l w i t h i t s sweet s t i n g the naked grandeur of the s o u l , he s h i e l d e d h i m s e l f behind p a i n (VA 135). M a s k u l l s ays , "Henceforward, as long as I l i v e , I s h a l l f i g h t w i t h my n a t u r e , and refuse to f e e l p l e a s u r e " (VA 145) . He asks C a t i c e , r e p r e s -e n t a t i v e o f Sant , 'Why does p lea sure appear so shameful to us? ' 'Because i n f e e l i n g p l e a s u r e , we forge t our home.' 'And tha t i s — ' ' M u s p e l ' (VA 148) . A l l t h i s i s i n harmony w i t h the f i n a l v i s i o n achieved by N i g h t s p o r e . I t i s , i n f a c t , a f i n a l v i s i o n i t s e l f , i n that i t represents the c u l m i n -a t i o n of M a s k u l l ' s e x p l o r a t i o n of the w o r l d of Generat ion (as Blake c a l l s i t ) , which i s " the handiwork of innumerable p a i r s of l o v e r s " (VA 86) . Only i n a s o c i e t y w i t h o u t l o v e r s — w i t h o u t women—are the e v i l nature of P l ea sure and the nature of Nature known, are S u r t u r and Shaping d i s t i n g -u i s h e d , and i s the name of Muspel remembered. M a s k u l l ' s d i s covery of t h i s t h e r e f o r e completes the f i r s t c y c l e of the s p i r a l of the a l l e g o r y : L indsay has completed h i s study of the problems of man i n s o c i e t y . Now M a s k u l l must descend to the next sphere : he must d ie to s o c i e t y and then be reborn i n t o the next stage of the s t r u g g l e . This i s what happens i n the Wombflash F o r e s t , which i s both " l i k e some g i g a n t i c , s u p e r n a t u r a l h a l l i n a l i f e a f t e r dea th" (VA 149) and, as the name t e l l s us , the s t a r t of a new l i f e f o r the d i v i n e spark of the s p i r i t . From Sant , M a s k u l l descends—'down' here i s towards the c e n t r e , and there fore has the va lues we more n o r m a l l y a s s o c i a t e w i t h 'up'—down an enormous s t a i r c a s e , l o w e r i n g h i m s e l f " f rom step to step d u r i n g what seemed 170 an i n t e r m i n a b l e t i m e " (VA 149). On reach ing the bottom, "deep and heavy unconsciousness s e i z e d him almost immedia te ly" (VA 149). This i s a dea th- s l eep , dur ing which M a s k u l l has a dream v i s i o n which con-16 f i rms i n him h i s ques t : he meets Dreamsinter , who confirms Panawe's suggest ions tha t M a s k u l l i s a Prometheus f i g u r e : "You came to s t e a l M u s p e l - f i r e , to g ive a deeper l i f e to men" (VA 152) . M a s k u l l a l s o sees h i m s e l f stabbed by K r a g , w h i l e Night spore marches on towards Muspel (VA 153-54) , and he begins to r e a l i s e that he i s "a secondary c h a r a c t e r " (VA 155). M a s k u l l i s the body, the o u t s i d e ; Night spore i s the e s s e n t i a l s e l f . M a s k u l l cont inues h i s j o u r n e y , t a k i n g " the d o w n h i l l d i r e c t i o n " (VA 155) u n t i l he comes to the S i n k i n g Sea (VA 158) where he meets a f i sherman (who seems to be s imply a f i sherman: h i s name t e l l s us of no o ther s i g n i f i c a n c e ) . Polecrab i s the ' o r d i n a r y man' a t h i s s i m p l e s t and b e s t . He corresponds on a p e r s o n a l l e v e l to Panawe and J o i w i n d on the s o c i a l l e v e l , but h i s innocence i s more c l e a r l y i gnorance . This " u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d b e i n g " (VA 161) says g r u f f l y , " I ' m a f i sherman. I know n o t h i n g about wisdom" (VA 160) . M a s k u l l t r i e s to e x p l a i n to h i s t h a t t h i s w o r l d i s f a l s e and " t h a t r e a l i t y and fa l seness are two words f o r the same t h i n g " (VA 165) . Po lecrab i s q u i c k to see the i m p l i c a t i o n s of what M a s k u l l t e l l s him and admits that I l i v e by k i l l i n g , and so does everybody. Thi s l i f e seems to me a l l wrong. So maybe l i f e of any k i n d i s wrong, and S u r t u r ' s w o r l d i s not l i f e at a l l , but something e l s e (VA 165) . Hi s a d v i c e , however, i s to "ask the dead . . . and not a l i v i n g man" (VA 165) . He i s not going to j o i n M a s k u l l i n h i s ques t . H i s w i f e , 171 G l e a m e i l , however, does. G l e a m e i l , l i k e C h r i s t i a n i n The P i l g r i m ' s P r o g r e s s , i s prepared to deser t h e r f a m i l y (she has three sons) to accompany M a s k u l l . She says , " t h e r e i s another w o r l d f o r me, as there i s f o r you , M a s k u l l , and i t makes my r e a l w o r l d appear a l l f a l s e and v u l g a r " (VA 175) . Through G l e a m e i l , L indsay b r i n g s i n t o sharp focus the problem of f o l l o w -i n g one's p e r s o n a l d e s t i n y r a t h e r than f u l f i l l i n g one ' s s o c i a l o b l i g a -t i o n s . "But can i t be r i g h t " , asks M a s k u l l , " t o f o l l o w our s e l f - n a t u r e at the expense of o ther people? " "No i t ' s not r i g h t , " G l e a m e i l r e p l i e s , " i t i s wrong, and base . But i n tha t o ther w o r l d these words have no meaning" (VA 175) . One of the most obvious ways of s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t (and the way, i n ' r e a l ' l i f e , L indsay a c t u a l l y chose) i s the way o f the a r t i s t . M a s k u l l and G l e a m e i l t r a v e l to Swaylone's I s l a n d , where they v i s i t the a r t i s t E a r t h r i d . E a r t h r i d i s ' r i d o f the e a r t h ' or s o c i a l n e c e s s i t y : he l i v e s alone on an i s l a n d , swayed on ly by h i s own i n t e r e s t s : he f o l l o w s h i s own s e l f - h o o d . In order to p l a y h i s in s t rument , E a r t h r i d sa t down by the s i d e of the l a k e , and, l e a n i n g on h i s s i d e , p l aced h i s r i g h t hand, open palm downward, on the ground, at the same time s t r e t c h i n g out h i s r i g h t l e g , so tha t the foot was i n contact w i t h the water (VA 182). I t i s , taken l i t e r a l l y r a t h e r than a l l e g o r i c a l l y , a cur ious s t ance , but we can f i n d something s i m i l a r i n C e l t i c mythology. J . A . MacCul loch says tha t " m y t h i c a l personages or d i v i n i t i e s are s a i d i n the I r i s h t ex t s to have stood on one l e g , w i t h one arm extended, and one eye c l o s e d , when u t t e r i n g prophesies."" '" ' ' Accord ing to t h i s , E a r t h r i d must be b r i d g i n g 172 two w o r l d s , one foot b e i n g i n the e a r t h l y realm and the o t h e r . i n the s p i r i t u a l , to which the water (matter) w i l l g ive shape. E a r t h r i d i s the a r t i s t as sub c r e a t o r . As a r e s u l t of E a r t h r i d ' s p l a y i n g , G l e a m e i l d i e s . M a s k u l l decides to p l a y , and w i l l s to create the shape of S u r t u r . H i s e f f o r t s surround him w i t h Muspel rad iance w h i c h , l i k e the s p i r i t form at the seance, s t a r t s "becoming l o c a l i z e d , p repara tory to c o n t r a c t i n g i n t o a s o l i d form" (VA 186) . But the i n s t r u m e n t , the medium, i s not s t rong enough to s u r v i v e the onset of r e a l i t y : the h i l l s break apart and the l ake d i sappears . In the end, the a r t i s t cannot b r i n g i n t o the w o r l d the Form from beyond the w o r l d . At midnight M a s k u l l swims out to a pa s s ing t ree and guides i t to the n o r t h e r n shore , M a t t e r p l a y . This i s the ' r i v e r of l i f e ' i t s e l f : one of Crys ta lman ' s t o y s , by which he i m i t a t e s the f l o w i n g from S u r t u r of the stream of Muspe l , and the imprisonment of energy i n mat ter . Animals and p l a n t s seem to appear out of nowhere: "Nature was p r e c i p -i t a t i n g i t s shapes i n t o the w o r l d , w i t h o u t making use o f the medium of parentage" (VA 194) . A p p r o p r i a t e l y , the charac te r M a s k u l l meets i n M a t t e r p l a y i s " n e i t h e r man nor woman, nor a n y t h i n g between the two, but was unmistakably of a t h i r d p o s i t i v e sex" (VA 197) . L e e h a l l f a e i s beyond the w o r l d of G e n e r a t i o n , i n a s o r t of B e u l a h , where "ae" i s both man and woman, and, s i n c e "aer l o v e r was no o ther than Shaping h i m s e l f " , " the e t e r n a l c h i l d " (VA 197) . T h i s , as the Gnos t ic s would immediate ly have r e c o g n i s e d , so lve s the problem of s i n f u l p r o c r e a t i o n ( there i s none) , d i s t r a c t i o n from the love of god, and the d u a l i t y of sex. However, 173 the god i s s t i l l the wrong god, Shaping or Crystalman (or Faceny, as L e e h a l l f a e has i t ) , not S u r t u r . Sex i s commonly h e l d to be a con-sequence of the f a l l (and v i c e v e r s a ) : "The record of h i s t o r y i s the sum t o t a l of man's e f f o r t s to r e t u r n to the s t a t e o f oneness. We are malad jus ted p r o t o z o a . . . . Lovemaking i s the l a s t search f o r the 18 other h a l f of one's s e l f . " L e e h a l l f a e says c o r r e c t l y t h a t "a man's body conta ins only the h a l f of l i f e — t h e o ther h a l f i s i n woman", whereas "a phaen's body conta ins the whole of l i f e " (VA 201) . But l i f e i s wrong. Were we not ma lad ju s ted , were we not a l i e n s , we might be 19 s a t i s f i e d w i t h seek ing the God o f t h i s w o r l d , and fo rge t the w o r l d beyond: L e e h a l l f a e has never even heard of Muspe l . L e e h a l l f a e hopes to use M a s k u l l ' s " l u c k " to f i n d the god of the w o r l d he i n h a b i t s , and so accompanies M a s k u l l on h i s journey i n t o a r eg ion i n which " a l l l i f e had ceased" (VA 201) , s i n c e the sparks near t h e i r source are too s t r o n g to be conta ined by the clouds of m a t t e r . They come to "a p e r p e n d i c u l a r c l i f f about three hundred feet i n h e i g h t " from whence the r i v e r of l i f e f lows (VA 205) . A f t e r a few hours s l e e p , M a s k u l l w r y l y remarks that " h e i g h t s o f ten b r i n g me i n s p i r a t i o n " (VA 206) and begins to cl imb the c l i f f . H i s l u c k c o n t i n u e s . He d i s cover s an entrance i n t o T h r e a l l , f o r which L e e h a l l f a e has searched f o r numberless y e a r s . S ince " a l l l i f e has ceased" we must expect the underground country of T h r e a l l to be t o m b - l i k e , and indeed i t i s . In " the bowels of the h i l l " (VA 207) e v e r y t h i n g i s " c o l d , c l e a r and r e f i n e d , and somehow suggested austere and tombl ike thought s " (VA 208) . L e e h a l l f a e says , " I s h a l l d i e . But i t ' s i m m a t e r i a l . Tomorrow both of us w i l l be dead" 174 (VA 208) . He does d i e , almost immedia te ly , and h i s body evaporates . H i s p l ace i s taken by a w a l k i n g corpse , Corpang, whose country t h i s i s . M a s k u l l s ays , " I f e e l as i f I were" dead, and w a l k i n g i n another w o r l d " (VA 217) . Thi s i s M a s k u l l ' s second symbol ic death on Tormance. He has d i e d to the w o r l d i n which he t r i e d to f i n d p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t . F u l f i l t-ment can o n l y be found beyond the tomb, but Corpang does not r e a l i s e t h i s . Corpang has found the ' h o l e to h i d e h i m s e l f i n ' t h a t Oceaxe suggested M a s k u l l look f o r i n h i s f l i g h t from Genera t ion . I t i s a " m y s t i c landscape" i n which " e v e r y t h i n g was b l a c k and w h i t e " (VA 209) , "solemn and r e l i g i o u s " (VA 