THE F U N C T I O N A L A S P E C T S OF F O U N T A I N S : BOTH A S AN A R T I F A C T AND IMAGE I N H E R E N T I N M E D I E V A L • WESTERN E U R O P E A N ART, by DOUGLAS BRUCE HANBURY B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h ' C o l u m b i a , 1970 A T H E S I S S U B M I T T E D I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L M E N T OF THE R E Q U I R E M E N T S MASTER in FOR THE DEGREE OF OF ARTS' t h e Department o f F I N E A R T S •' We accept required this thesis as c o n f o r m i n g to the standard THE U N I V E R S I T Y OF B R I T I S H April, 1972 COLUMBIA In p r e s e n t i n g an this thesis i n partial advanced degree a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements f o r o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r extensive for by that copying of t h i s thesis s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may b e g r a n t e d b y t h e Head o f my D e p a r t m e n t o r h i s representatives. I t i s understood that of t h i s thesis f o rfinancial written permission. Department o f FINE The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h V a n c o u v e r 8, C a n a d a Date APRTT, l U i gain s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my ARTS Columbia 1Q7? copying or p u b l i c a t i o n ABSTRACT My importance found to purpose of the throughout show by throughout this fountain, both Medieval as this m o t i f becomes and functionally an an i s to define artifact and Western European A r t . means o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l how paper and.graphic identifiable inherent i n the object a r t of the an the image I intend variations, artistically latter Middle Ages. The of the I and any given Chapter types, in clarifying Biblical or relation ligia not by a stands only the two to the as survived, with only a few defines the of parti- to any instances examples variations to of fountain formation of a tradition manuscript deals w i t h the The pictorial role Fonte a s u p r e m e e x a m p l e o f how a source of water medium e x p r e s s i n g t h e embedded imagery. of the fountain Maggiore the means o f i t s e n c y c l o p e d i c s c u l p t u r a l communicative and I n a number o f select community. f u n c t i o n s as a study aspect. literary Chapter in one to disappearance' to literature engravings. deemed i t n e c e s s a r y illustrate have to manuscripts, drawings or fountains dictates s m a l l number w h i c h attention extent displacement majority of Medieval a relatively cular destruction, civic at fountain supply, but program, social, the Per- also becomes politi- cal and t h e h i s t o r i c a l mune. content Furthermore, the highly program c l e a r l y defines thirteenth century The third chapter Again, function o f t h e image. The Two literary capitalize o f the Middle Biblical tradition, artists' ability man's desire, i m a g e . . One may exist icoriographic i n each assume t h e r e f o r e , of s a t i s f y i n g our physical society to find human, p h y s i c a l fore, perhaps of Life, concepts case may into take, - that e i t h e r p h y s i c a l l y or through any g i v e n aspect, that of Life. demonstrates the form t h e fountain of the the foun- impregnated i n of Life f o r a particular function. surprising finds pattern. exist a similar function fying as a image i n t h e c l o s i n g Deeply the Fountain No m a t t e r w h a t does source of the Fountain Ages. develop. the p i c t o r i a l as t h e F o u n t a i n of this to formulate c l e a r , cohesive Italian the fountain construes literary paintings the importance generations a tradition functioning f i f t e e n t h century with com- sculptural was t o p r o g r e s s i v e l y deals most i m p o r t a n t symbolically sophisticated the d i r e c t i o n i n which sculpture symbol. tain of a Medieval'Italian maintains The f o u n t a i n i t s primary desire o u r modern a l l Medieval relationship with o f an e n t i r e l y a e s t h e t i c the major difference of satisthe mental fountains as an image function, f o rwater. fountain there I t i s not designers a less that replacing functional motivation. There- between M e d i e v a l and Modern ism, fountains the latter former becoming tends t o be acting as in their nature a catalyst of visually, of functional- a society, aesthetically oriented the in a new tradition. The of a r t as and as tions tive as a transmitter beliefs, an fountain therefore, an image d e f i n e s o f images d e f i n i n g the agent o f image formulation. as an exercise i n the i n the creation of standing i n the an key of i t s significance. realm importance of values r o l e of the Hence, t h i s examination artifact the study of imagery for a better artist func- operaunder- TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS i v INTRODUCTION I THE 1 MEDIEVAL CIVIC FOUNTAIN FOUNTAINS BIBLICAL II THE 5 7 ILLUSTRATIONS FONTE MAGGIORE AT PERUGIAN CIVIC OF PERUGIA 24 FOUNTAIN PROTOTYPES 25 THE S C U L P T O R S AND 27 THE SCULPTURAL INSCRIPTIONS PROGRAM 31 ITS , 32 LOWER C I S T E R N 334. . UPPER CISTERN 45 THE IV 11 20 HISTORY S C U L P T U R A L ICONOGRAPHY: SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS III FOUNTAINS BRONZE GROUP 50 THE F O U N T A I N AS A SYMBOL THE O R I G I N AND S I G N I F I C A N C E THE OCTAGONAL F O U N T A I N F O U N T A I N OF L I F E : PRADO AND OBERLIN SUBJECT • . 52 OF . ' PAINTINGS OF THE • PAINTING' SCRIPTURAL ALLUSIONS FOUNTAIN IMAGERY I N JOHN '60 64 66 68 68 i i INSCRIPTIONS CONFRONTATION SYNAGOGUE I N THE P A I N T I N G OF CHURCH 69 AND 71 E U C H A R I S T I C A S P E C T S I N THE V PAINTING 74 THE B A P T I S M A L A S P E C T . 75 THE FORM OF THE 76 THE S I G N I F I C A N C E OF THE T A B E R N A C L E FOUNTAIN 77 MESSIANIC ASPECT F O U N T A I N I M A G E R Y AND THE A N C I E N T C E L E B R A T I O N OF THE F E A S T OF. THE TABERNACLE 79 CONCLUSIONS 80 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 82 THE FONTE THE F O U N T A I N OF L I F E FOOTNOTES: MAGGIORE 85 87 INTRODUCTION 89 CHAPTER 89 I CHAPTER I I 93 CHAPTER III 100 CHAPTER IV 10 4 CHAPTER V 10 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY A P P E N D I X A: APPENDIX B: 78 10 9 D I A G R A M M A T I C VIEW OF FONTE MAGGIORE THE N U M E R I C A L P L A C E M E N T OF S C U L P T U R A L F I G U R E S SURROUNDING THE" FONTE MAGGIORE 119 120 APPENDIX C: ILLUSTRATIONS V I T R U V I U S AND OF WATER THE CONDUCTION iv L I S T OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE ' :'' \- • P A GE 1. C I V I C F O U N T A I N AT V I T E R B O 12 5 2. F O U N T A I N OF L I F E . • G O S P E L S O F ' S A I N T ' MEDARD DE S O I S S O N S 126 3. F O U N T A I N OF L I F E . 127 4. F O U N T A I N OF L I F E . MAUSOLEUM P L A C I D I A AT RAVENNA • " •:• 5. ' F O U N T A I N OF L I V I N G WATER. GODESCALC G O S P E L S M A N U S C R I P T , BAMBERG OF GALLA ' /• -'; ' - •• • ..12 8 REICHENAU , 129 r 6. G E N E R A L V I E W , FONTE MAGGIORE' AT --PERUGIA 130 7. G E N E R A L V I E W , FONTE MAGGIORE A T P E R U G I A 131 8. 9. FONTE G A I A AT S I E N A B A P T I S M A L FONT I N THE CHURCH OF SAN F R E D I A N O AT L U C C A 132 10. B A P T I S T E R Y P U L P I T AT P I S A NICOLA PISANO (1260). 134 1 1 . - P U L P I T FOR THE CHURCH OF S. ANDREA AT P I S T O I A ( 1 2 9 7 - 1 3 0 1 ) . . GIOVANNI PISANO 12. 13. D E T A I L OF THE R E L I E F P A N E L FROM THE FONTE MAGGIORE. THE L I O N AND THE GRIFFIN D E T A I L OF THE F A L L OF MAN, 13 3 FROM 135 136 THE FONTE MAGGIORE 137 14. R E L I E F PANEL,. FONTE MAGGIORE 138 15. R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 139 26. R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 140 17. R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 141 18. R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 142 19. R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 143 V FIGURE • PAGE 20. R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE : . ]_44 . 21. R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 145 22. RELIEF P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 146 23. R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 147 24. R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 148 25. R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 149 26. R E L I E F P A N E L . . D E T A I L OF RHETORIC AND A R I T H M E T I C 150 27. D E T A I L OF THE U P P E R C I S T E R N 151 28. D E T A I L OF THE U P P E R CISTERN 152 29. D E T A I L OF THE U P P E R C I S T E R N 153 3:0. D E T A I L OF THE U P P E R C I S T E R N 154 31. D E T A I L OF THE U P P E R C I S T E R N 155 32. L E S T R E S R I C H E S HEURES DH DUC DE B E R R Y . THE GARDEN OF E D E N TRES R I C H E S HEURES. M E E T I N G OF THE T H R E E MAGI 15 6 15 7 TRES RICHES HEURES. L I V I N G WATERS 15 8 33. 34. 35. HIERONYMUS BOSCH. GARDEN OF E A R T H L Y 36. FOUNTAIN I N THE 37. F O U N T A I N OF L I F E THE FOUNTAIN D E T A I L OF THE DELIGHTS PRADO, ROMANCE OF THE ROSE. OR L I V I N G 38. F O U N T A I N OF L I F E . 39. DETAIL LIFE: DETAIL LIFE: 159 160 WATERS. PRADO MUSEUM 40. OF 161 O B E R L I N C O L L E G E MUSEUM 16 2 OF THE O B E R L I N F O U N T A I N THE C H R I S T I A N S OF THE O B E R L I N F O U N T A I N THE JEWS OF 16 3 OF 164 vi FIGURE 41. 42. 43. 44. • D E T A I L OF THE O B E R L I N P A I N T I N G : MUSICAL ANGELS 46. 1 6 5 D E T A I L OF THE PRADO P A I N T I N G :• THE JEWS 16 6 THE C R U C I F I X I O N WITH P E R S O N I F I C A T I O N S OF L I F E AND D E A T H , CHURCH AND • SYNAGOGUE. REGENSBURG' 16 7 FONT COVER FROM THE CHURCH OF SUDBURY S T . P E T E R , ENGLAND' " • ; 45. ..PAGE .168 THE F I G U R E OF E C C L E S I A FROM STRASBOURG CATHEDRAL 169 THE F I G U R E CATHEDRAL 17 0 OF SYNAGOGUE FROM STRASBOURG 47. E C C L E S I A FROM BAMBERG' C A T H E D R A L 171 48. SYNAGOGUE FROM BAMBERG C A T H E D R A L 172' INTRODUCTION The topic of o f medieval fountain under d i s c u s s i o n throughout considerably are concept minor, within the last or f o rthat the medieval I only a symbolic mind No choose t o examine one image becomes the and g r a p h i c as. b e i n g , not latter Middle I have itectural chosen they the fountain gressive towards not only of fountain explicitly object of medieval arch- the fountain artistically inherent two u n r e l a t e d - w o r k s and a number o f g r a p h i c and g r a p h i c a l development only i n Ages. examine i n d e t a i l , illustrations, Ages". interpretation of,the v a r i a t i o n s , how an i d e n t i f i a b l e longer i n ' the. "Dark mode o f t h i n k i n g , b u t a l s o t o s h o w , b y m e a n s itectural changed superstitious aesthetics t o dwindle^ or illusionistic paper, has few c e n t u r i e s . matter, left this imagery, the fortheir and i m p l i c i t l y r e l a t e s through fountain v a r i a t i o n s ' i n ' arch-, expressions, imagery of a r tto but also f o r the i n the variety of con-tain. I n each i t s iconography, d i r e c t i o n of the medieval s o p h i s t i c a t i o n the nearer mind. motifs example, the pro- The image one a p p r o a c h e s t h e moves 2 humanistic motivation of the decade o f the no longer of a certain revival acceptable of though It to things, past being century, the concept both perhaps as should the of the Middle a historical highest Gothic net a step a negative By u n i v e r s a l man, than and a criterion-- very act of aesthetic ideal with Classicism a r t of the in quality F o r t u n a t e l y , no of a i n the Middle lowes:t clarity more a e s t h e t i c judgement. hence the was spite A g e s t h e r e f o r e , came greatest a d v e r s i t y from C l a s s i c a l reached. were "which.in moment o f level closing forward. Renaissance, a l s o c a t e g o r i s e the the the images result concept one—of seems n a t u r a l t h a t t h e identifying the a n t i q u a r i a n i s m , the The into fifteenth Renaissance. Classical longer t h a t had do f o r m as Ages ideas ever as and-, been • art historians the only the possible accept artistic ideal. The practice a e s t h e t i c way, to satisfy and this considerations, fountain, having community life, accessory to for to one the to the take as l o o k i n g at production things in a of objects purely destined a e s t h e t i c sense to the exclusion of other is a relatively development. The lost recent i t s original i s now landscape antique aesthetics, of functional regarded as design. A perfectly i s t o presume t h a t were designed they are as today. simply a But, normal formal f o r our in decorative fountains purely role concept belonging problems ancient in and 3 medieval predecessors, primarily only of an e x p r e s s i o n t o provide ally, things. to ism pure water, but also century centuries, think was t o embody accessory. man when t h e i l l i t e r a t e b y means o f c o m p r e h e n s i b l e and b e l i e f s could fountain fountain. masses were of verbal scheme from i n t h e image he h a d o f a i n the abstractions institutions, the He d i f f e r e d a n a t u r a l way o f i m a g i n a t i v e was o n l y was symbolic-, i n the external I. e m p h a s i z e , h e d i d n o t r e g a r d as a d e c o r a t i v e twentieth of the fountain o f i t s f u n c t i o n , w h i c h was n o t the s i g n i f i c a n c e of water simply For the design unable imageries, symbol- t h i n k i n g because i t forms have that ideas, any c o n v i n c i n g reality 2 and popular valxdxty. c h a n g e s , a n d how variety they of motifs, The W h a t may h a v e i n turn constitutes according by man's culture by the psyche to sufficiently correspond can u t t e r . is as messages there the interpersonal 1 4 of this thing roughly i s deter- The to the vocabulary o f t h e image In a medieval are received communication. w o r d , t h e i m a g e may reforming images,possessed i s often at i t s beyond s o c i e t y , t h e image from nature o r through In a literate i s enormous e x p a n s i o n o f message p o t e n t i a l : written study. demanding'changes.posed 3 and environment. what words direct the subject such i n a t h e image i s c o n t i n u a l l y command, b u t t h e r i c h n e s s altered expression i m a g e a man h a s o f a g i v e n mined by h i s e x p e r i e n c e ; itself found constituted receive and absorb society through impulses 4 from d i s t a n t times and places. potential becomes r e a l i t y arts shares also images. of a The i n the visual as This the s o c i e t y m u s t be regarded of message development of formation artifacts, idea and that as visual transmission i s the the the of physical r e s u l t of the capital struc- 5 turxng of symbols the material provide the substance basic changes both occur and cultural transmission and biological The in the the be seen. --the the than for on of Life his evaluating to rely immediate a student image. Visual through which and are genes to are cultured culture to biology of a transmitter of beliefs, image of and the key formulation, major fountain the Fonte Maggiore images role can my is alike artistic tends a r t as and communication In what the and agent of i n the a person values an Fountain similar recorded of Hence,•in both image components are importance as an transmission. realm of artist and of of readily illustrations at Perugia-- i n function, yet dis- expression. messages on challenging the image held, his c u l t u r a l background rather 7 experience. I t becomes e s s e n t i a l a r t h i s t o r y t o become aware o f the censor- s'. . ing role^played him to r e j e c t or Therefore, of this by the misinterpret study imagery operative better i m a g e s he understanding i s an i n the of holds; they often art unfamiliar to exercise i n the creation of an i t s significance. cause him. examination artifact for a 5 ' CHAPTER THE M E D I E V A L The destruction, the majority of Medieval of a relatively to attention i s pure, been i n s p i r e d in used of to manuscripts, water: are never o r an a r t i f i c i a l life, and i n times life, achieves the w i l l as i tbursts a itself."*" of natural forth identific- enough t o be fountain. to describe a contrivance f o r the display Water, the g i v e r o f destruction, and i t s ' apparent into t o have References of the taker of i n t h e f o u n t a i n an appearance o f man: and None o f t h e s e detailed f o u n t a i n may b e u s e d o r even water to to literature f o r purposes i n reconstructing word spring useful study survived, with and e n g r a v i n g s . although as, e v i d e n c e natural have a as t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e s u r e and topography, The disappearance f o r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t by fancy. literature, ation or fountains, dictates s m a l l number w h i c h any e x t a n t drawings sources FOUNTAIN displacement of particular I desire of obedience to. p l e a s e , the a i r , or flows p l a c i d l y b r o n z e ' m o u t h , m u s t h a v e made a s o l e m n from-a i m p r e s s i o n on t h e 6 rustic mind. of medieval Clearly, t h e i m a g e .of a f o u n t a i n man, p r o d u c e d ' a feeling presence o f some d i v i n e goodwill from t h e i n c a l c u l a b l e ing or t o Morton, course to the to manifestation, forces a clear of nature. a poet of Accord- i ti s a device equally Furthermore, i thas t h e a b i l i t y t o j o y and melancholy, t o appeal t o eye and t o t h e e a r , t o s t a n d a t a s t r e e t f i l l sign has given nothing but p l e a s u r e i n the of a long history. minister t h a t h e was i n t h e . t h e f o u n t a i n h a s no enemies: invention which to. t h e m i n d p o t s , " o r i n a garden to assist corner ready the meditations of or philosopher. The appear classification difficult, of fountains but i ti s , i n fact, No m a t t e r how. c o m p l e x o r how m i n u t e classified i n one o f two may at first a very simple process. a fountain, i t c a n be categories: " F o u n t a i n s , " wrote Bacon, " I i n t e n d t o be o f two natures: the one.that sprinkleth o r spouteth water; the other a f a i r receipt o f water, o f some t h i r t y o r f o r t y f o o t s q u a r e , b u t w i t h o u t f i s h o r s l i m e o r mud.' ,l+ Bacon's description duality of fountains: fall. tains The l a t t e r more t h a n t e n d t o be t y p i c a l l y ed by t h e s e i c e n t o Medieval into describes the which and waters classification, hand, t h e development uished waters accurately rise or "falling water" which foun- m e d i e v a l w h i l e on t h e o t h e r of the "jetting water." i m a g e i s e x p a n d - i n Italy. fountain distinct types groups--the may b e f u r t h e r , secular disting- and t h e e c c l e s - 7 iastical. in each case been passed fountain In The e v o l u t i o n civil, o f t h e image o f t h e f o u n t a i n , has down f r o m c l a s s i c a l The Civic' The continuity of Italian Fountain development survives as i n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l to the later tains are not merely.the sical and economic ence and a m b i t i o n complexity The ships fountains, in a few e x a m p l e s . the transition i s a gradual The e v o l u t i o n of civic and o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g o f the towns, they new e c o n o m i c , epitomize the proximity the develop- and p r a c t i c a l to the civic of the fountain o f phy- and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . spiritual, o f t h e commune. foun- independ- expressed by t h e a c t u a l p h y s i c a l of the fountains process, flavour architectural reflection growth, t h e main squares how type o f urban o r g a n i z a t i o n are often position through civic s t y l e owes much o f i t s d i s t i n c t i v e a continuity of vision. ing and N o r t h e r n only f r o m t h e Romanesque t o t h e G o t h i c and antiquity."* relation- juxta- and r e l i g i o u s Daniel Waley centres demonstrates i s i n direct' r e l a t i o n s h i p R with the a u t h o r i t a t i v e c e n t r a l core dispenser site its of the water of the medieval accessibility supply fountain o f t h e town, both were As t h e form and l a r g e l y determined by t o t h e community. I n ' n o w a y am I s u g g e s t i n g construction o f t h e town. developed during that civic the duration fountain of the Middle 8 Ages. On t h e c o n t r a r y , Classical . . maintained theirs. t o sunken In both wells, These i n less here o r spout a basin and falls clear basins every century I t a l i a n towns supply i s o r i n more h i l l y r e g i o n s regions, springs a r e sometimes which left i s scooped are usually found a more obvious gush forth as t h e y a r e , frequented;-places ; though, often out i n a r o c k so a n d i s more e a s i l y t h e communes, t h e y almost s u p p l y in,--much t h e instances, water and t h e A l p i n e particularly in and f i f t e e n t h of supply i s the natural from t h e rocks. water water i n Hellenistic.and 7 throughout Tuscany source fountains Rome m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r same way- a s f o u r t e e n t h limited civic accessible. fountain that But, more r a d i c a l l y centre has i t s p u b l i c even adapted, with a n d s p o u t s , w h e r e t h e ; women:.!can come t o f i l l p their p i t c h e r s ^ and wash t h e i r , c l o t h e s . .Sometimes t h e w a t e r be brought close f r o m some d i s t a n c e a t hand. many y e a r s . t o feed the fountain had t o away i f t h e r e was no The c o m p l e t i o n o f w a t e r Be t h i s a s i t may, we k n o w 1254-, t h e P e r u g i a n s r e s o l v e d Monte' P a c c i a n o , t h o u g h , owing to build aqueducts spring took f o r example, i n an aqueduct to the d i f f i c u l t i e s from t o be q surmounted, Pliny'the the water Elder, duct'-isystem d i d not reach the Piazza observing the highly developed until Roman 12 8 0 . aque- remarked: But i f anyone w i l l n o t e t h e abundance o f w a t e r ..; s k i l f u l l y b r o u g h t i n t o t h e c i t y , f o r p u b l i c u s e s , 9 f o r baths., f o r p u b l i c b a s i n s , f o r h o u s e s , r u n n e l s , s u b u r b a n gardens and v i l l a s ; i f he w i l l n o t e t h e high aqueducts.required f o r maintaining the proper e l e v a t i o n ; t h e m o u n t a i n s w h i c h h a d t o be p i e r c e d f o r - t h e same r e a s o n ; a n d up t h e v a l l e y s i t was n e c e s s a r y t o f i l l up; he w i l l c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e w h o l e t e r r e s t r i a l orb. o f f e r s n o t h i n g m o r e marvellous.-'- -' 1 It is interesting t o compare P l i n y ' s Republican waterworks transportation Appendix the C) . " be a Vitruvius c e n t u r y and of account of water i n h i s De_ A r c h i t e t t u r a (See functioned well became t h e a d o p t a b l e mode into of water. The to the t e c h n i c a l Vitruvian hydraulics L1 sixteenth conducting by with description development o f Medieval c i v i c fairly varieties: generalized water fountains statement, consisting i s discharged into an open of seems two receptacle 12 from above, ed by The or another i n which a superstructure form of the level the spring the ground, ing down t o i t . may and the be depends the i s a t a low from a nearby water (as i n t h e fountain of the water c a n be filled; or bubbles up spring collected protect- Siena). e x t e n t on a basin with or cleft fountain into into a cistern o r t h e r e may.be no steps i n the rock, The If relative s o u r c e and a basin. the i n a hollow i n I f i t flows from a h i g h e r , from a h i g h e r p o s i t i o n be Nuovo a t to a certain i s usually piped to the may Fohte is formation of the region. level fountain natural spouts the r e s e r v o i r lead- level, the jet forth water from from which spouts, simply a the pitchers basin 10 filled to i n some o t h e r the level spouts of. t h e w a t e r . i n their cisterns with again, fountains r a t h e r they f o r domestic c o n s t i t u t e d t h e main consumption covered fountains f o r the b e n e f i t o f the populace most p a r t closely partially d u e t o t h e more' . a v a n t - g a r d e n a t u r e bound t o n a t i v e and t o t h e g e n e r a l l y rural centres.. shaft rising fountain f r o m .a h e x a g o n a l water The .design of remains civic f o r the t r a d i t i o n . . This conservative Viterbo's imposing and, n a t u r a l l y , formed p l a c e s - f o r t h e common f o l k . installation have by were n o t n e c e s s a r i l y gathering age may close spouts. ornamental; supply The b a s i n s , f r o n t w a l l s , o r may b e r e p l a c e d Medieval or w a y , p e r h a p s b y means o f a h o l e i s • of the patron- inclinations. of the (figure 1, a columnar o r round b a s i n ) , f o r i t s p r o v i d e d - r e l a t i v e l y easy access to the d r i n k i n g "water. As - c i v i c adorned fountains fashion, the complexity proliferated into images be r e a d ieval progressed could societies, historical, relating the p o l i t i c a l , Mass c o m m u n i c a t i o n s most e f f i c i e n t medium. an i l l u s t r a t e d through sculpturally Sculptural figurative being o f images b o o k b y t h e med- and t h e s o c i a l came i n t o a of programization a communicative like into means t h e aspects because they of-society. are the m e a n s y e t f o u n d t o m e e t some o f t h e p r e s s i n g 13 needs of society. something t o watch Accordingly, man h a s - a l w a y s over h i s environment needed and r e p o r t to him 11 any dangers opinions and o p p o r t u n i t i e s ; and f a c t s , to h e l p pass society sometimes h e l p a group on l o r e to circulate make d e c i s i o n s ; something and wisdom and e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t o t h e new m e m b e r s o f s o c i e t y ; something to enter- 14 tain people on a b r o a d The al scale. fountain's decoration sculptural o f a French cathedral mass m e d i u m , o r e s s e n t i a l l y around about type t h e same t i m e , t o l a r g e Fohte Maggiore the Bible speak may b e c a l l e d reader o f Fountains represent subjects Biblical illustrations taken illustrations. I mean, o f c o u r s e , i n Biblical title I have chosen I, h a v e n o t u n d e r t a k e n entitled Pisano's from When I pictures manuscripts, to explain them. The that This demonstrated program on N i c o l a which which were i n c o r p o r a t e d or adorn t h e same m e s s a g e , a t numbers o f p e o p l e . ^ Illustrations pictures of Bible organized at Perugia. Biblical All the port- f a c a d e , becomes a image i s a d e q u a t e l y throughout the s c u l p t u r a l like a w o r k i n g group some d e v i c e f o r c i r c u l a t i n g o f communicative program, forthis an a m b i t i o u s t a s k . i t "Manuscript Miniatures" might justifiably upon a s u b j e c t which, section expect indicates I f I had or "Illuminations," the a thorough disquisition from the beginning o f manuscript 12 tradition, if such poses many c o n j e c t u r a l problems. a theme w e r e . a d e q u a t e l y comprised w i t h i n the l i m i t s o f : a field reader thorny with with modern s c h o l a r s .agree. This there or i s no t h o r o u g h thesis. I cannot Alas, there account here Biblical inevitably imply, ation they tend illustrations. suggests, a small properly an i n i t i a l even present the on w h i c h agreement. t o e x p l a i n why I.shall a false miniatures avoid idea The w o r d these, of early "miniature" e t y m o l o g i c a l l y i t does n o t and e x q u i s i t e p i c t u r e ; and the-word means a d e c o r a t i v e border the early B i b l i c a l seemed t o be n o t h i n g of this illumin- or the decoration illustrations sort. as w e l l as p a g a n b o o k s incident narrated main i t i s letter. Among Christian though Because on m a n u s c r i p t t o suggest n o t be i s n o t much i n order i l l u m i n a t i o n s . ' But i n any c a s e , Christian an this of the opinions has been s t a t e d words because of treated, i tcould controversy, a summary a c c o u n t Moreover, i n the text. c o n c e r n was t o u s e t h o s e there The i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n attempted simply to depict Hence, t h e i l l u s t r a t o r s ' themes t o p r e s s home a 17 moral a lesson result, local like they accuracy. that today, text, o r t o s t r e s s c e r t a i n dogmatic were u t t e r l y Therefore, o f engraving i s that innocent of historical the function of at a later of illustration s e r v i n g as a k i n d tenets. date As or illumination, o r photography o r accompaniment t o a w r i t t e n of pictorial elucidation. 