e l AN FICTION AND ARTLESS ART: R E A L I T Y IN THE WORK OF .SHIGA NAOYA by ROY STARRS B.A. , T h e U n i v e r s i t y A T H E S I S SUBMITTED THE 'of B r i t i s h Columbia, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR MASTER OF THE DEGREE OF ARTS in THE We FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department of Asian Studies) accept to THE this thesis the required UNIVERSITY OF August © as c o n f o r m i n g Roy standard BRITISH 19 80 Starrs, 19 80 COLUMBIA 1971 OF In presenting this thesis an a d v a n c e d degree the shall I Library f u r t h e r agree for scholarly by h i s of this written at the U n i v e r s i t y make that it purposes for freely permission may representatives. thesis in p a r t i a l financial of The U n i v e r s i t y Asian of gain Columbia 2075 Wesbrook P l a c e V a n c o u v e r , Canada V6T 1W5 October 13,- 1980 Columbia, British by for shall the that not requirements I agree r e f e r e n c e and copying t h e Head o f understood Studies British of for extensive permission. Department Date is of available be g r a n t e d It fulfilment of or that study. this thesis my D e p a r t m e n t copying for or publication be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my ABSTRACT This Shiga thesis Naoya, Japan. Shiga shosetsu of the critics, first, Shiga's third, of by showing both pointing a in Morning"), i t s simplest everything genre. of that Some o f "triviality". Shiga, by virtue psychological significant in fact, 1, the as Shiga's i s used and them, of the first as an Western answer to a into genre This answer of by Shiga's West itself. level; this to as significant a l r e a d y contains i n microcosm of and, practise "Aru in Asa" example about accused charge, turn an dislike have how the s h i - s h o s e t s u thus critics these part published story, and Western showing integral of i s the s h i - s h o s e t s u to example that certain thematic his masterful style manages to second, and modern non-fiction to basis of author?of s h i - and i s an for instance, insight, material solid b a r e s t form, certain In of of Japanese attempts parallels trends the disturbing reality the t h e work writers fiction technical of autobiography. tradition; and out some r e c e n t l i t e r a r y ("One between literary Chapter and present thesis fiction a r t on In analysis creative particularly by Japanese fiction lines been and mixture of the critics, the major the critical i s presented primarily to have the of elements "blurring" in a ("I-novels"), a d i s t i n c t i v e l y combines shown one offers the I have of this story shown how and h i s depth of even seemingly in- literature. the central "Aru Asa", problem to be e x p l o r e d namely, the c o n f l i c t individual on freedom the other, with in near way and union have with Shiga o f mind later works: desire f o r a n d communion this of union analogies West, also On this shock i s given health: by contrast consider Here t h e of s e l f — of ( self-surrender that the best with i t s opposite, a Tolstoy o u t more I "prob some i n t i m a t i o n through work w i t h to this t o h i s sense the p r i n c i p l e to bring I deal with i n fact, to Shiga's River". two authors' / 1 with i s seen nature. consists idyllic I compare Hearted i n the story n i t e " (At K i n o s a k i " ) . i s often protagonist lyrical, offered clearly story, way "Three the special qual- shi-shosetsu. the story story, adumbrated psychic compared i n order eventually a profound nature. something Shiga degree the important the protagonist's f o r peace accident--but of the In the receives also Deaths", ities "Kinosaki to ultimate define the h i s longing 2, fatal the I most and s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n on t h e one hand and, o f the ego" i s f i r s t Chapter to between s o l u t i o n which protagonist a Shiga's others. The lem throughout mood. i n Chapter t o have The n a r r a t i v e simply I also point that a Hemingway out that as ("Bonfire attained some progression o f a steady T o show use o f imagery "Takibi" already "naturally plotted" "Takibi" with 3, deepening there a r e some stories i n the story, of recent " B i g Two- the a f f i n i t y "objective of between correlative" - ivis by no means c o i n c i d e n t a l , i n v i e w o f t h e Japanese poetry on influence Hemingway t h r o u g h E z r a Pound and of the Imagists. In the f o u r t h and (A Dark N i g h t ' s of nature of the dialectic both a thematic himself t h a t i s the i s s u e I see crucial longing for spiritual as some t o be s e e n as and Western reader, t o be h i s work i n t h e the fiction/reality improved the problem of and as w e l l as climate an i t is the protagonist's other the i s a writer of what, i n my In the e s s e n t i a l same p r o b l e m , and c o u l d o b t a i n o n l y when t h e man I consider a technical level. In An'ya Koro, i n the Koro culmination t e c h n i c a l issue with u l t i m a t e l y the d i s c u s s i o n with An'ya problem at i t s core, liberation. p r o b l e m o f t h e man to the the c e n t r a l t o h i s work: words, the offer and as i n c l u d i n g the relates this thematic I c o n c l u d e my I deal with comes t o g r i p s w i t h shi-shosetsu, h e r e a l s o t h a t he that chapter P a s s i n g ) , which I regard S h i g a ' s a r t on t h i s work S h i g a final writer in a way shi-shosetsu. view, Shiga has a p p r a i s a l of f o r the r e c e p t i o n to what of West. , Supervisor - TABLE OF v - CONTENTS Abstract i i Introduction Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Footnotes Bibliography J % I l ; ." • 43 80 113 w .... . 161 178 - 1 - Introduction No as modern sorely the Although Taisho period appeared i n 1937, stantial translation in English. his short ful of this as There are in spite of the novel-length was finally Passing (1975). translated I unsympathetic revision though of more results the most senting the author been the of to show, chapter great novel any h i s w o r k was sub- undertaken collection various anthologies-- S h i g a has the form l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d i n Japan. studies, His Mathy's is a to h i s subject A Dark rather image appeared Mathy, of p e r c e p t i v e study context of devoted and Hero, in a 1979; Sibley that, in my Shiga's a r t . to h i s own to be Naoya Shiga Freudian approach distorted to narrow The than Night's first Shiga Slhfcleyjs one (1937) the dissertation, Ueda Makoto of hand- 1 this i n the written i s i n French" ") ; a m e r e William and were that book-length Francis equally more 1970's been Ja. -jj^ stories Edwin M c C l e l l a n as doctoral helpful of has Naoya <Qfe ffi ^g- Koro a markedly i n an Perhaps has that stature his single the throughout was sympathetic takes until there by treatment. h i s 1971 nevertheless view, intend and for critical form Shiga h i s major y e t , no fact work, An'ya As as criticism g r e a t masters i n book As and (though i n 1976. published not i s , as the of comparable (1912-1926), scattered of of West most i t was stories them one writer n e g l e c t e d i n the (1883-1971). in Japanese Shiga date, pre- culture, in his Modern which Japanese I Writers shall have has Shiga's Why and the occasion work to readership that to writers Kawabata, basic reason seems Shiga's works most the of as to lack the events has be fashion is i n the way little structure; and, s i n c e persona, i s almost absorbed works, "rounded" the to that, author them as "unformed biographical view by own and or his protagonist of the that t h a t may kind in Shiga and these self- rang.e of expresses shi-shosetsu "a s c a r c e l y seem there fictional of wrote as a plot- a wide of since life, "well-built" The readers, "fiction": S e i d e n s t i c k e r perhaps of a Abe? Western directly himself, reminiscence" jotting neglect of of development ("I-novels") ,\\ long author's the Edward Western later. eyes taken the (1976), enthusiastic reception i n the are from i s no Literature to attributes invariably characters. an conventional the there traditional yjfl^ of of T a n i z a k i , Mishima.and described random return given usual seemingly Nature suffered this Western such 2 - w h e n he form to refers of auto- deserve the 2 name fiction sticker at admits all." the reluctantly, in when he that says guishing where, the the same e s s a y , significance the overall " i f there modern i t i s the In Japanese importance of context i s any novel of this of one from however, genre, Seiden- albeit modern Japanese characteristic the undisguised modern and fiction distin- novel else- unshaped auto- central place 3 biography." Mishima Yukd>o a l s o recognized the of this but genre 3 - i n the contemporary h e saw i t i n a m o r e literature cosmopolitan of h i s country, and l e s s belittling light: The " I - n o v e l " o f modern Japanese l i t e r a t u r e i s a complex c r e a t i o n o f mixed a n c e s t r y bred from the French n a t u r a l i s t n o v e l , from the Japanese o c c a s i o n a l essay s t y l e o f t h e M i d d l e Ages ( c a l l e d , r e v e a l i n g l y , " f o l l o w i n g one's thoughts") and from t h e s e l f - w o r s h i p of European romanticism. And, because o f t h e p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f J a p a n e s e p o e t r y w h i c h I h a v e ment i o n e d b e f o r e , t h e " I - n o v e l " f o r m w a s a l s o made t o serve t h e f u n c t i o n o f ^ f u l f i l l i n g p o e t i c needs through the v e h i c l e o f prose. r The shosetsu That issue, i n fact, p e r se, though the problematic has preoccupied has been w e l l i s even this i s a very relation Writers. of eight novelists, the f i r s t in each and especially As that exercised I shall Francis which must point Mathy arise emphasizing writers wrote. torted image question attempts modern influence Ueda between life that has Japan. 1, i t seems this t o me, central of Shiga works claim, actual theories considers i ti s a question t o evade reality i n h i s Modern that i n modern genre. novelists that To do s o , I w o u l d of h i s abiding and o f the r e l a t i o n conventional o f Shiga's practised view i n any c o n s i d e r a t i o n both fiction of the shi- of the literary out i n Chapter t h e few more author and a n d he shows that widely greatest In h i sanalysis i s the writer's literature, than by Ueda Makoto Japanese case between many o f J a p a n ' s demonstrated larger by then, issue over- of f i c t i o n the i s to present accomplishment on t h e l i t e r a t u r e a as a diswriter of h i s country. Shiga to Naoya must try to Western nature stand "dress garb of him is a the or up" fall In e x c l u s i v e l y on and to as c e n t r a l to seeking total to trace these free union the shi-shosetsu, Asa" $ quently, Western to an the the same of the values of through Kobayashi culmination of a l l that tradition. On the level of the of i n Shiga's I regard of a man achieving try to as great published as an form that address this for a with shall novel: the story, "Aru and, genre. are i n the My intention heavily I point earliest story out the pre- Shiga's native they Japanese theme, the conse- sympathetic instance, of offends c u l t u r e ; when of I example most critics own is finest I reality. barest eyes by I writer, that himself, 1908), these Hideo, time, and about their theme works: in his everything views the egotism first and in particular as discern shi-shosetsu Shiga fiction Morning, true arises i n connection with Shiga's such already that deal between I use which b e l i e s the or a n a l y s i s , then, of At problem example viewed a own i t s simplest that by are critic in as his problem (One critics show judiced works as 1 ^ Shi-shosetsu is a dialectic Chapter Shiga shi-shosetsu; conventional only present from came u l t i m a t e l y t o In that development nature. central critical on-going this of acceptably "autobiographical" the show, the himself with a writer exercise concentrate attempt as i n more futile subject. 4 - seem a literary that we can o u t l i n e s of a problem over that the solve will next the recur thirty tension ego munion others? with finally his comes, and as magnum o p u s , throughout years: between independent his how the his demands see, published of his almost own of the to re- fiercely mind s o l u t i o n to with written protagonist f o r peace definitive shall shi-shosetsu i s the longing The we 5 - and com- this problem c l i m a c t i c scene thirty years after of "Aru Asa" . In art, his Chapter a work short that he must in context as story i t has of with It "Three structure also to the a te" a to and Chapter 3 deals ^ stories, also achieve union by a nature. has a mood though, another of that of 1920). this as of we work to shi-shosetsu compare this the West, the the genre Leo Tolstoy concept shall and see, i t contrast. Shiga's In earlier order master,of the far liberation: the also a senses In of similar overall te", (Bonfire, the in coincidence interesting points with I great traditionally the ultimate literature, story receives in of (At already nature Shiga's celebrated than he his with distinctive ni self of \? \ of fortunate "Kinosaki ffy o> sense world Deaths", most his practised is the protagonist short some earlier ni of Shiga the presents "Takibi" one example the travel clearly been Tolstoy. story, to self-surrender more Shiga Here a more m a t u r e fact, "Kinosaki shock define the with near-fatal accident--but direction towards i s , in 1917). profound story—a I deal stories: Kinosaki, more 2 best-known contrast i s close to to the stories, two idyllic as the protagonist enjoying as in a 2 Western shosetsu , i n "Big I use form out Shiga's this In Chapter 4 brought regard a as i s the that he issue and himself I have i n other the writer in a way shi-shosetsu. of what, as well i n my an how the are no Where- tradi- Shiga's Hemingway i s by mountains, nature. shi- story, some more r e c e n t close West. means Japanese in turn my discussion in the It as is of Shiga's in this grips I also entirely influence influenced work, for the such be as obtain conclude Shiga appraisal spiritual seen of my has what I a of and the to hope only when man to show, dialectic this the point: same is with o f f e r to the I consider to In a problem, a writer summation Western be An'ya thaaproblem man to also thematic and the discussion work nature liberation. ultimately a ife i s h e r e the up seen thematic essential with work be Koro, fiction/reality his problem may both as the i t s core, to An'ya a r t ' on with the at central could view, of to longing I analysis "technical" issue come t o that who l e v e l s of problem words, of as two including this seen the a considerable poets, comes crucial protagonist's Koro, the level. relates show the Hemingway. shi-shosetsu, that in and there affinity the culmination technical the of together the Shiga apparent "Imagist" as be practise i n view Western show man in d i f f e r e d from that writers of genre life to to fiction the this story River", the of Tolstoy both Two-Hearted coincidental, that of with I use that and a quiet chapter point I communion a present to to leading the parallels on shown pleasant Chapter tional is 6 - the reader, improved climate f o r t h e r e c e p t i o n o f h i s work Shiga in 7 - Miyagi N a o y a was b o r n i n 1883 a t t h e v i l l a g e P r e f e c t u r e on the northeast his f a t h e r was p o s t e d The f a t h e r , h o w e v e r , was a n a m b i t i o u s man, a graduate he returned to make a name Eventually insurance Shigas of a he became company. "good" early f o r generations biography, since School", be s a i d i n terms i tenabled writers of the Shirakaba since i tenabled concentrate exclusively a pace leisurely Although later, at good Gakushuin before Shiga the best ticularly without student. completing crucial h i s course the Gakushuin of studies with importantly, of h i s l i f e , to t u r n i n g o u t works a t a living. schools and, he was n o t a he had t o r e p e a t o u t o f Tokyo social about h i s contact a n d , more the rest born and o f fact came i n t o i n the country, a n d he d r o p p e d a n d an N a o y a was one o f t h e b e s t In fact, long that the the n e c e s s i t y o f making university business- samurai r e t a i n e r s that on h i s w r i t i n g , attended Bank. finance. a railway o f wealth group, him, throughout of high him t o attend he f i r s t other where and s e t o u t the case leading t h e most where o f Japan, and s u c c e s s f u l o f both i t was a l s o i s , indeed, Ishimaki of the Dai-ichi i n the world i t may w e l l of U n i v e r s i t y , and b e f o r e the director Since coast h i s j o b a t t h e bank family, both This "peers' quit f o rhimself had been status. or o f t h e new K e i o t h e Soma c l a n , into as an employee t o Tokyo, i n t h e West. two paryears Imperial University (in English literature). tation above as a young men that who Mushanokoji supporter a had Shiga had advanced not only published attempted to tance i n Taisho Japan. must member to on of Shiga vided be m u c h h i s own There father. As any I hope of this the first from was show, of of 1910 these the but func- impor- vehicle widely known. of him Still, as the support the w r i t e r 1923, literature i t s literary Shiga to itself impoajtance o f and young published considerable categorizations friendship of and (White B i r g h ) . group became The friend they both this rate, have other group Western any I importantly <%^> serving influence to as several University, of i n the direct When influence facile and a group i t protheories was very man. i s one marly By "Shirakaba group". i n any h i s work. Shiga's of l a y f a r more than At most contemporary Shiga's stories wary the cultural emotion in circulation readers. a instinct Shiga's closest members introduce i t became one by repu- with Shirakaba remained tions be t o Tokyo called works a r t to Japanese which ambitions, of h i s l a t e r at school, contact his life. together which valued i t was would of i n view who into literary magazine magazine, through came S a n e a t s u , who The and a man Nevertheless, f o r the r e s t literary also is significant "primitive", intellect. mentioned, men This 8 - other fact which b i o g r a p h y : h i s stormy Needless to say, as must be mentioned relationship a hard-headed about with businessman his the father was none particularly dependent other tion his to affair that f o r much of i r r i t a t i o n : by a copper with h i s son's he w o u l d mine remain maids was change, his " K i n o s a k i n i t e " and " T a k i b i " . with Tokyo with to death o n t h e one hand i n t h e summer nature live Central Japan) assertion into With new this ciliation in changed (Reconciliation, cipal to drama spend mountain h e was of Shiga's the rest With life came o f h i s days able h i s new and peace i n 1971) i n t h e q u i e t of of nature bride a and h i s death enjoyment and o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l self- o f mind. recon- i s movingly reconciliation (until union of Akagi i n to effect which of described jfo ^ the p r i n - t o a n e n d , a n d h e was eighty-eight the world with s h i - s h o s e t s u Wakai this brush sense of confrontation an e v e n t celebrated 1917). soon see,i n His close scenery his attitude h i s father, one o f h i s most shall a h i t by a s t r e e t c a r i n one o f l o n g i n g f o r harmony attitude with a s we ( i n 1915 he w e n t the beautiful the years underwent o f 1913) a n d h i s i n c r e a s i n g on the other amid (he was During o f mind relfected, with; i n 1914 w i t h o u t h i s significant stories a change state the pollu- and h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n h i s marriage Shiga's over were associated to a cousin of Mushanokoji. t o 1915, however, financially There protests h i s family one o f t h e f a m i l y consent choice of vocation, of his life. Naoya's her; and, f i n a l l y , .father's 1913 i t meant on h i s f a t h e r caused marry too pleased with since sources 9 - able a t t h e age o f of h i s family, Far Eastern arts. With on time, the Japanese the after cultural as a w r i t e ^ , became scene, h i s magnum o p u s , tortuous process: appeared, After a full This with not until fact alone lationship Having seems between poured though life into this had best maintain sage years he lived to t e l l was a dignified a s t i l l long was after t h e w o r k was novel another u s much about silence. that to and instalment Shiga begun. wrote thirty-four little years. the special r e and h i s work. and the hard-earned i t seems him published the l a s t a writer of shi-shosetsu one work, awaited that one g r e a t like ofold. struggle This figure and more of the novel 1937 a l l o f t h e agony his more great Koro. part thepublication of this archetypal h i s f a t h e r : he h a d An'ya twenty-five any c o n s e q u e n c e , an almost seeming final the f i r s t 1 9 2 1 , a n d i t was - enlightened one his reconciliation finish of Shiga r e i n c a r n a t i o n o f some But, in i n fact, 10 Shiga wisdom o f now felt he - 11 - Chapter I Shiga Naoya may shortstory writer. his one be regarded as f i r s t and foremost a T h i s i s not to deny the importance of n o v e l , An'ya Koro (A Dark Night's P a s s i n g ) , upon which much of h i s high r e p u t a t i o n i n Japan r e s t s . Nor is i t to deny the wide appeal o f h i s most famous n o v e l l a , Wakai ( R e c o n c i l i a t i o n ) , t h a t watakushishosetsu par e x c e l - lence which has moved c r i t i c s (or to such e f f u s i v e h e i g h t s depths) i n d e s c r i b i n g i t s emotional £act remains t h a t Shiga was impact. f a r more p r o l i f i c s t o r y w r i t e r than as a n o v e l i s t and, ("At Kinosaki") more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , and seem to embody, to a g r e a t e r extent thati any of h i s other works, those q u a l i t i e s most c r i t i c s , Shiga". the as a s h o r t - t h a t s h o r t s t o r i e s such as " T a k i b i " ("Bonfire") "Kinosaki nite'i But that I t h i n k , would regard as " q u i n t e s s e n t i a l l y Furthermore, even h i s great novel i s r a t h e r e p i s o d i c i n c h a r a c t e r , so t h a t d e s p i t e i t s c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h , i t has been regarded we by more than one as s h a l l see, as more a s e r i e s of l o o s e l y r e l a t e d s h o r t s t o r i e s than a t i g h t l y s t r u c t u r e d novel(and, was critic, o r i g i n a l l y planned as s u c h " ) . 1 One indeed, i t might add Shiga took the major p a r t of h i s working l i f e t w e n t y - f i v e years) to w r i t e h i s one say, t h i s seems to imply easy to him. novel. that (about Needless to t h a t n o v e l - w r i t i n g d i d not come - Although problem o f which particularly is Shiga did not possess already famous tells his case own view, which we a great through a deeply will like left personal of clothes. his characteristic they do a l l m a n i f e s t , style". represent broad f o r content, and those that that a r e more with there already or f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y was that of his the case to the then, this was view, on e v e r y t h i n g he wrote. are masterpieces, the but unmistakeable any o f them w o u l d serve of h i s a r t . may be d i v i d e d are more or less : invented In n o t be changed a t In keeping aspect that,in style, (the s h i - s h o s e t s u ) , comprising classification, fiction i t could later, forcefully Because almost This Shiga's the depths "rhythm" itself the stories c a t e g o r i e s : those graphical" from t o some e x t e n t , primary of styles. i s t h e man". stamp he o f w r i t e r he was. a l l h i s works As a r e s u l t , this considered i n more d e p t h basic thing, i s not t o say that As explore own f o r , above a l l , and Akutagawa, of a variety the kind communicated This "Shiga Tanizake t h e w r i t t e n word. a suit i s renowned spontaneously t h e man's writer, such Shiga arose the o f the writer's a r t ) but, unlike the "style shall stories, s e e , he h i m s e l f command about i n particular, odd s h o r t Shiga shall a facile u s much i t was reader to What contemporaries, writer's style being; sixty o u t as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i s n o t a t o be t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e most of one. ( a n d , a s we his a some to single vexing his style style wrote 12 - into "autobio- by f a r t h e m a j o r i t y , or "fictional". appears dialectic the which two With this fiction/nonwill be a recurs? - 13 ring theme iately to me that study there of i s no Shiga. preconceptions his ranking of the But I wish value-judgment t h a t F r a n c i s Mathy, Western by i n my to say immed- implied here. It f o r i n s t a n c e , cbnly b e t r a y s his about what "fictional" constitutes stories "good above seems literature" the "auto- full-length study 2 biographical" Shiga . In in English, stories Shiga in a was ferred to Mathy chapter unable impossible h i s book, to theory write gives called prose "such first "star "A coverage" Golden w r i t e more of in the because 3 fiction", a Ten" to and he was as fictional laments that "hampered by i . e . , he d e f e c t i v e genre the of generally the an pre- autobio- 4 graphical novel". emphasizing the biographical, as a writer, shosetsu of this rate, fictional Mathy since and (and appropriate present balance autobiographical entire ("One I have opus. Morning" characteristic by than said, Even - study there in his 1908) view of Shiga's achievement majority of his i n Japan Japanese I have the tried to greater first published style the master exercised his attain At a any more unity to story, a p p e a r many and shi- the stories. remarkable his auto- are length with fictional already as literature). is a , there f e a t u r e s of has the stories mainly t h a t he dealing at with over- of such modern t h a t by expense i s known at t o me the our great i t i s as i n f l u e n c e on i n the As the i t seems stories distorts s i n c e he genre enormous Furthermore, content. Shiga's "Aru of In Asa" the fact, it would page be o n l y product greater who of Shiga's portion "Aru getting be coming orial service have to rise ready. hours work f o r h i s dead long before But Shintaro h i m up, he f a l l s the p r i e s t Now, back b u t s t e r n l y commanding who it his he defiantly tells more d i f f i c u l t grandmother i s no l o n g e r prevents her that i s sharing a Buddhist priest a mem- they would until the early comes t o She grows i n - him t o g e t up, and t o be out the rebel a l lher pestering Calling Shintaro's i n Shintaro, has only him a "devil", Even stubborn made though pride now h i m f r o m g e t t i n g up. "psychology" mattress late, she i s n o t p o l i t e l y brings sleepy, very who s t a l k s a n g r i l y o u t o f t h e room. When h i s g r a n d m o t h e r of until h i s grandmother f o r h i m t o g e t up. really The-night and t h a t again. finally i n turn Shintaro, to celebrate reading to sleep until This man, arrived to get everything whenever requesting i t . him that grandfather, irritated, about a novel morning creasingly quick o f a young had continued o f the morning. five contains the o f h i s grandmother, the next this i n microcosm. story She had warned early already o u t o f bed one m o r n i n g . the protestations would get of h i s later same b e d r o o m . t o say that e a r l y manhood he h a d p e r s i s t e d i n r e a d i n g despite the exaggeration Asa" i s the simple has t r o u b l e before a slight returns on him: she begins and q u i l t s , even though, once more, folding she t r i e s u p h e r own a t seventy-three, a b i t heavy she should n o t be p u t t i n g clever S h i n t a r o sees to budge. him Finally, of having being herself through of " f i l i a l and c a l l a strain. her strategy h i s grandmother no s e n s e a t t h e beck t o such and s t i l l becomes duty". But the angry refuses and "Iff i l i a l o f an o l d l a d y " , accuses duty Shintaro means answers 5 rather spitefully, mother rushes Now mosity, still he h a s e n j o y e d he e n t e r t a i n s go s k a t i n g drowned His that — of i t . " cathartic H i s grand- i n t h e mood release another spiteful day on a lake this will While thought: where make grandmother S h i n t a r o i s now priest when he comes. two b r u s h e s three now up, she t r i e s about back e n t e r s t h e room which t o make writing She m e e k l y again. peace students brushes obeys as n o t s u i t a b l e . with to offer fee?ls like With this laughing. Left He c a n c e l s trip and begins to fold a n d p u t i t away. Now completely "reconciled", i s suddenly overcome, begding. While " i nthe midst to the further of the skating up h i s g r a n d m o t h e r ' s him by when he o r d e r s h e r t o a g a i n , he s u d d e n l y he he Relieved along folds getting h i s grandmother t o h i s ego, S h i n t a r o i s t h o r o u g h l y appeased. neatly B u t he perhaps salve idea ani- him. h i s advice the of t o g e t up. a l l h i s resentment. surely asking put this feels the next recently about no p a r t out i n tears. has not exhausted worry I want Shintaro finally dressed, will that "then doing up h i s b e d d i n g so, he even though, o f l a u g h t e r " , by an uncontrollable so many that urge to cry. "he c o u l d The t e a r s no l o n g e r the tears stop, he f e e l s In the f i n a l scene of the story, in brother their playful joking. priately at light having here of i n which simply and c l e a r l y . been erally of chosen o f a simple, adjectives; but rather — Junichiro (and with has pointed from expression appronot just 8 out, short, the sense There i s a and f i n d s i n h i s own w o r k s ) . I f we sen- t h e words words a r e gen- sparse use "decorative" Tanizaki an e s s e n t i a l l y "masculine" the "feminine" no are stated i s a very I t i s , as kind comes, clipped that and these i snot can d i s c e r n which i s n o t i n a n y way i twith Murasaki family 7 there and f a c t s care, efficient. contrasts Lady rhythm: kind. the language economical, Tanizaki descends extreme already joins b u t , more o f amae. Generally, i s given basic on an emotions we are wasted One he euphoria to the writing staccato no words toh i s "Aru Asa" i s w r i t t e n features. the almost tences ends realm style", a u t h o r i t a t i v e tone doubt,.from have Japanese "Shiga i t s major goes to r e j o i n the comfortable the s t y l e i n which y e t the mature strong, thus o f some n e g a t i v e able purified". room, where 1 purged h i s cheeks B u t when Shintaro i n the next The s t o r y the all-important someof "refreshed, signifying Shintaro s a t being Although quite note, been importantly, circle, and s i s t e r s down see anything". finally younger stream style style that i t s p r i n c i p a l modern were t o lchok for i t s - 17 equivalent equally i n English, celebrated perhaps the closest "Hemingway s t y l e " fact, some r e m a r k a b l e these two w r i t e r s , similarities even i n such would be t h e -- and t h e r e a r e , between details the styles as t h e i r i n of choice of words.^ Shiga for i s renowned instance, across as a model the country) all-important significant above of ideal and s t y l e , position essay a l l for'.his Japanese as I have i n h i s own v i e w he w r o t e style prose said, on the subject, mean i n the Japanese apparent pline t o him as an a r t ) , Shiga uses describe tessence the that o f good skillful something Of akin, this of many i t seems, then, does much was which — the author must developed to explain Shiga c r i t i c s "rhythm" t o be t h e q u i n a matter of of a - - some- talented being. (Perhaps fixation" he was h i m s e l f , charismatic by a l l person). one's of "life-force". be n o t j u s t from a kind and s p i r i t " concept human tell disci- word the "biographical — (I f o r i tbe- the words", "mind to the Shavian be i t i s , one might s a y , "between the author's "One c a n a l w a y s the English i s not merely o f words In a as a writer a spiritual he c o n s i d e r s an i m p r e s s i v e , almost to Shiga: a s much This almost a highly Japanese accounts, ing from but also view writing. communicated necessity, artist quality arrangement "reverberation" what writing might o f do o r m i c h i , comes to that o c c u p i e s an which a p e r s o n a l m a n i f e s t o o f h i s "way" sense i n schools of literature. considered "way" ( i t i s used, own Accord- reaction on reading bility the has used paintings, a this (or their books — a l l good pleasure spiritual opened to whatever he since deeds, real of while the of communion qualities with have then, great hidden the is works words, this is or good effect the men: within rhythm pronouncements pleasure...Good reading, sensi- w r o t e . A n d with their works author's the " A l l encounters us kind feebly) rhythm gives true - irrelevant, same: whether good The 1 strongly with the men, writings, us.""