210) . I t i s a p lace i n which wisdom i s found, as i t i s i n Henry o f Of terd ingen and Hoffmann's s t o r y 'The Mines of F a l u n . ' In The E l d e r Edda, A l v i s , the A l l - w i s e , l i v e s underground: " A l l - W i s e I am c a l l e d : under the ground / I d w e l l i n the dark among 20 s t o n e s . " Corpang i s w i s e : he e x p l a i n s at great l e n g t h the three wor lds of e x i s t e n c e , l ove and f e e l i n g , and t h e i r gods, Faceny, Amfuse and T h i r e . He takes M a s k u l l to " the Three F i g u r e s , which were carved , and erec ted by an e a r l i e r race of men" (VA 216) which represent these gods. Corpang knee l s be fore the s t a t u e s , and M a s k u l l f o l l o w s s u i t . " I t grew darker and d a r k e r , u n t i l a l l was l i k e the b l a c k e s t n i g h t . . . . He was a lone w i t h h i s s p i r i t " (VA 218) . The " t h r e e C o l o s s i " come to l i f e i n t u r n . The glow of the f i r s t i n s p i r e s M a s k u l l ' s " p o e t i c s e n s i -b i l i t y " w i t h a beauty only d e s c r i b a b l e i n terms of nature a t i t s most d e l i c a t e : " the g leaming, dark , d e l i c a t e co lour s o f the h a l f - d a w n " 175 (VA 219) . The second s ta tue glows and M a s k u l l f e e l s " h i s hear t m e l t i n g to womanish s o f t n e s s . H i s male arrogance and egot i sm faded impercept-i b l y away; h i s p e r s o n a l i t y seemed to d i sappear " and "he f e l t a torment ing d e s i r e to s e r v e " (VA 219) . M a s k u l l does not a c t u a l l y see the t h i r d s t a tue glow (though he sees i t fade a f t e r w a r d s ) , but he hears a v o i c e t e l l him "You are to d i e . " "You have despised l i f e , " i t goes on. "Do you r e a l l y imagine t h a t t h i s mighty w o r l d has no meaning, and that l i f e i s a j o k e ? " (VA 221) . The f i r s t s t a tue represents Faceny, who was worshipped by L e e h a l l f a e and, i f we i n f e r c o r r e c t l y , as Crystalman or Shaping by Panawe and J o i w i n d . The second was Amfuse, who was worshipped by Tydomin and S p a d e v i l . The t h i r d was T h i r e , the unseen god of the unseen w o r l d , who n e v e r t h e l e s s expresses h i s meaning i n t h i s w o r l d . M a s k u l l has j u s t had a m y s t i c a l exper ience which i s s t r o n g l y remin-i s c e n t of the b e g i n n i n g of N e r v a l ' s A u r e l i a : La reve e s t une seconde v i e . . . . ou l e m o i , sous une autre forme, cont inue l ' o e u v r e de I ' e x i s t e n c e . C ' e s t un s o u t e r r a i n vague q u i s e c l a i r e peu a geu, et ou se de-gagent de 1'ombre e t de l a n u i t l e s pa le s f i g u r e s gravement immobiles q u i h a b i t e n t l e s e j o u r des l i m b e s . Pu i s l e t a b l e a u se forme, une c l a r t e " n o u v e l l e i l l u m i n e e t f a i t j ouer ces a p p a r i t i o n s b i z a r r e s : l e monde des E s p r i t s s ' ouvre pour nous (21) . "The dream i s a second l i f e " i n which " the w o r l d of the s p i r i t opens i t s e l f f o r u s . " But l i f e i n t h i s w o r l d i s a second dream i n which the w o r l d of the s p i r i t i s c l o s e d to us . Even the apparent ly genuine m y s t i c a l exper ience i s d i s c r e d i t e d by r e a l i t y , as represented by the drum taps of S u r t u r . Both M a s k u l l and Corpang, a f t e r the s ta tues have faded, hear " the sound of drumming" and the cavern f i l l s w i t h Muspel l i g h t (VA 221) . As a r e s u l t , " the face of each f i g u r e [ i s ] c l o t h e d i n the s o r d i d and 176 h o r r i b l e Crystalman mask" (VA 221) . A l l Corpang's e r u d i t e t a l k of three gods and three wor lds has been "mere nomenclature" (VA 212) : they are a l l Crys ta lman. " I t must mean," says M a s k u l l , " t h a t l i f e i s wrong, and the c r e a t o r of l i f e t o o , whether he i s one person or t h r e e " (VA 221) . Corpang agrees : " L i f e i s c l e a r l y f a l s e " (VA 222) . T h i s i s , of course , the c o n c l u s i o n towards which M a s k u l l has been work ing a l l a l o n g . He has found t h a t f u l f i l l m e n t on a s o c i a l l e v e l i s i m p o s s i b l e , and i t i s now confirmed that even p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t i n t h i s w o r l d cannot be a t t a i n e d . M a s k u l l must now be reborn i n t o the t h i r d c y c l e of the s p i r a l we are t r a c i n g which i s—though i t must be doomed to f a i l u r e — t h e quest i n t h i s w o r l d f o r the Muspel which belongs to the r e a l w o r l d . M a s k u l l ' s t h i r d b i r t h unmistakably echoes the r e b i r t h of Anodos i n Phantas te s . Anodos has been t r a v e l l i n g through "an underground c o u n t r y , i n which the sky was o f r o c k , and, i n s t e a d of t ree s and f l o w e r s , there 22 were only f a n t a s t i c rocks and s t o n e s " : At l e n g t h the country of rock began to c l o s e again around me, g r a d u a l l y and s l o w l y n a r r o w i n g , t i l l I found myse l f w a l k i n g i n a g a l l e r y of rock once more, both s ides of which I could touch w i t h my o u t s t r e t c h e d hands. I t narrowed y e t , u n t i l I was fo rced to move c a r e f u l l y , i n order to avoid s t r i k i n g aga ins t the p r o j e c t i n g p ieces of r o c k . The r o o f sank lower and l o w e r , u n t i l I was compel led , f i r s t to s toop , and then to creep on my hands and knees . I t r e c a l l e d t e r r i b l e dreams of c h i l d h o o d (23) . M a s k u l l and Corpang " f o l l o w e d the drumming" which l ead them i n t o " the mouth of a l a r g e cavern" (VA 223) : The path narrowed and became a steep a scent . Then the angle became one of f o r t y - f i v e degrees, and they had to c l i m b . The t u n n e l grew so conf ined t h a t M a s k u l l was r e -minded of the e v i l dreams of h i s ch i ldhood (VA 224) . o 177 Anodos emerges i n t o a " w i n t r y s u n , " and takes " a l i t t l e boa t " to h i s death. By c o n t r a s t , Corpang and M a s k u l l emerge i n t o " B r a n c h s p e l l ' s b l i n d i n g r a y s " (VA 224) , where they w a i t f o r a ferryman to a r r i v e w i t h h i s boa t , to take them towards r e a l l i f e . When Gilgamesh i s on 'The search f o r E v e r l a s t i n g L i f e ' (Chapter 2 6 4 ) , he passes through " twe lve leagues of darkness" to the ocean over which Urshanabi w i l l f e r r y h i m . L i k e Haunte ' s boa t , U r s h a n a b i ' s i s kept safe by " h o l y t h i n g s , the th ings of s tone " and h i s boat has a " se rpent 2 7 28 p r o w . " Gilgamesh " s h a t t e r [ s ] the stones i n h i s a n g e r , " and Urshanabi says to h i m : "Gi lgamesh, your own hands have prevented you from c r o s s -i n g the Ocean; when you destroyed the th ings of s tone , you destroyed the 29 s a f e t y of the b o a t . " I t i s not e x p l a i n e d how the stones work. Haunte ' s stones are "male s t o n e s " : " they are showering out male sparks a l l the t ime . These sparks devour a l l the female p a r t i c l e s r i s i n g from the e a r t h . No female p a r t i c l e s are l e f t over to a t t r a c t the male par t s of the b o a t " (VA 230-31) . The boat s a i l s through the a i r , over the a r i d ' s e a ' of L i c h s t o r m , on a cushion of male sparks . In the prow i s a s t a f f — the p h a l l i c e q u i v a l e n t of Ur shanab i ' s " s e r p e n t " , i n t o w h i c h , as i n the B i b l e , i t may indeed metamorphose—which supports an "upper male s tone " (VA 231) , by which Haunte s t e e r s . He takes M a s k u l l and Corpang across L i c h s t o r m to " a dark s l i t i n the r o c k " which i s " the mouth of h i s cave" (VA 233) . I t i s on ly a f t e r the journey t h a t " the s a f e t y of the b o a t " i s des t royed : M a s k u l l h u r l s Haunte 's male stones from the mouth of the cave, thus emascula t ing h i m . L e e h a l l f a e perhaps represented the attempt to combine w i t h arid 178 subsume the feminine element i n c r e a t i o n , and Corpang, by a s c e t i s m , to avo id i t a l t o g e t h e r . Haunte has the more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e of complete h o s t i l i t y : " the t e s t i s , do you hate and fear women?" (VA 229) . In L i c h s t o r m , "men are c a l l e d to women by p a i n , and not p l e a s u r e " (VA 229) . A c c o r d i n g to Haunte, maleness " i s a l l that p r e -vents the w o r l d from b e i n g a pure female w o r l d , " i n which case " i t would be one b i g mass of heavy sweetness, w i t h o u t i n d i v i d u a l shapes" (VA 237) . The body, b e i n g mat te r , i s , i n the l a r g e r scheme of t h i n g s , f e m i n i n e , but the spark of l i f e i s m a s c u l i n e : hence, "an excess of l i f e i s dangerous to the body" (VA 237) . M a s k u l l cont inues northwards w i t h Haunte and Corpang to the home of Su l lenbode . " I n L i c h s t o r m the sexes are p u r e , " Haunte t o l d M a s k u l l . "There are men t h e r e , and there are women t h e r e , but there are no men-women, as w i t h y o u " (VA 229) . As Haunte i s pure male , so Sul lenbode i s pure female. A p p r o p r i a t e l y she i s "one b i g mass of heavy sweetness" : h e r fea tures are most ly "undeveloped" and "her f l e s h was almost m e l t i n g i n i t s s o f t n e s s " (VA 242) , as though she were made of s o f t c l a y . I t was, a g a i n , w i t h a woman,made of c l a y , Pandora, that Zeus tempted Prometheus, of whom M a s k u l l i s a type . But S u l l e n b o d e ' s s e t t i n g leads us to a s s o c i a t e h e r r a t h e r w i t h Eve than w i t h Pandora. As such she 30 represents the u l t i m a t e t empta t ion , t rue l o v e . The r e a l t e s t of man on ea r th comes when he must choose between t rue love of woman and t rue love of god. In the C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n , these may be shown to l ead to the same t h i n g , as Dante ' s love f o r B e a t r i c e leads him to god. Before the f a l l , they must be i d e n t i c a l , as C. S. Lewis shows i n h i s n a i v e and 179 n o b l y o p t i m i s t i c Voyage to Venus, i n which the temptat ion of ' E v e ' i s r e s taged , on ly t h i s time she does not f a l l . In A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , however, love of woman and love of god are only i n complete harmony i f the god we recogni se i s Crys ta lman. Woman i s , a f t e r a l l , h i s c r e a t i o n : she i s what he designed s p e c i f i c a l l y to t i e us to the w o r l d of w i l l i n g and k i l l i n g . But f o r S u r t u r ' s sake she must be r e j e c t e d comple te ly . Su l l enbode ' s s e t t i n g i s c l e a r l y E d e n i c , but s y m b o l i c a l l y , not i n the p i c ture sque sense: A huge t r e e , w i t h g lowing branches , came i n t o s i g h t . I t bore a m u l t i t u d e of red f r u i t , l i k e hanging l a n t e r n s v(14)^ but no l e a v e s . Underneath t h i s t ree Sul lenbode was s i t t i n g . . . . She was c l o t h e d i n a s i n g u l a r s k i n garment. . . . Her forearms were l i g h t l y f o l d e d , and i n one hand she h e l d a h a l f - e a t e n f r u i t (VA 242) . In the Gnos t i c v i e w , woman, symbol o f matter and p r o c r e a t i o n , c r e a t i o n of the Archons , i s damned, was created f a l l e n . Su l l enbode , even i n her semi-plasmic s t a t e , has a l ready covered her nakedness, and she eats of the f a t