1 13 The quently might the fountain depicted i n Christian expect, medieval fountain existed figure for the Virgin Biblical illuminators To s t i l l or the sacred Christian illustrative allegorical i t stood Scriptures:, examples, what one fountain. i n detail, i n early Genesis, No m a t t e r proceeding,, however, i n examining the fountain about Bible something a few s h o u l d be illustrations said i n general the form o f the manuscripts. Book i l l u s t r a t i o n s The the foun- c o n n o t a t i o n was e x p r e s s e d , t h e r e r e m a i n e d Before and literary others the Four'Gospels. image .constant t h r o u g h o u t — t h e about various T o some o f t h e i l l u m i n a t o r s , and e s p e c i a l l y As one c o n t i n u e d "the u s e o f implicitly or Ecclesia. i s fre- and a r t . i n Eden, t o o t h e r s i t s t o o d as an of Christ Apocalypse an image w h i c h literature motif t o express interpretations. tain i s o f course illustrated Virgil were n o t a C h r i s t i a n i n the Vatican Library, invention. ascribed to 20 the f o u r t h .century, by i t s date illustrated.Biblical into vogue a t about ascendant, at least or rolls. ing; But, because conserved. That about the earliest was c o n v e n i e n t but because-of that than any a r t form came was i n t h e i t . was d e v e l o p e d or ~ must be s a i d knows - t h a t this t h e t i m e when t h e C h u r c h i t was b y t h e C h u r c h 2f A word Everyone text. alone, i s older referring the form o f e a r l y had the form o f enough scrolls f o r continuous tqgparticular books. read- passages, the 14 form of the first for of the codex books adoption fourth leaves a l l for compilations of the distinguished the (separate by chapter of the century.. Christian Bible, or of bound together) l a w . a n d became even before verse. likely Therefore, our earliest The were Professor Lowrie not earlier liturgical used adaptable i t s contents c o d e x , was a r t are-, s c r o l l s . was suggests than the examples of books the of 2 3 C h u r c h w e r e of. c o u r s e Medieval popularity well into rulers i n the the their where they 'found styles which, and of f o r the his p r o t e c t i o n of ninth century the so-called most p a r t (the Corbie-St. "Palace and French F l a n d e r s , the School School on Rhine), call the parts, side of or Middle opposed Denis, into flourishing Carolingian being.by School," the the Emperor Schools of School in Franco-Saxon clearly 26 Wurzburg, reflect and the Ada these currents. abridged versions of illustrators B i b l e s , " which "moralised" parallel ruler continued of Tours, Bible the secular Under the the Medieval "historiated and found i t s Carolingian renaissance, called Rheims diametrically the codex. s u c c e s s o r s , a r t i s t s took t h e i r models 24 • ' . . them. . The s t r o n g l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a r t 2 5 successors the illustration s i x t e e n t h century,. and istic form of the manuscript under' t h e Charlemange i n the passages p r o d u c e d w h a t we Biblical gave o n l y Bibles, the stories the setting moral known might as main n a r r a t i v e forth by interpretations the to be 15 drawn from them. particularly and According t o Emile influencial fifteenth Male, on t h e a r t i s t s c e n t u r i e s , were two works of the the Biblia fourteenth pauperum, and t h e 28• S p e c u l u m humanae s a l v a t i o n i s ( c a . 1 3 2 4 ) . each scene parallel ancient guide f r o m t h e New anecdote history. oldest above the Old, or f a i l i n g that, from a veritable iconography. fountain symbols i n C h r i s t i a n iconography of Faith, the virtue held i s one o f indispensable a l l others t o the salvation of the Christian soul. Allusions t o Baptism, continuously casual very i s accompanied by a Therefore, i tconstitutes t o medieval The the from Testament In the latter, and Regeneration a r e represented i n various glance close Purification at figures fashions. two and t h r e e w i l l The most c reveal the r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two C a r o l i n g i a n 29 full- page i l l u m i n a t i o n s . If disregard ed about we omit the backgrounds some d i f f e r e n c e s the tempietto-like distinction i s that on t h e b i r d s the later version little ing i ti n a pseudo-perspective. and animals f o r i t removes pictures present i n turn a basin carry roof. We of water a small canopy group- (Soissons) treats are' f o r t u n a t e any p o s s i b l e and remaining b u i l d i n g i n a more d e s c r i p t i v e f a s h i o n respect, tent-like consideration, structure,. the only the which from doubt that by i n this t h e two surmounted by e i g h t dome, c o v e r e d The b a r r i e r s u r r o u n d e d render- columns by a by t h e columns i n 16 'the Godescale preted as gestion picture a' p i s c i n a , of (figure 3 ) , can therefore be inter- drawn i n e l e v a t i o n , d e s p i t e t h e Strzygowski that the diagonally sug- cross-hatched 31 area represents lattice-work grilles. In both i l l u m i n a t i o n s of the allusion ietto-like cisely those as which 32 represent, Therefore, representations of baptismal Life, temp- i t s elements are I would i t s superstructure, of Whatever the constitute numerical fonts. o f w a t e r and Fountain number e i g h t . s t r u c t u r e might baptismal pool i s to.the the pre- significance of tend to i n both regard the instances, fonts. F A further allusion illustrations motif.-' as the stag, The stems stag symbol of man context years of Placidia ation typifies the with by the baptismal repeated piety-'and s o l i t u d e and use the Church. The mosaic p u r i t y of Baptism. • tradition perhaps be (figure m o s a i c , now i n the of the life. to of the well the Professor • as A British similar thematic of Museum, f u r t h e r in this the case early Galla inspir- f'ohte' s i x t h -century Christian adaptation 3 6 the in i n the Mausoleum of illustrations 4). wo if t ht h ep a rs tt ia gc u lmaor t iefm .p h a's i s firmly the stag Like According regarded for both manuscript 35 ingenuity of of a s p i r a t i o n , as fonts, establishes itself could aspect custom of p l a c i n g f i g u r e s o f h a r t s acq'ua v i t a the from the is purified 34 Underwood, to dell' Carthaginian demonstrates of the Biblical text, on the repeated use In Gospel the (figure deer stag the or hart there derives mere a d j u n c t s On to the use baptism, exhibited The St. around'fonts, might easily a strict artistic John's (figure to regarded as than- t h e inclusion of I f i t were not the d i s r e g a r d such in and their rites of associations. i t becomes iconographic clear of What i s i l l u s t r a t e d vision. how become. the Fountain is a clear The As conformity e l e v e n t h - c e n t u r y ' Bamberg A p o c a l y p s e , revelation for liturgical of Life pictorial fountain flows represents (figure A n d h e s h o w e d me a p u r e r i v e r o f w a t e r l i f e , c l e a r as c r y s t a l , p r o c e e d i n g o u t t h e t h r o n e o f God, and o f t h e Lamb. apocalyptic in dismissed illustrations, have has a setting in literary ecclesiastic schools 2) c o u l d be picture. and The streams, T h e s e m i g h t be significance of from a s s o c i a t i o n of harts with baptism w i t h i n both adhered to the Gospels t o them i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h one animal termed a.hart. scene or present, i n the Godescale significance other hand, they animals repeated Soissons a water other references s u r e l y be specimens. more p a r t i c u l a r physical can of the o f no the of the i s depicted a single i t s symbolic f o u r such Paradise.- corner a h a r t longs f o r the running do I l o n g f o r t h e e , 0 God. illuminator introduced as 3) right-hand family which As so The lower of of allusion from the 5): to John's heavenly 18 sphere into below. The the. t e r r e s t r i a l sacred regeneration. "clear" The level of the water brings Biblical Paradisial with image i n t h i s i t life case reduced to a didactic illustration, a pictorial account of the text, al sacred ated by space the manuscript excessive isolates forms picture use seems t o be demonstrative a somewhat i s o l a t e d devotion- space domin- and inner kernel, remains. the gold ground. The gold figures, and finally seems to correspondingly pattern. The^ and take time, full of and, forms, released on an i n proportion The dead Lively same r h y t h m i c which expressive frozen to t h e i r in a inner content, figures of space extraordinarily and into the symmetrical bondage is gestures Bamberg F o u n t a i n result association, other f r o m any unreality perhaps human o r g a n i s m , b u t repetitions. only fluttering a sudden significance, immobility, assume size. animation, aesthetic until a b i l a t e r a l arrangement, the seem t o h a v e b e e n supernatural spiritual complement-' e a c h suggestion. draperies material l i f e , essentially Treated.in i s completely of the consume a l l t h e i r o r g a n i c , the and image The of and garden used L i f e takes vitality which t o ' some h i g h e r i s achieved Even the and a of by the f o r symbolic correspondence. a form i t owes n o t spiritual dynamizing colours, derived only on law. of to The symmetrical from n a t u r a l i s t i c value, obey the 19 At position the what p o i n t , , o n e may fifteenth a number c a n be n o t i c e d h e r e f r o m one parallelism remains the preceding eenth century, Christian as level to another, of generations. i t may There of and (figure 39) Therefore, stylistic yet a associable to Biblical thematic illustrations i s i n each example traditionalism. suffice t o say t h a t by t h e t h e f o u n t a i n , as a m o t i f tendencies of iconographic fountain illustrations, the forerunner graphic illustration thirt- inherent i n s y m b o l i s m , c o n v e n i e n t l y sums u p s o m e o f t h e m o s t progressive Biblical juxta- associations. i s a transition a perceptible undercurrent Perhaps Bamberg a century' Fountain' o f L i f e of interesting progression of notice that o f the eleventh, century Gothic, creates this of fifteenth variations, or.where interrelationships. t h e r e f o r e , may and s i x t e e n t h "the t r a d i t i o n a l be regarded century aesthetic 37 of Romanesque and the. s p i r i t of Gothic a e s t h e t i c meet." 20 • CHAPTER II FONTE' MAGGIORE' AT The for many g e n e r a t i o n s , Umbrian town o f Piazza, with the Plazzo Perugians This of Piazza Quattro Perugia. i t s back point out means o f figurative free Italian of highest the towards the with charming not pedic a This ranks of thirteenth The of the and faction. civic as the source .of w a t e r customs, h a b i t s society during the in the level of the facing a fine 6). example i n i t s most defines, by i d e a l s of had the pride- ( f i g u r e a t i m e when The been fountain which a r t was was i t has life Duomo a n d only illustration, commune. valuable record civic development, i t a l s o of passion besides, to On t h r o w n .off e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l and victims all of s c u l p t u r e , when t h a t stage had centre monument i s i m p o r t a n t Italian N o v e m b r e i s , as P u b l i c o , stands, a u n i q u e critical a the PERUGIA not life in the"people yet fallen Fohte' M a g g l o r e i s , supply, and an encyclo- appearance c l o s i n g decades of of the century. spectator move a t w i l l and i s free to i n any stand w h e r e he d i r e c t i o n he pleases, likes, or to 21 remain move. i n one The 1 place f o r a long order i n which the speed with are up him. to which he Water spouts various basin, The zoomorphic and sculptural intellect shifts freely the f r o m one fountain point f r o m t h e mouths distributed central only h i s figures of around and another the the second adorning the top program, decorated w i t h of niches containing to eyes motifs close read like monumental a an fountain, earthquake a s we i n 1438, see and from e x c e s s i v e r e s t o r a t i o n . certain the after of the with s i x hundred i t t o d a y , was in suffered as i t was • and from the weathering the replacement with of Melchisedek and (figure n i n e t y - t w o y e a r s , as w h e n i t was today previously variations the water above, and at book finished, of copies 30), i t appears, i m p r e s s i v e and although i t o f h a v i n g been o v e r - c l e a n e d abrasives. fountain a the damaged s u b s e q u e n t l y has Apart reliefs, the appearance As which low corner figure functional gives to figures 3 of basin. relief. The by views o f m e d i e v a l P e r u g i a n s , can be w i t h .a s e r i e s high one protomes from the time while t h e r e a r e two i n the t h i r t e e n t h i s discharged into another i n which superstructure, Siena. discussed, as by one in an o p e n r e c e p t a c l e t h e r e s e r v o i r was illustrated Although the idea century: main the of water Fonte falling from protected by Nuo'vo ( 1 2 9 8 ) from a cupped 22 central shaft into twelfth century close The finds fountain, belonging (figure The clearly and spiky forms cluster then angular simple of Monreale,^ fountain s t i l l to the late former no -remain."' classification, F o n t an a d i _ P i a n o ' Scar'aho sub-division main b a s i n are the swells into V i t e r b o foh'taha i s d a t e d a separate support round clover-leaf i n the i n the at 1) . represents steps cloister for the"Perugian i t s prototype Viterbo basin i s exploited f o u n t a i n i n the prototypes Perugian a lower the base lower, of the 1279 , of the and type. cruciform i n plan. lion-mouthed central a superimposed pair of Sharp spouts column. Its that The latter four-lobed, basins. When m e d i e v a l a d o r n m e n t , as i n both fountains conceived the Fohte sculptural Magg'idre and later in R Delia Querela's' Fonte subordinate'to the Gai'a (figure architectonic lines shaft, and. i t s s u b j e c t m a t t e r was civic, as Fbhte again, i n the richness.of the iconography rivals it'was of the chiefly kept basins religious Maggiore, that of or where Gothic and the cath- 7 facades. . edral The c o m m i s s i o n was Benedictine, Boninsegna, from great 8), along with a Venetian h i s work allied Guelph on the city given to Fra Bevignate, a F r a t e A l b e r t o and h y d r a u l i c engineer a who a certain was called c o n s t r u c t i o n of a f o u n t a i n i n the 8 • of Oryieto. As t h e f o u n t a i n p o s e d technical, as w e l l personalities clearly as o r n a m e n t a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , were mentioned concerned with many its. erection i n t h e numerous and a r e . i n s c r i p t i o n s engraved 9 upon the various The as early cisterns. conception a s 12 54-, According to the s k i l l r i m , to their fountain construction occurred was to Vasari, the and i n d u s t r y had brought two m i l e s civic but the actual some t w o d e c a d e s . - ^ thanks of this of a friar city delayed Perugians, of the from the h i l l Silvest- of away, an abundance o f w a t e r by l e a d e n 12 by a d e c r e e d a t e d 1254. The f i n a l d e c o r a t i v e was b e g u n i n 1 2 7 7 , a n d w a t e r b r o u g h t f r o m M o n t e Pacciano, conduits program Pacciano 13 entered may of the piazza have been payments done done The i n 1280. later the same t i m e i s equally of the previous T h r e e names a r e g e n e r a l l y decoration (1206-1280), Giovanni Pisano (1240-1320), creates an i n t e r e s t i n g p r o b l e m w h i c h discussion at this p r o g r a m was point well (1240-1315). Attribution of f u r t h e r on i n t h i s that under by t h e y e a r way. associated of the fountain; d e l Cambio say removed from the centuries, while Arnolfo other records i t comes c l o s e r t o t h e p l a s t i c i t y complete, or p a r t i a l Pisano from work i n 12 81."'"^ style of sculpture Romanesque work of the sculptors' however, judging or recorded old sculpture. Part leads text. me of at Gothic with the Nicola and sculpture into an- I t suffices to 12 7 7 t h e s c u l p t u r a l 24 Perugian The thirteenth decades. death t i m e s had century The of Civic Emperor i t was changed and for Perugia for that Ghibelline hier, I I , had was subsequently from the matter, the cause, already Frederick when M a n f r e d , h i s and History succeeding at few u n d e r m i n e d by been i r r e p a r a b l y killed shattered mid- Be^/evento i n when t h e the damaged 1266 army o f the Siena was ^> 15 E m p i r e was bloddily routed at converted Tagliacozzo to the Guelph Guelph stronghold, which, among o t h e r t h i n g s , 16 a civic idation entered fountain. and sion that that the of i s an society at This point a period It is this of a civic period in a civic expression of and prompted the perpetuated erection 126 8. party, economic, p o l i t i c a l Nicola fountain, m the of military consol- intellectual 17 fountain. structure, of a affluence, foundation of and Perugia, I in this affluency of expan- am certain case a a particular a p a r t i c u l a r moment i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l s h a l l be c l a r i f i e d by an e x a m i n a t i o n o f evolution. the s culpturalV iconography. This such works as compendium o f Vincent of natural doctrinal,' moral clearly political al the framework prestige affluency i s reminiscent B e a u v a i s ' S p e c u l u m Ma'jus , w i t h 18 and e l e m e n t , now lay and its historical, subdivisions . apparent w i t h i n i s , however, symptomatic of of of civic the organizations the tradition- increase that The in accompanies 25 the e x p a n d i n g p o w e r arid c o m m e r c i a l Although an i n s c r i p t i o n r e c o g n i z e s Perugia h e r s e l f had recently, centres o f every ; o f t h e t o w n s . 1' complexity Rome a s c a p u d like a hundred size, consolidated muridi, other similar h e r own p o s i t i o n as 20 the centre of a universe Nicola Pisan c i t i z e n s h i p and p o l i t i c a l contract. to communes obscure the existing p o l i t i c a l destruction the were personally situation, i s diffi- o f t h e E m p i r e , as a m a j o r i n the south, illustrates The involvement perhaps o f the independent of the Perugian develops of the sculptors. c l e a r l y the urban communes Italian at this allusions This manner o f 22 founlife time. Prototypes erection antiquity. decoration .which the various Fountain classical rise rival P o r t r a i t u r e o f the d i g n i t a r i e s at t h i s time i s 21 found w i t h i n in with awarded t h e are. r e f l e c t e d i n t h e s c u l p t u r e the p o l i t i c a l tain its i n P i s a , were u l t i m a t e l y t h e Church, and t h e consequent fountain. to affiliations their discern. The city despite Whether o r n o t they, as P i s a n s , concerned with to Umbria. and h i s s o n , G i o v a n n i , Ghibelline•party cult m of-public fountains goes b a c k t o The f o r m o f t h e Forite M a g g i b r e and was i n f l u e n c e d particular, baptismal also fonts, by analogous either round or structures, polygonal, such as t h e f o n t s i n S . . G i o v a n n i i n Fonte, Verona, i n the 9 3 Baptistery With this directly of at Pisa allusion a n d S. F r e d i a n o i n L u c c a to baptism, interrelated Vincent Beauvais. humanity begins especially season 0 may b e Vincent stipulated t h e work o f redemption the t i l l i n g 24 that fallen by manual l a b o u r , and h a r v e s t i n g o f t h e s o i l a t every o f the year. f o u n t a i n decor fountain stands parallel exists pulpit between In time, the midway b e t w e e n N i c o l a ' s p u l p i t 1301.) ( f i g u r e - i j D ) . More c l o s e l y , a close and t h e P i s a n p u l p i t s . (1266) and G i o v a n n i ' s the Maggiore 9). b y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e S p e c u l u m Ma jus. More d i r e c t l y , the the' Fonte (figure at Siena a t S. A n d r e a P i s t o i a I n both,- s i m i l a r i t i e s the architectonic may b e and s c u l p t u r a l f o u n t a i n i s d e r i v e d i n some m e a s u r e from ( 1 2 9 8noted. detail of the pulpits i n t h e P i s a n B a p t i s t e r y ( f i g u r e 10-), a n d - i n t h e Duomo a t 25 • Siena. A p a r t f r o m t h e common p o l y g o n a l f o r m , t h e t r i p l e columns w h i c h - s e p a r a t e lowest basin, in the panels and t h e s t a t u e s which S i e n a , on t h e l o w e r b a s i n . placed around i n t h e. r e l i e f panels fountain, and f o rthe.remainder and in a t o animal each lion have'the t h e base o f t h e"central t o scenes r e c u r on t h e same Similar o f the examples—two and a g r i f f i n , arts column a t S i e n a o f the lowest basin o fthe of his reliefs Nicola had f r o m t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , Roman fables. function The g r o u p o f l i b e r a l reappears recourse i n Pisa zoomorphic history, motifs recur e a g l e s , t h e s y m b o l o f Rome; t h e symbols o f t h e Guelph p a r t y and' 27 Perugia respectively the corner orical statues personages history o f both pedia 12). represent connected On t h e m i d d l e mythical, Biblical with the spiritual Rome a n d P e r u g i a . ment o f s y m m e t r i e s of music (figure silently ' 2 7 ' o f stone . and h i s t or political A considered and r e p e t i t i o n s , o f symbols, basin, arrange- a law o f numbers, a k i n d co-ordinates the vast encyclo- • On / t h e f o n t a n a' M a g g i o r e . . . t h e M o n t h s a n d Sciences i n combination w i t h scenes from Genesis make up a h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d . But l o c a l t r a d i t i o n s a l s o .play a p a r t i n t h i s h i s t o r y . In o n e o f t h e b a s - r e l i e f s , R o m u l u s a n d Remus a r e a r e m i n d e r o f t h e f a b u l o u s b e g i n n i n g o f Rome, mother o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . The s t a t u e t t e s o f t h e upper b a s i n r e c a l l the o r i g i n s o f Augusta P e r u s i a h e r s e l f . . . the (Trojan) hero A u l e s t e s , legendary king o f E t r u r i a , progenitor o f the race, stands near the s a i n t s Herculanus and Lawrence, who. l a t e r a w a k e n e d i t t o C h r i s t i a n l i f e . 2-8 As such, the fountain intermingles a l l four o f the great scholarly moral, traditions;:"; t h e h i s t o r i c a l , the physical, the and t h e e n c y c l o p e d i c , and i n t h i s latter particul29 arly, the medieval The obsession S c u l p t o r s and Attribution leading thirteenth inscriptions. with scientia Inscriptions of the sculptural century universalis. program t o the three sculptors i s primarily To w h a t e x t e n t Nicola or Giovanni based Pisano, o r A r n o l f o d i Cambio s y s t e m i z e d the fountain i s purely conjectural. Vermiglioli Giovanni Battista on i n 182 7 examined 28 the inscriptions and a s s e r t a i n e d that: ...dell'acquedotto e d e l l a fontana maggiore di Perugia ornata dalle sculture d i Niccolo e Giovanni P i s a n i e d i Arnolfo fiorentino...30 Additional scholarship i n 1834 b y S i l v e s t r o Massare main- tained: Le s c u l t u r a d i N i c c o l o e G i o v a n n i d a P i s a e d i A r n o l f o f i o r e n t i n o che ornano l a fontana maggiore d i P e r u g i a . ^ 3 According both he t o Vasari, the ornamentation bronze thereupon a n d m a r b l e was e n t r u s t e d of the fountain t o Giovanni, s e t h i s hand t o t h e work, making i n . so that three basins, 32 one above Milanese by elaborates dating August, the other, Arnolfo 1277. One work t o both two i n m a r b l e , one i n b r o n z e . on V a s a r i ' s account o f N i c o l a fiorentino i n Perugia Pisano on t h e 2 7th o f 3 3 of the longest inscriptions N i c o l a and Giovanni appears ascribing the on t h e m i d d l e basin: Nomina s c u l p t o r u m f o n t i s sunt i s t a bonorum . . . r a t u s N i c o l a u s admodum g r a t u s Est flos sculptorum gratissimus isque proborum E s t g e n i t o r p r i m u s g e n i t u s c a r i s s i m u s imus C u i s i no dampnes nomen d i e e s s e J o h a n n e s . . . i t u P i s a n i . . . s i n t multo- tempore s a n i . The name o f G i o v a n n i lowest basin abbreviated Pisano containing occurs on a p a n e l of the two e a g l e s i n relief, where i n form t h e words are i n s c r i b e d , which Venturi reads as: Magister Johannes e s t sculptor hujus 35 opens; 29 It between that i s clear from the remains F r a Berivegnate the latter in t h e work. in Perugia February, i n the year There until 1281. and N i c o l a ' s 3 of a correspondence former p u p i l , Arnolfo, 12 77 w a s c a l l e d u p o n t o a s s i s t i s no r e c o r d he r e c e i v e d of Arnolfo's payment f o r work presence done i n 7 Martedi 4 febraio Item dedit e t s o l v i t maystro A r n u l f o pro labore e t opre f o n t i s i n foro pro x x i i i j diebus.. Item dedit e t s o l v i t p r e d i c t o maystro A r n u l f o p r o v e t u r a u n i s e q u i , quern d e b e b a t • • l a t e r e c a u s a e u n d i e t r e d e u n d i Roman p r o v i i j diebus... 