An artless art :  fiction and reality in the work of Shiga Naoya

Starrs, Roy

doi:10.14288/1.0100240

UBC Theses and Dissertations

Featured Collection

UBC Theses and Dissertations

An artless art : fiction and reality in the work of Shiga Naoya Starrs, Roy 1980

Notice for Google Chrome users:
If you are having trouble viewing or searching the PDF with Google Chrome, please download it here instead.

Page Metadata

Item Metadata

Title	An artless art : fiction and reality in the work of Shiga Naoya
Creator	Starrs, Roy
Publisher	University of British Columbia
Date Issued	1980
Description	This thesis offers a critical analysis of the work of Shiga Naoya, one of the major creative writers of modern Japan. Shiga is presented primarily as the author of shi- shosetsu ("I-novels"), a distinctively Japanese genre that combines elements of fiction and autobiography. This "blurring" of the lines between fiction and non-fiction is shown to have been particularly disturbing to certain Western critics, and the present thesis attempts to answer these critics, first, by showing the solid basis of the shi-shosetsu in the Japanese literary tradition; second, by showing how the mixture of fiction and reality is an integral part of Shiga's art on both a technical and a thematic level; and, third, by pointing out the parallels to Shiga's practise in some recent literary trends of the West itself. In Chapter 1, Shiga's first published story, "Aru Asa" ("One Morning"), is used as an example of the shi-shosetsu in its simplest and barest form, and thus as an example of everything that certain Western critics dislike about this genre. Some of them, for instance, have accused the story of "triviality". In answer to this charge, I have shown how Shiga, by virtue of his masterful style and his depth of psychological insight, manages to turn even seemingly insignificant material into significant literature. "Aru Asa", in fact, already contains in microcosm the central problem to be explored throughout Shiga's most important later works: namely, the conflict between the protagonist's desire for individual freedom and self-expression on the one hand and, on the other, his longing for peace of mind and communion with others. The solution which Shiga eventually offered to this "problem of the ego" is first adumbrated in the story I consider in Chapter 2, "Kinosaki ni te" (At Kinosaki"). Here the protagonist receives a profound shock to his sense of self— a near fatal accident--but also is given some intimation of the way to ultimate psychic health: through self-surrender and union with nature. On the principle that the best way to define something is often by contrast with its opposite, I have also compared this work with a Tolstoy story, "Three Deaths", in order to bring out more clearly the special qualities of the shi-shosetsu. In the story I deal with in Chapter 3, "Takibi" ("Bonfire the Shiga protagonist is seen to have already attained some degree of union with nature. The narrative progression of the story, in fact, consists simply of a steady deepening of this lyrical, idyllic mood. To show that there are some analogies to Shiga's "naturally plotted" stories in the recent West, I compare "Takibi" with a Hemingway story, "Big Two-Hearted River". I also point out that the affinity between the two authors' use of imagery as "objective correlative" is by no means coincidental, in view of the influence of Japanese poetry on Hemingway through Ezra Pound and the Imagists. In the fourth and final chapter I deal with An'ya Koro (A Dark Night's Passing), which I regard as the culmination of Shiga's art on both a thematic and a technical level. In this work Shiga himself comes to grips with the essential nature of the shi-shosetsu, including the fiction/reality dialectic that is the crucial problem at its core, and it is here also that he relates this technical issue with the thematic issue I see as central to his work: the protagonist's longing for spiritual liberation. In An'ya Koro, in other words, the problem of the man and the problem of the writer some to be seen as ultimately the same problem, and in a way that could obtain only when the man is a writer of shi-shosetsu. I conclude my discussion with what, in my view, Shiga has to offer to the Western reader, as well as an appraisal of what I consider to be the improved climate for the reception of his work in the West.
Genre	Thesis/Dissertation
Type	Text
Language	eng
Date Available	2010-03-16
Provider	Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Rights	For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use.
DOI	10.14288/1.0100240
URI	http://hdl.handle.net/2429/21938
Degree	Master of Arts - MA
Program	Asian Studies
Affiliation	Arts, Faculty of Asian Studies, Department of
Degree Grantor	University of British Columbia
Campus	UBCV
Scholarly Level	Graduate
AggregatedSourceRepository	DSpace

Download

Media: 831-UBC_1980_A8 S83.pdf [ 8.34MB ]
Metadata: JSON: 831-1.0100240.json; JSON-LD: 831-1.0100240-ld.json; RDF/XML (Pretty): 831-1.0100240-rdf.xml; RDF/JSON: 831-1.0100240-rdf.json; Turtle: 831-1.0100240-turtle.txt; N-Triples: 831-1.0100240-rdf-ntriples.txt; Original Record: 831-1.0100240-source.json
Full Text: 831-1.0100240-fulltext.txt
Citation: 831-1.0100240.ris

Full Text

e l AN ARTLESS ART: FICTION AND REALITY IN THE WORK OF .SHIGA NAOYA by ROY STARRS B.A. , The U n i v e r s i t y 'of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1971 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department o f A s i a n S t u d i e s ) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A u g u s t 19 80 © Roy S t a r r s , 19 80 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Co lumb ia , I ag ree that the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s tudy . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . It i s u n d e r s t o o d tha t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i thout my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department o f A s i a n S t u d i e s The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Co lumbia 2075 Wesbrook Place Vancouver, Canada V6T 1W5 Date October 13,- 1980 ABSTRACT T h i s t h e s i s o f f e r s a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e work o f S h i g a Naoya, one o f t h e m a j o r c r e a t i v e w r i t e r s o f modern J a p a n . S h i g a i s p r e s e n t e d p r i m a r i l y as t h e a u t h o r ? o f s h i - s h o s e t s u ( " I - n o v e l s " ) , a d i s t i n c t i v e l y J a p a n e s e g e n r e t h a t combines e l e m e n t s o f f i c t i o n and a u t o b i o g r a p h y . T h i s " b l u r r i n g " o f t h e l i n e s between f i c t i o n and n o n - f i c t i o n i s shown t o have been p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t u r b i n g t o c e r t a i n W e s t e r n c r i t i c s , and t h e p r e s e n t t h e s i s a t t e m p t s t o answer t h e s e c r i t i c s , f i r s t , by s h o w i n g t h e s o l i d b a s i s o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u i n t h e J a p a n e s e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n ; s e c o n d , by s h o w i n g how t h e m i x t u r e o f f i c t i o n and r e a l i t y i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f S h i g a ' s a r t on b o t h a t e c h n i c a l and a t h e m a t i c l e v e l ; and, t h i r d , by p o i n t i n g o u t t h e p a r a l l e l s t o S h i g a ' s p r a c t i s e i n some r e c e n t l i t e r a r y t r e n d s o f t h e West i t s e l f . I n C h a p t e r 1, S h i g a ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s t o r y , " A r u A s a " ("One M o r n i n g " ) , i s u s e d as an example o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u i n i t s s i m p l e s t and b a r e s t f o r m , and t h u s as an example o f e v e r y t h i n g t h a t c e r t a i n W e s t e r n c r i t i c s d i s l i k e a b o u t t h i s g e n r e . Some o f them, f o r i n s t a n c e , have a c c u s e d t h e s t o r y o f " t r i v i a l i t y " . I n answer t o t h i s c h a r g e , I have shown how S h i g a , by v i r t u e o f h i s m a s t e r f u l s t y l e and h i s d e p t h o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t , manages t o t u r n e v e n s e e m i n g l y i n -s i g n i f i c a n t m a t e r i a l i n t o s i g n i f i c a n t l i t e r a t u r e . "Aru A s a " , i n f a c t , a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s i n m i c r o c o s m t h e c e n t r a l p r o b l e m t o be e x p l o r e d t h r o u g h o u t S h i g a ' s most i m p o r t a n t l a t e r w o r k s : namely, t h e c o n f l i c t between t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s d e s i r e f o r i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m and s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n on t h e one hand and, on t h e o t h e r , h i s l o n g i n g f o r p e a c e o f mind and communion w i t h o t h e r s . The s o l u t i o n w h i c h S h i g a e v e n t u a l l y o f f e r e d t o t h i s " p r o b lem o f t h e ego" i s f i r s t a dumbrated i n t h e s t o r y I c o n s i d e r i n C h a p t e r 2 , " K i n o s a k i n i t e " (At K i n o s a k i " ) . Here t h e p r o t a g o n i s t r e c e i v e s a p r o f o u n d shock t o h i s s e n s e o f s e l f — a n e a r f a t a l a c c i d e n t - - b u t a l s o i s g i v e n some ( i n t i m a t i o n o f t h e way t o u l t i m a t e p s y c h i c h e a l t h : t h r o u g h s e l f - s u r r e n d e r and u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e . On t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e b e s t way t o d e f i n e s o m e t h i n g i s o f t e n by c o n t r a s t w i t h i t s o p p o s i t e , I have a l s o compared t h i s work w i t h a T o l s t o y s t o r y , " T h r e e D e a t h s " , i n o r d e r t o b r i n g o u t more c l e a r l y t h e s p e c i a l q u a l -i t i e s o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u . I n t h e s t o r y I d e a l w i t h i n C h a p t e r 3 , " T a k i b i " ( " B o n f i r e t h e S h i g a p r o t a g o n i s t i s s e e n t o have a l r e a d y a t t a i n e d some d e g r e e o f u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e . The n a r r a t i v e p r o g r e s s i o n o f t h e s t o r y , i n f a c t , c o n s i s t s s i m p l y o f a s t e a d y d e e p e n i n g o f t h i s l y r i c a l , i d y l l i c mood. To show t h a t t h e r e a r e some a n a l o g i e s t o S h i g a ' s " n a t u r a l l y p l o t t e d " s t o r i e s i n t h e r e c e n t West, I compare " T a k i b i " w i t h a Hemingway s t o r y , " B i g Two-H e a r t e d R i v e r " . I a l s o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e a f f i n i t y between t h e two authors' 1/ u s e o f i m a g e r y as " o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e " - i v -i s by no means c o i n c i d e n t a l , i n view of the i n f l u e n c e of Japanese poetry on Hemingway through E z r a Pound and the Imagists. In the f o u r t h and f i n a l chapter I d e a l w i t h An'ya Koro (A Dark Night's P a s s i n g ) , which I regard as the c u l m i n a t i o n of Shiga's a r t on both a thematic and a t e c h n i c a l l e v e l . In t h i s work Shiga h i m s e l f comes to g r i p s w i t h the e s s e n t i a l nature of the s h i - s h o s e t s u , i n c l u d i n g the f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y d i a l e c t i c t h a t i s the c r u c i a l problem at i t s c o r e , and i t i s here a l s o t h a t he r e l a t e s t h i s t e c h n i c a l i s s u e w i t h the thematic i s s u e I see as c e n t r a l to h i s work: the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s l o n g i n g f o r s p i r i t u a l l i b e r a t i o n . In An'ya Koro, i n other words, the problem of the man and the problem of the w r i t e r some to be seen as u l t i m a t e l y the same problem, and i n a way t h a t c o u l d o b t a i n o n l y when the man i s a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u . I conclude my d i s c u s s i o n with what, i n my view, Shiga has to o f f e r to the Western reader, as w e l l as an a p p r a i s a l of what I c o n s i d e r to be the improved c l i m a t e f o r the r e c e p t i o n o f h i s work i n the West. , S u p e r v i s o r - v -TABLE OF CONTENTS A b s t r a c t i i I n t r o d u c t i o n J % C h a p t e r 1 I l C h a p t e r 2 ; ." 43 C h a p t e r 3 • 80 C h a p t e r 4 113 F o o t n o t e s w . . . . . 161 B i b l i o g r a p h y 178 - 1 -I n t r o d u c t i o n No modern J a p a n e s e w r i t e r o f c o m p a r a b l e s t a t u r e has b een as s o r e l y n e g l e c t e d i n t h e West as S h i g a Naoya J a . - j j ^ (1883-1971). A l t h o u g h most o f h i s m a j o r s t o r i e s were w r i t t e n i n t h e T a i s h o p e r i o d (1912-1926), and h i s s i n g l e g r e a t n o v e l a p p e a r e d i n 1937, i t was n o t u n t i l t h e 1970's t h a t any s u b -s t a n t i a l t r a n s l a t i o n and c r i t i c i s m o f h i s work was u n d e r t a k e n i n E n g l i s h . T h e r e i s , as y e t , no b o o k - l e n g t h c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s s h o r t s t o r i e s (though t h e r e i s i n French" 1") ; a mere hand-f u l o f them a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t v a r i o u s a n t h o l o g i e s - -t h i s i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t S h i g a has l o n g b een r e c o g n i z e d as one o f t h e g r e a t m a s t e r s o f t h e f o r m i n J a p a n . H i s one n o v e l - l e n g t h work, An'ya K o r o <Qfe ffi g^- (1937) was f i n a l l y t r a n s l a t e d by Edwin M c C l e l l a n as A Dark N i g h t ' s  P a s s i n g i n 1976. As f o r c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s , t h e f i r s t t o be p u b l i s h e d i n book f o r m was F r a n c i s Mathy's S h i g a Naoya (1975). As I i n t e n d t o show, t h i s i s a r a t h e r n a r r o w and u n s y m p a t h e t i c t r e a t m e n t . W i l l i a m Slhfcleyjs The S h i g a H e r o , a r e v i s i o n o f h i s 1971 d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , a p p e a r e d i n 1979; t h o u g h more s y m p a t h e t i c t o h i s s u b j e c t t h a n Mathy, S i b l e y n e v e r t h e l e s s t a k e s a m a r k e d l y F r e u d i a n a p p r o a c h t h a t , i n my v i e w , r e s u l t s i n an e q u a l l y d i s t o r t e d image o f S h i g a ' s a r t . P e r h a p s t h e most h e l p f u l and p e r c e p t i v e s t u d y t o d a t e , p r e -s e n t i n g t h e a u t h o r more i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h i s own c u l t u r e , has b e e n t h e c h a p t e r Ueda Makoto d e v o t e d t o S h i g a i n h i s - 2 -Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s and t h e N a t u r e o f L i t e r a t u r e ( 1 9 7 6 ) , w h i c h I s h a l l have o c c a s i o n t o r e t u r n t o l a t e r . Why has S h i g a ' s work s u f f e r e d t h i s l o n g n e g l e c t by a W e s t e r n r e a d e r s h i p t h a t has g i v e n an e n t h u s i a s t i c r e c e p t i o n t o s u c h w r i t e r s as Kawabata, T a n i z a k i , M i s h i m a . a n d Abe? The b a s i c r e a s o n seems t o be t h a t , i n t h e e y e s o f W e s t e r n r e a d e r s , S h i g a ' s works l a c k t h e u s u a l a t t r i b u t e s o f " f i c t i o n " : s i n c e most o f t h e e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d a r e t a k e n d i r e c t l y and i n a s e e m i n g l y random f a s h i o n f r o m t h e a u t h o r ' s own l i f e , t h e r e i s l i t t l e i n t h e way o f c o n v e n t i o n a l " w e l l - b u i l t " p l o t -s t r u c t u r e ; and, s i n c e t h e a u t h o r h i m s e l f , o r h i s f i c t i o n a l p e r s o n a , i s a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y t h e p r o t a g o n i s t o f t h e s e s e l f -a b s o r b e d w o r k s , t h e r e i s no d e v e l o p m e n t o f a w i de rang.e o f " r o u n d e d " c h a r a c t e r s . Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r p e r h a p s e x p r e s s e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l W e s t e r n v i e w o f t h e k i n d o f s h i - s h o s e t s u yjfl^ , \ \ ( " I - n o v e l s " ) t h a t S h i g a w r o t e when he r e f e r s t o them as "unformed r e m i n i s c e n c e " and as "a f o r m o f a u t o -b i o g r a p h i c a l j o t t i n g t h a t may s c a r c e l y seem t o d e s e r v e t h e 2 name f i c t i o n a t a l l . " I n t h e same e s s a y , however, S e i d e n -s t i c k e r a d m i t s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s g e n r e , a l b e i t r e l u c t a n t l y , i n t h e o v e r a l l c o n t e x t o f modern J a p a n e s e f i c t i o n when he s a y s t h a t " i f t h e r e i s any one c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t i n -g u i s h i n g t h e modern J a p a n e s e n o v e l f r o m t h e modern n o v e l e l s e -where, i t i s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f u n d i s g u i s e d and u n s h a p e d a u t o -3 b i o g r a p h y . " M i s h i m a Yukd>o a l s o r e c o g n i z e d t h e c e n t r a l p l a c e - 3 -o f t h i s g e n r e i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s c o u n t r y , b u t he saw i t i n a more c o s m o p o l i t a n and l e s s b e l i t t l i n g l i g h t : The " I - n o v e l " o f modern J a p a n e s e l i t e r a t u r e i s a complex c r e a t i o n o f m i x e d a n c e s t r y r b r e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h n a t u r a l i s t n o v e l , f r o m t h e J a p a n e s e o c c a s i o n a l e s s a y s t y l e o f t h e M i d d l e Ages ( c a l l e d , r e v e a l i n g l y , " f o l l o w i n g one's t h o u g h t s " ) and f r o m t h e s e l f - w o r s h i p o f E u r o p e a n r o m a n t i c i s m . And, b e c a u s e o f t h e p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f J a p a n e s e p o e t r y w h i c h I have men-t i o n e d b e f o r e , t h e " I - n o v e l " f o r m was a l s o made t o s e r v e t h e f u n c t i o n o f ^ f u l f i l l i n g p o e t i c needs t h r o u g h t h e v e h i c l e o f p r o s e . The i s s u e , i n f a c t , i s even l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u p e r s e , t h o u g h t h i s i s a v e r y w i d e l y p r a c t i s e d g e n r e . T h a t t h e p r o b l e m a t i c r e l a t i o n between f i c t i o n and r e a l i t y has p r e o c c u p i e d many o f J a p a n ' s g r e a t e s t modern n o v e l i s t s has b e en w e l l d e m o n s t r a t e d by Ueda Makoto i n h i s Modern  J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s . I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e l i t e r a r y t h e o r i e s o f e i g h t n o v e l i s t s , t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n t h a t Ueda c o n s i d e r s i n e a c h c a s e i s t h e w r i t e r ' s v i e w o f t h e r e l a t i o n between l i f e and l i t e r a t u r e , and he shows t h a t i t i s a q u e s t i o n t h a t has e s p e c i a l l y e x e r c i s e d w r i t e r s i n modern J a p a n . As I s h a l l p o i n t o u t i n C h a p t e r 1, i t seems t o me, t h e n , t h a t F r a n c i s Mathy a t t e m p t s t o evade t h i s c e n t r a l i s s u e w h i c h must a r i s e i n any c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f S h i g a by o v e r -e m p h a s i z i n g t h e few more c o n v e n t i o n a l works o f f i c t i o n t h e a u t h o r w r o t e . To do s o , I w o u l d c l a i m , i s t o p r e s e n t a d i s -t o r t e d image b o t h o f S h i g a ' s a c t u a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t as a w r i t e r and o f h i s a b i d i n g i n f l u e n c e on t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s c o u n t r y . - 4 -S h i g a Naoya must s t a n d o r f a l l a s a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u ; t o t r y t o " d r e s s him up" i n more a c c e p t a b l y c o n v e n t i o n a l o r W e s t e r n g a r b i s a f u t i l e e x e r c i s e t h a t o n l y b e l i e s t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f t h e s u b j e c t . I n t h i s p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s , t h e n , I c o n c e n t r a t e e x c l u s i v e l y on S h i g a as a s h i - s h o s e t s u w r i t e r , and a t t e m p t t o t r a c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e theme I r e g a r d as c e n t r a l t o t h e s e " a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l " w o r k s : t h a t o f a man s e e k i n g t o f r e e h i m s e l f f r o m h i s own e g o t i s m by a c h i e v i n g t o t a l u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e . A t t h e same t i m e , I t r y t o a d d r e s s t h e c e n t r a l c r i t i c a l p r o b l e m w h i c h a r i s e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u , a p r o b l e m t h a t S h i g a h i m s e l f , as I s h a l l show, came u l t i m a t e l y t o d e a l w i t h i n h i s g r e a t n o v e l : t h e o n - g o i n g d i a l e c t i c between f i c t i o n and r e a l i t y . I n C h a p t e r 1 I u s e S h i g a ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s t o r y , " A r u A s a " $ ^ (One M o r n i n g , 1 9 0 8 ) , as an example o f t h e S h i - s h o s e t s u i n i t s s i m p l e s t and b a r e s t f o r m and, c o n s e -q u e n t l y , as an example o f e v e r y t h i n g t h a t most o f f e n d s W e s t e r n c r i t i c s i n p a r t i c u l a r a b o u t t h i s g e n r e . My i n t e n t i o n i s t o show t h a t t h e v i e w s o f t h e s e c r i t i c s a r e h e a v i l y p r e -j u d i c e d by t h e v a l u e s o f t h e i r own c u l t u r e ; when S h i g a ' s works a r e v i e w e d t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f a s y m p a t h e t i c n a t i v e c r i t i c s u c h as K o b a y a s h i H i d e o , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e y seem a c u l m i n a t i o n o f a l l t h a t i s f i n e s t i n t h e J a p a n e s e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . On t h e l e v e l o f theme, I p o i n t o u t t h a t we c a n a l r e a d y d i s c e r n i n S h i g a ' s e a r l i e s t s t o r y t h e o u t l i n e s o f a - 5 -p r o b l e m t h a t w i l l r e c u r t h r o u g h o u t h i s s h i - s h o s e t s u w r i t t e n o v e r t h e n e x t t h i r t y y e a r s : how i s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t t o r e -s o l v e t h e t e n s i o n between t h e demands o f h i s own f i e r c e l y i n d e p e n d e n t ego and h i s l o n g i n g f o r p e a c e o f m i n d and com-munion w i t h o t h e r s ? The d e f i n i t i v e s o l u t i o n t o t h i s p r o b l e m f i n a l l y comes, as we s h a l l s e e , w i t h t h e c l i m a c t i c s c e n e o f h i s magnum op u s , p u b l i s h e d a l m o s t t h i r t y y e a r s a f t e r " A r u A s a " . I n C h a p t e r 2 I d e a l w i t h a more ma t u r e example o f S h i g a ' s a r t , a work t h a t i s , i n f a c t , one o f t h e most c e l e b r a t e d o f h i s s h o r t s t o r i e s : " K i n o s a k i n i t e " ffy o> \? \ (At K i n o s a k i , 1 9 1 7 ) . Here t h e S h i g a p r o t a g o n i s t r e c e i v e s a f a r more p r o f o u n d s h o c k t o h i s s e n s e o f s e l f t h a n i n t h e e a r l i e r s t o r y — a n e a r - f a t a l a c c i d e n t - - b u t a l s o he a l r e a d y s e n s e s t h e d i r e c t i o n he must t r a v e l t o a c h i e v e h i s u l t i m a t e l i b e r a t i o n : t o w a r d s s e l f - s u r r e n d e r and u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e . I n o r d e r t o d e f i n e more c l e a r l y t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e w o r l d l i t e r a t u r e , I a l s o compare t h i s S h i g a s t o r y w i t h a s h o r t s t o r y by a g r e a t m a s t e r , o f t h e g e n r e as i t has b e en p r a c t i s e d t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n t h e West, L e o T o l s t o y . I t i s a f o r t u n a t e c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t t h e T o l s t o y s t o r y , " T h r e e D e a t h s " , has a s i m i l a r o v e r a l l c o n c e p t and s t r u c t u r e t o " K i n o s a k i n i t e " , t h o u g h , as we s h a l l s e e , i t a l s o p r e s e n t s some i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s o f c o n t r a s t . C h a p t e r 3 d e a l s w i t h a n o t h e r o f S h i g a ' s b e s t - k n o w n s t o r i e s , " T a k i b i " ^ ( B o n f i r e , 1 9 20). I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e two e a r l i e r s t o r i e s , t h e mood o f t h i s work i s c l o s e t o i d y l l i c as - 6 -t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i s shown l e a d i n g a q u i e t l i f e i n t h e m o u n t a i n s , e n j o y i n g a p l e a s a n t communion w i t h b o t h man and n a t u r e . Where-as i n C h a p t e r 2 I u s e a T o l s t o y s t o r y t o show how t h e t r a d i -t i o n a l W e s t e r n f o r m o f t h i s g e n r e d i f f e r e d f r o m S h i g a ' s s h i -s h o s e t s u , i n t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r I u s e a Hemingway s t o r y , " B i g T w o - H e a r t e d R i v e r " , t o show t h a t t h e r e a r e some c l o s e p a r a l l e l s t o S h i g a ' s p r a c t i s e i n t h e more r e c e n t West. I a l s o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h i s a p p a r e n t a f f i n i t y i s by no means e n t i r e l y c o i n c i d e n t a l , i n v i e w o f t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e J a p a n e s e i n f l u e n c e on t h e W e s t e r n " I m a g i s t " p o e t s , who i n t u r n i n f l u e n c e d s u c h f i c t i o n w r i t e r s as Hemingway. I n Chapter 4 t h e two l e v e l s o f my d i s c u s s i o n may be s e e n t o be b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f A n 'ya K o r o , a work I r e g a r d as t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f S h i g a ' s a r t ' on b o t h a t h e m a t i c and a t e c h n i c a l l e v e l . I t i s i n t h i s work, as I hope t o show, t h a t S h i g a h i m s e l f comes t o g r i p s w i t h t h e e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u , i n c l u d i n g t h e f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y d i a l e c t i c t h a t i s t h e c r u c i a l p r o b l e m a t i t s c o r e , and ife i s h e r e a l s o t h a t he r e l a t e s t h i s " t e c h n i c a l " i s s u e w i t h t h e t h e m a t i c i s s u e I have s e e n as c e n t r a l t o h i s work up t o t h i s p o i n t : t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s l o n g i n g f o r s p i r i t u a l l i b e r a t i o n . I n A n 'ya  K o r o , i n o t h e r words, t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e man and thaaproblem o f t h e w r i t e r come t o be s e e n as u l t i m a t e l y t h e same p r o b l e m , and i n a way t h a t c o u l d o b t a i n o n l y when t h e man i s a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u . I c o n c l u d e my d i s c u s s i o n w i t h a summation o f what, i n my v i e w , S h i g a has t o o f f e r t o t h e W e s t e r n r e a d e r , as w e l l as an a p p r a i s a l o f what I c o n s i d e r t o be t h e i m p r o v e d - 7 -c l i m a t e f o r t h e r e c e p t i o n o f h i s work i n t h e West. S h i g a Naoya was b o r n i n 1883 a t t h e v i l l a g e o f I s h i m a k i i n M i y a g i P r e f e c t u r e on t h e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t o f J a p a n , where h i s f a t h e r was p o s t e d a s a n employee o f t h e D a i - i c h i Bank. The f a t h e r , however, was an a m b i t i o u s and s u c c e s s f u l b u s i n e s s -man, a g r a d u a t e o f t h e new K e i o U n i v e r s i t y , and b e f o r e l o n g he r e t u r n e d t o To k y o , q u i t h i s j o b a t t h e bank and s e t o u t t o make a name f o r h i m s e l f i n t h e w o r l d o f h i g h f i n a n c e . E v e n t u a l l y he became t h e d i r e c t o r o f b o t h a r a i l w a y and an i n s u r a n c e company. S i n c e i t was a l s o t h e c a s e t h a t t h e S h i g a s had b e e n f o r g e n e r a t i o n s l e a d i n g s a m u r a i r e t a i n e r s o f t h e Soma c l a n , i t may w e l l be s a i d t h a t Naoya was b o r n i n t o a "good" f a m i l y , b o t h i n terms o f w e a l t h and o f s o c i a l s t a t u s . T h i s i s , i n d e e d , t h e most c r u c i a l f a c t a b o u t h i s e a r l y b i o g r a p h y , s i n c e i t e n a b l e d h i m t o a t t e n d t h e G a k u s h u i n o r " p e e r s ' S c h o o l " , where he f i r s t came i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r w r i t e r s o f t h e S h i r a k a b a g r o u p , and, more i m p o r t a n t l y , s i n c e i t e n a b l e d him, t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e s t o f h i s l i f e , t o c o n c e n t r a t e e x c l u s i v e l y on h i s w r i t i n g , t u r n i n g o u t works a t a l e i s u r e l y p a c e w i t h o u t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f making a l i v i n g . A l t h o u g h S h i g a a t t e n d e d one o f t h e b e s t s c h o o l s and, l a t e r , t h e b e s t u n i v e r s i t y i n t h e c o u n t r y , he was n o t a p a r -t i c u l a r l y good s t u d e n t . I n f a c t , he had t o r e p e a t two y e a r s a t G a k u s h u i n and he d r o p p e d o u t o f Tokyo I m p e r i a l U n i v e r s i t y b e f o r e c o m p l e t i n g h i s c o u r s e o f s t u d i e s ( i n E n g l i s h - 8 -l i t e r a t u r e ) . T h i s i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n v i e w o f h i s l a t e r r e p u -t a t i o n as a " p r i m i t i v e " , a man who v a l u e d i n s t i n c t a n d e m o t i o n above i n t e l l e c t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t was a t s c h o o l , as I have m e n t i o n e d , t h a t S h i g a came i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h s e v e r a l o t h e r young men who had l i t e r a r y a m b i t i o n s , most i m p o r t a n t l y M u s h a n o k o j i S a n e a t s u , who w o u l d be S h i g a ' s c l o s e s t f r i e n d and s u p p o r t e r f o r t h e r e s t o f h i s l i f e . When t h i s g r o u p o f young men had a d v a n c e d t o g e t h e r t o Tokyo U n i v e r s i t y , t h e y p u b l i s h e d a l i t e r a r y m a g a z i n e c a l l e d S h i r a k a b a <%^> (White B i r g h ) . The m a g a z i n e , w h i c h r e m a i n e d i n c i r c u l a t i o n f r o m 1910 t o 1923, n o t o n l y p u b l i s h e d works by members o f t h e g r o u p i t s e l f b u t a l s o a t t e m p t e d t o i n t r o d u c e c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e and a r t t o J a p a n e s e r e a d e r s . By s e r v i n g b o t h o f t h e s e f u n c -t i o n s i t became a c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r -t a n c e i n T a i s h o J a p a n . A t any r a t e , t h i s was t h e v e h i c l e t h r o u g h w h i c h S h i g a ' s s t o r i e s f i r s t became w i d e l y known. S t i l l , one must be wary o f any f a c i l e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s o f him as a member o f t h e " S h i r a k a b a g r o u p " . The impoajtance o f t h e g r o u p t o S h i g a l a y f a r more i n t h e f r i e n d s h i p and s u p p o r t i t p r o -v i d e d t h a n i n any d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f i t s l i t e r a r y t h e o r i e s on h i s work. As I hope t o show, S h i g a t h e w r i t e r was v e r y much h i s own man. T h e r e i s one o t h e r f a c t w h i c h must be m e n t i o n e d a b o u t S h i g a ' s marly b i o g r a p h y : h i s s t o r m y r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s f a t h e r . N e e d l e s s t o s a y , as a h a r d - h e a d e d b u s i n e s s m a n t h e - 9 -f a t h e r was none t o o p l e a s e d w i t h h i s son's c h o i c e o f v o c a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e i t meant t h a t he w o u l d r e m a i n f i n a n c i a l l y d e p e n d e n t on h i s f a t h e r f o r much o f h i s l i f e . T h e r e were o t h e r s o u r c e s o f i r r i t a t i o n : Naoya's p r o t e s t s o v e r t h e p o l l u -t i o n c a u s e d by a c o p p e r mine h i s f a m i l y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ; h i s a f f a i r w i t h one o f t h e f a m i l y m a i d s and h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o m a r r y h e r ; and, f i n a l l y , h i s m a r r i a g e i n 1914 w i t h o u t h i s . f a t h e r ' s c o n s e n t t o a c o u s i n o f M u s h a n o k o j i . D u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1913 t o 1915, however, S h i g a ' s s t a t e o f mind u n d e r w e n t a s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e , a change r e l f e c t e d , as we s h a l l s e e , i n h i s s t o r i e s " K i n o s a k i n i t e " and " T a k i b i " . H i s c l o s e b r u s h w i t h d e a t h on t h e one hand (he was h i t by a s t r e e t c a r i n Tokyo i n t h e summer o f 1913) and h i s i n c r e a s i n g s e n s e o f u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e on t h e o t h e r ( i n 1915 he went w i t h h i s new b r i d e t o l i v e amid t h e b e a u t i f u l m o u n t a i n s c e n e r y o f A k a g i i n C e n t r a l J a p a n) c h a n g e d h i s a t t i t u d e o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n and s e l f -a s s e r t i o n i n t o one o f l o n g i n g f o r harmony and p e a c e o f mind. W i t h t h i s new a t t i t u d e he was soon a b l e t o e f f e c t a r e c o n -c i l i a t i o n w i t h h i s f a t h e r , an e v e n t w h i c h i s m o v i n g l y d e s c r i b e d i n one o f h i s most c e l e b r a t e d s h i - s h o s e t s u Wakai jfo ^ ( R e c o n c i l i a t i o n , 1 9 17). W i t h t h i s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n t h e p r i n -c i p a l drama o f S h i g a ' s l i f e came t o an e n d , and he was a b l e t o s p e n d t h e r e s t o f h i s d a y s ( u n t i l h i s d e a t h a t t h e age o f e i g h t y - e i g h t i n 1971) i n t h e q u i e t e n j o y m e n t o f h i s f a m i l y , o f t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e and o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l F a r E a s t e r n a r t s . - 10 -W i t h t i m e , i n f a c t , S h i g a became an a l m o s t a r c h e t y p a l f i g u r e on t h e J a p a n e s e c u l t u r a l s c e n e , s e e m i n g more and more l i k e t h e r e i n c a r n a t i o n o f some e n l i g h t e n e d sage o f o l d . B u t , as a w r i t e ^ , one f i n a l g r e a t s t r u g g l e a w a i t e d h i m a f t e r h i s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h h i s f a t h e r : he had s t i l l t o f i n i s h h i s magnum o p u s , An'ya K o r o . T h i s was a l o n g and t o r t u o u s p r o c e s s : t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e n o v e l was p u b l i s h e d i n 1921, and i t was n o t u n t i l 1937 t h a t t h e l a s t i n s t