a l f r u i t - , under whose t r ee she permanently s i t s . Her f u n c t i o n i s to tempt Adam-Maskull from the road to Muspe l , which she, as Eve-Su l lenbode , can do w i t h a more tempting f r u i t : her " f u l l , p o u t i n g and e x p r e s s i v e " l i p s which are her only f u l l y developed f a c i a l f e a t u r e , " a s p l a s h of v i v i d w i l l " on her undef ined face (VA 242) . Her mouth i s " l i k e a gash of f i r e " (VA 245) : an e a r t h l y f i r e to tempt M a s k u l l from h i s quest f o r the Muspel f i r e from beyond the w o r l d . Haunte k i s s e s Sul lenbode and h e r " f ea ture s emerged from t h e i r i n -d i s t i n c t n e s s and became human, and almost p o w e r f u l " (VA 243) . But Haunte i s not h e r p rey : " the smi le faded, a scowl took i t s p l a c e . She t h r u s t Haunte away." When Haunte k i s s e s her " the second t ime , he f e l l backward 180 w i t h a s t a r t l e d c r y , as though he had come i n contact w i t h an e l e c t r i c w i r e . " When M a s k u l l l o o k s , " the man was dead. . . . [Hi s ] head had been s p l i t from the top downward i n t o two h a l v e s , s t reaming w i t h s t r ange-c o l o r e d b l o o d , as though i t had r e c e i v e d a t e r r i b l e blow from an ax" (VA 243) . Meanwhile , Sul lenbode has re turned to her p l a smic s t a t e . Before k i s s i n g Sul lenbode h i m s e l f , M a s k u l l takes a cur ious p r e -c a u t i o n , the s i g n i f i c a n c e of which escapes me. Perhaps M a s k u l l has read Phanta s te s , f o r the i n c i d e n t seems to have an analogue t h e r e , when the k n i g h t i s d e a l i n g w i t h s t i ck-men who beat up a l i t t l e g i r l w h i l e she i s c o l l e c t i n g b u t t e r f l y wings . The k n i g h t s ays , But suddenly the r i g h t p l a n occurred to me. I t r i p p e d one of them up, and, t a k i n g him by the l e g s , se t him up on h i s head, w i t h h i s hee l s aga ins t a t r e e . I was de-l i g h t e d to f i n d he could not move (31) . At l e a s t M a s k u l l keeps Sul lenbode the r i g h t way up, but h i s i n t e n t i o n i s the oppos i te of the k n i g h t ' s : He p lucked n e r v o u s l y at h i s b e a r d , and s t a r e d at S u l l e n -bode. Hi s l i p s kept t w i t c h i n g . A f t e r t h i s had gone on f o r a few minutes , he stepped forward , bent over the woman, and l i f t e d her b o d i l y i n h i s arms. S e t t i n g h e r u p r i g h t aga ins t the rugged t ree t r u n k , he k i s s e d h e r . A c o l d , k n i f e l i k e shock passed down h i s frame. He thought that i t was death , and l o s t consciousness (VA 244) . When he recovers he f i n d s "Su l lenbode was transformed i n t o a l i v i n g s o u l " (VA 244) . She t e l l s h i m , L i s t e n , M a s k u l l . Man a f t e r man has drawn me i n t o the w o r l d , but they cou ld not keep me t h e r e , f o r I d i d not w i s h i t . But now you have drawn me i n t o i t f o r a l l t ime , f o r good or e v i l (VA 245) . In f a c t , she has drawn her l i f e from h i m : she says l a t e r , " I have no o ther l i f e but what you g ive me" (VA 254) and " the term of your love i s 181 the term of my l i f e . When you love me no l o n g e r , I must d i e " (VA 254) . In a more l i t e r a l sense than i s common even i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , Sul lenbode i s M a s k u l l ' s p r o j e c t i o n . For t h i s reason , o f course , she i s the i d e a l temptress : she must be e x a c t l y what M a s k u l l t h i n k s he wants . M a s k u l l and Corpang cont inue t h e i r j o u r n e y , accompanied by Su l lenbode . Corpang says women can see Muspel l i g h t "on one c o n d i t i o n " : "They must forget t h e i r sex. Womanhood and love be long to l i f e , w h i l e Muspel i s above l i f e " (VA 246) . Corpang o f f e r s more b i t t e r counse l " t o remind [Maskul l ] of the e x i s t e n c e of n o b l e r t h i n g s " (VA 246) , but he only succeeds i n d r i v i n g him i n t o Su l l enbode ' s arms (or c l u t c h e s ) . M a s k u l l s ea l s h i s f a te w i t h a second k i s s : "an expre s s ion of joyousness over-spread her f ace , i n s p i t e of h e r e f f o r t s to conceal i t " (VA 253) : M a s k u l l , w i t h o u t a word, bent over and k i s s e d her l i p s . Then he r e l i n q u i s h e d her body, and turned around to Corpang. 'How do y o u , i n your great wisdom, i n t e r p r e t tha t k i s s ? ' ' I t r e q u i r e s no great wisdom to i n t e r p r e t k i s s e s , M a s k u l l . ' ' H e r e a f t e r , never dare to come between us . Sul lenbode belongs to me' (VA 253) . And he belongs to Crys ta lman. Corpang speaks not another word , but the three t r a v e l l e r s now have t h e i r work cut out to make any progress at a l l . A f t e r the second k i s s , i n keep ing w i t h the mode o f a l l e g o r y , almost immediately the going begins to a l t e r f o r the worse . The t h i n snow di sappeared , and gave way to m o i s t , boggy ground. I t was a l l l i t t l e grassy h i l l o c k s and marshes. They began to s l i p about and become draggled w i t h mud. Conver sa t ion ceased; Sul lenbode l e d the way, and the men f o l l o w e d i n h e r t r a c k s . The southern h a l f of the landscape grew grander (VA 254). 182 The image i s the meaning: f o l l o w i n g i n the foot s teps of Su l lenbode , the men are on very swampy ground indeed . A man cannot f o l l o w a master and a m i s t r e s s . But Sul lenbode i s a c t u a l l y as much a v i c t i m as M a s k u l l . She says , "Tonight i s l i k e l i f e " (VA 256) : "So l o v e l y above and around us , so f o u l under foo t " (VA 257) . Without s a y i n g a n y t h i n g , Corpang goes on ahead, a l o n e . M a s k u l l has been tempted, and has f a l l e n . But the l i f e he has g iven to Su l lenbode , he can take away. The two l o v e r s cont inue together u n t i l suddenly M a s k u l l hears again " the drum taps . They came from behind the h i l l , and were l o u d , sharp , almost e x p l o s i v e . He glanced at S u l l e n -bode, but she appeared to hear n o t h i n g " (VA 259) . Then " the c r e s t of the h i l l began to be i l l u m i n a t e d by a s trange r a d i a n c e . . . . I t was the l i g h t of M u s p e l . " Sul lenbode appears to see n o t h i n g . " M a s k u l l ' s s p i r i t s w e l l e d " and h i s hear t beat w i l d l y . H i s body was l i k e a p r i s o n . He longed to throw i t o f f , to s p r i n g up and become i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h the sublime un iver se which was b e g i n n i n g to u n v e i l i t s e l f (VA 259) . He has , i f on ly t e m p o r a r i l y , f o r g o t t e n Su l lenbode , and her k i s s e s can no longer tempt him from the ' o t h e r ' w o r l d : Sul lenbode suddenly enfo lded him i n her arms, and k i s s e d him p a s s i o n a t e l y , aga in and a g a i n . He made no response. He was unaware of what she was do ing . She unclasped him and, w i t h bent head and s treaming eyes , went n o i s e l e s s l y away (VA 160) . Sul lenbode loses the b a t t l e , but wins the war . M a s k u l l has been, l i k e 32 Henry of O f t e r d i n g e n , "dreaming, or s lumbering i n t o another w o r l d , " and when the l i g h t vanishes and " the moonl ight r e a p p e a r [ s ] " he " s t a r e [ s ] 183 around him l i k e a suddenly awakened s l e e p e r " (VA 260) . M a s k u l l runs a f t e r Su l l enbode , but she i s dead before he reaches h e r : Beneath i t s c o a t i n g of mud, her face bore the v u l g a r , g h a s t l y Crysta lman g r i n , but M a s k u l l saw n o t h i n g of i t . She had never appeared so b e a u t i f u l to him as a t tha t moment (VA 260) (33) . And, we are t o l d , "he cared no more f o r Muspe l " (VA 260) . On the morning of h i s f i f t h and l a s t day on Tormance, M a s k u l l "gazed at e v e r y t h i n g i n weary apathy, l i k e a l o s t s o u l " — w h i c h , i n d e e d , he i s . " A l l h i s de s i re s were gone f o r e v e r ; he wi shed to go nowhere, and to do n o t h i n g " (VA 262) . M a s k u l l , on h i s own, would progress no f a r t h e r . At t h i s p o i n t , t h e r e f o r e , Krag reappears to d r i v e him f i n a l l y i n t o Crys ta lman ' s c l u t c h e s . Krag t e l l s h i m , "You w i l l d i e t h i s morning" (VA 262) , and when M a s k u l l asks "Who and what i s S u r t u r ? " he i s t o l d , " D o n ' t d i s t u r b y o u r s e l f about t h a t . You w i l l never know" (VA 263) . Krag d r i v e s M a s k u l l forward w i t h "no . . . s topping—even f o r the sake of t h e a t r i c a l e f f e c t " (VA 264) , u n t i l they reach Barey , where they meet w i t h the embodied Crystalman h i m s e l f , Gangnet. They are now f a r enough n o r t h tha t they can expect the r i s i n g of A l p p a i n . "And t h a t , " says K r a g , " i s Crys ta lman ' s trump c a r d " : " Y o u ' l l renounce the w o r l d so eager ly tha t y o u ' l l want to s tay i n the w o r l d merely to enjoy your s e n s a t i o n s " (VA 269) . The three t r a v e l l e r s f i n a l l y emerge from the "accursed f o r e s t " (VA 271) and set s a i l on a f l o a t i n g i s l a n d "on the bosom o f " (VA 272) the ocean. "The name of [ t h i s ] Ocean" " i s t o l d on ly to those who d ie bes ide i t " (VA 226) . I t i s , as Krag t e l l s the dying M a s k u l l , " S u r t u r ' s Ocean" 34 (VA 2 77) . On t h i s ocean, under the i n f l u e n c e o f the b e a u t i f u l and p o e t i c 184 "man-woman" (VA 266) Gangnet, M a s k u l l f i n a l l y r e j e c t s that " u g l y , w r i n k l e d m o n s t r o s i t y " (VA 275) K r a g , w i t h h i s " y e l l o w , r e p u l s i v e f ace " (VA 273) . Then A l p p a i n r i s e s , and M a s k u l l says " I have l o s t my w i l l ; I f e e l as i f some f o u l tumor had been scraped away, l e a v i n g me c lean and f r e e " (VA 275) . He i s " n o t h i n g " (VA 275) and says " I understand n o t h i n g , except that I have no s e l f any more. But t h i s is_ l i f e " (VA 276) . M a s k u l l has become one w i t h Crys ta lman ' s w o r l d . A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e n , Krag must s tep i n to snatch n o t h i n g , M a s k u l l ' s e s s e n t i a l s e l f , N i g h t s p o r e , out of the hands of the god of c r e a t i o n . M a s k u l l d ies arid Nightspore i s b o r n . "Night spore gazed long and e a r n e s t l y a t M a s k u l l ' s body. 