3 The documentary Arnolfo evidence although, assume t h a t Nicola the i n 127 7, great. Pisano was r e q u e s t e d . h i s share Therefore, h i s name w o u l d h a v e and Giovanni that the s c u l p t u r a l program o f t h e h i s assistance h e came t o P e r u g i a cannot have been of does n o t s u b s t a n t i a l l y p r o v e was c o n c e r n e d w i t h fountain, fact 8 o f t h e work i t seems appeared I f i n reasonable to along with those i n the i n s c r i b e d verses on fountain. From t h e above Milanesi's planned discussion account, the natural t h e work, and Giovanni As^M-r<^*Swarzenski p o i n t s determine with i n relation inference took charge to Vasari- i s that Nicola of the detail. o u t ,i ti s not possible t o p r e c i s i o n t o what p o i n t t h e s t y l e a n d man39 nerisms separate 1*7 7 of Nicola and Giovanni had a t t a i n e d . the fountain from the Sienese pulpit, Ten y e a r s and by 30 12 7 7 N i c o l a was seventy-two years There and a directness "classical" encies of orians that Nicola and his the son. that the a f t e r the 1 2 8 0 - 8 1 , and and the that weather have the one a t t r i b u t i o n of sculptor increased by the assistance source also As be may was of solve the the the histby in com- of Pisa most of Giovanni. action of water carvings to such particular reliefs or statues fact that of helpers i n a task i s t o be i n e q u a l i t y and The of such given extent to is magnitude, p r e s u m e d , and has an obscurity from v a r i e t y must h a v e b e e n fountain men, executed died hand tend- younger indicate that i s mere s p e c u l a t i o n . expected, the "Gothic" the Nicola the the executed c o m m i s s i o n was h o w e v e r , and affected i t with the i t may that style some m o d e r n i s that program b e g a n , ^ time, and fountain Arnolfo, the i n the associate s c u l p t u r a l program r e l a t e s to of reserve father work fact that and Lapse the practical The age. conclude with the and and which the I f we pupils, Giovanni year of the' d e s i g n - o f . b e t w e e n 1277 any i n design tendencies plexities . a is a simplicity of rise to produced.^ many 42 attributions, most o f w h i c h are extremely this divergent. 31 The It aesthetic him S c u l p t u r a l ' Program i s n o t by v i s u a l purpose that enchants t o pursue h i s o r b i t finds apt himself life unity the beholder, a new encyclopedia statues of style round t h e upper b a s i n individual d i f f e r e n c e t o suggest basin displays upright representing ifications saints, high there One (figures 2.7 a n d '30/). reliefs Lorence da C o r r e g i o , hands. of individual o f two c i v i c The s t a t u e s and refinement. definite t h e work o f s e v e r a l and Lake fig- personTrasimeno, dignitaries o f Moses, David, John t h e B a p t i s t and S t . Benedict distinction a certain i s sufficient o f the Church, V i c t o r y , Theology, C h i u s i and p o r t r a i t s Matteo have sinners, prophets, Perugia, of encouraging the city's bespeaking the influence of a b u t a t t h e same t i m e St. purely i n marble, as t h e hub r o u n d w h i c h tradition, ures and a revolves. The The alone, around the Perugian•fountain. confronting to i t s situation means Solomon, are wanting i n On t h e o t h e r Herman, " D i v i n i t a s hand, t h e f i g u r e s Excelsa", St. t h e Deacon, and " C l e r i c u s P r o d i t o r S a n c t i E r c u l a n i " , are rendered and with i n a style a cogency that a t once b r o a d , and direct, i tw o u l d be d i f f i c u l t t o exceed. Sancta E c c l e s i a , "Roma C a p u t M u n d i " , a n d t h e S a i n t in Contemplation, probably or closely hand, having allied simple represent t h e work i t s highest o f t h e same expression i n 32 the "Roma" a n d s h o w i n g SS. Peter and Paul i t s weakness' i n t h e heads o f ( f i g u r e s ' 30' a n d 3 1 ) . Among t h e f e m i n i n e tolerably Victory, bearing tist. d i s t i n c t and u n i f o r m type t h e Lady Lake 43 figures, personifications o f t h e Corn t o be n o t i c e d Lands, t h e Lady and Salome b e a r i n g Grace t h e head o f medieval i s a i n the. of the Fish- o f John t h e Bap- . and s i m p l i c i t y c h a r a c t e r i s e but i ti s the grace there a l l these and n o t c l a s s i c a l tradition. The an fountain upper basin. there a g r i f f i n , ^ ages sculpture the purpose bolic l a t t e r part images of setting arms structure, intertwined, and a authority. before of personifications, philosophy of the and o f t h e w h o l e monument i s d e s i g n e d and scenes, o f B i b l i c a l complete cisterns t h e emprasa o f t h e c i t y , t h e symbol o f t h e Guelph The with In this o f two l o w e r i s a g r o u p o f t h r e e women w i t h supporting lion, consists of life u s , b y means o f symo f h i s t o r i c a l person- stories and and f a b l e s , a society. Sculptural' Iconography: I t s Social' Implications In discussion, these the following general ideas 45 are on The given as b r i e f l y as p o s s i b l e . the upper c i s t e r n bas-reliefs relate on t h e l o w e r The t w e n t y - f o u r to the constitution cistern deal with of the statues society. devel- 33 opmerit o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s o f w h i c h (figures sculpture make t h e n o t e s simpler B, d e s c r i b i n g and naming both which i s an attempt of the sculpture the F a l l , areas o f i s given the r e l i e f in. Appendix panels and t h e they now.occupy.^ t o analyse as a c o m p l e t e Man w a s c r e a t e d After on t h e v a r i o u s to follow, a l i s t i n the order now r e q u i r e d tion i s composed 14 t o 2 5 ) . To statues, society What i s or explain the inten- program. i n t h e image and l i k e n e s s h i s s u p r e m e d e s i r e was t o e s c a p e bondage o f t h e f i n i t e and r e t u r n o f God. from the to the i n f i n i t e , to the 47 r- source from, w h i c h h e was According life t o medieval of society conscious ideology, of having sprung. the organization a n d o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l was of the directed to this form o f end. It of that o f t h e microcosm, and partook nature of the Giver, utmost p o s s i b l e i n some d e g r e e development must of a l l aptitudes, that the whole e a c h o f i t s i n d i v i d u a l members s h o u l d U8 . . . ized, of the l i ei n and capacity be f u l l y . . actual- .The u l t i m a t e . . . r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s i s t s in the perception ed with but and m e n t a l — w a s t h e t h e way o f r i g h t l i v i n g s o c i e t y must, be s o c o n s t i t u t e d of as t h e w h o l e c o n s t i t u t i o n the i n d i v i d u a l — p h y s i c a l , moral gift the was b e l i e v e d o f t r u t h , n o t t h e t r u t h as i t i s c o n c e r n - r e l a t i o n s o f t h e phenomena o f t h e v i s u a l t h e t r u t h as i t i s p e r c e i v e d i n the general world, principles 34 lying beyond, which form the . in the the transitory rightly the the purpose balanced Society which ize capacities. by upper which man c i s t e r n , on figure ual. In each panel fountain the p r o g r a m as into of the 58 note the world. of Man does not body asserts i t s e l f reason wrongly perceive suffers basin may attain speculative Constitution of to actualthe of Philosophy (figure 16), d i v i n e and with The nature life against the the will to individ- the B. and D i s c o r d has is-the and the given in relation i n harmony w i t h what on number i n harmony w i t h clearly of Temptation series. longer microcosmic. panels related i n Appendix 13). the the the placement whole i s no God,' n o r . i s h i s own will the the lower idea of d i s c u s s e d , the (figure the individual developed outlined a intellect. individual the duly a sound body, f o r the I begin are a nature of the to the corresponding Panel strikes which the s u m m i n g up out Speculation'as trained explains the Lower C i s t e r n . represents 9 s c u l p t u r e on enables The i n the lower fully necessary fully reaches a must be s h o w how cistern most i s found e t e r n a l element i s d e p e n d e n t on and life The his man of the fountain i s to habit. whole of directed w i l l , truly Li i n i t s parts; there The of . and conditions of nature. supremeafunction harmonized animating entered the will itself. The true the Fall good, reason, the while a l i k e f r o m an i l l - g o v e r n e d b o d y and a 50 directed will. P e r h a p s , V i c e and I g n o r a n c e take 35 the place o f V i r t u e and Knowledge. From t h i s p o i n t onward, N i c o l a o r G i o v a n n i , t h e designer of the panels, the and t h e r e a s o n , body Panels nature; man i s t o b e b r o u g h t t h e supreme Panels and 55. of order In these suggest functions. deal with the how t h e w i l l of good. are represented the re-establishment physical relations 4 5 , 4 6 , 56 a n d 5 7 . of intellectual by search after and t h e beginning Biblical These proper t r u e h a r m o n y , s o t h a t i t may a n d harmony.; i n t h e i r conditions world into they their 38, 39, 40, 4 1 , 42, 43, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, Panels perfected are to recover 47 , 49., 59 a n d 6 0 . moral and r e l i g i o u s desire s e t h i m s e l f t o show how t h e w i l l , account These t o man. explain the h a r m o n y , a n d how t h e r e a s o n i s truth. The c r e a t i o n o f t h e o f human h i s t o r y were r e p r e s e n t e d according pictorial!Ly to the from-a very 51 early date. Panel presents the 58 A. the apple tree with In the Temptation t o Adam, a n d i m m e d i a t e l y the serpent design i s extremely large, as o f t e n h a p p e n s Panel and Eve have God ,in. t h e l e f t shall leave and F a l l — E v e , simple; 5 8 B. covered twined around t h e stem. t h e heads i n other corner: s i g n i f i e s t h e "garden. with power o f God i s s y m b o l i z e d The works. from Paradise--Adam leaves. The h a n d o f t h e command t h a t The s i m p l e h e ri s are disproportionally Pisani The E x p u l s i o n themselves behind they method by w h i c h t h e i s striking. 36 Panel strength, floats The 47 A. tearing The s t o r y open t h e l i o n ' s Panel 47 B. power i s e f f e c t i v e l y Samson l i e s of Delilah. She.has his s t r e n g t h as w e l l physical 18)--the 49. as h i s m o r a l indicate The s t o r y stands ready between simple ive shepherd o f t h e source clothed the i n armour effect To with the the origin in a well appointed ; i s a remarkable i s most c o m p e t e n t l y o f Rome. resent the giant, gained, design; and t h e i s skillful. t h e scenes four reliefs organized social Panel suggest- This from sacred Old are i n t r o d u c e d which deal The s y m b o l i c a l image r e l a t e s t o The i n d i v i d u a l agent i s a contrast lies i d e a t h a t n o man c a n s t a n d sufficient. There Goliath, counterbalance Testament h i s t o r y , (A) The y o u t h f u l (B) of the figure (fig- i n David i s o f power. o f death disposition admirably. and t h e m a i l c l a d w a r r i o r , slain. The and G o l i a t h working with h i ssling. lost vigour. the point o f David power o f t h e s p i r i t i n the lap and he has c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e weakness o f Samson. David hair rendered. w i t h h i s head cut off his hair, o f the composition Panel ure m o u t h , S a m s o n .J s on h i s s h o u l d e r s , t h e symbol o f h i s moral, v i g o u r . expression of physical lines o f S a m s o n - - i n a show o f alone--no man i s s e l f - can o n l y be p r o p e r l y state, f o rtemporal developed a n d Rome w a s t h e d i v i n e l y rule. 59 A £ B, ( f i g u r e . 1 7 ) . t h e twin m y t h i c a l founders These f i g u r e s o f Rome,' e a c h rep- s e a t e d and 37 holding drawn and v u l t u r e s ' i n t h e i r h a n d s ,' i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e a u g u r y from t h e f l i g h t which decided the s i t e name o f t h e c i t y . 'Panel twins 6 0. The, m i r a c u l o u s p r e s e r v a t i o n nourished by a w o l f . animal the o f these birds i s the' F i c u s cradle river. The t r e e ofthe a t t h e back ofthe rumihalis_, t h e sacred f i g which of the future founders T h i s i s one o f t h e most as i t f l o a t e d caught down t h e picturesque o f the lower reliefs. Panel The fable a wolf. 6 1 A. o f t h e c r a n e who d r a w s a b o n e the (figure 19)-- from t h e throat o f When t h e r e w a r d w h i c h - h a s b e e n o f f e r e d the w o l f reminds reward A Fable from Aesop enough. t h e crane that The a l l u s i o n labour o f the poor, many b e n e f i t s 6 1 B. s t r e a m as an excuse The moral and cruelty drawn h e r e the rich, the wolf. and r e t u r n f o rs i e z i n g i s that add t o t h e i r who l i v e They evil by receive f o r good. t h e lamb of fouling and devouringh e r . t h o s e who a c t w i t h s i n by calumniating violence t h o s e whom injured. The called, are like f r o m h i s jaws i s The w o l f a c c u s e s the they have i s that from t h e poor, Panel escape i s claimed, use o f parables, o r "exempla," as t h e y were w a s common i n m e d i e v a l p r e a c h i n g , a n d e s p e c i a l l y 53 so after the rise o f mendicant sed t o t h e l i t e r a t e , fables orders. and s t o r i e s trations, t o f i xt h e a t t e n t i o n I n sermons were used o f the audience. as addresillus- Collections 38 of these in " e x e m p l a " w e r e made f o r t h e many w e l l - k n o w n The drift perhaps of the against by the the On 54 the panels the suggested seasons, the sun of season. t h e weak, and they and attached. a warning and cruelty, the of of the correspond rich the body, social pleasures the heavens two illustration there the the i s the labours rather a life panels o f man the of is heavens, of are occupied the consequent assigned the fruition to o f human e n e r g y . sign of the blessing. life, to bring to the of s u b t l e harmony associated with and and a f f o r d i n g scope The of the order seasons Twenty-four panels Each month has panels and necessary earth.- of existence. labours through some a p p r o p r i a t e and course and to the with means o f m a i n t a i n i n g parallel of the deals '• . a punishment, but not wants panels They r e p r e s e n t i t i s the labours the f o u n t a i n was of r e l i e f forces of nature and of these as i n the powers with against group pleasures between the the next o f man, supplying for strong L a b o u r was these the m o r a l was vices'of pride, oppression material Creation. pleasures year. on of preachers, poor. The the a recognized "exempla" against the exercised in cases use course change i t with I n one Zodiac, t o mark and labour. of the 55 relation between the sun, This offers series the season, the a- m a r k e d c o n t r a s t t o the figures 56 which adorn the must have been portal familiar of the Baptistery i n Pisa. t o N i c o l a and their They influence i s , 39 moreover, v i s i b l e i n one o f t h e images (fjigure 21). Perugia are conceived i s very d i f f e r e n t effect The s p i r i t , produced devoted however, i n which by t h e d e l i c a t e t h e Months a t from Hellenistic t o March the static and B y z a n t i n e 57 style of the figures ography at Pisa. of the Italian of produced the church of time ities by m e d i e v a l the f a l l , life of childhood t o those was c u r s e d that nature ities o f t h e body. necessary The thus Daily of old'age. from The e a r t h every necessarily her increase. o f h i s brow tempered bread and d a i l y conditions expressed growth of her fruits. hand. T h e new The passage summed u p t h e s e The food the infirm- work became of fallen i n terms human nature o f t h e changes the earth i s The p a s s i n g o f t i m e was life evident o f s p r i n g w a s f o l l o w e d b y the;;; o f summer a n d t h e f r u i t i o n winter. like- a n d i t was o n l y b y l a b o u r wrought by t i m e , and o f t h e l a b o u r by which on the infirm- f o r existence. material made t o y i e l d on t h e p o r c h Verona. c o u l d b e made t o y i e l d man w o n b y t h e s w e a t were a r t i s t s , that 58 was a p a s s a g e f o r h i s sake, which equally o f one o f t h e f i n e s t man b e c a m e s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s and change--his wise icon- may b e i n t r o d u c e d t o s o m e t h e scenes o f San Zeno a t After The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c cycles, e x t e n t by s u r v e y i n g b r i e f l y examples . . . o f autumn by t h e d e a t h o f the sun through i d e a s o f change just power o f h i s r a y s became t h e symbol t h e heavens as t h e l i f e - g i v i n g f o rthe idea o f l i f e . 40 The course became an Perhaps sun of the allusion the so the marked by to the allusion through things, sun here natural d i d the life the signs of the of Christ suggests, Zodiac passage- of as upon e a r t h . the gave l i f e Christ Zodiac passage to the through of the material the Spiritual 59 life to the l i f e .of m a n k i n d . : The conditions life of were w i d e l y spring was regarded the seasons seed, a n a l o g i e s between p h y s i c a l from as the from The the the out the path the by of the by which man can find barns, taking up old life o f man. c r o p , and the of a new i n winter the passage The sowing of of threshing of o f t h e Word o f judgement, and the seasons. the through and as and they were 60 the heavens. God dividing the labour the physical relation ploughing, sowing, place i n the in of therefore of ideas.as r e a p i n g and the labours beneficence effects popular through- r e g u l a t e d by Thus, the to such of connection interests expression of divine overcome their sun L a b o u r was various occupations is in this t h a t we rising r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of work of the year, sun spiritual evil. months became an It ages planting coming t o of the the months of the the l e d to the course expressed of the c o n n e c t i o n between naturally with as The of resurrection; the h a r v e s t i n g of the good man death illustrated the h e a r t , the the the type g r a i n were, i m a g i n e d in developed. and the fall. these gathering expression of into 41 medieval religion, between the divine w i l l man's, f a l l e n nature. dissemination at Lucca, from pleasures find or ous the of l i f e figures gaily has The of the from fresh reason, the labours are on many of wide found French (figure they the 21) the illustrate labours. This life and by January i s an of the one joy- e x p r e s s i o n . o f the sym- season i t i s said: allegorized from as the 19) and the promises " t h o s e who The referring sacraments fear passage i n the t o t h o s e who of the joys figure crown also of of that order of These months pleasures connected of such hands, of the (figure of labours. in fulfillment the I t i s usual to sometimes l e d i n harmony w i t h t h e series generally holding flowers i n their labour of t h e i r hands." strength May as Prepare the t a b l e , watch tower, eat, drink... was infirmities, flowers forming the heavenly life, 127:2, where the than flowers, a hawk. illustrated drinking, and inasmuch and December and always the the. r e l a t i o n earthy flowers they bear, being the spiritual apart for this s u b j e c t s as rather between the rewards a n d "the p h y s i c a l of A p r i l the r e s t , w i t h a wreath youth. express Marco i n V e n i c e , and panels them c l a d pathy they facades. The differ S. f a r as Perhaps o f such Pisa, cathedral i n so creation. stand are nearly with, e a t i n g and as that of the Lord shall Isaiah Psalm eat 21:5: watch receive Church. spiritual I t i s probable 42 that has an i d e a such connected some as t h i s - ' l a y dimly behind the habit Christian anniversaries with that festive pleasures. Panels" Griffin--the 44- A a n d B h a v e r e s p e c t i v e l y a L i o n former symbolic o f Guelph and authority; the 61 latter, t h e empresaaof t h e ' c i t y o f Perugia The basin arts last d i v i s i o n ,of t h e p a n e l s (45-,46 , 56 , 5 7 ) .are.' c o n c e r n e d w i t h and philosophy The first ( f i g u r e 12.) on t h e l o w e r the seven liberal ( f i g u r e s 14 a n d 1 5 ) . three figures are those o f Grammar, 62 Dialectic by and R h e t o r i c , w h i c h man i s taught Grammar o p e n s is to preserve studied in on man teaches due r e g a r d teaches brought both regulation i s regulated touch with syntax. either the expressive and d i v e r s i t y of right reasoning, o f medieval and i l l , zealously proving change and r e s t r a i n e d , so the a r t of discussing element good of become rightly, of and expression. truthfully. and i t formed t h e education. itself antique o f tongue. i s the a r t of discussing the rules most i m p o r t a n t Grammar was t o p r e c i s i o n and aptness Dialectic It o f knowledge; h e r f u n c t i o n By means o f Grammar, o f the strangeness Grammar a l s o with o f speech Trivium reasoning. but i t d i d not there does n o t l o s e account the gate or'dialectical. the habit that the a r t of p u r i t y o f language. i n Italy, speculative m a k i n g up t h e M e d i e v a l So dialectic h e l p f u l i n the 43 Rhetoric (figure 26), the third o f these three f a c t o r s , teaches' t h e a r t o f d i s c u s s i n g p e r s u a s i v e l y so t h a t man may b e d i r e c t e d a c c o r d i n g To the these Medieval succeed to the w i l l the four of the figures Quadrivium--Arithmetic, speaker. representing Geometry, Music and 65 • Astronomy. The r a t i o n a l e in o f man. the nature ally, as o f the world's The S e v e n L i b e r a l creation Arts, and lies' incident- a l l human k n o w l e d g e , p r o m o t e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g well as t h e s a v i n g teachings contained o f man 66 i n Scripture. 67 This w a s t h e common m e d i e v a l proves i t through bolism and a l l e g o r i c a l view; application b u t Hugo o f S t . V i c t o r , of the principles interpretation. o f sym- Hugo s t a t e s h i s position: A knowledge o f t h i n g s r e q u i r e s a knowledge of t h e i r form and o f t h e i r n a t u r e . Form c o n s i s t s in external c o n f i g u r a t i o n , nature i n i n t e r n a l quality. Form i s t r e a t e d as a number, t o w h i c h a r i t h m e t i c a p p l i e s ; o r as p r o p o r t i o n , t o w h i c h m u s i c a p p l i e s ; o r as a d i m e n s i o n , t o w h i c h geometry a p p l i e s ; o r as m o t i o n , t o w h i c h p e r t a i n s astronomy. But physics (physica) looks t o the inner nature o f things.^8 From t h i s as being we may observe disposed the universe of according measure; hence, t h e importance the four t o number, w e i g h t , by, or and o f mathematics', w h i c h includes arts. At this appropriate. in as c o n c e i v e d The f i r s t the medieval Panel point a consideration o f the panels i s three panels constitute the Trivium scheme o f e d u c a t i o n . 4 5 A. Grammar--the t e a c h e r l a y s h e r hand 44 upon a c h i l d ' s in shoulder. A pleasant panel and effective simplicity. Panel and robes; 45. B. D i a l e c t i c — w e a r s a doctor's holding a scorpion. The divided tail hood of this 69 animal with signified the Panel A. 46 f o l d e d a r m s , as The next terms of the syllogism. Rhetoric--the pupil though actively four panels stands in front reciting,(figure constitute the 15). medieval Quadrivium. Panel before the of a pair the B. teacher Panel with 46 of most Arithmetic—the scholar counting 5 6 A. (figure 26). Geometry--represented compasses bending g r a c e f u l and over effective stands as a desk. figures a woman This i n the is one whole series. Panel bells with a Music--a 5 7 A. queen and 57 seated position figure p l a y i n g a row A s t r o l o g y — t h e teacher gaze upward toward Panel the B. of hammer. Panel pupils' 56 B. on the that Philosophy the stars. Philosophy--she a throne. directs Her takes i s crowned grand as a a i r i s worthy i n the of :T scheme o f t h e fountain. Surveying may with these perceive, that there religion and sculptured panels are morals; as a whole three main d i v i s i o n s with the one dealing material world; and with 45 the intellectual and moral panels state teaching o f which exemplified with The religious i n the subjects to the foundation on t h e " of the social Rome b e c a m e t h e s u p r e m e e x a m p l e . . o f man to the other forces faculty by which o f t h e months; and ignorance i n t h e s e r i e s o f t h e Seven The of creation i s i n the s e r i e s - o f the labours reasoning dealt i s enforced from t h e Temptation relationship the i n q u i s i t i v e n e s s o f man. i s overcome i s Liberal A r t s and Philosophy. Religion directed ness capacity and energy t h a t have overtaken with which the f a l l , learning, Vice by a are healed the forces of t h e human r a c e , cursed by t h e sacrament dark- nature. and t h e s t e r - as t h e r e s u l t of love, of- and o f l a b o u r . the upper attached rightly enlightening;the developing t h e e a r t h has been Upper'Cistern. round overcoming a l l f u r n i s h t h e means o f p e r f e c t i n g human evils ility of intellectual o f ignorance, nature, The will, and Morals cistern to their Turning we find base, which ing placement that r e l a t i v e 'position. been r e s t o r e d , and i t i s evident the t o the twenty-four no i m p o r t a n c e statues can be The f o u n t a i n h a s from t h e i n s c r i p t i o n does n o t r u n i n s e q u e n c e , round that the exist- o f t h e f i g u r e s i s n o t t h e one originally intended. The society s c u l p t u r e 'on t h e u p p e r asoa whole, cistern deals and as-.it has e x i s t e d under with t h e o l d and 46 the new dispensations. Priest, the Lawgiver Melchisedek, o l d and the Baptist. Empire, To the the as the Paul, worlds the divinely been temporal by special needs Lorenzo and of are temporal direction of but detail government Perugia--her of Aulestus between of the and the spiritual, society. St. John the the will of and These to Benedict, under the 31). the Peter while the are "Roma" . ( f i g u r e SS. God. and the protection of SS. of origin the Rome a s and Podesta, rule and s o c i e t y are under the r e p r e s e n t i n g i m p e r i a l power, i s committed being the to the explained Captain city i n the of the of figure People 30). I the link figure of figures of desires of general Society by Church agents the Ercolano. The (figure the on here c o n t r o l s o c i e t y through under the Perugia based s o c i e t y under Romana" and forces which The i n the to on committed " C l e r i c u s e x c e l s a " and the pass destinies of forth typified i s found we was Solomon. appointed "Eccles'ia are. s e t Society King; and Through him spiritual Church the dispensation resting represented The new C h u r c h has Empire and Moses, David the Christian Ancient begin my under the relief of the 'analysis with the sculpture old dispensation—the Old "Temptation" and examples illustrating are " F a l l " o o n the over lower basin. Panel 29. David the King p l a y i n g h i s harp. This 47 figure a n d some o t h e r s n e a r falling water. by t h e ' ' Panel the i t a r e much s p o i l t 31. Moses t h e L a w g i v e r with the tables of law and h o l d i n g t h e r o d o f a u t h o r i t y . Panel the temporal 28. Solomon r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e wisdom o f ruler. The An u n d i g n i f i e d figure. bond between t h e A n c i e n t s o c i e t y Modern i s found, i n t h e s t a t u e o f S t . J o h n and t h e the Baptist (panel 27). We now t u r n u n d e r t h e New Church to the constitution•of Dispensation. Pope m e r e l y ulating This which It be ruler formally n o r was reg- discipline. E m p e r o r was c o n c e r n e d becomes p o s s i b l e through acts i n accordance he i s e n a b l e d intellectual one.' ' T h e administrator, with temporal i s t o be g a i n e d by t h e r e a l i s a t i o n When man which the ecclesiastical dogma a n d The the temporal Society idea of the a n d E m p i r e was i n t h e o r y a v e r y w i d e E m p e r o r was n o t m e r e l y the The m e d i e v a l Modern capacity the teachings of Philosophy. w i t h these t o do b y t h e l i g h t virtues, o f human felicity. t h e n he enjoys instructions, o f the moral terrestrial i s -for t h e Emperor t o g u i d e - t h e . w o r l d so t h i s and happiness. e n d may reached. The life. Spirit, This Pope i s c o n c e r n e d with the f e l i c i t y of external i s t o be g a i n e d by t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e Holy which i n the light of theological virtues—Faith, 48 Hope, and forth of by Charity—makes the i s the regulate the the of joys Sacred life, duty of and the Empire the paradise. enjoyed the revelation set W r i t e r s , and which Infinite set a these 21. The the Son This of a plain is a It ferrato. setting, 7 3 of da the of pass the duties celestial of the goal, the the primary and (panel soldier (figure robe with 29), strong, cap, built gains to (figure i s dressed sword capable r a t h e r than the man, knight compare the excellent naturalistic, important Pod- being as a and figures. 