*" how i s almost basically superior their story pulsated medium always of a 18 upon pleasure "Our of eyes are we might ourselves 12 share with them. Our "quasi-mystical" highly of Shiga's ready all sense with to works of man, of means for at in and his than in "Aru Asa": content other of saw this with a of the as most we literature of his of transmitted as also theme to communion sense itself is seen, "is a l - struggle members be This recurrent have total concrete could taut..." literature hero's other his that a overcome with his family, and "rhythm" as from to very man practical communion. according in the of the achieving With grow function theme w h i c h , force achieving discussion any a obviously spirit i s probably and large. Furthermore, form what and the a l i e n a t i o n by natural Shiga of particularly nature kind man, view adumbrated fellow a relevant mind work Ihara to of Shiga literature. Saikaku, Japanese "rhythm" the He writer tradition: transcends both makes clear he this admired "Saikaku's more Ogeba and Oridome are written strong rhythm. in 'floating the the reader Their with cool, subjects world'; which a and clean detachment are various y e t they trivial have I mentioned before: a that and a occurrences effect tightening up upon of one's 13 mind and spirit." even out of masterful "trivial" on this "splendid" for the point. but does by is little "not a xndxcate, have the the but like story as matter, a of there finds the of boy, as he art commands a If this no such were a ishly" towards h i s grandmother Japan, where i s n o t t o be r e l a t i o n s were a t home u n t i l i s not to to freely necessarily appreciate be enjoy different imthe fo his own "comparative i t may a c t so oppressively married, who this so, i t would should i s Surely to the contemporary man he the hero, but, i n the context at. compensates to does as be seem f o r instance, year-old wondered not very case, to would behaviour reader reprehensible lived of words 15 one discipline that men and — values In the present twenty-five "Aru Asa" with In p a r t i c u l a r , the hero's reader young of this sufficiently 14 "ad hominem" or even haviour great eye-to-eye of twenty-five". cultures with family style his actions "cosmopolitan" be n o t see self-centeredness" approve of story. that implausible where t o make providing i t s contents. "Immature would literature". does not f e e l arguing f o r the literature and i s able Mathy a g r o w n man to marally possible -- He "triviality" much subject Francis irritated too a writer style. Apparently, Shiga Thus Western "child- of close seem Meiji and Shintaro's be- But me, in there fact, that achievement. ingly like beauty, modern art once story, Shiga a has authorial possessed at beneath of high much has only and who has eye this seems a calm, life the a one to the and pair of must his The the since point into be his them shoes, fabled not seem- Ever a King Midas, by miracles of "rhythm". the He human disturbing uneventful is short misled insight into show us seemingly old s t y l e or of small, after a l l ,i s , incident the to Shiga's turned else. accomplishes of of seems beholder. Like powers him essence i f nothing he force enables of trivial. -- It Triviality, of But here. taken "trivial" touch. the the very order. considerable this the painting us stake everyday i n the turned by at forces surface of every- life. On after closer a l l . themes As view, I individual issue of Meiji period. Watakushi i t is and then, have i s prefigured perspective, "the a golden psyche, day of pronouncements not work events longer the a writer taught Shiga issue misses splendid has i t no alchemy art very Gogh d i d also is insignificant literary that larger Mathy Here into Van is a 20 - his already in the this needs no upsurge short was (My in does very of a seen seem in so "trivial" Shiga's from a man's social much Natsume not oneoof work: between part discussing Kojinshugi remarkable as Asa" indicated, conflict "individualism" In "Aru a "social" needs group. major as an The whole late the air in the Soseki's famous talk, Individualism), individualism Jay that Rubin followed notes the - 21 16 Russo-Japanese ture, of War "naturalist fiction, t h e i n d i v i d u a l , was too, both with the "tension mergence trasts between h i s own In the realm i t s emphasis and t h e l o n g i n g In h i s talk, independent o f Japanese stance was Soseki concerned t o modern, f o r emotional sub- f o r instance, the he con- "feudalistic" B u t he a l s o a d m i t s 19 suffering the "loneliness of individualism". S u c h Meijii> 20 as Soseki ualism" as an e s s e n t i a l they were In Shiga the older how values lem own will problem t o be worked with he r e j e c t e d Kanzo — traditional when they But, unlike individualism as an f o r instance, Japanese cultural i t i s f o r him a p e r s o n a l of h i s w i l l as opposed standards tohis to h i s family's of behaviour. (In of the Christian on i d e o l o g i c a l as on threatened prob- relations with h i s to a c t according the teachings n o t s o much culture as an i n d i v i d u a l , of h i s time. not approach to their "individ- t o Japan. rights i n s t i n c t s and f e e l i n g s , same way Uchimura t o import rather saw o f the Western out i n h i s day-to-day he c o n f o r m doubt he i s n o t c o n c e r n e d , I t i s a matter that grounds — i n the abstract; deepest Mo o n h i s own he d o e s i tconflicts family. Ogai. c e r t a i n l y a product writers, groups. ingredient trying his insistence intellectual with and Mori so b u s i l y t o o was literary with litera- And and i n h i s novels, commitment of on the l i b e r a t i o n i n popularity." a proud individualism 18 writers the talk i n the group." cliquishness with gaining i n h i s public rationalistic to o f 1904-1905." to interfere with leader personal what he - 22 considered to be the " n a t u r a l ^ f r e e e x p r e s s i o n of h i s sexual 21 instincts. ). Thus Shiga d i d not s u f f e r from any vague, q u a s i - m e t a p h y s i c a l sense of a l i e n a t i o n such as h i s more i n t e l l e c t u a l contemporary, Akutagawa Ryunosuke, gave as h i s 22 reason f o r committing s u i c i d e ; and, s i n c e he was not con- cerned w i t h any " l a r g e r " p o l i t i c a l or p h i l o s o p h i c a l once he was issue, completely " r e c o n c i l e d " with h i s f a m i l y , he able t o spend the r e s t of h i s long l i f e q u i l s t a t e of mind To those who in a relatively was tran- (and, i r o n i c a l l y , w a i t i n g very l i t t l e ) . would accuse Shiga of having too "narrow" a scope as a w r i t e r , one might quote some eloquent words o f his g r e a t e s t a p o l o g i s t , the "dean o f Japanese critics", Kobayashi Hideo; "Empty thought can go anywhere, my own can t r e a d only a small b i t of ground. life, not I must s h o r t l y d i e . have many l o v e r s . feet We t h i n k of e t e r n a l I cannot have many f r i e n d s , I can- The t h i n g s to which I can g i v e assent from my v e r y e n t r a i l s add up to but a t i n y sum, the people I can love and hate can number no more than the few immedi a t e l y beside me. is T h i s i s the s t a t e of l i f e f o r everyone...The from h i s own f o r me, and i t f a c t t h a t the w r i t e r does not depart l i f e means t h a t he g i v e s i t h i s a s s e n t , and i t 23 alone." The d i s t i n g u i s h e d s c h o l a r Nakamura Hajime has de- voted a good p a r t of a l e n g t h y volume to demonstrating the 24 e s s e n t i a l "down-to-earthness" but of the Japanese world-view, i t i s d o u b t f u l whether anyone has expressed i t b e t t e r than Kobayashi i n t h i s b r i e f passage. Shiga h i m s e l f has put w h a t we ly: is may "A of him regard as superficial little to to Even to those small Shiga's credo" r a r e and things that to than Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r f o r i n s t a n c e , would Shiga story "utamonogatari" Ise Monogatari was provided was usually served to of to lyrical the "a i t that of and period, have or lyrics...So The that i t i s with awareness. i t offers The whole a is see be the as the ground ground itself It but The i s to be f o r the as forever not. such judged are. the Shiga. setting i s to are value. a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l background extent us they v e r s i o n of literary for i t is non-fictional lyrics. slight Mathy "poem-tales" fictional of readers i t clearly modern-day succession of formless the Heian i n which for a of a kind the s e t o f f the triviality given of as important t h i n g s " f o r what t o make succinct- 25 f o r Western h i s work of more sensational events deeply." trying typical out even I t i s more "small sympathetic something of writer. i t seems accept more the even Unfortunately, difficult "writer's experience value experience his 23 - for- moments a unified 26 work of this may fiction be sympathetic no regarded Western of "triviality", of h i s Japanese Triviality, And, as more as as than i s an a valiant critic to 'utamonogatari'." attempt rescue I have Shiga said, i s i n the the "prosy setting" for a eye and few the from at i s i n need i n dismissing Shiga's ' t r i v i a l merely Shiga i t i s d o u b t f u l whether, admirers, on part of the least of of annoying a charge i n the being the While eyes rescued. beholder. reminiscence" "moments o f poetry", it seems the that the -- the substance anyway that merely to stories, any set of the works. would o f f a-few It write out "Arus " p o e t i c moments". If lyrical, i s an long "moments o f including single-mindedly throw the baby "autobiographical background" author in fact, guishable so S e i d e n s t i c k e r would bathwater all, 24 « absurd have Shiga's s u r e l y he i s , after notion stretches of poetry" Asa" with prose -- many o f no such Shiga's distin- i n t e n t i o n s had would have been written poetry. Taking calls on quite the to make To Sibley, of a willful "big Shiga's morning opposite ideas" "small for young cibility towards that can be life and work man not (and, Sibley concedes stiory" that seem Asa" grandmother only that, course, on "represents i t s most larger i s not easel); has i n the the i t s own, than limited." total the life In out story of Oedipal work Asa" is a bed one irrasorigins of Shiga's of Dr. Freud). "slight fiction view, try are. hero's and his to the context personal 27 get who they simply deeoly "Aru Japanese Sibley, psychoanalysis i s r e l u c t a n t to unheard-of of i s William Freudian "Aru who an his tack things" understood at of instance, (surely shosetsu) an (shi- we can begin 28 to make story sense only appears of after the we throughout analysis. Sibley "seemingly have the subjected author's i s not pointless detail" too the entire clear on "Shiga opus to w h a t we Hero" of this as he thorough shall psycho- discover then, b u t i t seems t o have crying spell. I t appears phasis to Shintaro's for h i s dead for h i s treatmentof upset one point, outburts when 'inside' which well sense of i t . they have might felt Most t o complete justified of those they of the author's draw which grief Remorse he h a s been she makes a t ill-tempered who read "AruAsa" d i d not, presumably, could life em- a sudden Or perhaps i n Shirakaba Indeed, inordinate h i s tears? a particularly part. the hero's wonder, to h i s father published knowledge he g i v e s has e l i c i t e d at first on t h e hero's make m u c h that " I s i t , we that reference first t o do w i t h h i s grandmother? provoking i t was t o me tears: grandfather by a b r i e f something not, without some and p e r s o n a l i t y the story. i n not, finally, on And so they caring may t o o much 29 what i t i s that example of the kind inevitably Sibley "Aru from assumes analytical author the "reductive" that insight f o r having the main in the t o t a l of course, matter tion of reductio Shiga h i d them clue, context approach an u n f a i r was i t was — first of psycho- and then he r e b u k e s t h e He w o u l d detective reduce story i n c a n be u n d e r s t o o d "case history" Xand on t h e r e a d e r ) . he n e v e r i n one famous prime to literature: any one p r i n c i p l e that i s a follows sometidbits tears, trick this that too successfully. of the hero's i f there the reader ad absurdum the lines" the hero's t o as a w r i t e r , from T o me psychoanalytical i s playing of fact, cry." has hidden "between A s a " t o a kindcof which hered makes t h e h e r o that withheld instance, he only this, As a Shiga adinformareprimanded Akutagawa story "The "hero" (a for "tricking Martyr", i s actually l a 0. It Henry). seems no mystery In fact, a present a l l about at passage him see that cause of Here, from communion does not belonging world, tense begin to of young while he he of cry too, very end there the hero a n y o n e who in first fact, — give of and up i s not we until he grandmother a which des- over already have of derives, of the tacti- ultimately, intimate world. touches a Shintaro something i n Shiga's "animistic" iDt i s t h i s immediate with her "presence". contact with his "grandmother" which f o r her, obliterating a l l dormant the animosity moments b e f o r e . "Shiga love What hero", as he had causes we felt his shall thus towards tears see, hint grandmother's "objective" which, look strong concreteness actually -- is too to i t eomes his " m y s t i c a l " sense with us is cry". I f we spell" outburst: story, kind story. "crying is folding the even to i n the man's i s famous or to his though traces does, " s u b j e c t i v e " man is filled physical (the the example "poetic" of the psychological profundities Shintaro's i n Shiga's f o r which his transparent Shiga case i t i s t h a t makes happening i n which characteristic tility "what unearthing 'spontaneously" bedding. the i n the is actually the until that, what to that in his 30 notice as way fact" revealed i t is perfectly we this "surprise i s not with cribed, the in just girl preoccupied the reader" wherein t o me at the her i s not does not awakens so just much waste his in- a few remorse time feeling guilty about feeling of replaced simple "doing relief by a release of Japanese "state the to of the an see that prevent right, but i s a l l i n the i s necessary us hero from however real his w e l l be stories) the does historians, i t is interesting by the to of not a simple emotion i n other heed "message" to of grandmother be a the very as shosetsu f o r our observe first "Aru later story, been (literally, of Shiga but have that extraneous understanding how trained emphasize Nothing a much. they to been hero's as shinkyo has words, described, "shosetsu". his or — i t i s important accepting "simple" but negative emotion One loves may literary stories prefigured unpleasant positive t h a t he mind" comes n a t u r a l l y " ) tension. stories "shinkyo" doubt -ot to i s simply Shiga's by that powerful psychoanalyst tears what heroes this Asa" as a story h o w e v e r much of a "small them. No are should in i t s own thing" is is. Long before understood the beauty been has lyrical are cry, essay reduced the to dance i t came beauty into of "minimal hauntingly on the the No i n the art". evoked play, barest is little vogue by Taema: essentials. more than West, The power Kobayashi "Music The a walk, the this in dance music and of Hideo and Japanese and is like the his song song a is like 31 ordinary prayer. Similarly things" Shiga's are to be I t i s enough. i s an a r t of appreciated What else is needed?" ^barest essentials". in a l l their simple, His "small immediate r e a l i t y , i n t h e i r "suchness" 28 - (sono mama) t o use a Buddhist term, l i k e the f r o g i n Basho's h a i k u , l i k e the rocks i n a Zen temple garden o r , to take a more contemporary l i k e the simple images of f a m i l y l i f e Yasujiro. example, i n the f i l m s o f Ozu As soon as the reader begins t o a n a l y z e , t o i n t e l - l e c t u a l i z e , t o look f o r deep symbolic o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l meanings, he has immediately say. in " l o s t i t " , as the Zen masters O b v i o u s l y t h i s puts the c r i t i c a rather d i f f i c u l t position. s a i d , has undoubtedly (and the graduate student) Kobayashi Hideo, as I have been Shiga's most s u c c e s s f u l a p o l o g i s t , and i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t that he h i m s e l f i s more of an i n t u i t i v e poet or p h i l o s o p h e r than an "orthodox" analytical c r i t i c i n the Western sense -- h i s i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c , o r a c u l a r pronounce- ments, though h i g h l y s u g g e s t i v e , are o f t e n f a r more d i f f i c u l t to fathom than the w r i t i n g s they are meant t o e l u c i d a t e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s Kobayashi's t i o n a l Japanese understanding of the t r a d i - a e s t h e t i c s e n s i b i l i t y , as r e v e a l e d i n the essay j u s t quoted, t h a t enables him to a p p r e c i a t e Shiga's work so deeply. "Aru Asa", then, i s the simple s t o r y of a young man's a l t e r c a t i o n and e v e n t u a l r e c o n c i l i a t i o n with h i s grandmother. But i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t i t a n t i c i p a t e s i n t h i s , as we s h a l l see, the b a s i c p a t t e r n of the " a c t i o n " i n many of Shiga's l a t e r s t o r i e s , i n c l u d i n g h i s two major works length and i n q u a l i t y ) : (A Dark Night's P a s s i n g ) . Wakai (both i n ( R e c o n c i l i a t i o n and An'ya Koro The cause o f the r i f t between the Shiga hero forward his as being society and- h i s f a m i l y i s not in Asa", more w i l l f u l permits; phasizes more feelings to tion" once he few his than run has mood insults advice. the becomes We way may by she agree has with beauty" is a but, hero story, we only a em- allow his "reconcilia- observe that, pestering, after humbled with Shiga must before do he has herself by that thrown asking this is nevertheless, i t is convincingly essay primary the straight- Japanese what F r a n c i s Mathy therefore, "natural". excellent stories, conciliatory and than h i s grandmother's human i n an to present behaviour out i t g e n e r a l l y has course "childish" and, or i s that "natural" In so "self-oriented" anything angered her clear i n a l l these their been though and but, i s possible. Shintaro's a "Aru always on quality As Ueda Makoto has Shiga's aesthetics, "natural i n Shiga's concept of pointed the "ideal 32 novel". trees But — natural this does i t i s , above beauty comes all, from honestly, i n accordance would repress not convention...He self even father his pure for or his would survival to was the reader belong his a man inmost feelings lead death beautiful, 33 to mountains human b e a u t y : f o l l o w the to morally only observing with i n his motives." the a true i f that would even not to of i n the because approve conducts interest of his he A was, man of a hero as a of man social innermost with his fighting i f nothing necessary, of himself Such explosive clash his wife. I t i s not who impression feelings. dictates an "An and I have i n order to for else, said, derive aesthetic Asa", we satisfaction have "natural"— far more But Shiga at of "Aru now, i n seeming having the the author written this as Shiga's hero, as entry of Shiga intellectual we the first, morning In about p r e v i o u s day, changed "non-f ictcbon". In a to confusing the he is perhaps, prob- case of to have 1908, he a quarrel ("Hi-Shosetsu, later "Aru counts critical seemed 14, — what central January in abstraction. close approach "fiction". himself, at here, instincts come p e r i l o u s l y viewpoint, the And " a m o r a l i t y " : the intuitions, a mere Shiga Grandmother" though, work to during the h i s grandmother Non-Story, -- i t s status In h i s d i a r y ficantly, of "moral" a Western h i s work: of feelings, the from doubts. "A gut - his portrayal. taste than Asa", with raw first himself with least lem our from 30 his notes he had that, had called the piece: Sobo")\ i 3 4 Signi- h i s mind about commentary on the status i t written 35 in 1928, may d e s c r i b e s i t as speculate that, tues had a work of after was all, likely As he matured to s e t h i s own "Aru shosetsu Asa" his first i n the meantime, fiction become more was, and he or a avid t o be i s the of influenced aesthetic of Chekhov, by Western naturally The One what or, young Tolstoy concepts developed the constiperhaps, Shiga and Fikaubert of fiction. confidence standards. first ("I-novels" or h i s view Japanese. reader i n h i s a r t he story". s h o s e t s u had broadened 36 traditionally an "short in a long line of "personal f i c t i o n s " ) , Shiga's s h i stories closely based or on less are the of identifiable hesitant fiction. as events or "unformed jotting as even Edward his own refuse to scarcely and featuring Certain accept Seidensticker may - life himself. reminiscence" that 31 Western such describes works the and as a seem to deserve a "form hero more critics as "legitimate" shi-shosetsu of autobiographical the name fiction at 37 all." "Aru he Francis Asa": "The laments theory able of to Mathy makes that piece the prose same p o i n t i s hardly more than a u t h o r i w a s 'hampered fiction" transcend the the 39 although r i n regard a by sketch..." an and impossible occasionally autobiographical to 3 8 mode a n d "Shiga find was objective 40 fictional Japanese symbols critic, "tempted" to and these in fiction seems more that, — A —which into has novel, of — one to object novels of Joyce's could the go Western structured "works to autobiography this states." Even a said that he was An' y a Koro as "non- of Seidensticker, du on per for se. of Temps at of are the the the the most as a Young Lawrence's these effect, "the Sons But works Japanese calls pre- largely indefinitely. aesthetic instance, very Artist Perdu, least, than course, Many o f century almost eye fiction" for i s not, Portrait l a Recherche consciously shaped Shiga," s critics Western Proust's Lovers inner Nakamura M i t s u o , autobiographical Man, his ^ What celebrated express describe Oiiterature" . sence to i t appear more finely shi-shosetsu unshapen Snes". 4 But this exactly sense what made h i m of "formal Shiga eschew (koshiraemono, to use (We have the the formal i t seems His smacked word by a Nor novel", the of aversion i s he (hanashi no of is the "natural" father of Western the some o f in this nai shi- novel^ ) a conventional to alone t o me, fabrication certain plot-structure his love of which denounced stories.) "storyless avoid. that already mentioned well-plotted for to the s h o s e t s u , Tayama K a t a i , —including structure", wished anything 32- fiction. Akutagawa's predeliction shosetsu) to use 43b the term fact, Akutagawa he has tradition that a very behind merely himself substantial him. "tells a The l i n e a g e i n both emb odied i n the out in his term light fiction, serious it was a for As collection -- tales', contains was field t o fame and s o c i a l C o n f u c i u s no d o u b t not a and and, i n which literary 44 prestige." h a d much t o do or has as points stories: (shosetsu in undertone every a the ambition a fact, Franke Chinese indeed unlike poetry fiction i t i s , in certain generally regarded literary sense Herbert of In Japanese "popular" Japan shosetsu. a work. conventional and Narrative prose, literature, not to the f o r n o v e l l a s , Hsiao-shuo 'little disparagement. i n the China word introduction Chinese Japanese), very Shiga's part of contempt story" venerable "The a p p l i e d to sort branch formal could of of of essay, lead on The s t e r n s t r i c t u r e s o f with this. Like Plato in 45 a famous took passage a dim view of of the the Republic fictive the Chinese imagination, philosopher a b j u r i n g any talk - 33 - of " m i r a c l e s , a c t s of v i o l e n c e , t r o u b l e s , and ghosts." T h i s s t r i c t Confucian a t t i t u d e seems to have been along with much e l s e , i n t o --Japan. ; of the Heian p e r i o d , as we while the men 46 imported, The g r e a t works of fiction a l l know, were w r i t t e n by women, were occupied with the more " s e r i o u s " business of w r i t i n g C h i n e s e - s t y l e poems and essays. Lady Muraskaki i s o b v i o u s l y responding to the charge of " f a l s i t y " o f t e n l e v e l e d a g a i n s t the novel i n her day when she puts her famous "defense of f i c t i o n " i n t o the mouth of B r i n c e G e n j i : "The C h r o n i c l e s of Japan and the r e s t are a mere fragment of the whole t r u t h . I t i s your romances t h a t f i l l i n the details... There are d i f f e r e n c e s i n the degree of s e r i o u s n e s s . d i s m i s s them as l i e s i s i t s e l f to depart from the But to truth... 47 He now seemed bent on e s t a b l i s h i n g the uses of Murasaki's arguments f a i l e d to convince the l i t e r a r y ment, though. Norinaga was all, fiction." U n t i l the a r r i v a l of the g r e a t c r i t i c i n the e i g h t e e n t h century, even her own establishMotoori masterpiece rendered acceptable to Buddhists and Confucians, i f a t only by being c o n t o r t e d t o f i t v a r i o u s a l l e g o r i c a l interpretations. Meanwhile, the "mainstream" t r a d i t i o n of Japanese l i t e r a t u r e continued to c o n s i s t of d i a r i e s , (fandom e s s a y s ) , haibun (poems mixed with prose) zuihitsu and so on. (A l i t e r a t u r e , i n o t h e r words, of the " p e r s o n a l " or lyric r a t h e r than <bf the e p i c or dramatic mode.) F i c t i o n may seem t o have enjoyed something of a r e n a i s - sance with the a r r i v a l of Ihara Saikaku i n the l a t e seventeenth century. As geration to Donald say Keene that he 34 - remarks, " i t i s not r e - e s t a b l i s h e d prose much of fiction an exag- as an 48 art after But, for as Keene the light, four comic zoshi Hibbitt, of his tales what hundred also points content world"; ukiyo over sets of out, apart like the anenymous w r i t i n g s . " which pleasure from i s his masterful Saikaku, of Saikaku stories, the him years i s admired are, quarters, countless style. great for In woodblock the the so much most part, "floating other the not writers words print of of Howard artists, 49 achieves his Indeed, as Saikaku more "Their "finest we have than subjects world'; and already any are yet effects other have sheery seen, various they by Shiga Japanese trivial that stylistic himself, writer, who said occurrences effect upon verve." the admired of his i n the reader works: 'floating which I 50 mentioned This was In before: because other nothing to fiction per literary this of view of t i g h t e n i n g up the words, change se the was was of an And provided the great by as of view certainly of Keene of mind the p o p u l a r i t y of appropriate any one's rhythm" traditional not that, "strong the expression. ukiyo-zochi incidents a no licensed quarters author's Saikaku style. did medium for "serious" cause for a were or spirit." that well-plotted Saikaku's says, and to change successors, "devoted the to in writers trivial implausible doings 51 of paper-thin style, i f at heroes," and that a l l , only because resemble they were Saikaku's directly works in plagiarized from him.~'" over the centuries — Bakin. be Bakin s 1 together "low of course, himself novels, with considered Akinari fiction and Takizawa with works t o his non-fiction,^' were lumped of his era (literally, terms, "originally exceptions his fictional heavily didactic, i n Keene's t h a t was Ueda i n comparison though the gesaku — a few i m p o r t a n t i n particular, consequence" works") term were, But A k i n a r i of "small and a There L the "playful intended the compositions", to indicate that the 53 author disclaimed responsibility general trend o f Japanese ized by Ivan Morris: ever s i n c e the days down o n p r o s e only such this long an ambiguous Meiji" were garded as such As Ivan work an country, to find says: "One r e s u l t and then The summar- and indeed s c h o l a r s have breeds." them as b e i n g f i t 54 of fiction wonder that that having t h e "men o f the novel i n the nineteenth looked was r e - century of the introduction West. of was t o enhance t h e p o s i t i o n o f prose f i c - T s u b o u c h i S h o y o ' s S h o s e t s u S h i n z u i (The Shoyo planning behind a r t form of theoretical steady startled of the Novel), a r t form. i s bluntly regarded and the l e s s e r a high literature 55 i n Japan." Essence was w i d e l y tradition somewhat Morris of Genji, status, i t i s l i t t l e Western tion which opinion work". t h e Tokugawa p e r i o d , o f The T a l e f o r women, c h i l d r e n , With critical "During fiction, for a frivolous w r i t t e n i n 1 8 8 5 , was criticism laments expresses from now to take the novel the low s t a t e the pious the f i r s t hope seriously of f i c t i o n that on f o r t h e improvement Japanese as i n his "by d i n t of of our novels we may 36 - f i n a l l y be able to surpass i n q u a l i t y the European novels, and permit our novels to take a g l o r i o u s place with p a i n t i n g , music, and poetry along on the a l t a r of the a r t s . " " ^ At f i r s t M e i j i w r i t e r s t r i e d to i m i t a t e t h e i r Western models as d u t i f u l l y as they c o u l d , w r i t i n g p o l i t i c a l a l a D i s r a e l i and novels novels of s o c i a l concern a la. Z o l a . But i t d i d not take long f o r the n a t i v e t r a d i t i o n to r e a s s e r t itself, though under the guise of the very modern-sounding " n a t u r a l ism". From the o u t s e t , as Ivan M o r r i s p o i n t s out, naturalism had began to diverge inspired i t . The served from the movement i n Europe t h a t p u b l i c a t i o n i n 19 08 of Futon a novel by Tayama K a t a i , one of the (The Q u i l t ^ leading n a t u r a l i s t s , to e s t a b l i s h the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l dard as the standard "Japanese approach as the stan- f o r Japanese w r i t e r s of the n a t u r a l i s t 57 school." Where the French n a t u r a l i s t s , aiming to g i v e p o r t r a i t of a whole s o c i e t y , c r e a t e d h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d novels f e a t u r i n g a broad range of c h a r a c t e r s , p a r t s focused shosetsu. t h e i r Japanese counter- e x c l u s i v e l y on the everyday events of t h e i r . rather uneventful fashion. the lives, writing i n a discursive, diary-like Thus began the t r a d i t i o n of the modern Japanese s h i "The main legacy of n a t u r a l i s m i n Japan has the b e l i e f of many w r i t e r s t h a t the only worthwhile been and ' s i n c e r e ' form of l i t e r a t u r e i s t h a t which takes i t s m a t e r i a l d i r e c t l y from the f a c t s of the author's p h y s i c a l and life. T h i s trend a f f e c t e d s e v e r a l w r i t e r s who r e s p e c t s s t r o n g l y opposed to the n a t u r a l i s t s . 58 was Shiga Naoya." spiritual were i n other Among them The form foremost practitioner o f n o v e l - w r i t i n g , Natsume naturalists as a r a t h e r t o I t o S e i , they his were realities, the writer with "Western" was r e g a r d e d panderer "criticized a l l 'fictions' and t h a t Soseki, superficial According works o f t h e d a y o f a more by t h e t o popular Soseki, saying that no d e s c r i p t i o n s o f should fully expose taste harsh himself 59 in h i s works." graphical When novel, "generally as the only may have suasive tioned for Michikusa appreciated and that a personal novel that of Soseki's because the t r a d i t i o n a l he r e a l i z e d i n Shiga's of the shi-shosetsu. day i s c l e a r l y Kume such Western classies a s War a n d P e a c e , C r i m e Japanese Kume theme resorts to a rather matter a n d seems how b e a u t i f u l l y trite Taking as to dismissing and Punishment and fabricated up t h e f a m i l i a r of conventional metaphor: produced, close novels, of the " a r t i f i c i a l i t y " i n an the I-novel writing" f o rentertainment." was regards of prose popular 61 grounds bias shown men- t h e best-known essense just the per- perhaps "the as "great works, As I have "anti-fiction" w r i t t e n i n 1 9 2 5 b y Kume M a s a o , stories entire i n Japanese s o c i e t y s o l i d 6 0 to win readers." alive Bovary i t was exist essay Madame autobio- o f t h e name o f n o v e l . . . S o s e k i t o o very and an by t h e Wayside), still apologist much d i dwrite t h a t mode o f w r i t i n g h a d . there fact (Grass 'I' novel before, The finally as t h e b e s t one worthy w r i t t e n an power Soseki "I think an a r t i f i c i a l fiction t h a t no flower falls too far short Edward of one i n wile literature" view i s the - nature." S e i d e n s t i c k e r has "anti-fiction" 38 shown that peculiarly (jun bungaku) , w h i c h 6 2 at the Japanese has played basis of concept an this o f 'pure important part 6 3 in indigenous It may seem readers, which paradoxical but in this is entirely completely sonal would not which even Japanese literarily product critics Seidensticker but as as a the Meiji the novel writer's one which critics, "literature" at suzbku, out slick at the period. Western i s not the one imagination (i.e. is intimately (i.e. autobiographical) pointed " o f t e n have "pure" the standing i s the has the of since contradictory to some W e s t e r n regard "pure" novel even context self-revelatory works writers a the or "fictional") and words, by t h e o r i e s of as we all. -- in have other seen, What opposite per- is pole seen to the popular fiction. (And, elsewhere, Japanese popular patness in their plotting as that 64 would Thus be the novel" Jun to for of tendency the of a "popular" Bungaku Yogisetsu the a as worthy financially living and most skillful critics to novel.) science-fiction regard the " w e l l - p l o t t e d Kume M a s a o , (Pure L i t e r a t u r e as 'pure in his 1935 Avocation), straightened literatus producing writer." essay, recommends "writing pot-boilers literature' i n one's spare 65a time". the He Shiga's work as the "highest peak" of pure. Kume's as offers "pure strictures literature" setting are, of up the course, autobiographical every b i t as novel narrow as those of Western critics that regard Needless to say, Shiga excesses of h i s apologists. one o f Akutagawa's ending", as "fictional" h i s views preference aesthetic than Indeed, literary implies, one else. we graphical Western that the Shiga is that those less readers just stories chose versus f o rthe he d i d a t t a c k "surprise wrote t o do some so. "non-fiction" o f some highly In other were n o t of h i s apologists. one. whether claimed t o have Japanese. were legitimate S e i d e n s t i c k e r makes chose Shiga read well prepared as q u i t e i f only as Ivan little shosetsu. the interesting "Perhaps lyrics-with-setting and so t o arouse false expectations as change and f o l l o w e r s their shosetsu claim i n t h e end one's and h i s c o l l e a g u e s to rendering tradi- And what o f to give accustomed thing autobio- the s h i - s h o s e t s u would works: any- Western by t h e l o n g his "plotless" Morris o r by But the important to accept against was i n f l u e n c e d o f the Shirakaba-ha, reviewed be w e l l Shiga by t h e n a t u r a l i s t s , designation of their they seen, he h i m s e l f as those at a l l — and even complaint shosetsu, of "fiction" himself readers? genre have when he i t i s questionable a l l would chief hand, an i d e o l o g i c a l trends have accountable f o r t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l mode was m o r e a n t h a t Japanese tion "non-literature". for i t s artificial b y h i s f e l l o w members literature is on be h e l d A s we works exclusive or doctrinaire His by stories b u t , on t h e o t h e r successful words, cannot i t as t h e name i n the breasts 'short story 1 or 'novel'."^ We gestion Shiga that expectations" may of Western readers the shosetsu). down t o a simple to paraphrase by any o t h e r f o r a moment, e t a l must Japanese word overlook, would be h e l d readers n o t have But does matter the Bard, name? 40 - responsible ( f o r , a s we such t h e whole a shi-shosetsu a Western have problem reader "false pointed out, aroused really o f genres? smell sug- f o r the expectations of the confusion Would the strange as bad suddenly by boil Would n o t , ( o r a s good) cease to 67 find if Shiga's he were stories told they "wearisome", were setting" or utamonogatari? sition. One one's we eyes — are really We might stories a can change talking ing in a rather doubtful one's that easily bearing come not just of perceiving spirit propo- but not eyes that across i n t h e West. Western imprint o f Andre a truly tend t o be of the of the Gide.) "order- autobioI t seems, fundamental the world say, But Western novels, i n aesthetic values concept autobiographical as one r e a d s , i n the aesthetics). "Japanese enough Shiga's f o r instance, and approaching of course, "lyrics-with- conditioned a strong or the journals have here, distinctive that like (One t h i n k s , we word, here. o r an a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f Rousseau fact, glasses i n t h e same s t r u c t u r e d works reflected, the I t seems and a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s , difference way by about be r e a d intellect". graphy stories" say, f o r instance, literary diary highly not "short and i t i s t h e c u l t u r a l l y should diaries t o use Seidensticker's cultural b u t i n t h e whole (which i s i n turn I n commenting of structural unity", on Ueda - 41 Makoto remarks: principle in the that of "Japanese unity structure could and of admit into i f they wanted prose, which natural The loosely of a his of view to of human A constructed that one life measure large emphasize rhythm i n fact/ especially life logically the together. logically nected a than Genjim incidents even logical structure. are Lady of that life, tragedy but i s essentially constructed. says The work of logical; stories make use does so; series loosely lies is traditionally the of short seldom but tight, only i s never a l l this and of present a dramatic irrational of language, certainly plays, arts work of the discursive speaks series beneath of importance Chikamatsu i n themselves Norinaga a those the which could his historical another... Perhaps the of as intellect poetic Murasaki i s almost plot of i s true i s s u p p o s e d l y more never logic role about strung plays, the talking coherent of shun to...When smoothness, Tale this themselves aestheticians logically generally t r y to minimize a work; reason Japanese arts con- a Japanese: universe i s a r t , i f i t aims to not copy 68 life and anture (underlining This nent to faithfully, my last cannot have a logical structure." own) sentence, Shiga's works. i t seems The only t o me, logic i s especially they possess perti- i s , as K o b a y a s h i Hideo has s a i d , the " l o g i c o f e v e r y d a y l i f e " . o t h e r w o r d s , S h i g a ' s n a r r a t i v e s do n o t p r o g r e s s i n t h e 69 In linear, 70 syllogistic with a fashion "logical" of the classic Aristotelean cause-and-effect relation plot-line, between a clearly identifiable in his beginning, stories are 42 middle linked - and in a end. Rather, lossely the associative events manner 71 reminiscent of Japanese of t h e 'randomness" of this technique Kobayashi His has trials Already of writing of those in life i s one said are of linked "Aru verse itself. of a a i n w h i c h 'the "His growing Asa" we The ) - - o r , total indeed, aesthetic effect quiet, relaxed naturalness. Shiga: of (renga can logic s p i r i t does 72 tree." see of the not results everyday life know of drama. this itself As method becomes 73 the logic involved of literary here -- merely a matter writer must and of exerc series sseen, of ise great Shiga conveys short narrative quote again from writer succeeded even v i o l e n t l y , ( U n d e r l i n i n g my to see with literary as wresting own.) Shiga's they and a few "Since value well of as from and able to get economy, own life Naoya life Ueda to have feel of in just bed. a learned mature in full works. f l o w e r , we must go on to To from i t i s , no in a work boldly, of a r t . " the some o f 74 "natural 75 plot" few dialogue. has calls details we out of as The complex Tayama K a t a i Shiga what As rather snatches daily his art of a art expect, happen". events. is finally -- might in selecting through he i s a delicate one of admirable Kobayashi: the has go before sentences as course h i s grandmother Maupassant But "natural" a l l this as sensitivity S h i n t a r o must with not, reporting "things mood-changes "reconciled" There i t is certainly i n f o l l o w i n g the already creation." his more Chapter 2 "Kinosaki ffy ni te" written i n 1917, almost becomes evident, on achieved fact, full one stories the has with tween the he The opens but with which a ato onsen e dekaketa." line, I went alone This "practicality" not so rare generally a soon had by te" now i s , in anthologized (After to is a quality to be ^ us no i s thus de example in and ) of suffered so that notices not casual as a what no train first of the matter kega Kinosaki on style i n Japanese circumlocutory. in sentence, the to Yamanote con- Tanizaki calls Shiga's be- poetry. heart Tajima them relationship spring i n Tajima of of n i hanetobasarete h i t by hot world death, vigorous the densha being of The as which recently overlook into i n E n g l i s h as more has intensity. Kinosaki fine i n the omnipresence yosei n i , hitori (jitsuyo tends t h a t he topically takes o valesce.) It encounters manifested associative "Yamanote-sen sono widely three described immediately: shita, Shiga "Kinosaki n i normally and incidents words wasted, as the would narrative story to clarity three Asa". that p r a i s e d and accident conventional no story, writer. death sensitive abnormal "Aru was Japan.