'Why was a l l t h i s nece s sa ry? ' he asks (VA 277) . He i s soon to f i n d o u t , by c l i m b i n g the tower which leads to M u s p e l , which i s " a l adder to heaven" (VA 281) . We must t h i n k of the separate spheres of Crys ta lman ' s w o r l d , which surrounds Muspe l , as b e i n g l i k e the separate co lour s of a ra inbow. In f a c t , c r e a t i o n is_ a ra inbow, and i t i s a l s o a v e i l . On the e a r t h l y s i d e of the v e i l we are a s l e e p : we have drunk o f Le the , the r i v e r both o f matter and f o r g e t f u l n e s s : i n b e i n g submerged i n m a t t e r , the s p i r i t f o rge t s the r e a l w o r l d beyond the v e i l or what Jean P a u l c a l l s " the gleaming Rainbow of C r e a t i o n " ( C a r l y l e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n ) . I t i s i n t h i s image that a l l the m o t i f s of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s come toge ther . M a s k u l l was of day, as leep to the r e a l w o r l d , bound to c r e a t i o n , unable to see beyond Crys ta lman . Night spore i s of n i g h t , as leep to t h i s but awake to the r e a l w o r l d , f ree o f c r e a t i o n , and able to see what P l a t o c a l l s the 35 " t r u e and uns leep ing r e a l i t y " beyond the v e i l of Maya, rainbow of C r e a t i o n or shadow of Crys ta lman. L i n d s a y ' s r e l a t i v e , C a r l y l e , expresses 185 these ideas c o n c i s e l y i n S a r t o r R e s a r t u s : We s i t as i n a boundless Phantasmagoria and Dream-grotto ; . . . sounds and many-coloured v i s i o n s f l i t round our sense; but Him, the Unslumbering, whose work both Dream and Dreamer a r e , we see n o t ; except i n r a r e h a l f - w a k i n g moments, suspect n o t . C r e a t i o n , says one, l i e s be fore us , l i k e a g l o r i o u s Rainbow, but the Sun t h a t made i t l i e s behind us , h idden from us . Then, i n t h a t s t range Dream, how we c l u t c h at shadows as i f they were substances ; and s leep deepest w h i l e f a n c y i n g our se lve s most awake! . . . T h i s Dreaming, t h i s Somnambulism i s what we on E a r t h c a l l L i f e (36) . L indsay would have two qu ibb le s w i t h t h i s : f i r s t l y , c r e a t i o n i s not the work of " H i m , the Uns lumber ing" S u r t u r , but of Crys ta lman; and secondly , " the Sun" l i e s not behind us but on the o ther s i d e of the rainbow. This leads to the u l t i m a t e paradox of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , which i s t h a t the way to Muspel l i e s through Crys ta lman, not away from h i m . I t i s on ly when M a s k u l l i s u n i t e d w i t h Crys ta lman ' s w o r l d that Night spore can get f ree of i t . The Muspel l i g h t streams from Muspel and through " the sphere" of Crys ta lman, by which i t i s " s p l i t , as by a p r i s m , i n t o the two forms of l i f e " (VA 284) : sparks of s p i r i t and " w h i r l s " of l i v i n g w i l l : What had been f i e r y s p i r i t but a moment ago was now a d i s g u s t i n g mass of c r a w l i n g , w r i g g l i n g i n d i v i d u a l s , each w h i r l of p l e a s u r e - s e e k i n g w i l l h a v i n g , as n u c l e u s , a fragment of l i v i n g green f i r e . N ight spore r e c o l l e c t e d the back rays of S t a rknes s , and i t f l a s h e d across him w i t h the c e r t a i n t y of t r u t h that the green sparks were the back r a y s , and the w h i r l s the forward rays of Muspe l . The former were t r y i n g despera te ly to r e t u r n to t h e i r p lace o f o r i g i n , but were overpowered by the brute force of the l a t t e r , which wished only to remain where they were. The i n d i v i d u a l w h i r l s were j o s t l i n g and f i g h t i n g w i t h , and even devour ing , each o t h e r . Th i s created p a i n , b u t , whatever p a i n they f e l t , i t was always p leasure tha t they sought. Sometimes the green sparks were s t rong enough f o r a moment to move a l i t t l e way i n the d i r e c t i o n 186 of Muspe l ; the w h i r l s would then accept the movement, not only w i t h o u t demur, but w i t h p r i d e and p l e a s u r e , as i f i t were t h e i r own handiwork—but they never saw beyond the Shadow, they thought that they were t r a v e l i n g toward i t . The i n s t i n c t the d i r e c t movement wear ied them, as contrary to t h e i r w h i r l i n g n a t u r e , they f e l l again to k i l l i n g , danc ing , and l o v i n g (VA 284) . The w i l l s w h i r l to Crys ta lman ' s w a l t z ; the sparks march to S u r t u r ' s drum taps : but the sparks are " h o p e l e s s l y i m p r i s o n e d " , " e f feminated and c o r -rupted—that i s to say , absorbed i n the f o u l , s i c k l y enve lop ing forms" (VA 283) . The w i l l s are the body, the sparks the s o u l . " W i l l i n g and 37 waking are one and the same t h i n g . " W i l l i n g i s " k i l l i n g , dancing and l o v i n g " : "That i s what i t i s to be awake. . . . I t i s to b a t t l e . I t i s to w i l l . As f o r the dream, . . . i t i s the s t a t e i n t o which you n a t u r a l l y f a l l when you have l e t y o u r s e l f go, . . . when you have ceased 38 to w i l l . " M a s k u l l , under A l p p a i n , has f a l l e n as leep to the w o r l d where he has been "murdering and lovemaking" (VA 264) , " k i l l i n g and f o n d l i n g " (VA 265) , and t h i s s leep (death) has enabled Night spore ( M a s k u l l ' s dream-s p i r i t s e l f ) to awake to the r e a l w o r l d . When Nightspore c l imbs the tower and passes through Crys ta lman ' s body, he f i n d s , beyond the rainbow or shadow, n o t h i n g . There i s no god. In J e a n - P a u l ' s dream-vi s ion 'Rede des t o t e n C h r i s t u s ' , t r a n s l a t e d by C a r l y l e , C h r i s t addressed the dead who have assembled from t h e i r graves : I went through the Wor lds , I mounted i n t o the Suns, and f lew w i t h the Ga lax ie s through the wastes of Heaven; but there i s no God! I descended as f a r as Be ing casts i t s shadow, and looked down i n t o the Abyss and c r i e d , F a t h e r , Where a r t thou? But I heard on ly the e v e r l a s t i n g storm which no one gu ides , and the gleaming Rainbow of C r e a t i o n hung w i t h o u t a Sun that made i t , over the Abyss , and t r i c k l e d down (39) . 187 Muspel i s not " a Sun" , i t i s n o t h i n g ; S u r t u r i s not a God, he i s n o t h i n g . M a s k u l l found h i m s e l f , as N i g h t s p o r e ; Nightspore f i n d s h i m s e l f as a second 40 K r a g , as Muspel i t s e l f : he s tood e x p e c t a n t l y on the s t o n e - f l o o r e d r o o f , l o o k i n g around f o r h i s f i r s t gl impse of Muspel . There was n o t h i n g . He was s t and ing on top of a tower, measuring not above f i f t e e n fee t each way. Darkness was a l l around h i m . He sat down on the stone parapet , w i t h a s i n k i n g h e a r t ; a heavy foreboding possessed h i m . Suddenly, w i t h o u t s ee ing or h e a r i n g a n y t h i n g , he had the d i s t i n c t impres s ion that the darkness around h i m , on a l l four s i d e s , was g r i n n i n g . . . . As soon as that happened, he understood that he was w h o l l y surrounded by Crys ta lman ' s w o r l d , and tha t Muspel c o n s i s t e d of h i m s e l f and the stone tower on which he was s i t t i n g . . . . F i r e f l a s h e d i n h i s h e a r t . . . . M i l l i o n s upon m i l l i o n s of grotesque , v u l g a r , r i d i c u l o u s , sweetened i n d i v i d u a l s — once S p i r i t — w e r e c a l l i n g out from t h e i r degradat ion and agony f o r s a l v a t i o n from M u s p e l . . . . To answer that c ry there was only h i m s e l f . . . and Krag w a i t i n g below . . . and Sur tur—But where was Sur tur? (VA 286) . Krag i s S u r t u r , j u s t as Night spore i s S u r t u r . H i s name on e a r t h i s p a i n . 188 Footnotes to Chapter S i x Bruce Haywood f i n d s the image of the s p i r a l path to be " the b a s i c s t r u c t u r a l image o f " Henry of Of terd ingen i n h i s N o v a l i s : The V e i l of Imagery (Cambridge, Mas s . : Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959), p . 96. 2 V l a d i m i r Nabokov, Speak, Memory (New Y o r k : Pyramid Books, 1968), p . 203. 3 Quoted by Hans Jonas i n The G n o s t i c R e l i g i o n ( rev . e d . , Bos ton : Beacon P r e s s , 1963), p . 158. 4 Hans Jonas , The Gnos t i c R e l i g i o n , p . 158. ^ M a s k u l l says he has "a moral a im" and Oceaxe asks , "Are you p r o -pos ing to s e t the w o r l d r i g h t ? " (VA 9 0 ) . 6 x W. H . Auden, The Enchafed F lood (New Y o r k : V intage Books, 1967), 7W. H. Auden, The Enchafed F l o o d , pp. 13-14. 8 W. H . Auden, The Enchafed F l o o d , p . 11. 9 W . H. Auden, The Enchafed F l o o d , p . 22. "^George MacDonald, Phantastes (New Y o r k : B a l l a n t i n e Books, 1970), p . 5 . In h i s book about MacDonald, The Golden Key (New Haven: Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1961), R. L . W o l f f t e l l s us MacDonald kept i n a s e c r e t ne s t of drawers a l e t t e r from h i s mother to h i s grandmother s a y i n g she d i d not want to wean h i m , and comments that " h i s mother ' s death dea l t him a wound that never h e a l e d " (p. 13) . W o l f f a l so says that the f i r s t d r a f t of L i l i t h began " ' M y mother I had no memory o f ' " (p. 330). 1 1 I n Phantastes the beech-tree-woman says "Why, you b a b y ! " and c a l l s him "my c h i l d " (p. 31) , the woman i n the cottage on the i s l a n d says "poor c h i l d ! poor c h i l d ! " and spoon-feeds him " l i k e a baby" (p. 146) , and so on. The women are g e n e r a l l y l a b e l l e d 'Touch N o t ' . 12 C. S. L e w i s , Out of the S i l e n t P l a n e t (New Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n , 1968), 112, 189 13 In George MacDonald's L i l i t h , The L i t t l e Ones do not grow because a l l the water has been gathered up by the f a l s e mother, L i l i t h . ^^Franc i s Ponge, 'Fauna and F l o r a ' , t r a n s . R i c h a r d W i l b u r i n T r a n s i t i o n 50 ( P a r i s , 1950), p . 84. "'""'On the next l e v e l of the s p i r a l , he w i l l f i n d a h o l e to h i d e i n : w i t h Corpang i n a s e p u l c h r a l underground country . 16 In the ' n o v e l i s t i c ' a c t i o n , M a s k u l l i s awake—but Dreamsinter appears between two per iods of heavy unconsciousness , and knows th ings that on ly M a s k u l l ' s unconscious mind could know: he speaks w i t h what Schopenhauer c a l l s " the t r u t h of the dream". H i s name vouches f o r h i s dream ( i . e . r e a l ) e x i s t e n c e , and perhaps ' - i n t e r ' i s a fragment of ' i n t e r n a l ' , or h i n t s at b u r i a l and l i f e beyond death. 1 7 J . A . M a c C u l l o c h , The R e l i g i o n of the A n c i e n t C e l t s (Edinburgh: C l a r k , 1911), p . 251. 18 J u l e s F e i f f e r , h a r r y , the r a t w i t h women (New Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l , 1963), p . 151. Cf A r i s t o p h a n e s ' speech i n P l a t o ' s Symposium. 19 This i s K r a g ' s f u n c t i o n : "he dogs Shaping ' s foo t s teps everywhere, and whatever the l a t t e r does, he undoes. To love he j o i n s death; to sex , shame; to i n t e l l e c t , madness; to v i r t u e , c r u e l t y ; and to f a i r e x t e r i o r s , b loody e n t r a i l s " (VA 177). 20 'The Words of the A l l - w i s e ' i n The E l d e r Edda, t r a n s . Auden and T a y l o r (New Y o r k : Vintage Books, 1970), p . 79. Nerva l , Oeuvres, ed . L e m a i t r e , I , p . 753. 22 George MacDonald, P h a n t a s t e s , p . 134. L i n d s a y ' s country has r e a l t r e e s , w i t h t h e i r roo t s i n the c e i l i n g . In t h i s they are l i k e Corpang, who b e l i e v e s that h i s own ' r o o t s ' are i n heaven, though he i s mi s t aken . Man as an i n v e r t e d t ree i s an o l d image, bu t a p r e t t y one. 23 George MacDonald, Phantas te s , p . 140. 24 George MacDonald, Phanta s te s , p . 141. 25 George MacDonald, Phanta s te s , p . 142. In t h i s , Anodos i s l i k e S h e l l e y ' s A l a s t o r . The epigraph to Chapter I of Phantastes i s from Ala s t o r . 190 26 The E p i c of Gi lgamesh, t r a n s . N . K. Sandars (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1971), p . 95 . 2 7 T h e E p i c of Gi lgamesh, p . 100. 2 8 The E p i c of Gi lgamesh, p . 100. 29 The E p i c of Gi lgamesh, p . 101. 