30), citizen,.weargloves. suggestive of errant. Master the P i s a n i p o r t r a i t of • Both a r c h i t e c t o n i c a l l y dependent upon of h i s t o r i c a l l y the • and Sasseferrato Ekkehard with offer vision simplicity. i n 1278, is interesting life' 17). f o u n t a i n was carrying a short a active sculptures series'begins citizen's Ernano People the from e t e r n a l i n the Correggio time from i t s figure of citizen portrayal cap The may to God. of Perugia figure in a the the Pope • P a n e l . 24. ing ideas. Matteo at some d i s t i n c t i o n Captain those reaches h i s list the man 7 9 Perugia (1278). to community w i t h o f the- t o w n o f • of last following is a Panel esta at that a l l the foretaste of and forth government Emperor and Church exercised s p e c u l a t i o n , man The the earthly paradise Having and of the the the man God. It of Prophets, clear to of Naumburg's Sassetheir characterizations 49 A --the number o f Church and Panel woman b e a r i n g holding the The a church, on relate Empire, both 33. Panel queen s e a t e d statues 15. Church a throne, The Church i s f u r t h e r expressed Peter (panel dignity of 32).and i n the their the heads f i g u r e s of the is.entirely Panel-37saint of appears the Perugia, inscription, "Sanctus in the a deacon's St. strength, and on a crowned and the victorius , figure of fountain. presence (figure Lorenzo d r e s s ; he simplicity young The There of is a 27), Duomo i s (panel Laurentius Church m i l i t a n t . by SS. certain the sculpture unworthy. i n w h o s e name t h e citizen. i n Rome.. A p o s t l e s , but St.. L a w r e n c e heavenly wears the 35). two i n a ,two-fold. r e l a t i o n He mundi." by (panel powers seat a peaceful most . b e a u t i f u l Paul their i s f i g u r e d as a palm branch--"Roma caput i s one' o f great Romana". (figure. 31), church two i s represented Empire the the having "Ecclesia The to 36). the patron dedicated, He represents i s manifested with bonum opus o p e r a t u s i s the worker of est." good This- s c u l p t u r e i s a model his deeds of directness. \ Panel 19. St. Herculanus the Bishop and defender 74 of the well city against proportioned King and Totila. dignified He i s shown h e r e figure, with a as a vigorous personality. Panel rule of the 26. order St. Benedict (figure to his disciple S. 28) Maurus. gives The the figureo 50 of an angel at inspiration group ear wanting of granted,St. i s remarkably a.striking study, fine. but Bronze accordance with the The the The the drapery kneeling Saint himself divine of disciple 5 the is also i s unrefined and character. Group. the monk s i g n i f i e s Benedict. i n elevation of The in the From the inscriptions, difficulties i n recording According, to Blunt, • the following material' one sculpture . may to perceive any one the figure. '•'/• . . . t h e r e - i s no d o u b t t h a t t h e b r o n z e g r o u p o f c a r y a t i d f i g u r e s t h a t m e l t i n t o one a n o t h e r a t the summit o f t h e " f o u n t a i n i s b o t h l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y t h e c r o w n i n g a c h i e v e m e n t o f i t s s c u l p t u r a l program.7 5 . The with It the was bronze group assistance cast by the of Giovanni work xs probably perhaps lost-wax "Rubeus," presumably surviving 7 the these either is process bronze or his f a t h e r , i t - has group the i s hardly carvings unless masters. and of There heads the and comparable had no worked founder. assistants. As a part hands the hand of one sole either one although are finely waxes o f My other that the conception wrought, mastery Giovanni. and or proof and i n formal i n the by been g r e a t l y admired wax upon the Giovanni, i s signed 7 7 i s , h o w e v e r , no e i t h e r Nicola or Giovanni h a n d s , he and other i n m e t a l t o h a v e b e e n d e s i g n e d by a c t u a l l y modelled noble work of a number o f some a u t h o r i t i e s a t t r i b u t e ' i t t o 7 8 of the to guess the the is heads a c t u a l manufacture of the stone that or the 51 bronze, which or based on are based may o r may d e s i g n s by upon t h e • The n o t be the unaided work o f Giovanni or Nicola, which "Rubeus" in turn antique. prototype f o r the three caryatid figures can 79 be found at P i s t o i a . Church the an o f . S. similar upper marble free intention were faced with font into a new was to create Three support a moveable, used female the base m the juxtaposes figures the to support Pisani the problem of t r a n s l a t i n g By;adopting the bronze e n o u g h t o be at Pistoia, Undoubtedly, medium. viable font, of u s i n g c t h e female cistern. triple-figure able standing Giovanni Fuorciritas sculptural sculptors The as expressive technique, the sensitive supporting figures, on w h i c h and group bronze sculptor of figures, figures. each w i t h are poised the one arm the l i o n s upraised, and griffins 80 which crown technical lion and the fountain. accomplishment griffin restoration symbols of the show a m u s c u l a r i t y maidens. the To carvings like and the eight figures order. are The a bronze of Perugia, which, before the i n 19 4 9 , surface surmounted tension lacking e x t e n t , the group of a g r i f f i n , column female of the highest fountain a certain of the central and These an e a g l e and of the P i s t o i a surviving bronze the i n the i s comparable a lion pulpit at the (figure animal-head which j u t from the upper stone basin, under Giovanni's eye, i f they are not caryatids, argue base 11), protomes their from h i s to. execution 81 hand. CHAPTER I I I ' ' THE' F O U N T A I N A S A Conveyors the ed functional by s y m b o l i c and guardians aspects of the life-giving o f f o u n t a i n s , have allusions. of expression a r e symbols intended t o designate. A certain inheres itself Throughout coalescence "...the o f many static of nature sanctity in divergent means and opposing and t h e s a c r e d of water Indigenous and t h e p r o f a n e . " w i t h i n an the polarity t o a l l c u l t u r e s was t h e of water deities i t s u n i v e r s a l d e s i g n a t i o n as a and r i t u a l p r o p e r t i e s as w e l l a constituents: enclosed the veneration civilizations; qualities symbolism f o r t h e mind i n the fountain symbolizes hence of purification magical ing structure, and o f a r t . ancient unavoidable the ages, the fountain represents and dynamic o f water; other t o images."'' A n a t u r a l s p r i n g o r source artificial and enrich of whatever they are i n human m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s ; knowing, turns element o f t e n been Words, p i c t u r e s , vehicles also SYMBOL purging of sins. Water's as i t s c u r a t i v e a n d l i f e - e n h a n c - are stressed i n the pertinent l i t e r a t u r e . In 53 turn, fountains .• the as h a b i t a t s of• s p i r i t s , • dwellings a purely are'conceived 3 o f sources', and p l a c e s iconographical o f theophany. In addition d e v e l o p m e n t h a d p a v e d t h e way t o i n c l u s i o n o f the Fountain flourishing . o r even r e v i v e d of Life, a motif i n fourteenth s t i l l and e a r l y fifteenth u century a r t . Considering not i t s manifold surprising to find characteristics, the fountain, as the spiritual and p h y s i c a l nexus or of Paradise. In fact, feature out it o f the medieval of a l l proportion appears. each other Bible Compare "the w e l l of o f scenes the fountain of the creation i s often t o t h e s i z e o f the garden the fountain i n works the chief as remote the'Garden o f E a r t h l y and mineral line' Fountain forms of Life 5 Museum t r i p t y c h . Usually from whose of this flow i s thus Riches C h r i s t ! (Antwerp) , ( f i g u r e 35) . i n Bosch's panel associated springs fountain by Bosch intermingle i n the left Eternal' Life Paradise, Delights from- century i n the' T r e V from V i t a depicted i n which a s t h e A d a m and' E v e i n t h e f i f t e e n t h Mb r a i l ' s e e ; t h e ' E a r t h l y ' P a r a d l s e Vegetal life," garden, and i t i s f r e q u e n t l y He'ures ; t h e 1512' G a r d e n o f E d e n and i t i s crystal- o f t h e Prado with forth closely the' F o u n t a i n the four rivers interwoven*'with'.. R such O l d Testament passages which metaphorically refer to: ...the Lord, the fountain of of a l l l i v i n g waters. J e r e m i a h , 17:13 • 54 In a figurative or source of sense, the Lord i s spoken o f as - a Fountain life: The f e a r o f t h e L o r d i s t h e f o u n t a i n o f l i f e f o r t h e man who w o u l d e s c a p e t h e s n a r e s o f death. Proverbs 14:27. It becomes i s also the Fountain o f Living' Waters one o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e V i r g i n which Mary: ...and t h o u g i v e s t them w a t e r f r o m t h e flowing stream o f thy d e l i g h t s ; for with thee i s the fountain o f l i f e , i n t h y l i g h t we a r e b a t h e d w i t h l i g h t . P s a l m 36:8-9 The most prominent symbol feature f o r t h e Immaculate supported by t h e verses o f the Hortus Conception CohcTu'sus i s a of the Virgin i n t h e Song o f Solomon as 4:12; A g a r d e n e n c l o s e d i s my s i s t e r , my s p o u s e ; a s p r i n g shut up, a f o u n t a i n s e a l e d . Regarding the faithful, three the the miniature (figure 34). monuments of Life three the pilgrimage' s i t e . Magi w i t h of a hexagonal with by Charles occurs- nudes, while their splendid cited a t one o f t h e V to line As t h e f a i t h f u l of the o f Jesus i n 1 4 1 6 , may b e the route converge i n Van Eyck's' A d o r a t i o n the ed to the Life Here t h e assemblage constructed place f o r d e p i c t i n g the meeting Heur'es , C h a n t i l l y , t o S t . Denis. Fountain that as a g a t h e r i n g magi i n t h e s e c t i o n devoted Tres' Riches Paris the fountain from upon t h e o f t h e Lamb, s o r e t i n u e s , gaze towards The f o r m o f t h e s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f i s s p i r e crowned w i t h the others spike are v i s i b l e finials, adorn- i n niches below. Architecturally, the Fountain of 1 terrestrial the Life a manner w h i c h in the of central to the the on north symbol i n the the to the aforementioned evokes the baptismal thoughts theme o f t h e i n the early one encasing scene of the panel of of and of the Fountain s c h o o l , and Life of of of Ll'fe exist Used triptych, ca. this a the represents blood i n i t s conception, as attributed 1520, the in Youth. Salvation in dated overflowing with medieval Fountain Fountain a sixteenth century Netherlandish Fountain font i s represented sixteenth century. Redemption, the Literary, is similar Paradise. Sometimes Variations tower of Christ. fountain, . . . f e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y by t h e b l o o d i s s u i n g . f r o m Christ's.wounded s i d e and t h e m i l k s p u r t i n g f r o m t h e - . b r e a s t o f t h e V i r g i n , i s c i t e d as a s t r a n g e amalgam t o p r o d u c e t h e - e l i x i r o f s a l v a t i o n Also "Precious related Blood", to i s the the cult Fountain . . . w i t h j o y s h a l l we the fountains of the These one of compositions, group; and however that they Redemption, the and of liturgy draw w a t e r Saviour Isaiah,12:3 from diverse i n detail, or the belong merely Christ crucified o f Grace to two dogma o f and "Grace." E u c h a r i s t , but may a l s o be i t is this versions of the Fountain of Life'!"'" 1 The the . Thus t h e fountain i n t e r p r e t e d as whole . be Fountain applied same p a i n t i n g — t h e O b e r l i n a n d fountain i t s e l f , . symbolizing the' c o n n o t a t i o n w h i c h may to allegories 9 Catholic the Life: r e p r e s e n t , not Passion of with hosts Prado below, 56 is the Gothic type which mid-fifteenth became q u i t e popular toward c e n t u r y as p o r t r a y e d by the a number o f N o r t h e r n artists. In the view of the persistence Renaissance, i t i s hardly of secluded cloisters in the sixteenth uishable from, t h e fountain as It century garden. religious of the from the earlier Guillaume century de Lorris allegorical duality s e c u l a r becomes of indistingthe e v e n more the Renaissance' Fountain' of of love and Jean as de part vividly of the apparent. Love tradition p o r t r a y e d by Meung i n t h e p o e m , Roman de in are frequent Eden becomes the f o u n t a i n w h i c h was garden forms that reminiscences romances As of love, and seems p r o b a b l e t h a t descends surprising or chivalric garden of medieval thirteenth l a ' Rose. B u t now l e t u s t a l k o f t h e b e a u t i f u l t h i n g s that are enclosed i n t h i s lovely park...It i s i n d e e d r i g h t t h a t i t s h o u l d be s o , f o r a l l good t h i n g s w e l l f o r t h f r o m t h e same f o u n t a i n , one that waters the e n t i r e enclosure, from i t s str.ea.ms d r i n k t h e a n i m a l s who w i s h a n d d e s e r v e t o e n t e r ^ t h e r e . . . T h e f o u n t a i n i s so p r e c i o u s and h e a l t h - g i v i n g , so b e a u t i f u l and c l e a r , c l e a n and pure, t h a t a f t e r t h e y have drunk from i t , they can never b e t h i r s t y . . . Then he is says brighter also that, than pure since i t never stops, the fountain silver. The f o u n t a i n t h a t I h a v e s p o k e n o f , w i t h i t s . b e a u t y a n d ' i t s u s e f u l n e s s as a c u r e f o r a l l t i r e d out animals, always r o l l s i t s d e l i c i o u s waters, • sweet, c l e a r , and l i v e l y , f r o m t h r e e f i n e springs. I t n e e d s no m a r b l e s t o n e n o r t h e c o v e r ing of a tree, f o r the water, never ceasing, comes f r o m a s o u r c e s o h i g h t h a t no t r e e c a n grow so t a l l t h a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e w a t e r i s not greater.H 57 These few passages., u n d e r l i n e fountain imagery fountain had place a l l the of between the the state of considered garden be Romance.' interpreted both faithful Law the and and the as a kind New, the perception as a The meeting of boundary state of of mark nature and grace. as as as fanciful seen throughout come t o Old If as the i n the a the medieval fortress garden of of adventure love, 'one the pay v i l l a is. view the villa love. •Here [ G a r d e n o f L o v e ] h e a r t s a r e c h a n g e d ; i n t e l l i g e n c e and m o d e r a t i o n h a v e no b u s i n e s s here,'where there i s only the simple w i l l to l o v e , t h a t C u p i d , son. o f V e n u s , sowed t h e s e e d o f l o v e t h a t had dyed the whole f o u n t a i n , h e r e t h a t he s t r e t c h e d h i s n e t s and p l a c e d h i s s n a r e s "to t r a p y o u n g men and women; f o r l o v e w a n t s no o t h e r b i r d s . Because the seed that'was sown, t h i s f o u n t a i n has b e e n r i g h t l y c a l l e d t h e Fountain of Love, about which s e v e r a l have spoken i n many p l a c e s , i n b o o k s a n d i n r o m a n c e s ... x 3 With a this notion suitable of the this terrestrial gathering a l l y , the couples in for love, of that impact of making century became t h e the or focal ^ constant. tales, music near art. realm, theme, c h a n g e s relatively Boccaccio's love entrenched f o u n t a i n cat- t h e a more s e c u l a r although are the firmly as centre point; lovers. e m b a r k i n g on elements fifteenth .garden r a t h e r paradise place come a p p a r e n t the the surrounding In by of the the i t will stylistic- Perhaps motif fountain be- of is impelled the recurrent 58 Fountains legend i n Ovid's illustrating the Echo and Metamor'phosis^^ a l s o f a l l same c a t e g o r y . I t i s however, v i a the European p r i n t s of the fifteenth Narcissus within medium o f the North century, that the fons 15 amoris tradition examples are (studio), i s most w i d e l y visible i n works The. F o u n t a i n diffused. such o f Lb v e , as Antonio Borgia apartments; Diirer, Aldegrever tury the and . and Holbein. German e n g r a v i n g s stress Love theme becomes m the the of the to the the prints sixteenth more e r o t i c allied Victoria, Elders i n the Northern Because further Vivarini's National Gallery Melbourne;-'-^ P i n t u r r i c h i o ' s ' S u s a n n a h .and 17 • Vatican Similar of cen- components, Fountain of Youth. As fanciful teenth p o i n t e d out water century f o u n t a i n s , as candelabra -| o taste. One century a painting Berlin, of the by dated Bertha Wiles, the accessories of of the teenth by forms, of the as the type Rest.on Musical angels completely early f o u n t a i n s may the Flight hover and vertical most e l a b o r a t e o f t h e Altdorfer, f o u n t a i n which well fifteenth were q u i t e a s s i m i l a b l e Renaissance 1510. Italian complex be into around and six- lines to German sixseen in Egypt, the o v e r w h e l m s t h e H;oly rim Family seated beside i t . An i n s c r i p t i o n on t h e t a b l e t o f t h e 19 p r o b a b l y done by t h e a r t i s t as a "ex v o t o " t o t h e V i r g i n . fountain i n d i c a t e d to F r i e d l a n d e r t h a t the p a i n t i n g was S i m i l a r elements are observed i n the m a g n i f i c e n t woodcut, 59 The Holy. F a m i l y three-shelled a t the Fountain, font w i t h i n the ca. 1512-15, i n which chapel i s decidedly the outside 20 medieval variations, Strongly Fountain of Life rejuvenation, aqua vit'ae izing and as expressed sacred of grace provide o f Love i n the and the of The significant a water idea of and i t became a means ritual theme for purificationsprior reawakens and re- of water was performed as a fountain to This like practices the of symbol- For considered function of the purification, cleansing aspect A b l u t i o n was of of Youth. i s evoked. i n the mode. i s the Fountain The energy spirit. fountains. the baptism. m tradition Fountain' o f Youth p u r i f i e s , • 2 1 ' particularly at the the' F o u n t a i n a rebirth the juvenates with Renaissance i s also a water of oblivion, and Baptism, typically interwoven regeneration renewal and the sign to invocation 27 of a- s a i n t . of changing It is this the s o u l as ' w e l l as formed f r o m a. r e l i g i o u s teenth century. last chapter Pollphili, Polia, cline with the body w h i c h secular context of the medieval romance; thereby While a the instance (1499) by Baptism, to t h a t w a t e r has An i s led.-to a performed; with of notion Francesco sacred the i s now this f o u n t a i n where allied to representations the the of be is trans- i n the cited six- from where the certain formerly Fountain the Ages," heroine, rites are associated of the' F o u n t a i n Middle property Hypnerotomachia 2 3 Colonna, regeneration "waning o f may the the Love.' of Life idea of dethe 60 Fountain degree, o f Love, ( f i g u r e the Renaissance.• the pages fountains with the north is the Colonna's seeds courtly as 'Origin Early In an and r e v i v e d and present l o v e as first i t s reaction epilogue to the Significance Christian of numerological writers Hypnerotomach1a Middle Ages. Oct a g o n a l were at and the m y s t i c a l and magical theless , the number h e l d al and allusions odds w i t h into of this the tradition, The ieval the by of the Ages plan, well civic developed monasteries. through Never- store of tradition- The. N e o - P l a t o n i c Roman p e r i o d , f o u n d the learned their interpreter Augustine. octagonal fountains of imagery the Middle the Ll o f numbers. s y m b o l i c a l meanings. i n the Fountain gnostic speculation f o r them a r i c h number t h e o r i e s , ' i m p o r t a n t way property the human- 9 on forth Renaissance o f the abstraction budding expressed, i n to of harmony then i n the in f u r n i s h e d by f o r a number i n complete was les'ser expanded was romance, a r t which Always l a Rose. ism , i t serves spirit d e p i c t e d , are Alps. a slightly undoubtedly fanciful o f a new theme o f Roman' de Inspiration therein of the to Fountain- of Youth--is the of 36)--and by nigh and garden a l i k e , the church I t s importance number i n v o l v e d . universal and f o r med- derives widely i s i n the from disseminated significance 61 The Church on: a tradition the five science there Fathers of n a t u r a l or f i n g e r s on which are the twelve signs the sixth hand; of day. W h e r e m o d e r n man him zodiac; relate C h r i s t was man saw a Resurrected other from the biblical traditions, tradition of The of day the was crucified the sixth world day. numbers, . 2 5 the the eighth Ark. day. other very Christ This and was •' numerological strongly to the ancient well. plenty For after already Hebrews: acquired i t was connotations the eighth purification 26 uncleanliness, of circumcision a f t e r b i r t h . E i g h t was a s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r i n t h e G r e c o - R o m a n as of of created relationship. number e i g h t number e i g h t had w h i c h was Pythagorean Resurrection. s a n c t i t y among t h e after on 15:17), Man combined w i t h r e l a t e d the the on as Babylonian to numbers. s u r v i v o r s on dead octaves and • There were e i g h t numbers (Genesis a mere c o i n c i d e n c e significant of numbers, such f r o m Ur • medieval teaching a s t r o l o g y , the the observes their elementary Abraham took w i t h numerology, a l l things on built Cicero fasting., of i t was humerus' p l e n u s , a perfect 27 number. sacred was Eight fountains also used columns and supported the funeral brothroi. f o r mausolea, which important b u i l d i n g types civilizations. canopy The over most octagonal i n turn•gave r i s e to 28 • • 2 9 i n Islamic and C h r i s t i a n form 62 Christian in the death t e c t u r e was and the baptism being a ritual r e s u r r e c t i o n of model the choseriifor the participation Lord, funerary archi- baptistery, especially 30 m post-Constantiman time that the f o n t s , had prevalent definite of found the St.. octagonal to Paul first around four the for some- form i n b a p t i s t e r i e s 31 Underwood, the of font b e e n known and meaning. number, e i g h t , w i t h i n the inscribed I t has symbolic According ing Italy. respect the of eight key to the to baptism, distichs S a i n t Ambroseds mean- is which were baptistery.of Thecla, at M i l a n . The- t e m p l e o f e i g h t n i c h e s ' r o s e ' up f o r h o l y use, The o c t a g o n a l f o u n t a i n i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h a t rite (baptism), I t was f i t t i n g t h a t the house of h o l y baptism r i s e up i n t h i s n u m b e r , By w h i c h , t r u e s a l v a t i o n r e t u r n e d t o m a n k i n d . With the l i g h t of C h r i s t r i s i n g again,oof C h r i s t who o p e n s t h e g a t e s o f d e a t h , And r a i s e s t h e dead f r o m t h e i r tombs And f r e e i n g c o n f e s s e d s i n n e r s f r o m t h e s t a i n of s i n , Cleanses them w i t h the w a t e r o f the pure-flowing font. 3 2 3 3 Even when l a r g e built as b a p t i s t e r i e s , the urrection atria of western their octagon b u i l d i n g s number i n i t s o c t a g o n a l early basilicas, manuscripts, Therefore, generally the saving speaking, b a p t i s t e r i e s were font shape. monastic assumed the association with octagonal baptismal ceased.to retained the Fountains in the fountains, and cloister octagonal waters i t would introduced be of shape through eternal seem t h a t res- life. round into C h r i s t i a n ar or 63 architecture and only after'the t h a t . they, d i d n o t 34 century. middle of the b e c o m e common u n t i l fourth the century, fifth. 