^ notices things an a (At K i n o s a k i ) after this widely near-fatal made h i m with as ^ i s s t r u c t u r e d around n a r r a t o r has A decade reading most modern «» Jv»f a maturity story nature. he of of The the 43 - -- prose, the perhaps which - 44 In has the f i r s t paragraph not yet completely we escaped cording to h i s doctor, there develop tuberculosis Thus he t a k e s sees way from i t one morning to his hotel. The impact i s with this narrator's death-oriented consciousness two by a g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n of ways: t h e dead bee, i t s legs "doubled might fatal. the smallest a dead bee. He the entrance- sight has on t h e i s made real of the pathetic tight ac- him. o f t h e genkan, which he prove i n even around "encounter" on t h e r o o f the narrator that could interest i n the world first that a chance o f the spine, which of death narrator's told t h e shadow o f d e a t h : i s s t i l l an understandable manifestations The are also under t o us i n figure i t " and " i t s 3 feelers dropped untidily the dead it: "The i n d u s t r i o u s life. it, bee w i t h over t h e many i t s head" living living bees The o t h e r b e s i d e them, s t i l l bees gave rolled i n t h e same s p o t w h e n e v e r , and by a c o n t r a s t swarming busily so c o m p l e t e l y over with I looked of around a sense i t s legs of udder a t i t , morning, 4 noon, night are then "It g a v e me — told how completely explicitly a feeling the evening when a sense of the narrator's of utter was chonely t o s e e t h e d e a d in i t gave quietness. body the rest left had gone of death." emotional We response: Of l o n e l i n e s s . t h e r e on t h e c o l d inside. It tile A n d a t t h e same 5 time in i t was Shiga's world tranquil, soothing." shi-shosetsu: o f human r e l a t i o n s , This i s a familiar pattern a graphic evocation of the natural f o l l o w e d by an extended analysis of the narrator's other words, a usually continual rather complex responses r e c i p r o c a t i o n between — outer in and inner worlds. As ponse i s evident to his positive he He After imagines quiet first one. death. now. mentions Crime" I that dead (Han -- no wife. his the the been washed working a written $ Chinese mood point of a juggler, would view, "to in her might remark Without here Shiga in that close to a Shiga's had to describe of The House of "the he urge disturbed that of never was that &he did write there". my hero way of u He of a t rains, "how no longer "Han's 'fictional" murdered rewrite her his the story murdered Beauties novel us the and Wife further: had I was become of "I so writing." one ego) his comes opposite "necrophilic" (Nemureru fortunately Murdered tells alter considered Yasunari, perhaps The facetious, narrative usually thinking long overly his Kawabata B that (or Sleeping $K us being writer "healthy-mindedness", author of i grave". uncomfortably rather q u i e t . H e called 7 quiet the working, that Han, like a motionless: story of res- quietude iaway b y and to , one he narrator's is generally completely only recently the peaceful c e r t a i n nearness present wife's death to has Hanzai i n which from a quote, with somewhere has stories), In bee before felt he above attracted i t lying be the encounter is the i t must moving from Bijo Shiga Han, assures although was much different 9 The from reference is, of course, Night's seem of Kensaku, "positivist"; "fiiendly to portions of the that Shiga "Kinosaki less and he a "A large to get small rat skewer Some o f creature the some r o c k s bank and itself but from The narrator see the and turns 13 encounter Walking crowd of some e i g h t so back One one a from ten are into at the see the the four i t . the nothing how scene: nature rather t©wn along finds the that: desperately long was about below It thrust three the of the un- struggles catches "trying from "I d i d final, the sport desperate be- novel. is a skewer stream, i t same with gathered inches those the his through making but tell at union death or doubt for i t projected stones could of des- narra- see, swimming three hole, could was that bystanders into and people to and throwing away shall i n v e s t i g a t e s , he i n and head least, towards with one. thrown i t falls i t s actions we chapter When h e the somehow. end." penultimate the by as no writing K e n s a k u moves i t s neck, above was "self-dissolution" stream. s k i n of throat.""''"'" as noisy A inches fortunate a been or though, unpleasant had the — second notices through up i n the and away. four of narrator's day, te" true experience more v i o l e n t of ni less Daisen novel present would at Dark i s almost the death" i s true, The save and heco, This Mount climb the Kensaku. as bank feeling A to climactic one i n which ( abhorrent comes on Koro life-affirming mood early time An'ya Passing), perately tor's to to on still itssface, i t not was." want 12 to to Whereas h i s f i r s t of e x p e r i e n c e gave him the u l t i m a t e peace of death, rat i s f a r more d i s t u r b i n g : this suffering lay before feel a certain nearness then, the " I t was the an inviting sight terrible q u i e t I was of the tormented to think after. to that quiet after sense that Even i f I d i d death, s t i l l the 14 struggle that, had "I on t h e way after terrible." as t o do p o w e r f u l l y and w h a t c o u l d be for myself. one to telephone I told I was afraid t h e y w o u l d n o t be w h a t was same t i m e , S t r a n g e l y , though, While out lizard as tosses a the the of evening on stone lizard of stroll, he some- doctor immedworked surprised at i t that, a t how fate, who a stream. 17 the Again, By i s even little he Wishing water merely "to absent-mindedly w h a t seems t o h i m stone more b r i n g s i t about. comes a c r o s s a the water", is killed. the remembers with death agent in i t s direction. twist I asked mind afterward too encounter a rock beside into he hospital death.""^ himself i s the lizard some p e r v e r s e and he f o r an sitting startle fear surprised narrator's final disturbing, t h a t I was rat's: a to operate h a l f - c o n s c i o u s my most i m p o r t a n t " I was t r o u b l e d by The but ready reminded to survive on I was 1 was I decided is the i n advance because afterward myself." ^ I as there. E v e n w h e n I was the irresistibly done. he instinct taken iately. at indeed t o be out on and how m i g h t be so w e l l And h i s r e c e n t a c c i d e n t , h i s own w e l l e d up wanted was like scores a d i r e c t h i t Shiga's descriptive powers - are admirably evocative: "The and f e l l i n t o the water. 48 - stone slapped a g a i n s t the rock As i t h i t , the l i z a r d f i v e inches or so to the s i d e . Its t a i l seemed to jump c u r l e d high i n the a i r . . . T h e curved t a i l began q u i e t l y to f a l l back down of i t s own weight. The toes of the p r o j e c t i n g f r o n t f e e t , braced a g a i n s t the slope with kiaee j o i n t s c u t , turned under and lizard f e l l f o r w a r d , a i t s s t r e n g t h gone. Its t a i l the lay f l a t 18 a g a i n s t the rock. I t d i d not move. There i s no t r a c e l e f t now a t t r a c t i o n to death. I t was dead." of the n a r r a t o r ' s p r e v i o u s What e s p e c i a l l y t r o u b l e s him i s the way the l i z a r d ' s death seems such a product of a r b i t r a r y chance. Indeed, long before Camus and Ionesco, Shiga here p r e s e n t s us with an acute sense of the " e x i s t e n t i a l absurdifiy" of the of a l l living creatures: such, but the thought to f i l l e d me "I o f t e n enough k i l l lizards fate and t h a t I had k i l l e d one without i n t e n d i n g w i t h a strange r e v u l s i o n . I had done i t , but 19 from the beginning e n t i r e l y by chance." Contemplating thus theslizard's death, the n a r r a t o r i s f i l l e d with aa sense of the l o n e l i n e s s of the l i v i n g c r e a t u r e " T h i s i s f u r t h e r i n t e n s i f i e d when he t h i n k s now of what might have become of the two other dead c r e a t u r e s , the bee "carried 21 underground by t h a t r a i n " , and the r a t , swept " o f f to sea, probably, and i t s body, b l o a t e d from the water, would be wash22 ing up now with the r u b b i s h on a beach." turned to h i m s e l f : "And I who Hishthoughts had not d i e d was walking then here. I knew ness I should be refused to two grateful. come. To o p p o s i t e extremes. But be the alive There proper and d i d not to feeling be seem dead t o be of happi- were not much differ- 23 ence between extreme them. " detachment, darkness: from my left with "the sight, the work rather now. more <5f back feet somber to that the though, i n tone: get spinal the story his with a pessimism inn ground, 24 has kind cut o f f of -- are thus somewhat encounter " I t i s more tuberculosis growing We been final and i n the extreme." narrator e n l i g h t e n e d , by ends, his a g a i n s t the u n c e r t a i n i n the positive I d i d not mood stumbles feeling death. this o f my seemed albeit The he feel devastated, is In with "footnote" that than years that three much I es- 25 caped." Thus opening and closing i s set i n a paragraphs, sort of i n whifcih t h e "frame" by narrator the reminices about the events "at K i n o s a k i " from a d i s t a n c e of three y e a r s . According to Tanikawa Tetsuzo, Japanese w r i t e r s , "from — 26 Akutagawa Ryunosuke on, have l a v i s h e d p r a i s e on t h i s story." What the to the be the the rat, by have excellence of Shiga's on critics me source the bee over directly a and as and to i t s style. of commentary events found this on the period To story: actually water of sincerely i n i t , above illustrate what e x c e l l e n c e , Tanikawa the they praise happened. lizard several about "This too a l l were days. the And feelings from of based the witnessed intended that is considers story deaths really I he quotes is a The all, arose to write i n me at .the to a time." 27 the events The v e r y fact, o f which he w r i t e s "directness" attain. of This then, and " s i n c e r i t y " idea "sincerity" despite that gives that i s by no means the shi-shosetsu, term 50 the writer h i s s t y l e an i t could peculiar Francis slose immediacy, not otherwise to the Mathy's has "but a low p l a c e i s so apologists claim that i n the Western the critical 28 vocabulary." vocabulary that the sincerity with which he an the which concept "Reality Hardy she because Hardy's turn ^ very "felt F.R. or lesser the sensation close indeed realizations") to h i s espousal but onsother Leavis, i n an that example essay "sincerity" must II by E m i l y Bronte Bronte unfavorably i s "dramatizing n o t known less has an advantage out) that •4. ..33 sincerity. sounds To take 0 maintained t r y a n d g i v e some u s e f u l 31 and c a r e f u l u s e . . . " And he g o e s o n t o i s betryingly poem 3 experiences out, i s central critic, a critic as she has c l e a r l y offers (^ who i n the " i n consequence o f and S i n c e r i t y " , m a i n t a i n s " t o which a poem This art. English by a p p r o p r i a t e compare Tolstoy, place i s , of the greater himself points "autobiographical" a term force that of jikkan himself than i t has a high (i.e. persuasive) the a r t i s t 29 distinguished such a writer o f the a r t i s t , as Mathy entitled is less of fact, i s conveying..." Shiga's which, of o f no art i s "infectious" force to As a m a t t e r i t represents with herself i n actual 32 real." And i n reality a profounder one by Thomas i n a situation experience: " t o say i s t o say and what that (it will completer Of on course, this belief point that subjects stances one of the the subject sonal sensations cular poem i s but genuine the Flaubert's dictum: is mark, power-;" 34 oeuvre from And we est that, author's excellence often of circum- found the and choice and A t • l e a s t I have equivocal Coleridge's i s "the interests the unanimity notes genius" immediately "toute there himself private himself. poetic that of experiences, an of mean Leavis i s taken and - "promises from writer the not West. remote where pledge, does i n the very of this 51 of a a per- parti- fallacious might add condamnable ou to this 1'auteur 35 se laisse us against to be every work words, the debate one been has those the i t was most represented Again best that expresses style perceptions of the the that are Hideo of Japanese or author's that, of the the immediacy readers like wings of a a the of eternal as in was well memorable Junichiro.) similes, in appealing: cobra swaying the ptarmigan day which Tanizaki the Japan. Shiga's spontaneity so seems of 36 i s an side" few and find of shi-shosetsu "other with face itself." Japan story-teller, who, indeed, the i t i n Europe i n the "warned i s unworthy apologists vigorously (although sense direct flute, as consummate i t i s Kobayashi Shiga's sound by the Barry, "autobiographical" "sincerity" admirers the thinks between the i t seems the he William i t s condemnation conducted Nevertheless, least, of says i n which egotism, bears and and art and other won of artist, "fictional" at Flaubert, reflected...Sugh supreme In deviner." "His to turning the white with the advent of winter. does not permit of hesitation are found before the The ripples immediacy i n the have of choice reached the of the awareness words. edge of They the 37 pond. -- I t i s d o u b t f u l whether could not attain write directly Yoshida even going details, him this f a r as process simply and "because only necessary "When o n e using is a l l the and this most see this of sentence prose" the by no say degree of immediacy own the not Shiga to purpose. about When i s indeed i n him on to "science of sentence, "^C did they I do to one's something But without writer. The to says select observed: tries true writer's think about attention things I do — i t a l - whatever these are the temperament! even trying process to of unconsciously." though, rhetorie" )• alive", I w r i t e down o n l y born say, does are superfluous naturally, a comes once writing, i t afterwards'. things i f he of pertinent much, himself other, the writer over, sentences t h i n g and usually other spontaneity, selection d e s c r i b e too particular and Shiga's w r i t e r s agonize "Shiga's do any experience. that belssed with goes (meibun or m a t e r i a l f o r one's operates Yoshida view a -- emphasizes details. essential — selection to they at mind a man the thm also more d i s t r a c t e d i n my of his t h a t most unconsciously, words see the serves remains To looks i t as of naturally. Yoshida, the out Sei-ichi so a miraculous Shiga not He that "Shiga's necessarily notes, from the writing, qualify for instance, point looked as the of at "fine many repetitions following "Su mattaku iru no ni suru ni ippiki, mata ite, i k a n i mo hachi ni hitotsu s o r e wa xxxxxxx ga s t i l l the nokotta cannot, any to And, again, noon or certainly there was e me lying g a v e me g a v e me to saw face the than a see the one exact they dead one that days. of ataeru S o r e wa xxxxxxx tsumetai no mite Hoka kawara Shikashi, bee but effect busjrly busily were around When left I a them, dead looked And on of the they bees things. morning i n e x a c t l y the i t was the that working living beside i t of a l l signiwhatever quietness. dead miru Samishikatta. crawled down a l w a y s feeling o hitotsu o samishikatta. These that three ni i r u no translation g.ave no feeling ga ataeta. tabi i t a . higure, wa o iu kanji natte the bee. the the 39 "They feeling miru ataeta. reproduce dead haimawaru iu kanji to literal they example n i korogatte koto datta." o mo, mono o o miru but I yu shimatta rather the the f o r more lonely kanji an Isogashiku t a c h i h a t a r a i t e mo shinda haitte hive waki i r u mono t o i n Japanese. whenever night, certainly It na shigai to sono hiru as te": s o n o mama n i shizuka their gave mo course, relation certainly lay of repetitions had hodo sue ni nakatta. n i mo following i s a entrance it mina quoting n i utsumuki shizuka i k a n i mo The asa fcka S o r e wa m i k k a xxxxxxx wa ikite ugokazu da. no "Kinosaki yosu i k a n i mo ga phrases, isogashiku wa mattaku sore and from deiri kodei Sono w a k i to, words passage hachi tokoro of same place, thing. It at i t ,i t loneliness. cold roof- - 54tile when fall. But a l s o "In is the others this and Shiga's poetic The wa the writer h a v e made Jibun from jibun wa would o how I_ t r i e d of the are three should b e s o many and d e l e t e d the point forceful of view o f this part of are a part expression impact of h i s to those on h i s mind." as w e l l with as as a 40 sty- the following n i te": no y o na k o t o wa dake yahari koto ga nezumi okottara t o o n a j i yo o o m o w a n a i d e wa no k o t o o shiyo irarena- to shita. Jibun kimeta." ^ 4 J. d o in? night- "there and u n a v o i d a b l e illustrates n i natta i f J- w e r e Would i n t h e same way recalling from a thematic Jibun dekiru there the deepest n i ano nezumi daro. there The r e p e t i t i o n s serve after repetitions has omitted a fault "Kinosaki de b y o i n t h e r a t was may hive remarks, i n which That and g i v e Yoshida suru n i chikai ("What dent. after which jibun do jishin vival sentences a r e two. o f rhythm, a&so "Ima Yoshida are four there repetitions passage, katta. two i s probably purpose. jibun there their tranquil.") alone," mode o f e x p r e s s i o n . sense listic passage into But i t i s a l l a necessary impressions sore even as p o s s i b l e rhetoric. certainly i n which two i n w h i c h much as brief or phrase, repetitions wa i t was one s e n t e n c e same w o r d had a l l gone now i n t h e same I not, after a s t h e r a t was I had behaved much t o do w h a t e v e r could a l l ,struggle doing? like situation that I_ c o u l d when f o r surnot help I_ h a d my p o s s i b l y be done. acci- I_ d e - cided on a hospital "What asks Yoshida. it as to delete an 'jibun' these " I f we example embedded the about for of many o f were bad self then assumes repetitions to isolate style, context, this mode o f a necessary of this i t would repetitions. in i t s original works, - myself.") eight the 55 word passage probably But and the i f we t r y to and be look as part of the examine possible at discern expression which role 'jibun'?" i t as how this emphasizes honest self- 42 absorption of the of the thematic use Shiga;s repeated saki te".) ni Yoshida's tention that technique, rhetoric as we or there any seen, from the of sound Although gists on the return repetitions later w h e n we the this what he good word support style than t o be this i t i s also, we in or rules of himself, define style. the But, more than the very say, con- skill Shiga involves "Kino- Shiga's t r y to good subject examine textbook to might this mere standards. "rhythm" example, and to to (lonely) following regarded d i d not innate seems involves the feelings he to "sabishi" "artificial" above -- word then, i s more used may a writer's shall of other of of (We analysis, quintessence patterns of use whether have see passage." as just pattern thoughts. see eye-to»eye superiority of the with Shiga's shi-shosetsu apologenre 43 per list se, Tanizaki h i m s e l f , was Junichiro, as who unreserved as was certainly anyone else no mean in his we sty- praise of Shiga's style. Of 56 - "Kinosaki ni te" i n particular, he said 43 that i t had quotes style from finest he seems cality" to the shimatta shigai o on cold the entered have miru tile the f a r more h a c h i wa mina su ga tsumetai kawara no ue virtues economy writing. no kawara hachi no see after ue the the of ga Reader) . "practi- an example, mina dead su ni nokotta body left had a l l Tanizaki, way: nokotte Shiga's ni hitotsu says shimatte ni hitotsu As one roundabout ni haitte or o t h e r bees ordinary writer, in a t a no "Ta (...to this to the He Stylistic Shiga's evening Any encountered. a l l i s the tsumetai 45 i n the ever ^t, ^ sentence: wa..." hive.") written ( ) of higure koto had illustrate above ^ partial haitte he to Tokuhon admire (jitsuyo quotes style i t extensively i n h i s Bunsho What he the "Hi sono would ga kureru shigai i t a ga, dake sore o 46 miru had to..." a l l gone behind, izaki up" the hive, on the describes Shiga's up' j?| jffij^ enables more he maeashi arukimawaru no wa ushiroashi aru a and body tile; when I as to having says that convey further hame n o awai ni orita. ga teinei sugu other would bees be left it..."). Tan- "tightened "this very 'tight- i t s impressions illustration kara Soko saw been graphic description de the dead ) and As dark the sentence sentence 47 yane y a t s u mo only fcf> Shiga's "Hachi genkan ya the grown cold clarity." quotes bees: hitomazu o the a l l alone, the point of into (hikishimeta ening all ("After i t had de of this activity surinukete deru hane n i totonoeru hosonagai the of with hane ya to o to shokkaku sukoshi ryoho e shik- - 57 kari t o h a t t e buuun to tobitatsu. Tobitatsu t o kyu ni hayaku 48 natte tonde boards they would walk wings and iately off would around feelers they with yuku." ("Pushing pause the roof f o r a moment with too would a heavy on their way of after out the they from entranceway. had front and spread their s l e n d e r wings Once the movements", hind i n the legs, a i r they and the Some arranged their droning. between their immed- taut and moved take quickly 49 away." ) "Here cribed precisely tion. The because word reader a l l waste that i s not Responding haps more phasizes from one feels has that f o r "close of the says them necessary through has Shiga's Shiga's left Tanikawa own way motion thinking, also even out." Tetsuzo, derives observation" but and of not from from des- observa- description; been writing world close "are seeing each i n the analysis, natural Tanizaki, is actually eliminated with power o f see he to Tanizaki's towards strength that absolutely the his talent would been i n consonance sensitivity sonal as bees' any 50 perem- merely his his deep per- character: I f e e l a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n the passage which d e s c r i b e s the rat's death. What i s shown h e r e i s S h i g a ' s p o w e r as a r e a l i s t — I mean n o t m e r e l y h i s p o w e r s o f d e s c r i p t i o n b u t t h e power o f h i s h e a r t t o gaze unflinchingly V, a n d w i t h o u t r e g r e t a t a n y s c e n e w h a t s o e v e r . Furthermore, S h i g a has t h e s o r t o f temperament t h a t i s more t h a n u s u a l l y t e s p o n s i v e to such scenes. In t h i s case a l s o he s a y s f i n a l l y : 'I f e l t l o n e l y and u n h a p p y . But h a v i n g s a i d t h i s , h e d o e s n o t t u r n h i s e y e s away f r o m the scene. One c a n f i n d t h i s k i n d o f e x a m p l e everywhere in Shiga. He i s t h e same i n r e g a r d t o t h e h u m a n h e a r t . He s e e s w h a t h e m u s t s e e , h e f e e l s w h a t h e m u s t f e e l ; he d o e s n o t , l i k e t h e f a i n t - h e a r ^ d , t u r n h i s e y e s away o r t r y t o c o v e r t h i n g s u p . " 1 Erom the we may of s t y l e alone, and take comments thus may parative It i t that as of idea as Shiga's stand then, but "Three fictional tradition of two I think, that te" about the of i s regarded, the built than to handle in could genre to be any short the European and way same Western tell special i n which should be quickly us merits these basically similar story "influenced story. manner: the It will nature com- highly represent the genre, in a then, grounds largely the Tolstoy?) compare a this around much who on shi-shosetsu happens very critics, modern Western distinctive genre different writers the there (and better of Japanese represent story Deaths" question ni say, written the/..;shi-shosetsu The to Western Tolstoy's much, major a masterpiece i t with, i s fortunate, "representative" these "Kinosaki fairly study of - 58 concept. disposed 52 of. Although unlikely already S l i g a was that quoted great this is a him as saying, he had of "autobiographical" immune a case of actually experienced. to any "indirectly" witnessed kind of because question, cal of he to had and critical of Shiga based It i s one in general make read one interest. a the that Tolstoy, i t is "direct influence". story the of Tolstoy they of story i s anyway more on are of virtues was events is a have fairly Shiga the I events obvious Whether out As story the that direct influence. influenced esoteric than writers admirer he rather biographi- - like of Tolstoy's story, "Kinosaki n i te", a wealthy tree. The s t o r y first part, Russia her we band the doctor acting culosis In advises the second an o l d d r i v e r who of In sharp death with t h e house only surely that of a parts. travelling h e r husband, young In the from her doctor and a t a p o s t - s t a t i o n and not to continue d i e along h i s wife with t h e way. to turn back, the The hus- butshe, petulant, spoiled child, t h e warm climate o f the south, we are taken and here i s also, contrast calm driver be n e e d i n g asking numbered has stopped like insists that, her to the lady, even them, that the youth dying however, tuber- his illness accedes since of tubercu- he a c c e p t s h i s t o t h e woman has caused h e r . he w i l l without buy a g r a v e s t o n e room Theodore, apologizing f o rh i s boots, t h e o l d man the drivers' to Uncle the. l a d y , stoicism, asks inside introduced f o r the inconvenience When a y o u n g er will deaths: and that to the lady, the husband part the post-station coming separate four with i s structured, vanish. at losis. into The group she can eeach will three by stagecoach a rather implies, o f an o l d p e a s a n t t o p r e v a i l upon like only that as h i s wife tries around are introduced to Italy journey, as i t s t i t l e i s divided maidservant. here if lady, 59 - no long- complaint, f o r h i m when he i s dead. In scene the third part i s the wealthy i t i s about lady's house half a year i n Russia. later and the She d i d n o t go on to Italy her grieving solemnity lady's Up Only fied calm. dead bee: Neither when d e a t h Now there we "The d e a d b u t he finally old he a g r e e s the scene tree's from blows, when t h e young described fully looked by t h e recovered to accept with struggle an of stern of and nor i n the f i r m l y the i n - instinc- Shiga's she a c h i e v e and f i n a l Uncle Theodore chapter a digni- Shiga's majestic. closed lips are taken dead The young now a tree, Tolstoy "draws the young o f Nature disturb back" itself so t h a t t h e him. and driver's the other In the describes eyes - - t h e way the beauty trees who until b u t as the axe- the silence of the forest. ash has f a l l e n , "flaunted over back many driver b y t h e woman o f t h e h o u s e not through o f view we has been a t l e a s t a wooden c r o s s as h a v i n g be o f death h a s no g r a v e s t o n e . f o r instance, The her husband had of the quietude face scene o f 53 of the story the point idea t o g o o u t a n d c u t down have death she would comes d o e s brow him one i s p r o d d e d man m i g h t final woman's fourth s t i l l i f only the f u t i l e finally cold her deathbed. she r e f u s e s the very any movement." the story's promised moment <the s o l e m n i s somewhat m a r r e d that, are reminded the post-station. months though, recalls i n the clear In if which witness to Italy, to her last ferocity we around insistence she r e j e c t s rat. to gathered her to proceed evitable; was family of theoccasion, now. tive a l l a n d now continuing allowed by after 60 - around of their And i t are motionless branches As still this have more this case, specific between trast last joyously quote i n common immediately that life to give and d e a t h . i n giving achieves leaves merely branches gladly of those have dead this t h e same whispered We t h e two of contrast sense bee w i t h The space.' stories seen how the b u s i l y final Shiga's active sentence of on t h e t r e e t o p s , began way: con- ones Tolstoy's and p e a c e f u l l y living quite of the d i f f e r e n c e t h e same were In i n a e f f e c t i n much that 54 o v e r a l l conception. already sense. cleared suggests, their a profound of the motionless story i n the newly i t i s the use of the device way: succeeded the more 61 - "the sappy and to rustle slowly 55 and in m a j e s t i c a l l y over fact, example, her uses he this device contrasts energetic, the dead and p r o s t r a t e more extensively the feeble, cheerful than irritable maidservant who tree." Tolstoy, Shiga. dying For lady possesses a with "full 56 bosom" and gentle o l d Theodore of life, Both described ferent "quick who b&ack e y e s " with demands authors effect. t h e young driver, he contrasts insolent but the full h i s boots. also, i n their , and l i k e w i s e of course, respective In Tolstoy contrast stories, the three b u t now the contrast serves deaths to quite largely a difmoral and s a t i r i c o u r p o s e : a s h i s E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t o r r e m a r k s , he contrasts "the querulous i n v a l i d lady with the dying peasant 57 and the useful other words, perennial tree even which i n this made n o d e m a n d s early theme o f t h e d e c a d e n c e story on anyone." of Tolstoy's o f the upper we classes In find his as opposed (to represented we have A nature total similar plays opus, world of vides hero's" escape more as that first from of the this shall see, An'ya Koro. In tions of Asa:, seemed his wider to we he to as the the have of general belong) -- would expect, Shiga deaths, how i n the role context of i n that that Shiga's i t records contact with seen, was the concerned human r e l a t i o n s the within of Shiga nature. throughout a kind years saying have "Kinosaki n i c o n f i n e s : by world hero Shiga's discern later works in his Shiga turned away "the t o be the until, novel, from troublesome g r a d u a l l y come and can climax pro- seek t u r n i n g more We a man te" will of that are ranging " c l a u s t r o p h o b i c " f o r a young of a negative. significant we in also three remarked In nature contrasts mainly the individuality. final affairs As What world i t reaches even more, human really oppressive his tree. be of te" i s important narrow tendency we human w o r l d may world peasantry positive indication these the stories. first express towards growth two the the responses the "Aru with to the difference nature. the to cerebral. from i n the setting yearning and "Kinosaki ni exclusively family and by emotional seen, "Shiga here moral different the peasantry i n T o l s t o y ' s view, far less his as the which, world is to the complica- most distaste 58 ful t o me." tirely that with Shiga His very p l a n t s and had last stories animals. established an As almost are concerned F r a n c i s Mathy perfect almost says: rapport with en"Now nature he no l o n g e r cations o f human felt the urge affairs, to write b u t was content about the to live compli- immersed i n 59 nature, In quietly "Kinosaki enjoying n i t e " , then, we m i g h t call The human b e i n g s only the beauty Shiga's there growing t o appear are the onlookers rat. And even the narrator intentionally, light: some h i n t f o r human who cruelly torment himself i s not presented through carelessness, he i s t h e a g e n t o f what nature. i n the story, besides himself, favourable surrounded him." i s already "distaste" rator entirely that the narthe dying i n an albeit of the unfortunate un- lizard's death. In purity of Tolstoy's story too there of the natural world the Russian o n human life. seen as every b i ta part Tolstoy as opposed, aristocracy; but s t i l l more And F o r one t h i n g , i s , after of nature a l l , character. pages very is (almost short with just there this and even in-more the story as the t r e e s of only ones sense of the narrator. later. world i s centred f a r peasants are i n the forests. about gallery seem o f the master's detail to the Western of Shiga's a whole i n this of the writer a l l i s the portrayal of the length the minor "characters" at least, the stoical story f o r Tolstoy!) consciousness point i n this times a few s t r o k e s a r e no bodied three indeed presented, Even sense a nineteenth-century what he i s i n t e r e s t e d i n above human i s a strong fifteen story but of characters to spring pen. into In Shiga's -- o n l y life story t h e "disem- But I s h a l l return to Because largely his the he f o r the view even Tolstoy of moral nature, sentimental. Russian also employs tends to purpose as We peasant, we a l l know but idealize We for instance, "The trees flaunted the more joyously i n the s t i l l picture pretty of the one tree's i f we realistic portrayal vival the and Shiga, like to humal the clear, unflinching interest" tioned, word advisedly, of In like A as of connote more an already quoted: branches struggle sees he has this as the judge too i s by sur- Although alternative no I have (I use than no a "vested i s , as emotional for there with "distaste" but mind. altogether a welcome he — anth- uncompromisingly There h i s growing of modern mischance. because point. the how a menthe moral means the main of merely, story. setting Shiga's judge, to perhaps a moral here nature d e s c r i b e s what f o r human b e i n g s the naturally he by see a kind seems an desperate death can s p a c e . T o l s t o y ' s Shiga's rat's idealistic, idealized motionless cleared i t with turns to eye, i n making some h i n t response) point world, their i n fact, absurd to he we n a t u r e , by sentence of newly the lizard's Tolstoy, i n the t o be story peasantry aristocracy, persistently present the the tends unconvincing death, of how beauty compare satirizing inanimate i s rather including expect, i n the that this, of might ropomorphism see "nature", h i m s e l f up narrator, assumes after the all, the instead experiencer of the world, God-like, "omniscient" point must appear t o be as "objective", Tolstoy of and view. this pretence to objectivity 65 - would be f a r l e s s first-person narrative viewpoint seems t o me, the very story and T o l s t o y ' s and It the mainstream i s not merely the way Shiga tradition especially who The feeling that i s i n some way of Fiction, Wayne ideas is one devices the surface be - b o u t present guished anyone the shi-shosetsu I have describe already who grounds, i s wary "omniscient" ad- of a remarks: study, "One o f of the action mind could to t e l l has here written a re- Whatever our tells know. by t h o r o u g h l y U n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , I am i s the trick a story, the author The themost to obtain and heart. possibly narra- i s certainly not of the storyteller whenever life critic specific In h i s seminal but ourselves signs..."