30 M a s k u l l s ays , "My body seems f u l l of r o c k s , a l l g r i n d i n g aga in s t one another" (VA 244) . One wonders i f L indsay knew tha t the F i n n i s h f o r love i s r a k a s t a a . In E m i l P e t a j a ' s s c i e n c e - f a n t a s y reworking of the K a l e v a l a , one charac te r s ays , of r a k a s t a a , " F i n n i s h ' l o v e ' sounds l i k e c r u s h i n g r o c k s " ; Saga of Los t Ear ths (New Y o r k : Ace Books, 1966), p . 73. 31 George MacDonald, Phanta s te s , p . 19 8. 32 N o v a l i s , Henry o f O f t e r d i n g e n : A Romance (New Y o r k : H . H . Moore, 1853) , p . 23. 33 For some i n e x p l i c a b l e reason, C o l i n W i l s o n says " L i n d s a y ' s purpose seems to have wavered f o r a moment; but perhaps t h i s i s in tended i r o n -i c a l l y " (TSG 6 0 ) . Noth ing of the s o r t . Gangnet-Crysta lman's main p o i n t l a t e r i s , " i f - S u l l e n b o d e can e x i s t . . . the w o r l d cannot be a bad p l a c e " (VA 268) . 3 A Krag says , "Gangnet i s the k i n g of p o e t s " . And M a s k u l l observes , c o r r e c t l y , " i f Gangnet i s a poe t , y o u ' r e a bu f foon" (VA 273) . 35 P l a t o , Timaeus, t r a n s . H . D. P . Lee (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1965), p . 71. 36 Thomas C a r l y l e , S a r t o r Resartus (Edinburgh: The New U n i v e r s i t y S o c i e t y , n . d . ) , pp. 50-51. 37 H e n r i Bergson, Dreams, t r a n s . E . E . S los son (New Y o r k : Huebsch, 1914), p . 49. In h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to the B a l l a n t i n e e d i t i o n of A Voyage, Loren E i s e l e y t a l k s of the "Bergsonian gl impse o f l i f e as some k i n d of i n e f f a b l e s t reaming r a d i a n c e , an e l an v i t a l " (VA i x ) . I have ignored Bergson (except h e r e , where he c o n v e n i e n t l y paraphrases Schopenhauer) because he i s to Schopenhauer as B o c c h e r i n i was to Haydn. F u r t h e r , L indsay i s always ment ioning Schopenhauer but he never , to my knowledge, mentions Bergson. 191 H e n r i Bergson, Dreams, p . 49. Jacob Boehme e x p l a i n s the reasons f o r the w h i r l i n g and w i l l i n g w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c l a r i t y i n Chapter I I sec . 13 o f S i g n a t u r a Rerum ( t r a n s . B a x ) : Thus the compunction w i l l e t h upwards, and w h i r l s c r o s s -ways, and yet cannot e f f e c t i t , f o r the hardness , v i z . the d e s i r e s tays and deta ins i t , and there fore i t stands l i k e a t r i a n g l e , and t r a n s v e r t e d o r b , which ( see ing i t cannot remove from the p lace ) becomes w h e e l i n g , whence a r i s e s the mix ture i n the d e s i r e ; f o r the t u r n i n g makes a c o n t i n u a l confus ion and c o n t r i t i o n , whence the angu i sh , v i z . the p a i n , the t h i r d form or s t i n g of sense) a r i s e s . 39 Jean P a u l F r i e d r i c h R i c h t e r quoted from the t r a n s l a t i o n by C a r l y l e i n The Works of Thomas C a r l y l e , ed . H . D. T r a i l l , 'Centenary E d i t i o n ' (30 v o l s . ; London: Chapman and H a l l , 1896-1899), X X V I I , p . 157. ^ ^ I n 'The Enigma of Edward F i t z g e r a l d ' Borges t e l l s us of "a t r a n s -l a t i o n of Mant iq a l - T a y r , that m y s t i c a l e p i c about the b i r d s who search f o r t h e i r k i n g , S imurg, and f i n a l l y a r r i v e at h i s p a l a c e , which i s across the seven seas , to d i s c o v e r tha t they are Simurg and t h a t Simurg i s each and everyone of them"; Jorge L u i s Borges , A P e r s o n a l A n t h o l o g y , ed . Anthony K e r r i g a n (New Y o r k : Grove P r e s s , 1967), p . 95. 192 Chapter Seven: ALLEGORICAL DREAM FANTASY: THE PROBLEM OF STYLE A Voyage to A r c t u r u s has a number of q u a l i t i e s , as we have seen: i t i s s y m b o l i c a l l y i n v e n t i v e , p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g , a p o w e r f u l , v i s u a l fantasy and a coherent , h i g h l y - o r g a n i s e d a l l e g o r y . However, i t has g e n e r a l l y been cons idered , by i t s few c r i t i c s , to be a not very w e l l w r i t t e n n o v e l , which i s l e s s s u r p r i s i n g when we remember that i t i s not a n o v e l at a l l . The s t y l i s t i c c r i t e r i a which l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s apply to nove l s may not be a p p l i c a b l e to a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s and works be long ing to other non-mimetic genres : we have a l ready seen that the same c r i t e r i a do not apply w i t h regard to p l o t and c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , and i t should not s u r p r i s e us i f t h i s i s t rue of s t y l e a l s o . A l i t e r a r y c r i t i c who examines works of dream l i t e r a t u r e a c c o r d i n g to the c r i t e r i a of the ' r e a l i s t i c ' s o c i a l or p s y c h o l o g i c a l n o v e l as a c u t e l y as Joanna Russ does w i l l f i n d the s t y l e of dream books to have the f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : R e p e t i t i o n . No v o i c e or forced v o i c e . Simple f i g u r e s of speech. Evenness of p a c i n g . Th in c h a r a c t e r s . F l a t sentences , l i t t l e v a r i e t y o r use of syntax . No p l a y i n g w i t h sound, or mechanica l sound (1 ) . This c o r r e c t l y descr ibes the s t y l e of A Voyage. But from t h i s p o i n t o f v iew, almost a l l dream works i n prose have these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and 2 there fore they must a l l be bad ly w r i t t e n . When She was p u b l i s h e d , The P a l l M a l l Budget deplored the ' ba thos ' and ' f r e q u e n t t o r p o r s ' but p r a i s e d the 'energy and i n t e n s i t y of imag-i n a t i o n . ' ' I t i s as though a sub jec t roughed out by 193 M i c h a e l Angelo had been executed w i t h an eye to New Bond S t r e e t p o p u l a r i t y by Gustave D o r e . ' The rev iewer l i k e n s Haggard's concept ion to D a n t e ' s , h i s w r i t i n g to that of the D a i l y Telegraph ( 3 ) . She was, of course , such an enormous popular success that Haggard made a w o r l d t o u r , and a mountain and a r i v e r were named a f t e r him i n Canada. C l e a r l y , to borrow Dr . Johnson's phrase , the book must have had some spec ies of m e r i t . In h i s c r i t i c a l b iography of Haggard, Cohen t e s t i f i e s that the s t o r y . . . has a b e w i l d e r i n g power, the s o r t one i s accustomed to meet only i n s u p e r i o r works of a r t such as ' C h r i s t a b e l ' and some of Poe ' s mas terp ieces , a power that g r i p s the reader so f i e r c e l y that he brushes a s ide Haggard's e r r o r s i n t a s t e , h i s o c c a s i o n a l grammatical l a p s e s , h i s imperfect charac te r p o r t r a y a l and l a c k of emot iona l u n i t y . The power of h i s i m a g i n a t i o n i s f a r s t ronger than the obs t ac l e s h i s w r i t i n g puts i n our way ( 4 ) . ' C h r i s t a b e l ' has the " b e w i l d e r i n g power , " but i t i s not prose . Poe, however, could h a r d l y be recommended as a model f o r any a s p i r i n g prose s t y l i s t , and h i s w r i t i n g i s f r e q u e n t l y t a s t e l e s s even i n h i s mas terp ieces . Nonetheles s , Cohen's testament must be accepted. She " g r i p s the reader so f i e r c e l y " that he put a great dea l of t ime and e f f o r t i n t o w r i t i n g a book about Haggard, as I have been s i m i l a r l y gr ipped by L indsay and moved to w r i t e a t h e s i s about h im. Both She and A Voyage show ' the power of i m a g i n a t i o n ' which—whatever i t means—is what fantasy i s a l l about. S t y l e i s found, i n the exper ience of r e a d i n g , to be of l e s s e r i m -por tance . Th i s i s as t rue f o r German w r i t e r s as f o r E n g l i s h ones, of o l d f a n t a s i e s l i k e Bunyan's as of more modern ones. Thomas C a r l y l e w r i t e s of h i s h e r o : To readers who b e l i e v e that i n t r i n s i c i s i n s e p a r a b l e from s u p e r f i c i a l e x c e l l e n c e , and tha t n o t h i n g can be good or 194 b e a u t i f u l which i s not to be seen through i n a moment, R i c h t e r can occas ion l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y . They admit him to be a man of va s t n a t u r a l endowments, but he i s u t t e r l y u n c u l t i v a t e d , and w i t h o u t command of them; f u l l of monstrous a f f e c t a t i o n , the very h i g h - p r i e s t of bad t a s t e : he knows not the a r t of w r i t i n g , s c a r c e l y that there i s such an a r t ; an insane v i s i o n a r y f l o a t i n g f o r e v e r among base le s s dreams, which h i d e the f i r m ear th from h i s v i ew. . . . In t h i s way the matter i s ad ju s t ed ; b r i e f l y , comfortably and wrong (5 ) . For those who penetra te beneath the apparent ly c h a o t i c sur face of the s t y l e , however, h i s Imaginat ion opens f o r us the Land of Dreams; we s a i l w i t h him through the boundless abyss , and the s e c r e t s of Space, and Time, and L i f e , and A n n i h i l a t i o n hover round us i n dim cloudy forms, and darkness and immensity and dread encompass and overshadow us (6 ) . Bunyan i s never obscure , nor so f a r - f e t c h e d i n h i s "Dark C l o u d s , " 7 but g "he seems to w r i t e w e l l i n c o n s i s t e n t l y and by happy a c c i d e n t . " So does M. P . S h i e l i n The P u r p l e C l o u d . So does L indsay i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s . We f i n d the a t t i t u d e Cohen takes towards Haggard, C a r l y l e towards R i c h t e r , and, f o r t h a t m a t t e r , MacNeice and Auden towards MacDonald, taken by P i c k and W i l s o n towards L i n d s a y . J . B. P i c k w r i t e s that A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s a v i v i d account of [ L i n d s a y ' s ] v i s i o n . We r e q u i r e from a wi tnes s not a d i s p l a y of educated s e n s i b i l i t y but an account of what happened, and t h i s i s what [he] g ives us . The l i t e r a t i have o f t en proved to p r e f e r a d i s p l a y of educated s e n s i b i l i t y . I f n o t h i n g important has happened, to d i s p l a y educated sens-i b i l i t y i s the on ly p o s s i b l e reason f o r o n l y g i v i n g an account a t a l l ( 9 ) . More rea sonab ly , W i l s o n "notes the awkward s t y l e of the n o v e l s " (TSG 42) , and quotes a passage from D e v i l ' s Tor which i s clumsy. I t conta ins phrases that no competent w r i t e r would l e t pa s t : ' h e r s e c r e t h e a r t was f u l l of awful w h i s p e r s ' ; i t goes on a l i t t l e too l o n g : 'From him she could endure i t , f o r i t was h i s r i g h t and n a t u r e ' , e t c . But w i t h a l l i t s c lums ines s , i t ends by g a i n i n g a c e r t a i n momentum, and making one forge t i t s f a u l t s (TSG 41) . 