a l m e n t a p p e a r e d , a f u l l t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s a f t e r t h e work was begun. A f t e r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s one g r e a t n o v e l S h i g a w r o t e l i t t l e o f any c o n s e q u e n c e , t h o u g h he l i v e d a n o t h e r t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s . T h i s f a c t a l o n e seems t o t e l l us much a b o u t t h e s p e c i a l r e -l a t i o n s h i p between a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u and h i s work. H a v i n g p o u r e d a l l o f t h e agony and t h e h a r d - e a r n e d wisdom o f h i s l i f e i n t o t h i s one work, i t seems t h a t S h i g a now f e l t he had b e s t m a i n t a i n a d i g n i f i e d s i l e n c e . - 11 -Chapter I Shiga Naoya may be regarded as f i r s t and foremost a shortstory writer. This i s not to deny the importance of his one novel, An'ya Koro (A Dark Night's Passing), upon which much of his high reputation i n Japan rests. Nor i s i t to deny the wide appeal of his most famous novella, Wakai (Reconciliation), that watakushishosetsu par excel-lence which has moved c r i t i c s to such effusive heights (or depths) i n describing i t s emotional impact. But the £act remains that Shiga was far more p r o l i f i c as a short-story writer than as a n o v e l i s t and, more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , that short stories such as "Takibi" ("Bonfire") and "Kinosaki nite'i ("At Kinosaki") seem to embody, to a greater extent thati any of his other works, those q u a l i t i e s that most c r i t i c s , I think, would regard as "quintessentially Shiga". Furthermore, even his great novel i s rather episodic i n character, so that despite i t s considerable length, i t has been regarded by more than one c r i t i c , as we s h a l l see, as more a series of loosely related short stories than a t i g h t l y structured novel(and, indeed, i t was o r i g i n a l l y planned as such 1"). One might add that Shiga took the major part of his working l i f e (about twenty-five years) to write his one novel. Needless to say, t h i s seems to imply that novel-writing did not come easy to him. - 12 -A l t h o u g h S h i g a w r o t e some s i x t y odd s h o r t s t o r i e s , t h e p r o b l e m o f w h i c h t o s i n g l e o u t as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i s n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y v e x i n g one. What S h i g a i s renowned f o r , above a l l , i s h i s s t y l e (and, as we s h a l l s e e , he h i m s e l f c o n s i d e r e d s t y l e t o be t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e o f t h e w r i t e r ' s a r t ) b u t , u n l i k e h i s most famous c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , T a n i z a k e and Akutagawa, he d i d n o t p o s s e s s a f a c i l e command o f a v a r i e t y o f s t y l e s . T h i s a l r e a d y t e l l s us much a b o u t t h e k i n d o f w r i t e r he was. I n h i s c a s e i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e " s t y l e i s t h e man". S h i g a ' s own v i e w , w h i c h we s h a l l e x p l o r e i n more d e p t h l a t e r , was t h a t a w r i t e r ' s s t y l e a r o s e s p o n t a n e o u s l y f r o m t h e d e p t h s o f h i s b e i n g ; i t was t h e man's own b a s i c "rhythm" t h a t , i n t h e c a s e o f a g r e a t w r i t e r , communicated i t s e l f f o r c e f u l l y t o t h e r e a d e r t h r o u g h t h e w r i t t e n word. B e c a u s e s t y l e , t h e n , was s u c h a d e e p l y p e r s o n a l t h i n g , i t c o u l d n o t be c h a n g e d a t w i l l l i k e a s u i t o f c l o t h e s . I n k e e p i n g w i t h t h i s v i e w , S h i g a l e f t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c stamp on e v e r y t h i n g he w r o t e . T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t a l l h i s works a r e m a s t e r p i e c e s , b u t t h e y do a l l m a n i f e s t , t o some e x t e n t , t h e u n m i s t a k e a b l e " S h i g a s t y l e " . As a r e s u l t , a l m o s t any o f them w o u l d s e r v e t o r e p r e s e n t t h i s p r i m a r y a s p e c t o f h i s a r t . As f o r c o n t e n t , t h e s t o r i e s may be d i v i d e d i n t o two b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s : t h o s e t h a t a r e : m o r e o r l e s s " a u t o b i o -g r a p h i c a l " ( t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u ) , c o m p r i s i n g by f a r t h e m a j o r i t y , and t h o s e t h a t a r e more i n v e n t e d o r " f i c t i o n a l " . W i t h t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , t h e r e a l r e a d y a p p e a r s t h e f i c t i o n / n o n -f i c t i o n o r f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y d i a l e c t i c w h i c h w i l l be a recurs? - 13 -r i n g theme i n my s t u d y o f S h i g a . B u t I w i s h t o say immed-i a t e l y t h a t t h e r e i s no v a l u e - j u d g m e n t i m p l i e d h e r e . I t seems t o me t h a t F r a n c i s Mathy, f o r i n s t a n c e , cbnly b e t r a y s h i s W e s t e r n p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t what c o n s t i t u t e s "good l i t e r a t u r e " by h i s r a n k i n g o f t h e " f i c t i o n a l " s t o r i e s above t h e "auto-2 b i o g r a p h i c a l " . I n h i s book, t h e f i r s t f u l l - l e n g t h s t u d y o f S h i g a i n E n g l i s h , Mathy g i v e s " s t a r c o v e r a g e " t o t h e f i c t i o n a l s t o r i e s i n a c h a p t e r c a l l e d "A G o l d e n Ten" and l a m e n t s t h a t S h i g a was u n a b l e t o w r i t e more b e c a u s e he was "hampered by an 3 i m p o s s i b l e t h e o r y o f p r o s e f i c t i o n " , i . e . , he g e n e r a l l y p r e -f e r r e d t o w r i t e i n " s u c h a d e f e c t i v e g e n r e as t h e a u t o b i o -4 g r a p h i c a l n o v e l " . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t seems t o me t h a t by o v e r -e m p h a s i z i n g t h e f i c t i o n a l s t o r i e s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e a u t o -b i o g r a p h i c a l , Mathy d i s t o r t s o u r v i e w o f S h i g a ' s a c h i e v e m e n t as a w r i t e r , s i n c e t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f h i s s t o r i e s a r e s h i - s h o s e t s u and s i n c e he i s known i n J a p a n m a i n l y as t h e m a s t e r o f t h i s g e n r e (and i t i s as s u c h t h a t he has e x e r c i s e d h i s enormous i n f l u e n c e on modern J a p a n e s e l i t e r a t u r e ) . A t any r a t e , i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y I have t r i e d t o a t t a i n a more a p p r o p r i a t e b a l a n c e by d e a l i n g a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h w i t h t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l t h a n w i t h t h e f i c t i o n a l s t o r i e s . As I have s a i d , t h e r e i s a r e m a r k a b l e u n i t y t o S h i g a ' s e n t i r e o p u s . E v e n i n h i s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s t o r y , " A r u A s a " ("One M o r n i n g " - 1908) , t h e r e a l r e a d y a p p e a r many o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f h i s s t y l e and c o n t e n t . I n f a c t , i t w o u l d be o n l y a s l i g h t e x a g g e r a t i o n t o say t h a t t h i s f i v e page p r o d u c t o f S h i g a ' s e a r l y manhood a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s t h e g r e a t e r p o r t i o n o f h i s l a t e r work i n m i c r o c o s m . " A r u A s a " i s t h e s i m p l e s t o r y o f a young man, S h i n t a r o , who has t r o u b l e g e t t i n g o u t o f bed one m o r n i n g . T h e - n i g h t b e f o r e he had p e r s i s t e d i n r e a d i n g a n o v e l u n t i l v e r y l a t e , d e s p i t e t h e p r o t e s t a t i o n s o f h i s g r a n d m o t h e r , who i s s h a r i n g t h e same bedroom. She had warned him t h a t a B u d d h i s t p r i e s t w o u l d be coming e a r l y t h e n e x t m o r n i n g t o c e l e b r a t e a mem-o r i a l s e r v i c e f o r h i s dead g r a n d f a t h e r , and t h a t t h e y would have t o r i s e l o n g b e f o r e t h e p r i e s t a r r i v e d t o g e t e v e r y t h i n g r e a d y . B u t S h i n t a r o had c o n t i n u e d r e a d i n g u n t i l t h e e a r l y h o u r s o f t h e m o r n i n g . Now, whenever h i s g r a n d m o t h e r comes t o g e t him up, he f a l l s b a c k t o s l e e p a g a i n . She grows i n -c r e a s i n g l y i r r i t a t e d , u n t i l f i n a l l y she i s n o t p o l i t e l y r e q u e s t i n g b u t s t e r n l y commanding h i m t o g e t up, and t o be q u i c k a b o u t i t . T h i s i n t u r n b r i n g s o u t t h e r e b e l i n S h i n t a r o , who d e f i a n t l y t e l l s h e r t h a t a l l h e r p e s t e r i n g has o n l y made i t more d i f f i c u l t f o r h i m t o g e t up. C a l l i n g h i m a " d e v i l " , h i s g r a n d m o t h e r s t a l k s a n g r i l y o u t o f t h e room. E v e n t h o u g h he i s no l o n g e r r e a l l y s l e e p y , S h i n t a r o ' s s t u b b o r n p r i d e now p r e v e n t s h i m f r o m g e t t i n g up. When h i s g r a n d m o t h e r r e t u r n s once more, she t r i e s a b i t o f " p s y c h o l o g y " on him: she b e g i n s f o l d i n g up h e r own hea v y m a t t r e s s and q u i l t s , e v e n t h o u g h , a t s e v e n t y - t h r e e , she s h o u l d n o t be p u t t i n g h e r s e l f t o s u c h a s t r a i n . B u t t h e c l e v e r S h i n t a r o s e e s t h r o u g h h e r s t r a t e g y and s t i l l r e f u s e s t o budge. F i n a l l y , h i s g r a n d m o t h e r becomes a n g r y and a c c u s e s him o f h a v i n g no s e n s e o f " f i l i a l d u t y " . " I f f i l i a l d u t y means b e i n g a t t h e beck and c a l l o f an o l d l a d y " , S h i n t a r o answers 5 r a t h e r s p i t e f u l l y , " t h e n I want no p a r t o f i t . " H i s g r a n d -mother r u s h e s o u t i n t e a r s . Now t h a t he has e n j o y e d t h i s c a t h a r t i c r e l e a s e o f a n i -m o s i t y , S h i n t a r o f i n a l l y f e e l s i n t h e mood t o g e t up. B u t he s t i l l has n o t e x h a u s t e d a l l h i s r e s e n t m e n t . W h i l e g e t t i n g d r e s s e d , he e n t e r t a i n s a n o t h e r s p i t e f u l t h o u g h t : p e r h a p s he w i l l go s k a t i n g t h e n e x t day on a l a k e where t h r e e s t u d e n t s drowned r e c e n t l y — s u r e l y t h i s w i l l make h i s g r a n d m o t h e r w o r r y a b o u t him. H i s g r a n d m o t h e r now e n t e r s t h e room a g a i n . R e l i e v e d t h a t S h i n t a r o i s now up, she t r i e s t o make p e a c e w i t h him by a s k i n g h i s a d v i c e a b o u t w h i c h w r i t i n g b r u s h e s t o o f f e r t o t h e p r i e s t when he comes. She m e e k l y o b e y s when he o r d e r s h e r t o p u t two b r u s h e s b a c k as n o t s u i t a b l e . W i t h t h i s f u r t h e r s a l v e t o h i s ego, S h i n t a r o i s t h o r o u g h l y a p p e a s e d . L e f t a l o n g a g a i n , he s u d d e n l y fee?ls l i k e l a u g h i n g . He c a n c e l s t h e i d e a o f t h e s k a t i n g t r i p and b e g i n s t o f o l d up h i s b e d d i n g n e a t l y and p u t i t away. Now c o m p l e t e l y " r e c o n c i l e d " , he e v e n f o l d s up h i s g r a n d m o t h e r ' s b e g d i n g . W h i l e d o i n g s o , t h o u g h , he i s s u d d e n l y overcome, " i n t h e m i d s t o f l a u g h t e r " , by an u n c o n t r o l l a b l e u r g e t o c r y . The t e a r s s t r e a m down h i s c h e e k s so many t h a t "he c o u l d no l o n g e r s ee a n y t h i n g " . B u t when f i n a l l y t h e t e a r s s t o p , he f e e l s " r e f r e s h e d , p u r i f i e d " . I n t h e f i n a l s c e n e o f t h e s t o r y , S h i n t a r o goes t o h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r and s i s t e r s i n t h e n e x t room, where he j o i n s i n t h e i r p l a y f u l j o k i n g . The s t o r y t h u s ends on an a p p r o -p r i a t e l y l i g h t n o t e , s i g n i f y i n g S h i n t a r o 1 s e u p h o r i a n o t j u s t a t h a v i n g b een p u r g e d o f some n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n s b u t , more i m p o r t a n t l y , a t b e i n g a b l e t o r e j o i n t h e c o m f o r t a b l e f a m i l y 7 c i r c l e , t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t J a p a n e s e r e a l m o f amae. A l t h o u g h t h e s t y l e i n w h i c h "Aru A s a " i s w r i t t e n i s n o t q u i t e y e t t h e m a t u r e " S h i g a s t y l e " , we a l r e a d y c an d i s c e r n h e r e someof i t s m a j o r f e a t u r e s . G e n e r a l l y , t h e r e i s a k i n d o f s t r o n g , a u t h o r i t a t i v e t o n e t o t h e w r i t i n g w h i c h comes, no d o u b t , . f r o m t h e a l m o s t s t a c c a t o r h y t h m : s h o r t , c l i p p e d s e n -t e n c e s i n w h i c h no words a r e w a s t e d and f a c t s a r e s t a t e d s i m p l y and c l e a r l y . One i s g i v e n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e words have been c h o s e n w i t h e x t r e m e c a r e , and t h e s e words a r e gen-e r a l l y o f a s i m p l e , b a s i c k i n d . T h e r e i s a v e r y s p a r s e u s e o f a d j e c t i v e s ; t h e l a n g u a g e i s n o t i n any way " d e c o r a t i v e " b u t r a t h e r e c o n o m i c a l , e f f i c i e n t . I t i s , as T a n i z a k i — 8 J u n i c h i r o has p o i n t e d o u t , an e s s e n t i a l l y " m a s c u l i n e " s t y l e (and T a n i z a k i c o n t r a s t s i t w i t h t h e " f e m i n i n e " s t y l e t h a t d e s c e n d s f r o m Lady M u r a s a k i and f i n d s i t s p r i n c i p a l modern e x p r e s s i o n i n h i s own w o r k s ) . I f we were t o lchok f o r i t s - 17 -e q u i v a l e n t i n E n g l i s h , p e r h a p s t h e c l o s e s t w o u l d be t h e e q u a l l y c e l e b r a t e d "Hemingway s t y l e " -- and t h e r e a r e , i n f a c t , some r e m a r k a b l e s i m i l a r i t i e s between t h e s t y l e s o f t h e s e two w r i t e r s , e v e n i n s u c h d e t a i l s a s t h e i r c h o i c e o f wo r d s . ^ S h i g a i s renowned above a l l f o r ' . h i s s t y l e ( i t i s u s e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , as a model o f i d e a l J a p a n e s e p r o s e i n s c h o o l s a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y ) and s t y l e , a s I have s a i d , o c c u p i e s an a l l - i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n i n h i s own v i e w o f l i t e r a t u r e . I n a s i g n i f i c a n t e s s a y he w r o t e on t h e s u b j e c t , w h i c h m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d a p e r s o n a l m a n i f e s t o o f h i s "way" a s a w r i t e r (I mean "way" i n t h e J a p a n e s e s e n s e o f do o r m i c h i , f o r i t be-comes a p p a r e n t t h a t w r i t i n g was as much a s p i r i t u a l d i s c i -p l i n e t o him as an a r t ) , S h i g a u s e s t h e E n g l i s h word "rhythm" t o d e s c r i b e t h a t q u a l i t y w h i c h he c o n s i d e r s t o be t h e q u i n -t e s s e n c e o f good w r i t i n g . T h i s i s n o t m e r e l y a m a t t e r o f t h e s k i l l f u l a r r a n g e m e n t o f words — i t i s , one m i g h t s a y , s o m e t h i n g communicated a l m o s t "between t h e words", a k i n d o f " r e v e r b e r a t i o n " f r o m t h e a u t h o r ' s "mind and s p i r i t " -- some-what a k i n , i t seems, t o t h e S h a v i a n c o n c e p t o f " l i f e - f o r c e " . Of n e c e s s i t y , t h e n , t h e a u t h o r must be n o t j u s t a t a l e n t e d a r t i s t b u t a l s o a h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d human b e i n g . (Perhaps t h i s v i e w d o e s much t o e x p l a i n t h e " b i o g r a p h i c a l f i x a t i o n " o f many J a p a n e s e S h i g a c r i t i c s — he was h i m s e l f , by a l l a c c o u n t s , an i m p r e s s i v e , a l m o s t c h a r i s m a t i c p e r s o n ) . A c c o r d -i n g t o S h i g a : "One c a n a l w a y s t e l l f r o m o n e ' s own r e a c t i o n - 18 -on r e a d i n g a s t o r y how s t r o n g l y (or f e e b l y ) t h e a u t h o r ' s s e n s i -b i l i t y has p u l s a t e d w i t h t h i s r h y t h m w h i l e he w r o t e . A n d t h e medium u s e d i s a l m o s t i r r e l e v a n t , s i n c e t h e r h y t h m i s a l w a y s b a s i c a l l y t h e same: " A l l e n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e works o f s u p e r i o r men, w h e t h e r t h e i r d e e d s , t h e i r p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o r t h e i r w r i t i n g s , g i v e s us r e a l p l e a s u r e . . . G o o d words, good p a i n t i n g s , g o od books — a l l good works have t h i s e f f e c t upon us.""