^ American reader t h e n a t u r a l way i n so-called real know i n general. certain distinct "artificial" Booth of a character's unmistakably ternal to beneath may never of artificial view Shiga's shi-shosetsu fiction to offer the third-person Rhetoric liable lies, i t judgments. critics. going the On t h e s e t o t h e modern t o Japanese of of Western seem confined obviously between the world. makes a b s o l u t e viewpoint Here a technical difference but a difference i n and t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u writer used. i fa o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between -- and i n d e e d of apprehending vantages, tive crux were convincing artifice us what In l i f e no we reliable i n - sure, this a convincing distindefense aesthetic. used Ueda M a k o t o an " a s s o c i a t i v e " r a t h e r 1 s term, than the "Statural a casual plot" narrative - 66 - can see that this line, b u t now we lated to the narrative is something the inner and this I case, the "inner would from a s we even story, ni This "Three the i s made parts, Deaths", o l d peasant coincidental: Booth whereas deeper, thematic brought level, these to make a moral to theppeasant's point. death Western narrative: related t o the lady's story into i n the usual But artificiality written deaths" of into of a "Kinosaki by t h e f a c t four that distinct death the lady's aware dying. that the author thematically them i s causally B. has lies "syllogistic" A, t h e r e f o r e purely carriage to c o n t r a s t death In to that of of the action, theipeasant together tell i s a l l "of a piece". level that The t r e e ' s death as t r e e s . as t h o s e apparent the readeris because so f a r as t o of a story of the lady's where two d e a t h s apparent i n The "three h i s story so happens a t the post-house — are not integrated i s , on t h e surface i tjust of characters this Shiga's the relation us and say t h a t immediately to divide telling such of- v i e w . out, there an author objects structure i s also r e - points when he g o e s as s u c c e s s f u l l y stopped has seen, point whole i s obliged numbered about particularly f o r instance, seamless Tolstoy have to the narrative natural, te". becomes than an "omniscient" Tolstoy's artificial feelings" of natural go f u r t h e r extends As Booth and f e e l i n g s o f a v a r i e t y artificiality Tolstoy's us viewpoint. undeniably thoughts "naturalness" On and so related manner o f But again, only a t o make i t i s a moral point; indeed, relationships three deaths seem i f the which by reader have the enables the paragraph first informs us of place, world about might fail respond moral will, that him, In nature the story of these thematic imposed then be God's view shinkyo the that of the shosetsu the find we upon story the would being that the through there to As fullest t e " , then, of that be a of the the which a l l the pretence faithfully indeed mind of (thus the he should the of all, as in "objective" i s prepared inevitable, i t is example This w r i t t e n i n the mind" deep a term). excellent of person an natural, autobiographical. narrator's "state at with the events reader of in defines the sense being death trip the exceptionally s h i - s h o s e t s u genre. story in place, that presented a narrator his "normal" paragraph result, i s an a with i s no before of In the natural, observant first "natural" seen, just second a subjectivity. have death forms d e s c r i b e d as i n the or are such perfectly narrator's state ni a matter singular the reality. subjectivity merely from we "small" deaths words, events as i n the filtered; of "Kinosaki total escape consciousness story, expression story, and, have undisguised i n small these Tolstoy's accept the to is especially even other will eye he notice, even feeling. of and te" I t t h e r e f o r e seems to to of h i s near Kinosaki. first we unaware "artificially" "Kinosaki n i i s i t s complete to been author's structure the were pointless. What to 67- of is the not first-person If, for instance, permeates the whole - 68 s t o r y even i n the s m a l l e s t d e t a i l s . The e n t i r e s t o r y i s per- vaded by the p s y c h o l o g i c a l atmosphere o f a traumatized mind, the mind o f a man s t i l l i n a m i l d s t a t e o f shock a f t e r having suffered a serious accident. in The n a r r a t o r t e l l s us h i m s e l f the second paragraph of the s t o r y : "My head was s t i l l not 6 2 clear." And indeed he seems to wander about K i n o s a k i , i t = s e l f a r a t h e r " u n r e a l " r e s o r t town, as i n a waking dream. There i s a dream-like q u a l i t y ^ f o r i n s t a n c e , t o the i n t e n s i t y and minute d e t a i l o f h i s o b s e r v a t i o n of the bees. But the f i n a l scene o f the s t o r y i n p a r t i c u l a r verges on the s u r r e a l istic. The n a r r a t o r i s o u t f o r a walk one evening on a moun- t a i n road above the town. He f e e l s s t r o n g l y compelled t o go on and on as i n a dream: "I kept t h i n k i n g I would go back, but each time I went on t o see what, was around the next c o r 6 3 ner." And the nature surrounding him takes on a mysterious dream-like ambience: The q u i e t made me s t r a n g e l y r e s t l e s s . There was a l a r g e mulberry t r e e b e s i d e the road. A l e a f on one branch t h a t protruded out over the road from the f a r s i d e f l u t t e r e d r h y t h m i c a l l y back and f o r t h . There was no wind, e v e r y t h i n g except the stream was sunk i n s i l e n c e , o n l y t h a t one l e a f f l u t t e r e d on. I thought i t odd. I was a l i t t l e a f r a i d even, b u t I was c u r i o u s . I went down and looked a t i t f o r a time. A breeze came up. The l e a f stopped moving. 6 4 T h i s seemingly i r r a t i o n a l behaviour of the s i n g l e c r e a t e s the proper a i r o f mystery leaf f o r what i s about t o happen: The n a r r a t o r spots a water l i z a r d s i t t i n g on a rock b e s i d e a stream. I t j u s t so happens t h a t l i z a r d s have a k i n d o f per- sonal symbolic s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r him: - 69 - Some y e a r s b e f o r e , w h e n I was s t a y i n g i n t h e mount a i n s n ot f a r from Tokyo, I had seen water l i z a r d s g a t h e r e d around a d r a i n from t h e i n n , and I had t h o u g h t how I w o u l d h a t e t o b e a w a t e r l i z a r d , w h a t i t w o u l d be l i k e t o be r e b o r n one. I d i d n o t l i k e t o come o n w a t e r l i z a r d s b e c a u s e t h e y a l w a y s b r o u g h t o n t h e same thought. 65 It i s t h e r e f o r e as i f t h i s some d e e p as lizard " o b s e s s i v e " r e g i o n o f h i s own i n a dream. dentally" doctor present Thus kills when he c a s u a l l y the l i z a r d , o f Vienna one need t o see the obvious has sprung unconscious throws not c a l l symbolic from mind, a stone and again "acci- on t h e good meaning that this "dream-like" a c t i o n has. With this last example, formal to the thematic level, of how well-integrated these is difficult narrator's to talk consciousness but this the story. This the central interest which or may consciousness experiences i s also of the story the events lies the story reciprocal consciousness, style infinitum. indication are i n Shiga — Not o n l y that i t i s the of a l l external the actual events subject of of the shi-shosetsu: i n the series of changes as i t witnesses describes. interaction which and s t r u c t u r e i t i s an undergoes the subject of the narration narrator's from the separately. the " f i l t e r " itself a r e moving two l e v e l s too i s characteristic c l a i m a unique narrative we and indeed the narrator's consciousness content: ad o f them though, The genre between form i s t h e changes are i n turn reflected thus and i n the i n the and so on, one m i g h t s a y , Lest means this i n more insight story into sents. that fact, full-blooded, delineated the narrator embodied" of which haviour the might story such appearance, can Shiga make e v e n We know n o t h i n g "personal" he is he a writer; individual. from This i s , in deeply subjective but, it even course, Tolstoy to would also whole story of that of study about Western two the story, more or a of the we to would present expect is "personify" expect a wider that focused an the range in narrator, on would him, be except as that the writer at more belife. that an emerges is despite objects characters, Shiga's of completely hand, "personal" of to shi-shosetsu almost "objective" tricks spring c e n t r a l paradox natural Even 6 idiosyncratic i n d i v i d u a l human p e r s o n a l i t i e s a n d , tends no "dis- identifiable other us details narrator time, pre- Forster than character the i t E.M. little of of novel.^ none Shiga's same f a r more the those hardly on terms offers type of little minor in Shiga the mannerism a seen, "charaeters" employes fact, at objectivity, is presents seen, Of of the have Tolstoy's stories: of pose Shiga's the comparison the we i s perhaps a personal; As a master, personal i t depth say is what extraordinary range well abstract, an with celebrated Shiga's was overly characters consciousness. which is compare ifc, i n one Tolstoy physical to in his in sound terms "rounded" has to human p s y c h e . begin -- In concrete the cannot "breadth" a l l begin as as such least, highly that have such but its sense we im trees as then since we the "individ- - 71 uated" than ly the not nature in of as the a -- gives seemed out, narrator, of goes into tures he quite literally of the finds universal the This — true that reader i s not shosetsu hand, of at to by this a l l : It least condemnation as of he the are the no I seem have that the details and at to so be one". And the a fea- i t is this sense problem i s , afteruall, a almost deeper perhaps that on. such distinguishing the that most itself. also explains s e l f - a b s o r p t i o n of p r a c t i s e d by the as level, fact story appears longer opinions appears less deepest death the may the largely surface seems "impersonality" by i t usually i s presented that is certain- closely personality, such " a l l men in offended genre, Flaubert's of the as mannerisms, being at confronts aspect of this more a paradox human p s y c h e there problem least "everyman". u n i v e r s a l i t y i s added narrator at use other psychic non-individuated writer the examine be appearance, But we characters is his on his -- to Tolstoy's character's level characters. I f , however, what pointed Shiga's deep Tolstoy's human p e r s o n a l i t y What already of case. fiction so. any "egotism: the Shiga. of any why the shi- I quoted work "in earlier which 67 the author's might but face counter, his i t i s not "soul", human p s y c h e psychology "collective as is reflected." at and one the much as by author's might i t s deepest add, level Eastern unconscious"). But Shiga's "face" the is in that work, is impersonality attested philosophy to by (e.g., one reflected of the Western Jung's The which p o i n t emerges more Shiga as the in their the in and central they of on death cruelty Thus because the sense say, there the are only part, Basho a at or peace that basic and — regarded before satiric also point, nature with i t s on a f a r more stripped of a l - human author's "egotism" with he the same with as poem universal that what sacrifiees in to -- us him. the -- prob- narrator "exhibits" share in interested fundamental lyrical i n saying i t s best we i s the a Western then, but working the that story i t s most justified, at part and in difference found consciousness, himself the we way c o n f r o n t the; v e r y identification Shiga haiku of question of p a r t of " I " of shi-shosetsu In "I" this behind i t i s human level. Shiga -- "breadth" I think and the he gains "depth". I and is i s no to i s thus human be is a a moral confronting a reader's deepest the a the consciousness in i t s sense a basic that may Tolstoy i s mainly t o make He There to attempts arbitrariness. c o n t r a s t the which stories. nature. deaths" with level: preventing we with i f we death, parallel a l l "personality", lem. is both otherhand, itself, and of here "three the universal most theme dealt using his Shiga, T o l s t o y approach approaches way clearly have content this: but that not already remarked i n Shiga's only story, i s the impersonality itself i s the series of on the but the narrative i s the changes "reciprocity" form u l t i m a t e example voice largely narrator's final which of the of i t impersonal, "goal" — narrator's conscious- ness are undergoes, a l l in The the and which direction critic Yoshida are of the story's true focal point, impersonality. Sei-ichi, as I have already shown at 6 8 some of length, the as "lonely". the a atmosphere" important used to when the rest his these he utter dead word of the deaths the a or how stories. words is narrator's had gone In Of there xnside." often "Kinosaki form, dead loneliness. the ni cold Watchxng "psycho- te" the word to bee the is each "gave I t was tile the translated response the use the usually nominal on 69 makes establish sabishii, Seeing quietness. left to emotional witnesses. body Shiga phrase i t s a d j e c t i v a l or describe three see of In f e e l i n g of to demonstrated r e p e t i t i o n of logical most has in of me lonely the doomed evening rat: 70 "I felt "I was lonely filled the loneliness had lived. ly, and and unhappy." with a of the Quite by presently I And, sadness for living the the back killed lizard, creature. accident started having Quite lizard toward with had the by thslizard: a sense accident, died. inn of I I was down the loneroad 71 s t i l l visible at Obviously wasting that words, word to fortunately, that weight associations my i f a the of writer repeats carry -- feet." one more the as Shiga, famous word so often, then we might weight of meaning. than English i t has, such of word i t s normal "lonely" course, Japanese word none for not expect is not able to of the rich cultural sabishii. As Un- bear William Sipley points a out, sabishii "quite positive, i n the context of Shiga's i f largely passive, story describes esthetic-emotional „72 experience... The a in key word key term o f Japanese the poetics Ueda Makoto conceived phere, points loneliness thus school out, often says sabishii, of haiku. toward o r sorrow, sabishii. which i s a be o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d , a way himself, i n which atmos- personal because o f Basho's his plea as B u t he "as an i m p e r s o n a l conceived l a y a t thsbottom pointing particularly Basho t h e word Ueda, cannot i s , of course, and i s used used with grief The c o n t r a s t from aesthetics, o f Basho's i n contrast life, derived of loneliness, emotion. of sabi, view 'return to 73 nature' c a n be f u l f i l l e d . " to t h e human w o r l d , of nature. Thus, whereas " i t would be o n l y through men's d e h u m a n i z i n g i n o t h e r words, "loneliness" i f i t were sorrow, sorrow Sorrow, possible through belongs f o r men a denial themselves. of They belongs to the world t o escape from humanity, can escape from only when t h e y t r a n s f o r m i t i n t o a n i m p e r s o n a l atmos74 phere, l o n e l i n e s s . " This t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s brought about by a d e e p communion w i t h n a t u r e , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g h a i k u o f Basho: My s o r r o w f u l s o u l - Make i t f e e l onesome, You, a cuckoo. 75 The was like s t i l l poet, says Ueda, i n the world sorrow. " a s he s e t o u t t o compose o f humanity, The cuckoo, with a personal on t h e o t h e r hand, seemed thspoem, feeling t o have « 75 already transcended nature. Thereupon enlighten h i s soul impersonal Such atmosphere 7 review we where he w o u l d of personal to the heart of the bird's him i n t o no emotion the core t h e way find to take pervading that into c r y might the realm longer o f Basho's greater And feel an of sorrow. . . impersonal attitude Shiga and more sense toward the word throughout o f an the e f f e c t uses the story i t "impersonal which atmosphere" the absorption of has on t h e n a r r a t o r ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s and g r e a t e r the dead i n which more on Basho's nature. "atmosphere" of that and e v e n t u a l l y l e a d constitutes we sabishii, a wished closer 6 If comes a s i t was the poet loneliness,, a dissolution l i f e " . sorrow, sense bee g i v e s o f detachment. him a sense His i s to this produce contemplation of "loneliness" but "at 77 the same Basho's time terms impersonal to reminds But formation" identifying in i s not a soothing." "personal derived directly o f t h e doomed Already, sorrow" from but a nature. r a t struggling then, i n liberating, His for survival response at first " s o r r o w f u l " and t h e r e f o r e " p e r s o n a l " -- i n f a c t , i t struggle to survive afterhhis contemplation Basho with demands leads from t h e r a t , he i s a universal h i m s e l f , and t h a t take tranquil, h i m o f h i s own further survive this feeling the sight seems more i t was him on t o the k i n d o f the cuckoo comes instinct, accident. i n h i s haiku: t o see t h a t present t h e r e f o r e i t would "transby to struggle to i n t h e r a t a s much be a b s u r d i t " p e r s o n a l l y " , i . e . , f o r him t o f e e l f o r him t o bad that he h a d as -76 acted " l i k e an animal" a f t e r h i s a c c i d e n t , t h a t he too had been d r i v e n by an i r r e s i s t a b l e f o r c e . him This r e a l i z a t i o n gives the necessary sense o f detachment: I would have behaved but l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t l y indeed from the r a t . Even now, I decided, i t would be much the same — l e t i t be. My mood a t the moment, i t was c l e a r c o u l d have l i t t l e immediate e f f e c t . And the t r u t h l a y on both s i d e s . I t was very good i f there was such an e f f e c t , and i t was very good i f there was none. That was a l l . 7 8 The n a r r a t o r ' s profound sense of detachment i s even f u r - t h e r i n t e n s i f i e d by h i s a c c i d e n t a l k i l l i n g of the l i z a r d . He i s f i l l e d with creature. "a sense o f the l o n e l i n e s s of the l i v i n g Quite by a c c i d e n t I had l i v e d . Quite by a c c i d e n t 79 the l i z a r d had d i e d . i d e n t i f y i n g with I was l o n e l y . . . " In other words, by the l i z a r d as he had with the r a t , he r e - ceives a further i n s i g h t : t h a t death s t r i k e s a r b i t r a r i l y . He f e e l s t h a t he h i m s e l f might j u s t as e a s i l y be dead now — i f he had been as unlucky as the l i z a r d a t the time o f h i s a c c i dent. The thought i s enough to make him l o s e h i s attachment to l i f e : "And I who had not d i e d was walking here. should be g r a t e f u l . I knew I But the proper f e e l i n g o f happiness r e - fused t o come. To be a l i v e and t o be dead were not two oppo- s i t e extremes. There d i d not seem t o be much d i f f e r e n c e be- 80 tween them." Thus, i t seems, the n a r r a t o r has reached an ultimate l e v e l of "impersonality" and detachment s i n c e , though he knows he w i l l i n s t i n c t i v e l y s t r u g g l e f o r s u r v i v a l i f the need a r i s e s , he no longer r e a l l y c a r e s , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y a t l e a s t , whether he l i v e s or d i e s . But what achieving i s the such 77 - purpose, the reader may well an "unhuman" d e t a c h m e n t ? What significance? We have Basho development an impersonal of already seen that state of ask, of i s i t s wider advocated consciousness as the a way 81 of "returning is exactly this expressing he to in "found nature". sense of According closeness to F r a n c i s Mathy, i t nature "Kinosaki n i te"'i a f t e r h i m s e l f e n t e r i n g a new to that Shiga h i s encounter world of union is with and death, harmony 82 with nature." mature his William Sibley acceptance deep of communion death with emphasizes that has nature. been And the "Shiga brought Sibley hero's" about relates by this to 83 the of "more fully Shiga's Passing). Kensaku and the retreats and union of again at chapter traditional "mystical" nature. *ft of A this hermit Dark long before of hero Night's novel, t o Mount experience Shortly , the Daisen self-dissolu- he has this experthe annihiliation)." of there of,detachment "Kinosaki n i as Mathy the i s some r e l a t i o n "self-annihilation: experience forward a %L Kensaku" 84 experience of a $fj ( of a r e t o l d t h a t "he was i r r e s i s t a b l y a t t r a c t e d t o Buddhists c a l l 'nirvana' or 'jakumetsu i r a k u ' bliss rator like with Undoubtedly the Koro penultimate undergoes i e n c e , we realm the (the n o v e l , An'ya In there tion delineated experience and final and t e " , but Sibley part of union with Kensaku's nature "impersonality" of I doubt would the and between have story, that us we the i t i s as believe. find that and nar- straightI f we the look n a r r a t o r ' s experience has by no means l e f t him i n an u n a l l o y e d s t a t e of b l i s s . He f e e l s none of theeeuphoria t h a t Kensaku experiences on Mount Daisen. able and confused. In f a c t , he f e e l s r a t h e r miser- The f i n a l scene o f t h e s s t o r y makes i t q u i t e c l d a r t h a t h i s "dark n i g h t " has not y e t passed: "My sense o f s i g h t took i n dmly the d i s t a n t l i g h t s , a n d the f e e l of my f e e t a g a i n s t the ground, c u t o f f from my s i g h t , seemed u n c e r t a i n i n the extreme. I t l e a d me deeper Only my head worked on as i t would. and deeper i n t o these f a n c i e s . " 85 These l a s t two sentences i n p a r t i c u l a r , i t seems t o me, t e l l us why the n a r r a t o r has not y e t achieved the p s y c h i c breakthrough — the " s a t o r i " — he i s a f t e r : he continues t o i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e , t o f a n t a s i z e , and t h e r e f o r e t o stand a p a r t from nature. He has not y e t surrendered h i s whole mind and s o u l t o nature as Kensaku does on Mount Daisen. f a c t , something There is, in s u s p i c i e u s l y " i n t e l l e c t u a l " even about h i s sense of detachment. When he says: "To be a l i v e and t o be dead were n o t two o p p o s i t e extremes", he i s s t a t i n g an i d e a r a t h e r than d e s c r i b i n g an experience — whether any Zen master and i t i s d o u b t f u l (or f o r t h a t matter, any reader) would accept t h i s as r e a l proof o f s p i r i t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . When Kensaku experiences complete union with nature on Mount Daisen, he remembers t h a t he has had s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e s b e f o r e , but t h a t he had "always t r i e d i n s t i n c t i v e l y t o r e s i s t it, and on f i n d i n g such r e s i s t a n c e d i f f i c u l t , he had f e l t a d i s t i n c t uneasiness. But t h i s time, he had not the s l i g h t e s t will to resist; and c o n t e n t e d l y , w i t h o u t a trace o f theo l d 86 uneasiness, he a c c e p t e d yashi Hideo and W i l l i a m S i b l e y hero" as one c o n s i s t e n t "autobiographical" te" ni philosophy, be r e l a t e d hilation". death then What we might embrace". certainly attraction individual he i s reminded to resist instinct with that nature. ready moving i s , after Kensaku This "instinct speaks orthodox the of "Kinosak death of anni- cases i s the so t h a t i t may would that i s explain to survive" r a t -- t h i s complete why after instinct an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t of, to resist "tried same mergence The n a r r a t o r o f " K i n o s a k i n i t e " i s o b v i o u s l y n o t f o r such hesitantly unreservedly a complete i n that "letting loosened by a w h o l e see more c l e a r l y this all, claim that self Shiga's dwelling of consciousness o f i t by the s t r u g g l i n g death i n to the "bliss world. n a r r a t o r i s t r o u b l e d b y h i s own he Without to death human state the natural when f o r i n both "Shiga "Kinosaki n i to the quietude attraction "impersonal" see the say t h a t of nirvana Koba- at least, experiences seems t o be y e a r n e d a t one w i t h I f ,like o t h e r s , we might earlier t o Kensaku's r e p l a c e d by an the so we among "nature's of the troublesome totally yet to resist te" narrator's early may be works, the problematical r e l a t i o n Buddhist embrace." character throughout, d e s c r i b e s one o f those instinctively" on nature's surrender direction. Before go", the g r i p series of traumatic w h e n we come of self, though he i s c a p a b l e o f h i s ego must shocks. t o An'ya he i s Koro. B u t we of be shall Chapter "Kinosaki as a was to ni ("Bonfire", as one sibories. of the selected by another as fiction of Shiga; s approaching according lyricism, formed Shiga a model of to of pure two poetry. Although Akutagawa was the a "Takibi" Ryunosuke, finest 'Jkind of quintessential to exalted saw offered Junichiro, be with cele- was i t s traditional everyday he a place most te" to which W h a t was 1 "sincere", ordinary, ni considered A k u t a g a w a , was rather three Tanizaki fiction, poetry". or contemporary, he of shares "Kinosaki s t y l e by what i t s intensely the as great art 1920) Shiga's Just paragon qualities into "$ te" short serve art, - 3 "Takibi" brated 80 mood events Shiga as the a this Japanese that trans** story described "realist who 2 does not depend on fancy or £i.e., ( fantasy" as an "autobio- g r a p h i c a l " w r i t e r ) , he Shiga's realism unique was a l s o c o n v i n c e d t h a t "what i s h i s p o e t i c s p i r i t which i s entrenched tradition"; technical in Oriental mastery, endows his 3 most this, "coupled pcosaic makes deeply with work w i t h a his singu- 4 lar beauty". shosetsu) Thus such i t was as " T a k i b i " possible to be a for a "pure story" " p l o t l e s s s<bory" (jun (hanashi 5 no a nai shosetsu), highly the structured the plot-line, pervasive was the lyrical unifying mood, and principle not of work. As I shall gawa, p e r h a p s here because an a make clear little too later, i t seems eager to make a over-simplified analysis of Shiga's to me point, art, that Akuta- presented since he tried t o reduce Nevertheless, a moment, to a dominant ness one. but then he sees that is one o f i t s major "Takibi" i t was stories He i s a t f i r s t — whether he r e c o i l s back stillness. problem, about the Shiga heroJ result, attracted into the shell o f h i s own able of "Kinosaki n i t e " , then, a steady tional towards as "narrative deepening fiction, the opening three years o f mind; death" tranquility later, intellectual himself mood t o commune m o r e comfortably the overall modd paragraph of somber "Takibi" and j o y . may -- r a t h e r t h a n , be seen t h e mood of the story i s anything makes as as i n conven- up o f c a H i a a l l y - r e l a t e d At first, with- a n d , a s a somewhat p a r a - progression" of the story of this e g o when without as an t o immerse s t i l l - precedes In c o n t r a s t t o the rather dark, the building a "climax". able world mood The frame am- or "nirvana" that necessarily versus h i s fellow one o f p r o f o u n d to the absolute "death" i s now plays i s an be c a l l e d with is man. world this "life he i s a l s o choice of nature to this w r i t t e n about i n the natural appropriate for b u t i n " K i n o s a k i n i t e " , as of a f a r different himself restraint doxical "Takibi", ingredients. "Kinosaki n i te" The w o r l d t h e v i o l e n c e and s u f f e r i n g troubling with a highly "lyricism". i n both - the n a r r a t o r ' s response the product out s e e why a t i t s core — compare Shiga's role h-ve seen, biguous i f we we may illustrate we i t t o merely 81 events but clear: I t r a i n e d t h a t day from morning on.All.'through t h e a f t e r n o o n I p l a y e d c a r d s i n my r o o m u p s t a i r s w i t h my w i f e , t h e p a i n t e r S., a n d K., t h e i n n k e e p e r . The lyrical, - 82 s m o k e ^ f i l l e d room made everyone f e e l drowsy. By three o'clock we were s i c k of c a r d - p l a y i n g and had overs t u f f e d o u r s e l v e s with cakes. 6 S i g n i f i c a n t l y , then, the n a r r a t o r and h i s f r i e n d s are f i r s t presented to us i n d o o r s , and they are i n a bored r e s t l e s s mood. and In other words, they are c o n f i n e d w i t h i n the same narrow, c l a u s t r o p h o b i c world as the n a r r a t o r of "Aru Asa", and the s t u f f y , s m o k e - f i l l e d room seems to a p t l y r e p r e s e n t t h i s world. But r e l i e f i s soon a t hand: One of as stood up and s l i d open the paper-screen window. At some p o i n t the r a i n had stopped. Chill mountain a i r charged with the scent of f r e s h green streamed i n t o the room, d r i v i n g the tobacco smoke into swirls. We a l l exchanged g l a n c e s , as i f suddenly-coming to l i f e . 7 In the second paragraph of the s t o r y , then, there i s a l - ready a t u r n away from the human world and towards nature. windows are l i t e r a l l y The thrown open to l e t i n some of nature's f r e s h a i r , wliiich c l e a r s out the tobacco somke and makes the people i n s i d e f e e l as i f they have been brought back to At life. t h i s p o i n t , i t might be a p p r o p r i a t e to make a few r e - marks on Shiga's use of imagery. In the hands of a more c e r e - b r a l w r i t e r than he, the use of imagery such as the above c o u l d w e l l seem l i k e a form of s i m p l i s t i c , "symbolism". over-obvious But t h i s i s another important advantage of the c a s u a l , d i a r y - l i k e s t y l e of the s h i - s h o s e t s u : even i f the author does i n s e r t some imaginary d e t a i l s to s u i t h i s thematic purpose, the reader s t i l l has the sense t h a t he i s simply desc r i b i n g t h i g s "as they happened", and i s not s t r a i n i n g to create said meaningful of anothe- but 83 - a r t i f i c i a l "symbols'.'V story: "In a r e l a x e d frame As Shiga of mine himself I wrote Q down the day's important even point i s that i n h i s more shall see fail present -- this as In which i n the West, tive -- of something mountain nature; a i r does "represent" In other more the language, as "thirty exception which the words, anything perhaps to than likewise we may such i s any stuffy, form and to simple of term indeed, stream nature s m o k e - f i l l e d room -- of — oldest and most natural a l l symbolic this out cattel". which we In shall note conspicuously because of everyday "Takibi" there later, not usually form of fresh merely i t is_ t h a t elementary an for i t is_ does mose i n such primi- stands the of In connota- almost rarely not having "symbolism" -- does be Shiga's metaphysical c l a u s t r o p h o b i c human w o r l d symbolism artificiality. the the we would while of "symbolize" "symbolism" of as unnoticed. success apply style reader a l l the object i n Shiga really Shiga's the The works, than head stands Thus a l l t r a c e s of a weight An "relaxed" subtly the occurred." "symbolic" i t might i t is in itself: not the there see s i n c e i t i s embodied to Koro. even Shiga's this more h i s mind, abolish imagery. other and An'ya hesitates carries tion use to actually maintains course, on areas, one usually to of effect "program" fact, he they to notice that although, i n other aesthetic come even cumulative as "fictional" w h e n we usually its happenings world. amount to synecdoche, uses of expressions i s one important exception i t i s a more complex kind is of symbol. concrete To stream and restless climb to This of our out will a place buildin- sense to humans spirits in. most story, " e h i l l mountain their are the part, though, Shiga's a into be working net effect of a i r " i s to entice the the world of nature, further refreshed. some way small the up hut the together group where where n a r r a t o r and outdoors in-rushing gives them the On see, which, story. the that of vious as we the now saw, know they a l l together his wife a they to very live real there but also, good with throughout i n the time not nature. i s none the a had of confronts strong sense the sense of nature of "com- only i n the group's the story, in their This sense of f o l l o w i n g paragraph they v d o m i n a n t mood longer i s now mellow as now, day's joy d i f f e r e n c e between there was n a r r a t o r no i s manifested communing recalls important te": The further intensified rator an ni contrary, together joys then, "Kinosaki spirit" working is and earlier munal the we "loneliness" alone. bored, satisfaction: Already of of they Eventually mountain f o r the the T w i l i g h t on t h e m o u n t a i n a l w a y s p u t s one i n a mood, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r a r a i n f a l l . And when, we h a d b e e n w o r k i n g a n d p a u s e d t o o b s e r v e o u r work w h i l e h a v i n g a smake, a f l e e t i n g k i n d o f arose between us. 9 "Takibi" imagery "this-worldly". return of For 84 - had together sharing "joyful when on sharing" the the nar- pre- day: On t h e d a y b e f o r e i t h a d a l s o c l e a r e d up i n t h e afternoon and the t w i l i g h t had been b e a u t i f u l . I t was made a l l t h e more b e a u t i f u l by a g r e a t r a i n b o w t h a t e x t e n d e d a l l theiway f r o m T o r i i P a s s t o B l a c k C y p r e s s Mountain. - 85 - We h a d l i n g e r e d near the hut f o r a long time. It was p l a c e d among a g r o v e o a o a k s a n d we c o u l d n ' t resist c l i m b i n g them. E v e n my w i f e h a d w a n t e d t o c l i m b up t o h a v e a g o o d l o o k a t t h e r a i n b o w , s o K. a n d I h e l p e d h e r c l i m b t o a h e i g h t o f more t h a n s i x m e t r e s . "It's a s c o m f o r t a b l e a s a n a r m c h a i r " , K. h a d s h o u t e d down t o us. He l a y f a c e up i n a f o r k o f h i g h b r a n c h e s t h a t were c o n v e n i e n t l y w i d e - s p r e a d and, p u f f i n g on a c i g a r e t t e , he s e t t h e b r a n c h e s s w a y i n g l i k e g r e a t waves. 10 This should this happy a l l go highly expedition memory boating casual on among "the tall dark on animistic sense story, in the fact, that the a shrine entrance At from into the row out for darkness to we Shinto the descends. shrine passes was hidden group's of coming nature -- atmosphere of "gateway" of Shinto. Thus for the group's set them world. group's curiosity between solemn Vivid that power reminiscent high them. the take the of a the nature like they of apart excited see shore look. group's mood o f act When opposite to images spirits They on quiet, the.group ever-deepening burning the spring. themaa " p r i m i t i v e " appropriate surrounds up in group's give bonfire set the in will adventure. of begins, the strongly natural out lake awesome, m y s t e r i o u s an event: they see, world on Thus that shall night's over and As a suggest evening the a contrast chatter way highly that main their is though, nature gatherer's subtle the first, children they forms story's of to night. quiet takes "nature-worship" that one natural of lake the precincts the narrator lake f i r trees.""'""'" with the the a mountain encounter the on manner, Siginificantly, through leads a bracken- the There is lake, a light-hearted natural are world interposed as with snatches of c o n v e r s a t i o n . q u i l evening. On" 86 the one hand: " I t was a tran- Some f a i n t a f t e r - g l o w of the sunset s t i l l r e - mained i n the western sky. But the mountains on a l l s i d e s were b l a c k , and I thought they resembled the backs of c r o u c h i n g 12 water l i z a r d s . " water was And: "From B i r d I s l a n d to the mainland e s p e c i a l l y calm. the Looking oyer the s i d e s of the boat, we oould see below us a p e r f e c t mirror-image of the star- 13 filled sky." And, on the other hand: " ' I t seemed a l i t t l e c o l d ' , I s a i d , d i p p i n g my hand i n t o the water. 'But when I spent a few days viewing the autumn leaves around Ashino Lake a while ago, I went swimming there e a r l y one morning 'and i t wasn't as c o l d as I thought i t would be. swimming around there i n e a r l y A p r i l . ' I have even gone 'My, you were r e a l l y something i n thesold days', s a i d my w i f e t e a s i n g l y , knowing 14 f u l l w e l l how I am u s u a l l y so s e n s i t i v e t o c o l d . " But g r a d u a l l y t h i s p l a y f u l , l i g h t - h e a r t e d mood of the f o u r people d i m i n i s h e s as they are drawn deeper and deeper i n t o the q u i e t e r , more solemn mood of nature i t s e l f . What seems to make fior a "turning p o i n t " i n t h i s r e g a r d i s the l i g h t i n g of the b o n f i r e which, as i n d i c a t e d by the stands as the c e n t r a l image of the s t o r y . Now title, they are no longer merely p a s s i v e observers of the n a t u r a l scene; by the "ritualistic" a c t of l i g h t i n g a f i r e , they themselves a c t i v e " c e l e b r a n t s " of nature's mysterious beauty In f a c t , before they can even attempt become and power. to l i g h t the f i r e , must begin to r e l a t e t o t h e i r environment they i n a more i n t i m a t e - 87 way that naturally heightens their awareness of i t : T o c o l l e c t m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e b o n f i r e , we a l l e n t e r e d the dark f o r e s t . T h e r e was e v e r y w h e r e a l u x u r i a n t growth of f e r n s , w i l d p l a n t s , y e l l o w - f l o w e r e d shrubs and so on. We a l l w e n t o u r s e p a r a t e w a y s b u t , w h e n e v e r K. o r S. p u f f e d o n a c i g a r e t t e , we c o u l d s e e w h e r e t h e y were by t h e s m a l l r e d glow. W h e r e t h e o l d b a r k o f t h e w h i t e b i r c h e s was already p e e l i n g , i t s r o u g h e d g e s t u r n e d o u t , i t was e a s y t o tear o f f . E v e r y now a n d t h e n , t h e s o u n d o f K. snapping o f f a b r a n c h broke the deep s i l e n c e o f the f o r e s t . When we h a d g a t h e r e d a s m u c h a s we c o u J d l h a n d l e , we c a r r i e d i t back to the beach. 15 And whole when world finally around they them light the fire, i s transformed by i t i s as this i f the act: The a r e a a r o u n d us s u d d e n l y grew b r i g h t . The firelight was r e f l e c t e d a c r o s s t h e w a t e r a n d e v e n o n t o t h e t r e e s o p p o s i t e us on B i r d I s l a n d . 