195 A f t e r one leaves the ' n o v e l i s t i c ' w o r l d of F a u l l (comparable to the w o r l d of D e v i l ' s Tor) and M a s k u l l "awakens on Tormance," says W i l s o n , " t h e r e a l a c t i o n of [A Voyage] b e g i n s , and moves forward at a pace t h a t makes t h i s the most e x t r a o r d i n a r y fea t of i m a g i n a t i o n i n E n g l i s h f i c t i o n " (TSG 49 ) . Even C. S. Lewis takes t h i s l i n e . D e s c r i b i n g " t h a t s h a t t e r i n g , i n t o l e r a b l e and i r r e s i s t a b l e work . . . A Voyage to Arcturus"" 1 "^ he says L indsay i s "unaided by any s p e c i a l s k i l l or even any sound t a s t e i n language""'" 1 " s c i e n t i f i c a l l y i t ' s nonsense, the s t y l e i s a p p a l l i n g , 12 and yet t h i s g h a s t l y v i s i o n comes t h r o u g h . " I t i s " the most remarkable , • _ „13 achievement. C l e a r l y , something i s happening i n A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , and something p o w e r f u l . But i t i s n o t , e v i d e n t l y , to be i s o l a t e d i n the words on the page, i n q u i t e the way that a New C r i t i c might w i s h . The only reasonable deduct ion to make i s tha t the words on the page are not the whole s t o r y , so to speak. Thi s deduct ion has been made by Norman N . H o l l a n d , who argues i n The Dynamics of L i t e r a r y Response tha t i t i s as i f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s have been l o o k i n g at a group o f c h i l d r e n on one h a l f o f a somewhat myster ious see-saw, the other h a l f b e i n g screened by a w a l l . They have been t r y i n g to e x p l a i n why t h i s board should r i s e or f a l l or stand out h o r i z o n t a l l y from the w a l l by examining only the weights and p o s i t i o n s of the c h i l d r e n on the end they can see (14) . A c c o r d i n g to H o l l a n d , form and meaning i n a work are e q u i v a l e n t to defense s t r a t e g i e s i n the mind , and permit the expre s s ion of ( i n the w o r k ) , and a l low the g r a t i f i c a t i o n of ( i n the mind) , c e n t r a l ' c o r e ' f a n t a s i e s which l i e ' b e h i n d ' the t e x t and which a r e , i n the unconscious minds o f author and reader , what corresponds to the o ther h a l f of the see-saw. L i t e r a t u r e 196 i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n : through a t e x t , unconscious f a n t a s i e s are transformed i n t o meaning. In H o l l a n d ' s m o d e l , t h e jagged l i n e represents the t e x t or the words on the page: R E A D E R L - L £ C T I K J T R O ftEAOEfc S E C T / The model descr ibes the p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . When we a c t u a l l y become engaged i n a l i t e r a r y response, when we are " w i t h i t , " the a c t u a l i t y i s the process of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , i n which each of the l e v e l s ( f a n t a s y , form, meaning) o f f e r s p lea sure i n i t s e l f and m o d i f i e s the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of p lea sure from o ther l e v e l s . We take i n the fantasy which i s an " h a l l u c i n a t o r y g r a t i f i c a t i o n . " In l i t e r a t u r e as i n l i f e , such a fantasy w i l l t y p i c a l l y both g ive p lea sure and provoke a n x i e t y . To the extent i t g ives p l e a s u r e , we s imply get p leasure from i t . To the extent i t provokes a n x i e t y , i t must be m o d i f i e d to reduce the a n x i e t y . Form and meaning are the two agents that c o n t r o l and manage the f a n t a s y , and they i n t u r n may be sources of p l ea sure i n themselves . For H o l l a n d , i n e f f e c t , the l i t e r a r y work dreams a dream f o r us . I t embodies and evokes i n us a c e n t r a l f an ta sy , then i t manages and c o n t r o l s that fantasy by devices t h a t , were they i n a mind , we would c a l l defences , b u t , b e i n g on a page, we c a l l " f o r m . " And the h a v i n g of the fantasy and f e e l i n g i t managed g ive us p lea sure (16) . 19 7 Even s o - c a l l e d ' r e a l i s t i c ' nove l s separate us from the e x t e r n a l w o r l d and i n h i b i t motor a c t i v i t y , as does dreaming, and prov ide fantasy g r a t -i f i c a t i o n , as do dreams. But f i r s t l y , they manage the fantasy p a r t l y by p r o v i d i n g us w i t h a w o r l d i n which we can w i l l i n g l y suspend d i s b e l i e f ( i . e . , what seems to be a ' r e a l ' w o r l d , what i s not o b v i o u s l y a fantasy w o r l d ) , thus a l l a y i n g a n x i e t y . And second ly , they prov ide a great dea l of defense aga ins t anx ie ty through a c o n c e n t r a t i o n on form, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t the s imple l e v e l of form as language. H o l l a n d c a l l s t h i s " the d i s -placement to l anguage , " and p o i n t s out that prose tends to t rans form fantasy toward meaning; poetry does that but a l s o d i s p l a c e s ca thex i s to the v e r b a l l e v e l . I n e v i t a b l y , then , a n a r r a t i v e i n prose w i l l make a s t r o n g e r , more d i r e c t appeal as fantasy than the same s t o r y i n verse (17) . The c o n c l u s i o n H o l l a n d draws from h i s comparison of prose and poetry i s a p p l i c a b l e to our comparison between the n o v e l and the a l l e g o r i c a l dream f an ta sy : A t t e n t i o n , concern , i f you w i l l , p s y c h i c energy, are taken away from substance and g iven to language. In terms of our model , such a displacement weakens our involvement w i t h the deeper, fantasy l e v e l s , f raught w i t h f ea r and d e s i r e ; i n s t e a d , we concentrate our involvement on the v e r b a l l e v e l (17) . That i s , words-concern weakens fantasy concern . New C r i t i c i s m began w i t h , and i s mainly a p p l i c a b l e t o , the study of p o e t r y . The l i t e r a r y progeny of New C r i t i c i s m , the modern n o v e l , has a words-concern which a s p i r e s to the l e v e l of p o e t r y . Thi s k i n d o f words-concern prov ides massive defences aga ins t a n x i e t y - p r o d u c i n g f a n t a s i e s , which i s why words-concern i s not g e n e r a l l y to be found i n a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s and some romances ( e . g . the G o t h i c N o v e l ) , where core f a n t a s i e s are r e l a t i v e l y undefended. 198 A l l l i t e r a t u r e i s , i n a sense, a dream exper ience f o r the reader . But a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s are much more l i k e a c t u a l dreams than are modern n o v e l s . Fanta s ie s do not put us i n a seeming r e a l i t y , w i t h w h i c h , by analogy w i t h l i f e e x p e r i e n c e , we should f e e l ab le to cope, but i n a dream w o r l d where almost anyth ing can happen, and i n which we are there fore r e l a t i v e l y i n s e c u r e . They o f t en do not seem to have w e l l developed formal s t r u c t u r i n g i n the more t r a d i t i o n a l sense, b e i n g (Phantas tes , f o r example) apparent ly a imless s e r i e s of i n c i d e n t s . A t the l e v e l of language, they have almost no words-concern at a l l . Thus they do not manage the powerfu l f a n t a s i e s they d e l i b e r a t e l y set out to arouse i n any r e a d i l y d i s c e r n i b l e way, and must be expected to produce h o s t i l i t y and rage when a n x i e t i e s are aroused and not managed i n t o g r a t i f y i n g form. 19 This i s apparent i n Joanna Euss ' s c r i t i q u e of A Voyage to A r c t u r u s , i n 20 W o l f f ' s judgement of L i l i t h , and i n A m i s ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t H . P . Lovecra f t "does g ive tha t impres s ion of be ing much more than r i p e f o r 21 p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . " On the o ther hand, when the fantasy i s managed s t r o n g l y enough f o r a c r i t i c , he tends to respond w i t h f o r c e f u l s ta tements , correspond-i n g to the rage of d e t r a c t i n g c r i t i c s . A Voyage to A r c t u r u s manages i t s core fantasy adequately f o r C. S. Lewis and R. L . Green: Lewis c a l l s i t 22 a " s h a t t e r i n g , i n t o l e r a b l e and i r r e s i s t a b l e w o r k , " and Green a " s t range 23 and t e r r i f y i n g romance," an " a s t o n i s h i n g b o o k . " E v i d e n t l y , when the fantasy i s not a t h r e a t , i t s power may be acknowledged; i n d e e d , must be 2 p r o c l a i m e d . "Fanta s ie s are what makes us grab somebody by the l a p e l s , " as H o l l a n d says : they provoke extremes of c r i t i c a l r e a c t i o n . I t may w e l l be that the c e n t r a l fantasy i n a dream fantasy or romance 199 i s undefended i n what we have c a l l e d ' n o v e l i s t i c ' ways (words-concern and o ther formal elements a p p r o p r i a t e to the consciousness of the i n t e l l e c t i n g reader) because i t was undefended by the author i n the ac t of w r i t i n g . Cohen says "Haggard wrote She d u r i n g February and March 1886, i n a l i t t l e over s i x weeks. I t v i r t u a l l y f lowed from h i s 25 pen of i t s own a c c o r d . " Thus, " h a v i n g w r i t t e n i t as q u i c k l y as he 2 6 d i d , Haggard was w r i t i n g ' d e e p , ' as though h y p n o t i s e d . " I n t e r e s t i n g l y , the s t a t e of hypnosis i s a metaphor f o r the act o f read ing which H o l l a n d f i n d s more accurate than the metaphor of the dream. W r i t i n g q u i c k l y , Haggard presumably f o l l o w e d c l o s e l y the promptings of h i s unconscious mind, and h i s conscious mind was not a l lowed to manage the fantasy i n t o formal or i n t e l l e c t u a l meaning. Cohen takes Haggard's " l a t e r comments" 2 7 on She to be " a l l unsucce s s fu l attempts to comprehend h i s own w o r k . " Prose f a n t a s i e s and romances are almost always w r i t t e n very q u i c k l y , and there fore ' d e e p . ' A famous example i s M. G. L e w i s ' s enormous G o t h i c N o v e l , The Monk. MacDonald wrote Phantastes i n two months, and " i n 1890, he w r o t e , almost w i t h o u t s t o p p i n g , the f i r s t d r a f t of L i l i t h , " though t h i s was " o n l y about one t h i r d the l e n g t h of the v e r s i o n that was f i n a l l y 2 8 p u b l i s h e d i n 1895 . " David L indsay seems to have spent about t h i r t e e n months on A Voyage to A r c t u r u s (and i t was " l o n g matured") which seems, i n comparison, to be a very long t ime . A Voyage has , however, as we have seen, at l e a s t f o r a f an ta sy , an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y compl i ca ted , c a r e f u l l y worked out schema, though words-concern i n A Voyage remains low compared to most n o v e l s . A l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s i e s are l i k e dreams i n t h e i r freedom from the 200 phenomenal w o r l d , t h e i r s e q u e n t i a l form and t h e i r i d e a t i o n through v i s u a l i s a t i o n , as we e x p l a i n e d i n Chapter Two. Reading an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , t h e n , even more than read ing (say) a modern n o v e l , i s a k i n d of dream exper ience f o r the reader , a s , to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , i t must have been f o r the author when w r i t i n g i t . L i k e an a c t u a l dream, the dream fantasy i s generated by the subconscious mind w i t h l i t t l e i n t e r f e r e n c e from the conscious i n t e l l e c t of the w r i t e r , and i t commun-i c a t e s i t s fantasy to the subconscious mind of the r eader , i f the conscious mind (which would ob jec t to the s t y l e ) can be 'put to s l e e p ' or d i s t r a c t e d by the a l l e g o r y . The idea of subconscious c r e a t i o n , which may be symbol-i s e d as the ' i n n e r l i g h t ' ( e . g . of M u s p e l , or the f i r e which Ayesha guards i n She) , i s the guarantee of the a u t h e n t i c i t y of the core fantasy or 29 v i s i o n . MacDonald, who has been c r e d i t e d w i t h ' i n v e n t i n g ' the genre, b u i l d s h i s a e s t h e t i c theory around t h i s f a c t . C. N . Manlove has summarized MacDonald's p o s i t i o n thus : 1. Nature i s God's book, cons t ruc ted on p r i n c i p l e s which are beyond the reach of s c i e n c e and the human under-s t a n d i n g , but are immediately apprehended by the sympathet ic c h i l d - l i k e i m a g i n a t i o n . 