*" 1 The t r u e p l e a s u r e o f r e a d i n g , t h e n , i s t h e p l e a s u r e o f a k i n d o f s p i r i t u a l communion w i t h g r e a t men: "Our e y e s a r e o pened t o w h a t e v e r q u a l i t i e s h i d d e n w i t h i n o u r s e l v e s we m i g h t 12 s h a r e w i t h them. Our mind and s p i r i t grow t a u t . . . " T h i s " q u a s i - m y s t i c a l " v i e w o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e i s a l s o h i g h l y r e l e v a n t t o what i s p r o b a b l y t h e most r e c u r r e n t theme o f S h i g a ' s works and a theme w h i c h , as we have s e e n , " i s a l -r e a d y adumbrated i n " A r u A s a " : t h e h e r o ' s s t r u g g l e t o overcome a l l s e n s e o f a l i e n a t i o n by a c h i e v i n g t o t a l communion w i t h h i s f e l l o w man, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h o t h e r members o f h i s f a m i l y , and w i t h n a t u r e a t l a r g e . W i t h h i s c o n c r e t e s e n s e o f "rhythm" as a k i n d o f n a t u r a l f o r c e t h a t c o u l d be t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m man t o man, S h i g a o b v i o u s l y saw l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f as a v e r y p r a c t i c a l means f o r a c h i e v i n g t h i s communion. F u r t h e r m o r e , a c c o r d i n g t o S h i g a "rhythm" t r a n s c e n d s b o t h f o r m and c o n t e n t i n a work o f l i t e r a t u r e . He makes t h i s c l e a r i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f I h a r a S a i k a k u , t h e w r i t e r he a d m i r e d more t h a n any o t h e r o f t h e J a p a n e s e t r a d i t i o n : " S a i k a k u ' s Ogeba and Oridome a r e w r i t t e n w i t h a c o o l , c l e a n d e t a c h m e n t and a s t r o n g r h y t h m . T h e i r s u b j e c t s a r e v a r i o u s t r i v i a l o c c u r r e n c e s i n t h e ' f l o a t i n g w o r l d ' ; and y e t t h e y have t h a t e f f e c t upon t h e r e a d e r w h i c h I m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e : a t i g h t e n i n g up o f o n e ' s 13 mind and s p i r i t . " Thus a w r i t e r i s a b l e t o make g r e a t a r t e v e n o u t o f " t r i v i a l " s u b j e c t m a t t e r , p r o v i d i n g he commands a m a s t e r f u l s t y l e . A p p a r e n t l y , F r a n c i s Mathy does n o t see e y e - t o - e y e w i t h S h i g a on t h i s p o i n t . He f i n d s t h e s t y l e o f " A r u A s a " t o be " s p l e n d i d " b u t d o e s n o t f e e l t h a t t h i s s u f f i c i e n t l y c o m p e n s a t e s 14 f o r t h e " t r i v i a l i t y " o f i t s c o n t e n t s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , he i s i r r i t a t e d by t h e "Immature s e l f - c e n t e r e d n e s s " o f t h e h e r o , who i s " n o t a l i t t l e boy, as h i s a c t i o n s and words w o u l d seem t o 15 x n d x c a t e , b u t a grown man o f t w e n t y - f i v e " . S u r e l y t h i s i s t o o much l i k e a r g u i n g "ad hominem" — one d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y have t o m a r a l l y a p p r o v e o f t h e h e r o ' s b e h a v i o u r t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e s t o r y as a s t o r y . I f t h i s were n o t s o , i t w o u l d be im-p o s s i b l e f o r t h e " c o s m o p o l i t a n " r e a d e r t o f r e e l y e n j o y t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f c u l t u r e s w i t h v a l u e s v e r y d i f f e r e n t f o h i s own -- and t h e r e w o u l d be no s u c h d i s c i p l i n e as " c o m p a r a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e " . I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e , f o r i n s t a n c e , i t may seem i m p l a u s i b l e o r e v e n r e p r e h e n s i b l e t o t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n r e a d e r t h a t a t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r - o l d man s h o u l d a c t so " c h i l d -i s h l y " t o w a r d s h i s g r a n d m o t h e r b u t , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f M e i j i J a p a n , where f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s were o p p r e s s i v e l y c l o s e and where young men l i v e d a t home u n t i l m a r r i e d , S h i n t a r o ' s be-h a v i o u r i s n o t t o be wondered a t . - 20 -B u t t h e r e i s a l a r g e r i s s u e a t s t a k e h e r e . I t seems t o me, i n f a c t , t h a t Mathy m i s s e s t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f S h i g a ' s a c h i e v e m e n t . Here i s a w r i t e r who has t a k e n t h e s m a l l , seem-i n g l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e and t u r n e d them i n t o l i t e r a r y a r t o f a h i g h o r d e r . T r i v i a l i t y , a f t e r a l l , i s , l i k e b e a u t y , v e r y much i n t h e eye o f t h e b e h o l d e r . E v e r s i n c e Van Gogh d i d a s p l e n d i d p a i n t i n g o f a p a i r o f o l d s h o e s , modern a r t has t a u g h t us t h i s i f n o t h i n g e l s e . The p o i n t i s t h a t o n c e S h i g a has t u r n e d a " t r i v i a l " i n c i d e n t i n t o a s h o r t s t o r y , i t no l o n g e r seems t r i v i a l . L i k e t h e f a b l e d K i n g M i d a s , S h i g a has t h e g o l d e n t o u c h . B u t one must n o t be m i s l e d by a u t h o r i a l p r o n o u n c e m e n t s -- he a c c o m p l i s h e s h i s m i r a c l e s o f a lchemy n o t o n l y by t h e f o r c e o f h i s s t y l e o r "rhythm". He a l s o p o s s e s s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e powers o f i n s i g h t i n t o t h e human p s y c h e , and t h i s e n a b l e s him t o show us t h e d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e s a t work b e n e a t h t h e c a l m , s e e m i n g l y u n e v e n t f u l s u r f a c e o f e v e r y -day l i f e . On c l o s e r v i e w , t h e n , " A r u A s a " d o e s n o t seem so " t r i v i a l " a f t e r a l l . As I have a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , o n e o o f S h i g a ' s m a j o r themes i s p r e f i g u r e d i n t h i s s h o r t work: s e e n f r o m a " s o c i a l " p e r s p e c t i v e , i t i s t h e c o n f l i c t between a man's needs as an i n d i v i d u a l and h i s needs as p a r t o f a s o c i a l g r o u p . The whole i s s u e o f " i n d i v i d u a l i s m " was v e r y much i n t h e a i r i n t h e l a t e M e i j i p e r i o d . I n d i s c u s s i n g Natsume S o s e k i ' s famous t a l k , W a t a k u s h i no K o j i n s h u g i (My I n d i v i d u a l i s m ) , J a y R u b i n n o t e s " t h e r e m a r k a b l e u p s u r g e i n i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e - 21 -16 R u s s o - J a p a n e s e War o f 1904-1905." I n t h e r e a l m o f l i t e r a -t u r e , " n a t u r a l i s t f i c t i o n , w i t h i t s e m p h a s i s o n t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , was g a i n i n g i n p o p u l a r i t y . " And S o s e k i t o o , b o t h i n h i s p u b l i c t a l k and i n h i s n o v e l s , was c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e " t e n s i o n between a p r o u d commitment t o modern, r a t i o n a l i s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m and t h e l o n g i n g f o r e m o t i o n a l s u b -18 mergence i n t h e g r o u p . " I n h i s t a l k , f o r i n s t a n c e , he c o n -t r a s t s h i s own i n d e p e n d e n t s t a n c e w i t h t h e " f e u d a l i s t i c " c l i q u i s h n e s s o f J a p a n e s e l i t e r a r y g r o u p s . B u t he a l s o a d m i t s 19 t o s u f f e r i n g t h e " l o n e l i n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m " . Such Meijii> - - 20 w r i t e r s a s S o s e k i and M o r i O g a i . Mo d o u b t saw " i n d i v i d -u a l i s m " a s an e s s e n t i a l i n g r e d i e n t o f t h e W e s t e r n c u l t u r e t h e y were so b u s i l y t r y i n g t o i m p o r t t o J a p a n . I n h i s i n s i s t e n c e on h i s own r i g h t s a s an i n d i v i d u a l , S h i g a t o o was c e r t a i n l y a p r o d u c t o f h i s t i m e . B u t , u n l i k e t h e o l d e r w r i t e r s , he d o e s n o t a p p r o a c h i n d i v i d u a l i s m as an i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o b l e m — he i s n o t c o n c e r n e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , w i t h how i t c o n f l i c t s w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l J a p a n e s e c u l t u r a l v a l u e s i n t h e a b s t r a c t ; r a t h e r i t i s f o r him a p e r s o n a l p r o b -lem t o be worked o u t i n h i s d a y - t o - d a y r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s f a m i l y . I t i s a m a t t e r o f h i s w i l l t o a c t a c c o r d i n g t o h i s own d e e p e s t i n s t i n c t s and f e e l i n g s , a s o p p o s e d t o h i s f a m i l y ' s w i l l t h a t he c o n f o r m t o t h e i r s t a n d a r d s o f b e h a v i o u r . (In t h e same way he r e j e c t e d t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n l e a d e r U c h i m u r a Kanzo n o t so much on i d e o l o g i c a l as on p e r s o n a l g r o u n d s — when t h e y t h r e a t e n e d t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h what he - 22 -considered to be the "natural^ free expression of his sexual 21 i n s t i n c t s . ). Thus Shiga did not suffer from any vague, quasi-metaphysical sense of al i e n a t i o n such as his more i n -t e l l e c t u a l contemporary, Akutagawa Ryunosuke, gave as his 22 reason for committing suicide; and, since he was not con-cerned with any "larger" p o l i t i c a l or philosophical issue, once he was completely "reconciled" with his family, he was able to spend the rest of his long l i f e i n a r e l a t i v e l y tran-q u i l state of mind (and, i r o n i c a l l y , waiting very l i t t l e ) . To those who would accuse Shiga of having too "narrow" a scope as a writer, one might quote some eloquent words of his greatest apologist, the "dean of Japanese c r i t i c s " , Kobayashi Hideo; "Empty thought can go anywhere, my own feet can tread only a small b i t of ground. We think of eternal l i f e , I must shortly die. I cannot have many friends, I can-not have many lovers. The things to which I can give assent from my very e n t r a i l s add up to but a t i n y sum, the people I can love and hate can number no more than the few immed-i a t e l y beside me. This i s the state of l i f e for me, and i t i s for everyone...The fact that the writer does not depart from his own l i f e means that he gives i t his assent, and i t 23 alone." The distinguished scholar Nakamura Hajime has de-voted a good part of a lengthy volume to demonstrating the 24 esse n t i a l "down-to-earthness" of the Japanese world-view, but i t i s doubtful whether anyone has expressed i t better than Kobayashi i n th i s b r i e f passage. Shiga himself has put - 23 -what we may r e g a r d as h i s " w r i t e r ' s c r e d o " e v e n more s u c c i n c t -l y : "A s u p e r f i c i a l e x p e r i e n c e o f r a r e and s e n s a t i o n a l e v e n t s i s o f l i t t l e v a l u e t o t h e w r i t e r . I t i s more i m p o r t a n t f o r 25 him t o e x p e r i e n c e e v e n s m a l l t h i n g s d e e p l y . " U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t seems t h a t f o r W e s t e r n r e a d e r s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a c c e p t S h i g a ' s " s m a l l t h i n g s " f o r what t h e y a r e . E v e n t h o s e more s y m p a t h e t i c t o h i s work t h a n Mathy a r e f o r e v e r t r y i n g t o make s o m e t h i n g o u t o f i t t h a t i t c l e a r l y i s n o t . Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r f o r i n s t a n c e , w o u l d have us s e e t h e t y p i c a l S h i g a s t o r y as a k i n d o f modern-day v e r s i o n o f t h e " u t a m o n o g a t a r i " o f t h e H e i a n p e r i o d , " p o e m - t a l e s " s u c h as t h e I s e M o n o g a t a r i i n w h i c h "a f i c t i o n a l o r n o n - f i c t i o n a l g r o u n d was p r o v i d e d f o r a s u c c e s s i o n o f l y r i c s . The g r o u n d i t s e l f was u s u a l l y f o r m l e s s and o f s l i g h t l i t e r a r y v a l u e . I t b u t s e r v e d t o s e t o f f t h e l y r i c s . . . S o i t i s w i t h S h i g a . The t r i v i a l i t y o f t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d i s t o be f o r -g i v e n t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t o f f e r s a s e t t i n g f o r t h e moments o f l y r i c a l a w a r e n e s s . The whole i s t o be j u d g e d as a u n i f i e d 2 6 work o f f i c t i o n no more t h a n i s an ' u t a m o n o g a t a r i ' . " W h i l e t h i s may be r e g a r d e d as a v a l i a n t a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t o f a s y m p a t h e t i c W e s t e r n c r i t i c t o r e s c u e S h i g a f r o m t h e c h a r g e o f " t r i v i a l i t y " , i t i s d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r , a t l e a s t i n t h e e y e s o f h i s J a p a n e s e a d m i r e r s , S h i g a i s i n need o f b e i n g r e s c u e d . T r i v i a l i t y , as I have s a i d , i s i n t h e eye o f t h e b e h o l d e r . And, i n d i s m i s s i n g S h i g a ' s ' t r i v i a l and a n n o y i n g r e m i n i s c e n c e " as m e r e l y t h e " p r o s y s e t t i n g " f o r a few "moments o f p o e t r y " , - 24 « i t seems t h a t S e i d e n s t i c k e r w o u l d throw o u t t h e baby w i t h t h e b a t h w a t e r -- t h e " a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d " i s , a f t e r a l l , t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e works. I t i s an a b s u r d n o t i o n anyway t h a t any a u t h o r w o u l d w r i t e l o n g s t r e t c h e s o f p r o s e m e r e l y t o s e t o f f a-few "moments o f p o e t r y " -- many o f S h i g a ' s s t o r i e s , i n f a c t , i n c l u d i n g "Arus A s a " have no s u c h d i s t i n -g u i s h a b l e " p o e t i c moments". I f S h i g a ' s i n t e n t i o n s h a d b een so s i n g l e - m i n d e d l y l y r i c a l , s u r e l y he w o u l d have w r i t t e n p o e t r y . T a k i n g q u i t e an o p p o s i t e t a c k i s W i l l i a m S i b l e y , who c a l l s on t h e " b i g i d e a s " o f F r e u d i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t o t r y t o make S h i g a ' s " s m a l l t h i n g s " seem l a r g e r t h a n t h e y a r e . To S i b l e y , f o r i n s t a n c e , " A r u A s a " i s n o t s i m p l y t h e s t o r y o f a w i l l f u l young man who i s r e l u c t a n t t o g e t o u t o f bed one m o r n i n g ( s u r e l y n o t an u n h e a r d - o f e a s e l ) ; t h e h e r o ' s i r r a s -c i b i l i t y t o w a r d s h i s g r a n d m o t h e r has d e e o l y O e d i p a l o r i g i n s t h a t c a n be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y i n t h e t o t a l c o n t e x t o f S h i g a ' s l i f e and work (and, o f c o u r s e , t h e l i f e and work o f Dr. F r e u d ) . S i b l e y c o n c e d e s t h a t , on i t s own, " A r u A s a " i s a " s l i g h t s t i o r y " t h a t " r e p r e s e n t s J a p a n e s e p e r s o n a l f i c t i o n ( s h i -27 s h o s e t s u ) a t i t s most l i m i t e d . " I n h i s v i e w , we c a n b e g i n 2 8 t o make s e n s e o f t h e " s e e m i n g l y p o i n t l e s s d e t a i l " o f t h i s s t o r y o n l y a f t e r we have s u b j e c t e d t h e " S h i g a Hero" as he a p p e a r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e a u t h o r ' s e n t i r e opus t o t h o r o u g h p s y c h o -a n a l y s i s . S i b l e y i s n o t t o o c l e a r on what we s h a l l d i s c o v e r t h e n , b u t i t seems t o have s o m e t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e h e r o ' s c r y i n g s p e l l . I t a p p e a r s t o me t h a t he g i v e s i n o r d i n a t e em-p h a s i s t o S h i n t a r o ' s t e a r s : " I s i t , we wonder, a sudden g r i e f f o r h i s dead g r a n d f a t h e r t h a t h as e l i c i t e d h i s t e a r s ? Remorse f o r h i s t r e a t m e n t o f h i s g r a n d m o t h e r ? Or p e r h a p s he has been u p s e t by a b r i e f r e f e r e n c e t o h i s f a t h e r w h i c h she makes a t one p o i n t , p r o v o k i n g a t f i r s t a p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l - t e m p e r e d o u t b u r t s on t h e h e r o ' s p a r t . M o s t o f t h o s e who r e a d " A r u A s a " when i t was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n S h i r a k a b a d i d n o t , p r e s u m a b l y , make much s e n s e o f i t . I n d e e d , t h e y c o u l d n o t , w i t h o u t some ' i n s i d e ' knowledge o f t h e a u t h o r ' s l i f e and p e r s o n a l i t y on w h i c h t h e y m i g h t draw t o c o m p l e t e t h e s t o r y . And so t h e y may w e l l have f e l t j u s t i f i e d i n n o t , f i n a l l y , c a r i n g t o o much 29 what i t i s t h a t makes t h e h e r o c r y . " To me t h i s i s a p r i m e example o f t h e k i n d o f r e d u c t i o ad absurdum t h a t f o l l o w s i n e v i t a b l y f r o m t h e " r e d u c t i v e " a p p r o a c h t o l i t e r a t u r e : f i r s t S i b l e y assumes t h a t S h i g a has h i d d e n s o m e t i d b i t s o f p s y c h o -a n a l y t i c a l i n s i g h t "between t h e l i n e s " and t h e n he r e b u k e s t h e a u t h o r f o r h a v i n g h i d them t o o s u c c e s s f u l l y . He w o u l d r e d u c e "A r u A s a " t o a kindcof p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l d e t e c t i v e s t o r y i n w h i c h t h e mai n c l u e , t h e h e r o ' s t e a r s , c a n be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y i n t h e t o t a l c o n t e x t o f t h e h e r o ' s " c a s e h i s t o r y " Xand t h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s p l a y i n g an u n f a i r t r i c k on t h e r e a d e r ) . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i f t h e r e was any one p r i n c i p l e t h a t S h i g a ad-h e r e d t o as a w r i t e r , i t was t h a t he n e v e r w i t h h e l d i n f o r m a -t i o n f r o m t h e r e a d e r — i n one famous i n s t a n c e , he r e p r i m a n d e d Akutagawa f o r " t r i c k i n g t h e r e a d e r " i n j u s t t h i s way i n h i s s t o r y "The M a r t y r " , w h e r e i n t h e " s u r p r i s e f a c t " t h a t t h e " h e r o " i s a c t u a l l y a g i r l i s n o t r e v e a l e d u n t i l t h e v e r y end 30 (a l a 0. H e n r y ) . I t seems t o me t h a t , i n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e t o o , t h e r e i s no m y s t e r y a t a l l a b o u t "what i t i s t h a t makes t h e h e r o c r y " . I n f a c t , i t i s p e r f e c t l y t r a n s p a r e n t t o anyone who i s n o t t o o p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h u n e a r t h i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o f u n d i t i e s t o n o t i c e what i s a c t u a l l y h a p p e n i n g i n t h e s t o r y . I f we l o o k a t t h e p a s s a g e i n w h i c h S h i n t a r o ' s " c r y i n g s p e l l " i s d e s -c r i b e d , we see t h a t S h i g a d o e s , i n f a c t , g i v e us a s t r o n g h i n t as t o t h e c a u s e o f t h e young man's o u t b u r s t : i t eomes o v e r him ' s p o n t a n e o u s l y " w h i l e he i s f o l d i n g up h i s g r a n d m o t h e r ' s b e d d i n g . H e r e , i n S h i g a ' s f i r s t s t o r y , we a l r e a d y have a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c example o f t h e k i n d o f c o n c r e t e n e s s o f t a c t i -t i l i t y f o r w h i c h he i s famous — and w h i c h d e r i v e s , u l t i m a t e l y , f r o m h i s " p o e t i c " o r e v e n " m y s t i c a l " s e n s e o f t h e i n t i m a t e communion o f " s u b j e c t i v e " man w i t h " o b j e c t i v e " w o r l d . S h i n t a r o does n o t b e g i n t o c r y u n t i l he a c t u a l l y t o u c h e s s o m e t h i n g b e l o n g i n g t o h i s g r a n d m o t h e r -- w h i c h , i n S h i g a ' s " a n i m i s t i c " w o r l d , i s f i l l e d w i t h h e r " p r e s e n c e " . iDt i s t h i s i m m e d i a t e p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t w i t h h i s " grandmother" w h i c h awakens h i s i n -t e n s e t h o u g h dormant l o v e f o r h e r , t h u s o b l i t e r a t i n g a l l t r a c e s o f t h e a n i m o s i t y he had f e l t t o w a r d s h e r j u s t a few moments b e f o r e . What c a u s e s h i s t e a r s i s n o t so much r e m o r s e (the " S h i g a h e r o " , as we s h a l l s e e , does n o t w aste t i m e f e e l i n g g u i l t y a b o u t " d o i n g what comes n a t u r a l l y " ) b u t a s i m p l e f e e l i n g o f r e l i e f t h a t an u n p l e a s a n t n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n has been r e p l a c e d by a p o w e r f u l p o s i t i v e e m o t i o n — i n o t h e r w o rds, a s i m p l e r e l e a s e o f t e n s i o n . One does n o t h e e d t o be a t r a i n e d p s y c h o a n a l y s t t o s e e t h a t t h e r e a l "message" o f t h e h e r o ' s t e a r s i s s i m p l y t h a t he l o v e s h i s g r a n d m o t h e r v e r y much. S h i g a ' s s t o r i e s may w e l l be d e s c r i b e d , as t h e y have been by J a p a n e s e l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s , as s h i n k y o s h o s e t s u ( l i t e r a l l y , " s t a t e o f mind" s t o r i e s ) b u t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h e " s h i n k y o " i s a l l i n t h e " s h o s e t s u " . N o t h i n g e x t r a n e o u s t o t h e s t o r i e s i s n e c e s s a r y f o r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f them. No d o u b t i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o o b s e r v e how l a t e r S h i g a h e r o e s a r e p r e f i g u r e d by t h e h e r o o f h i s f i r s t s t o r y , b u t t h i s s h o u l d - o t p r e v e n t us f r o m a c c e p t i n g " A r u A s a " as a s t o r y i n i t s own r i g h t , however " s i m p l e " o r however much o f a " s m a l l t h i n g " i s i s . L o ng b e f o r e i t came i n t o vogue i n t h e West, t h e J a p a n e s e u n d e r s t o o d t h e b e a u t y o f " m i n i m a l a r t " . The power o f t h i s b e a u t y has been h a u n t i n g l y e v o k e d by K o b a y a s h i H i d e o i n h i s l y r i c a l e s s a y on t h e No p l a y , Taema: " M u s i c and d a nce and s o n g a r e r e d u c e d t o t h e b a r e s t e s s e n t i a l s . The m u s i c i s l i k e a c r y , t h e dance i s l i t t l e more t h a n a w a l k , and t h e s o n g i s l i k e 3 1 o r d i n a r y p r a y e r . I t i s enough. What e l s e i s n e e d e d ? " S i m i l a r l y S h i g a ' s i s an a r t o f ^ b a r e s t e s s e n t i a l s " . H i s " s m a l l t h i n g s " a r e t o be a p p r e c i a t e d i n a l l t h e i r s i m p l e , i m m e d i a t e - 28 -r e a l i t y , i n the i r "suchness" (sono mama) to use a Buddhist term, l i k e the frog i n Basho's haiku, l i k e the rocks i n a Zen temple garden or, to take a more contemporary example, l i k e the simple images of family l i f e i n the films of Ozu Yasujiro. As soon as the reader begins to analyze, to i n t e l -l e c t u a l i z e , to look for deep symbolic or psychological meanings, he has immediately " l o s t i t " , as the Zen masters say. Obviously t h i s puts the c r i t i c (and the graduate student) i n a rather d i f f i c u l t p o s i t ion. Kobayashi Hideo, as I have said, has undoubtedly been Shiga's most successful apologist, and i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t that he himself i s more of an i n t u i t i v e poet or philosopher than an "orthodox" a n a l y t i c a l c r i t i c i n the Western sense -- his impressionistic, oracular pronounce-ments, though highly suggestive, are often far more d i f f i c u l t to fathom than the writings they are meant to elucidate. Nevertheless, i t i s Kobayashi's understanding of the t r a d i -t i o n a l Japanese aesthetic s e n s i b i l i t y , as revealed i n the essay just quoted, that enables him to appreciate Shiga's work so deeply. "Aru Asa", then, i s the simple story of a young man's al t e r c a t i o n and eventual r e c o n c i l i a t i o n with his grandmother. But i t i s intere s t i n g to note that i t anticipates i n t h i s , as we s h a l l see, the basic pattern of the "action" i n many of Shiga's l a t e r s t o r i e s , including his two major works (both i n length and i n q u a l i t y ) : Wakai (Reconciliation and An'ya Koro (A Dark Night's Passing). The cause of the r i f t between the S h i g a h e r o and- h i s f a m i l y i s n o t a l w a y s so c l e a r o r s t r a i g h t -f o r w a r d as i n " A r u A s a " , t h o u g h i t g e n e r a l l y has t o do w i t h h i s b e i n g more w i l l f u l and " s e l f - o r i e n t e d " t h a n J a p a n e s e s o c i e t y p e r m i t s ; b u t , i n a l l t h e s e s t o r i e s , what S h i g a em-p h a s i z e s more t h a n a n y t h i n g i s t h a t t h e h e r o must a l l o w h i s f e e l i n g s t o r u n t h e i r " n a t u r a l " c o u r s e b e f o r e a " r e c o n c i l i a -t i o n " i s p o s s i b l e . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t o r y , we o b s e r v e t h a t , once he has been a n g e r e d by h i s g r a n d m o t h e r ' s p e s t e r i n g , S h i n t a r o ' s mood becomes c o n c i l i a t o r y o n l y a f t e r he has thrown a few i n s u l t s h e r way and she has humbled h e r s e l f by a s k i n g h i s a d v i c e . We may a g r e e w i t h F r a n c i s Mathy t h a t t h i s i s " c h i l d i s h " b e h a v i o u r b u t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s c o n v i n c i n g l y human and, t h e r e f o r e , " n a t u r a l " . As Ueda Makoto has p o i n t e d o u t i n an e x c e l l e n t e s s a y on S h i g a ' s a e s t h e t i c s , " n a t u r a l b e a u t y " i s a p r i m a r y q u a l i t y i n S h i g a ' s c o n c e p t o f t h e " i d e a l 32 n o v e l " . B u t t h i s does n o t b e l o n g o n l y t o m o u n t a i n s and t r e e s — i t i s , above a l l , a human b e a u t y : "An i m p r e s s i o n o f n a t u r a l b e a u t y comes f r o m o b s e r v i n g a man who c o n d u c t s h i m s e l f h o n e s t l y , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h h i s i n m o s t f e e l i n g s . Such a man w o u l d n o t r e p r e s s h i s t r u e f e e l i n g s i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f s o c i a l c o n v e n t i o n . . . H e w o u l d f o l l o w t h e d i c t a t e s o f h i s i n n e r m o s t s e l f e v e n i f t h a t w o u l d l e a d t o an e x p l o s i v e c l a s h w i t h h i s f a t h e r o r e v e n t o t h e d e a t h o f h i s w i f e . A man f i g h t i n g f o r h i s s u r v i v a l was b e a u t i f u l , b e c a u s e he was, i f n o t h i n g e l s e , 33 p u r e i n h i s m o t i v e s . " I t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y , as I have s a i d , f o r t h e r e a d e r t o m o r a l l y a p p r o v e o f a h e r o i n o r d e r t o d e r i v e - 30 -a e s t h e t i c s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m h i s p o r t r a y a l . And h e r e , i n " A r u A s a " , we have o u r f i r s t t a s t e o f S h i g a ' s " a m o r a l i t y " : t h e " n a t u r a l " — raw g u t f e e l i n g s , i n t u i t i o n s , i n s t i n c t s — c o u n t s f a r more t h a n t h e " m o r a l " -- a mere i n t e l l e c t u a l a b s t r a c t i o n . B u t now, i n seeming t o come p e r i l o u s l y c l o s e t o c o n f u s i n g S h i g a h i m s e l f w i t h t h e S h i g a h e r o , we a p p r o a c h what i s p e r h a p s , a t l e a s t f r o m a W e s t e r n v i e w p o i n t , t h e c e n t r a l c r i t i c a l p r o b -lem o f h i s work: i t s s t a t u s as " f i c t i o n " . I n t h e c a s e o f " A r u A s a " , t h e a u t h o r h i m s e l f , a t f i r s t , seemed t o have h i s d o u b t s . I n h i s d i a r y e n t r y o f J a n u a r y 14, 1908, he n o t e s t h a t , h a v i n g w r i t t e n d u r i n g t h e m o r n i n g a b o u t a q u a r r e l he had had w i t h h i s g r a n d m o t h e r t h e p r e v i o u s d a y , he c a l l e d t h e p i e c e : "A N o n - S t o r y , Grandmother" ( " H i - S h o s e t s u , S o b o " ) \ i 3 4 S i g n i -f i c a n t l y , t h o u g h , S h i g a l a t e r c h a n g e d h i s mind a b o u t t h e s t a t u s o f t h i s work as "non-f i c t c b o n " . I n a commentary on i t w r i t t e n 35 i n 1928, he d e s c r i b e s i t as h i s f i r s t " s h o r t s t o r y " . One may s p e c u l a t e t h a t , i n t h e meantime, h i s v i e w o f what c o n s t i -t u e s a work o f f i c t i o n o r a s h o s e t s u had b r o a d e n e d o r , p e r h a p s , 3 6 had become more t r a d i t i o n a l l y J a p a n e s e . The young S h i g a was, a f t e r a l l , an a v i d r e a d e r o f Chekhov, T o l s t o y and F i k a u b e r t and was l i k e l y t o be i n f l u e n c e d by W e s t e r n c o n c e p t s o f f i c t i o n . As he m a t u r e d i n h i s a r t he n a t u r a l l y d e v e l o p e d t h e c o n f i d e n c e t o s e t h i s own a e s t h e t i c s t a n d a r d s . " A r u A s a " i s t h e f i r s t i n a l o n g l i n e o f S h i g a ' s s h i -s h o s e t s u ( " I - n o v e l s " o r " p e r s o n a l f i c t i o n s " ) , s t o r i e s c l o s e l y - 31 -b a s e d on t h e e v e n t s o f h i s own l i f e and f e a t u r i n g a h e r o more o r l e s s i d e n t i f i a b l e as h i m s e l f . C e r t a i n W e s t e r n c r i t i c s a r e h e s i t a n t o r e v e n r e f u s e t o a c c e p t s u c h works as " l e g i t i m a t e " f i c t i o n . Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r d e s c r i b e s t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u as "unformed r e m i n i s c e n c e " and as a " f o r m o f a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l j o t t i n g t h a t may s c a r c e l y seem t o d e s e r v e t h e name f i c t i o n a t 37 a l l . " F r a n c i s Mathy makes t h e same p o i n t i n r e g a r d t o 3 8 "Aru A s a " : "The p i e c e i s h a r d l y more t h a n a s k e t c h . . . " and he l a m e n t s t h a t t h e a u t h o r i w a s 'hampered by an i m p o s s i b l e 39 t h e o r y o f p r o s e f i c t i o n " r a l t h o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y " S h i g a was a b l e t o t r a n s c e n d t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l mode and f i n d o b j e c t i v e 40 f i c t i o n a l symbols t o e x p r e s s h i s i n n e r s t a t e s . " E v e n a J a p a n e s e c r i t i c , Nakamura M i t s u o , has s a i d t h a t he was "tempted" t o d e s c r i b e Shiga," s n o v e l , An' y a K o r o as "non-O i i t e r a t u r e " . ^ What t h e s e c r i t i c s o b j e c t t o i s n o t , o f c o u r s e , t h e p r e -s e n c e i n f i c t i o n o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y p e r s e . Many o f t h e most c e l e b r a t e d W e s t e r n n o v e l s o f t h i s c e n t u r y a r e v e r y l a r g e l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l — J o y c e ' s P o r t r a i t o f t h e A r t i s t as a Young  Man, P r o u s t ' s A l a R e c h e r c h e du Temps P e r d u , L a w r e n c e ' s Sons  and L o v e r s — one c o u l d go on a l m o s t i n d e f i n i t e l y . B u t i t seems t h a t , t o t h e W e s t e r n eye a t l e a s t , t h e s e works a p p e a r more c o n s c i o u s l y s t r u c t u r e d f o r a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t , more f i n e l y s h a p e d i n t o "works o f f i c t i o n " t h a n t h e J a p a n e s e s h i - s h o s e t s u 4 — w h i c h S e i d e n s t i c k e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , c a l l s " t h e u n s h a p e n S n e s " . - 32-But t h i s s e n s e o f " f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e " , i t seems t o me, i s e x a c t l y what S h i g a w i s h e d t o a v o i d . H i s l o v e o f t h e " n a t u r a l " made him eschew a n y t h i n g t h a t smacked o f f a b r i c a t i o n ( k o s h i r a e m o n o , t o u s e t h e word by w h i c h t h e f a t h e r o f t h e s h i -s h o s e t s u , Tayama K a t a i , d e n o u n c e d a c e r t a i n W e s t e r n n o v e l ^ a ) — i n c l u d i n g t h e f o r m a l p l o t - s t r u c t u r e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f i c t i o n . (We have a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d h i s a v e r s i o n t o some o f Akutagawa's w e l l - p l o t t e d s t o r i e s . ) Nor i s he a l o n e i n t h i s p r e d e l i c t i o n f o r t h e " s t o r y l e s s n o v e l " , ( h a n a s h i no n a i s h o s e t s u ) t o u s e 43b t h e t e r m Akutagawa h i m s e l f a p p l i e d t o S h i g a ' s work. I n f a c t , he has a v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f t h e J a p a n e s e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n b e h i n d him. The contempt f o r " p o p u l a r " f i c t i o n t h a t m e r e l y " t e l l s a s t o r y " i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s e n s e has a v e n e r a b l e l i n e a g e i n b o t h C h i n a and J a p a n -- i t i s , i n f a c t , emb o d i e d i n t h e v e r y word s h o s e t s u . As H e r b e r t F r a n k e p o i n t s o u t i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a c o l l e c t i o n o f C h i n e s e s t o r i e s : "The C h i n e s e t e r m f o r n o v e l l a s , H s i a o - s h u o ( s h o s e t s u i n J a p a n e s e ) , ' l i t t l e t a l e s ' , c o n t a i n s a c e r t a i n u n d e r t o n e o f d i s p a r a g e m e n t . N a r r a t i v e p r o s e , and i n d e e d e v e r y s o r t o f l i g h t f i c t i o n , was n o t g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d as a b r a n c h o f s e r i o u s l i t e r a t u r e , and, u n l i k e p o e t r y o r t h e f o r m a l e s s a y , i t was n o t a f i e l d i n w h i c h l i t e r a r y a m b i t i o n c o u l d l e a d on 44 t o fame and s o c i a l p r e s t i g e . " The s t e r n s t r i c t u r e s o f C o n f u c i u s no d o u b t had much t o do w i t h t h i s . L i k e P l a t o i n 45 a famous p a s s a g e o f t h e R e p u b l i c t h e C h i n e s e p h i l o s o p h e r t o o k a d i m v i e w o f t h e f i c t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n , a b j u r i n g any t a l k - 33 -4 6 of "miracles, acts of violence, troubles, and ghosts." This s t r i c t Confucian attitude seems to have been imported, along with much else, into ;--Japan. The great works of f i c t i o n of the Heian period, as we a l l know, were written by women, while the men were occupied with the more "serious" business of writing Chinese-style poems and essays. Lady Muraskaki i s obviously responding to the charge of " f a l s i t y " often leveled against the novel i n her day when she puts her famous "defense of f i c t i o n " into the mouth of Brince Genji: "The Chronicles of Japan and the rest are a mere fragment of the whole truth. I t i s your romances that f i l l i n the d e t a i l s . . . There are differences i n the degree of seriousness. But to dismiss them as l i e s i s i t s e l f to depart from the truth... 