16 As effect we shall again with Fire an along, of Shiga uses the i n h i s n o v e l , An'ya explicitly plays see, a Shinto important course, other dominant group has with image first water of a the of but now "fire — fire to festival" purification — which, significantly, a body "universally of understood" Kurama.' rites, remember water mor of Shinto When we great connected i n "Takibi". crossed over Norman F r i e d m a n , Koro, ritual, role image is the that the (according symbol 18 of to "some 19 sort of spiritual becomes evident suggest the these of "spiritual first that people scene has that deeper do of transition" Shiga nature stand the i n need story overstuffed i s using of transition" the ) and do — itself cakes — and I f we bored, But what recall restless I think the i t images experience. undergo? tired, bonfire, elemental "purification" they on l i ta these group's of the then to why manner the group answer becomes clear. psychic "purification", freshment, and Lighting that itself world the over f a r from — mersion, What their mood gives the stories K., the innkeeper. spot he able told K. i n the group i s the only o f harmony fact, comes least of the genius them, i n a way beauty alone with t o seem, first room itself change ©ver around by t h e s t o r i e s to lead deeper this im- primarily resident by o f the particular he t e l l s . nature into the bonfire the others the surrounding removed perceptibly. o f mood long-time began; t h e human experience changes sits — and h i s c l o s e n e s s t o t h i s i s the appropriate person sense a i rfirst has l i t e r a l l y people o f mind as the group on e a r t h i s emphasized K.'s t o immerse the process of as p h y s i c a l r e - mountain smoke-filled As t h e f o u r or state as w e l l t h e group expression to this are mountain of fresh the stuffy, o f nature. completes of spiritual the lake a n d s o i s now world the bonfire the inrush by c r o s s i n g 88 - Thus to a greater -- h i s v o i c e , i n i f not the voice of nature itself, at loci. story "deepens" the group's mood by reminding reminiscent of "Kinosaki n i te", that not but also terror and death are present i n nature: "were t h e r e a n y w i l d d o g s a b o u t i n t h e o l d d a y s ? " asked S. "As a b o y I o f t e n h e a r d t h e m , " a n s w e r e d K. "Somet i m e s i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e n i g h t I h e a r d them h o w l i n g i n t h e d i s t a n c e a n d I r e m e m b e r i t g a v e me a t e r r i b l e feeling of loneliness." He t h e n t o l d u s a s t o r y a b o u t h i s f a t h e r , now d e a d , who had l i k e d t o go n i g h t - f i s h i n g . One n i g h t t h e w i l d d o g s had s u r r o u n d e d h i m a n d , t o e s c a p e them, he h a d h a d t o make h i s way home t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r a l o n g t h e s h o r e l i n e . And t h e y e a r when t h e y h a d f i r s t p u t t h e i r h o r s e s o u t t o g r a z e o n t h e m o u n t a i n , he h a d s e e n one o f them t h a t h a d been a t t a c k e d and h a l f - d e v o u r e d by t h e dogs. 20 K. s 89 - second s t o r y i s a k i n d of i r o n i c prelude t o h i s 1 f i n a l and most important one: The s t o r y was t h a t K., as a c h i l d , was coming home from Maebashi one n i g h t when he saw t h i s t h i n g i n a l a r g e pine grove about e i g h t k i l o m e t r e s p a s t Kogure. An area about three hundred metres i n f r o n t o f him glowed with a vague l i g h t and a b l a c k f i g u r e over two metres high moved w i t h i n i t . But when he walked f u r t h e r on he came across a man with a l a r g e pack on h i s back r e s t i n g by the r o a d s i d e , and he r e a l i z e d t h a t i t had been t h i s man, o c c a s i o n a l l y s t r i k i n g a match t o l i g h t a c i g a r e t t e as he walked along, whom he had taken f o r the g i a n t w i t h i n the halo of l i g h t . 2 1 T h i s experience o f K.'s with the pseudo-giant group t o a d i s c u s s i o n of "mysteries" leads the i n general. "Mysteries u s u a l l y t u r n out t h a t way, don;t they?" s a i d S. "But I t h i n k there are some r e a l m y s t e r i e s , 'I s a i d my wife. "I don't know about g i a n t s and such but I b e l i e v e , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t t h i n g s are sometimes r e v e a l e d t o us i n dreams." "Well, t h a t ' s something e l s e ggain now, i s n ' t i t ? " s a i d S. And then, as i f suddenly remembering something: "Say, K.-san, t h a t s t o r y about when you were trapped i n the snow l a s t year, t h a t ' s p r e t t y mysterious, i s n ' t i t ? " And, t u r n i n g around to me: "Have you heard about t h a t y e t ? " "No, I haven't." "Yes, t h a t was r e a l l y q u i t e strange," s a i d K. And he proceeded t o t e l l the s t o r y . 22 Thus the second s t o r y of a " f a l s e mystery" leads to K.'s extended account o f a genuine mystery he has experienced, and t h i s l a s t s t o r y - w i t h i n - a - s t o r y r e a l l y forms a k i n d o f "climax" (or h i g h - p o i n t , a t l e a s t ) t o the whole development o f " T a k i b i " as we have been t r a c i n g i t . The i n c i d e n t had o c c u r r e d d u r i n g the p r e v i o u s Returning winter. to the mountain from a t r i p t o Tokyo, K. had a r r i v e d at the nearby town of Mizumuma a t about three o'clock i n the afternoon. Since i t was s t i l l e a r l y and home was so near, he did not f e e l l i k e w a i t i n g 90 - fintil the next day to ascent the mountain. T h i n k i n g t h a t he would go as f a r as the f o o t of the mountain anyway and then decide whether to climb or not, he l e f t Mizunuma. Dusk had j u s t s e t t l e d as he approached the second of the s e r i e s of Shinto archways a t the f o o t of the mountain. There was ample moonlight and he f e l t to t i r e d ness i n e i t h e r body or mind. He decided to climb. 23 One notes again t h a t K. must pass through a torii Shinto "archway") before he enters more deeply i n t o the of nature -- as the group i t s e l f (a world had done e a r l i e r i n the s t o r y before they crossed the l a k e . K. soon f i n d s h i m s e l f , i n f a c t , i n danger of being "im- mersed" i n nature not j u s t s p i r i t u a l l y but i n a l i t e r a l , p h y s i cal sense. The snow grows deeper the h i g h e r he c l i m b s , so t h a t even he, who trail. has grown up on the mountain., l o s e s the A l l he can do i s head upwards, higher and higher. He continued c l i m b i n g , u r g i n g h i m s e l f on step by step. He d i d n ' t f e e l e s p e c i a l l y a f r a i d or uneasy. But he f e l t a c e r t a i n vagueness encroaching upon h i s mind. "Thinking about i t now, I know I was i n r e a l danger," s a i d K. "People who d i e i n the snow u s u a l l y get t h a t way and then they f a l l a s l e e p . They end up dying i n t h e i r s l e e p . " S t r a n g e l y enough, even though he had known a l l t h i s , K. had not f e l t the s l i g h t e s t u n e a s i ness a t the time. 24 The theme of the a t t r a c t i o n of death, of the " b l i s s of a n n i h i l a t i o n " , appears a t t h i s p o i n t i n " T a k i b i " too, then, and j u s t as i n " K i n o s a k i n i t e " and An'ya Koro, i t i s a s s o c i a t e d with Shiga's major theme of the achievement of t o t a l union nature. with - 91 But finally his K. manages t o reaches descent, distance. late up with in-law could tell he He hour. the with top her. lanterns that coming anyone and three their guests of he was h i s m o t h e r had had had thought to mountain-pass. lantern-bearers She She "siren-song" assured spoke question so finds w h a t she that he be out Even though at got and t h e m up and As and begins in at i t is his coming back clearly death t h o u g h , w h e n he inn. them t h a t of towards him should i s even more s u r p r i s e d , that meet him. the the two is surprised have known t h a t him of notices He the resist - K. had this this meets brotherno-one time, sent the they them out to j u s t c a l l e d out firmly that they had to not said. "When I a s k e d a b o u t i t l a t e r , " s a g s K., " i t turned out t h a t t h i s was e x a c t l y t h e t i m e w h e n I was. m o s t w e a k and had t h a t s l i g h t f e e l i n g o f v a g u e n e s s . On the m o u n t a i n we go t o b e d e a r l y , a t s e v e n o r e i g h t , s o i t was j u s t a g o u n d t h a t t i m e w h e n e v e r y o n e h a d f a l l e n i n t o the deepest sleep. E v e n s o , my m o t h e r w o k e u p f o u r men and s e n t them o u t i n t o t h e n i g h t — so I t h i n k she m u s t have heard t h a t c a l l very clearly." "And d i d y o u i n f a c t c a l l o u t t o h e r ? " a s k e d my wife. "No, I certainly didn't. B e c a u s e no m a t t e r how h a r d I had c a l l e d f r o m the o t h e r s i d e o f the p a s s , no-one w o u l d have h e a r d me." "Of c o u r s e , " s a i d my w i f e . Obviously she had b e e n v e r y moved by t h e s t o r y . There were t e a r s i n her eyes. 25 K.'s awestruck tale of silence that light-hearted chatter. they have e n j o y e d a rather deeper real-life of reduces is in telling W h e r e a s up communing 'with superficial level mystery level, K.'s contrast to this nature story communion p o s s i b l e the and group to point with reminds to their i n the an earlier evening each other them o f b e t w e e n human b e i n g s the -- on much in this case, tives 92 - the l o v e between mother further emphasis and son. t o the p o i n t with The n a r r a t o r some comments o f h i s own: I f o n e k n e w a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n K. a n d h i s m o t h e r , o n e was e v e n m o r e d e e p l y m o v e d b y t h i s story. I d i d n ' t know h i m v e r y w e l l b u t K . ' s d e a d f a t h e r , who was n i c k n a m e d " I b s e n " b e c a u s e o f h i s r e s e m b l a n c e to the p l a y w r i g h t , d i d n ' t s e e m a p a r t i c u l a r l y b a d man b u t , t o s a y t h e l e a s t , he d i d n ' t amount t o much a s a h u s b a n d . They say t h a t he l i v e d most o f t h e time around Maebashi w i t h h i s y o u n g m i s t r e s s a n d , come summerm h e w o u l d b r i n g h e r w i t h h i m t o t h e m o u n t a i n , p i c k up h i s e a r n i n g s f r o m the i n n and then l e a v e . K. was d e e p l y u p s e t b y h i s f a t h e r ' s behaviour and o f t e n c l a s h e d w i t h him. And t h i s maSe K. a l l t h e m o r e d e e p l y a t t a c h e d t o h i s m o t h e r a n d h i s mother a l l t h e more d e e p l y a t t a c h e d t o him. 26 But the i t i s important depths o f a human the world of nature what they come to feel able even to transcend they have l i t this deepest expression has sharing munion we of this nature. this t h e bounds this elemental force i t i s likewise to achieve union them. o f time On the contrary, love, which i s and space, o f nature i s as as the In other ineffable that made now, this we all-pervasive with his fellow fire a r e an that saw t h a t possible awe- words, a t force o n a much into the group are one, s i n c e both Earlier both insight not distract evening. and r e a d e r ; moving mother's a power and nature "rhythm".. between w r i t e r man does same e l e m e n t a l , called can see that enables man this surrounds i s that on t h e beach of that elsewhere that and elemental level that relationship from some , m y s t e r i o u s t o note Shiga i t was t h e a deep wider scale, "rhythm" man com- which and w i t h Thus, group with i n the turn their a vastly symbolized closing eyes by their passages back deepened 93 - to sense final the of of the world story, around oneness. "commanal" them, This ( i n more when is the i t is brilliantly senses than one) action: K. p i c k e d a w e l l - c h a r r e d b r a n c h o u t o f t h e f i r e and h u r l e d i t w i t h a l l h i s might f a r out over the lake. Red s p a r k s s c a t t e r e d f r o m t h e b r a n c h a s i t went f l y i n g through the a i r . In simultaneous r e f l e c t i o n , a branch s c a t t e r i n g r e d s p a r k s went f l y i n g t h r o u g h the water. T h e u p p e r a n d l o w e r b r a n c h e s d e s c r i b e d t h e same a r c , one t h o u g h a i r , t h e o t h e r t h r o u g h w a t e r , u n t i l , the i n s t a n t t h e y came t o g e t h e r a t t h e w a t e r ' s surface, t h e y s i z z l e d o u t and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a f e l l b a c k into darkness. T h e e f f e c t was f a s c i n a t i n g . The rest o f us a l s o b e g a n t o p i c k up s m o l d e r i n g b r a n c h e s and h u r l them o u t o v e r t h e l a k e . 27 There in the firey is a branches beautiful We the may natural bonfire now we can the story's "Takibi" as but how the and the lake, now clearly in this story: the full "mystical indeed, ritual this of one sense final images might lighting of as ecstacy, they an of a they brillian has and which say, the of agent i s the main Shiga's bonfire of and first abandon. scene, used so fire. s y m b o l i c a l meaning the sense joyful he fling awesome when a i r , water I t i s both union" of i s also t h e r e was the image. people creating as with almost There three elemental central that four i n the Shiga, throughout see these phenomenon, t o g e t h e r the of of over -- note effectively symbol out exhiliration, participation also brings Just of self-abandonment ritual-like l i t sense of and /And "fire", the theme entire of opus. precipitated the group's the feeling form tain of air of burning (which first earlier crossed) branches scene) of d e s c r i b e d the water, water's s u r f a c e , they back As mersed into the fact, as the as painting an figures (an of and (My integral a r t which own of came the mounthe group has and, i t is and even lower a i r , the together other at surrounding the area emphasis.) is silent, the world thoroughly around p a r t of the landscape traditional Far Eastern Shiga the in in upper through and group the union "The they out 28 i t is fire, together lake perfect instant beauty in a (the a r c , one sizzled now s m o k e - f i l l e d room nirvana: c l o s e s the peace much tiny the darkness." story i n the in until, brings water or same nature,, so the symbol death through fell the - that into and in a final with branches, streamed story's suggested, oneness 94 greatly admired and them im— themselves sansui even ink tried 29 to emulate left But with in his writing the whereas with "impersonal" i n the nature", ). now earlier As in "Kinosaki n i atmosphere story i t i s just the simply of the sense of t e " we natural was "nature of "man alone are world, alone with nature": We b o a r d e d t h e b o a t . The b r a c k e n - g a t h e r e r ' s bonfire a c r o s s t h e l a k e h a d now also died out. Our boat r o u n d e d B i r d I s l a n d and g l i d e d q u i e t l y t o w a r d s the weods a r o u n d t h e S h i n t o s h r i n e . 2Q The c a l l s o f t h e o w l grew more and more d i s t a n t . The narrative be seen as it swings line of "oscillating" like a pendulum "Takibi" thus r a t h e r than back and as forth may perhaps straight: between better that i s , the human and the natural together that worlds and the i s perhaps struck i n the of be seen which and rate, the silence the stuffy perhaps bargained mind narrator though this the have in an i n the the two the worlds the peaks together story. i t s basic dying two come worlds figure were sound, they the brought "sonic" i f a bell this of from At that any forms narrative conflict another form to they they resolu- arise i n the Akutagawa claims story by they deatharise long i n from a with nature. "communion" than they latter of.their they by communion naturally the even "natural arose narrator's the of state his "subjective". narrative "plot" make are. from case, ultimately cases may Shiga's confined too g e t more i n both that the spirits are of incidents present principle u n c o n v e n t i o n a l way of people, (and, dynamic somewhat d i f f e r e n t , as end story, stories sense is "plotless", the their end, the In of are i t s gently finally working of refresh Both of a movement b e t w e e n movement we group i n the use to " K i n o s a k i n i t e " the for.) friends). And, to a worlds fiction. consciousness, room, the associative yearning of listen between the then, in two to "wave-length" of than "Takibi", of we - - i . e . , dynamic Whereas and movement rather Or, diminish until In obssessed (And the conventional virtue stops. narrative of plot". of form these a p p r o p r i a t e , i t i s as the i t i s the "rhythm", the more gradually essential tion pendulum — to therev-is finally wilderness reverbrations may until the It is is structures structured stories seem doubtful, though, less whether s t o r y " -- or "invisible no discernible course, one as can exist might as painting". A no I hope longer to have internal definable movement towards different so that absurd misrepresentation. to and like-minded the works story. call a of avis plotless after story. kind of climax One what all, as do with to of music" have then, of structure, even a denoument conventional f i e - either end, that closely were paradigms Oxford "plot- Shiga's and and likely, Western the own, look i s more and i s , i n the suspects failed -- integral their "plotless" had or, an those a s t o r y would Certainly have to as "soundless of nineteenth-century Plot, rara logic a them critics themselves by truly i n nature tion), fluenced such speak shown, rigorous very well be almost (albeit any n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e whatsoever i t would stories, an there 96 - English an Akutagawa enough at over-in- of the short dictionary 31 reminds us, connected to traditional In ing to Shiga as other. Western As fiction i s very the I events have this other much way in a already pointed connection forms there — i f a story are out, i s usually but s t i l l a critic takes the in casual. connecttrouble for i t . seems almost -- each principle look to i t u s u a l l y takes Shiga's it has to real me, i s quite epic-like shown by crossing the problem nature his lake use and i n regard an of of to opposite the one. underlying certain lighting narrative structure, the Given a c t i o n of universal, fire in the elemental, his archetypal "Takibi", the stories symbols: "journey tain through i n An'ya stories ture might Koro night" and t h e f i n a l -- t h e r e taste. I t i s here of the shi-shosetsu genre that story's thematic some ness". I But I s h a l l come to deal In ences near-sighted the previous between "Kinosaki to we "Three j u s t over some have already mentioned length as r e p r e s e n t e d however, stories. look as among i t i s possible closer I am Shiga, differ- story thinking, i n Ernest the remarkable to analogies stories of a writer after when by short I f we have "formless- fundamental Western dis- a s we i fof found a t l e a s t much short a decade that, accused Deaths". infor- of the Shiga at greater writers, parallels, of the early formality point shi-shosetsu "naturally plotted" particular, I chapter Western i f not exact debut Koro. by T o l s t o y ' s Shiga's his An'ya the Shiga contemporary find, this n i t e " and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l represented more with pprsue have i n struc- to h i s rescue, so s u c c e s s f u l l y critics that h i s the d i a r y - l i k e h a s come the e p i c - l i k e or parable-like conception o f t h e moun- too formalized guising seen, ascent i s a c t u a l l y a danger become t o o s c h e m a t i c , f o r modern mality dark who made Hemingway. similarity be- 32 tween Shiga's style and Hemingway's after we taken into two to have respective languages. eschew a l l forms "big words" account There -- t h a t the gulf that i s i n both i s , of separates writers of " a r t i f i c i a l i t y " , including and a b s t r a c t rhetoric that course, a their desire the kind characterize of "intel- lectual d i s c o u r s e " i n any language. simple, down-to-earth both tend to write short declarative c l a u s e s and t h i s staccato rhythm. includes jectives (i.e., which words adjectives, overly their they writing also express such both objects. emotional key or phrase word w o u l d make that use o f their they name i n which contantly rather than both resort such writing f i l l actual i s also expressed f o rthe "non-logical" n o t a b l y , t h e way diction o f those ad- Concomitantly, writers almost judgments A wider c o n c r e t e nouns sub- colloquial commonplace or "nice"). they of a strong, "anti-intellectualism" the preference o f both — free or intellectual and a b s t r a c t . simple, prose use a simple seem t o f e e l , This language their both as "good" with most gives i s fora As a r e s u l t , sentences a few o f t h e most intellectual physical by They only preference mode o f e x p r e s s i o n . ordinate which Their will use o f repeat a to explicit 33 argument t o make their point. writers are characterized packing ahe g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e words -- and by such of the experience claimed that their by such a vivid feeling prose Above all, a disciplined meaning into immediacy -- t h a t critics approaches these critics "naturalness'1, and they often use images beautiful cribe series this point. o f metaphors t h e "immediacy" o f Shiga's of both insist I have that economy the fewest the q u a l i t y however, to illustrate o f both -- possible -- c a p t u r i n g t h e e x a c t t h e feame t i m e , world the styles often of poetry. At on i t s extreme taken from the natural already quoted the Kobayashi style, have Hideo saying that used t o des- i t was like "the wings winter" Ford of and wrote the so on ptarmigan on. 34 The Hemingway's turning white with f o l l o w i n g passage style i s much the that i n the advent Ford same of Madox vein: Hemingway's words s t r i k e y o u , e a c h one, as i f t h e y were pebbles f e t c h e d f r e s h from a brook. They l i v e and shine, each i n i t s p l a c e . So o n e o f h i s p a g e s h a s t h e e f f e c t o f a b r o o k - b o t t o m i n t o w h i c h y o u l o o k down t h r o u g h the flowing water. 35 36 But prising ities since that, on between common. belong that traced time of back two M.H. "cultural to Rousseau thelvlndustrial l'homme meme", there w r i t e r s whose affinity, seemingly As est observation, ultimate "primitivist". tradition closer these Their to "le style Abrams points out, the Revolution Romantics was some have of there much is that beginning affinin both man, the is a strong West w h i c h -- sur- deeper so t o me, category p r i m i t i v i s m " i n the and are styles i t seems paradoxical i t i s hardly may i . e . , to t o make modern be about i t s the impact felt. C u l t u r a l p r i m i t i v i s m i s the p r e f e r e n c e of "nature" over "art" i n a n y f i e l d o f human c u l t u r e and v a l u e s . For example i n e t h i c s a p r i r j i i t i v i s t l a u d s the " n a t u r a l " , or " i n n a t e " i n s t i n c t s and p a s s i o n s o v e r the d i c t a t e s p f r e a s o n and p r u d e n t i a l f o r e t h o u g h t ; i n s o c i a l philosophy, t h e i d e a l i s t h e s i m p l e and " n a t u r a l " f o r m s o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l o r d e r i n p l a c e o f the a n x i e t i e s and frustrations e n g e n d e r e d by a c o m p l e x and h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d social organi z a t i o n ; i n m i l i e u , a p r i m i t i v i s t p r e f e r s outdoor "nature", u n m o d i f i e d b y human i n t e r v e n t i o n , t o c i t i e s o r a r t f u l g a r d e n s ; and i n l i t e r a t u r e and t h e o t h e r a r t s , he puts his r e l i a n c e o n s p o n t a n e i t y , t h e f r e e e x p r e s s i o n o f emot i o n , and the i n t u i t i v e p r o d u c t s o f " n a t u r a l g e n i u s " , as a g a i n s t t h e r e a s o n e d a d a p t a t i o n o f a r t i s t i c means t o f o r s e e n ends and t h e r e l i a n c e on " a r t i f i c i a l " f o r m s , r u l e s and conventions. To thing this that obviously also apposite seems q u i t e summation, germane to our I might add some- present discussion: - 100 namely, that value he tion, and other words, as his the places the literary in on first "primitivist", "spontaneity, intuitive the products immediacy and - -- foremost free of has because the expression tended because, as to great of 'natural genius'" usually subject, of emo- — in take himself Hemingway once 38 asked: of "Does course, and the began this f i g u r e of familiar one The in a writer away from lost i t s original stories his with his himself, Confessions, " e g o t i s t " became interesting that experience, Critics first i s an i t seems immediate his great Byronic Hemingway speaking, own Rousseau a literature. power. and better?" self-absorbed Ernest Generally drew early the of anyone tradition i n Romantic career point. know are the f u r t h e r tie the more h i s generally two novels his most are case his agreed most writing that his successful 39 works, The and change these reflected famous "Hemingway points out, and It and, was the 'It shosetsu way his to style as that For changed "Nick later "from to that to such than Adams became our his d e t e r i o r a t i o n of early a much less famous As longer, earlier on (1940) works. the Donaldson language more d i s c u r - successful and the of later imitated." Shiga's non-autobiographical Tolls stories", Scott economy discussion of later, Bell autobiographical. works. an a l l observers, Whom t h e structured biographical in his pertinent note closely noticeable presentation almost first the style" of is also novels tionally for also in style objectivity sive, are Heming- more The closely hand, 40 shi- are other style. conven- may autowell be regarded Shiga's not as being "naturally shi-shosetsu. as "well-made" Reminiscing publishers To early stories about the refused but plotted" i n a way similar readers, in fact, they as formless difficulties to accept short-story form, Hemingway back i n the mail...with call them stories, 101- but of his "slices early his radically once wrote notes of always of new anecdotes, appeared of life". career, when versions of " a l lof rejection to the stories that would sketches, the never contes, 41 etc." As lem with not yet we have certain caught Western short latter of theless, an affinities between i n the early i n f l u e n c e of of mentor cised his same way Japanese of "blue as he there and and may important account, 1920's in Paris, pencil" d i d on the so-called a l l , Ezra on the i n f l u e n c e on Pound 42 well-documented, and t h i s and because to no they question Hemingway had of any early of bulk i s , never- connection" for in the "apprentice- and in fact, in Eliot. Imagists i n t u r n , may the especially stories T.S. direct the came u n d e r Pound, other influence, of (since his "Imagists", the the w r i t t e n the Hemingway poetry prob- have in some e x t e n t , years Pound. same Hemingway. "Japanese Hemingway's early the published), there During them be and them. the has developments former was s t i l l perhaps can Shiga the Hemingway which -- T o l s t o y and between interesting Shiga remarkable between way direct the the Japanese case seen, critics course, before Hemingway's ship" of no h i s work with story either read Western up Although, influence already has be exerthe The been seen to - 102 have to reached Hemingway m a i n l y i n Hemingway's crete use of imagery atmosp-here. of the case, "objective above to I t i s the through Pound. What a l l , i s a very c r e a t e an emotion technique correlative", made precise or a famous although, i t amounts con- psychological under as and Eliot's Jackson term Benson 43 points out, James concept. In to the l i e at fact, Joyce's this core of "epiphany" central the expresses doctrine aesthetic of theory a very similar I m a g i s m may of the be whole seen "Pound- 44 Lewis-Ford-Joyce^Stein-Eliot we must, the name o f exaggeration to say twentieth-century W.B. Yeats that the i n rather more tive correlative". once wrote, was to this concrete he real thing, i f we that to a on the crucial one. his or imagist "objec- i n h i s work, sequence of an early "epiphany" capture as i t i s hardly influence was add, himself expressed terms tried that, list, in English Hemingway What "the so Japanese literature Characteristically, credo group" motion he and 45 fact the which "real ing" his thing" (jikkan) Japanese regard its a the sense internal we have Both already writers, As to seen, work vision and was might that Benson "Haiku-like" isolated Shiga's then, Jackson t i m e l e s s n e s s : the concept combination in their Hemingway's stresses, close i t is this tradition. some o f of and Hemingway's remarkably t r u e emotion poetic to as program. realists", image w i t h emotion." seems which, aesthetic "lyrical is made t h e of of "real captured, be the links feel- instant to called precise i t to points out yet of central sentences, an here the in "there and a l l speaking for - 103 itself. also a The matter-of-factness poetic. These Station of What Benson the says what Akutagawa sentences Metro' here says of are which of is journalistic, he very called Hemingway's Shiga;s much style a but like i t is Pound's 'hokku-like style i s very i n the 'In sentence'. similar passage to I have a l - 47 ready quoted. Needless Pound in background Shigass to say, — he one need not comes by look this for a tradition quite "naturally". In Hemingway;s case, tional veracity leads on the data he knows h i s the way of his own own in Shiga's writer life — the young the perforce f o r , as f e e l i n g s best- i n which biographical" the as to a heavy Hemingway Carlos Hemingway emphasis Baker emo- reliance pointed has arrived at on out, described this "auto- preference: " A l l y o u h a v e t o do i s w r i t e one t r u e s e n t e n c e , " he told himself. " W r i t e t h e t r u e s t s e n t e n c e t h a t y o u know." I t must be above a l l a " t r u e s i m p l e d e c l a r a t i v e s e n t e n c e without s c r o l l w o r k o r o r n a m e n t a l l a n g u a g e o f any sort. I t m u s t d e a l w i t h s o m e t h i n g he knew f r o m p e r s o n a l experience. S t o r i e s l i k e "The p a s s i n g o f P i c k l e s M c C a r t y " o r "Wolves and D o u g h n u t s " had b e e n l a r g e l y invented. T h e y g r a z e d h i s own experience i n I t a l y and Illinois without keeping the c e n t r a l f a c t s i n focus. Now he wanted t o p l a c e h i s f a i t h i n the d i r e c t transcription o f w h a t he saw. T h a t a n d no m o r e . Somehow t h e e m o t i o n t h a t he w a n t e d t o c o n v e y w o u l d f i l t e r t h r o u g h t h e r e ported facts. 48 It sonal of was inevitable that, emotion, fiction. write the Hemingway, Being so traditional with like his Shiga, s e l f - c e n t r e d , he English "social primary would emphasis write would novel", a new obviously nor, with on per- kind not his distrust style of abstract ideas, "thesis-novel". works, Hemingway, tional form has - would he write Especially in his like that 104 Shiga, was r i s e n to a the more earlier French (and p r a c t i t i o n e r of prominence only in best) that this fic- century, 49 which Ralph result, fairly all Freedman the "Hemingway consistent s t o r i e s to novel, Islands identifiable It is Shiga, acy no of and real included and Hills as of the not points in in his "Aru short as Asa" Africa a novel, to the note his have that "Nick of his and hero",.is the own been fact written but protagonist of final, posthumous his character because of experience, customary D is his an with that some o f first as as diary literal "fic- the West. shows journalistic just a in pri- Hemingway, consistently Indeed, reports, safaris, a of this that, Hemingway very a Adams" c o l l e c t i o n s were is a with as As d i s t i n c t i o n s between volume'." first (1985) "Shiga i t is a l l fiction, 50 story was novel". himself. rigid out, newspaper complete the author in reporting this Hemingway's A f r i c a n of the make insisting people the (1970), " f a c t s " of wilfulness then "lyrical appears from Stream of the Baker published such works, "non-fiction" that Sheridan kind did like who interesting also like a hero", the "Thomas H u d s o n " persona r e l i a n c e on and the in mary tion? called character Hemingway's m a j o r first As has a accur- 'there the are works written Shiga story entry. Green account of one of i t i s presented in the form extensive dialogue. As Hemingway - says in the absolutely the true pattern pete A foreword: with of the Movable book "The to (1964) Hemingway w r i t e s in has whether action imagination."^"'" Feast - writer see a month's 105 the can, shape i f truly preface: in a to of write a'country Paris reader and com- memoir, novelistic " I f the an presented, Similarly, his i s presented the attempted form and prefers, this 52 b o o k may Fraser be regarded Sutherland as defends guing that thing he writes is write 'pure' fiction to fiction." "since the this or his practise writer's fiction. In mind And pure of "Memoir Fiction" Hemingway)s i s always whether as the at by work, ar- every- writer pretends n o n - f i c t i o n , he produces a new „ 53 image. Jackson nothing new fiction — "news". "was to about the 'true a very new the never 'made u p ' , graphy, more a of but either more Another way of is the story of of of that after fiction and the early must as discovered But the must this, seem as we have "natural" really with to content that goes novelists. never be something back Fic- fiction, that 'document' modern a u t h e n t i c i t y , more putting and approach presented 'diary'. style old us, is fact an tells a there a l l , is related journalistic Defoe always us "journalistic" "novel", history, discovered immediacy, that use tells a p p l i c a t i o n of history — mixing word accounts' tion, happened however, this Hemingway's really the Benson, or temper really bio- demands 54 impersonality." seen (i.e., in Shiga's taken case, directly - from nature) Hemingway, as opposed like 106 - to "artificial". S h i g a , wanted to write In this an sense "anti-literary 55 literature". As R o b e r t Weeks h a s t e s t i f i e d , Hemingway's "consummate a r t " - i s an " a r t so u n o b t r u s i v e as t o e l i c i t charge art of not being a r t at a l l " " * the i n other words, the best 6 o f a l l t o Hemingway, as t o S h i g a , i s one t h a t appears to be ' a r t l e s s " . At this wherein, lie? point a s c e p t i c a l reader might then, does t h e seemingly in invisible The a n s w e r , o f c o u r s e , i s : f i r s t very process of selection. T h i s was h i s famous b i l i n g u a l motto, well ask: exactly a r t o f such and f o r e m o s t , writers i n the summed u p b y E z r a P o u n d o b t a i n e d by chance from a 57 German-Italian ^to Jackson that so, Benson, enabled "Dichten=condensare." i t was H e m i n g w a y ' s him t o put t h i s " w r i t i n g prose involved of dictionary: looking motto carefully, getting economical 'condensed essence' But Shiga's "reportorial into practise skills" and, by i n t h e manner o f modern p o e t r y . t h e s i t u a t i o n he o b s e r v e d , straight-forward, According speak fashion, the emotion these a matter facts f a c t s down i n a and then letting 58 for itself." t h e famous "economy" o f Hemingway's i s not merely His effort at the essential putting of packing words; doing style, as of the greatest meaning i n t o the fewest possible the writer "economical" i n h i s selection of h i s material, this possible i s also so t h a t what 59 is left always out i s often t r y to write," as i m p o r t a n t as what i s i n c l u d e d . Hemingway once remarked, "I "on t h e p r i n - ciple of the for every and i t only part This the major (1925). Shiga's we are the i s the cribed are with hints "fishing on the own sets gets where up up deeply story," "was about with on of a to fish whole a series raver himself the morning the story's story i s , in back from and a few that i s no this a rather source war but in He hikes down for trout ordinary therapy of this was to his wound? a f t e r he there attempt wrote i t , no mention 61 of the war story's deeper The the in it." imagery and O n c e we action have become realized this comprehensible fact, on a the much level. "burned-over" story, for country instance, (and which which i s the is so -- there desperate administer the of i t i s a l l des- Nevertheless, said years the beds realism. to And catches action fact, protagonist psyche. and As surface': cooks next Time "Takibi". the a meal, by i t happens camp, Hemingway h i m s e l f coming i s , as happen alone our f i s h e d when y o u n g e r . that wounded River", In often microscopic the eliminate illustrated collection, to can water 0 contrast returning almost -- know y o u protagonist of of "The the and seems extent trip" first i t under he the throughout part little Adams, of is brilliantly comparison very you Two-Hearted stories, Michigan miles, "Big for story, night, this story, eighths iceberg."