2 . The c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n , which e x i s t s i n h i s subconsc ious , i s man's h i g h e s t mental f a c u l t y : not on ly because i n g i v i n g form to thought i t i m i t a t e s the c r e a t i v e work o f God, but because i t is_ God, who i n h a b i t s t h i s area of the human mind and i s the author of i t s work ings . 3. For t h i s reason the human a r t i s t has no f i n a l c o n t r o l over the products of t h i s i m a g i n a t i o n however he may t r y to order and f i x i t s promptings . 4. The works of the c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n , cons idered both as the products of d i v i n e a f f l a t u s and as. i m i t a t i o n s of the nature descr ibed above, w i l l appear c o n n e c t i o n l e s s , dream-l i k e and c h a o t i c . Such works are known as f a i r y - t a l e s , and, so conce ived , the f a i r y - t a l e i s the h i g h e s t c o n d i t i o n of l i f e and a r t (30) . 201 "Nature i s God's book" and i t i s an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y : God dreams the w o r l d , and the landscape expresses the meaning (The Romantic b a s i s of t h i s i s e v i d e n t . ) - The images are the meaning, which i s why the c h i l d l i k e i m a g i n a t i o n understands them: c h i l d r e n tend to t h i n k i n p i c t u r e s , as does the more p r i m i t i v e p a r t of the mind, the subconsc ious . The "human a r t i s t " or conscious mind must not i n t e r f e r e w i t h the dream f o r , though i t appears c h a o t i c , i t i s n o t : i t i s u n i f i e d by the core f an ta sy , which i s s u b r a t i o n a l . I f t h i s i s the case (and i n t h i s one genre, I am a r g u i n g , i t i s ) , then 'bad w r i t i n g ' may not have a nega t ive f u n c t i o n . We have found, i n l o o k i n g a t the r e a c t i o n s of c r i t i c s to fantasy and romance, t h a t the s t y l e annoys the i n t e l l e c t i n g reader only u n t i l the core fantasy g r i p s the i n t r o j e c t i n g reader , a f t e r which the book ' s 'power of i m a g i n a t i o n ' i s acknowledged and the s t y l e seems to become t r a n s p a r e n t . Th i s i s what happens to the Student Anselmus when t r a n s c r i b i n g manuscr ipts i n Hoffmann's s t o r y , and to Anodos when he reads, the s t o r y o f Cosmo i n Phantas te s : In the f a i r y book, e v e r y t h i n g was j u s t as i t should be , though whether i n words o r something e l s e , I cannot t e l l . I t glowed and f l a s h e d the thoughts upon the s o u l , w i t h such a power that the medium disappeared from the cons-c iousnes s , and i t was occupied on ly w i t h the th ings them-s e l v e s . My r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i t must resemble a t r a n s l a t i o n from a r i c h and powerfu l language, capable of embodying the thoughts o f a s p l e n d i d l y developed peop le , i n t o the meager and h a l f - a r t i c u l a t e speech of a savage t r i b e . Of course , w h i l e I read i t , I was Cosmo, and h i s h i s t o r y was mine. Yet a l l the time I seemed to have a k i n d of double con-sc iousnes s , and the s t o r y a double meaning (31) . The "double consc iousness " i s the s p l i t between the i n t e l l e c t i n g and i n t r o -j e c t i n g par t s of the mind : the f a i r y book speaks (not i n words but i n "something e l s e " : p i c t u r e s ) d i r e c t l y and p o w e r f u l l y to the s o u l , or 202 i n t r o j e c t i n g subconscious on one l e v e l , and i n "meager and h a l f - a r t i c u l a t e speech" to the i n t e l l e c t i n g conscious mind. The medium i s j u s t t h a t : a medium, not a message. The medium's on ly f u n c t i o n i s t!o enable us—and t h i s i s the aim of A Voyage and o ther n e o - P l a t o n i c dream f a n t a s i e s — t o break through to " the th ings themselves" : the r e a l w o r l d (Muspel ) . The bes t s t y l e f o r an a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy might seem to be a t ransparent s t y l e : no words-concern at a l l . Thi s i s what C o l i n W i l s o n seems to ask f o r when he complains o f L i n d s a y , "Why the h e l l c a n ' t people w r i t e as they t a l k ? No one has to w r i t e as s t i f f l y and awkwardly as t h i s " (TSG 35) . In f a c t , the answer to both of W i l s o n ' s p o i n t s i s that L indsay d i d . Th i s Edwardian L l o y d ' s u n d e r w r i t e r w i t h a S c o t t i s h C a l v i n i s t back-ground would no doubt have seemed s t i f f and awkward to C o l i n W i l s o n . And E. H . V i s i a k does say that " there was a remarkable correspondance between L i n d s a y ' s speech and deportment and h i s l i t e r a r y s t y l e " (TSG 97 ) . What i s t ransparent to one person w i l l not be t ransparent to another . Perhaps the most one could ask f o r would be a c e r t a i n p l a i n n e s s . T h i s i s something Loui s MacNeice c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of fantasy w r i t e r s , V a r i e t i e s of P a r a b l e : I t i s n o t i c e a b l e , f o r i n s t a n c e , that most o f my p l a y -w r i g h t s and n o v e l i s t s . . . go i n f o r a p l a i n s t y l e . . . . The p l a i n n e s s i s l i k e a t r u t h d r u g o r , p u t t i n g i t d i f f e r e n t -l y , the k n i f e that almost k i l l e d the w r i t e r w i l l cut the reader to the bone (32) . And Frank Kermode observes , Words, thoughts , pa t terns of word and thought , are enemies of t r u t h , i f you i d e n t i f y that w i t h what may be had by phenomenological r educ t ions (33) . But i n that case there i s no p o i n t i n w r i t i n g books at a l l . Indeed, w r i t e r s 203 of a l l e g o r i c a l dream fantasy are o f t en excused from b e i n g w r i t e r s . MacNeice says of George MacDonald tha t h i s " w r i t i n g s are not to every-34 one's t a s t e . . . p a r t l y because he i s not e s s e n t i a l l y a w r i t e r . 1 P i c k a p p l i e s to L indsay the phrase L indsay a p p l i e d to N i e t z s c h e : he 35 was "by nature a m u s i c i a n " (TSG 8 ) . W i l s o n says L indsay "undoubtedly misunderstood h i s t a l e n t s when he decided to become a n o v e l i s t " (TSG 90) and that " i t i s worth n o t i n g that L indsay was a m u s i c i a n — l i k e Hoffman ( s i c ) " (TSG 47), (though W i l s o n g ives no i n d i c a t i o n that L indsay ever wrote any m u s i c ) . S i n c e , as we have seen, "music i s the exper ience of a s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d " ( i n L i n d s a y ' s phrase ; TSG 13) , t h i s i s a t r i b u t e to the i m a g i n a t i v e power of the fantasy work ing on the subconsc ious , but i t says n o t h i n g about s t y l e . In f a c t , f a n t a s i e s are not w r i t t e n i n a ' p l a i n ' s t y l e at a l l , though p l a i n w r i t i n g may be one element i n a mixture of p l a i n and ornamental (?) s t y l e s (as i n M. P . S h i e l , f o r example) . Fantas ie s are more g e n e r a l l y w r i t t e n i n very exaggerated s t y l e s , o f t en w i t h overpowering s t r i d e n c y and the repeated use of overemphatic words. An obvious example i s Poe ' s ' n i c k l e - p l a t e d s t y l e . ' Even wi thout the b l e s s i n g o f academia, a fantasy can s u r v i v e an enormous amount of r e a l l y bad w r i t i n g , i f the fantasy i t embodies i s powerfu l enough. Thus, accord ing to Damon K n i g h t , " T h e B l i n d Spot , by A u s t i n H a l l and Homer Eon F l i n t , i s an acknowledged c l a s s i c of f an ta sy , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1921; much p r a i s e d s i n c e then , s e v e r a l times 36 r e p r i n t e d , venerated by c o n o i s s e u r s . " K n i g h t p o i n t s out tha t H a l l was " s t y l e d e a f , " and quotes to i l l u s t r a t e : For years he had been b a t t e r i n g down the skepticism tha t had bulwarked i t s e l f i n the m a t e r i a l . 204 She i s f i r e and f l e s h and c a r n a l — . . . a t whose fee t f o o l s and wise men would s l a v i s h l y f r o l i c and f o l l y . I t was a s tagger f o r both young men. She [a dog named queen] caught him by the t r o u s e r - l e g and drew him back. She crowded us away from the c u r t a i n s . I t was almost magnet ic . Kn ight says " ' m a g n e t i c ' — l i k e . . . ' i n t r i n s i c , ' incandescense ' ( s i c ) and ' i r i d e s c e n s e ' ( s i c ) — i s a word H a l l kept t o s s i n g i n a t random, hoping 37 to h i t something w i t h i t e v e n t u a l l y . " To be p r e c i s e , the words are thrown i n not because they mean anyth ing to the i n t e l l e c t i n g mind, but (they are long and important and impres s ive sounding words) because they aim at producing a vague but exaggerated emotion i n the subconsc ious . The same i n t e n t i o n l i e s beh ind the a l l i t e r a t i o n of the second example quoted above: f i r e , f l e s h ; f e e t , f o o l s ; f r o l i c , f o l l y . T h i s must have some e f f e c t , even i f i t doesn ' t mean a n y t h i n g . Most fantasy w r i t e r s are n o t h i n g l i k e so bad as H a l l , but they employ the same techn iques . M. P. S h i e l i n The P u r p l e Cloud sometimes massacres sense w i t h vowels the way H a l l d i d w i t h consonants : "The s h i p had been 38 s t r i k e n i n t o s t i l l n e s s i n the t h i c k of a b r i s k n e s s of a c t i v i t y . " But g e n e r a l l y he c a n ' t keep i t up f o r l o n g . W i l l i a m Hope Hodgson w r i t e s more s i m p l y , but f i n d s the n i c k l e - p l a t e d word ( r e i t e r a t e , i n t h i s case) i r r e s i s t a b l e : " F o r some l i t t l e t i m e , I s tood t h e r e , l o s t i n p e r p l e x i n g thought. 