47 He now seemed bent on establishing the uses of f i c t i o n . " Murasaki's arguments f a i l e d to convince the l i t e r a r y e s t a b l i s h -ment, though. U n t i l the a r r i v a l of the great c r i t i c Motoori Norinaga i n the eighteenth century, even her own masterpiece was rendered acceptable to Buddhists and Confucians, i f at a l l , only by being contorted to f i t various a l l e g o r i c a l interpretations. Meanwhile, the "mainstream" t r a d i t i o n of Japanese l i t e r a t u r e continued to consist of d i a r i e s , zuihitsu (fandom essays), haibun (poems mixed with prose) and so on. (A l i t e r a t u r e , i n other words, of the "personal" or l y r i c rather than <bf the epic or dramatic mode.) F i c t i o n may seem to have enjoyed something of a renais-sance with the a r r i v a l of Ihara Saikaku i n the late seventeenth - 34 -c e n t u r y . As D o n a l d Keene r e m a r k s , " i t i s n o t much o f an e x a g -g e r a t i o n t o say t h a t he r e - e s t a b l i s h e d p r o s e f i c t i o n as an 48 a r t a f t e r o v e r f o u r h u n d r e d y e a r s o f anenymous w r i t i n g s . " B u t , as Keene a l s o p o i n t s o u t , S a i k a k u i s a d m i r e d n o t so much f o r t h e c o n t e n t o f h i s s t o r i e s , w h i c h a r e , f o r t h e most p a r t , l i g h t , c o m i c t a l e s o f t h e p l e a s u r e q u a r t e r s , t h e " f l o a t i n g w o r l d " ; what s e t s him a p a r t f r o m c o u n t l e s s o t h e r w r i t e r s o f u k i y o z o s h i i s h i s m a s t e r f u l s t y l e . I n t h e words o f Howard H i b b i t t , S a i k a k u , l i k e t h e g r e a t w o o d b l o c k p r i n t a r t i s t s , 49 a c h i e v e s h i s " f i n e s t e f f e c t s by s h e e r y s t y l i s t i c v e r v e . " I n d e e d , as we have a l r e a d y s e e n , S h i g a h i m s e l f , who a d m i r e d S a i k a k u more t h a n any o t h e r J a p a n e s e w r i t e r , s a i d o f h i s w o r k s : " T h e i r s u b j e c t s a r e v a r i o u s t r i v i a l o c c u r r e n c e s i n t h e ' f l o a t i n g w o r l d ' ; and y e t t h e y have t h a t e f f e c t upon t h e r e a d e r w h i c h I 50 m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e : a t i g h t e n i n g up o f one's mind and s p i r i t . " T h i s was b e c a u s e o f t h e " s t r o n g r h y t h m " o f t h e a u t h o r ' s s t y l e . I n o t h e r words, t h e g r e a t p o p u l a r i t y o f S a i k a k u d i d n o t h i n g t o change t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w t h a t w e l l - p l o t t e d f i c t i o n p e r se was n o t an a p p r o p r i a t e medium f o r " s e r i o u s " l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s i o n . And c e r t a i n l y no c a u s e f o r a change i n t h i s v i e w was p r o v i d e d by any o f S a i k a k u ' s s u c c e s s o r s , w r i t e r s o f u k i y o - z o c h i t h a t , as Keene s a y s , were " d e v o t e d t o t r i v i a l i n c i d e n t s o f t h e l i c e n s e d q u a r t e r s o r t o t h e i m p l a u s i b l e d o i n g s 51 o f p a p e r - t h i n h e r o e s , " and t h a t r e s e m b l e S a i k a k u ' s works i n s t y l e , i f a t a l l , o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y were d i r e c t l y p l a g i a r i z e d f r o m him.~'"L T h e r e were, o f c o u r s e , a few i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n s o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s — i n p a r t i c u l a r , Ueda A k i n a r i and T a k i z a w a B a k i n . B u t A k i n a r i h i m s e l f c o n s i d e r e d h i s f i c t i o n a l works t o be o f " s m a l l c o n s e q u e n c e " i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h h i s n o n - f i c t i o n , ^ ' and B a k i n 1 s n o v e l s , t h o u g h h e a v i l y d i d a c t i c , were lumped t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e g e s a k u f i c t i o n o f h i s e r a ( l i t e r a l l y , t h e "low works") — i n Keene's t e r m s , t h e " p l a y f u l c o m p o s i t i o n s " , a t e r m t h a t was " o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e 53 a u t h o r d i s c l a i m e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a f r i v o l o u s work". The g e n e r a l t r e n d o f J a p a n e s e c r i t i c a l o p i n i o n i s b l u n t l y summar-i z e d by I v a n M o r r i s : " D u r i n g t h e Tokugawa p e r i o d , and i n d e e d e v e r s i n c e t h e d a y s o f The T a l e o f G e n j i , s c h o l a r s have l o o k e d down on p r o s e f i c t i o n , w h i c h was w i d e l y r e g a r d e d as b e i n g f i t 54 o n l y f o r women, c h i l d r e n , and t h e l e s s e r b r e e d s . " W i t h t h i s l o n g t r a d i t i o n b e h i n d them o f f i c t i o n h a v i n g s u c h an ambiguous s t a t u s , i t i s l i t t l e wonder t h a t t h e "men o f M e i j i " were somewhat s t a r t l e d t o f i n d t h a t t h e n o v e l was r e -g a r d e d as s u c h a h i g h a r t f o r m i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y West. As I v a n M o r r i s s a y s : "One r e s u l t o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f W e s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e was t o enhance t h e p o s i t i o n o f p r o s e f i c -55 - -t i o n i n J a p a n . " T s u b o u c h i Shoyo's S h o s e t s u S h i n z u i (The E s s e n c e o f t h e N o v e l ) , w r i t t e n i n 1885, was t h e f i r s t J a p a n e s e work o f t h e o r e t i c a l c r i t i c i s m t o t a k e t h e n o v e l s e r i o u s l y as an a r t fo r m . Shoyo l a m e n t s t h e low s t a t e o f f i c t i o n i n h i s c o u n t r y , and t h e n e x p r e s s e s t h e p i o u s hope t h a t "by d i n t o f s t e a d y p l a n n i n g f r o m now on f o r t h e improvement o f o u r n o v e l s - 36 -we may f i n a l l y be able to surpass i n quality the European novels, and permit our novels to take a glorious place along with painting, music, and poetry on the a l t a r of the a r t s . " " ^ At f i r s t M e i j i writers t r i e d to imitate t h e i r Western models as d u t i f u l l y as they could, writing p o l i t i c a l novels a l a D i s r a e l i and novels of s o c i a l concern a la. Zola. But i t did not take long for the native t r a d i t i o n to reassert i t s e l f , though under the guise of the very modern-sounding "natural-ism". From the outset, as Ivan Morris points out, "Japanese naturalism began to diverge from the movement in Europe that had inspired i t . The publication i n 19 08 of Futon (The Quilt^ a novel by Tayama Katai, one of the leading n a t u r a l i s t s , served to e s t a b l i s h the autobiographical approach as the stan-dard as the standard for Japanese writers of the n a t u r a l i s t 57 school." Where the French n a t u r a l i s t s , aiming to give the p o r t r a i t of a whole society, created highly structured novels featuring a broad range of characters, t h e i r Japanese counter-parts focused exclusively on the everyday events of t h e i r . rather uneventful l i v e s , writing i n a discursive, d i a r y - l i k e fashion. Thus began the t r a d i t i o n of the modern Japanese s h i -shosetsu. "The main legacy of naturalism i n Japan has been the b e l i e f of many writers that the only worthwhile and 'sincere' form of l i t e r a t u r e i s that which takes i t s material d i r e c t l y from the facts of the author's physical and s p i r i t u a l l i f e . This trend affected several writers who were i n other respects strongly opposed to the n a t u r a l i s t s . Among them 5 8 was Shiga Naoya." The f o r e m o s t p r a c t i t i o n e r o f t h e day o f a more "Western" f o r m o f n o v e l - w r i t i n g , Natsume S o s e k i , was r e g a r d e d by t h e n a t u r a l i s t s as a r a t h e r s u p e r f i c i a l p a n d e r e r t o p o p u l a r t a s t e A c c o r d i n g t o I t o S e i , t h e y " c r i t i c i z e d S o s e k i , s a y i n g t h a t h i s works were a l l ' f i c t i o n s ' w i t h no d e s c r i p t i o n s o f h a r s h r e a l i t i e s , and t h a t t h e w r i t e r s h o u l d f u l l y e x p o s e h i m s e l f 59 i n h i s works." When S o s e k i f i n a l l y d i d w r i t e an a u t o b i o -g r a p h i c a l n o v e l , M i c h i k u s a ( G r a s s by t h e W a y s i d e ) , i t was " g e n e r a l l y a p p r e c i a t e d as t h e b e s t o f S o s e k i ' s e n t i r e w o r k s , and as t h e o n l y one w o r t h y o f t h e name o f n o v e l . . . S o s e k i t o o may have w r i t t e n an ' I ' n o v e l b e c a u s e he r e a l i z e d t h e p e r -s u a s i v e power t h a t t h a t mode o f w r i t i n g had. As I have men-t i o n e d b e f o r e , t h e r e e x i s t i n J a p a n e s e s o c i e t y s o l i d g r o u n d s 6 0 f o r a p e r s o n a l n o v e l t o w i n r e a d e r s . " The f a c t t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l " a n t i - f i c t i o n " b i a s was s t i l l v e r y much a l i v e i n S h i g a ' s day i s c l e a r l y shown i n an e s s a y w r i t t e n i n 1925 by Kume Masao, p e r h a p s t h e bes t - k n o w n a p o l o g i s t o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u . Kume r e g a r d s t h e I - n o v e l as " t h e e s s e n s e o f p r o s e w r i t i n g " and seems c l o s e t o d i s m i s s i n g s u c h W e s t e r n c l a s s i e s as War and P e a c e , C r i m e and P u n i s h m e n t and Madame B o v a r y as " g r e a t p o p u l a r n o v e l s , and f a b r i c a t e d 61 s t o r i e s j u s t f o r e n t e r t a i n m e n t . " T a k i n g up t h e f a m i l i a r J a p a n e s e theme o f t h e " a r t i f i c i a l i t y " o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f i c t i o n Kume r e s o r t s t o a r a t h e r t r i t e m e t a p h o r : " I t h i n k t h a t no m a t t e r how b e a u t i f u l l y p r o d u c e d , an a r t i f i c i a l f l o w e r f a l l s - 38 -6 2 t o o f a r s h o r t o f one i n w i l e n a t u r e . " Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r h a s shown t h a t a t t h e b a s i s o f t h i s " a n t i - f i c t i o n " v i e w i s t h e p e c u l i a r l y J a p a n e s e c o n c e p t o f 'pure l i t e r a t u r e " ( j u n bungaku) , w h i c h has p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t 6 3 i n i n d i g e n o u s t h e o r i e s o f t h e n o v e l s i n c e t h e M e i j i p e r i o d . I t may seem p a r a d o x i c a l o r e v e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o W e s t e r n r e a d e r s , b u t i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h e " p u r e " n o v e l i s n o t t h e one w h i c h i s e n t i r e l y a p r o d u c t o f t h e w r i t e r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n ( i . e . c o m p l e t e l y " f i c t i o n a l " ) b u t t h e one w h i c h i s i n t i m a t e l y p e r -s o n a l and s e l f - r e v e l a t o r y ( i . e . a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l ) -- i n o t h e r w o r ds, works w h i c h some W e s t e r n c r i t i c s , a s we have s e e n , w o u l d n o t e v e n r e g a r d as " l i t e r a t u r e " a t a l l . What i s s e e n by J a p a n e s e c r i t i c s as s t a n d i n g a t t h e o p p o s i t e p o l e t o t h e l i t e r a r i l y " p u r e " i s t h e s u z b k u , p o p u l a r f i c t i o n . (And, as S e i d e n s t i c k e r has p o i n t e d o u t e l s e w h e r e , J a p a n e s e p o p u l a r w r i t e r s " o f t e n have a s l i c k p a t n e s s i n t h e i r p l o t t i n g t h a t 64 w o u l d be w o r t h y o f t h e most s k i l l f u l s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n w r i t e r . " Thus t h e t e n d e n c y o f c r i t i c s t o r e g a r d t h e " w e l l - p l o t t e d n o v e l " as a " p o p u l a r " n o v e l . ) Kume Masao, i n h i s 1935 e s s a y , J u n Bungaku Y o g i s e t s u (Pure L i t e r a t u r e as A v o c a t i o n ) , recommends t o t h e f i n a n c i a l l y s t r a i g h t e n e d l i t e r a t u s " w r i t i n g p o t - b o i l e r s f o r a l i v i n g and p r o d u c i n g 'pure l i t e r a t u r e ' i n o n e ' s s p a r e 65a t i m e " . He o f f e r s S h i g a ' s work as t h e " h i g h e s t peak" o f t h e p u r e . Kume's s t r i c t u r e s s e t t i n g up t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l as " p u r e l i t e r a t u r e " a r e , o f c o u r s e , e v e r y b i t as n a r r o w as t h o s e o f W e s t e r n c r i t i c s t h a t r e g a r d i t as " n o n - l i t e r a t u r e " . N e e d l e s s t o s a y , S h i g a c a n n o t be h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e f o r t h e e x c e s s e s o f h i s a p o l o g i s t s . As we have s e e n , he d i d a t t a c k one o f Akutagawa's s t o r i e s f o r i t s a r t i f i c i a l " s u r p r i s e e n d i n g " , b u t , on t h e o t h e r hand, he h i m s e l f w r o t e some h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l " f i c t i o n a l " works when he c h o s e t o do so. I n o t h e r words, h i s v i e w s on " f i c t i o n " v e r s u s " n o n - f i c t i o n " were n o t as e x c l u s i v e o r d o c t r i n a i r e a s t h o s e o f some o f h i s a p o l o g i s t s . H i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l mode was more an a e s t h e t i c t h a n an i d e o l o g i c a l one. I n d e e d , i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r S h i g a was i n f l u e n c e d by l i t e r a r y t r e n d s a t a l l — by t h e n a t u r a l i s t s , as I v a n M o r r i s i m p l i e s , by h i s f e l l o w members o f t h e S h i r a k a b a - h a , o r by any-one e l s e . S h i g a h i m s e l f c l a i m e d t o have r e a d l i t t l e W e s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e and e v e n l e s s J a p a n e s e . B u t t h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g i s t h a t J a p a n e s e r e a d e r s were w e l l p r e p a r e d by t h e l o n g t r a d i -t i o n we have j u s t r e v i e w e d t o a c c e p t h i s " p l o t l e s s " a u t o b i o -g r a p h i c a l s t o r i e s as q u i t e l e g i t i m a t e s h o s e t s u . And what o f W e s t e r n r e a d e r s ? S e i d e n s t i c k e r makes t h e i n t e r e s t i n g c l a i m t h a t a l l w o u l d be w e l l i f o n l y t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u w o u l d change t h e g e n r e d e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e i r w o r k s : " P e r h a p s i n t h e e n d one's c h i e f c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t S h i g a and h i s c o l l e a g u e s and f o l l o w e r s i s t h a t t h e y c h o s e t o g i v e t h e i r l y r i c s - w i t h - s e t t i n g t h e name s h o s e t s u , and so t o a r o u s e f a l s e e x p e c t a t i o n s i n t h e b r e a s t s o f t h o s e a c c u s t o m e d t o r e n d e r i n g s h o s e t s u as ' s h o r t s t o r y 1 o r - 40 -' n o v e l ' . " ^ We may o v e r l o o k , f o r a moment, t h e s t r a n g e s u g -g e s t i o n t h a t S h i g a e t a l must be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e " f a l s e e x p e c t a t i o n s " o f W e s t e r n r e a d e r s ( f o r , a s we have p o i n t e d o u t , J a p a n e s e r e a d e r s w o u l d n o t have s u c h e x p e c t a t i o n s a r o u s e d by t h e word s h o s e t s u ) . B u t does t h e whole p r o b l e m r e a l l y b o i l down t o a s i m p l e m a t t e r o f t h e c o n f u s i o n o f g e n r e s ? Would n o t , t o p a r a p h r a s e t h e B a r d , a s h i - s h o s e t s u s m e l l as bad (or as good) by any o t h e r name? Would a W e s t e r n r e a d e r s u d d e n l y c e a s e t o 6 7 f i n d S h i g a ' s s t o r i e s "wearisome", t o u s e S e i d e n s t i c k e r ' s word, i f he were t o l d t h e y were n o t " s h o r t s t o r i e s " by " l y r i c s - w i t h -s e t t i n g " o r u t a m o n o g a t a r i ? I t seems a r a t h e r d o u b t f u l p r o p o -s i t i o n . One c a n change one's g l a s s e s e a s i l y enough b u t n o t one's e y e s — and i t i s t h e c u l t u r a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d e y e s t h a t we a r e r e a l l y t a l k i n g a b o u t h e r e . We m i g h t s a y , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t S h i g a ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l s t o r i e s s h o u l d be r e a d i n t h e same s p i r i t as one r e a d s , s a y , a l i t e r a r y d i a r y o r an a u t o b i o g r a p h y i n t h e West. B u t W e s t e r n d i a r i e s and a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s , l i k e W e s t e r n n o v e l s , t e n d t o be h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d works b e a r i n g a s t r o n g i m p r i n t o f t h e " o r d e r -i n g i n t e l l e c t " . (One t h i n k s , f o r i n s t a n c e , o f t h e a u t o b i o -g r a p h y o f R o u s s e a u o r t h e j o u r n a l s o f And r e G i d e . ) I t seems, i n f a c t , t h a t we have come a c r o s s a t r u l y f u n d a m e n t a l c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e h e r e , n o t j u s t i n a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s b u t i n t h e whole way o f p e r c e i v i n g and a p p r o a c h i n g t h e w o r l d (which i s i n t u r n r e f l e c t e d , o f c o u r s e , i n t h e a e s t h e t i c s ) . I n commenting on t h e d i s t i n c t i v e " J a p a n e s e c o n c e p t o f s t r u c t u r a l u n i t y " , Ueda - 41 -Makoto r e m a r k s : " J a p a n e s e a r t s g e n e r a l l y shun l o g i c as t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i t y and t r y t o m i n i m i z e t h e r o l e o f i n t e l l e c t i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a work; t h i s i s t r u e