64 • CHAPTER THE F O U N T A I N OF PRADO AND The that has has be never.been to modern c o n c e p t i o n scriptural fountains and or ance of sixteenth attempt w i l l ieval be concepts iconographic able to some o f to to these others both i s through title that refer, waters. way or another, of of Throughout demonstrate imagery formulate the various to the ways importand chapter i n which a major p o r t i o n of an medthe paintings. antiquarian a number o f antiquarians, the fifteenth this to Carolingian illuminations established prior The illustrative, examination operative Life, paintings, varied sources,"'" the i n E d e n as an one is interpretations same theme--The' F o u n t a i n , o f i t stood of established. i n one An prototypes. content the to the reconstruct relating attached of made t o From the t i t l e , ' Fountain clearly imagery of PAINTINGS knowledge manuscript century the LIFE: my living fountain of firmly passages Gothic 0BERLIN suitability come t o IV fountain Life. existed allegorical To in figure Eden, of 65 Christ the or Ecclesia. Sacred Christian In Synagogue the Fountain Fountain p a i n t i n g known o r t h e Triumph o f t h e Church (figure 38). of Living or Gospels. M e m o r i a l A r t Museum a t O b e r l i n , an H i s p a n o - F l e m i s h of Life f o rthe Virgin S c r i p t u r e s , especially" t h e Four 1952, t h e A l l e n Ohio, acquired Fountain To o t h e r s , i t s t o o d A near identical Over' t h e p a i n t i n g known as W a t e r , The M y s t i c o f G r a c e , now h a n g s as The • Fountain at the Prado and t h e Museum i n M a d r i d (figure 37). The P r a d o P a i n t i n g The P r a d o p a i n t i n g was b r o u g h t of s c h o l a r s i n 1 8 3 8. Lady a of E l Parral gift is by Henry probably Acquired one an to the attention I t had been i n t h e monastery near Segovia s i n c e i t s p r e s e n t a t i o n as 2 I V o f C a s t i l e , i n ' 1455 . the f i r s t by t h e Prado Flemish o f Our The P r a d o ' s painting to enter panel 3 Spain. i n 1 8 7 2 , i t was l o n g a t t r i b u t e d t o o f t h e V a n E y c k b r o t h e r s ; i t i s now considered 1 t o be by unknown f o l l o w e r o f Van E y c k . The O b e r l i n P a i n t i n g Late seen another chapel i n the eighteenth painting identical of the Cathedral century, to that of Palencia.^ Antonio Ponz h a d at E l Parral i n a The P a l e n c i a p a i n t - 66 ing in i s next Paris i n 1863. attributed on t o an the basis Oberlin work, by Now- a. F r e n c h m of external picture and current medieval at the and evidence. and i t is ca.150 0 The conception. as w e l l fifteenth i t century Fountain' of L i f e , iconography saw dated a mid-fifteenth i n technique end. o f t h e who collection, artist internal i s a copy o f understanding of the its•late art critic the O b e r l i n unknown S p a n i s h already archaic proper of mentioned as For the the c e n t u r y may a tradition concepts now be considered. : Subject of the The remind the one of the artist archaic g plays Van central and case Lamb. Apostle by altarpiece, the borrowed introduced. e a r t h were unknown from Celestial Jan the medlr r e p r e s e n t e d by two levels Jerusalem. Virgin contemplates' a passage on On were m u l t i - p u r p o s e p r o p s , the setting conventional set for miracle were i s flanked immediately Mystic Fountain r e l i e d paintings of the Ghent Eycks, latest towers enthroned of the Van elements stage'mansions" the the pictorial and painting U n l i k e the n a t u r a l i s t i c which stage heaven the that of the panel of the o f the. Prado's format; into Eyck's ieval format s u b j e c t p r o v i d e d by Flemish an s u b j e c t and Adoration of the of the Painting and this Christ St. John. i n h i s Book o f in The Revelation. 67 At C h r i s t ' s f e e t , a lamb r e p o s e s grotto, directly flowing through sit below, towers grasping terrestrial octagonal the a spring gives a clump on t h e f l o w e r y of grass. mead (figure important level there fountain. rise t o the stream 41), others angels grace the In the centre i s an e l a b o r a t e l y into dais:'. I n a Music-making scrolls. Numerous stream emptying on a s m a l l of the decorated, communion w a f e r s , b o r n e the basin, float by upon t h e w a t e r ' s •7 surface. much behind fittingly at twin occupies celestial through towers; and t e r r e s t r i a l Paradise must p a s s by t h e f o u n t a i n . o f the Saviour. representing through stands the church, i t of the vertical levels. . A Immed- tower and t h e f o u n t a i n the centre plane The s t r e a m i ti n order'to between flowing emerge the font. •' C o n t r a s t i n g on the throne the tabernacle aedicule with the tower.rises l a r g e r one crowns iately an A tabernacle groups f i l l " the t e r r e s t r i a l e i t h e r s i d e . '"At t h e L o r d ' s ranks, kneel ranks high priest bear scrolls hand, i n h i e r a r c h i c a l t h e C h r i s t i a n s l e d by t h e Pope Roman s o v e r e i g n Jewish right (figure 39). a r e i n d i s a r r a y and c o n f u s i o n . whose i n s c r i p t i o n s of the picture (figure 40). and t h e Holy B u t on t h e o t h e r b l i n d f o l d e d and h o l d i n g will space a broken clarify hand, the L e d by t h e lance, they t h e meaning 68 Scriptural The related of g e n e r a l theme o f t h e p a i n t i n g to the appropriate scriptural the inscriptions Fountain of Aliusions the picture present Imagery i s based c a n now b e source i n the painting i n John. and t h e import assesed. The A p o c a l y p t i c theme on R e v e l a t i o n 2 2 : 1 : T h e n t h e a n g e l s h o w e d me t h e r i v e r o f l i f e , r i s i n g f r o m t h e t h r o n e o f G o d a n d o f t h e Lamb a n d f l o w i n g c r y s t a l c l e a r down t h e m i d d l e o f t h e city•street. The Messiah, his of of life flows the Fountain of Life. Gospel, John and Jesus from t h e throne In the fourth use t h i s h i m s e l f and H i s M e s s i a n i c r o l e . and he river was r e t u r n i n g had these words to Galilee. of the chapter o f metaphor i n speaking Jesus had been b a p t i z e d Stopping a t Jacob's f o rthe Samaritan well, woman: Whoever d r i n k s t h i s w a t e r w i l l get thirsty again; b u t a n y o n e who d r i n k s t h e w a t e r t h a t I s h a l l g i v e w i l l never be t h i r s t y again;the water that I s h a l l give w i l l turn into a spring inside him, w e l l i n g up i n t o e t e r n a l l i f e . . , .. J o h n 4: 1 3 - 1 4 . This passage i s closely related to the following Revelation: I am t h e - A l p h a a n d t h e Omega, t h e B e g i n n i n g and t h e end. I w i l l give water from the w e l l o f l i f e t o a n y b o d y who i s t h i r s t y . Rev. 21:6 from 69 And again: T h e S p i r i t a n d t h e B r i d e s a y 'Come.' L e t e v e r y o n e who l i s t e n s a n s w e r 'Come. T h e n l e t a l l who a r e t h i r s t y c o m e : A l l who w a n t i t may h a v e t h e w a t e r o f l i f e , and have i t f r e e . Rev. 22:17 Inscriptions tower above verse f r o m t h e Song o f i n the P a i n t i n g . An t h e Hebrews h o l d s a b a n n e r 1 angel i n the inscribed with a Songs: F o u n t a i n t h a t makes t h e g a r d e n grow f e r t i l e , well of l i v i n g water, s t r e a m s f l o w i n g down f r o m L e b a n o n . S g . 4:15 • A Christian interpretation of this Messianic water. fountain, By extension, as t h e Body o f In by the.Jews lettering vivifying text t h e New sees Christ Israel with t h e image i s a p p l i e d as the living to the Church Christ. the o r i g i n a l were Prado p a i n t i n g inscribed with ( f i g u r e 42).: the banners meaningless Genuine H e b r e w was held pseudo-Hebrew substituted by 8 the master of the Hebrew ing, copy. Although i n s c r i p t i o n s ' are s u b s t i t u t e d there From.such Flemish and Oberlin does a p p e a r t o be minor errors, i t i s possible artist was familiar with ecclesiastical a s s i s t e d by in translation. to imagine that a Jew paint- the c o n v e r s a n t i n Hebrew, According t o a. f a m i l i a r the remaining verses of a are i n f e r r e d from the quotation The text on i n the Oberlin errors the' C o n c o r d a n c e . ^ convention, authentic t h e pennant"'""'" h e l d of the by first the high line psalm alone.^ p r i e s t i s from 70 Chronicle lines 1:16:34,.and c a n b e f o u n d o f p s a l m s . 1 0 6 , 10 7 , 1 1 8 a n d .136. formula i n the I t i s a first stock of praise: It i s g o o d t o g i v e t h a n k s t o t h e Lord'-,", for h i s love endures'forever. C h r o n i c l e 1:16:34 Give In t h e l i g h t as repeated depicted thanks t o Yahweh, f o r he i s good his love i s everlasting. Psalms 106, 107, 118, . a n d 136 . of the situation and behaviour o f t h e Jews i n t h e p a i n t i n g and o f t h e g e n e r a l context of 12 the work, Psalm prefixed form 106 i s . p e c u l i a r l y with'the inscription, apt. The P s a l m i s "National Confession;" i t s i s that.of a collective entreaty: We h a v e s i n n e d q u i t e a s m u c h a s o u r f a t h e r s , We h a v e b e e n w i c k e d , we a r e g u i l t y ; ' Our, a n c e s t o r s i n : E g y p t n e v e r g r a s p e d t h e meaning o f o u r marvels. Ps. 106:6-7 They r e f u s e d a l a n d o f d e l i g h t , h a v i n g no f a i t h i n h i s p r o m i s e ; t h e y s t a y e d i n t h e i r camp a n d g r u m b l e d , they would n o t l i s t e n t o the Lord's v o i c e . Ps. 106:24-25 13 At the feet of the high priest the inscription reads: .. He h a s w o n a name b y h i s m a r v e l l o u s ' d e e d s ; the Lord i s gracious and compassionate. He g i v e s f o o d t o t h o s e w h o f e a r h i m , P s . I l l :'4-5 This the i s a reference i n terms o f m i r a c l e o f t h e manna a n d q u a i l s . ( E x . 1 6 : 1 4 ) . The of t o the E u c h a r i s t couched the Fourth t e x t on t h e b a n n e r t o t h e r i g h t Psalm: 1 1 4 i s a fragment 71 ...more j o y t o my h e a r t t h a n o t h e r s f o r a l l t h e i r corn and wine. In peace i l i e . . . Ps. The importance picture preted quotation i s not clear. Perhaps to-Jews because By millenium Old in i n the context the verse of their may of of the be inter- reproach reputed wealth by C h r i s t i a n s . •' Confrontation a knew, 4:7-8 as an a h t i - S e m e t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n addressed envious of this ever o f Church t h e end o f t h e Middle of scriptural Numerical Ages, after exegeses, every Testament had been r e l a t e d t h e New. a n d S y n a g o g u e ,. as a t y p e coincidences, more detail o f some antitheses, than of the element similarities 15 and parallels Adoration of a l l kinds had been noted. Thus, m o f t h e ' Lamb b y J a n , V a n E y c k , t h e A p o s t l e s complemented by t h e i r O l d Testament the are counterparts, the Prophets. The trasted C h u r c h was u s u a l l y complemented by, o r con- t o t h e Synagogue. The c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w e r s of C h r i s t and Moses i n the' F o u n t a i n in the p i c t o r i a l by the a l l e g o r i c a l the a convention of Life of the crucified f i g u r e s o f t h e Church face averted, Lord, flanked and t h e Synagogue, former r e c e i v i n g the blood, from t h e - s i d e c h a l i c e and t h e l a t t e r , has i t s o r i g i n of Christ i n b l i n d f o l d e d , and 72 holding a broken back the to l a n c e ' ( f i g u r e .43) . lance, of Longinus This, m o t i f and forward harkens t o the. b r o k e n -in lance of the high, p r i e s t This and tradition Synagogue becomes a development of Northern sculptural tation of C h r i s t i a n , and Kidson, d r e w my throughout of p e r s o n i f y i n g both I placing close do both Ecclesia perhaps and at Harmonious breathe Gothic facing use certain and the sculptural the Synagogue other On the particularly century. across prototypes, tradition, tradition in a of relatively a Church portal contrary, "statues Reims 1 Synagogue. the each confron- Germanic s c u l p t u r e , sculptural and the century thirteenth pattern, or Church in of. t h e m o t i f , becomes d i s c u s s i o n of Ecclesia motif thirteenth continued Jewish of cathedral, 9 of and Chartres." two the beautiful 47) figures at both sides, of the i n p r o p o r t i o n and century of Ecclesia and portal at SynBamberg, German t a s t e f o r G o t h i c s e n t i m e n t a l i t y . a stateliness and and Synagogue e x i s t e d at (figure represent The suggest i n Germany. The agogue twelfth the Ecclesia position originates fifth not a Life. frequently repeated a number o f establishing of juxtaposition Germany i n t h e i n a recent attention to formally of the iconography.- disseminated Dr. i n the: F o u n t a i n and austere Greek s t a t u e s Germanic t r a i t s balance i n movement, heroism despite the are mingled which fact with recall that a they both monumental 73 classicism. 45. a n d side 46) Two beautiful statues are,, l i k e , t h o s e of the portal. at with at about the difference is characteristic. bourg are i n France, gesting, a classical sense of the conception i n the this in Italian sculpture of the of the influence of Giovanni (figure 46) Fountain of to the Life, the both stand occur motifs. In both Fountain of personified bourg and retain Life, as the conclude On this Synagogue, t h e r e f o r e , , by in the sug- Perhaps i t manifested century from detail An century i s retained. lance tradition sculptural and and pictorial the Prado r e p r e s e n t i n g Synagogue i s the other hand, at both Strasfemale. confrontation of Ecclesia the illumination and interesting manuscript fifteenth a well defined tradition manuscript by Strasbourg fifteenth broken between the a male. Stras- developed Bamberg,'- S y n a g o g u e i s ; a y o u n g , b e a u t i f u l To existed Synagogue averted. the .figure at Pisano. i n the Regensburg they Yet bodies round.. iconographic b l i n d f o l d e d head does to.the thirteenth of priest similar personifications late figure high Both difference statues German r e a l i s m t h a t becomes Comparing either same t i m e , turn of their is way The more s l e n d e r , e l e g a n t , c l o s e r style on (figures t h e m somehow i n s p i r i t . their Gothic Strasbourg Bamberg, p l a c e d Executed seem a l s o c o n n e c t e d at and of the century, there juxtaposition sculpture. and both 74 Eucharistic A s p e c t s , i n the' P a i n t i n g Just Middle Ages as interpretation fathers, the so of they patristic potent the the also as accepted, the of the replacing organization seems t o fourth division the gives i t to doctrine It the i s not of but the at e f f i c a c y of and Jewish diverse John's Life." d o e s -so b y theme o f elements comparing of from that a ritual of re-enactment i t only of the the served anti-Eucharistic to find passion to precise, most bread and that and increase malevolence on of an Gospel The basis the book Feasts. "Another the "He not Christian and contrast- taught (Jn. the this 6:59). rejection i t s form allegorical death of Christian belief, i n part of medieval changed sacrificial the for The chapter f a m i l i a r to Eucharistic- liturgy meal to of i t with Indeed, I s r a e l , ' , a theme As Church Christian is entitled exposition Passover. C h r i s t i a n s .' the Its sixth surprising, therefore, by such The Passover. Liturgical Gospel 2 2 thorough Jewish the Jewish of the the Eucharist. Capernaum, in- the.Synagogue" Eucharist Lord, the the the Bread a very Eucharist, ing m have been the Passover, only of by 20 J o h n i s d o m i n a t e d by Passover, allegorical e v e n made m o r e • transubstantiated St. the and water of baptism • wine the. Scriptures, elaborated i n c u l c a t i o n of symbols followed of the Jews.' the 75 In piety view flourishing Fountain of Life relationship have a t t h e end and l e d one Christi popular mention the Eucharistic the Eucharist. contemporary developments idolatrous and have practice Grail painting cults of of the Precious Blood: amazed t h e c c a n n o t be legend of the close It is Nevertheless, the of Christ), the . conception of the to the a l lbut devotionsswhich would These r e l i g i o u s to than to expect. (Body of the of the Middle Ages, B a p t i s m and patristic owes i t s e x i s t e n c e Corpus extremes presents a lofty between more b i b l i c a l would o f the errant as Apostles. examined a here, save contributing 23 factor to the The Of basic and of the Precious Blood. Baptismal Aspect a l lthe n a t u r a l most u n i v e r s a l symbolisms. tuality cult The waters from which integrating have a l l forms C o n t a c t w i t h , t h e w a t e r .has m it, d e a t h ; and This the Pauline epistle view phenomena, w a t e r has element signified a arise a l l must and of Baptism i s most c l e a r l y the religious formlessv i r - meant d i s s o l u t i o n ; . . . emersion, p u r i f i c a t i o n doctrine, in been and ultimately return. immersion . regeneration. based expressed i n St. upon Paulis t o t h e . Romans: Know y e n o t 5 t h a t s o many o f u s a s w e r e b a p t i z e d i n t o Jesus C h r i s t were b a p t i z e d unto h i s death? 2 76 T h e r e f o r e we a r e b u r i e d w i t h h i m b y b a p t i s m u n t i l . death:. t h a t l i k e as C h r i s t was r a i s e d from t h e dead b y t h e g l o r y o f t h e F a t h e r , e v e n -so we a l s o s h o u l d w a l k i n n e w n e s s o f life. Romans 6:3-4 The' F o r m o f t h e ' F o u n t a i n The a l lbut universal t h e M i d d l e Ages was t h a t Baptismal III, of Church i n Rome. the illumination font. plinth. i n Chapter the first font t o be r e c o g n i z e d o c c u r r e d i n 435 A.L., w i t h i n t h e The i n s c r i p t i o n i n d e c i d i n g t h e date baptismal on a r e c r e a t e t h e image o f a fons' v i t a e . the Fountain o f Life useful o f a basin supported c a n be no doubt t h a t Lateran o f baptismal font i n t y p e s , as I have a l r e a d y s t a t e d symbolically There as font type of origin o f t h e fons. v i t a e bears evidence and t h e provenances i n i t s g u i s e as a Accordingly, the verses read: The---city,. a p e o p l e ' t o b e c o n s e c r a t e d , h e r e s p r i n g s i n t o being from f r u i t f u l seed: which t h e S p i r i t b r i n g s f o r t h from impregnated waters. Be d i p p e d i n t h e . s a c r e d s t r e a m , 0 s i n n e r c a l l e d t o p u r i t y : ' whom t h e w a t e r w i l l r e c e i v e o l d , b u t b r i n g f o r t h new. T h e r e i s n o d i s t i n c t i o n among t h o s e b o r n a g a i n , whom o n e f o n t , . o n e S p i r i t , o n e f a i t h make one.. F r o m h e r v i r g i n a l womb M o t h e r C h u r c h g i v e s b i r t h i n t h e s t r e a m t o h e r c h i l d r e n , whom s h e c o n c e i v e s t h r o u g h t h e b r e a t h o f God. Wouldst thou be pure, cleanse t h y s e l f i n t h i s • b a t h , w h e t h e r t h o u a r t o p p r e s s e d by. o r i g i n a l s i n o r t h i n e own g u i l t . . This i s t h e f o u n t a i n o f l i f e , which purges t h e w h o l e w o r l d , t a k i n g i t s c o u r s e f r o m t h e wound of Christ. 77 Hope Let f o r t h e K i n g d o m o f H e a v e n , y e who a r e r e b o r n i n t h i s f o n t ; t h e b l e s s e d l i f e does n o t a c c e p t t h o s e who a r e b o r n o n l y o n c e . n o t t h e number o r t h e k i n d o f h i s s i n s f r i g h t e n anyone; born o f t h i s stream he w i l l be h o l y . 2 It s h o u l d be c l e a r concerned 6 that the inscriptions w i t h the concept But the less chosen by t h e a r t i s t image t o t a k e for of o f b a p t i s m as a specialized form rebirth. of the o f the' F o u n t a i n o f L i f e on a b r o a d e r associated with baptism, reflecting are- o v e r w h e l m i n g l y significance. i s also the octagonal dais fountain enabled the The octagon, a paradisial, motif, f o r the Lord's throne and t h e Lamb . The Significance The structure c o l o u r e d marble but Van E y c k ' s g i v e n way of the Tabernacle of the fountain with inset follows that brass hydrant o f t h e Ghent panels altarpiece, w i t h i t s gargoyle spouts t o a tabernacle tower. has The t a b e r n a c l e c r o w n e d E u c h a r i s t i c - c u s t o d i a o f G o t h i c C h u r c h e s was a feature of 27 font lids ples, i n Northern i t w a s :a s i g n Europe of phoenix, Christ, symbols signify 44). In both o f the sacramental presence On t h e t a b e r n a c l e , t h e c a r v e d the (figure figures of the sacrifice that the fountain, of Christ. of the pelican and both exam- and resurrection B a p t i s m a l and Eucharistic , i s the dwelling place of Christ He w i l l make h i s home a m o n g t h e m . Rev. 21:3 among men: 78 Baptism the monster ological a part of the theme.. Ritual descent resurrection, vices fonts as the of Christ retains in. i t s disregard for the Messianic Aspect i t s integrating d i v i n e " -1'ife a p p e a r s and epiphanies of the a vehicle and the Conflict this 28 The water seen of as victor- i n the of • virtues medieval as of a the consonat,. Baptism. a medium various a life-giving as his battle in' connection with Spirit; and confrontation sacred r i t e as forms a re-enact- m o t i f on c o u l d be role, combat element decorative The as abyss mythic ritual. divine: of the Holy of this the with encountered' myth- Baptism into and' J e w s , t h e r e f o r e , the God, rites . a n n a t u r a l consequence. In as Combat. re-enactment b e c a m e .a f a m i l i a r Christians ant, Ritual deep i s a f r e q u e n t l y exorcisms- prominent and the o f many i n i t i a t o r y ment o f t h e ious and of functions fluid; W i s d o m , Law, World of Messiah. I f a n y man i s t h i r s t y , l e t h i m come t o me. . L e t t h e man come a n d d r i n k who believes i n me! As t h e s c r i p t u r e s a y s : From h i s breast s h a l l flow fountains of l i v i n g . water. J o h n 7:37-8 The", h i s t o r i c a l Jesus context of this i s most i n s t r u c t i v e . section o f John's Gospel pronouncement I t i s recorded i n the devoted to the activity by fifth of Jesus 79a during the Feast of Tabernacles. 29 I t was a f a l l h a r v e s t f e s t i v a l w i t h p r a y e r s f o r r a i n as e n j o y e d upon t h e I s r a e l i t e s by Z e c h a r i a h . 30 Zechariah Not only tural the i s the fourteenth chapter source f o r John twenty-second 14:18 of Zechariah the scrip- 7:38, i t i s a l s o t h e b a c k g r o u n d f o r chapter of Revelation. F o u n t a i n Imagery and t h e A n c i e n t C e l e b r a t i o n of the Feast o f the Tabernacle Each ritual day o f t h e f e s t i v a l : 31 the pool of. S i l o a m . pitcher with water, Temple which • While the choir the Priest filled a sang: And y o u w i l l draw w a t e r j o y f u l l y springs of salvation. I s i a h 12:13 The saw a p r o c e s s i o n down t o t h e f o u n t a i n o f G i h o n supplied golden at Jerusalem from t h e i s associated with the fountain i n Ezekiel: He b r o u g h t me b a c k t o t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e T e m p l e , w h e r e a s t r e a m came o u t f r o m u n d e r t h e Temple t h r e s h o l d . Ezekiel Since t h e Temple h a d b e e n d e d i c a t e d on t h e F e a s t Tabernacles, with Jesus 47:1 i t was h o n o u r e d t h e f o u n t a i n o f Gihon. spoke fountain during the f e s t i v i t i e s I t s h o u l d be n o t e d o f h i m s e l f as t h e Temple Most important, of (John here along that 2:19-21). t h e M e s s i a n i c hope e x p r e s s e d i n i m a g e r y was t h e d o m i n a n t t h e m e o f t h e f e s t i v a l 80 at the time o f J e s u s , and remained 39 uries of cent- • thereafter. the Messiah so f o r s e v e r a l The p a i n t i n g expresses: t h e n o t i o n as Temple a c c o r d i n g t o t h e v e r s e s from R e v e l a t i o n 2 1 : 2 2 - 2 3: I saw no t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y ; f o r i t s t e m p l e was t h e s o v e r e i g n L o r d . God a n d t h e Lamb. Conclusions In the Eucharistic s h o u l d be n o t e d taught by John that aspect examined Christian Eucharistic i n a Jewish setting Jewish objections. Gospel i s i t s polemical attitude beyond a defense on Judaism, A conspicuous doctrine feature toward t h e Jews. to a pointed i n some i n s t a n c e s J u d a i c or a rabbinical Furthermore, the strength effectiveness Spain, all under religions It into of the painting scriptures. that attack pluralism, lies can be s e e n . f r o m sought.to this be f o r a (well therefore, t h e o l o g y , - i n t h e eyes 33 i n the when assimilate society. how p r e g n a n t could i f h e -were a c o n v e r s o I t i s well attack legal on J u d a i s m , a predominately Christian m e a n i n g the' F o u n t a i n o f L i f e especially I t goes mode o f a r g u m e n t a t i o n . o f i t s poignant religious over of the Fourth • principles was and undoubtedly of Christian•claims employing above, i t with Christian, versed) i nthe to remind•ourselves. o f t h o s e who commissioned this 81 picture, was an e x a c t symbolical paintings of defined rigidly compositions, science. are l i k e l y dogmas and w i l l Hence, t h e o l o g i c a l and t o be e x a c t or ideas only representations rather than be u n d e r s t o o d by fanciful those 34 acquainted • that with these T h e ob j e c t i v i t y ' o f t h e p a i n t i n g s t r o n g l y a systemized individual, polemical dogmas o r i d e a s . who p r o g r a m m e was d i c t a t e d by a chose t h e s u b j e c t effectiveness. •5 suggests learned p r i m a r i l y f o ri t s 82 CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS The fountain maintains'its physical our desire modern function, that for.water. fountain relationship entirely primary as an image o f any g i v e n with aesthetic of satisfying our I t i s not surprising to designers a less society replacing t h e human f u n c t i o n a l aspect, that find physical o f an motivation.. ...Fountains, i n that they contain not only the a r c h i t e c t u r a l • a n d s c u l p t u r a l elements appealing to t h e e y e , a l s o c o n t a i n t h e animate and o f t e n dynamic element o f water... appealing t o t h e e a r as w e l l as t o t h e y e y e . . . a n d p e r h a p s to. s o m e t h i n g d e e p e r as w e l l . l W h a t we h a v e w i t n e s s e d throughout 'of t h e f u n c t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n major tends the acting former becoming visually paper of fountains. d i f f e r e n c e between medieval therefore, this t o be i n t h e i r i s a Perhaps t h e and modern nature of study fountains, functionalism, as a c a t a l y s t o f a s o c i e t y , t h e l a t t e r aesthetically oriented i n a new trad- ition . One m u s t k e e p aesthetic i n mind that t r a d i t i o n a l i s m developed this idea throughout o f an. the Middle 83 Ages as t h e p l a s t i c direction. The F o n t e M a g g i o r e functional highly part a r t s moved aspects conceived i n a classically exemplifies inspired not only the o f f o u n t a i n s , b u t a l s o b y means s c u l p t u r a l program, i t f u l f i l l s of fountain d u a l i t y — t h a t of achieving of a t h e second aesthetic effectiveness. In literature, o r perhaps more Italian literature, t h e f o u n t a i n was in•very generalized terms; 1. a fact explicitly, invariably presented reflecting: The c h a r a c t e r o f language 2. The w e i g h t tradition. 