'What does i t a l l mean?' was the cry t h a t had begun to r e i t e r a t e 39 through my b r a i n . " George MacDonald and David L indsay are r e l a t i v e l y good w r i t e r s , and t h e i r exaggerat ions are more s u b t l e . In L i l i t h , Mr . Vane says "A f r i g h t f u l roar made my hear t rebound aga ins t the w a l l s o f i t s cage. The a l a b a s t e r trembled as i f i t would shake i n t o s h i v e r s . The 205 p r i n c e s s shuddered v i s i b l y . " This i s as good as a n y t h i n g i n Poe. In L indsay as i n B l a k e , the t e r r i f i c par t s are t e r r i f i c and the p r o s a i c pa r t s are p r o s a i c . But the ' h e i g h t e n e d ' q u a l i t y of the t e r r i f i c par t s i n Lindsay—and here he d i f f e r s from S h i e l , MacDonald and Hodgson— comes l e s s from the exaggerated use of language than from the sheer s c a l e of the images. The k n i g h t i n Phantastes n o t i c e s that n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the beauty of t h i s country of F a e r i e , i n which we a r e , there i s much that i s wrong i n i t . I f there are great s p l e n d o r s , there are corresponding h o r r o r s ; h e i g h t s and depths ; b e a u t i f u l women and awful f i e n d s ; nob le men and weakl ings (41) . Because of the p h i l o s o p h i c a l depth and p s y c h o l o g i c a l complexi ty o f L i n d s a y ' s thought , there are no cardboard dragons and s imply b e a u t i f u l hero ines on Tormance, and i t i s too tough a w o r l d f o r e i t h e r noble men or w e a k l i n g s . Nonethe les s , A Voyage i s , i n a s i m i l a r way, dichotomous, and there are p l e n t y of huge mountains and abysmal p r e c i p i c e s to generate emot iona l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r displacement to the embodiments to 'keep the a l l e g o r y v i g o r o u s . ' Panawe, f o r example, descr ibes f o r us Shaping 's Causeway. I t i s so c a l l e d e i t h e r because Shaping once crossed i t , or because o f i t s stupendous c h a r a c t e r . I t i s a n a t u r a l embankment, twenty m i l e s l o n g , which l i n k s the mountains b o r d e r i n g my homeland w i t h the Ifdawn Mares t . The v a l l e y l i e s below at a depth v a r y i n g from e i g h t to ten thousand f ee t—a t e r r i b l e p r e c i p i c e on e i t h e r s i d e . The k n i f e edge of the r i d g e i s g e n e r a l l y not much over a foot w i d e . The causeway goes due n o r t h and s o u t h . The v a l l e y on my r i g h t hand was plunged i n shadow—that on my l e f t was s p a r k l i n g w i t h s u n l i g h t and dew. I walked f e a r f u l l y a long t h i s p r e c a r i o u s path f o r some m i l e s (VA 71) . L indsay does not have Panawe t r y to r ec rea te f o r us , i n words, the e x p e r i e n c e , but he g ives us enough concrete d e t a i l s fo r us to imagine ourse lves i n the s i t u a t i o n , surrounded by " the th ings themse lve s . " In t h i s passage there are 206 o n l y two words tha t are not s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n of the p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n : ' s tupendous ' and ' t e r r i b l e . ' They de sc r ibe not the l a n d -scape, l i t e r a l l y , but the exaggerated emotion i t produces . The d e s c r i p t i o n i t s e l f i s evenly paced, s t r u c t u r a l l y r e p e t i t i v e , has on ly one metaphor ("the k n i f e edge" ) , and only once p l ays w i t h sound ( " s p a r k l i n g w i t h s u n l i g h t " a l l i t e r a t e s ) : these are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Joanna Russ i s o l a t e d . But the passage does achieve i t s ends—the r e a l i s a t i o n of the t e r r i b l e na ture o f the journey across the stupendous causeway—by p i c t o r i a l means: each sentence g ives us a p r e c i s e p h y s i c a l d e t a i l to v i s u a l i s e . In f a c t , impress iveness of the landscape i s r e i n f o r c e d by the unimpress ive (matter 42 of f a c t ) use of language. Thi s i s complete ly appropr i a t e w r i t i n g i n an a l l e g o r i c a l dream f a n t a s y , where the image i s the meaning: i t i s , i n f a c t , good w r i t i n g . L i n d s a y ' s s t y l e i s , of a l l the V i c t o r i a n fantasy w r i t e r s we have d i s -cussed, the p l a i n n e s t and f l a t t e s t . Though sentences of more than f i f t e e n or twenty words sometimes seem to f a l l apart i n L i n d s a y ' s hands, f o r t u n -a t e l y they are r a r e . The average s y n t a c t i c a l l y complete u n i t i n L indsay i s very s h o r t , and tha t u n i t i s g e n e r a l l y a s imple s u b j e c t - v e r b - o b j e c t s t r u c t u r e , even i f i t i s n ' t a sentence by i t s e l f . Another t y p i c a l paragraph i s : He l a y there w a i t i n g i n the darkness , i gnorant of what was going to happen. He f e l t her hand c l a s p i n g h i s . Without p e r c e i v i n g any g r a d a t i o n , he l o s t a l l consc ious-ness of h i s body; he was no longer able to f e e l h i s l imbs or i n t e r n a l organs. Hi s mind remained a c t i v e and a l e r t . Noth ing p a r t i c u l a r appeared to be t a k i n g p l a c e . Then the chamber began to grow l i g h t , l i k e very e a r l y morning . He cou ld see n o t h i n g , but the r e t i n a of h i s eyes was a f f e c t e d . He f a n c i e d that he heard mus ic , but w h i l e he was l i s t e n i n g f o r i t , i t s topped. The l i g h t grew s t r o n g e r , the a i r grew warmer; he heard the confused sound of d i s t a n t v o i c e s (VA 122). 207 The syntax could h a r d l y be s i m p l e r . The only n i c k l e - p l a t e d phrase i n the two paragraphs , " w i t h o u t p e r c e i v i n g any g r a d a t i o n , " means e x a c t l y what i t says . Words-concern, f o r the reader , could h a r d l y be s m a l l e r : the r eader ' s a t t e n t i o n may be u n d i s t r a c t e d l y focussed on the p i c t u r e Lindsay i s d e s c r i b i n g . We have heard MacNeice on the v i r t u e of p l a i n s t y l e . But i n f a c t , even an awkwardness of s t y l e may, by the same t o k e n , be turned to good account , as i t i s by W i l l i a m Hope Hodgson i n The House on the Boder l and , which pretends to be a ' f o u n d ' manuscr ip t . By t h i s very popular defens ive device—as used by Haggard, Poe and hundreds of o ther s—the author pretends to be only the e d i t o r , and t h e r e f o r e not r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the n e c e s s a r i l y awkward and exaggerated t e l l i n g . Thus Hodgson: Amid s t i f f , abrupt sentences I wandered; and, p r e s e n t l y , 1 had no f a u l t to charge aga ins t t h e i r abrupt t e l l i n g s ; f o r , b e t t e r f a r than my own ambit ious p h r a s i n g , i s t h i s m u t i l a t e d s t o r y capable of b r i n g i n g home . . . (43) . The manuscript i t s e l f , which f o l l o w s , i s r e p o r t e d l y d i scovered among the rubb le of a d e r e l i c t house. I f we remember t h a t ( i n Poe, o f t e n ; i n The Haunted Woman, perhaps) the house may be a symbol of the b r a i n or the head, then Hodgson i s g i v i n g us a c lue to the r e a l source of the manuscr ip t : i . e . , h i s subconscious mind. In a r e a l sense, then , h e , W i l l i a m Hope Hodgson as centre of consc iousness , is_ on ly the e d i t o r o f something that i n f a c t comes from apparent ly (now) d e r e l i c t depths beneath. The author s p l i t s h i m s e l f i n t o that f a m i l i a r double , the ' I ' who acts out the fantasy or dream, and the ' I ' - e d i t o r who observes , c o r r e c t s , comments and e d i t s . Th i s c o r r e l a t e s w i t h our d i v i s i o n between fantasy and romance. Almost a l l fantasy i s w r i t t e n i n the f i r s t per son , whereas almost a l l romance i s 208 w r i t t e n i n the t h i r d per son . In romance, the ' I ' who observes and e d i t s i s i n c o n t r o l as s u b c r e a t o r , w h i l e subconscious f a n t a s i e s are s u b l i m i n a l l y acted out . The words-concern of a M o r r i s , w i t h h i s mediaeva l i sms , or o f a T o l k i e n , i n E n g l i s h and e l v i s h , p rov ide such massive defenses that g e n e r a l l y the w r i t e r and o f t en the reader are unaware that f a n t a s i e s are be ing acted out . T o l k i e n ' s i n s i s t e n t l y repeated d e n i a l s tha t h i s work i s a l l e g o r i c a l a r e , i n e f f e c t , d e n i a l s tha t there i s anyth ing happening beneath the sur face i n The Lord of the R ings . In Tree and L e a f , T o l k i e n s t r i d e n t l y complains about the " e r r o r or m a l i c e " of people who " s t u p i d l y and even m a l i c i o u s l y confound Fantasy w i t h Dreaming, i n which there i s no A r t ; and w i t h mental d i s o r d e r s , i n which there i s not even c o n t r o l : w i t h d e l u s i o n and h a l l u c i n a t i o n " : "Fantasy i s a r a t i o n a l not an i r r a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y . ' . ' 4 4 MacDonald, b e i n g a fantasy as opposed to a romance w r i t e r , took, of course , e x a c t l y the oppos i te v iew. No one read ing Phantastes or L i l i t h ( e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e the advent o f Freudian r e d u c t i o n i s m , which was abandoned by Freudians f i f t y years ago, but which i s s t i l l p r a c t i s e d a t the lower l e v e l s to which i t t r i c k l e d down) cou ld miss the almost naked fantasy embodied t h e r e i n : the need f o r o r a l g r a t i f i c a t i o n , p r e f e r a b l y a t the mother ' s b r e a s t . In works o f f a n t a s y , then , core f a n t a s i e s are acted o u t : the ' I ' who acts i s i n c o n t r o l , w h i l e the ' I ' who observes and e d i t s i s reduced to doing j u s t t h a t . A Voyage to A r c t u r u s i s an unusual book i n t h i s r e s p e c t , b e i n g e s s e n t i a l l y a f an ta sy , r a t h e r than a romance, but t o l d i n the t h i r d person. Both - Library Home /
- Search Collections /
- Open Collections /
- Browse Collections /
- UBC Theses and Dissertations /
- David Lindsay's A voyage to Arcturus ; allegorical...
Open Collections
UBC Theses and Dissertations
Featured Collection
UBC Theses and Dissertations
David Lindsay's A voyage to Arcturus ; allegorical dream fantasy as a literary mode Schofield, Jack 1972
pdf
Notice for Google Chrome users:
If you are having trouble viewing or searching the PDF with Google Chrome, please download it here instead.
If you are having trouble viewing or searching the PDF with Google Chrome, please download it here instead.
Page Metadata
Item Metadata
| Title | David Lindsay's A voyage to Arcturus ; allegorical dream fantasy as a literary mode |
| Creator |
Schofield, Jack |
| Publisher | University of British Columbia |
| Date Issued | 1972 |
| Description | David Lindsay's A Voyage to Arcturus must be read as an allegorical dream fantasy for its merit to be correctly discerned. Lindsay's central themes are introduced in a study of the man and his work. (Ch. 1). These themes are found to be common in allegorical dream fantasy, the phenomenological background of which is established (Ch. 2). A distinction can then be drawn between fantasy and romance, so as to define allegorical dream fantasy as a literary mode (Ch. 3). After the biographical, theoretical and literary backgrounds of A Voyage have been established in the first three chapters, the second three chapters explicate the structure of the book as an allegorical dream fantasy. Finally, the dichotomies which have been found in Lindsay (between Lloyd's underwriter and visionary dreamer), between the dream and the real world, between fantasy and romance, are found to be unified by Norman N. Holland's theory of literature as transformation |
| Subject |
Lindsay, David , 1876-1945 Voyage to Arcturus |
| Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
| Type |
Text |
| Language | eng |
| Date Available | 2011-04-11 |
| Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
| Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
| DOI | 10.14288/1.0101622 |
| URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/33480 |
| Degree |
Master of Arts - MA |
| Program |
English |
| Affiliation |
Arts, Faculty of English, Department of |
| Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
| Campus |
UBCV |
| Scholarly Level | Graduate |
| AggregatedSourceRepository | DSpace |
Download
- Media
- 831-UBC_1972_A8 S36.pdf [ 10.85MB ]
- Metadata
- JSON: 831-1.0101622.json
- JSON-LD: 831-1.0101622-ld.json
- RDF/XML (Pretty): 831-1.0101622-rdf.xml
- RDF/JSON: 831-1.0101622-rdf.json
- Turtle: 831-1.0101622-turtle.txt
- N-Triples: 831-1.0101622-rdf-ntriples.txt
- Original Record: 831-1.0101622-source.json
- Full Text
- 831-1.0101622-fulltext.txt
- Citation
- 831-1.0101622.ris