e v e n o f t h o s e a r t s t h a t c o u l d a d m i t i n t o t h e m s e l v e s a l a r g e measure o f d i s c u r s i v e r e a s o n i f t h e y wanted to...When t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e work o f p r o s e , w h i c h i s s u p p o s e d l y more l o g i c a l t h a n p o e t i c l a n g u a g e , J a p a n e s e a e s t h e t i c i a n s n e v e r e m p h a s i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t i g h t , l o g i c a l l y c o h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e . L a d y M u r a s a k i s p e a k s o n l y o f n a t u r a l s m o o t h n e s s , t h e r h y t h m o f l i f e , w h i c h i s n e v e r l o g i c a l ; The T a l e o f G e n j i m i n f a c t / i s a l m o s t a s e r i e s o f s h o r t s t o r i e s l o o s e l y s t r u n g t o g e t h e r . A t r a g e d y c o u l d c e r t a i n l y make u s e o f a l o g i c a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d p l o t b u t C h i k a m a t s u s e l d o m d o e s s o ; h i s p l a y s , e s p e c i a l l y h i s h i s t o r i c a l p l a y s , p r e s e n t a s e r i e s o f i n c i d e n t s t h a t a r e i n t h e m s e l v e s d r a m a t i c b u t l o o s e l y c o n -n e c t e d t o one a n o t h e r . . . P e r h a p s b e n e a t h a l l t h i s l i e s a v i e w o f l i f e t h a t N o r i n a g a s a y s i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y J a p a n e s e : human l i f e i s e s s e n t i a l l y i r r a t i o n a l and t h e u n i v e r s e i s n o t l o g i c a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d . The work o f a r t , i f i t aims t o c o p y 6 8 l i f e and a n t u r e f a i t h f u l l y , c a n n o t have a l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . " ( u n d e r l i n i n g my own) T h i s l a s t s e n t e n c e , i t seems t o me, i s e s p e c i a l l y p e r t i -n e n t t o S h i g a ' s works. The o n l y l o g i c t h e y p o s s e s s i s , as 6 9 K o b a y a s h i H i d e o has s a i d , t h e " l o g i c o f e v e r y d a y l i f e " . I n o t h e r words, S h i g a ' s n a r r a t i v e s do n o t p r o g r e s s i n t h e l i n e a r , 7 0 s y l l o g i s t i c f a s h i o n o f t h e c l a s s i c A r i s t o t e l e a n p l o t - l i n e , w i t h a " l o g i c a l " c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n between a c l e a r l y - 42 -i d e n t i f i a b l e b e g i n n i n g , m i d d l e and end. R a t h e r , t h e e v e n t s i n h i s s t o r i e s a r e l i n k e d i n a l o s s e l y a s s o c i a t i v e manner 71 r e m i n i s c e n t o f J a p a n e s e l i n k e d v e r s e ( r e n g a ) - - o r , i n d e e d , o f t h e 'randomness" o f l i f e i t s e l f . The t o t a l a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s one o f a q u i e t , r e l a x e d n a t u r a l n e s s . As K o b a y a s h i has s a i d o f S h i g a : " H i s s p i r i t d o e s n o t know drama. 72 H i s t r i a l s a r e t h o s e o f a g r o w i n g t r e e . " A l r e a d y i n " A r u A s a " we c a n s e e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s method o f w r i t i n g i n w h i c h 'the l o g i c o f e v e r y d a y l i f e i t s e l f becomes 73 t h e l o g i c o f l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n . " T h e r e i s a d e l i c a t e a r t i n v o l v e d h e r e -- i t i s c e r t a i n l y n o t , as one m i g h t e x p e c t , m e r e l y a m a t t e r o f r e p o r t i n g " t h i n g s as t h e y happen". The w r i t e r must e x e r c i s e g r e a t s e n s i t i v i t y i n s e l e c t i n g d e t a i l s and i n f o l l o w i n g t h e " n a t u r a l " c o u r s e o f e v e n t s . As we have a l r e a d y s s e e n , S h i n t a r o must go t h r o u g h a r a t h e r complex s e r i e s o f mood-changes b e f o r e he i s f i n a l l y a b l e t o f e e l " r e c o n c i l e d " w i t h h i s g r a n d m o t h e r -- and t o g e t o u t o f bed. S h i g a c o n v e y s a l l t h i s w i t h a d m i r a b l e economy, i n j u s t a few s h o r t n a r r a t i v e s e n t e n c e s and a few s n a t c h e s o f d i a l o g u e . To q u o t e a g a i n f r o m K o b a y a s h i : " S i n c e Tayama K a t a i l e a r n e d f r o m M a u p a s s a n t t h e l i t e r a r y v a l u e o f d a i l y l i f e as i t i s , no w r i t e r has s u c c e e d e d as w e l l as S h i g a Naoya has i n b o l d l y , 74 e v e n v i o l e n t l y , w r e s t i n g f r o m h i s own l i f e a work o f a r t . " ( U n d e r l i n i n g my own.) B u t t o s e e S h i g a ' s a r t o f what Ueda c a l l s t h e " n a t u r a l 75 p l o t " i n f u l l f l o w e r , we must go on t o some o f h i s more mature works. - 43 -C h a p t e r 2 " K i n o s a k i n i t e " ffy «» Jv»f ^ (At K i n o s a k i ) was w r i t t e n i n 1917, a l m o s t a d e c a d e a f t e r " A r u A s a " . I t soon becomes e v i d e n t , on r e a d i n g t h i s s t o r y , t h a t S h i g a had by now a c h i e v e d f u l l m a t u r i t y as a w r i t e r . " K i n o s a k i n i t e " i s , i n f a c t , one o f t h e most w i d e l y p r a i s e d and w i d e l y a n t h o l o g i z e d s t o r i e s o f modern J a p a n . ^ The s t o r y i s s t r u c t u r e d a r o u n d t h r e e e n c o u n t e r s w h i c h t h e n a r r a t o r has w i t h d e a t h as m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e . A n e a r - f a t a l a c c i d e n t t h a t he has r e c e n t l y s u f f e r e d h a s made him s e n s i t i v e t o t h e o m n i p r e s e n c e o f d e a t h , so t h a t he n o t i c e s t h i n g s he w o u l d n o r m a l l y o v e r l o o k and n o t i c e s them w i t h an a b n o r m a l c l a r i t y and i n t e n s i t y . The r e l a t i o n s h i p be-tween t h e t h r e e i n c i d e n t s d e s c r i b e d i s t h u s n o t c a s u a l as i n c o n v e n t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e b u t a s s o c i a t i v e as i n p o e t r y . The s t o r y opens w i t h a t o p i c a l l y v i g o r o u s f i r s t s e n t e n c e , no words w a s t e d , w h i c h t a k e s us i n t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e m a t t e r i m m e d i a t e l y : "Yamanote-sen no d e n s h a n i h a n e t o b a s a r e t e k e g a o s h i t a , sono a t o y o s e i n i , h i t o r i de T a j i m a no K i n o s a k i o n s e n e d e k a k e t a . " ( A f t e r b e i n g h i t by a t r a i n on t h e Yamanote l i n e , I went a l o n e t o K i n o s a k i h o t s p r i n g i n T a j i m a t o c o n -v a l e s c e . ) T h i s i s a f i n e example o f what T a n i z a k i c a l l s t h e " p r a c t i c a l i t y " ( j i t s u y o ^ ) o f S h i g a ' s s t y l e -- p e r h a p s n o t so r a r e a q u a l i t y i n E n g l i s h as i n J a p a n e s e p r o s e , w h i c h g e n e r a l l y t e n d s t o be more c i r c u m l o c u t o r y . - 44 -I n t h e f i r s t p a r a g r a p h we a r e a l s o t o l d t h a t t h e n a r r a t o r has n o t y e t c o m p l e t e l y e s c a p e d f r o m t h e shadow o f d e a t h : a c -c o r d i n g t o h i s d o c t o r , t h e r e i s s t i l l a c h a n c e t h a t he m i g h t d e v e l o p t u b e r c u l o s i s o f t h e s p i n e , w h i c h c o u l d p r o v e f a t a l . T hus he t a k e s an u n d e r s t a n d a b l e i n t e r e s t i n e v e n t h e s m a l l e s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f d e a t h i n t h e w o r l d a r o u n d him. The n a r r a t o r ' s f i r s t " e n c o u n t e r " i s w i t h a d e a d bee. He s e e s i t one m o r n i n g on t h e r o o f o f t h e genkan , t h e e n t r a n c e -way t o h i s h o t e l . The i m p a c t w h i c h t h i s s i g h t h as on t h e n a r r a t o r ' s d e a t h - o r i e n t e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s made r e a l t o us i n two ways: by a g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p a t h e t i c f i g u r e o f t h e dead b e e , i t s l e g s " d o u b l e d t i g h t u n d e r i t " and " i t s 3 f e e l e r s d r o p p e d u n t i d i l y o v e r i t s head" , and by a c o n t r a s t o f t h e d e a d bee w i t h t h e many l i v i n g b e e s swarming b u s i l y a r o u n d i t : "The i n d u s t r i o u s l i v i n g b e e s gave so c o m p l e t e l y a s e n s e o f l i f e . The o t h e r b e s i d e them, r o l l e d o v e r w i t h i t s l e g s u d d e r i t , s t i l l i n t h e same s p o t whenever I l o o k e d a t i t , m o r n i n g , 4 noon, n i g h t — how c o m p l e t e l y i t gave a s e n s e o f d e a t h . " We a r e t h e n t o l d e x p l i c i t l y o f t h e n a r r a t o r ' s e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e : " I t gave me a f e e l i n g o f u t t e r q u i e t n e s s . Of l o n e l i n e s s . I t was chonely t o s e e t h e d e a d body l e f t t h e r e on t h e c o l d t i l e i n t h e e v e n i n g when t h e r e s t had gone i n s i d e . And a t t h e same 5 t i m e i t was t r a n q u i l , s o o t h i n g . " T h i s i s a f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n i n S h i g a ' s s h i - s h o s e t s u : a g r a p h i c e v o c a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d o f human r e l a t i o n s , f o l l o w e d by an e x t e n d e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e n a r r a t o r ' s u s u a l l y r a t h e r complex r e s p o n s e s — i n o t h e r words, a c o n t i n u a l r e c i p r o c a t i o n between o u t e r and i n n e r w o r l d s . As i s e v i d e n t f r o m t h e above q u o t e , t h e n a r r a t o r ' s r e s -p o n s e t o h i s f i r s t e n c o u n t e r w i t h d e a t h i s g e n e r a l l y a r a t h e r p o s i t i v e one. He i s a t t r a c t e d t o t h e p e a c e f u l q u i e t u d e o f d e a t h . A f t e r t h e d e a d bee has b e e n washed iaway by t h e r a i n s , he i m a g i n e s i t l y i n g somewhere c o m p l e t e l y m o t i o n l e s s : "how q u i e t i t must be -- b e f o r e o n l y w o r k i n g and w o r k i n g , no l o n g e r m o v ing now. I f e l t a c e r t a i n n e a r n e s s t o t h a t q u i e t . H e m e n t i o n s t h a t he has r e c e n t l y w r i t t e n a s t o r y c a l l e d "Han's C r i m e " (Han no H a n z a i $ , one o f S h i g a ' s ' f i c t i o n a l " s t o r i e s ) , i n w h i c h a C h i n e s e j u g g l e r , Han, had m u r d e r e d h i s w i f e . I n h i s p r e s e n t mood he w o u l d l i k e t o r e w r i t e t h e s t o r y f r o m t h e w i f e ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , " t o d e s c r i b e h e r m u r d e r e d and i 7 q u i e t i n h e r g r a v e " . W i t h o u t b e i n g o v e r l y f a c e t i o u s , one m i g h t remark h e r e t h a t S h i g a (or h i s n a r r a t i v e a l t e r ego) comes u n c o m f o r t a b l y c l o s e t o a w r i t e r u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d h i s o p p o s i t e i n " h e a l t h y - m i n d e d n e s s " , Kawabata Y a s u n a r i , t h e " n e c r o p h i l i c " a u t h o r o f The House o f S l e e p i n g B e a u t i e s (Nemureru B i j o $K B u t p e r h a p s f o r t u n a t e l y S h i g a a s s u r e s us t h a t he n e v e r d i d w r i t e The M u r d e r e d W i f e o f Han, a l t h o u g h " t h e u r g e was t h e r e " . He t e l l s us f u r t h e r : " I was much d i s t u r b e d t h a t my way o f t h i n k i n g had become so d i f f e r e n t f r o m 9 t h a t o f &he h e r o o f a l o n g n o v e l I was w r i t i n g . " The r e f e r e n c e i s , o f c o u r s e , t o An'ya K o r o ( A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g ) , i n w h i c h t h e h e c o , K e n s a k u , i s a l m o s t d e s -p e r a t e l y l i f e - a f f i r m i n g and " p o s i t i v i s t " ; t h e p r e s e n t n a r r a -t o r ' s mood o f f e e l i n g " f i i e n d l y t o d e a t h " w o u l d no d o u b t seem a b h o r r e n t t o K e n s a k u . T h i s i s t r u e , a t l e a s t , f o r t h o s e e a r l y p o r t i o n s o f t h e n o v e l t h a t S h i g a was w r i t i n g a t t h e same t i m e as " K i n o s a k i n i t e " — t h o u g h , as we s h a l l s e e , i t be-comes l e s s and l e s s t r u e as K e n s a k u moves t o w a r d s h i s f i n a l , c l i m a c t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f " s e l f - d i s s o l u t i o n " and u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e on Mount D a i s e n i n t h e p e n u l t i m a t e c h a p t e r o f t h e n o v e l . The n a r r a t o r ' s s e c o n d e n c o u n t e r w i t h d e a t h i s a r a t h e r more v i o l e n t and u n p l e a s a n t one. W a l k i n g t h r o u g h t h e t ©wn one d a y , he n o t i c e s a n o i s y crowd o f p e o p l e g a t h e r e d a l o n g t h e bank o f a s m a l l s t r e a m . When he i n v e s t i g a t e s , he f i n d s t h a t : "A l a r g e r a t had been t h r o w n i n and was swimming d e s p e r a t e l y t o g e t away. A skewer some e i g h t t o t e n i n c h e s l o n g was t h r u s t t h r o u g h t h e s k i n o f i t s n e c k , so t h a t i t p r o j e c t e d a b o u t t h r e e o r f o u r i n c h e s above t h e head and t h r e e o r f o u r b e l o w t h e throat.""''"'" Some o f t h e b y s t a n d e r s a r e m a k i n g s p o r t o f t h e un-f o r t u n a t e c r e a t u r e by t h r o w i n g s t o n e s a t i t . I t s t r u g g l e s t o c l i m b up t h e bank and i n t o a h o l e , b u t t h e skewer c a t c h e s on some r o c k s and i t f a l l s b a c k i n t o t h e s t r e a m , " t r y i n g s t i l l t o s a v e i t s e l f somehow. One c o u l d t e l l n o t h i n g f r o m i t s s f a c e , 12 b u t f r o m i t s a c t i o n s one c o u l d see how d e s p e r a t e i t was." The n a r r a t o r t u r n s away f r o m t h e s c e n e : " I d i d n o t want t o 13 see t h e end." Whereas h i s f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e g a v e h i m an i n v i t i n g s e n s e o f t h e u l t i m a t e p e a c e o f d e a t h , t h e n , t h e s i g h t o f t h e t o r m e n t e d r a t i s f a r more d i s t u r b i n g : " I t was t e r r i b l e t o t h i n k t h a t t h i s s u f f e r i n g l a y b e f o r e t h e q u i e t I was a f t e r . E v e n i f I d i d f e e l a c e r t a i n n e a r n e s s t o t h a t q u i e t a f t e r d e a t h , s t i l l t h e 14 s t r u g g l e o n t h e way was t e r r i b l e . " And i n d e e d he i s r e m i n d e d t h a t , a f t e r h i s r e c e n t a c c i d e n t , h i s own i n s t i n c t t o s u r v i v e h a d w e l l e d up a s p o w e r f u l l y and i r r e s i s t i b l y a s t h e r a t ' s : " I w a n t e d t o do w h a t c o u l d be d o n e . I d e c i d e d o n a h o s p i t a l f o r m y s e l f . I t o l d how I was t o be t a k e n t h e r e . I a s k e d some-one t o t e l e p h o n e i n a d v a n c e b e c a u s e I was a f r a i d t h e d o c t o r m i g h t be o u t a n d t h e y w o u l d n o t be r e a d y t o o p e r a t e immed-i a t e l y . E v e n when I was b u t h a l f - c o n s c i o u s my m i n d w o r k e d so w e l l o n what was m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h a t I was s u r p r i s e d a t i t a f t e r w a r d m y s e l f . " 1 ^ S t r a n g e l y , t h o u g h , he remembers t h a t , a t t h e same t i m e , " I was s u r p r i s e d a f t e r w a r d t o o a t how l i t t l e I was t r o u b l e d by f e a r o f d e a t h . " " ^ The n a r r a t o r ' s f i n a l e n c o u n t e r w i t h d e a t h i s e v e n more d i s t u r b i n g , as he h i m s e l f i s t h e a g e n t who b r i n g s i t a b o u t . W h i l e o u t f o r an e v e n i n g s t r o l l , he comes a c r o s s a w a t e r l i z a r d s i t t i n g on a r o c k b e s i d e a s t r e a m . W i s h i n g m e r e l y " t o 17 s t a r t l e t h e l i z a r d i n t o t h e w a t e r " , he a b s e n t - m i n d e d l y t o s s e s a s t o n e i n i t s d i r e c t i o n . By w h a t seems t o h i m l i k e some p e r v e r s e t w i s t o f f a t e , t h e s t o n e s c o r e s a d i r e c t h i t and t h e l i z a r d i s k i l l e d . A g a i n , S h i g a ' s d e s c r i p t i v e p o w e r s - 48 -are admirably evocative: "The stone slapped against the rock and f e l l into the water. As i t h i t , the l i z a r d seemed to jump f i v e inches or so to the side. Its t a i l curled high i n the air...The curved t a i l began quietly to f a l l back down of i t s own weight. The toes of the projecting front feet, braced against the slope with kiaee j o i n t s cut, turned under and the l i z a r d f e l l forward,aits strength gone. Its t a i l lay f l a t 18 against the rock. It did not move. I t was dead." There i s no trace l e f t now of the narrator's previous a t t r a c t i o n to death. What es p e c i a l l y troubles him i s the way the l i z a r d ' s death seems such a product of a r b i t r a r y chance. Indeed, long before Camus and Ionesco, Shiga here presents us with an acute sense of the " e x i s t e n t i a l absurdifiy" of the fate of a l l l i v i n g creatures: "I often enough k i l l l i z a r d s and such, but the thought that I had k i l l e d one without intending to f i l l e d me with a strange revulsion. I had done i t , but 19 from the beginning e n t i r e l y by chance." Contemplating thus theslizard's death, the narrator i s f i l l e d with aa sense of the loneliness of the l i v i n g creature" This i s further i n t e n s i f i e d when he thinks now of what might have become of the two other dead creatures, the bee "carried 21 underground by that r a i n " , and the r a t , swept "off to sea, probably, and i t