3. The m e d i e v a l as an artistic expression. Language of any g i v e n niques required cadence craft. ness of traditionally o f speech the visual The n a t u r e and determinent associated t h e sounds with properties of the techof motifs i t . and meanings The poet o f words, and t h e i n h e r i t e d c o n v e n t i o n s n o v e l i s t , working of h i s world, o f words reality. t o shape i t and o f t h e k i n d The I t a l i a n immediacy of as a Medium. n o v e l i s t works w i t h the view medium a r e a m a j o r w h i c h become or of and t h e i r was content evocative ofhis i n the timeless with the resonance. appearance o f a p a r t i c u l a r manifolddrichThe recording t h i n g was a matter 3 thought best The left to sculptors, painters Weight c u l t u r e was. v i s i b l e of Tradition. i n the ruined and a r c h i t e c t s . The g h o s t of classical monuments, b u t i t was 84 everywhere court, audibly present chancery surprising Certain and u n i v e r s i t y . that the Middle of the great models literary earliest Therefore, Ages, l i v i n g of the past, of i n the after of the heart's presence originality. century. of the fountain tradition as t h e g a r d e n s p o t church, i t i s not d i d not value topics recur, century appearance literature i n t h e spoken word The i n Western desire, of 4 life The after locus romances poetry, and death, i s m amoenus enjoyed Homer's of Latin a great especially great e p i c , t h e Odyssey. pastoral poetry and vogue i n m e d i e v a l after the eleventh chivalric prose century. and Latin The tree meadow, s p r i n g a n d b r o o k , b i r d s a n d f l o w e r s , s h a d e a n d g e n t l e breeze.. w e r e i t s f a m i l i a r elements evoke a c e r t a i n quality of experience the particulars of a place. was a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by t h e t r a d i t i o n a l T h e new images, o f which the n a t u r a l world reflection more t h a n to describe vernacular literature was topics, ideal only obscure an i n a pond o r "mirror. The idealism intending to Medieval dominated View o f R e a l i t y . the outlook Platonic of the Middle Ages due R largely nature the was ideal, years can t o the influence o f Augustine. regarded Everything i n as a c o p y , more o r l e s s an a t t i t u d e w h i c h o f the Renaissance. perfect, of survives throughout The p e r v a s i v e n e s s be d i s c e r n e d i n t h e f r e q u e n t speculum . ( m i r r o r ) i n book t i t l e s the early o f any image appearance o f t h e word and i t s r e - o c c u r r i n g use 85 as a literary f i g u r e by medieval and Renaissance w r i t e r s . Omnis m u n d i c r e a t u r a quasi l i b e r et pietura nobes e s t i n speculum, nostre v i t a e , nostre sortis nostre status, nostre mortis f i d e l e signatum.8 Little ural the s t r e s s was p l a c e d spring and a r t i f i c i a l same i d e a l fons. of their of the qualities ed, reality. rather instance. fountain since between they The a r t i s t saw t h e f o u n t a i n i n terms o f t h e appearances With t h e advent of a the metaphysical mirror visual image was f i n a l l y • The Fonte The importance o f today, Maggiore o f t h e Fonte' M a g g i o r e gives one a f a i r indication ofthe throughout t h e c l o s i n g d e c a d e s .of t h e t h i r t e e n t h only civic does a structure to the. o f such the fountain activity, the'' M i d d l e ication values Ages. replaces held as a n image century. . P e r h a p s -the' v i s u a l particular designers. centre i t s sculptural s i g n i f i c a n c e o f an I t a l i a n i n this by modern transmitter r e t a i n - i t s f u n c t i o n as a i ta l s o r e l a t e s through program, t h e h i s t o r i c a l of particular o f t h e mode o f c o m p l e t e importance of reflect- aside. Perugians Not property o f t h e e t e r n a l model i t .obscurely i n terms nat- mirrored S e m b l a n c e was a n e s s e n t i a l than representation, set on t h e d i s t i n c t i o n commune' i m a g e o f commun- instance, the aesthetic 86 Ironically, people f o u n t a i n s a r e meant t o i n v i t e seem i r r e s i s t i b l y drawn towards fingers i n the cool water. without doubt observer by i s completely the iron ticipate cage most highly conceived shown i n relation intense systematic level. Every political, The figure, Italy, the antique Gothic par- immersion. of the fountain i s ornamentation. Man i s cycle of the earth. exists relief at a h i g h l y An organized and t h e h i s t o r i c a l relationship technique i n Italy o f t h e two P i s a n a highly stylized tempering from beyond evolved as an i n d e p e n d e n t the Alps. n o t as a d i a l e c t language w i t h o f i t s own. o f N i c o l a and G i o v a n n i , t h e new Therefore, Italian style s c u l p t u r e was to at which o f French under the In right, For t h i s a syntax, come o f a p e r s o n a l , s t r o n g l y d e f i n e d w i l l artists manner. e x i s t e d a s a f o r c e i n i t s own and t h e n southwards : to divulges the form o f a r t i n t o resisting vocabul'ary; of invited panel s.culptoral this filtered every the d e f i n e d e n c l y c l o p e d i c manner. brings first t o the cosmic formalism longer aspect sculptural the social in' a c l e a r l y but important Y e t , today removed from t h e f o u n t a i n i s no i n the natural pleasure The its One their attraction i s setting. physically fence. them to. d a n g l e Some o f t h i s a function of their contact; reason Gothic, grammar and initiation the form. out- 87 The' Fountain' The Oberlin opportunity orial exists ation imagery (figure 38), offers into a pictorial Renaissance o f the preceding a definite literary John's an of the Early organic The you painting source central motif see i n a book" graphic (Rev. 1:11). command shared that-the Fonte Mag'gdire a n d Fountain of Life, reach a comparatively it The is that v i s u a l language capacity meanings resembled pictorial of verbal language John, setting apparently o f image unHis trans- Prado-Oberlin paralleled function. and i n c l u s i v e n e s s , s p e e c h upon o f the Fountain visual representation."^ propositions t e r m s was more d e m a n d i n g t h a t conventions. like of which e x t e n t . d e p e n d e n t . "^ o f a complete translation i n this f o rmultiple was t o a l a r g e down a l l t h e same p r e - r a t i o n a l o r i g i n s a s mission, archaic upon i n h i s medium. I t i s perhaps the There inspir- depends "write Jerusalem, b y any' l i m i t a t i o n s i n h e r e n t i t s capacity its The v i s u a l a r t i s t speech. In trad- centuries. transmitting c u l t u r e would have responded symbols to the older, of the fountain down h i s v i s i o n o f t h e H e a v e n l y troubled pict- medium. following o f the angel's archaic an t o c o m p a r e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e new language itional o f L i f e '. into i t s of Life Successful pictorial the use o f the t r a d i t i o n a l J a n Van Eyck h a d s u c c e e d e d i n giving pictorial 88 expression to. S t . J o h n ' s vision, painter, o f t h e O b e r l i n and Prado fusion is o f tongues and is definition reduced determinate ation on t h e i m a g e - s i g n . space. imagery imposing The t i m e l e s s of a particular T h e mode o f c o m p l e t e i s fundamentally theme. The diminished i n the process t h e medium n e c e s s a r i l y to a facsimile capable pictures, betrays the i n a t t e m p t i n g t h e same nevertheless inevitably materialization, but the less conimage of i t sbias image object i n a visual represent- a t odds w i t h t h e p r o c e s s of archaic expressing i t s e l f i n myth and allegory. FOOTNOTES INTRODUCTION 1 W i l l i a m Fleming, A r t , Music 19 70 ) , p . 1 2 5 . and Ideas (New Y o r k : 2 B a l d w i n Smith,' A r c h i t e c t u r a l Symbolism o f I m p e r i a l Rome and' t h e M i d d l e A g e s ( P r i n c e t o n , N . J . : 19 56 ) , p . 5"! see pp. 3 To u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n c e p t K e n n e t h B o u l d i n g ' s ' The Image 45-46. o f image f o r m u l a t i o n , ( A n n A r b o r , M i c h i g a n : 19 6 1 ) 4' I b i d . , p . 47 5 Ibid., p . 5 8. 6 I.A. T a y l o r , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l Aspects o f V i s u a l Communications," S y m b o l o g y (New Y o r k : 1 9 6 0 ) , p p . 1 2 4 - 2 5 . 7 B o u l d i n g , op. c i t . , p. 70. CHAPTER I 1 H.V. M o r t o n , p. 1 7 . 2 T h e W a t e r s ' o f Rome (London: 1966), Ibid. 3 Ibid_._ Although this psychological appeal o f fount a i n s i s p r e d o m i n a t e l y a Renaissance and Baroque concept, i t c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e Middle Ages. 4 Bacon's quote may b e f o u n d i n Morton,' i b i d . , p. 17. 90 5 There a r e a number o f e x c e l l e n t r e f e r e n c e s f o r an exhaustive study of fountains i n - a n t i q u i t y . See p a r t i c u l a r l y ; G i u s e p p i U n g a r i e t t i , F o n t ahe d ' I t a l l a ( R o m e : 1 9 6 7 ) , a n d F e d e r i c o M a s t r i g l i , A c q u a A c q u e d o t t x e F o n t a h e d i Roma (Rome: 192 8 ) . 6 A s a n e x a m p l e ; D a n i e l W i a l e y , The' I t a l i a n C i t y R e p u b l i c s ( T o r o n t o : 1969), pp. 58-59; c i t e s a number o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s showing t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e f o u n t a i n and i t s p r o x i m i t y t o such s t r u c t u r e s as t h e P a l a z z o R e p u b l i c o o r t h e Duomo. H i s p h o t o g r a p h i c example shows t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e f o u n t a i n a t Beyagna t o i t s major c o u n t e r p a r t , t h e Palazzo d e i Consoli. 7 I do n o t f e e l i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d w e l l o n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e f o u n t a i n i n t h e a n i | t : q u e . Roman h y d r a u l i c s i i s t h o r o u g h l y c o v e r e d b y V i t r u v i u s , De • a r c h i t t e t u ' r a , B o o k V I I I , C h a p t e r V I , ( S e e A p p e n d i x C ) . See a l s o t h e . t w o e x c e l l e n t monographs d e a l i n g ' w i t h t h e problem o f w a t e r s y s t e m s i n t h e a n t i q u e ; B. D u n k l e y , " G r e e k F o u n t a i n B u i l d i n g s B e f o r e 30 0 B . C . " , B r i t i s h S c h o o l a t A t h e n s „.( L o n d o n : 19 3 9 ) V o l . 3 6 . , p p . 1 4 2 - 2 0 4 ; J a n e M a y n a r d , B e r n i n i ' s F o u n t a i n s , M.A. T h e s i s ( U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a : September 1967). see 8 F o r an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s t y p e o f Greek B. D u n k l e y , o p . c i t . , p . 15 5, p l a t e 4. fountain 9 W i l l i a m Heywood, A H i s t o r y o f P e r u g i a (London: 1 9 1 0 ) , pp. 3 57-8. In this particular Instance, there i sa.duration of t w e n t y - s i x years from t h e f o u n t a i n s c o n c e p t i o n and t h e u l t i m a t e p h y s i c a l entry o f t h e f i r s t drops o f water i n t o the c i s t e r n . 10 P l i n y , ' N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , e d . b y D.E. (London: 1962), x x x v i , pp. 121-22. Eichholtz 11 V i t r u v i u s , T h e T e n B o o k s o n A r c h i t e c t u r e , t r a n s . b y M.H. M o r g a n . ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : 19 26 ) V I I I , C h a p t e r V I , pp. 244-248. 12 P r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n d i g e n o u s t o t h e f o r m o f t h e c o l u m n a r f o u n t a i n made t h i s t y p e d i f f i c u l t t o a b a n d o n , f o r i t s ' i n s t a l l a t i o n provided- easy access t o t h e d r i n k i n g water. 13 W i l b u r S c h r a m m , Mas's C o m m u n i c a t i o n s 1960), p. 115. 14 Ibid. (Urb.anna, Illinois: 91 15 ' I b i d . , p . 116 16 T h e r e e x i s t s a p r o l i f e r a o f m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h i p o n the subject o f Manuscript I l l u m i n a t i o n . To m e n t i o n o n l y a few: J.A. Herbert,' I l l u m i n a t e d M a n u s c r i p t s (London: 1911) 2nd. e d . ; B. S m a l l e y , T h e S t u d y o f t h e ~ B i b l e i n t h e M i d d l e Ages ( O x f o r d : 1 9 4 1 ) ; L o u i s Reau,' H i s t o i r e de l a P e i n t u r e au Mbyeh Age: l a M i n i a t u r e (Meluin: 1946 ) ; K u r t W e i t z m a n n , The N a r r a t i v e i n t h e L i t u r g i c a l G o s p e l I l l u s t r a tions: N e W ~ T e s t a m e n t M a n u s c r i p t s ( C h i c a g o : 19 5 0 ) ; TT. D i r i n g e r , T h e I l l u m i n a t e d Book": I t s H i s t o r y and Product i o n ( L o n d o n : .,1967 ) 2 n d . e d . ; a n d D. B l a n d , A H i s t o r y ' o f B o o k I l l u s t r a t i o n s ( L o n d o n : 19 5 8 ) . 17 P.H. B r i e g e r , " B i b l e I l l u s t r a t i o n a n d G r e g o r i a n Reform," Studies i n Church H i s t o r y (1965), I I , p. 155. 18 P a u l U n d e r w o o d , " T h e F o u n t a i n o f L i f e i n M a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e G o s p e l s , " D u m b a r t o n Oaks P a p e r s (Camb r i d g e , M a s s . : 19 5 0 ) V, p . 4 9 . 19 S e e : K u r t (19593. 20 K u r t (Princeton, Weitzmann, Ancient Book Weitzmann, I l l u s t r a t i o n s N . J . : 1 9 7 0 ) , p. 132. ; Illumination i n Roll and Codex ~~ 21 From t h e C a r o l i n g i a n p e r i o d o n w a r d , M o n a s t i c s c r i p t o r i u m s were founded, w i t h t h e intentstabove a l l , to copy a n c i e n t m a n u s c r i p t s , and t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n o f 3 s a c r e d t e x t s g r e w t o b e a new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h o s e texts. D a v i d D i r i n g e r ' s The I l l u m i n a t e d Book: I t s H i s t o r y and P r o d u c t i o n , d i v i d e s t h e v a r i o u s monastical i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t o d i f f e r e n t schools of production. 22 W a l t e r L o w r i e , A r t i n t h e E a r l y 1 9 4 7 ) , p . 200 . • 23 I b i d . , p . Church (New York: 201 24 H a n n s S w a r z e n s k i , ' E a r l y (New Y o r k : 19 5 1 ) , p . 1 0 . Medieval Illustrations 2 5 S t e p h e n S c h e r , The R e n a i s s a n c e o f t h e T w e l f t h C e n tury (Providence, R h o d e I s l a n d : 19 69 ) , p . 6~~j a l s o H a s k i n s Renaissance o f the Twelfth Century (Cambridge, Mass.:1927), p. 1 1 . 26 H a n n s p. S w a r z e n s k i , b p . "ext. , p. 27 A n d r e L e j a r d , ' A r t o f t h e F r e n c h 9-11.. 10. Book (Paris: 1947), 92 Age 2 8 E m i l e M a l e , ' L ' A r t R e l i g i e u x de l a f i n d u Moy'an en France ( P a r i s : 1922) 2nd e d . ; p. 312. 29 A c c o r d i n g t o Kurt Weitzmann s I I 1 u s t r a t i o n s 1n R o l l and Codex: A Study o f t h e O r i g i n and Method o f T e x t I l l u s t r a t i o n ( P r i n c e t o n , N . J . : 1970), p. 104; t h e u l t i m a t e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f a r t i s t i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n manus c r i p t t r a d i t i o n was t h e c r e a t i o n o f a " s i n g l e p i c t u r e w h i c h f i l l e d a f u l l page. Figure 3 belongs t o the Godescale G o s p e l s , c a . 781-83, P a r i s B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e . Andre L e j a r d , ( A r t o f t h e F r e n c h B o o k , p . 9, p i . 1 5 , m a i n t a i n s t h a t f i g u r e 2 belonged t o Charlemagne's s o n , Louis t h e Pious. I t represents a section o f a very b e a u t i f u l Gospel-book w h i c h he p r e s e n t e d t o t h e Abbey o f S a i n t Medard, i n S o i s s o n s , on t h e o c c a s i o n o f h i s v i s i t t h e r e i n A.D. 8 2 7 . S e e a a l s o ; P a u l U n d e r w o o d , ' o p . c i t . , p l a t e 2 6 . 1 30 I n t h e c a s e o f t h e f o u n t a i n s i n t h e a r c h e s o f t h e Canon T a b l e s , s e v e n columns s u r r o u n d a c i r c u l a r ' p i s c i r i a , .or b a t h i n g b a s i n . 31 S t r z y g o w s k i , " D e r P i n i e n z a p t e n a l s W a s s e r s p e i e r " , Romisches Jahrbuch f u r K u n s t g e s c h i c h t e (1903), x v i i , pT 1 9 9 . On t h e c o n t r a r y t o S t r z y g o w s k i * s a r g u m e n t , I f e e l t h e c r o s s - h a t c h e d a r e a marks t h e a c t u a l h e i g h t o f the b a s i n . A c c o r d i n g t o . t h e e i g h t c o l u m n s , i t w o u l d seem h i g h l y p o s s i b l e t o suggest t h e b a s i n represents t h e octagonal a l l u s i o n t o l i t u r g i c a l numerology. 32 I b i d . clarified m (New The t o p i c o f f o u n t a i n n u m e r o l o g y Chapter I I I . 33 G e o r g e F e r g u s o n , S i g n s Y o r k : 19 6 6 ) , p . 2 5 . 34 and Symbols shall be i n Christian Art U n d e r w o o d , op'." c i t . , p . 5 1 . 35 Paolo Lino Zovatto,' I I Mausoleo d i G a l l a ( R a v e n n a : 19 6 8 ) , p . 7 8 , p i . 2 4 , ( f i g u r e 4 ) . Placidia 36 B r i t i s h M u s e u m G u i d e t o t h e E a r l y C h r i s t i a n a n d B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i t i e s (London: 1921), p. 79, p i . 49. 3 7 C.R. D o d w e l l , 19 7 1 ) ,. p . .20 7 . Painting i n Europe 80 0-120 0 (London: 93 CHAPTER I I 11 S u s a n n e E t i e n e , 1961), p. 125. e d . R e f l e c t i o n s ' o n A r t (New York: 2 G i u s t a N i c c o F a s o l a , L a F o n t a n a d i ' P e r u g i a (Rome: 19 5 1 ) , p . 1 1 ; a n d A . V e n t u r l ' , S t o r i a d e l l ' a r t e I t a l i a n a , V o l . 4 ( N e n d e l n : . K r a u s e R e p r i n t o f 19 0 6 e d . ; 1 9 6 7 ) p p . 1 2 27. 3 Fasola, i b i d . , notes that f o l l o w i n g the various natu r a l d i s a s t e r s t o t h e f o u n t a i n , i t was i n c o r r e c t l y r e s t o r e d i n 1471-and r e c o n s t r u c t e d p r o p e r l y i n 1948-9. Therefore, t h e f o u n t a i n a s we v i e w i t t o d a y , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , represents the thirteenth version. 4 A c c o r d i n g t o John W h i t e , . A r t and A r c h i t e c t u r e i n I t a l y 12 5 0 - 1 4 0 0 ' ( M i d d l e s e x : 19 6 6 ) , p . 40 3; t h e b a p t i s m a l f o n t I n San F r e d i a n o a t L u c c a i s a c l o s e r p a r a l l e l t o t h e Perugian type, than the Monreale fountain. 5 I b i d . , p. 5 1 . See a l s o ; T o e s c a , S t o r i a d e l l ' a r t e I t a l i a n a (Turin:1913), p . 7 1 4 a n d f i g u r e s 45 8 a n d 4 59 f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f the Monreale fountain. 6 For a complete compilation o f t h e H i s t o r y r e l a t i n g to' G a l a s e e ; A n n H a n s o n , J a c o p o d e l l a Q u e r e l a ' s F o n t e G _ a i j r ~ T O x f o r d : 19 6 5 ) . 7 Bertha Wiles, and T h e i r F o l l o w e r s , Mass.:1933), p.3. Fountains' o f F l o r e n t i n e Sculptures from Donatello t o B e r n i n i A Cambridge, 1400 8 John White,' A r t and A r c h i t e c t u r e "in I t a l y ( M i d d l e s e x : 1 9 6 6 ), p.30. tion 9 G.H. C h r i c h t o n , N i c o l a P i s a n o , p . 9 5 . E a c h i n s c r i p i s : i n ' t h e f o r m a f a p o e m s e t up i n h e x a m e t e r v e r s e . 10 G e o r g S w a r z e n s k i , N i c o l o P i s a n o : P l a s t i k ( F r a n k f u r t : 1 9 2 6 ) , p. 43. 11 refers Meister 12 5 0 - der Vasari's mention o f a " f r i a r o f the S i l v e s t r i n i , " t o Fra Bevignate o f the Benedictine order. 12 G i o r g i o V a s a r i , ' L i v e s o f t h e P a i n t e r s , S c u l p t o r s ' a n d A r c h i t e c t s , e d . b y W i l l i a m G a u n t ( L o n d o n : 1 9 6 3) , p . 4 6 . 94 in 13 K. H o f f m a n - C u r t i s , ' Das' - P r o g r a m der. F o n t a n a P e r u g i a ( D u s s e l d o r f : 19 6 8 ) , 8~! Maggiore 14 N i c c o F a s o l a , ' L a F o n t a n a de P e r u g i a , p . 5 9 . He l i s t s , i n chronological order a l l a r c h i v a l material r e l a t i n g t o p a y m e n t o f c o m m i s s i o n s and m a t e r i a l s . Ample d o c u m e n t a t i o n h e l p s one t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o m p l e x i t y of p e r s o n a l i t i e s and m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e s n e e d e d t o c o m p l e t e the p r o j e c t . For example: Anno 1 2 8 1 . . . " I t e m d e d i t Pucio M a f e y de c i v i t a t e a r e t i n a p r o b p e r e q u o d f e c i t i n l e o n e e t g r i f o n e p o s t i s ad f o n t e m , p r o mercede s u a . . . V e n e r d i 7 marzo." 15 C.W. Orton, ed., "Twelfth Century to the V o l . I I . p p . 7 0 2 - 3 .. 16 17 J o h n W h i t e , bp-, Shorter Cambridge M e d i e v a l H i s t o r y R e n a i s s a n c e " ( C a m b r i d g e : 1958) , c i t . , p. 52. Ibid. 18 H e n r y O s b o r n T a y l o r , The M e d i e v a l M i n d ( L o n d o n : 19 3 8 ) , V o l . I I , p p . 3 4 5 - 3 5 2 . V i n c e n t c o m p i l e d the most famous o f t h e m e d i e v a l e n c y c l o p e d i a s , employing i n that l a b o u r , enormous n u m b e r s of- a s s i s t a n t s . His ponderous Speculum Majus i s drawn f r o m the most s e r v i c e a b l e contemporary scholastics.- Encyclopedias attempted to include a l l k n o w l e d g e , and s t i l l were i n f l u e n c e d i n t h e i r aim by'a r e l i g i o u s purpose. 19 John White, op. 20 Ibid., 51-2. pp. c i t . , p. 51. " 21 The o n l y p r o t o t y p e s of p o l i t i c a l sculpture i n I t a l y b e f o r e t h i s t i m e o c c u r s i n t h e Norman p r o v i n c e o f S i c i l y under the auspices of F r e d e r i c k I I . Here, the emphasis i s on t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f Norman i m p e r i a l r u l e juxtaposed t o t h a t o f t h e C a e s e r o p a p i s t i c Roman p o r t r a i t u r e o f t h e f i r s t t h r o u g h t o t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s A.D.. tThe d e v e l opment o f N o r t h e r n t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a i t ure cameeabout p r i o r t o the i n i t i a t i o n o f I t a l i a n examples. As p o i n t e d o u t b y P e t e r K i d s o n , " T h i r t e e n t h C e n t u r y German S c u l p t u r e a t Bamberg, Naumburg and M a g d e b u r g , " l e c t u r e d e l i v e r e d 17 M a r c h 19 72 , a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ; German s c u l p t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Naumburg, i n c l u d e d a vast p r o l i f e r a of character portrayals. A very important e x a m p l e of. t h i s t y p e i s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f E k k e h a r d and Uta (ca. 1250-60). F o r e x a m p l e s s e e ; H.W. Janson, Key M o n u m e n t s ' o f t h e H i s t o r y o f A r t (New Y o r k : 19 59 ) , p p . 4 8 889. I t I s p e r h a p s b y way o f n o r t h e r n r e a l i s m t h a t G i o v a n n i Pisano i n p a r t i c u l a r i n h e r i t e d within his sculpture, a sense of humanistic n a t u r a l i s m . 95 22 H.O. T a y l o r , dp . c i t . , V o l . I I , p. 2 3 G.H. O r i e n t oh.,•• d p '.' c i t . , p . 9 4.. 24 H.O. T a y l o r , dp'.' c t h i s m o t i f a p p e a r s on t h e d i r e c t connection between utilitarian fountain. See ( L o n d o n : 19 69 ) , p . 44. i t . , pp. 349.50. The c h o i c e o f F o n t e M a g g i o r e and r e f l e c t s t h e t h e b a p t i s m a l f o n t and the Michel Ayrton, Giovanni' Pisano 2 5 C r i c h t o n , dp'.' c i t . , p , 26 345. 94. Ibid. 2 7 H e n r i F o c i l l o n , The A r t G o t h i c ' A r t ( L o n d o n : 196 3 ) , V o l . 2 8 Michel Ayrton, op. 29 J . S e z n e k , ' The1953 ) , p. 128. of the 1. , p . c i t . , p. West: 8. Romanesque and " 53. S u r v i v a l o f Pagan Gods,(New York: 30 A d o l f o V e n t u r i , ' S t o r i a D e l l ' A r t e I t a l i a n a , "La S c u l t u r a d e l T r e c e n t o " r e p r i n t o f 19 0 6 e d . (Nendeln: 1967 ) , p . 12. 31 Ibid. 32 Georgio V a s a r i , ' op. c i t . , p. 33 G i o r g i o V a s a r i , V i t e . 1 8 7 8 ) , p. 306. 34 C r i c h t o n , bp. 35 A. 36 C r i c h t o n , op. 37 G.N. 38 p. c i t . , p. V e n t u r i , bp. ed. Milanesi (Florence: 9 5. b i t . , p..16 c i t . , p. G. 46. . 95. F a s o l a , dp/.' c i t . , p . 59. Ibid. 39 G e o r g 55 . Swarzenski, N i c o l a Pisano: Meister der Plastik, 40 V a s a r i - M i l a n e s e , ' d p . c i t . , p p . 3 0 6 - 7 . Gives the d e a t h d a t e o f N i c o l a , 1 2 7 8 , i n h i s home t o w n o f P i s a . See a l s o Hans G r a b e r , N i c o l a P i s a n o ( S t r a s b u r g : 1 9 1 1 ) , p. 5 . 41 C r i c h t o n , ' bp. c i t . , p. 97. 42 I n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e . a g r e e m e n t . a n d d i v e r g e n c e o f o p i n i o n M. S a u e r l a n d , ' D i e B i l d w e r k e d e s G i o v a n n i P i s a n o (Dusseldorf: 1904), a t t r i b u t e s t h e bronze group t o Giovanni; whereas, Swarzenski gives i t t o N i c o l a . On t h e o t h e r hand, both agree i n a t t r i b u t i n g t h e " E c c l e s i a Romana" t o G i o v a n n i . Venturi, Giovanni Pisano (Bologna: 1928), a s c r i b e s t o Giovanni t h e Bronze group, t h e s t a t u e s o f t h e m i d d l e b a s i n a n d most o f t h e r e l i e f s on t h e l o w e s t basin, Nicola being responsible f o rthe rest. Sauerland, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , d e n i e s N i c o l a a n y s h a r e i n t h e r e l i e f s b u t sees h i s s t y l e i n a number o f t h e s t a t u e s , w h i l e he a t t r i b u t e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l and a l l e g o r i c a l panels t o Arnolfo. Swarzenski again excludes A r n o l f o from a l l p a r t i n t h e s c u l p t u r e and h i s o p i n i o n i n a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s i s c o n t a i n e d i n a few words on page 56: "Apart from exc e p t i o n s t h e s c u l p t u r e i s i n f a c t t h e common w o r k o f both sculptors. A t one p o i n t N i c o l a i s more p r o m i n e n t , at another Giovanni. The i n f l u e n c e o f G i o v a n n i i s more evident i n the r e l i e f s , that of Nicola i n the statues." 