^ Hemingway's Hemingway few your story of seven Anything principle" shown N i c k northern shows. is "iceberg suited it a that There strengthens The admirably early iceberg. opening image reminiscent of of T.S. Eliot's before) war now Nick caused seems has much Shiga's serves as be take up a to a very cipal out "good action of iziviliaation tive" nature out -- over the lake camp, an structure does cooking itself almost the entire story, and almost monotonous detail that "ritualistic" -- in of has fact, this story "Takibi"? i t a l l that i n both by the cases, Shiga's man; -- -- group the as we i s an two stories engaged prin- would escape into deeper the continuously i n meals, indeed, harmony firey are the not "primi^ with branches Hemingway ritualistic preparing his these does in certain greater extent nature. i t protagonist hikes words throwing the the nature. these they of in of of which, writers group even fishing their -- i n other bonfire, to country, devastated themselves the — Shiga equipment, about yet years scars civilization". world i s shown e n g a g e d making of of psychic embodiment from between the bring lighting protagonist actions: to not the similarity rituals i n the "primitivist" into as the l a k e , Hemingway's stories, two Just and imagistic "ills the both from there. the couple "burned-over" escape country" from the to over expect But from, a the-.physical r u i n s m o k e - f i l l e d room" i s about boat both function concrete only end same d e s c r i b e d as the symbolize Hemingway's the - written just returned "stuffy, protagonist may Land", to just i n him. performs as "Waste 108 fishing activities occupy d e s c r i b e d i n such reader can have no minute, doubt In double the Hemingway purpose: protagonist a more over He into urgent h i s own Nick, as i n the closer function to a He as with they help the there keep is a and they him to they exercise mind. The "does him from strain of not want "nature ritual do with (and, as a bring the also have control war-scarred thinking." rituals experience story's central help but to t o have to consciously putting Nick's "uniizive" seem nature, points out, will i n Shiga, a momentary through rituals story, i s , in fact, that Nevertheless, least touch Wells act. ritual Hemingway, these Shiga — - disordered, traumatized Elizabeth wants through as story, 109 think. himself 6 2 mysticism" bring him in at nature. This comes Jackson Benson 63 points the central ritual fishing. When h e catches his momentary oneness with from out, the Philip even oppressive Young i n the language of abruptly. The and playing become identical story Nick of a big of fish this the strike pressure the first fish, from a In our is skiing: of experience Time "The called rush trout man, stories): achieves release i s the he style sudden extreme changes but lengthen an earlier Snow", b u t as right greatly describes i n an swoop As reflected i s nowhere explicitly a briefly i s the Hemingway "Cross-Country the Adams troubled self. the sentences 64 more and Nick "When t h e r e i s o f f the then Nick r e l e a s e s him momentary appropriately graceful." kind trout, h i s own story'i and a l l the which confines of points out, excitement there the of he this time dropped - no down a out steep and left u n d u l a t i o n i n the him only the - mountainside wonderful plucked flying, Nick's dropping mind sensation 65 in his body." Nick As Sheridan i s s e a r c h i n g , i n our earthbound sort of way -In some w a y s , us more of story, alone to control story my head into and may nature to t r y to his which worked on as While the mood thoughts Like Nick as of passes -- for in a R i v e r " may seem "Takibi". In recent he had trouble In the final I t l e d me tough, to of remind the the thoughts which a l l understanding." protagonist also too i t would. peace unlike from by "The earlier retired trauma a exercising scene of death: deeper of the "Only and deeper 67 of that tortured practise the recover overwhelmed fancies." as <bf t r a u m a t i z e d mind. these studied i s not recall, accident. his says: " B i t Two-Hearted is fairly and that we tranquil dark — as over he time, "Kinosaki n i te" than Shiga near-fatal Baker " B i g Two^Hearted of "Takibi", that his i n check: of River" i s not however, neither "Kinosaki n i te". "rituals", "His mind Nick was does light i s i t as Through manage starting as to the keep t o work. He 6 8 knew he as we could have oblivion direction future. choke seen, and i t because he union does with achieve nature. h i s r e c o v e r y must The story, mistic note: "There u *.u »69 f i s h t h e swamp. he in fact, were was a few Now take. ends tired plenty of And, moments of self- knows, at least, he There on enough." this days i s hope here for emphatically coming the when he the opticould On the other hand, the mood of " T a k i b i " i s not as reservedly there " l i g h t - h e a r t e d " as might f i r s t appear. are shadows i n the background and, made too e x p l i c i t because Shiga, the power of "the i s an Here too they are On c l o s e r view of f i n d t h a t , j u s t as Nick's war^ Shiga n a r r a t o r ' s n e a r - f a t a l a c c i d e n t still the experience "unspoken presence" i n "Big Two-Hearted R i v e r " , ground of " T a k i b i " . so the looms i n the back- F r a n c i s Mathy p e r c e p t i v e l y n o t i c e s when, i n speakingoof Shiga's l i f e on Mount Akagi, the of " T a k i b i " , he remarks: "The not l i k e Hemingway, b e l i e v e s i n t h i n g l e f t out". s t o r y , i n f a c t , we again, un- this site q u i e t melancholy t h a t Shiga begun to experience a f t e r h i s brush with death was deepened here on t h i s mountain. had further I t i s the f e e l i n g of q u i e t 70 melancholy t h a t informs the s t o r y way 'Bonfire'";.." as Hemingway r e f e r s s y m b o l i c a l l y of the to the war In the same with h i s image "burnt-over" country at the opening of h i s s t o r y , e a r l y i n " T a k i b i " Shiga makes use of a s t r i k i n g image t h a t immed- i a t e l y puts us i n mind of "Kinosaki accident: "But n i t e " and the n e a r - f a t a l the mountains on a l l s i d e s were b l a c k , and I 7 thought they resembled the backs of crouching water When we n i t e " , i n which r e c a l l the f i n a l episode of "Kinosaki the n a r r a t o r k i l l s a water l i z a r d , as w e l l as the deep sym- b o l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e which he t e l l s us these c r e a t u r e s him, lizards." have f o r then i t i s d i f f i c u l t to b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s i s j u s t a casually-dropped simile (and, of course, i t i s a l s o made con- spicuous by the f a c t t h a t Shiga r a r e l y uses auch s i m i l e s ) . As the story explicitly once then in w h e n K. killed night, progresses, a tells "Hell tells horse threatened of Valley" on to the too, his the k i l l skull just story darker note emerges of wild dogs mountain his of a this and father; "a few the who and small wild days had the who had even, one narrator animal" before. more Death he himself had being found perhaps 72 the it major theme i s hardly from of Shiga's surprising "Takibi", oneaof Nevertheless, amidst on evening a tranquil shadow of — life longer albeit overwhelm harmony of the Shiga and "Takibi" shows, he experience of An'ya of the i s , as Koro "foil" mind mountain seems to i s , in we and, his but stories. and a even the lake distant s e t o f f the joyful Thoughts death in necessary with absent "light-hearted" n a r r a t o r , as of Hemingway's, entirely foreground. nature that i t i s of i n spring, death with "enlightenment" most beauty necessary the as i t i s not Shiga's ibhe q u i e t n e s s both that the that occupies disturbing scene a work, shall see, indeed, of no "Kinosaki n i te", f o r him f e l l o w man. fact, of sense well the on to achieve As the the way final to the culminating Shiga's entire opus. Chapter 4 With w r i t e r s more be some d i s p u t e as the most case, out A his Night's as An ya pression Shiga's his he fact that effort that had to write a f t e r * : i t was though he lived go , Japanese And, so as f a r as literature." Nevertheless, the we erated examined form, the up At•about are the novel, as the he to 1937) done w i t h , written: years to i t the — of have put a l l the intermittent very be by the fact little to "Some of else, this found aspired peak ex- of by Regarding highest novellas forceful second, out: a l l or first, i s to points pages, passages to wrote t h a t he Mathy most seemed years. "Here Francis call he work finest and, singled stories evidenced, twenty-five Shiga's hundred clearest, and in X8&$L.4^$?T Koro short may regarded be novel-length Indeed, 1912 be can four either everything every- in his life Japanese modern 2 An'ya q u i n t e s s e n t i a l Shiga have work w h i c h . there representative; thirty-four has possesses, work."''" may themes about another Shiga critics one finally thing and 1937) (from Agawa H i r o y u k i works one style. novel their contains him i t Naoya, magnum o p u s : An ' y a major this i t took Shiga most writings prose into that substantial, Koro 1 celebrated that the his really Furthermore of i s only fictional of or Passing, only other which there unreservedly i s his to important however, Dark it as prolific to Koro Naoya this "fictional i s not so "pure" shi-shosetsu point. It as is that autobiography", an the example short seemingly i n two of stories adult- distinct senses. On t h e one hand, autobiography, Kensaku, events discover i s obviously the novel "Kensaku s i fplaced a persona the novel though h i m s e l f , many are f i c t i t i o u s . As S h i g a r e p r e s e n t what circumstances, as t h e author's the protagonist, of Shiga and f e e l i n g s i n similar regard that, describes actions 1 do we i f we o r what Tokito of the once wrote: I myself would I would want t o 3 do, o r what novel is I have i s also presented acter, see, as t h e a c t u a l be r e g a r d e d Koro. interested that I n my ledge, previous standing the other level, about critics An'ya a man an a u t o b i o g r a p h y Naoya. i t seems of the aesthetic Koro, a s we trying I shall i n this be have t o me achievement failed crucial shall more second To t h e b e s t char- to write of the character, Tokito o f t h e work though that i t of the f i c t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e work, Shiga hand, the i n the sense autobiography as a novel o f t h e man, distinction, On autobiography" i s , qua t h e autobiography than of done." On t h i s i n i t s being rather this "fictional T o k i t o Kensaku. may An'ya a actually o f my sense -- Kensaku know- t o emphasize to a full and thematic under- significance the novel. With seem goes largely to content dences cular their which work. "biographical" themselves do e x i s t One between An'ya Koro ferreting the author's rather hostile so f a r as t o say t h a t accepted with critic, readers as a g r e a t approach, out those life and t h i s even with though critics correspon- Nakamura M i t s u o , contemporary novel, Japanese partieven Shiga t h e main character only of " n e v e r more because the the is they writer novel such as Francis as kind idealized of write The material in his to resort Mathy, to way an the the the hand, on f i l l a A rather did lengthy accepted novel pre- Western seems Shiga's i t , Shiga figure readers writer." other very hero existence" autobiographical defeat" to abstract abstract the sees life some o f of autobiography Mathy own kind because the of - the of on fictional shosetsu. as self ''admission a a I t was uncenditionally the would than behind himself. senting a "saw 115 to regard part than not " f a b r i c a t i o n s " he that a i t he pure have novel, critic shi- enough and so had had always of intro- 5 frowned upon. He also wished to avoid the pain spection: To s a l v a g e t h e p a r t s h e h a d a l r e a d y w r i t t e n a n d go on t o c o m p l e t e t h e n o v e l , he h a d r e c o u r s e to f i c t i o n : he d e s i g n e d t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e two " s i n s " , the " s i n " of y.he h e r o ' s m o t h e r a n d t h a t o f h i s w i f e , a n d i n t o t h i s s t r u c t u r e were f i t t e d the i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s . Since i t was n e v e r more t h a n a c o n v e n i e n t t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e , i t i s no w o n d e r t h a t i t h a s s o l i t t l e o r g a n i c f u n c t i o n i n the novel. S h i g a ' s i n a b i l i t y t o c o n t i n u e the work w i t h out recourse to f i c t i o n a l elements i s eloquent testimony o f t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e d e s i r e t o "mine what i s i n me" had begun t o y i e l d t o the d e s i r e f o r harmony and peace. 6 In making Japanese critics, autobiography sense — that, once tional comples these qua we is only the in still the points, regarding first autobiography regard autobiography mixture various of the novel i n both fiction and, like An'ya a Koro i t seems of Shiga in i t s proper senses and however, Mathy — reality the we to as me, man. fictional lesser I hope light discover i t contains, the — as that far to a show fic- the from being "inorganic", theme from the consciously problems, is very an beginning. confronts both involves. integral part the personal is a part nature tension that namic Koro: on the that the one hand and once we Kensaku, tion we that Not to to miss able as of Reminiscences", his involved relations with unfavorable reputable-looking him been he boy — i s b a f f l e d and singled out for the "real" go which forms other. This union the of i t and the Shiga, the is as basic on of to the of man and I hope to autobiography Kensaku's a childhood. from between tension Shiga and writing Daisen,.and short i n which from the shi-shosetsu which the the fact, and a dy- this write of tension nature show resolu- very autobiography that, Tokito ultimate this in work. i s , then, i t s meaning. episodes are to opens w i t h l "grandfather": as in the i t i s because work part An, ya K o r o Hero's is the good Koro novel, form between m a n / a r t / c i v i l i z a t i o n the in Mount that Kensaku regard a on An'ya find on resolved scene regard tension nature is ultimately climactic the and novel's that larger inevitably felt, An'ya the the "primitivist", of of aesthetic, of the this and Furthermore, "fictional" With of his Kensaku A l l five family. Kensaku's the so when resentful this entitled, recalls deal In — the he is Kensaku that of is of "The major his first difficult, i t is his the old man "seedy" and dis- sent a l l his s p e c i a l treatment, five with impressions beginning that prologue to live family although he with has "since my infancy The I h a d come second mother. Once, to expect episode when concerns h e was four found him perched dangerously there by r i v e t i n g force cued as family. ever "For years my mother The third mother. father to When some. really or t o be so long loved high by my also she r e f u s e s was done with tears whatever relations cake t o soothe continues " t o c r y my i tdidn't my with that h i s i n retrospect, wanted when- g h i m some — memory ofhis to myself: much." him res- this and a g g r e s s i v e l y a t , o r t o be b e a t e n as something f i l l remarks he o n l y be o n e member Kensaku's to give he p e r s i s t e n t l y the cake, shouted very h i s mother he c o u l d thought with h i s She h e l d cherishes would concerns As t h e n a r r a t o r want until at least me old, on a r o o f . eyes loved relations years still And I have at least episode or five Kensaku after, i t . has bought, demand not he was I remembered else, his that Kensaku's o f h e r eyes by two m a n s e r v a n t s . a proof injustice." he d i d heart out, matter nerves, which, to get r i d 9 of the t e r r i b l e picture feels see, feeling of himself sorely stay The him i n t o fourth epiaode his grandfather's The house was characters, as a r a t h e r neglected with of oppression." — that, boy a s we a who are to adulthood. concerns house where dropped he p a x n t s high-strung characteristics a gathering-place who gloomy, Thus the young "everything Kensaku's was f o r a l l sorts i n at night to play life slovenly.""'" of cards. at 0 disreputable Kensaku's - 118 only c o n s o l a t i o n was who acted own m o t h e r wad and was her knees would as a in a feel grandfather's young kind of s u b s t i t u t e mother dead by then). mood, "she good and his hold such me would tight ecstasy When then, f o r him she had pick i n her me up a few drinks and put me thick cared Oei, (since his had strong, I hardly mistress, on arms, that I I could not breathe."^ In the with his good mood, starts comes a feelings he so a away b y this the with first other and rage and opening w r i t t e n by might begin answer by in man". way There the provides case the the an poses answer. he the Why arise, i s : why their is roughly h e l p l e s s on i n the of of themes child f o r which and t o me, i s Kensaku's in use this with a We i t forms motifs, i s father of the floor, person? that suspenseful is the Shiga first course, he father. i t seems does be- true persists, his a What suddenly third-person novel "the questions him. two still lies novel's element with Kensaku towards hero particularly i s even prologue long saying, introduction to Kensaku's As relating father i s in allow surface. Koro, a the both when he i s shown his between hatred An'ya prologue splendid to day to wrestle t h a t must short to Kensaku they foot. question of whep f a t h e r and, consideration of device boy play-fight each hand episode particular invites his bound unusual final i n earnest towards The On harmless is filled any he fight finally and father. as pushed fifth mystery novel grandfather a since the in the proper presented - 119 as such ually an singled cluding why and seduced was away from through One -- i n the giving his and see, -- of pages a w r i t e r of person of away. the duces the as just how the with his II when M s father? of the mother "father" product night" begins prologue And his that his i s the skillfully struggle to of at shows, ^prologue, .(We are t o me least this the continues the An'ya Koro as Shiga concept form well. a rest By at The of least fictional at the again of fate" same serves time, Hemingway's "thing left out".) another potentially, prologue, the i t as accomplishes "dark his i t e s t a b l i s h e s Kensaku novel, have p r e s e n t e d casting his prologue important: might actually of the itself. the here strategic so, introduces without, reminded that as Shiga overcome the s h i - s h o s e t s u and in this Kensaku, and, i c e b e r g " and written, like and material by that been "grandfather" with in Part Kensaku, "dark of i s at have comes Kensaku s Kensaku's function author answer himself then, i t seems the relations with family, i n - his grandfather? in his 1 Nevertheless, as the his relations t h a t he his birth much "principle animosity Thus with by contin- childhood. few too live tension in his supposed home i s Kensaku h i m s e l f treatment discover, along of may theme o f f to questions union. his Why "unjust" certain by moment major a these was very for shipped w h e n we "sinful" character? outright a l l of novel, out being i s there mother To unsavory a after i n the as a l l , might third i t s "introductory" shi-shosetsu written three t h i n g s : he character being the intro- author of a work that Shiga himself whole novel we know, o f c o u r s e , (thus preparing i s a l s o meant ter) ; and f i n a l l y , and t h e complex involves, shosetsu the only author notably to since the question like been one m i g h t upset which forms since the novel between Shiga Firstly, c i l i a t i o n , 1917), person although while own person, t o have balance there f o r instance, calling himself of the s h i Shiga as most i s purposely greatly made revered go on t o w r i t e presenting done i t out- of Tokito senses be answered i s a between as Wakai Shiga ( as a "fiction- o n two differ- identity large necessary himself and Kensaku. 4fO does w r i t e by a f i c t i t i o u s reality But are also i t was have and "spiritual" there Kensaku? so would of fiction so t h a t some d i s t a n c e such that i t aesthetic tension. must i n the novel, itself, elements, d i d not Shiga and h i s p r o t a g o n i s t , shi-shosetsu who i n two d i f f e r e n t the question to establish a lengthy why that genre regard fictitious charac- of the o l d school). underlying operates of fiction example as the shi-shosetsu answer that the reality" ( i f we t o Shiga's i n the f i r s t the novel's the author elements In several the delicate autobiography", levels. Kensaku arises: the prologue, t o have "pure" -- a samurai then the idea versus of the grandfather, of the novel Generally, for i tcontains w r i t t e n by the shi-shosetsu i s a q u a authored'-By then actually been w r i t t e n by t h i s of " f i c t i o n the prologue grandfather rest right, ent t o have be d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e The al problem was us t o a c c e p t he i n t r o d u c e s the character paternal 120 - Reconi n the first name, b u t t h i s - 121 work By is a direct writing that An'ya i t i s not earlier wished or otherwise) the On but for this An'ya contrary, as shi-shosetsu we novel"). to first Tayama a l l , view. cause I i f he the wants with discuss as, this not know i t , so, throughout the world 1 entirely of enough his to show, ("fictional" the shi-shosetsu some d i s t a n c e through i s , i t seems novel's central the his wrote the from rest of shi-shosetsu. direction. h i s own was genre -- "pure" by ho including ("'I' for a writer change semblance case brief fate" person i t s designation but i s told "dark third i n this practise i n the one i n the Kensaku's some i n t h e p r o l o g u e , we Kensaku s the as I hope to point despite later, boy to i t as to maintain the there — important point, shall Just person, of But needed more i t i s easy the wholennovel, of as on Shiga usually Katai is that t o me seen, But tion work, being written regarding i t seems ality. that he notice autobiographical commentary also life. serves shi-shosetsu among o t h e r w r i t e r s After "he" from i n the "founder", Koro's have means u n i v e r s a l "I" extended purpose p r e v e n t us Although, the an a h i s own p e r s o n , he in this not merely from itself. not the events third Furthermore, Secondly, does i n the of straight-forwardly to write and form Koro so works. he genre, transcription important not because the of o f An'ya from do to fictionKoro, excep- Kensaku's know he the point root himself novel, we does perceive eyes. t o me, t h e m e , why a deeper Kensaku reason, s h o u l d be related made to - 122 write h i s s p i r i t u a l reason autobiography which I s h a l l more d e t a i l briefly later. i n the t h i r d outline here person, a but return to i n T h r o u g h o u t t h e n o v e l we a r e p r e s e n t e d again and a g a i n w i t h bring any o f h i s s h i - s h o s e t s u t o a s u c c e s s f u l c o n c l u s i o n . the novel's tached his end we know why: he h a s b e e n i n s u f f i c i e n t l y from the c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s l i f e own t y r a n n i c a l l y quite naturally, an author Only comes w i t h free egotistical s e l f ; without i t has b e e n i m p o s s i b l e when he h a s a c h i e v e d his final union with novel de- this detachment, f o r h i m t o w r i t e , as h i s l i f e or t h e supreme d e t a c h m e n t nature novel c a l l e d i n the t h i r d An'ya K o r o . on Mount D a i s e n person, then, That that i s he Shiga continues The c h a p t e r though, i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t : acquaintance, in fact, Sakaguchi. i t leaves "a n a s t y "mounting d i s l i k e i n the f i r s t even chap- satirical a scene r e m i n i s c e n t o f "Aru A s a " : to sleep, reading hours o f the morning. an self. b u t now i n a l i g h t e r , opens w i t h the p r o t a g o n i s t , unable early h i s new-found d e - the shi-shosetsu motif of the novel proper, vein. he h a s w r i t t e n t h e signifies tachment from h i s f o r m e r l y o p p r e s s i v e the By t o w r i t e -- a n d , I w o u l d a r g u e , what he goes on t o w r i t e this ter to a n d , above a l l , f r o m o f s h i - s h o s e t s u must d o , a b o u t e i t h e r himself. is Kensaku as a f r u s t r a t e d w r i t e r unable i n bed u n t i l the What K e n s a k u i s r e a d i n g here, i t i s a s h i - s h o s e t s u w r i t t e n by And i t does n o t p l e a s e Kensaku; t a s t e i n h i s mouth" and c o n f i r m s f o r Sakaguchi" t h a t he h a s f e l t f o r some 12 time. He t h r o w s t h e s t o r y a s i d e a n d , i n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, seeks refuge i n a 'harmless 123 - little book", a "historical ro- 13 mance" called Tsukahara swordsman of dialectic i s introduced very the beginning But t h e r e afternoon, on him, at first Muromachi (the period). in a rather he finds that with refuses to Sakaguchi another see adventure Thus the humorous of the novel. i s more. When K e n s a k u together arev'then Bokuden awakes himself Sakaguchi, but a master fiction/reality fashion the has acquaintance, of at following come to Tatsuoka. quickly the call Kensaku relents. We told: The s t o r y by S a k a g u c h i t h a t K e n s a k u had f o u n d s o unp l e a s a n t was a b o u t a man who h a s an a f f a i r w i t h h i s f i f t e e n - y e a r - o l d housemaid; the housemaid becomes p r e g n a n t and i s s e n t t o an a b o r t i o n i s t . Kensaku t h o u g h t i t m o s t l i k e l y t h a t i t was b a s e d o n t h e author's own experience. The f a c t s d e s c r i b e d were i n t h e m s e l v e s unpleasant e n o u g h ; b u t w h a t h e r e a l l y d i s l i k e d was the o b v i o u s f l i p p a n c y of the author. He c o u l d h a v e f o r g i v e n t h e f a c t s i f h e h a d b e e n a l l o w e d t o f e e l some s y m p a t h y for the p r o t a g o n i s t ; but the f l i p p a n c y , the supercilio u s n e s s o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t (and o f S a k a g u c h i ) l e f t no room f o r s u c h sympathy. He was a n g e r e d , t o o , b y t h e way the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s f r i e n d , who he was c e r t a i n had b e e n m o d e l e d on himself, was described. 14 Because ing Sakaguchi observer, harboring protrays what him in amounted the to a story as "an unknow- secret longing that Sakaguchi for 15 the girl", would have the the irate nerve to Kensaku is surprised come c a l l on him. Had he e x p e c t e d t o g e t a n a n g r y l e t t e r f r o m K e n s a k u and when i t d i d n ' t come, become u n e a s y and b e g u n t o f e e l t h r e a t e n e d by t h e u n c a n n y s i l e n c e ? Or had he come t o p l a y t h e s t a g e v i l l a i n , g l o a t i n g o v e r h i s own nastiness? He h a d b e t t e r b e c a r e f u l , K e n s a k u t h o u g h t , o r I ' l l g i v e h i m a p i e c e o f my m i n d . Thus h i s f a n c i e s <- 124 a b o u t S a k a g u c h i became l e s s a n d l e s s r e s t r a i n e d ; a n d b y t h e t i m e he h a d f i n i s h e d w a s h i n g h i s f a c e , he was i n a state of considerable agitation. 16 When K e n s a k u Tatsuoka guehi s i s equally imagined", the sort backs." the convinced unintelligent 1 is joins h i s guests, face "He s a y s Kensaku, "but I doubt he t e l l s Sakaguchi o f these write about most that f o r Saka- of the story i t . He's just h i s friends behind . maintains himself he f i n d s he i s t h e model character. of fellow who'll 17 that however, their . . silence i n a haughty accusations: One t h i n g a t l e a s t was c l e a r - - h e was e n j o y i n g himself, Why e l s e w o u l d h e h a v e t h a t s m i r k o n h i s f a c e ? In h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f a s h i o n , h e was f l a u n t i n g h i s s u p e r iority. 18 When h e f i n a l l y two men come retreat, was close because not only tries to s i l e n c e Tatsuoka, t o blows. But Sakaguchi h e i s "no m a t c h twice as l a r g e though, the must b e a t f o rTatsuoka but a third-grade a hasty p h y s i c a l l y , who black belt i n 19 judo." of Kensaku mediator that between the firend though, this finds himself would i n the story be t o admit "unadmirable" i s such you really have you should see yourself the i s only character, saku, the real Sakaguchi. i s Tatsuoka. he sees some might i n himl'" hoping that, model, from not easily between Sakaguchi, ask: even to think that by d o i n g s o , he w i l l breaking about i t , "'Do own c h a r a c t e r Kensaku role convinced similarity so t h a t a low o p i n i o n o f your 20 pretending the unexpected To p r o t e s t and h i m s e l f , " s l i p p e r y customer", such into B u t he i s s t i l l that character who Tatsuoka a t h e two. thrust that suspects that he i s t h e model f o r prevent o f fh i s f r i e n d s h i p Kenwith At any r a t e , one t h i n g these r a t h e r convoluted agonies of s u s p i c i o n seem t o i l l u s t r a t e , with more than a touch o f humour, are the o c c u p a t i o n a l hazards o f a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o - s e t s u , the p e r i l s of mixing f i c t i o n with r e a l i t y . Although the scene approaches f a r c e when the engineer and the w r i t e r almost come t o blows, there of s e r i o u s comment here. i s , nevertheless, To begin with, an undercurrent S a k a g u c h i s s t o r y , as 1 an account o f the author's a f f a i r w i t h h i s young maid, i s highly reminiscent o f Tayama K a t a i ' s Futon Q u i l t , 1980), the f i r s t ( ^ The " n a t u r a l i s t " shi-shosetsu Jpaan, and the work which f i r s t p o p u l a r i z e d o f modern t h i s genre. Shiga, then, seems t o be s e r v i n g n o t i c e here t h a t h i s shtb-shosetsu i s to be i n some important way d i f f e r e n t t o those o f Tayama and the " n a t u r a l i s t s " . How he p e r c e i v e s t h i s d i f f e r e n c e be- comes c l e a r i f we look again a t Kensaku's c r i t i c i s m o f Sakagushi's him story. I t i s not the "unpleasant" f a c t s t h a t disburb (and the " n a t u r a l i s t s " were w e l l known f o r wallowing i n the mud), i t i s the unsympathetic a t t i t u d e of the author and of the p r o t a g o n i s t , h i s a l t e r ego. "He c o u l d have f o r g i v e n the f a c t s i f he had b e e l allowed t o f e e l some sympathy f o r the prot a g o n i s t ; but the f l i p p a n c y , the s u p e r c i l i o u s n e s s of thevpro21 tagonist The (and o f Sakaguchi) l e f t no room f o r such sympathy." cynical protagonist i s shown c u r e l l y m i s t r e a t i n g the young maid f o r h i s own amusement, although the r e a l g i r l was, as 22 Kensaku knows, "innocent and good-hearted". In other words, Sakaguchi l a c k s the one q u a l i t y t h a t i s a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l i n a w r i t e r of s h i - s h o s e t s u : sincerity. I f the author l a c k s 126 - this q u a l i t y then so, and h i s w o r k , no fall flat our inevitably, will m a t t e r how because, as have seen, By acter Kensaku t e l l s spirit Shiga and aesthetics), already his has suggested a w r i t e r -- and go on of cause; his seem o u t this of even of his self-doubts revealed, by identifies to arouse all-important as we between p e r s o n a l this very he with on he t o n e , we the the b e c a u s e o f w h a t he can Succeed their rather himself a d m i t s , by disagreeable basis of any perceives not and, trivial only the very character a agi- finally, external as tlais some mental almost paranoia, as in given a n g e r and to have solve Already are harmless Tatsuoka; as I Kensaku must novel. his Japanese theme t h a t before a l l proportion to (a in traditional novel: char- shi-shosetsu f o r the problem: the Sakaguchi, not entirely us self" s u s p i c i o n , amounting Sakaguchi but trayed will w r i t e r which, w r i t i n g of i t s almost comic depths of t h a t he persona, fail about t h a t and the the to write of fact i n the "problem of hints which i t will relation i s c e n t r a l to scene, despite tation, close also prepares first the us, bring fictional intellectually, always been emphasized Shiga fundamental his called'"rhythm". aesthetic value that not between reader establishing this relation but brilliant sympathy, i . e . , i t w i l l communion o f - por- evidence "similarity of character".^ On as the other hand, t h i s clear indications that Kensaku. In telling opening there contrast to scene also i s much t o be the smug, gives hoped us for just from self-satisfied Sakaguchi, Kensaku i s at l e a s t aware — something w i t h i n him i s s e r i o u s l y awry. painfully aware -- t h a t He admits that he i s being " f a r too s u s p i c i o u s of Sakaguchi" "ever s i n c e h i s experience with A i k o " , he has to himself and t h a t , found i t i n c r e a s - 24 i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o t r u s t people". (As i s c o n s i s t e n t with t h i s being Kensaku's s h i - s h o s e t s u , h i s own ness", we do not understand in the n o v e l ) . "stream of c o n s c i o u s - t h i s r e f e r e n c e to "Aiko" u n t i l He a l s o admits later t h a t he does not " l i k e t h i s ten- 2 dency i n h i m s e l f , but there was not.much he c o u l d do about i t . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , by t h i s very a c t of p a i n f u l self-awareness, has taken the f i r s t step on the road t h a t w i l l l e a d him mately out of h i s "dark n i g h t " . What t h i s f i r s t us, i n Shiga's admirably economical u n l i k e h i s f e l l o w - w r i t e r , Sakaguchi, he ulti- scene shows f a s h i o n , i s t h a t Kensaku, possesses at l e a s t the s i n c e r i t y necessary to make progress as a human being -- and so as a w r i t e r of s h i - s h o s e t s u . Throughout the remainder of P a r t I of the n o v e l , however, Kensaku's development seems more i n the nature of a progress". He begins to frequent the teahouses the brodihels of Yoshiwara, "rake's and, e v e n t u a l l y , conducting l i a s o n s with several- different g e i s h a , but without b e i n g r e a l l y s a t i s f i e d with any of them. U l t i m a t e l y he must admit to h i m s e l f h i s i n a b i l i t y c o n t r o l h i s sexual d e s i r e s , as he admitted e a r l i e r t h a t he could not c o n t r o l h i s s u s p i c i o n s ; and t h i s too i s a symptom of some deeper m a l a i s e : to - 128 The t r u t h was t h a t he was drawn t o almost every woman he saw...And before he c o u l d stop h i m s e l f , he was asking himself the unwelcome q u e s t i o n : "What i s i t t h a t I want?" He knew the answer; but i t was so unp l e a s a n t , he wanted t o hide from i t . 26 F i n a l l y , Kensaku's sexual d e s i r e becomes f i x e d on O e i , his "grandfather's" ex-mistress as^-a k i n d of housekeeper. who i s now l i v i n g with him He r e c o g n i z e s i n s t i n c t i v e l y , though t h a t h i s i n c r e a s i n g " s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e " might l e a d him now t o v i o l a t e some deep taboo, which c o u l d prove d i s a s t r o u s : With every p a s s i n g day, h i s s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e became more intense. As h i s l i f e grew more a n a r c h i c , so d i d h i s mind, and h i s lewd f a n t a s i e s about Oei became more and more uncontrolled. He wondered f e a r f u l l y what would happen to them i f h i s present c o n d i t i o n were t o p e r s i s t . T h i s woman, who had been h i s grandfather's m i s t r e s s , was almost twenty years o l d e r than he. He imagined . t h e i r f u t u r e together. What he saw — and he shrank before the p r o s p e c t -- was h i s own d e s t r u c t i o n . 