43 M o s t s o u r c e s a g r e e t h a t t h e s t a t u e r e f e r s t o Salome. S e e V e n t u r i , b p . c i t . ; F a s o l a , ' op,' c i t . ; a n d H o f f m a n - C u r t i s ,' b p . b i t . . T o b e J u d i t h a s s u g g e s t e d by J . W . C r u i c k s h a h k , U m b r l a h Towns ( L o n d o n : 1 9 1 2 ) , p . 84; the head w o u l d be c a r r i e d on a s i l v e r c h a r g e r . At the same t i m e • t h e r e s h o u l d b e some e v i d e n c e o f a s w o r d . The whole m a t t e r o f t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f each f i g u r e i n c o r r e c t i c o n o g r a p h i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s d e a l t w i t h by Erwin Panofsky, Studies i n Iconography (New Y o r k : 1967), p. 1 2 . 44 T h e o r i g i n a l griffins a r e now i n the Civic museum. 45 S e e , H o f f m a n - C u r t i s , Das P r o g r a m d e r F o n t a n a Maggiore i n P e r u g i a ; f o r a r e p r o d u c t i o n o f h e r diagrama t i c a l view o f t h e p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e v a r i o u s pieces o f t h e s c u l p t u r a l . p r o g r a m , s e e my A p p e n d i x "A." 46 T h e n u m e r i e a l l c i a s s i f i c a t i o n i n A p p e n d i x " B " i s t a k e n f r o m A y r t o n , G i o v a n n i P i s a h o , p p . 44 a n d 5 7 . By u s i n g a number system, t h e whole p r o g r a m c a n be seen i n r e t r o s p e c t when compared t o A p p e n d i x "A." 4 7 J.W. 48 49 Cruickshank,' op. c i t . , p. 87. Ibid. H.O. Taylor,' bp. b i t . , V o l . I , pp. 219-20. 97 50 . C r u i c k s h a n k , : op. c i t . , p. 88. 51 A c c o r d i n g t o C r i c h t o n ,'• N i c o l a - - P i s a n o , p . 1 0 1 , t h e f i r s t extant scenes o f t h e Vienna Genesis c o n t a i n t h e F a l l a n d E x p u l s i o n f r o m P a r a d i s e . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f Adam a n d E v e a p p e a r o n C h r i s t i a n s a c r o p h a g i ; s e e , CtaM. D a l t o n , B y z a n t i n e A r t a n d A r c h a e o l o g y ( O x f o r d : 1 9 1 1 ) , p . 19 3, p l a t e 116, f o r an example o f a s a r c o p h a g u s . With t h e r e v i v a l o f a r c h i t e c t u r e i n t h e t w e l f t h and t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e C r e a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d and t h e F a l l o f Man came t o b e common r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i n m o s a i c , a n i l l u s t r a t i o n w h i c h c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e Duomo a t Monreale, and i n t h e n o r t h p o r t a l s c u l p t u r e o f C h a r t r e Cathedral. F o r a n e x a m p l e , s e e A. G a r d n e r , M e d i e v a l S c u l p t u r e i n F r a n c e ( C a m b r i d g e : 19 3 1 ) , p . 2 5 3 , p l a t e s 2 50 a n d 2 5 2 . 5 2 P e r h a p s , E. P a n o f s k y ' s E a r l y N e t h e r l a n d i s h P a i n t i n g (New Y o r k : 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 1 3 8 ; i c o n o g r a p h i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a n be r e l a t e d t o t h e P e r u g i a n O l d T e s t a m e n t f i g u r e s - - S a m s o n slaying the P h i l i s t i n e s (prefiguring the triumph o f Christ o v e r s i n ) ; t h e d e a t h o f Samson . ( p r e f i g u r i n g t h e C r u c i f i x i o n ) ; and t h e v i c t o r y o f David over G o l i a t h (prefiguring Christ's victory over the Devil). 5 3 H.O. Taylor, op. c i t . , V o l . I I , p. 115. 54 T o t h e r e l a t i v e l y i n f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f the" months i n t h e e a r l y M i d d l e A g e s , t h e t w e l f t h century succeeds w i t h ' a wealth o f examples, e s p e c i a l l y , i n France and I t a l y — a n i n c r e a s e i n which t h e custom o f u s i n g t h e t h e m e i n s c u l p t u r e o n t h e p o r t a l s o f t h e many c h u r c h e s built during this period played a large part. See J . C . W e b s t e r , "The L a b o u r s o f t h e M o n t h s : i n A n t i q u e a n d M e d i e v a l A r t , " ' N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y S t u d i e s i n t h e H u m a n i t i e s , No. 4 ( 1 9 3 8 ) , p. 57. : 5 5 "The s i g n s o f t h e Z o d i a c , p r o c l a i m , a s t h e y do i n t h e f a c a d e s o f . s o many - c a t h e d r a l s a n d a b b e y c h u r c h e s , t h a t t h e K i n g o f ' K i n g s r u l e s t h e p h y s i c a l as w e l l as t h e s p i r i t u a l u n i v e r s e . " E r w i n P a n o f s k y , op. c i t . , p. 138. 56 Crichton, op. c i t . , p. 98, p l a t e 5 7.Ibid. 5 8 J.C. Webster, op. c i t . , 59 Ibid. p. 58. 8. 98 6 0 W e b s t e r , i b i d , p . 9 4.. " T h e t h o u g h t o f man's a c t i v i t i e s upon e a r t h a t i t s . v a r i o u s phases accompanied t h e s e divisions o f t h e y e a r , a r e determined by t h e c l i m a t i c changes which m a r k e d t h e m , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e amount o f c l o t h i n g w h i c h t h e human f i g u r e s w e a r . " 61 A. V e n t u r i , b p . c i t . , I V , p . 1 7 . 62 T a y l o r , T h e M e d i e v a l M i n d , V o l . I I , p p . 1 5 6 - 5 7 . He s u g g e s t s t h e b a s i s f o r L i b e r a l s t u d i e s h a d n o t r u e r home t h a n t h e c a t h e d r a l s c h o o l o f C h a r t r e s . Contemporary w r i t e r s p i c t u r e t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h i s . s t u d y was t h e r e made t o p e r f o r m i t s m o s t l i b e r a l o f f i c e , u n d e r f a v o u r a b l e medieval c o n d i t i o n s , i n t h e . f i r s t h a l f o f the t w e l f t h century. 63 Ibid. 64 Ibid. 65 Ibid., 66 I b i d . , p . 93 . p . 154 . 6 7 C.W. P r e v i t e - O r t o n , ' T h e S h o r t e r C a m b r i d g e M e d i e v a l H i s t o r y , " T h e L a t e r Roman E m p i r e t o t h e T w e l f t h Century", V o l . I,(Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : 1952), p . 6 29.. Hugo o f S t . V i c t o r ( o b . 1 1 4 1 ) was a g e n u i n e mystic: mystical' i n s i g h t surpassed the capacity of reason. He f o s t e r e d t h e C h u r c h ' s i n b r e d l o v e o f a l l e g o r y i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e , i t s way o f e x t r a c t i n g t h e l a s t grain o f s i g n i f i c a n c e from t h e sacred t e x t , which accorded w i t h t h e medieval search f o r and submission t o a n c i e n t , i n s p i r e d , a u t h o r i t a t i v e pronouncements, t h e c i t a d e l o r the refuge o f a l l p a r t i s a n s seeking t o j u s t i f y t h e i r cause i n morals, p o l i t i c s , o r creed. 6 8 H. 0. T a y l o r , b p . c i t . , Art p. 93. 69 G e o r g e F e r g u s o n , S i g n s " a n d S y m b o l s (New Y o r k : 19 66 ) , p . ~75~. 70 B y a n a n c i e n t Kingdoms. society, I refer i n Christian t o t h e O l d Testament 71 T h e q u e s t i o n o f t e m p o r a l a n d e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t y and t h e i r m a n i p u l a t i o n o f power w i t h i n . a . g i v e n c i v i c a r e a , i s c l a r i f i e d by J o s e p h B e r i n g t o n , The L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y o f t h e " M i d d l e " A g e s ( L o n d o n : 1 8 4 6 } , p p . 236 f f . 99 72 S.ee D a n i e l W a l e y , T h e I t a l i a n R e p u b l i c s ( T o r o n t o : 19 69 ) , p . 6 9;. f o r .a d e s c r i p t i o n a n d d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f t h e P o d e s t a i n t h e I t a l i a n commune. .7 3 S e e H.W. J a n s o n , Key Monuments o f t h e H i s t o r y o f A r t , p . 4 8 9 ; f o r a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e M a s t e r o f Naumburg's, Ekkehard. 74 Heywood, dp. c i t . , p. 91. 75 J o h n W h i t e , dp. c i t . , p p . 5 2-3. 76 G.H. C r i c h t o n , N i c o l a P i s a n o , p . 10 3. P e r h a p s , as C r i c h t o n s u g g e s t s " t h e b r o n z e g r o u p was p r o b a b l y d o n e b y Giovanni. A l t h o u g h t h e v a r i o u s s c h o l a r s d i s a g r e e i n some o f t h e a t t r i b u t i o n s , m o s t do a g r e e t h e w o r k i s c o n n e c t e d i n some way w i t h b o t h N i c o l a a n d G i o v a n n i . " T h e t h i r d name s u g g e s t e d b y G.N. Fasola,' La Font ana d i P e r u g i a , pp. 40-41; i s t h a t o f A r n o l f o d i Cambio. 7 7 M. A y r t o n , d p . c i t . , p . 5 3 ; s e e a l s o W h i t e , o p . c i t . , p. 53; f o r an a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e f i g u r e R u b e u s , t h e c r a f t s man who s i g n e d t h e b a s i n . 78 Ibid. .79 S e e C e s a r e G n u d i , N i c o l a A r n o l f o L a p p L ' A r e a d i S. D d m e h i c o i n ' B o l o g n a ( F l o r e n c e : 1 9 4 8 ) , p l a t e s 8 l ^ 82", 83 , 97 , a n d 98 . 80 M . A y r t o n , o p . c i t . , p . 5 3 . The two a n i m a l s r e p e a t t h e a l l u s i o n . t d t h e Guelph a u t h o r i t y , and t h e of Perugia. : again city 81 F a s o l a , o p . c i t . , p . 7 0 , s t a t e s t h a t t h e P e r u g i a s y m b o l s may o r i g i n a l l y h a v e s t o o d o n a s e p a r a t e , c o l u m n , l i k e t h e l i o n o f S t . Mark i n V e n i c e . I t i s also possible t h a t t h e y p o s t d a t e the' f o u n t a i n , an a r g u m e n t p a r t l y b a s e d on t h e w a t e r p i p i n g a d a p t e d t o t h e group w h i c h p a s s e s through the creatures heads. Of t h e t w e l v e protomes he a c c e p t s e i g h t as o r i g i n a l . 100 CHAPTER I I I 1 H e n r y O s b o r n e T a y l o r , ' The 19 3 8 ) , V o l . I I , p . 6 7.. , Medieval Mind 2 M a r c e a E l i a d e , The S a c r e d and P r o f a n e ? - , W i l l a r d R. T r a s k (New Y o r k : 19 6 1 ) , p . 130. (London: trans, by 3 Erwin P a n o f s k y E a r l y Netherlandish Painting (New Y o r k : 19 7.1) V o l . 1, P. 216 ; d i s c u s s e s t h e f o u n t a i n a s one of t h e o l d e s t s y m b o l s o f s a l v a t i o n , and r e f e r s t o t h e p a s s a g e i n R e v e l a t i o n 2 2 : 1 , i d e n t i f y i n g t h e f o u n t a i n -.: w i t h t h e " p u r e r i v e r o f w a t e r o f l i f e , c l e a r as c r y s t a l , p r o c e e d i n g o u t o f t h e t h r o n e o f God a n d t h e Lamb." 4 I b i d . , p . 2 1 6 , n o t e 2; m e n t i o n s t h e " c o u n t l e s s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f the' F o u n t a i n o f L i f e i n t h e s p e c i f i c context of Genesis." See F i g u r e 37. 5 V a r i a t i o n s on t h i s t h e m e a p p e a r i n a n u m b e r o f o t h e r Bosch p a i n t i n g s i n c l u d i n g the V e n e t i a n , P a l a z z o Ducale, Garden o f Eden, w h e r e i n the s o u l s o f t h e e l e c t gaze upon t h e f o u n t a i n o f l i f e , and i n t h e l e f t p a n e l o f the' L a s t J u d g e m e n t t r i p t y c ' h i n B r u g e s , i i n w h i c h a' F o u n t a i n o f L I f e _ Is d i s p l a y e d amidst v i s i o n s o f P a r a d i s e . F o r an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of these f o u n t a i n s which appear i n the works of B o s c h , s e e W. F r a n g e r , The M i l l e n n i u m o f H i e r o n y m u s B o s c h ( C h i c a g o : 19 5 1 ) . 6 Panofsky, op. cit., p. 216. 7 To c i t e b u t a f e w e x a m p l e s o f t h e ' H o r t u s C o n c l u s u s , s e e t h e 14 35' S p e c u l u m H u m a n a e S a l v a t i o n e s , o r t h e e v e n m o r e e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t i n t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e same m a n u s c r i p t where Mary i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the Garden; see Frank Crisp,' M e d i e v a l Gardens (London: 1924), V o l . I I , e s p e c i a l l y f i g u r e s 10 a n d 1 1 . Quite popular too i n s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a r t were those s e r i e s i l l u s t r a t i n g . t h e story of the L i f e of the V i r g i n . 8 G. B a z i n , " I m a g e s e t D o c u m e n t s " , ' L ' A m o u r de T ' A r t , 2 6 , No. 2 (19 4 6 ) , p . 4 0 ; n o t e s t h e r a r i t y . o f t h i s - f u s i o n , i e . , t h e R e d e m p t i o n s y m b o l i z e d by the' F o u n t a i n o f L i f e a n d n o u r i s h e d by' t h e b l o o d o f C h r i s t . Nowhere e l s e does this intercession occur. 9 The m o d e r n r e a d e r , a c c u s t o m e d t o i d e n t i f y i n g "Grace" w i t h a t h a n k s g i v i n g b e f o r e m e a l s , may f i n d i t h a r d t o r e a l i z e t h e enormous p a r t p l a y e d by t h i s c o n c e p t i o n w i t h i n t h e 101 C a t h o l i c dogma. The s t a n d a r d works, i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s u b j e c t o f G r a c e a r e -somewhat f o r m i d a b l e . . J o s e p h P o h l e ' s " C h r i s t i a n G r a c e " , ' C a t h o l i c E n c y c l o p e d i a , V o l . V I (190.9)., p. 714. The a u t h o r s a y s t h i s a u t h o r i t y i s " t h e p i l l a r on which, by a s p e c i a l o r d i n a t i o n o f God, the m a j e s t i c e d i f i c e of Christianity rests i n i t s entirety." Among t h e t h r e e fundamental i d e a s - - s i n , redemption and g r a c e - - g r a c e p l a y s t h e p a r t o f t h e means i n d i s p e n s a b l e a n d d i v i n e l y o r d a i n e d t o e f f e c t t h e redemption from s i n through C h r i s t , and t o l e a d men t o t h e i r e t e r n a l d e s t i n y i i n h e a v e n . "Grace i s i n f a c t c o n c e i v e d as t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e d i v i n e o r s p i r i t u a l l i f e , and t h e C h r i s t i a n d i s p e n s a t i o n — p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e C h r i s t i a n s c a r a m e n t s - - a s t h e medium t h r o u g h w h i c h i t r e a c h e s mankind." Obviously, Christ i s , f o r C h r i s t i a n s , the source o f such s p i r i t u a l l i f e . Hence, t h e b l o o d w h i c h he shed f o r man's r e d e m p t i o n e a s i l y b e c a m e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h g r a c e ; which i s the free g i f t o f a "supernatural" merit o r q u a l i t y t o " n a t u r a l . ' man. Theological dualism divides the universe i n t o t h e " w o r l d o f n a t u r e " and t h e " w o r l d o f g r a c e . " 3 1 10 J o s h u a B r u y n , "A P u z z l i n g P i c t u r e a t O b e r l i n , T h e Fountain o f L i f e , " B u l l e t i n o f the A l l e n Memorial A r t M u s e u m ( O b e r l i n , O h i o , 1 9 5 8 ) , 16 , p p . 5-17 . B r u y n d e m o n s t r a t e s how p a i n t i n g r e i n f o r c e s t h e m y s t i c a l e q u a t i o n between t h e F o u n t a i n o f L i f e and C h r i s t c r u c i f i e d (figure 43), thus b e a r i n g out t h e medieval commentaries. 11 G u i l l a u m e de L o r r i s a n d J e a n Meun, The Romance o f t h e R o s e , t r a n s , b y C. D a h l b e r g ( P r i n c e t o n , N . J . : 19 7 1 ) , pp. 334-335. D e p i c t i o n s o f f o u n t a i n s a r e common t h r o u g h o u t m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e Romance: a number o f l o v e s c e n e s o c c u r by a f o u n t a i n w h i c h i s s t y l i s t i c a l l y more o r l e s s the s a m e — e i t h e r hexagonal o r round b a s i n s from which rises a p i l l a r , with provisions f o rwater jets (figure 36). For f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f t h e romantic fountains see both: M a r i a Gotheim, H i s t o r y o f Garden A r t . ( L o n d o n : 1928), V o l . I . , p . 19 7, f i g u r e 13 3; a n d P r a n k C r i s p , b p . c i t . . A c c o r d i n g t o Gotheim, t h e f o u n t a i n which keeps t h e lawn f r o m g e t t i n g -dry and b a r e becomes a n a t u r a l f o c a l p o i n t f o r lovers i n a s e c r e t o r e n c l o s e d garden. 12 E r w i n P a n o f s k y , • o p . b i t . , p. 216. 13 op. c i t . , p. 53. G u i l l a u m e de L o r r i s , 14 S e e a l s o F. G o m b r i c h , " B o t t i c e l l i ' s M y t h o l o g i e s , " J o u r n a l o f t h e Warburg' and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e , ' . v i i i , (1945), pp'. 7-60 . On p a g e s , 4 0 - 1 G o m b r i c h n o t e s t h a t t h e m a i n themes i n t h e l a t e Q u a t t r o c e n t o "were drawn f r o m t h e w o r l d o f c h i v a l r y and c o u r t l y l o v e , " w i t h s u c h s u b j e c t s as g a r d e n s , bowers o f l o v e and F o u n t a i n s o f Y o u t h , f o r e v e r r e a p p e a r i n g . 102 14 O v i d , ' Me t a m o r p h o s e s. > t r a n s , a n d e d . b y F r a n k J . M i l l e r ( L o n d o n : 19 5 1 ) , 2 v o l s " . ' ; s e e e s p e c i a l l y v o l u m e I , I I I , p p . 407 f f ; w h e r e N a r c i s s u s f a l l s h o p e l e s s l y i n l o v e w i t h h i s own i m a g e r e f l e c t e d f r o m t h e w a t e r . 15 T h e s e e x a m p l e s a r e p r e c e d e d b y a n u m b e r o f e a r l i e r F l o r e n t i n e works. S e e ; R. v a n M a r i e , ' I c o n o g r a p h i e de 1 ' A r t P r o f a n e a u M c y e n - A g e e t a l a R e n a i s s a n c e ( T h e H a g u e : 19 32 ) . The c h a p t e r d e a l i n g w i t h t h e " J a r d i n d'Amour" p a r t i c u l a r l y , pp. 4 2 6 - 4 4 5 , a r e e s p e c i a l l y i l l u s t r a t i v e o f the' f o n s a m o r i s tradition. The p o p u l a r i t y o f t h i s t h e m e i n f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y Germany and I t a l y i s s t r e s s e d . See a l s o ; i b i d . j f i g u r e 4 53.i Van M a r i e , I t a l i a n S c h o o l s o f P a i n t i n g (The H a g u e : 19 2 7 ) , V o l . 9, p p ~ 1 0 5 - 6 ; m e n t i o n s t h e e f f e c t o f I t a l i a n a r t i s t s on German e n g r a v e r s o f t h e f i f t e e n t h century. Marie's i l l u s t r a t i o n notes too, the fountain d a t e d c a . 1440, c o m p r i s e d o f a h e x a g o n a l base and a s l e n d e r column i n t e r r u p t e d by a c y l i x w h i c h goes back t o the t r a d i t i o n of Paolo d i Stefano. 16 F o r a n e x a m p l e a n d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e M e l b o u r n e p a i n t i n g , see B e r n a r d Berenson,' I t a l i a n P i c t u r e s o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e : V e n e t i a n S c h o o l ( L o n d o n : 19 5 7 ) , T] p l a t e 9 0 . 17 P i n t u r r i c h i o ' s p a i n t i n g c o n t a i n s • a n i n o r d i n a t e l y g r a n d f o u n t a i n , i n a somewhat r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l g a r d e n landscape. 18 B e r t h a W i l e s , F o u n t i a n s o f F l o r e n t i n e S c u l p t o r s f r o m D o n a t e l l o t o B e r n i n i ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : 19 3 3 ) p"! 29 . She n o t e s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w h i c h t h e I t a l i a n f o u n t a i n s u n d e r w e n t when t r a n s l a t e d i n t o German t a s t e , i e . , t h e t e n d e n c y was t o s u p p r e s s t h e b a s i n s a n d e m p h a s i z e the central shaft. 19 Max F r i e d l a n d e r , A l b r e c h t A l t d o r f e r ( B e r l i n : 1921-3), pp. 31-32, p l a t e 33. He c a l l s a t t e n t i o n t o a n u m b e r o f d i s p a r a t e f e a t u r e s o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e marv e l o u s and i m p e l l i n g f o u n t a i n , w h i c h i s more a p p r o p r i a t e as t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f a t o w n m a r k e t p l a c e t h a n as a monument a l o n g t h e w a t e r ' s e d g e . Although the s t y l e of the f o u n t a i n undoubtedly derives i t s prototype from I t a l i a n p r i n t s , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note the e x i s t e n c e of cruder v e r s i o n s i n * Germany. 20 F r a n z W i n z i n g e r , A l b r e c h t A l t d o r f o r G r a p h l k ( M u n i c h : 1 9 6 3 ) , V o l . I , pp. 7 9 - 8 1 , C a t a l o g u e No. 8 3 . He t r a c e s t h e sources of t h i s fountain to the Master of Tarocchi or a s t u d e n t , f o l l o w e r o f Mantegna. 21 G. B a c h e l a r d , L'Eau e t l e s Reves (Paris: 19 4 2 ) , 103 p p . 19 7 - 2 0 1 . He . d i s c u s s e d t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l significance o f t h e F o u n t a i n o f Youth.. M o r e o v e r , s p e c i a l n o t e i s made o f the h e a l i n g powers " . . . l ' e t r e va demander a l a f o n t a i n e une p r e m i e r e , - p r e u v e de q u e r i s o n p a r u n r e v e i l de 1 ' e n e r g i e . . ." I b i d . , p. 230. 22 T h e C h r i s t i a n f o u n t a i n o f p u r i f i c a t i o n , c o r r e s p o n d s to the I s l a m i c t r a d i t i o n of the r i t u a l a b l u t i o n , required b e f o r e t h e f i v e d a i l y o r a t i o n s , t h e mosque b e i n g provided with a b l u t i o n fountains f o r that purpose. Mohammed t a u g h t t h a t w a t e r was t h e p e r f e c t i n d i s p e n s a b l e , a n d p r i c e l e s s element of p u r i f i c a t i o n . The w a s h i n g o f h a n d s a n d the r i n s i n g o f t h e mouth b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e m e a l s was customary. 23 F r a n c e s c o C o l o n n a , H y p n e r o t o m a c h i a P b l i p h i l i (Venice: 1499). See a l s o : A n t h o n y B l u n t , A r t i s t i c T h e o r y i n I t a l y 145 0-1600 ( O x f o r d : 1 9 5 6 ) , pp. 3 9 - 4 3 ; and G e o r g e W. P a i n t e r , The H y p h e r o t o m a c h i a P b l i p h i l i o f 149 9 ; a n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Dream, t h e Dreamer, t h e A r t i s t and the P r i n t e r ( L o n d o n : 196 3 ) , p p . 3-16. 9 1938) 2 4 Vincent , p. 69. Hopper, Medieval" Number S y m b o l i s m (New York: 2 5 M e d i e v a l man saw C h r i s t a s t h e s e c o n d A d a m , e n g i n e e r i n g a new C r e a t i o n b y h i s d e a t h o n t h e s i x t h day o f t h e w e e k , m a k i n g a«p,urposeful p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e c r e a t i o n o f AHam o n t h e s i x t h day. 26 S e e . L o u i s F i n k e l s t e i n , . e d . , The J e w s : T h e i r H i s t o r y C u l t u r e and R e l i g i o n , R a c h e l W i s c h n i t z e r , " J u d a i s m and A r t " (New Y o r k : 19 60 ) ,. 3 r d e d . , p p . 132231348. 2 7 C i c e r o , S o m n i u m S c i p i o n i s De R e p u b l i c a , vi:12. C i c e r o t a u g h t .that s e v e n and e i g h t w e r e p e r f e c t n u m b e r s ; e i g h t was p e r f e e t u s o c t o n a r i u s , ( p e r f e c t e d octave). 28 J o h n D . H o a g , "The Tomb o f U l u g h B e g a n d A b d u Razzag at G h a z n i ; a Model f o r the Taj Mahal," J o u r n a l o f the S o c i e t y of A r c h i t e c t u r a l H i s t o r i a n s (1968), x x v n , pp. 234-48. The o c t a g o n a l t o w e r w i t h a l o w e r e n c o m p a s s i n g passageway f o r . r i t u a l circumambulations i n I r a n i a n s e p u l c h r e s ? and I t a l i a n b a p t i s t e r i e s b o t h s t e m f r o m p a g a n maus'olea. The o c t a g o n a l f o u n t a i n i s v e r y common a s a p a r a d i s i a l . i m a g e " i n . I r a n . - .. 29- P a u l U n d e r w o o d , o p . b i t . , p p . 4 1 - 1 3 8 . The author e x p l o r e s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p a g a n m a u s o l e a on t h e C h r i s t i a n baptistery. 104 30 The C h u r c h o f t h e H o l y • S e p u l c h e r i n J e r u s a l e m w a s t h e g r a n d m o d e l o f o c t a g o n a l c h u r c h e s ' as w e l l as b a p t i s t e r i e s i n Western Europe. The B a p t i s t e r y o f t h e L a t e r n i n Rome w a s t h e i m m e d i a t e p r o t o t y p e o f t h e I t a l i a n , F r e n c h , and G e r m a n i c b a p t i s t e r i e s . For the d i s t r i b u t i o n of these b a p t i s t e r i e s s e e G u g l i e l m o de A n g e l i s D ' O s s a t , " O r i g i n e e F o r t u n a d e l B a t t i s t e r i A m b r o s i a n i , " ' A r t e Lomb.arda ( 1 9 6 9 ) , x i v , pp. 1-21. 31 R i c h a r d K r a u t h e i m e r , " I n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n I c o n ography of Medieval A r c h i t e c t u r e , " ' S t u d i e s i n E a r l y C h r i s t i a n M e d i e v a l a n d R e n a i s s a n c e A r t (New Y o r k : 19 69 ) , p p . 1 3 2 - 3 . 32 Underwood,' op. c i t . , p. 81. 33 Ibid.. The i n s c r i p t i o n , p r o b a b l y p l a c e d t h e r e d u r i n g t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e c h u r c h a t t h e end o f t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y , shows t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b a p t i s m a l f u n c t i o n a l i s m w i t h i n . t h e C h r i s t i a n Church. 34 CHAPTER Krautheimer, op. c i t . , p. 133. IV 1 S e e R a u l U n d e r w o o d , "The F o u n t a i n o f L i f e , " The D u m b a r t o n Oaks P a p e r s (19 5 0 ) , p. 4 9 . He d e s c r i b e s t h e v a r i o u s c o d i c e s and m a n u s c r i p t s a l l a l l u d i n g t o t h e thematic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of forites v i t a e . (New 2 H a r r y B. W e h l e , A r t T r e a s u r e s Y o r k : 19 5 9 ) , p . 2 3 9 . p l a t e 7 4 . 3 Ibid., p. of the Prado Museum 2 39. 4 J o s h u a B r u y n , "A P u z z l i n g P i c t u r e a t O b e r l i n ; t h e F o u n t a i n o f L i f e , " ' ' O b e r l i n C o l l e g e B u l l e t i n (1958 ) , x v i : 1, p . 6 . 5 Ibid. 6 Wehle,' o p . cit^_, p. 2 39 ; a l s o Bruyn, op. c i t . , p. 13. 7 S p i r e s o f G o t h i c o p e n - w o r k w e r e common a s f o n t c o v e r s as w e l l as e u c h a r i s t i c t a b e r n a c l e s i n S o u t h N e t h e r l a n d s and German c h u r c h e s b y t h e m i d - f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; see J . G o r d e n D a v i e s ,'. The' A r c h i t e c t u r a l : S e t t i n g o f B a p t i s m (London.: 1 9 6 2 ) , f i g u r e 4 4 ; a n d B r u y n , o p . c i t . , p~ 15 . 8 Bruyn, op. cit., p. 17. 105 9 The o n l y m a j o r e r r o r seems t o o c c u r i n t h e H i g h Priests', banner: h e r e h e b r e a k s o r s e p a r a t e s , t h e name of t h e Lord. A c o n v e r s a n t J e w w o u l d n o t make s u c h a blasphemous mistake. F u r t h e r m o r e , m i n o r e r r o r s .do o c c u r i n each o f t h e other i n s c r i p t i o n s . In keeping with the c o r r e c t C o n c o r d a n c e s p e l l i n g , t h e v e r s e s , when r e a d r i g h t to l e f t , c a n n o t , i n most c a s e s , be c a r r i e d o n . They seem to be c u t - o f f b e f o r e c o m p l e t i o n . 10 A l l t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e i n a c c o r d a n c e t o R u d o l f K i t t e l ' s B i b l i a H e b r a i c a ( S t u t t g a r t : 19 37 ) . 11 The Hebrew verse from the Priests' (I banner reads:• C h r . 16 : 34;) 12 T h e l a s t v e r s e o f t h i s p s a l m ( P s . 1 0 6 : 4 8 ) i s a doxology c o n c l u d i n g t h e f o u r t h book o f t h e p s a l t e r . P s a l m 1 0 7 , i s a hymn o f t h a n k s g i v i n g , i t i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n mood. I t can o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h e most g e n e r a l s e n s e . P s a l m 1 1 8 , p r o c e s s i o n a l hymn f o r t h e "Feast o f t h e T a b e r n a c l e s " and Psalm 136, " L i t a n y o f Thanksg i v i n g , " a r e b o t h j o y f u l o u t p o u r i n g s and a t odds w i t h t h e p i c t o r i a l context. 13 T h e i n s c r i p t i o n c o n t a i n s f i r s t l i n e o f v e r s e 5. only Psalm 111:4, and t h e 14 T h e s c r o l l i s r i p p e d , p e r h a p s i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e a v i n g out t h e pre-nominal s u f f i x . Furthermore, the text i s e n d e d a b r u p t l y i n v e r s e 8, g i v i n g h o i n d i c a t i o n i t s h o u l d be c o n t i n u e d . 15 S e e ; E p h r a e m S y r u s , M a ' a r r a t h G a z z e : t h e B o o k o f _ t h e G a v e T r e a s u r e s , t r a n s . b y E . A . B u d g e . ( L o n d o n : 19 2 7 ) , p p . 2 2 1 f f . . I n t h e s e p a g e s the' S y r i a n a u t h o r i n g e n i o u s l y c o m p a r e s i n d e t a i l t h e e v e n t s o f C r e a t i o n w e e k a n d Holy>" Week, d r a w i n g p a r a l l e l s o f a l l k i n d s , p e r c e i v i n g c o n t r a s t s and similarities. 16 A c c o r d i n g t o J a c o b u s d e V o r a i g n e . ' s G o l d e n L e g e n d ( T o r o n t o : 1 9 4 8 ) , p . 1 9 1 ; L o n g i n u s was t h e C e n t u r i o n a s s i g n e d t o C h r i s t ' s c r u c i f i x i o n , a n d i t w a s h e who pierced the side of Christ with a lance. 17 S e e M a u r i c e V l o b e r g , L ' E u c h a r i s t i e d a n s 1 ' A r t ( P a r i s : 19 4 6 ) , V o l . I . , p . 1 5 9 . T h e a u t h o r d e a l s w i t h t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e . i c o n o g r a p h y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c r u c i f i x i o n a s a. J£ucha r i s t i c m o t i f i n a w o r k w h i c h c o v e r s t h e w h o l e gamut o f E u c h a r i s t i c symbols throughout C h r i s t i a n h i s t o r y . ; 106 at at 18 P e t e r K i d s o n , " T h i r t e e n t h C e n t u r y G e r m a n S c u l p t u r e Bamberg, Naumburg and Magdeburg," a l e c t u r e d e l i v e r e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, (March 17, 1972.). 19 W.R. 1956 ) , pp. 20 V a l e n t i n e r , ' The 68-69. Henry Bamberg R i d e r O s b o r n T a y l o r , ' op. (Los Angeles: c i t . , V o l . I I , p. 86. 21 A c c o r d i n g t o l i n g u i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , t h e Hebrew r o o t w o r d P e s a c h ( P a s s o v e r ) p e r s i s t s i n t h e word' f o r E a s t e r i n a l l European languages except E n g l i s h . 22 John," 23. " I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e G o s p e l and L e t t e r s o f S t . T h e J e r u s a l e m B i b l e , New T e s t a m e n t , p . 14-2. M. V l o b e r g , op', c i t . , V o l . I I , p p . 146-148. 24 M i r c e a E l i a d e , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 2 9 3 2 . S e e a l s o : K r a u t h e i m e r , b p . c i t . , " p. 137.. A m y s t i c a l e q u a t i o n seems t o be e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n b a p t i s m , d e a t h and r e s u r r e c t i o n , d e a t h . s y m b o l i z i n g t h e d y i n g o f t h e O l d Adam and a t t h e same t i m e a m y s t i c a l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t . "Water, though sometimes a s s o c i a t e d i n a bad sense w i t h the i d e a o f an o v e r w h e l m i n g f l o o d o f e v i l and o f s w i f t d e s t r u c t i o n , i s o r d i n a r i l y t a k e n as a s y m b o l o f c l e a n s i n g and regeneration or of refreshment." F.E. H u l m e , S y m b o l i s m i n C h r i s t i a n A r t . ( N e w Y o r k : 1 9 1 0 ) , p. 210. T 2 5 Texts r e f l e c t i n g ' the views o f b a p t i s m are extensive. S e e , K r a u t h e i m e r , 'op'.' c i t . ; a n d P a u l op'.' b i t . , p p . 4 3-138 . 26 Underwood, bp. b i t . ,. p . very Underwood, 54. 27 S e e " G o r d e n D a v i e s , b p Y b i t . , p . 7 1 , p l a t e s 24 a n d 25; a l s o F r a n c i s Bond, F o n t s and Font Covers (London: 1908), pp. 2 82-83. F o r an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a t a b e r n a c l e f o n t c o v e r see f i g u r e 44. 2 8 An i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l o f t h i s p e r s i s t e n t , c o n f l i c t may b e f o u n d i n t h e B i b l i c a l t a l e o f J o n a h a n d t h e W h a l e . The s w a l l o w i n g o f J o n a h b y t h e s e a m o n s t e r a n d h i s d e l i v e r ance' a f t e r t h r e e d a y s was t a k e n t o be a t y p e o f t r i u m p h ant r e s u r r e c t i o n o f the L o r d o v e r the powers o f death and t h e u n d e r w o r l d . 29 A c c o r d i n g t o t h e e d i t o r s o f t h e ' J e r u s a l e m B i b l e , New. T e s t a m e n t ; J o h n e m p l o y e d t h e a n n u a l c y c l e o f o J ew i s n l i t u r g i c a l feasts to define progressive stages i n the mission of Jesus c u l m i n a t i n g i n the l a s t Passover. The 107 o r i g i n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and s t r u c t u r a l p l a n o f t h e G o s p e l o f John i s s t i l l d i s p u t e d ; not a l l B i b l i c a l scholars -agree w i t h t h e d i v i s i o n s s u g g e s t e d above. 30 R a y m o n d E. B r o w n , ' The Go's p e l ' A c c o r d i n g t o St'. J o h n , V o l . X X I X o f t h e A n c h o r B i b l e „ C G a r d e n C i t y : 19 6 6 ) , pp. 326' f f . 31 F o r a h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h i s g a t h e r i n g see G a a l y a h u C o r n f e l d , ' D a n i e l t o P a u l : An I l l u s t r a t e d ' G u i d e t o t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d I t s B a c k g r o u n d (New York:1962), p p . 30 6-7 . 3 2 ..Ibid. 3 3 R. Brown, op. cit. . 34 E v e l y n U n d e r h i l l , "The F o u n t a i n o f L i f e : An Icono g r a p h i c a l Study," B u r l i n g t o n Magazine ( A p r i l , 1910), V o l . 17, pp. 99-109. She a t t e m p t s t o t i e t h e Fountain of L i f e t r a d i t i o n w i t h a group of s y m b o l i c a l p i c t u r e s , m o s t l y p r o d u c e d i n t h e f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s i n the north. CHAPTER V 1 C h a r l e s M o o r e , "The A r c h i t e c t u r e o f W a t e r , " C a n a d i a n A r c h i t e c t (November, 1 9 5 9 ) , 4:1, p. 40. 2 I t has happened h i s t o r i c a l l y t h a t a f a v o u r e d medium i n c u l t u r e has e n t e r e d a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e upon other media; i e . , the i n f l u e n c e of Gothic a r c h i t e c t u r e i v o r y c a r v i n g s and m a n u s c r i p t i l l u m i n a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t the Middle Ages. on 3 Once t h a t o b j e c t i v e had o c c u r r e d t o t h e artists, t h a t i s . I t has. b e e n shown a b o v e t h a t t h e e a r l y s t a g e o f graphics are content with conceptual images comparable t o words. '••'... 4 Homer's' O d y s s e y c o n t a i n s : t h e u n i n h a b i t e d goat i s l a n d , O'd. i x , 132- f f ; t h e g a r d e n o f A l c i n o u s ,' O'd.. v i i , 1 1 2 ; t h e g r o t t o o f C a l y p s o , ' Od. v , 6 3 ; t h e g r o t t o o f t h e n y m p h s , I t h a c a , O'd. . x i i i , 1 0 2 ; a n d t h e p e r p e t u a l s p r i n g o f E y s i u m , O'd. i v , • 5 6 5 ;'. c i t e d . i n . E . R. C u r t l u s , E u r o p e a n ' L i t e r a t u r e a n d t h e ' L a t i n M i d d l e A g e s , ' t r a n s , b y W.R. Trask TUew Y o r k : 1 9 5 3 ) , p.-18 3. 5 Ibid. 6 I t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e a r c h the. w o r k s o f A u g u s t i n e and d i s c o v e r t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o h i s p h i l o s o p h i e s , P l a t o n i s m had c r e a t e d an i n t e l l e c t u a l and i n t e l l i g i b l e w o r l d , wherein a d i s s o l v i n g d i a l e c t i c turned the c o g n i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l phenomena i n t o a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e mind's i d e a l s . 7 H.O. T a y l o r , op. c i t . , p. 57. 8 F r e d e r i c k B. A r t z , T h e M i n d o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s (New Y o r k : 1 9 6 6 ) , p. 378~ " A l l C r e a t i o n i s l i k e a book and p i c t u r e ; o u r l i v e s , o u r f a t e , o u r s t a t e , o u r d e a t h a r e f a i t h f u l l y p r e s e n t e d t o us as i n a m i r r o r . " 9 John Pope-Hennessy, I t a l i a n ( L o n d o n : 19 5 5 ) , p . 3. Gothic Sculpture 10 S o f u n d a m e n t a l i s l a n g u a g e t o t h e p r o c e s s o f t h o u g h t t h a t s p e e c h u n c o n s c i o u s l y becomes t h e model o f o t h e r languages i n o t h e r media. See Edward S a p i r , L a n g u a g e: A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e S t u d y o f S p e e c h (New Y o r k : 1949), pp. 13-23. 11 B y " c o m p l e t e v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " i s m e a n t t h a t the use o f various kinds o f p e r s p e c t i v e s , and other p i c t o r i a l devices i n the creation o f n a t u r a l i s t i c i l l u s i o n on a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l surface. Admittedly, the Fountain o f L i f e r e t a i n s many p i c t o r i a l a r c h a i s m s , a n d i s s t i l l f a r s h o r t o f f u l l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e mode. 109 BIBLIOGRAPHY A c k r o y d , P.R. a n d C.-F. E v a n s . 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I l l u s t r a t i o n s i n R o l l a n d Codex:o f t h e O r i g i n and Method o f T e x t I l l u s t r a t i o n . t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19 7 0 . A Study Prince- W e i t z m a n n , K u r t . ' The N a r r a t i v e i n t h e L i t u r g i c a l G o s p e l I l l u s t r a t i o n s : """New T e s t a m e n t M a n u s c r i p t s . Chicago : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 19 5 0 . Wheel w r i g h t , Design." Robert. A r t s and " F o u n t a i n s a n d Pools i n Garden D e c o r a t i o n , v o l . I I , 1912. : W h i t e , John. . A r t and A r c h i t e c t u r e London: P e n g u i n B o o k s , 19 6 6. in Italy " 12 5 0 t o ' 1 4 0 0. : W h i t e , Lynn. ' M e d i e v a l T e c h n o l o g y and S o c i a l Change. Y o r k : . O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966. * New W i l e s , G.B. The' F o u n t a i n s o f F l o r e n t i n e - S c u l p t o r s f r o m Dona'tello t o B e r n i n i . C a m b r i d g e , Mass . : Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , T9~3 3. Winzinger, Franz. 'Albrecht R. P i p e r , 1 9 6 3 . ~ Altdorfer ; : Graphik; ' Z o v a t t o , P a o l o L. IlMausoleo di Galla E d i z i o n i A. L o n g o , 196 8. Placidia. Munich: Ravenna: 119 1 i • . . APPENDIX A ~ :— ! Hoffmann-Curtis, Kathrln. Das P r o g r a m m d e r Fontana Maggiore i n Perugia. Dusseldorf: R h e i n l a n d V e r l a g , 19 6 8.: 120 APPENDIX B The f o l l o w i n g n u m e r i c a l l i s t i s i n a c c o r d a n c e t o t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n found i n M i c h a e l Ayrton's Giovanni Pisano London: Thames a n d H u d s o n , 1 9 6 9 . RELIEF PANELS 38 January 39 February 40 March 41 July 42 August 43 September 44 The L i o n and G r i f f i n 45 Grammar. Dialectics 46 Rhetoric. 47 Samson a n d t h e feion. Samson a n d D e l i l a h 48 A 49 David 50 April 51 May 52 June 53 October 54 November 55 December 56 Geometry. Arithmetic . Morality and of Perugia Goliath Music 121 57 Astrology. Philosophy 58 The F a l l 59 Romulus a n d Remus 60 Romulus a n d Remus a n d R h e a and E x p u l s i o n Now i n t h e G a l l e r i a 61 A Fable from 62 An 63 An E a g l e from Eden Silva. Nazionale, Perugia Aesop Eagle with inscription A N G L E F I G U R E S FROM THE U P P E R C I S T E R N 15 T h e C i t y o f Rome, now i n t h e G a l l e r i a Nazionale, Perugia 16 The C i t y of 17 The C i t y of Perugia 18 Lake 19 S t . Herculanus 20 The C l e r i c 2 21 Trasimeno Matteo o f Herculanus da Correggio 22 St. Michael 23 Aulestes 24 25 Chiusi Ernano d i Sasseferrato Victory 26 S t . Benedict 27 S t . John t h e 28 Solomon . 29 David 30 Salome 31 Moses ' Baptist' - 122 32 St. Peter 33 The C h u r c h o f Rome ' 34 Theologia 35 St. Paul 36 The 37 St. Cleric , o f S t . L a w r e n c e '. Lawrence APPENDIX C VITRUVIUS Vitruvius. Ten Books on A r c h i t e c t u r e , t r a n s , b y M.H. M o r g a n , C a m b r i d g e , Mass.:... Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1914. BOOK V I I I , AQUEDUCTS, CHAPTER V I W E L L S , AND CISTERNS 1. There a r e t h r e e methods o f c o n d u c t i n g w a t e r , i n channels through masonry c o n d u i t s , o r i n l e a d p i p e s , o r i n pipes o f baked c l a y . I f i n c o n d u i t s , l e t t h e masonry be as s o l i d as p o s s i b l e , a n d l e t t h e b e d o f t h e c h a n n e l have a g r a d i e n t o f n o t l e s s than a q u a r t e r o f an i n c h f o r e v e r y h u n d r e d f e e t , and l e t t h e masonry s t r u c t u r e be a r c h e d o v e r , s o t h a t t h e s u n may n o t s t r i k e t h e w a t e r a t a l l . When i t h a s r e a c h e d t h e c i t y , b u i l d a r e s e r v o i r w i t h a d i s t r i b u t i o n tank i n t h r e e compartments connected with the r e s e r v o i r t o r e c e i v e t h e water, and l e t t h e r e s e r v o i r h a v e t h r e e p i p e s , one f o r e a c h o f t h e c o n n e c t i n g t a n k s , so t h a t when t h e w a t e r r u n s o v e r f r o m t h e t a n k s a t t h e e n d s , i t may r u n i n t o t h e o n e b e t w e e n t h e m . 2. From t h i s c e n t r a l t a n k , p i p e s w i l l be l a i d t o a l l t h e b a s i n s and f o u n t a i n s ; from t h e second t a n k , t o b a t h s , s o t h a t t h e y may y i e l d a n a n n u a l i n c o m e t o t h e s t a t e ; a n d from t h e t h i r d , t o p r i v a t e h o u s e s , so t h a t w a t e r f o r publ i c use w i l l n o t r u n s h o r t ; f o r p e o p l e w i l l be unable t o d i v e r t i t i f t h e y h a v e o n l y t h e i r own s u p p l i e s f r o m h e a d q u a r t e r s . T h i s i s t h e r e a s o n w h y I h a v e made t h e s e divis i o n s , a n d a l s o i n o r d e r t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s who t a k e w a t e r i n t o t h e i r h o u s e s may b y t h e i r t a x e s h e l p t o m a i n t a i n t h e conducting o f t h e water by t h e c o n t r a c t o r s . 3. I f , however, there a r e h i l l s between t h e c i t y and t h e s o u r c e o f s u p p l y , s u b t e r r a n e a n c h a n n e l s must be d u g , and b r o u g h t t o a l e v e l a t t h e g r a d i e n t m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . I f t h e b e d i s o f t u f a o r o t h e r s t o n e , l e t t h e c h a n n e l be c u t i n i t ; b u t i f i t i s o f e a r t h o r s a n d , t h e r e must be v a u l t e d masonry w a l l s f o r t h e c h a n n e l , and t h e w a t e r s h o u l d thus be conducted, w i t h s h a f t s b u i l t a t every two hundred and f o r t y f e e t . 4.. B u t i f t h e w a t e r , i s t o b e ..".conducted i n l e a d p i p e s , f i r s t b u i l d a r e s e r v o i r at the s o u r c e ; t h e n , let. t h e p i p e s h a v e a n i n t e r i o r a r e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g .to. t h e . a m o u n t o f w a t e r and l a y t h e s e p i p e s from t h i s r e s e r v o i r t o t h e r e s e r v o i r which i s inside the c i t y w a i l s . 5. The c o n d u c t i n g o f t h e w a t e r t h r o u g h l e a d p i p e s i s t o be managed as f o l l o w s . I f there i s a r e g u l a r f a l l from the s o u r c e t o t h e c i t y , w i t h o u t any i n t e r v e n i n g h i l l s t h a t are h i g h enough t o i n t e r r u p t i t , b u t w i t h d e p r e s s i o n s i n I t , t h e n we m u s t b u i l d s u b s t r u c t u r e s t o - b r i n g . , i t up t o t h e l e v e l as i n t h e c a s e o f c h a n n e l s and c o n d u i t s . I f the dis tance round such depressions i s not great, the water may be c a r r i e d r o u n d c i r c u i t o u s l y ; b u t i f t h e v a l l e y s a r e ext e n s i v e , t h e c o u r s e w i l l b e d i r e c t e d down t h e i r s l o p e . On r e a c h i n g t h e b o t t o m , a low s u b s t r u c t u r e i s b u i l t so t h a t the l e v e l t h e r e may c o n t i n u e a s l o n g a s p o s s i b l e . This w i l l f o r m t h e " v e n t e r " . Then, on r e a c h i n g t h e h i l l on t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e , t h e l e n g t h o f t h e v e n t e r makes t h e w a t e r s l o w i n s w e l l i n g up t o r i s e t o t h e t o p o f t h e h i l l . 6. B u t I f t h e r e i s n o s u c h v e n t e r made i n t h e v a l l e y s n o r any s u b s t r u c t u r e b u i l t on a l e v e l , b u t m e r e l y an e l bow, t h e w a t e r w i l l b r e a k o u t , . a n d b u r s t t h e j o i n t s o f t h e pipes. And i n t h e v e n t e r , w a t e r c u s h i o n s must be c o n s t r u e ted t o r e l i e v e t h e p r e s s u r e o f t h e a i r . T h u s , t h o s e who h a v e t o c o n d u c t w a t e r t h r o u g h l e a d p i p e s w i l l do i t m o s t s u c c e s s f u l l y on t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s , b e c a u s e i t s d e s c e n t s , c i r c u i t s , v e n t e r s , and r i s i n g s c a n be managed i n t h i s way, when t h e l e v e l o f t h e f a l l f r o m t h e s o u r c e s t o t h e c i t y i s once o b t a i n e d . 12. B u t i f t h e r e a r e n o s p r i n g s f r o m w h i c h we c a n c o n s t r u c t aqueducts, i t i s necessay to d i g w e l l s . Now i n the d i g g i n g o f w e l l s we m u s t n o t d i s d a i n r e f l e c t i o n , b u t m u s t d e v o t e much a c u t e n e s s a n d s k i l l t o t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f t h i n g s , because the e a r t h con t a i n s many v a r i o u s s u b s t a n c e s , i n i t s e l f ; f o r l i k e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e , i t i s composed o f t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s . In the f i r s t p l a c e , i t i s i t s e l f e a r t h l y , and o f m o i s t u r e i t cont a i n s springs of water, also h e a t , which produces s u l p h u r , a l u m , and a s p h a l t ; and f i n a l l y , i t c o n t a i n s g r e a t c u r r e n t s o f ' a i r , w h i c h , c o m i n g up i n a p r e g n a n t s t a t e t h r o u g h t h e porous f i s s u r e s t o t h e p l a c e s where w e l l s are b e i n g dug, a n d f i n d i n g men e n g a g e d i n d i g g i n g t h e r e , s t o p up t h e b r e a o f l i f e i n t h e i r n o s t r i l s b y t h e n a t u r a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e '• exhalation. So t h o s e who d o n o t q u i c k l y e s c a p e f r o m t h e spot, are k i l l e d there. 125 FIGURE CIVIC FOUNTAIN 1 AT VITERBO 126 FIGURE 2 F O U N T A I N OF L I F E FROM THE G O S P E L S OF S A I N T MEDARD DE S O I S S O N S 127 F O U N T A I N OF L I F E FROM GODESCALC G O S P E L S THE mtm B » hmmt ImaK FIGURE 4 F O U N T A I N OF L I F E FROM THE MAUSOLEUM OF G A L L A P L A C I D I A AT RAVENNA FIGURE 5 F O U N T A I N OF L I V I N G WATER FROM THE R E I C H E N A U M A N U S C R I P T , BAMBERG 130 131 FIGURE 7 FONTE MAGGIORE AT PERUGIA 132 FIGURE FONTE G A I A AT 8 SIENA 133 FIGURE 9 B A P T I S M A L FONT I N THE CHURCH OF SAN F R E D I A N O AT L U C C A FIGURE 10 B A P T I S T E R Y P U L P I T AT P I S A (1260 ) . NICOLA PISANO FIGURE 11 P U L P I T FOR THE CHURCH OF S. ANDREA AT P I S T O I A ( 1 2 9 7 - 1 3 0 1 ) . GIOVANNI PISANO F I G U R E 12 D E T A I L OF THE R E L I E F P A N E L FROM THE FONTE MAGGIORE. THE L I O N AND THE G R I F F I N F I G U R E 13 D E T A I L OF THE F A L L OF MAN, FROM THE FONTE MAGGIORE FIGURE RELIEF 14 P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 139 F I G U R E 15 R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE F I G U R E 16 RELIEF P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE FIGURE 17 R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 142 F I G U R E 18 R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 143 F I G U R E 19 R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE FIGURE 20 R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 145 FIGURE 21 R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE FIGURE 22 R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 147 FIGURE RELIEF 23 P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 148 FIGURE 24 R E L I E F P A N E L , FONTE MAGGIORE 149 FIGURE 26 R E L I E F P A N E L . D E T A I L OF R H E T O R I C AND A R I T H M E T I C FIGURE 2 7 UPPER CISTERN FIGURE UPPER 28 CISTERN 153 UPPER CISTERN FIGURE UPPER 30 CISTERN 155 FIGURE UPPER 31 CISTERN FIGURE 32 THE GARDEN OF EDEN FROM L E S TRES R I C H E S HEURES DU DUC DE B E R R Y 157 FIGURE 33 M E E T I N G OF THE THREE. MAGI FROM L E S TRES R I C H E S HEURES IMS* Complaaut aaOfcu lurauasmriommfdd ummioum mnifgut. mmcm UOCttrOt (in com mmm etrffitot mmmu din mux aiUdOm F I G U R E 34 THE F O U N T A I N OF L I V I N G WATERS FROM L E S T R E S RICHES HEURES FIGURE 35 HIERONYMUS BOSCH. D E T A I L OF THE PRADO, GARDEN OF E A R T H L Y DELIGHTS 160 ! it*touttt{aftcmbkt a Vttc S I 0 OHiatitfoilfc*ft&\KK<*. FIGURE 36 THE " T R I N I T A R I A N " F O U N T A I N OF L I F E FROM THE ROMANCE OF THE ROSE FIGURE 37 F O U N T A I N OF L I F E OR L I V I N G WATERS. PRADO MUSEUM 162 FIGURE 38 F O U N T A I N OF L I F E . C O L L E G E MUSEUM OBERLIN FIGURE 39 D E T A I L OF THE O B E R L I N F O U N T A I N OF L I F E : THE CHRISTIANS FIGURE 40 D E T A I L OF THE O B E R L I N F O U N T A I N OF L I F E : THE JEWS 165 D E T A I L OF THE O B E R L I N PAINTING: MUSICAL ANGELS FIGURE 42 D E T A I L OF THE PRADO THE JEWS PAINTING 167 FIGURE 4 3 THE C R U C I F I X I O N WITH P E R S O N I F I C A T I O N S OF L I F E AND D E A T H , CHURCH AND SYNAGOGUE FROM THE REGENSBURG M A N U S C R I P T F I G U R E 44 FONT COVER FROM THE CHURCH OF SUDBURY S T . P E T E R , ENGLAND FIGURE 45 THE FIGURE OF ECCLESIA FROM STRASBOURG CATHEDRAL FIGURE 46 THE FIGURE OF SYNAGOGUE FROM STRASBOURG CATHEDRAL 171 FIGURE 4 7 E C C L E S I A FROM BAMBERG C A T H E D R A L FIGURE 4 8 SYNAGOGUE FROM BAMBERG C A T H E D R A L
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The functional aspects of fountains: both as an artifact and image inherent in medieval Western European… Hanbury, Douglas Bruce 1972
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Title | The functional aspects of fountains: both as an artifact and image inherent in medieval Western European art |
Creator |
Hanbury, Douglas Bruce |
Publisher | University of British Columbia |
Date Issued | 1972 |
Description | My purpose throughout this paper is to define the importance of the fountain, both as an artifact and an image found throughout Medieval Western European Art. I intend to show by means of architectural and graphic variations, how this motif becomes an identifiable object artistically and functionally inherent in the art of the latter Middle Ages. The destruction, displacement or disappearance of the majority of Medieval fountains dictates a study of a relatively small number which have survived, with particular attention to manuscripts, to literature and to any extent drawings and engravings. In a number of instances I deemed it necessary to select only a few examples to illustrate any given aspect. Chapter one defines the variations of fountain types, clarifying the formation of a tradition embedded in Biblical or literary manuscript pictorial imagery. Chapter two deals with the role of the fountain in relation to the community. The Fonte Maggiore at Perügia stands as a supreme example of how the civic fountain not only functions as a source of water supply, but also by means of its encyclopedic sculptural program, becomes a communicative medium expressing the social, the political and the historical content of a Medieval Italian commune. Furthermore, the highly sophisticated sculptural program clearly defines the direction in which Italian thirteenth century sculpture was to progressively develop. The third chapter deals with the fountain as a symbol. Again, literary tradition construes the pictorial function of the image. The most important literary source finds the fountain symbolically functioning as the Fountain of Life. Two fifteenth century paintings of the Fountain of Life, capitalize the importance of this image in the closing generations of the Middle Ages. Deeply impregnated in Biblical tradition, the Fountain of Life demonstrates the artists' ability to formulate iconographic concepts into a clear, cohesive pattern. No matter what form the fountain may take, there does exist a similar function in each case - that of satisfying man's desire, either physically or through the mental image. One may assume therefore, all Medieval fountains exist for a particular function. The fountain as an image of any given society maintains its primary function, that of satisfying our physical desire for water. It is not surprising to find our modern fountain designers replacing the human, physical relationship with a less functional aspect, that of an entirely aesthetic motivation. Therefore, perhaps the major difference between Medieval and Modern fountains tends to be in their nature of functionalism, the former acting as a catalyst of a society, the latter becoming visually, aesthetically oriented in a new tradition. The fountain as an image defines the importance of art as a transmitter of images in the realm of values and beliefs, therefore, defining the key role of the artist as an agent of image formulation. Hence, this study functions as an exercise in the examination of imagery operative in the creation of an artifact for a better understanding of its significance. |
Subject |
Fountains -- Europe |
Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
Type |
Text |
Language | eng |
Date Available | 2011-04-08 |
Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
DOI | 10.14288/1.0101599 |
URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/33460 |
Degree |
Master of Arts - MA |
Program |
Fine Arts |
Affiliation |
Arts, Faculty of Art History, Visual Art and Theory, Department of |
Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
Campus |
UBCV |
Scholarly Level | Graduate |
Aggregated Source Repository | DSpace |
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