27 As P a r t I ends, Kensaku decides t h a t he must g e t away from Tokyo f o r s i x months o r a year, t o t r y t o come t o g r i p s with h i m s e l f on h i s own, away from Oei and from the d i s t r a c t i o n s of h i s p e r p e t u a l l y c a r o u s i n g friends. he a l s o hopes t h a t i n s o l i t u d e he w i l l As he t e l l s Oei, "get a l o t of work 28 done". T h i s i s the f i r s t important statement i n the novel of the l i n k between Kensaku's s p i r i t u a l w e l l - b e i n g and h i s capacity to write. A l s o , by going away t o face h i m s e l f he acknowledges, a t l e a s t u n c o n s c i o u s l y , t h a t h i s fundamental problem does not l i e i n h i s e x t e r n a l circumstances inner condition — beginning which he alone can change. o f a process of p r o g r e s s i v e alone, but i n h i s T h i s i s the "internalization" i n Kensaku's perception of culminates fronts i n the h i s own to seek fashion at the on As michi, a Inland Sea, an Mount end II of of mind at the opens, Kensaku Daisen has the the also which, novel His going traditional of Part i s on to several years as deck, the he shall openly see, con- hermetical Oriental his final "re- IV. h i s way the we into foreshadows end chosen as when he town b e a u t i f u l l y ship's prelude problem i n the Daisen he - egotism. I on important of Part which alone own part small provincial Standing is peace Mount Part final "tyranical" retreat treat" his 129 by ship situated site of his to on Onothe retreat. has an experience experience he will have that on later: Above and below, t o h i s r i g h t and l e f t , t h e darkness stretched without limit. And h e r e he was, standing i n the v e r y m i d d l e o f t h i s enormous thing...He alone s t o o d f a c e t o f a c e w i t h n a t u r e , as m a n k i n d ' s c h o s e n representative. But t o g e t h e r w i t h t h i s exaggerated s e n s e o f s e l f - i m p o r t a n c e came t h e h o p e l e s s f e e l i n g t h a t h e was a b o u t t o b e s w a l l o w e d u p b y t h e g r e a t darkness a r o u n d him. I t was n o t a l t o g e t h e r u n p l e a s a n t . He fought against i t nevertheless. As i f t o p r o v e t o h i m s e l f h i s own p r e s e n c e , h e t i g h t e n e d t h e m u s c l e s i n h i s l o w e r abdomen and b r e a t h e d d e e p l y . As s o o n as he stopped d o i n g s o , h o w e v e r , he a g a i n f e l t i n d a n g e r o f b e i n g s w a l l o w e d up. 29 It "let he i s obvious go" and already from this t h a t Kensaku completely lose himself recognizes unpleasant'. . And "exaggerated sense 1 the other side of that i t i s also of the i n nature, experience obvious what self-importance" — which i s fear, the i s not fear is yet even "not ready though altogether i s stopping him: i . e . , h i s ego of to losing his -- himself, of being Zen "swallowed is called way his own Kensaku this At the enough himself the This was be a prologue, first The "hero's to for that to his has the I spoke such writing at of this the prove to had from part of being his the embrace egotism requires. he life on felt relaxed been planning. childhood to in to and peaceful he begun prologue's before is what tightens course, least life of excessive his reminiscences-" lacks continue of project he written he i f to that "At speculate, detachment fact inability may "as eventually, Onomichi. words, Kensaku way, well on fear ), moment, h i s long-range i t was "post-Daisen" to responds other account Zen self-surrender a we deeply, the work b a s e d the person: come this ^ The for above specifically, would of on p r e s e n t . I n This will Kensaku start to (mu breathes but, kind first to counteract presence". mountainside the and nothingness; prevents To "nothingness" abdominal muscles himself up". - 130 write to An'ya the Koro that later his childhood. written Kensaku had becomes in the attained the earlier. detachment is OnomicM. A shown by writer of his shi31 shosetsu, but this Kensaku, touched as Shiga often for his once involves instance, mother's four-year-old, and said, must painful introspection i s troubled genitals while having been "mine" what by a and memory sleeping reprimanded by is in of with her him, self-analysis. having her as a for doing He f e l t shame s t i l l a s h e r e m e m b e r e d t h e i n c i d e n t . He was a l s o p u z z l e d by t h e memory. W h a t . h a d made h i m do such a thing? Was i t c u r i o s i t y o r was i t some k i n d o f so. - - 131 u r g e ? . . . P e r h a p s , h e t h o u g h t w e t c h e d l y , he h a d i n h e r i t e d s u c h an i n c l i n a t i o n ; p e r h a p s e v e n w i t h s u c h t h i n g s , one may be c u r s e d by t h e s i n s o f o n e ' s f o r e f a t h e r s . I t was w i t h c h i l d h o o d r e m i n i s c e n c e s l i k e these, then, t h a t he b e g a n h i s w r i t i n g . 32 But, ories, after the Kensaku: pace, presence "For and tory. "As his a month of about both Then And: about daily work past a month gradually his the of reawakening becomes h i s work life and faltered he health began began p a i n f u l mem- a b i t too progressed his everything such much at a seemed for steady satisfac- to d e t e r i o r a t e . " to s u f f e r from 33 the mono- 34 tony of then, his a life. Every somewhat more shi-shosetsu than and demands one that detachment, since Finding, during turns solifiude to an Nobuyuki, Nobuyuki's adamantly son why from the that external him she must: his the whom s h e was mistress piece of information sense of self; the yet, to in good "shoddy, shock; but him the blow that to of very writing scene, self- to his does brother, to Oei. Oei the rea- o l d man" This up Kensaku marriage reveals to builds bear, only father. yet of subject. common, w o r t h l e s s deepest to not Nobuyuki real of writes proposal i s Kensaku's i s the he have, opening deal f o r him we hazards pressure for relief: double the principle much his Here novel's a internal proposal, i t shakes of the is his convey a same." writer too source answer b r i n g s refuse the "self" the example presented i s , as asking was serious was then, day to unwelcome Kensaku's core. I t was a l l l i k e a dream t o him. The b e i n g t h a t was h i m s e l f , t h e p e r s o n h e h a d k n o w n u n t i l now as h i m s e l f , seemed t o be g o i n g f a r t h e r and f a r t h e r i n t o t h e d i s tance l i k e a t h i n n i n g mist. 35 - 132 Again, then, Kensaku f e e l s threatened by a sense of "nothingness". S i g n i f i c a n t l y , what saves him a t t h i s p o i n t i s the sud- den surge of sympathy he f e e l s f o r h i s dead mother: His mother and t h a t shoddy, common, worthless o l d man — the mere thought of the a s s o c i a t i o n was ugly and unclean. He was then suddenly f i l l e d with overwhelming p i t y f o r h i s mother, h i s mother who had been d e f i l e d by t h a t man. "Mama!" he c r i e d out, l i k e a boy about t o throw h i m s e l f i n t o h i s mother's arms. 36 By t h i s spontaneous cry from the depths of h i s soui: Kensaku turns a l l h i s a t t e n t i o n away from h i m s e l f and towards another, thus f r e e i n g h i m s e l f , at l e a s t momentarily, sonal p a i n . from h i s own Although t h i s i s an e n t i r e l y i n s t i n c t i v e per- action here, i t i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , an important i n d i c a t i o n of the way t h a t , u l t i m a t e l y , Kensaku must c o n s c i o u s l y embrace: the way s e l f - t r a n s c e n d e n c e , of " f r e e i n g the s e l f from the of self". In the l e t t e r t h a t he sends hack t o h i s b r o t h e r , Kensaku makes i t c l e a r t h a t he i s determined t o make p o s i t i v e use of h i s new "self-knowledge", however p a i n f u l , both as a man and as a w r i t e r of s h i - s h o s e t s u : Through my new knowledge about myself I s h a l l to do my work with g r e a t e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n than And i n t h a t new d e t e r m i n a t i o n I s h a l l seek my There i s no .other way f o r me. By t h a t means, be able to accomplish two t h i n g s at once: do I want to do and f i n d myself. 37 be able before. salvation. I shall the work Here, then, we have the most e x p l i c i t statement y e t of the i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n between Kensaku's " f i n d i n g h i m s e l f " and h i s c a p a c i t y to w r i t e . There a i s also some subject familiar Nobuyuki has will make must try to by i t s way the his into reassure ironic, now: expressed 133 - almost perils concern Kensaku's comic comment of writing that the writings, here on shi-shosetsu. "family scandal" so that Kensaku him: I can sympathize w i t h your f e a r l e s t the a f f a i r s of our f a m i l y s h o u l d a p p e a r i n my w r i t i n g s . I cannot promise t h a t t h e y w i l l n o t a p p e a r i n some f o r m o r o t h e r . But I s h a l l t r y t o be c a r e f u l n o t t o c a u s e d i s c o m f o r t . 38 Left is tempted sin". he alone t o brooS. But, knows with at already, intuitively able to "dissolve" ture that his thoughts times at Onomichi, about his being born long before his experience that can relief his troubled self surrounds Kensaku be found i n the a naturally "child of on Mount Daisen, only i f he is vast world of na- him: He made h i m s e l f t h i n k o f t h e v a s t n e s s o f t h e w o r l d around h i m . . . i n t h e m i d s t o f t h i s v a s t n e s s t h e r e was t h i s m i n u t e p a r t i c l e t h a t was h i m s e l f , b u s i l y w e a v i n g a web o f m i s e r y i n the l i t t l e world o f h i s mind. S u c h was h i s c u s t o m a r y way o f c o m b a t t i n g h i s own f i t s of depressiorj. .. 39 Nevertheless, heal h i s own turn to again wounded Tokyo, into Kensaku does spirit although his old life a l l by with of not yet feel himself. misgivings that strong enough He decides he might to to re- relapse dissipation. T h e t h o u g h t o f - l i v i n g o n c e m o r e t h e way h e h a d d o n e t h o s e l a s t t h r e e m o & t h s i n T o k y o was almost enough t o d e t a i n him. T h e r e was h i s w o r k t o o , n o w h e r e n e a r completion. How c o u l d he l i v e l i k e t h a t a g a i n , he w o n d e r e d , r u s h i n g about f r a n t i c a l l y y e t always w i t h t h a t o p p r e s s i v e f e e l i n g of guilt? 40 Back to resign i n Tokyo, from his Kensaku company finds and that take up h i s b r o t h e r has the study of decided Zen. The - 134 s t a r t l e d Kensaku " c o u l d h a r d l y share Nobuyuki's confidence i n the E f f i c a c y of Zen. Sen was becoming a w f u l l y f a s h i o n a b l e , 41 and Kensaku n a t u r a l l y f e l t animosity toward it." He a l s o disapproves of the Zen master Nobuyuki has chosen to study with: "He was the s o r t t h a t spoke to l a r g e audiences a t such p l a c e s as the M i t s u i Assembly H a l l . For men l i k e him, who went about s c a t t e r i n g seed i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y on b a r r e n Kensaku had no r e s p e c t . " T h i s i s the f i r s t An'ya Kore. ground, 4 2 s i g n i f i c a n t mention o f Zen Buddhism i n There i s an i n t e r e s t i n g d i a l e c t i c a l r e l a t i o n be- tween t h i s n o v e l and the "meditation" s e c t t h a t has e x e r c i s e d such an overwhelming i n f l u e n c e on Japanese of culture. As some my comments have already suggested, Kensaku's "journey through dark n i g h t " -- h i s s t r u g g l e to f r e e h i m s e l f from h i s own egotism and h i s e v e n t u a l achievement with nature — of o f t h i s by t o t a l " union f a l l p e r f e c t l y w i t h i n the Zen view o f l i f e and the b a s i c human predicament. L a t e r i n the n o v e l , i n f a c t , Kensaku i s shown t o be r e a d i n g and admiring the Zen c l a s s i c s : the "enlightenment s t o r i e s " , i n p a r t i c u l a r , "appealed deeply to h i s s u s c e p t i b l e mind. And each time he heard the words, 'Thus i n an i n s t a n t t h e r e was enlightenment', he would feel 43 like cryihgi" told: And, j u s t before h i s Daisen experience, we are "Though he knew nothing about Buddhism, such realms b e l i e v e d i n by Buddhists as 'nirvana' and 'the realm of b l i s s ' 44 ssemed i r r e s i s t i b l y a t t r a c t i v e t o him." While l i v i n g on Mount Daisen, sesshin in fact, (extended period Nevertheless, novel, is so wise that he with i s not humbly of we (an e x a m p l e the point, that try though, the feet come culture, of some then, to with terms ineffable "Kanzan 1910), and, Temple of the Golden imagine Zen of The Natsume Mishima 1956). Shiga's Of tion of "orthodox" Zen, comes closest Zen experience of great spiritual who of in Zen. i t has koan must go h i s ego. As sitting 45 regarded and as part stories that aspect list Soseki's Yukio's i t seems a be novels Zen. not, of himself priest". may does satori, man enormity though, tic that the although (meditation) or of fundamental (1916), Pavilion, t o me type Koro this recently, the to Zen zazen quoted Kensaku, practise a in his master ideas, genuine Japanese widdom Jittoku" more him Zen actual by of An'ya modern Ogai's not smug of major the is a because at of saw Zen i s that the i s definitely i f only level, up and " i tdistressed one sway experience "naturally" Kensaku series to under which "indiscriminate" told: On matter, as Daisen the the Zen h i s brother, take are on about contrast we a feelings somewhat -- h i s p e r s o n a l views but negative undoubtedly way tract some r a t h e r important own religious in i t s above). his a Zen opinion of practise. and m e d i t a t i o n ) . about contemptuous achieved Zen feelings organized religion been attending a positive modern h i s Mount to Kensaku's form If close lectures Koro "pure" to - comes Shiga, whatever to balance The even of An'ya 135 of Japanese includes Mon a l l these Gate, (The works, despite i t s apparent to p r e s e n t i n g the liberation Mori (The Kinkakuji of rejecauthen- achieved after years very palpable something of Japanese To to a in effort. spiritual power a "cult return to to his spirit II 4 of the this accounts novel, which among for the gave i t several generations of itself, though: d e s p i t e a l l h i s good former and story life-style Yoshiwara. He i n body...His way of as Part II resolutions, f r e q u e n t i n g the "once more of life he dreams began again to draws does teahouses decline, both became d i s o r d e r - 6 At from Perhaps following" the Kensaku brothels of ly" . N painful - readers. close, return and of 136 the the same world time, of however, men, much like a of escaping traditional entirely hermit: He w o u l d f i n d a w o r l d w h e r e t h e v e r y a i r he breathed was d i f f e r e n t . He w o u l d l i v e a t t h e f o o t o f some g r e a t m o u n t a i n , among p e a s a n t s who knew n o t h i n g . A n d i f he c o u l d l i v e a p a r t e v e n f r o m them, a l l the b e t t e r . . . How good i t w o u l d be t o l i v e and e v e n t u a l l y d i e i n t h a t condition — f o r g o t t e n , unknown, u n t o u c h e d by t h e o u t e r world! 47 Walking through himself the the spirit Ginza of a one Zen n i g h t , he man of old tries like to evoke within Han-Shan: He m u s t l o o k s t r a i g h t a h e a d w i t h t h e e y e s o f a c a l m and c o n t r o l l e d man and n o t l o o k a b o u t h i m n e r v o u s l y as he was w o n t t o d o . He w a n t e d t o b e l i k e a man striding alone through the w i l d e r n e s s i n the t w i l i g h t , unmindful of the c r y i n g p i n e s and t h e w h i s p e r i n g g r a s s . (Had N o b u y u k i s a i d t h e i m a g e was t o be f o u n d i n a poem by Han-Shan?) He w a n t e d t o c a p t u r e t h e s p i r i t o f s u c h a man -- e v e n h e r e on G i n z a . And he d i d n o t a l t o g e t h e r f a i l t o do s o . I n h i s p r e s e n t f r a m e o f m i n d he n e e d e d d e s p e r a t e l y t o c l i n g t o some s u c h i d e a l . 48 As we would expect from his present Kensaku also fails t o make any progress was long piece that had worked the he on mental c o n d i t i o n , in his writing. i n Onomichi and "There was s t i l l u n f i n i s h e d , b u t he 137 - d i d not want t o touch that for the 49 time being." Koro of (Kensaku itself.) painful i s referring S i n c e he i s i n no introspection shosetsu would that require, he quarter". heard from two While feels t h a t he drawing visiting geisha the mood t o e n g a g e i n t h e the w r i t i n g work o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f i c t i o n , "gay h e r e , o f c o u r s e , t o An on kind of h i s lengthy s h i might try writing a h i s experiences i n the a teahouse story ya one of Eihana, n i g h t he "the most had wicked 50 geisha i n twon", a girl. She whom K e n s a k u h a d had trained b u t had run the son of b a c k by h i s p a r e n t s and pregnant by then own child who turned out for a in few and training bookseller. and she But was t o be years but now Y a n a g i b a s h i , one of she first She was she man had back by was to live soon hers. had who She was destroyed happened working with taken as a her along, disappeared from and was ballad-singer finished the boy i t that w i t h the a pimp. was disowned rumor had t a k e n up p e r f o r m when she when y o u n g t o become a away b e f o r e h e r a local seen Tokyo geisha the pleasure q u a r t e r s frequented by Kensaku. This within are in ese the the tale of Eihana story" samurai China, the colonial Mount D a i s e n that tale story appear told by first and of a series i n An'ya Koro of "stories (other examples Naoko's u n c l e , Oei's of the Korean authorities about i s the misadventures n o b l e m a n m i s t r e a t e d by Japan- the g o s s i p t h a t Kensaku hears the melodramatic goings-on that surround on the "sluttish" "Takibi", wife this by being seems ial "detached" here i n this from he h a s h e a r d ) , has heard. style" stories do have serve within like as Just i s made m o r e acceptable o f framework with words, Shiga where, that (the story function, the best i t s opposite. Eihana" suggests would within good make these interest the author "reporting" When, perse, f o r instance, literature tales Koro. fiction sounds o f t h e Tokugawa of the "floating the f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y something world"); dialectic, to the shi-shosetsu. to define here In other as else- i s by c o n t r a s t f o r i n s t a n c e , Kensaku's story, as "conventional- conventional " a l l that background a good mater- merely as s t o r i e s use o f the p r i n c i p l e , way that presented of Eihana, end o f the p o l e makes as t h e f u n c t i o n i n An'ga traditional, o u t o f the gesaku the opposite Ishimoto intrinsic i t s highly coloured they (since he i s merely Nevertheless, an i m p o r t a n t to represent something thus with their the novel period, and from saw i n of Shiga's. made m o r e p a l a t a b l e b y b e i n g apart A s we so i s the r a t h e r melodramatic Kensaku they kind Take). the material — gossip Quite device material i n "Takibi" presented something o f the woodcutter i s a favorite "supernatural" 138 - friend stuff about Kensaku'sdreaction i s signi- ficant: " Q u i t e s o , " s a i d Kensaku w i t h an o b v i o u s l a c k o f e n t h u siasm. "At l e a s t , i t ' s good c o n v e r s a t i o n m a t e r i a l . " T h i s l a s t r e m a r k was u n g r a c i o u s , b u t h e h a d t o make i t ; f o r he r e s e n t e d I s h i m o t o ' s a s s u m p t i o n that the s t u f f o f g o s s i p c o u l d immediately be t r a n s l a t e d into writing. 51 In happened other does words, t h e mere not qualify fact that something has actually i t as m a t e r i a l f o r a w r i t e r o f s h i - shosetsu. most Life vulgar select as itself soap opera, to him. the tells us and Eihana much but - as the full of melodrama writer, as an o n l y what seems m o s t as artist, the must appropriate and 52 Nevertheless, about is often his material "natural" 139 Kensaku story about as has a momentary material home from of for his writing, what m o t i v a t e s his brother return change him the as heart and a writer. this When he teahouse: Nobuyuki recounted f o r Oei's b e n e f i t the story of Eihana. I t was a t a l e t o l d w i t h l i t t l e p i t y a n d i n a s p i r i t o f c e n s u r e a b o u t a woman s t e e p e d i n e v i l . . . K e n s a k u was f i l l e d with anger. He t h o u g h t o f t h a t l i t t l e p a l e - f a c e d g i r l on t h e s t a g e , so h e l p l e s s y e t p r o u d , and w a n t e d t o t e l l them, " I t ' s n o t E i h a n a t h a t ' s bad!" But t h e y had n e v e r s e e n t h e g i r l , a n d t h e y w o u l d n o t know w h a t he meant; and a s he s a t t h e r e t r y i n g t o c o n t a i n h i s a n g e r , i t s u d d e n l y o c c u r r e d t o h i m t h a t t h e r e was s o m e t h i n g he c o u l d w r i t e about. 53 It is clear, al feeling In the sonal about case reason of then, something Eihana, than that the before there one Kensaku must he i s able i s , in fact, indicated have an i n the a strong to write even above person- about i t . deeper quote: peras a 54 "fallen is how one woman", s h e crucial i s he reminds him of h i s mother. stumbling-block: as an to w r i t e about someone other author than S t i l l , there of shi-shosetsu himself? He t r i e d w r i t i n g a b o u t E i h a n a f r o m h i s own p o i n t o f v i e w ; q u i c k l y i t became e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s t o r y w o u l d b e t o o b a r e t o l d t h a t way, a n d he d e c i d e d t o t e l l i t from her p o i n t of view, g i v i n g h i s i m a g i n a t i o n f r e e rein. He t o y e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f h a v i n g h e r m e e t O m a s a the V i p e r . . . H e l i k e d t h e s t o r y l e s s and l e s s as i t developed. I t seemed t o him t o become p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n t r i v e d a f t e r the heroine's journey to Hokkaido. B e s i d e s , h e f o u n d t e l l i n g a s t o r y f r o m a woman's p o i n t o f v i e w , w h i c h he had n e v e r a t t e m p t e d b e f o r e , f a r m o r e d i f f i c u l t t h a n he had i m a g i n e d . 55 (My e m p h a s i s . ) Here "credo" to we as tell would he be at almost of to even Nikki" moved and with own to works of response most miring i t s temples, his time a woman p i c t u r e of her household and of he not had and such in a nearby to to saw thought around he a we in projections the "Kuradiasu no have in. He "ancient times, has temples inviting possible.""^ He the ad- old city, soaking happens who lonely was that, him and house, the i f spirits ancient outing "She of whose a r t works On:one find writing on. last walking his (Han's C r i m e ) , Japan, back chores. we indeed, Kensaku's we himself, "contrived" identifiable so opens, domesticity than "Claudius" gently gardens sight the doldrums just other Hanzai" capital that atmosphere. about the view stories, no novel for And, are Shiga's least artificial, Claudius") old peaceful viting "Han of of at fiction. Kakita", the him young point of statements that, protagonists l e d him spends of any kind of of the from from from art of shi-shosetsu: the III of Kyoto, explicit "fictional" "Han" somewhat - most conventional Diary Part the the "Akanishi ("The revived risk the of As of case, himself: of story his every "Kakita" a a associated look one a writer t r y to own have 140 in i t s to presents Kensaku pleasing as and catch an in- she goes wholesome 57 sight, and in fact, or less he that on the interestingly tional was immediately the impulsive spot. In Don Kensaku doing enough, w i t h characters, drawn so, perhaps Quixote, and to her." resolves he the So to marry identifies most hopes is her, he, more himself, famous that drawn his of a l l fic- new-found - 141 - love might r a i s e him above h i m s e l f as d i d the " b l i n d " love o f Quixote f o r D u l c i n e a . These hopes seem to be r e a l i z e d , a t f i r s t , when the g i r l and her f a m i l y accept h i s p r o p o s a l and Kensaku s e t t l e s down with h i s new b r i d e , Naoko, to a l i f e o f comfortable domestic b l i s s i n the b e a u t i f u l suburbs o f n o r t h - ern Kyoto. But there i s some suggestion shi-shosetsu h i s l i f e i s now a l i t t l e too comfortable: would o f t e n s i t a t h i s desk and simply w r i t i n g a word." Marriage, t h a t , f o r a w r i t e r of s t a r e a t the view, not 58 though, soon b r i n g s i t s own g r e a t t r i a l s . a month a f t e r the newly wed couple's About f i r s t c h i l d i s born, i t d i e s a slow, a g o n i z i n g death from e r y s i p e l a s . had "He Kensaku, who f e l t g r e a t d e l i g h t a t becoming a f a t h e r , i s plunged back i n t o the depths o f d e s p a i r . He f e e l s g r e a t b i t t e r n e s s towards what he p e r c e i v e s to be h i s e v i l f a t e , which has destroyed h i s new-found happiness j u s t a t i t s i n c e p t i o n : "why must he be bet r a y e d now, when a f t e r years of j o u r n e y i n g down the dark road, he had thought t h a t the w a i t i n g and seeking had not been i n v a i n , t h a t the dawn had a t l a s t come?... he c o u l d not i n the end escape the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t he was the v i c t i m o f some e v i l force 59 bent on h u r t i n g him." S i g n i f i c a n t l y , then, Kensaku xs s t i l l i n c l i n e d t o p l a c e the bl-ame f o r h i s misery on some power ext e r i o r to h i m s e l f . t h a t too f a i l s him: He turns t o h i s w r i t i n g f o r therapy, but "Kensaku sought to immerse h i m s e l f i n h i s work, which had l a i n d i s c a r d e d too long. But he f e l t so weighed down by a sense of f a t i g u e -- i t was l i k e a heavy - 142 chain wrapped mersion."^ of around Part 0 him -- that I I I ends, he was incapable of then, with Kensaku at awaits him, though, and such the im- nadir his despair. One final great'trial recounted i n the to ten-day take a stranded When h e there from wrong. He finally she he she had for power to Kyoto, had once turmoil "'I do so Indeed, this but tells that she she they does not do want the to best is his that felt Taking had the half him stay until of seduction f o r both his wife and the of a l l capacity his late, resisted drained 1 to to Naoko lessen Kensaku s said she uncomfortable overcome he and dis- advantage her. even her children, to her', seriously absence cards herself lost been business. were played ambiguous, to has immediately allowed "felt soon nothing condemn had h i m s e l f upon i s thus thing s t i l l had s t r u g g l e s b r a v e l y , however, and they together h i s back. she During is obliged i s troubling When a game is "geisha" Kensaku him. e v e n t u a l l y she half He and forced incident who what played t h i n k . T h e Oei, to reveal t o massage resist. He thatosomething night after but a intuitive Nevertheless, Kaname h a d rescue IV. behavior, overtones, one Part s e t up c o u s i n , Kaname. time, rape, to the Naoko her offered some failing to by and, situation, Korea of down erotic her to his wife's h i s presence. with chapters breaks Naoko tinctly in after presses visited and trip returns to sesnses, was opening this to and shock. emotional himself. himself, repeating what he had said to Naoko 143 the - night before. 'I want to for- 6 2 give is her.'" easier not avoid tire than done: the 'And unaware ness", of Suematsu which hint i s provided he the large "A ego I as to be the cause him the only Kensaku's real so badly moment l a t e r , so by berates judges his shall 6 3 loser.'" only important labyrinth s t i l l with adding, affair, An in said But, of he in quick, present this could the this Suematsu. Kensaku's the fool out friend, of for however, only way bruised, en- emotional Though "touchi- "irrational" way people. In m a t t e r s i n v o l v i n g your f e e l i n g s , you r e a l l y are a tyrant. Y o u ' r e a t e r r i b l e e g o i s t , youkknow. True, y o u ' r e n o t a c a l c u l a t i n g p e r s o n , and I s u p p o s e t h a t ' s a good t h i n g . B u t y o u c a n be v e r y thoughtless...Let me p u t i t a n o t h e r way. Perhaps you y o u r s e l f a r e n ' t t y r a n n i c a l ; r a t h e r , i t ' s as though a l i t t l e t y r a n t i s l i v i n g i n s i d e you somewhere. I suppose i t ' s p o s s i b l e t h a t the r e a l v i c t i m i s t h e r e f o r e you." 64 Because admit to of his himself the basic "sincerity", t r u t h of his Kensaku friend's is forced to words. Kensaku had a l w a y s a l l o w e d h i s e m o t i o n s t o t y r a n n i z e o v e r h i m ; b u t he h a d n o t b e f o r e t h o u g h t t o d e s c r i b e h i s own c o n d i t i o n q u i t e i n these words. Now, a s he r e m e m b e r e d t h e v a r i o u s i n c i d e n t s i n h i s l i f e , he h a d a g a i n t o g r a n t t h a t m o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t he h a d b e e n w r e s t l i n g w i t h h i m s e l f , t h a t h i s enemy h a d b e e n a c r e a t u r e r e s i d i n g w i t h i n him. 65 This tion" i s the I mentioned fundamental he knows tion he now has culmination before. problem that taken as of Kensaku caused theproblem a major the by lies step process now no of longer "interiorizaperceives some e x t e r i o r " e v i l within. towards his With fate" his — this realiza- spiritual freedom. Although now, at his 'dark end is going there least, to By And a by Suematsu. rest of the with end of incident Kensaku expect a l l does subject One day nearby toilet Kensaku get aboard, She At begun orders falls to be in a better calm but rages Naoko w i t h train pull to onto out return Kensaku, a been shows born?", isn't driven months later. child, of mind. that that i t further few fact am waiting.'"66 mind another and On Kensaku the is he has by no on an outing to goes to use the The train "as the some o t h e r s s t a t i o n she is infuriated her is the thing "'Perhaps frame the at "'If I this of from tensions. the to with ego with sure lies having occurs is emerge asks: peace "tyrant" that to what look": blessed him inner Kensaku already been find takes resort. and the unpredictable his he has seem to means r e s o l v e d off. to my i t a l l there's by time of "consoling to an of fighting point about Kensaku travel promise life the a come, he When K e n s a k u my w h a t was to must prophetic point still to struggles Suematsu's would has more d i r e c t i o n he him, i f at surface a few - the the tells this one given i n s i d e me, bad, home of spend Suematsu so a night". also that's are 144 by her slowness. when N a o k o home. in a tries When reflex she to board i t . persists in action", station platform, trying pushes injuring her herself 68 slightly. Kensaku could off that i s n a t u r a l l y very s t i l l the Thinking see train. the he have shocked strange I t was must look by had his "some s o r t own i n Naoko's unbearable. Oh God, of f i t " behavior: eyes he as "He she fell thought, I've - 145 - 69 done something what h i s action is indeed acted, Naoko's of 11 1 was me, you weren't her s t i l l that he must going day. 71 you said to brood admit even She about i t , since expect y o u do s o m e t h i n g help Although you weren't But you can't when I can't sadness. forgiven her i n h i s heart when you said y o u d o r e s e n t me." suggestion It w i t h i n him had b u t knowing d i d no one a n y g o o d . you d i d the other contemplate 70 self., pleased whiat not future relationship." not really terribly and b r o o d i n g inside, "he d a r e d i s one o f deep of having t o go on b e l i e v i n g what to their h i s true reaction t o hate hating me than Kensaku hearts: going had done And a s i f some u n c o n t r o l l a b l e " t y r a n t " rather accuses irreparable." thinking that Kensaku deep i s angered h i s forgiveness i s tinged with that: " A s y o u s a y , my like feelings by egotism, aren't as 72 magnanimous a s my ideas." He sees this, though, as a prob- lem w h i c h he must s o l v e a l o n e . "A d o c t o r may s a y I'm s u f f e r i n g from a nervous breakdown. B u t e v e n i f I am, I d o n ' t w a n t t o 73 go to a doctor go away f o r help." t o some m o u n t a i n myself. As h i s place Daisen, "a h o l y in a Buddhist that he w i l l return jesting: temple. this a year, time of the Tendai Before "concentrate "He was for half of retreat place as Buddha". As a r e s u l t : indeed on a t t a i n i n g leaving and l i v e Kensaku 75 sect", leaving But there " I want m e r e l y chooses where he t e l l s quietly o f mind Mount jokingly and i s a serious undertone i n a frame by he c a n s t a y Naoko Buddhahood" to "shall to this akin to that of a man about to take holy orders, but he could objects similar hardly 77 tell Naoko so." he had he explains "I went I made to found work a to her that h i s motives Onomichi to i t was i s not my few that to Onomichi that spiritual When O e i force too years myself concern. w e l l - b e i n g , you b e f o r e d i d him now I failed. and done; But i n order to good, different: some w o r k going say, retreat little quite get and I'm might are to difficult, primary the this to time, find r e c o v e r my physi- 78 cal strength." This and how — desperate quest, now tism. And, writing of that he Kensaku has although i s now his block he As his has soon spirits great will his two contrast how become about his really arrives to revive. between nature. the close to was made aware that such a world thought, that live he though as not A ego- his author spiritual through the writer's novel. vicinity live like h i s own i s an o f Mount i s immediately who "As to break i n the He people because -- spiritual of inseparable. him a l l through depths serious w e l l - b e i n g " and concern", live he clear terrible who people, makes "spiritual enable Kensaku begin has the are also suffered as seen "primary s h i - s h o s e t s u the break-through difference i n the city f o r the this wild struck by and the those firststime, existed. cats Daisen, in a There cave, he are forever 79 snarling he at ascends man" close less at to a each the mountain teashop nature; times other; who "He and then itself, seems must there he is this comes across an ideal example have gazed at before; yet here he was, life." the s t i l l of same a When "serene a man scene gazing at who old lives count- i t without - 147 apparent boredom...he was l i k e an a n c i e n t t r e e i n the mountains, he was l i k e a moss-covered rock t h a t had been p l a c e d f r o n t of the view. there i n I f he was t h i n k i n g a t a l l , he was as an o l d t r e e or a rock would t h i n k . thinking He seemed so t r a n q u i l , 80 Kensaku envied him." Here, then, i s a p e r f e c t image of what i t means t o be " d i s s o l v e d " i n nature, "mindless" i n the Zen sense, untroubled by any of the p e t t y concerns of the human world -- f r e e even of one's own memories, one's, own " i d e n t i t y " . Here i s an image, i n f a c t , o f e v e r y t h i n g t h a t Kensaku hopes t o become. There i s another " n a t u r a l " man whom Kensaku meets on the mountain: Take, the C h r i s t - l i k e carpenter the temple b u i l d i n g s without pay. His wife who later fixes i s a notorious "slut" with s e v e r a l l o v e r s but Take, i n t e l l i n g c o n t r a s t t o Kensaku, 81 "could not b r i n g h i m s e l f to hate her". Kensaku marvels a t Take's forbearance which, he s p e c u l a t e s , probably comes from " h i s t o t a l understanding of what h i s wife was...Of course Take must have s u f f e r e d , he must be s u f f e r i n g now. 82 how managed to r i s e above h i s misfortune." Yet he had someT h i s simple car- penter, then, has a t t a i n e d the s t a t e of egolessness t h a t Kensaku a s p i r e s t o . In h i s new c o n c i l i a t o r y mood, Kensaku w r i t e s a l e t t e r home t o Naoko. ready occurred He e x p l a i n s to her the changes t h a t have a l i n h i s s t a t e of mind: "Since coming t o t h i s mountain I've spent a l o t of time l o o k i n g a t the l i t t l e b i r d s , the i n s e c t s , the t r e e s , the water, the r o c k s . As I observe - 148 closely to a l l these a l l kinds That a world t h i n g s by m y s e l f , of feelings which I find and thoughts had never that that existed they I hever f o r me give rise had b e f o r e . before has opened 83 itself with u p t o me h i s psychic condition again, to h a s g i v e n me We saku - - a s we w o u l d now approach not only decides as t o watch He i s accompanied whose w h a t may to hike Koro already o f h i s work be r e g a r d e d begun to write i n his letter sketch". as the c l i m a c t i c opus. up t o t h e t o p o f Mount Daisen oae from by a group there the following o f company spirits subdued sensitivity been he h a s a l s o entire boisterous holiday growing Significantly, but of Shiga's the sunrise s a k u 's own q u i e t , of joy." expect',, a " n a t u r e o f An'ya so his improved and he e n c l o s e s a n example Naoko scene a sense mood. contrast Indeed, to nature. on t h e mountain employees When a fortnight, night, morning. from Osaka, sharply with they share he t e l l s they Ken- Ken- little them ask: of he h a s "How c a n 84 you stand given it? We'd a distinct g o mad sense traditional pilgrim's mountain": "Begone after of irony chant two d a y s when as they a l l the senses, here." We they a l l break into begin to ascent the "holy l e t the s p i r i t s are thus a guide us 85 to the clear state sky above." o f mind, however, priate tenor, coming experience. That of a n d may Regarded these have even be regarded there are s t i l l , worldly egotism words from left though, Kensaku's an e n t i r e l y appro- as p r o p h e t i c o f h i s f o r t h e moment, i n h i m i s made present clear some by t h e traces "competi- 149 - tive" feeling wards the he other Osaka. This pace theirs, ing as the has, the y o u n d men, makes after as him in spite effects of of only who push a - Tokyo are on up the man i n the a l l from the fact "severe the group, rival mountain at to- city the of same that he is still suffer- attack of d i a r r h e a " he had 86 earlier an that hour's strength there the hike, to until group Left day. though, continue. dawn, and continues alone Kensaku i s now He down o n sits When on able the on the to the group Kensaku He then up tells feels the that others r e t u r n home b y the mountain mountain i n the commune w i t h grass pauses and begins to rest he has that no he quiet as about more will himself. without nature after rest Reluctantly, him. of the never "breathing night, before. deeply through 87 his nose, his way a adept Zen perhaps the eyes most closed" (interestingly, q u i e t s h i s mind before c e l e b r a t e d passage the traditional meditation). i n a l l of Then comes Shiga: He f e l t h i s e x h a u s t i o n t u r n i n t o a s t r a n g e s t a t e o f rapture. He c o u l d f e e l h i s m i n d a n d h i s b o d y b o t h gradually merging into t h i s great nature that surrounded him. I t was n o t n a t u r e t h a t was v i s i b l e t o t h e eyes; r a t h e r , i t was l i k e a l i m i t l e s s body o f a i r t h a t wrapped itselftaround him, t h i s t i n y c r e a t u r e no l a r g e r t h a n a poppy seed. To be g e n t l y drawn i n t o i t , and t h e r e be r e s t o r e d , was a p l e a s u r e beyond the power of words t o d e s c r i b e . . . He h a d e x p e r i e n c e d t h i s f e e l i n g o f b e i n g a b s o r b e d b y n a t u r e b e f o r e ; b u t t h i s was the f i r s t time t h a t i t was a c c o m p a n i e d by such r a p t u r e . In p r e v i o u s i n s t a n c e s , t h e f e e l i n g p e r h a p s had b e e n more t h a t o f b e i n g s u c k e d i n by n a t u r e t h a n t h a t o f m e r g i n g into i t ; a n d t h o u g h t h e r e h a d b e e n some p l e a s u r e attached t o i t , h e h a d a t t h e same t i m e a l w a y s t r i e d i n s t i n c t i v e l y t o r e s i s t i t , and on f i n d i n g s u c h r e s i s t a n c e d i f f i c u l t , he had f e l t a d i s t i n c t u n e a s i n e s s . But t h i s time, he had n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t w i l l t o r e s i s t ; and contentedly, w i t h o u t a t r a d e o f t h e o l d u n e a s i n e s s ; he accepted n a t u r e ' s embrace. 88 - 150 It iately by i s important, preceding his illness terous the great novel, As Osaka gral trials experience: Beyond this, have taxed o f course, phrase And t h i s o f Zen t r a i n i n g , we throughout worn o u t with the bois- must recall a l l the course of the close\to breaking-point. has i t : truth a s we c o n d i t i o n immed- thoroughly o f competing his spirit Christian Kensaku's he was he h a s undergone opportunity." part t o bote and by t h e e f f o r t the familiar God's this men. which first, "Man's e x t r e m i t y i s has a l s o know from been the made an inte- innumerable . 8' "enlightenment in which to the very the adept grip only i n this this seems t o be borne i n nature loss of his identity consciousness and c e r t a i n l y out. before As he h i m s e l f a similar (as I have difference now since r e c e i v e d a good (as he s a y s , many only shocks, has admitted h i s own and has c o n s i i o u s l y one thing, coming to this had not the s l i g h t e s t will egotism taken to resist; the viseloosened case i n t h e above feeling of being earlier, resisted "sucked have on t h e i t , fearing in"). self greatly The has reduced himself, a s we t o be h i s f u n d a m e n t a l measures mountain). pushed recalls o n h i m a n d , more i m p o r t a n t l y , Kensaku seen, that of individual which Suzuki, when c a n be noted of being i s t h a t h i s sense o f D.T. i n Kensaku's he h a d " i n s t i n c t i v e l y " great problem satori I t i s claimed when he h a d e x p e r i e n c e d t o Onomichi), have o n human e x a c t i n g way, boat hold i n t h e works frequently attains of egotism "dissolved" its recounted end o f h i s t e t h e r . like passage, stories" t o overcome And s o , " t h i s i t time, and c o n t e n t e d l y , (for he without - 151 a t r a c e o f t h e o l d u n e a s i n e s s , he a c c e p t e d Here, then, creasing of bare major works. outline sensitive resulted story, was p r e s e n t e d : h i srelations hyper- that inevitably with others, especially within the narrow, rather oppressive confines of the traditional family. By " K i n o s a k i n i t e " he h a s r e c e i v e d a more shock to h i sdelicate but he a l s o away f r o m he his t h e human w o r l d h i s equating such doubts towards a state these following the passage quoted for o f a way o u t : b y and towards estingly, taken nature. regret. I f this turning Nevertheless, that a as i s evidenced the s t o r y ' s end, which o f union w i t h death. above: "He to eternity. felt this journey arise paragraph a s i f he h a d just Death h e l d no t h r e a t means d y i n g , he t h o u g h t , But t o him then, by (Inter- a r e answered by K e n s a k u i n t h e a step on t h e road him. accident f o r the degree of s e l f - s u r r e n d e r doubts Japanese severe -- a n e a r - f a t a l mergence w i t h n a t u r e would r e q u i r e , intellectual from of self i s g i v e n some i n k l i n g i s not y e t ready total sense four "Aru Asa",the how w a s a y o u n g man t o c o p e w i t h t h e f r i c t i o n s 9o of i n - I have t r a c e d through In h i s earliest of the problem from embrace." i s the culmination of that process union w i t h nature which Shiga's nature's I can d i e without to eternity d i dn o t 91 s e e m t h e same a s d e a t h . " has already attained shared ience the Shiga protagonist some d e g r e e o f u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e b u t , a s i t i s among a g r o u p o f c o n v i v i a l more l i k e lake's ) In "Takibi" a p a s s i n g m o o d -- l i k e surface i n the story of self-surrender — friends, t h e momentary calm rather than that the solitary this of the the profound Kensaku seems exper- undergoes, an experience one f e e l s on t h e man's w h o l e will being a l l t h e s t a g e s we stories, b u t i n much cal as Kensaku those end there. A s we perception Asa" that with inated that other the root of liberation seen, something and i n An'ya ' lating have Koro — lating with others to the traditional life known a s " r e - e n t e r i n g illustrated finds Perhaps that, i n fact, below the true — since awry way. i s the import descending from i n t h e form significance i n"Aru i n re- he h a s retreat elimnatural and r e - T h i s would corres- o f t h e " e n l i g h t e n e d " man's and invariably pictures one Asia. o f An'ya obvious than also first -- i t i s o n l y o f t h e Zen o x - h e r d i n g East i t must supposedly, the marketplace" a l l over i t began -- b o t h h i s mountain stage profound. hisdifficulties and f r e e r final s h o r t and, r a t h e r actually world from so as n o t t o be o v e r l y scene saku i n the last i n monasteries Such, But Now criti- protagonists, just protagonist's ,-- h i s own e g o t i s m pond the from i n a new a r e f a r more o f nature, arose he b e shown d e s c e n d i n g i s , t h e wounds y e t complete: the Shiga i n fact, i s f a r more was b a s i c a l l y people. cause that of self not i n the world Koro, effects i n the previous of the e a r l i e r i s not quite t h e human w o r l d , and r a d i c a l An'ya observed t o h i s sense than the cycle lasting dimensions: h i s ultimate experience But in have larger receives and p r o l o n g e d have and c h a r a c t e r . contains that 152 - employ about — o f t h e scene final i t , Shiga the symbolism the mountain, o f Naoko Koro's come scene. keeps o f Ken- he h a s t h e human t o Kensaku i s nevertheless instead. quite apparent. bed, When N a o k o arrives, thoroughly exhausted, shocks her her. But when a n x i e t y and 153 falls Kensaku and she is lying h i s worn draws under - near the appearance t o him, spell prostrate of she h i s new in initially soon forgets presence: H i s g a z e was l i k e a c a r e s s . She t h o u g h t she h a d n e v e r seen such g e n t l e m e s s , such l o v e , i n anyone's eyes before. S h e was a b o u t t o s a y , " E v e r y t h i n g i s a l l r i g h t now," b u t she r e f r a i n e d , f o r i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f such c o n t e n t m e n t and q u i e t , t h e words seemed h o l l o w . 92 That one "caress" -- communion word tells with describing us the volumes others. As quality about was h i s new-found revealed creased capacity f o r union with nature creased capacity f o r union with one's deepest level, used is the shared this he term by sage nature one. to express that more a phenomena, spiritual referring above: t o by " I t was b r i n g s an As we a recall, physical the word nature since, was inat the Shiga and that i t is quality, "nature" that for power man, -- an i n - equally fundamental including than not man gaze capacity in "Takibi", fellow are a l l natural t o be quoted and "rhythm" "rhythm", seems man of Kensaku's i n the that pas- visible to 93 the eyes..." this universal innermost word "unitive" "thought device: final the he o f man. i n anyone's The when K e n s a k u "rhythm", nature for this so Naoko love, Thus, few she eyes aTso On capacity had never before." paragraphs narrative the becomes becomes level i s , of seen 94 of the identified identified of novel with the human r e l a t i o n s course, such with "love", gentleness, contain viewpoint, having been that an of the and such unusual Kensaku throughout the entire novel, 154 suddenly This h a s d i s t u r b e d some critics idea from that Percy Lubbock who, a novel changed to that perhaps, must have have o f Naoko. got the a r i g i d l y con- 95 sistent tion p o i n t o f view, i n mind, lative" Despite into i t seems on a f o r m a l profound depth a perfectly level of union her i n i t i a l Kensaku's even but, regarded f o r what achieved wifely explica- "objective i s , on a thematic between that t h e above appropriate Naoko a n x i e t y , Naoko "tranquility" the idea that with level, the and Kensaku. has been s h e i s now corre- so drawn prepared to accept he m i g h t d i e : She h a d n e v e r s e e n h i m i o o k s o t r a n q u i l . Perhaps, she t h o u g h t , he i s n o t g o i n g t o l i v e t h r o u g h t h i s . But the t h o u g h t somehow d i d n o t s a d d e n h e r v e r y m u c h . As she sat t h e r e l o o k i n g a t him, she f e l t h e r s e l f becoming an i n s e p e r a b l e p a r t o f him; and she k e p t on t h i n k i n g , "Whether he l i v e s o r n o t , I s h a l l n e v e r l e a v e him, I s h a l l g o w h e r e v e r he g o e s . " 96 But point there which i s another has been significance missed to this by a c r i t i c like change o f view- F r a n c i s Mathy, who 97 fails t o take Naoko does Kensaku just been union write f o r union a s we with Naoko with Kensaku down had been write their from innermost a thought so t o t a l l y to write t o such thoughts. o f Naoko's -- above a l l , With a l l , who the erstwhile absorbed The f a c t r a t h e r than writer i n himself of Eihana, b u t h i s own, an e x t e n t has h i s new-found the story any v i e w p o i n t others of the novel. ( i t i s he, a f t e r o t h e r s , Kensaku, saw w h e n h e t r i e d t o commune w i t h ends w i t h with union author "enlightened" on t h e mountain). c o u l d never able as the " f i c t i o n a l " achieve s h i - s h o s e t s u , who that, he not only achieves capacity of Kensaku that that i s now he c a n even the novel o f Kansaku's signi- fies new a the depth of selflessness that dimensions that have opened he h a s a t t a i n e d , f o r him both and t h e as a w r i t e r and man. Many readers arguments o f An'ya as t o whether Koro Kensaku engage goes i n rather on t o l i v e bootless or to die at 98 the end. answer. saku I read Regarding the novel Shiga t o be presumed meaning dead as an a n l y s i s involved of As link come by a bseakthrough breakthrough itself. novel, Having that denoted to regard because, viewed would from this lose enable and that, psychic as the author, o f my existed (because the novel i n this light perspective), t o t h e work because be over- level, a An'ya i f he h a d other Koro critics and, most perhaps devote qua the s h i - s h o s e t s u qua have importantly, analysis, the novel I should died at a l l . d i s c u s s i o n t o An'ya Kensaku of c r i t i c a l i t s writer's h i m t o go on t o w r i t e n o t have Ken- tbeeproblems can only of Tokito remarks of "autobiographical" Kensaku would much the fact "writer's block" s o much f o r t h e sake concluding Naoya will of course, an about the i f he had meant on t h e p e r s o n a l , Regarding shi-shosetsu failed the novel between and work, Kensaku's the as t h e author, of the shi-shosetsu life the i s no d o u b t i n i t s creation: principally, the intimate Koro there of i s best a few Shiga himself. As direct we have seen, Shiga projection of himself once 99 admitted and, even that Kensaku though there was a i s much invented birth that material i n the novel o f the hero many details important union How of these with nature significant fact the basis the experience of o f Shiga's life rest Buddha. while i t , almost a s man o f h i s days In other the Daisen have b e e n made mythic quite and a r t i s t , "larger than proportions. regardless versal the "everyday" pedestal life" aspect tion i s such dark night" archetypal towards aspect symbolic within i n Shiga's him t o when Koro accounts, himself i n fact, inevitable h i s material trouve aspect own -- s a y , i f placed experience on a s y m b o l i c , uni- of a novel. A l l the "experience" liberation. live fictionaliza- assumed, draws t h e framework o n e a s a man's spiritual o f An'ya takes course, high-point as an so t o o an a u t h o r ' s true, then, a fundamental of have beeseen as engightened J u s t as an o b j e t or private, when p l a c e d they an author on a f o r m a l , "trivial" more so i s t h i s — T h i s may life. i n a museum, how But, of t h e same p o s i t i o n the process by t h e later, and the c h a r a c t e r o f Shiga own onaa of a century as an a l l - c o m p a s s i o n a t e , experience Most o f deep be judged nor d i d i tenable through know i n t h e summer o f 1 9 1 4 . i t d i d n o t mark t h e c l i m a c t i c words, -- takes also t h e work. o f h i s magnum o p u s . from o l d shoe we into f o r h i m may a quarter r e g a r d l e s s o f how m u c h an Daisen was process, Ms went — " i l l i c i t " h i s own e x p e r i e n c e on Mount d i d n o t occupy tion almost own i s undoubtedly as i n Kensaku's: the f o rinstance, the "semi-rape" f o r the "climax" h i s growth — and h i s w i f e ' s the experience t h a t he u s e d life 156 - "journey And t h i s o f course, i n ques- through mythic, f o r much - of i t s underlying man's of a I t i s not simply s p i r i t u a l struggle a modern rather ter power. but a kind character Nevertheless, a l l , a Japanese this thematic and a b s t r a c t i o n i s balanced structure and p a r t i c u l a r which medieval sesne, in i s , i n this nikki (diary) respect, Koro o f which total aesthetic It may novel tendency (and, towards informal a worthy o f the descendant (random essay). Shiga and m a s t e r f u l as a b s o l u t e l y this and the supposed has d i s t u r b e d very mixing In this establishes balance, essential some W e s t e r n on t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u , expands this complaint of "fiction" "formlessness" article ture i n Chap- both to the effect. i s , however, fiction", I noted genre i t - and z u i h i t s u . be seen Kensaku i s of the shi-shosetsu i s one o f a d e l i c a t e terms progress" by t h e v e r y the f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y d i a l e c t i c which An'ya which content o f one this, i t i s a modern formality self, with i n the sense because novel), the story of "pilgrim's (and, i n consonance "impersonal" 2^^^). above Everyman 157 - critics Edward that and "non- results from i t , of the novel. Seidensticker, I n an i n fact, to a c r i t i c i s m of Far Eastern Litera- i n general: In t h e O r i e n t , t h e n o t i o n o f genre has been a t once too e l a b o r a t e and n o t e l a b o r a t e enough, i f these fundam e n t a l Western d i s t i n c t i o n s between f i c t i o n and nonf i c t i o n , l y r i c and drama, a r e accepted...Some J a p a n e s e c a t e g o r i e s , s u c h as s h o s e t s u and m o n o g a t a r i , seem so b r o a d as t o be m e a n i n g l e s s . They i n c l u d e v i r t u a l l y e v e r y t h i n g , and c u t a c r o s s what i n t h e Western t r a d i t i o n seem l i k e t h e most f u n d a m e n t a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . Others l i k e s h a r e b o n a n d K i b y o s h i , seem s o n a r r o w a s t o be meaningless. They c o v e r t i n y r e a l m s , and w i t h i n t h e i r t i n y r e a l m s seem c a p a b l e , i n a m o s t p e r v e r s e fashion, - 158- of mixing f i c t i o n and n o n - f i c t i o n , q u i t e as i n the monogatari empire. 102 As a matter of f a c t , though, evep the "fundamental d i s t i n c t i o n s " are not what they used to be. Western The rambling auto- b i o g r a p h i c a l j o u r n a l s o f Jack Kerouac, f o r i n s t a n c e , works such as On the Road (1957) and The Dharma Bums (1958), were among the mose c e l e b r a t e d "novels" of the ' f i f t i e s "Best g e n e r a t i o n " . W r i t i n g i n a more 'documentary" v e i n , Truman Capote caaimed have i n v e n t e d a new In C o l d Blood to genre, the " n o n - f i c t i o n n o v e l " , w i t h h i s (1965). Norman M a i l e r a l s o has f o l l o w e d t h i s trend with h i s " r e p o r t o r i a l n o v e l s " such as The Armies of the Night (1968), s u b t i t l e d " H i s t o r y as a Novel, the Novel as H i s t o r y " , and h i s more r e c e n t The E x e c u t i o n e r ' s Song s u b t i t l e d "A True L i f e Novel". Time magazine has even i n v e n t e d an ugly neologism f o r such works: Whatever we may cent American (1979), "faction". t h i n k o f the l i t e r a r y value of these r e - novels, i t i s l i k e l y spread acceptance, the younger t h a t , because of t h e i r wide- g e n e r a t i o n of Western readers w i l l be l e s s d i s t u r b e d than t h e i r "elders by the " b l u r r e d lines" between f i c t i o n and n o n - f i c t i o n i n the works o f Shiga Naoya. Perhaps, then, i t i s no c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t An'ya Koro appeared i n E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n i n 1976, its finally about f o r t y years a f t e r f i r s t p u b l i c a t i o n i n Japan, even though i t has l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d i n i t s own country as a modern C l a s s i c . Shiga, i n f a c t , seems a t the same time both p e c u l i a r l y modern and very much w i t h i n the Japanese t r a d i t i o n . T h i s seeming by no means unprecedented: t r a d i t i o n a l Japanese for paradox i s architecture, i n s t a n c e , with i t s simple l i n e s and u n c l u t t e r e d decor, seems very modern to the tuitous, i n view as Lloyd Frank Chapter cause many Japanese an was a diary-like and illusion fiction At of their to the novelists the diary fictional for impression to be works, to of "artlessness" But there is to be a Koro which side to and "automatic" seems, so any- much b y a news- greater knows, on facts". non- one of Shiga uses the as used the "reality" writer enables of level,, Just Richardson sense the on "spontaneity", seen, "the "artificiality" another Certainly the Aesthetically, this (since to fiction). be for Defoe i n An'ya least strict influence there publisher may impart same p u r p o s e . at than too as the considered book appetite "transcribing" reality) he demands the in part the shaped the Whether "Zen") in be- and determine. temper works such form i s due emphasize -- in formerly But better reader's Imagism Kerouac. far shall ultra-modern the instance, any Shiga's to for- architects movement. of to (As any rate, for that sells an tion. — novel them we on (especially a modern generally and shosetsu what i n the as non-fiction Jack "reality". English letter a television appeal early of modernist led such seeming difficult resulted, writing something papers to that of entirely on influence and which this same way, Western Japanese writers is influence and i s more strong emphasis the nor way early fiction influence "Beat" way, in a with that between -- the has its affinity divisions there In haiku breakdown eye i t s seminal Wright. offshoibts of recent the of I I I , the of Western Shiga to shiresults seems to merely avoid conventional "artless art" in fic- equation the of writer's certain orders the art details selection of alike case, I of the and — hope of to the liberation, modern and mainstream conception terms. the works the hearts This fictional fiction" as itself. of of have Shiga but in this culture is restatement primarily Naoya w i l l Western readers. merely the essential as the — entire the and of in of an such, eventually his work. vision way ancient I would find In to which and In is Orient. the invention vision "fiction" central of human p r e d i c a m e n t a not material unifies shown, spiritual i t is It lies a l l his which - 160 "nonShiga's redolent its wisdom tradition suggest, their way in that into - 161 - Introduction 1. Marc Mecreant, (Paris: trans., Marabout, Le Samourai, 1970). Includes by Shiga Naoya twenty-two Shiga stories. 2. Edward Seidensticker, Studies Sophia 3. 4. i n Japanese Univ. Press, Mishima Chapter Mishima p. Novels", i n Joseph Roggendorf (Tokyo: 217. Yukio Penguin Ueda Makoto, Literature 2. Francis 3. ibid., p. 41 4. ibid., p. 42 5. Shiga Naoya, 6 . ibid., 7. As, p. Books, Writing Bownas 1972), p. 1968) i n Japan, (HariSondsworth, 20. tive p. Writers Univ. Press, (New 17. My 1976) York: i n Seibei and the p. 20. Twayne, t o Hyotan Nature 1974). (Tokyo: translation. 18 analyzed trans. Junichiro, John "Bunsho by for instance, the most judgments: simple "good", Dr. Takeo Bester 1958) adjectives Tanizaki x x i . pp. generally "nice", D o i , The Anatomy (Tokyo: Kodansha, Tokuhon", (Tokyo: Chuo K o r o n s h a , Both w r i t e r s , only Japanese Naoya "Aru Asa", Dependende, Zenshg Modern Shiga for instance, Tanizaki to Geoffrey (Stanford Mathy, Shinchosha, of and t o New I see of 9. 1963) ed. Yukio, Introduction Middlesex: 8. Culture, Shaped Ibid. ed. 1. "Strangely Junichiro 84-90. restrict descriptive "pleasant", 1973). themselves of subjec- "bad", e t c . 10. Shiga Naoya, Hero 11. (Univ. ibid. p. of ibid. 13. ibid., p. 14. Mathy, Shiga, 15. ibid. Jay Nipponica, p. 25 18. ibid., p. 21 19. Natsume no. 1 Ogai on Jay and the Univ. account in Hibbett Kobayashi of 1971) Shiga p. 257 pp. 34-35. his essay, This i n Japanese Press, Nakamura 1971) Hajime, KoMnshugi" issue, Gen of see Individ- Richard Japanese Itasaka, Mathy, Press, Modern 1965), (Shinchosha, Hideo" Culture, p. (My (Suicide Note), translation "Kobayashi 21 vol. Bowring, Culture 1979) Univ. Zenshu Monumenta i n Monumenta N i p p o n i c a , "Isho" and in p. t h i s - i n c i d e n t , see Harvard Hideo (1979) no this Press, Ryunosuke, (Cambridge: 1 Modernization Akutagawa 24. i n The 43 to 22. Howard no. (1979) p. For Univ. Individualism", Rubin 21. tion Sibley 45 reactions (Cambridge 23. William dissertation, "Watakushi trans. Ogai's an p. Soseki, ualism)", Mori Ph.D. v o l . xxxiv, ibid., On Chicago "Soseki 17. 20. trans. 260 Rubin, xxxiv, - 257 12. 16. i "Rhythm", 162 ed. by p. reprinted Japanese pp. 188-193 1955-57), Edward vol. v i , Seidensticker in Tradition Donald 23 and Moderniza- Shively (Princeton Eastern Peoples, 433 Ways o f Thinking of in trans. Philip Wiener 163 - (Honolulu: East-West Center Press, 1964) 25. Quoted in 26. Seidensticker, Japanese 27. Sibley, 28. ibid. 29. ibid. Sibley, Hero, "Strangely Culture, Shiga Shiga p. Hero, p. 31. Kobayashi, v o l . v i , pp. "Kobayashi Hideo" 33. 34. Novels" i n Studies in Japanese Writers, 117-19 i n This p. 104 Quoted >r Country, in Japan Seidensticker, (Kodansha, 1979) 181 Ueda, Modern Japanese Writers, p. 99 ibid. see Stephen (Univ. of 35. ibid., p. 36. The word works Kohl, "shosetsu" than the 38. Mathy, Shiga, • 39. ibid., p. 40. ibid., Ph.D. Critical dissertation, Biography 1974) p. 21 p. a far broader range of "novel". Studies i n Japanese Culture, p. 217 44 41 Shiga Naoya-ron (Tokjso: Chikuma Shobo, 91 42. Seidensticker, Japan 43a Seidensticker, This 43b see Ueda, a encompasses word Nakamura M i t s u o , , p. Naoya: 20 Seidensticker, 1966) Shiga Washington 37. 41. Shaped 126 s.ee 32. 89 219 30. p. Ueda, Modern p. p. 131 Quarterly, Country, vol. Japan, x i , no. p. 100 1, 1964 44. - Herbert Franke, Introduction, Novellas Millenia, York: o f Two Harcourt, Brace Republic, and 45. Plato, 46. Franke, Novellas o f Two 47. Murasaki The sticker 48. 164 and Shikibu (New Donald York: Keene, Winston, ibid., p. 50. Sibley, 51. Keene, World 52. ibid., p. 371 53. ibid., p. 573 54. Ivan Morris, 19 64) Millenia, Tale 56. Taubouchi of Knopf, 3 16 trans. Edward 1977) pp. 437-38 (New York; Holt, Walls Seiden- Rinehart Modern p. Walls, p. Japanese 1962) p. Shoyo, "The Essence Japanese of Vermont: the Novel", trans. Literature ibid., 59. I t o S e i , "Natsume Soseki—His Essays Soseki's (New Donald York: Grove and Works", Press, Japanese Stories, p. 15 16 Natsume 1970) pp. (Rutland, 12-13 58. on Stories 57-58 Modern p. 392 13 i n Modern pp. 260 Morris, ibid., p. Genji, 57. 60. (New 211 p. Within Tuttle, ibid., cation, p. Levenson 211 55. 1956), World, Chinese X p. Shiga Hero, Charles Casket: Christopher Within 1976) Golden trans. Alfred World 49. Keene Book The p. 15-16 5 Personality Works (Tokyo: M i n i s t r y of in Edu- 61. Quoted Tsurmta Novelists", (1970), p. K i n y a i n "Akutagawa Monumenta N i p p o n i c a , v o l . xxv, 63. Seidenstmcker, 65. Quoted 66. Seidensticker, Ueda Makoto, of and the the Novel", Studies 'In-Between' i n This i n Japanese Studies 70. Aristotle, 71. On This i n Modern Country, Culture, p. Japan 212 Country, Japan, i n Japanese the Culture, principles Quoted 73. Quoted 74. ibid. i n Sibley, Ueda, Modern p. p. 102 217 renga, p. 1967) p. pp. (Cleveland 224-25 1 7 see Earl (Princeton Miner's Univ. Tradition and recent press, 1979) Modernization i n 426 S h i g a Hero,, p . Japanese i n Japan Writers, p. 1 106 2 See, his of Poetry Culture, Univ., Chapter in Seidensticker, Japanese Art Theories Shiga Hero, Poetics, Linked and Reserve i n Sibley, Japanese Chapter Literary of Western Quoted 1. 1-2 ibid. 69. 75. 'Pure' i n Seidensticker, Press 72. nos. 98-111 Seidensticker, 68. "The Theories 64. 67 I- V j p . 25 ibid., pp. and 14 62. Japanese Ryunosuke for instance, S h i g a N a o y a no 1942) p. 92 Tanikawa Sakuhin Tetsuzo's fulsome (vol. 2), praise (Tokyo: M i k a s a in Shobo, 2. Tanizaki xxi 3. p. Junichiro P.. Modern (Tokyo: Chuo "At K i n o s a k i " , Japanese trans, Literature (New 273 4. ibid. 5. ibid. 6. ibid., 7. ibid. 8. ibid. 9. ibid. p. 274 10. ibid., p. 273 11. ibid., p. 274 12. ibid. 13. ibid., p. 275 14. ibid. 15. ibid. 16. ibid. 17. ibid., p. 276 18. ibid., p. 277 19. ibid. 20. ibid. 21. ibid. 22. ibid. 23. ibid. 24. ibid. 25. ibid. 26. Koronsha, 1958) 90 S h i g a Naoya, in Zenshu 166 Tanikawa, S h i g a Mo S a k u h i n , p. 92 Edward York: Seidensticker Grove Press, 1956) - 27. ibid. 28. Mathy, 29. Leo Tolstoy, p. 228 Shiga, 30. Mathy, 31. F.R. Leavis, From Scrutiny p. " R e a l i t y and (Cambridge 33. ibid. 34. ibid., p. 35. Quoted in William 36. 37. Press, 1929) Sincerity", in his Univ. Press, 1968) A p. Selection 252 Barry, Kennikat Heralds Press, of Revolt 1971) p. (Port Washing- 237 ibid. Kobayashi Yoshida Zenshu Japan, 39. ibid. 40. ibid., 41. ibid. 42. ibid. For an p. account 44. Yoshida, Bunsho 45. Tanizaki, 47. ibid. 12-13. trans. Seidensticker, This 156 "Shosetsu 1963) no p. Bunsho" 46. My i n Bunsho to Buntai translation. 47 see ibid. p. Shoin, subject, 46. I: Sei-ichi, (Tokyo: M e i j i 43. Univ. 276 York: Country, 38. (Oxford 64-65 ibid. New i s Art? pp. 32. ton, - 173 What Shiga, 167 of Ueda, to Zenshu, Tanizaki's Modern Buntai, xxi, 18 debate Japanese p. 48 with Akutagawa Writers, pp. on 71-72 this - 168 - ibid. trans. Seidensticker, trans. Sibley, tanikawa, The as a Shiga Hero, S h i g a no entire lifelong pp. p. idealists". and "Three Aylmer 92. are Be My Maude p. 273 that (1859) (London: translation. sometimes as f o r the works Deaths" Literature, 76 S a k u h i n , p. admiration Tolstoy, Louise Japanese "Shirakaba group" "Tolstoyan Leo Modern of characterized i t may, S&iga had the Russian master i n Nine Stories trans. Oxford Univ. press), 305-306 ibid.ra p. 307 ibid., p. 308 ibid., p. 291 ibid., p. v i i i Quoted i n Mathy, ibid., p. Tolstoy, Wayne Shiga, p. 161 160 Nine Booth, Press, 1966) Keene, Modern ibid., p. Stories, The p. p. Rhetoric 307 of F i c t i o n (Univ. of Chicago 3 Japanese Literature, p. 27 2 276 ibid. ibid. E.M. Forster, 1927) Barry, See pp. 73-80 Revolt, above, Aspects of p. p. 39 237 the Novel (London: Edward Arnold, 69. Keene, Modern 70. ibid. 71. ibid., 72. Sibley, 73. Ueda, 74. ibid. 75. ibid. 76. ibid. 77. Keene, Modern 78. ibid., p. 27 5 89. ibid., p. 277 80. ibid. 81. Ueda, 82. Mathy, 83. Sibley, 84. Shiga p. Japanese Literature, p. p. 273 277 Shiga Hero, Literary and 227 Art Theories Japanese Literary Shiga, and p. Shiga Naoya, p. Dark Kodansha, p. 1976) Japanese 86. Shiga, Night's 87. For Kobayashi's and Modernization Dark p. 150 273 150 231 Night's Keene, Modern A Theories, p. p. 28 Hero, A i n Japan, Literature, Art 85. 1. - 275 (Tokyo: Chapter 169 view p. Passing, McClellan 375 Literature, Passing, on t r a n s . Edwin this, i n Japanese pp. see p. 277 400-401 Seidensticker, Tradition C u l t u r e , p. 427 3 Quoted Wayne 2. ibid. 3. ibid. i n Beongcheon State Univ. Yu, press, Akutagaway: 1972) p. 79 an Introduction (Detroi - 170- ibid. ibid. Shiga Naoya, Shoten, "Takibi", 1928) p. 173. i n Kozo My no Kamisama (Tekyo: Iwanami translation. ibid. Quoted i n Ueda, Shiga, Kozo no Modern Japanese Kamisama, p. Writers, p. 86 175 ibid. ibid., p. 176 p. 179 ibid., p. 180 ibid., p. 181 Shiga, A ibid. ibid., ibid. Dark Night's See, f o r example, fire i n Shinto (New York: Paragon Friedman, Poetry and Press, 1974) Shiga, Kozo ibid., p. ibid., pp. ibid., p. 184 ibid., p. 185 ibid., p. 187 ibid. D.C. ritual Norman Passing, no account of the role i n h i s The National Faith of Book Reprint "Symbol", Corp., Alex Kamisama, p. 183-4 1965) p. of Japan 29 i n Princeton Encyclopedia Preminger 834 183 290 Holtom's P o e t i c s , ed. p. p. 182. of (Princeton Univ. - - p. 188 27. ibid., 28. ibid. 29. See 30. Shiga, Kozo 31. Oxford English Dictionary, p. p. 171 188 Mathy, Shiga, 2210. "In no events, See p. 33. For repetition Meth. as Wells, a Politics fiction, "Statistical River'" use 118: connexion of a of plot." i n Jackson Hemingway: C r i t i c a l Univ. Press, 1975) be language sidered to the and-effect reasoning..." 34. See p. 35. Quoted above, 36. Comte de §7. M.H. 131: of the those Prose Benson, Essays " I t i s most see The Style Short (Durham: often incapable of concause- 36 i n Edmund pp. p. language, /Analysis o f Ernest Wilson, Eight Essays, (New York: Doubleday, 93-94 Buffon, Abrams, Holt, 1971) v. is called of 1954) Press, certain "non-logical" 'Big Two-Hearted Stories 38. Reason. is a of Univ. above Elizabeth Duke (Oxford there i n a work 32. of Lewis narrative, which 5 161 Kamisama, Quoting every p. A Rinehart Quoted i n A.E. House, 1966) Benson, Discours Glossary and of 39. See 40. Scott Donaldson, le Style Literary Winston, Hotchner, p. sur 1971), (1353) Terms p. (New York: 137 P a p a Hemingway (New York: Random 199 Hemingway, p. By Eorce xi of Will: the Life and Art of Ernest Hemingway Hemingway, 1935) See p. 172 (New Y o r k : Green Hills Viking of Africa Press, 1977) p. (New Y o r k : 242 Scribner's, 70 Earl Miner, American The J a p a n e s e Literature Especially Benson, Tradition (Princeton Univ. i n British Press, and 1958) chapters v - v i Hemingway, p. 307 ibid. Quoted i n Donaldson, Benson, See Hemingway, above, Quoted Ralph p. Freedman, Benson, p. p. 247 30 9 63 i n Benson, Princeton Will, Hemingway, The L y r i c a l Univ. Press, Hemingway, p. Hemingway, Africa, Hemingway, A Moveable p. 3 07 Novel (Princeton, New Jersey: 1963) 157 Foreword Feast (New Y o r k : Scribner's, 1964) Preface Fraser Sutherland, Irwin, 1972) p . Benson, The S t y l e o f Innocence (Toronto: Clarke, 83 Hemingway, p. 275 ibid. Robert Essays Benson, ibid. Weeks, e d . , Hemingway: (Englewood Hemingway, Cliffs, p. 309 a Collection of Critical. N.J. : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1962) - 173 59. See J u l i a n Out" Smith's a r t i c l e , i n Benson, Hemingway, 60. Donaldson, W i l l , 61. Benson, 62. ibid., p. 131 63. ibid., p. 297 64. Weeks, Hemingway, 65. Hemingway, p. Hemingway, p. and t h e T h i n g Left 136 245 p. 39 p. 106 "Cross-Country Scribner's, "Hemingway 1925) p . Snow" i n I n Our Time (New York: 107 » 66. Benson, 67. Keene, 68. Hemingway, 69. ibid., p. 70. Mathy, Shiga, 71. Shiga, Kozo 72. On H e m i n g w a y ' s o b s e s s i o n p. Chapter Hemingway, Modern p. 154 Japanese L i t e r a t u r e , " B i g Two-Hearted River" p. 277 i n I n Our Time, p. 14 2 156 pp. 29-30 no Kamisama, p. 176 with death, see Donaldson, Will 282. 4 1. Quoted 2. ibid. 3. ibid., p. 92 4. ibid., p. 101 5. i b i d . , pp 99 a n d 6. ibid., 157 7. Shiga Tokyo: i n Mathy, p. Naoya, Shiga, 83 157 A Dark Kodansha, p. Night's 1976) p . 16 Passing, trans. Edwin McClell 8. ibid., p. 17 9. ibid., p. 18 10. ibid. 11. ibid., pp. 12. ibid., p. 25 13. ibid. 14. itid., p. 26 15. ibid. 16. ibid., pp. 17. ibid., p. 27 18. ibid. 19. ibid., p. 28 20. ibid., p. 30 21. ibid., p. 26 22. ibid. 23. ibid., p. 29 24. ibid., p. 30 25. ibid. 26. ibid., p. 81 27. ibid., p. 101 28. ibid., p. 104 29. ibid., p. 115 30. ibid., p. 123 31. See 32. Shiga, 33. "ibid. 34. ibid. - 19-20 26-27 Mathy, A 174 Shiga, Dark p. Night's 43 Passing, p. 125 "175 P- 146 P- 148 ibid., P- 150 40. ibid., P- 158 41. x b i d . , P- 172 42. ibid. 43. ibid., P- 186 44. ibid., P- 375 45. ibid., P- 186-87 46. ibid., P- 184 47. ibid., P- 193 48. ibid., P- 194 49. ibid., P- 181 50. ibid., P- 174 51. ibid., P- 178 52. On 53. Shiga, A 54. ibid., P- 185 55. ibid. 56. ibid., P- 201 57. ibid., P- 202 58. ibid., P- 271 59. ibid., Pi 312 60. ibid., PP . 61. ibid., P- 35. ibid., 36. ib i d . 37. ibid., 38. ibid. 39. this point, Dark see Ueda, Modern Japanese Night's 311-12 337 - Passing, p. 178 Writers, p. 62. ibid., p. 338 63. ibid. 64. ibid., p. 341 65. ibid., p. 341 66. ibid. 67. ibid., p. 251 68. ibid. 69. ibid. 70. ibid., 71. ibid., p. 354-55 72. ibid., p. 356 73. ibid. 74. ibid. 75. ibid., p. 357 76. ibid., p. 358 77. ibid. 78. ibid., p. 357 79. ibid., p. 364 80. ibid., p. 369 81. ibid., p. 381 82. ibid., p. 392 83. ibid., pp. 84. i b i d . , p. 352 383-84 399 85. ibid. 86. ibid., p. 398 87. ibid., p. 400 .88. ibid., pp. 400-01 89. Daisetz vols. 80. 91 Teitaro (New Shiga, A Suzuki, York: Dark - Essays Samuel Night's 177 i n Zen Weiser, Passing, Buddhism in 3 1971) p. 401 ibid. 92. ibid., p. 407 93. ibid., p. 400 95. ibid., p. 407 95. Percy Lubbock, Cape, The of Fiction (London: J o h n a t h a n 1939) 96. ibid., 97. See 98. See, p. Mathy, 408 p. 102 for instance, essay Craft Mathy, i n t h e N i h o n Bungaku (Tokyo: Yuseido, 99. See above, p. 100. See Mathy, Shiga, 101. See above, pp. 102. Seidensticker, 1970) pp. p. 102 Kenkyu and Edwin Shiryo McClellan's Sosho series 300-01 95 p. 28 53-54 Studies i n Japanese C u l t u r e , p. 210 - 178 - BIBLIOGRAPHY Benson, Jackson, Critical Booth, The Scott. Hemingway Forster, Durham: Will: Sei. York: The Essays Education, Keene, of on of Viking Novel Lyrical Novel Time Natsume Ernest Hemingway: Press, Chicago the Life Press, the I n Our 1975 Univ. and A r t of 1966 Ernest 1977 London: Edward A r n o l d , 192 7 P r i n c e t o n Univ. New Press, Mork: Press, Scribner's, 1963 19 25 S o s e k i ' s Works Tokyo: Ministry W a l l s : Japanese Literature of 197 0 Donald. World Pre-Modern Era, Winston, Force of Duke U n i v . By Hemingway, E r n e s t . Ito, Stories Fiction Aspects Ralph. Short Rhetoric of New E.M. Freedman, The Essays Wayne. Donaldson, ed. within 1600-1867 NewYork: Holt, of the Rinehart, 1976 . ed., Modern Japanese Literature Grove Press 1956 Kobayashi, Hideo. Kobayashi Hideo Zenshu Tokyo: Shinchosha, 1955 Leavis, F.R. A Selection from Scrutiny Cambridge Univ. Press, 1968 Lubbock, Percy. The Craft of Fiction London: Johnathan Cape, 1939 Mathy, Francis. Miner, Earl. S h i g a Naoya The Literature. Morris, Ivan, ed., Japanese New Tradition P r i n c e t o n Univ. Modern York: Japanese Twayne in British Press, Stories Publishers, and 1974 American 1958 Rutland, Vermont: Charles Mishima, E. Yukio Tuttle, and 179 - 1962 Bownas, Geoffrey. New Harmondsworth, M i d d l e s e x : Penguin Roggendorf, Joseph. Sophia Univ. Seidensticker, Studies Press, Edward. Writing Books, i n Japanese in Japan 1972 Culture Tokyo: 1963 This Country, Japan Tokyo: Kodansha, 1979 Shiga, Naoya. 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Univ., Hemingway: Cliffs, Eight Sei-ichi. 180 - and A r t T h e o r i e s Cleveland: 1967 a Collection of C r i t i c a l N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Essays Bunsho i n Japan New York: to Buntai Essays 1962 Doubleday, Tokyo: M e i j i 1954 Shoin, 1963
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An artless art : fiction and reality in the work of Shiga Naoya Starrs, Roy 1980
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