s body, bloated from the water, would be wash-22 ing up now with the rubbish on a beach." Hishthoughts then turned to himself: "And I who had not died was walking here. I knew I s h o u l d be g r a t e f u l . B u t t h e p r o p e r f e e l i n g o f h a p p i -n e s s r e f u s e d t o come. To be a l i v e and t o be d e a d were n o t two o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e s . T h e r e d i d n o t seem t o be much d i f f e r -23 ence between them. " I n t h i s mood <5f somber p e s s i m i s m and e x t r e m e d e t a c h m e n t , he s t u m b l e s b a c k t o h i s i n n i n t h e g r o w i n g d a r k n e s s : " t h e f e e l o f my f e e t a g a i n s t t h e g r o u n d , c u t o f f 24 f r o m my s i g h t , seemed u n c e r t a i n i n t h e e x t r e m e . " We a r e t h u s l e f t w i t h t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e n a r r a t o r has b e e n somewhat d e v a s t a t e d , a l b e i t e n l i g h t e n e d , by h i s f i n a l e n c o u n t e r w i t h d e a t h . The work e n d s , t h o u g h , w i t h a k i n d o f " f o o t n o t e " t h a t i s r a t h e r more p o s i t i v e i n t o n e : " I t i s more t h a n t h r e e y e a r s now. I d i d n o t g e t s p i n a l t u b e r c u l o s i s -- t h a t much I e s -25 c a p e d . " Thus t h e s t o r y i s s e t i n a s o r t o f " f r a m e " by t h e o p e n i n g and c l o s i n g p a r a g r a p h s , i n whifcih t h e n a r r a t o r r e m i n i c e s a b o u t t h e e v e n t s " a t K i n o s a k i " f r o m a d i s t a n c e o f t h r e e y e a r s . A c c o r d i n g t o T a n i k a w a T e t s u z o , J a p a n e s e w r i t e r s , " f r o m — 26 Akutagawa Ryunosuke on, h a ve l a v i s h e d p r a i s e on t h i s s t o r y . " What t h e c r i t i c s have f o u n d t o p r a i s e i n i t , above a l l , i s t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f i t s s t y l e . To i l l u s t r a t e what he c o n s i d e r s t o be t h e s o u r c e o f t h i s e x c e l l e n c e , T a n i k a w a q u o t e s f r o m S h i g a ' s commentary on t h e s t o r y : " T h i s t o o i s a s t o r y b a s e d on t h e e v e n t s as t h e y a c t u a l l y happened. The d e a t h s o f t h e r a t , t h e bee and t h e w a t e r l i z a r d a l l were r e a l l y w i t n e s s e d by me o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v e r a l d a y s . And I i n t e n d e d t o w r i t e d i r e c t l y and s i n c e r e l y a b o u t t h e f e e l i n g s t h a t a r o s e i n me a t - 50 -27 .the t i m e . " The v e r y f a c t , t h e n , t h a t t h e w r i t e r i s so s l o s e t o t h e e v e n t s o f w h i c h he w r i t e s g i v e s h i s s t y l e an immediacy, a " d i r e c t n e s s " and " s i n c e r i t y " t h a t i t c o u l d n o t o t h e r w i s e a t t a i n . T h i s i d e a i s by no means p e c u l i a r t o t h e a p o l o g i s t s o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u , d e s p i t e F r a n c i s M a thy's c l a i m t h a t t h e t e r m " s i n c e r i t y " h as " b u t a low p l a c e i n t h e W e s t e r n c r i t i c a l 2 8 v o c a b u l a r y . " As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i t has a h i g h p l a c e i n t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f no l e s s a w r i t e r t h a n T o l s t o y , who m a i n t a i n e d t h a t a r t i s " i n f e c t i o u s " ( i . e . p e r s u a s i v e ) " i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e s i n c e r i t y o f t h e a r t i s t , t h a t i s , o f t h e g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r f o r c e w i t h w h i c h t h e a r t i s t h i m s e l f e x p e r i e n c e s t h e s e n s a t i o n 29 w h i c h he i s c o n v e y i n g . . . " T h i s sounds v e r y c l o s e i n d e e d t o S h i g a ' s c o n c e p t o f j i k k a n ( ^  ^ " f e l t r e a l i z a t i o n s " ) w h i c h , as Mathy h i m s e l f p o i n t s o u t , i s c e n t r a l t o h i s e s p o u s a l o f an " a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l " a r t . 3 0 To t a k e b u t o n s o t h e r example t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d E n g l i s h c r i t i c , F.R. L e a v i s , i n an e s s a y e n t i t l e d " R e a l i t y and S i n c e r i t y " , m a i n t a i n s t h a t " s i n c e r i t y " i s a t e r m " t o w h i c h a c r i t i c must t r y and g i v e some u s e f u l 31 f o r c e by a p p r o p r i a t e and c a r e f u l u s e . . . " And he goes on t o II compare a poem by E m i l y B r o n t e u n f a v o r a b l y w i t h one by Thomas Hardy b e c a u s e B r o n t e i s " d r a m a t i z i n g h e r s e l f i n a s i t u a t i o n s u c h as she has c l e a r l y n o t known i n a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e : what 32 she o f f e r s i s b e t r y i n g l y l e s s r e a l . " And " t o say t h a t H a r d y ' s poem has an a d v a n t a g e i n r e a l i t y i s t o say ( i t w i l l t u r n o u t ) t h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s a p r o f o u n d e r and c o m p l e t e r • 4 . ..33 s i n c e r i t y . - 51 -Of c o u r s e , t h i s d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e r e i s u n a n i m i t y on t h i s p o i n t i n t h e West. L e a v i s h i m s e l f n o t e s C o l e r i d g e ' s b e l i e f t h a t one o f t h e " p r o m i s e s o f g e n i u s " i s "the c h o i c e o f s u b j e c t s v e r y remote f r o m t h e p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s and c i r c u m -s t a n c e s o f t h e w r i t e r h i m s e l f . A t • l e a s t I have f o u n d t h a t , where t h e s u b j e c t i s t a k e n i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m t h e a u t h o r ' s p e r -s o n a l s e n s a t i o n s and e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f a p a r t i -c u l a r poem i s b u t an e q u i v o c a l mark, and o f t e n a f a l l a c i o u s 34 p l e d g e , o f g e n u i n e p o e t i c power-;" And we m i g h t add t o t h i s F l a u b e r t ' s d i c t u m : " t o u t e o e u v r e e s t condamnable ou 1 ' a u t e u r 35 se l a i s s e d e v i n e r . " F l a u b e r t , s a y s W i l l i a m B a r r y , "warned us a g a i n s t e v e r y work o f a r t i n w h i c h t h e a u t h o r ' s f a c e seems t o be r e f l e c t e d . . . S u g h e g o t i s m , he t h i n k s i s u n w o r t h y o f a 3 6 supreme a r t i s t , and b e a r s i t s c o n d e m n a t i o n i t i t s e l f . " I n o t h e r words, t h e d e b a t e between t h e a p o l o g i s t s o f t h e " f i c t i o n a l " and t h o s e o f t h e " a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l " i s an e t e r n a l one and has b e e n c o n d u c t e d as v i g o r o u s l y i n E u r o p e as i n J a p a n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t seems t h a t , i n t h e J a p a n o f S h i g a ' s d a y a t l e a s t , i t was t h e " s i n c e r i t y " o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u w h i c h won t h e most a d m i r e r s ( a l t h o u g h t h e " o t h e r s i d e " was w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d by t h a t consummate s t o r y - t e l l e r , T a n i z a k i J u n i c h i r o . ) A g a i n i t i s K o b a y a s h i H i d e o who, w i t h a few memorable s i m i l e s , b e s t e x p r e s s e s t h e s e n s e o f immediacy and s p o n t a n e i t y i n S h i g a ' s s t y l e t h a t J a p a n e s e r e a d e r s f i n d so a p p e a l i n g : " H i s p e r c e p t i o n s a r e d i r e c t i n d e e d , l i k e t h e c o b r a s w a y i n g t o t h e sound o f t h e f l u t e , o r t h e w i n g s o f t h e p t a r m i g a n t u r n i n g w h i t e w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f w i n t e r . The immediacy o f t h e a w a r e n e s s d o e s n o t p e r m i t o f h e s i t a t i o n i n t h e c h o i c e o f words. They a r e f o u n d b e f o r e t h e r i p p l e s have r e a c h e d t h e edge o f t h e 37 pond. I t i s d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r S h i g a -- o r any o t h e r w r i t e r -- c o u l d a t t a i n t h i s m i r a c u l o u s d e g r e e o f immediacy i f he d i d n o t w r i t e d i r e c t l y o u t o f h i s own e x p e r i e n c e . Y o s h i d a S e i - i c h i a l s o e m p h a s i z e s S h i g a ' s s p o n t a n e i t y , e v e n g o i n g so f a r as t o say t h a t t h e s e l e c t i o n o f p e r t i n e n t d e t a i l s , a p r o c e s s t h a t most w r i t e r s a g o n i z e o v e r , comes t o him s i m p l y and n a t u r a l l y . " S h i g a ' s s e n t e n c e s a r e a l i v e " , s a y s Y o s h i d a , " b e c a u s e t h e y do n o t d e s c r i b e t o o much, t h e y s e l e c t o n l y t h e n e c e s s a r y d e t a i l s . S h i g a h i m s e l f o n c e o b s e r v e d : "When one l o o k s a t a p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g and t r i e s t o t h i n k a b o u t u s i n g i t as t h e m a t e r i a l f o r one's w r i t i n g , o n e ' s a t t e n t i o n i s a l l t h e more d i s t r a c t e d t o o t h e r , s u p e r f l u o u s t h i n g s — and t h i s s e r v e s no p u r p o s e . When I do s o m e t h i n g I do i t a l -most u n c o n s c i o u s l y , and u s u a l l y I w r i t e down o n l y w h a t e v e r r e m a i n s i n my mind a b o u t i t a f t e r w a r d s ' . B u t t h e s e a r e t h e words o f a man b e l s s e d w i t h t h e t r u e w r i t e r ' s temperament! To s e e t h e e s s e n t i a l t h i n g s n a t u r a l l y , w i t h o u t e v e n t r y i n g t o see thm — t h i s i s i n d e e d a b o r n w r i t e r . The p r o c e s s o f s e l e c t i o n o p e r a t e s i n him u n c o n s c i o u s l y . " Y o s h i d a goes on t o s a y , t h o u g h , t h a t f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e " s c i e n c e o f r h e t o r i e " "Shiga's w r i t i n g , l o o k e d a t s e n t e n c e by s e n t e n c e , d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y q u a l i f y as " f i n e p r o s e " (meibun "^C )• He n o t e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e many r e p e t i t i o n s o f words and p h r a s e s , q u o t i n g as an example t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e f r o m " K i n o s a k i n i t e " : "Su no d e i r i n i i s o g a s h i k u sono w a k i o haimawaru ga m a t t a k u k o d e i s u r u y o s u wa n a k a t t a . I s o g a s h i k u t a c h i h a t a r a i t e i r u h a c h i wa i k a n i mo i k i t e i r u mono t o i u k a n j i o a t a e t a . Sono w a k i n i i p p i k i , a s a mo h i r u mo y u mo, m i r u t a b i n i h i t o t s u t o k o r o m a t t a k u u g o k a z u n i u t s u m u k i n i k o r o g a t t e i r u no o m i r u t o , s o r e ga mata fcka n i mo s h i n d a mono t o i u k a n j i o a t a e r u no d a . S o r e wa m i k k a hodo sono mama n i n a t t e i t a . S o r e wa m i t e x x x x x x x x x x x x x x i t e , i k a n i mo s h i z u k a na k a n j i o a t a e t a . S a m i s h i k a t t a . Hoka no h a c h i ga mina sue e h a i t t e s h i m a t t a h i g u r e , t s u m e t a i kawara n i h i t o t s u n o k o t t a s h i g a i o m i r u k o t o wa s a m i s h i k a t t a . S h i k a s h i , 39 s o r e wa i k a n i mo s h i z u k a d a t t a . " x x x x x x x The f o l l o w i n g i s a r a t h e r l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n b u t i t s t i l l c a n n o t , o f c o u r s e , r e p r o d u c e t h e e x a c t e f f e c t o f a l l t h e r e p e t i t i o n s i n J a p a n e s e . "They c r a w l e d b u s j r l y a r o u n d t h e e n t r a n c e t o t h e i r h i v e b u t t h e y g.ave no s i g n i w h a t e v e r t h a t t h e y had any r e l a t i o n t o t h e d ead bee. T h e s e b u s i l y w o r k i n g b e e s c e r t a i n l y gave me t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e y were l i v i n g t h i n g s . And, a g a i n , whenever I saw t h e d e a d one b e s i d e them, m o r n i n g noon o r n i g h t , l y i n g f a c e down a l w a y s i n e x a c t l y t h e same p l a c e , i t c e r t a i n l y gave me t h e f e e l i n g t h a t i t was a d ead t h i n g . I t l a y t h e r e f o r more t h a n t h r e e d a y s . When I l o o k e d a t i t , i t c e r t a i n l y g ave me a f e e l i n g o f q u i e t n e s s . And o f l o n e l i n e s s . I t was l o n e l y t o see t h e one d e a d bee l e f t on t h e c o l d r o o f -- 54 -t i l e when t h e o t h e r s had a l l gone i n t o t h e i r h i v e a f t e r n i g h t -f a l l . B u t a l s o i t was c e r t a i n l y t r a n q u i l . " ) " I n t h i s b r i e f p a s s a g e a l o n e , " Y o s h i d a r e m a r k s , " t h e r e i s one s e n t e n c e i n w h i c h t h e r e a r e f o u r r e p e t i t i o n s o f t h e same word o r p h r a s e , two s e n t e n c e s i n w h i c h t h e r e a r e t h r e e and two i n w h i c h t h e r e a r e two. T h a t t h e r e s h o u l d be so many r e p e t i t i o n s e v e n a f t e r t h e w r i t e r has o m i t t e d and d e l e t e d a s much a s p o s s i b l e i s p r o b a b l y a f a u l t f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f r h e t o r i c . B u t i t i s a l l a n e c e s s a r y and u n a v o i d a b l e p a r t o f S h i g a ' s mode o f e x p r e s s i o n . The r e p e t i t i o n s a r e a p a r t o f h i s p o e t i c s e n s e o f r h y t h m , and g i v e f o r c e f u l e x p r e s s i o n t o t h o s e 40 i m p r e s s i o n s w h i c h have made t h e d e e p e s t i m p a c t on h i s mind." The r e p e t i t i o n s may s e r v e a t h e m a t i c as w e l l a s a s t y -l i s t i c p u r p o s e . Y o s h i d a i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e , a&so f r o m " K i n o s a k i n i t e " : "Ima j i b u n n i ano nezumi no yo na k o t o ga o k o t t a r a j i b u n wa do s u r u d a r o . J i b u n wa y a h a r i nezumi t o o n a j i yo s o r e n i c h i k a i j i b u n n i n a t t a k o t o o omowanai de wa i r a r e n a -k a t t a . J i b u n wa d e k i r u dake no k o t o o s h i y o t o s h i t a . J i b u n wa j i s h i n de b y o i n o k i m e t a . " 4 ^ ("What w o u l d J. do i f J- were now i n t h e same s i t u a t i o n a s t h e r a t was i n ? Would I n o t , a f t e r a l l , s t r u g g l e f o r s u r -v i v a l i n t h e same way as t h e r a t was d o i n g ? I_ c o u l d n o t h e l p r e c a l l i n g how I had beh a v e d much l i k e t h a t when I_ had my a c c i -d e n t . I_ t r i e d t o do w h a t e v e r c o u l d p o s s i b l y be done. I_ de-- 55 -c i d e d on a h o s p i t a l f o r m y s e l f . " ) "What a b o u t t h e s e e i g h t r e p e t i t i o n s o f t h e word ' j i b u n ' ? " a s k s Y o s h i d a . " I f we were t o i s o l a t e t h i s p a s s a g e and examine i t as an example o f bad s t y l e , i t w o u l d p r o b a b l y be p o s s i b l e t o d e l e t e many o f t h e r e p e t i t i o n s . B u t i f we l o o k a t i t as embedded i n i t s o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t , and t r y t o d i s c e r n how t h i s ' j i b u n ' w orks, t h e n t h i s mode o f e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h e m p h a s i z e s t h e s e l f assumes a n e c e s s a r y r o l e as p a r t o f t h e h o n e s t s e l f -42 a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e p a s s a g e . " (We s h a l l r e t u r n t o t h i s s u b j e c t o f t h e t h e m a t i c use o f r e p e t i t i o n s l a t e r when we examine S h i g a ; s r e p e a t e d use o f t h e word " s a b i s h i " ( l o n e l y ) i n " K i n o -s a k i n i t e " . ) Y o s h i d a ' s a n a l y s i s , t h e n , seems t o s u p p o r t S h i g a ' s c o n -t e n t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s more t o good s t y l e t h a n mere s k i l l o r t e c h n i q u e , w h e t h e r t h i s i n v o l v e s f o l l o w i n g t e x t b o o k r u l e s o f r h e t o r i c o r any o t h e r " a r t i f i c i a l " s t a n d a r d s . S h i g a h i m s e l f , as we have s e e n , u s e d t h e word "rhythm" t o t r y t o d e f i n e t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e o f what he r e g a r d e d t o be good s t y l e . B u t , as we may see f r o m t h e above example, t h i s i n v o l v e s more t h a n j u s t p a t t e r n s o f sound -- i t i s a l s o , we m i g h t s a y , t h e v e r y p a t t e r n o f a w r i t e r ' s f e e l i n g s and t h o u g h t s . A l t h o u g h he d i d n o t see e y e - t o » e y e w i t h S h i g a ' s a p o l o -g i s t s on t h e i n n a t e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u g e n r e 43 p e r s e , T a n i z a k i J u n i c h i r o , who was c e r t a i n l y no mean s t y -l i s t h i m s e l f , was as u n r e s e r v e d as anyone e l s e i n h i s p r a i s e - 56 -o f S h i g a ' s s t y l e . Of " K i n o s a k i n i t e " i n p a r t i c u l a r , he s a i d 43 t h a t i t had t h e f i n e s t s t y l e he h a d e v e r e n c o u n t e r e d . He q u o t e s f r o m i t e x t e n s i v e l y t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e v i r t u e s o f S h i g a ' s s t y l e i n h i s Bunsho Tokuhon ( ^t, ^ S t y l i s t i c Reader) . What he seems t o admire above a l l i s t h e economy o r " p r a c t i -c a l i t y " ( j i t s u y o ^ ) o f S h i g a ' s w r i t i n g . As an example, he q u o t e s t h e p a r t i a l s e n t e n c e : "Ta no h a c h i ga m i n a s u n i h a i t t e s h i m a t t a h i g u r e t s u m e t a i kawara no ue n i h i t o t s u n o k o t t a 45 s h i g a i o m i r u k o t o wa..." (...to s e e t h e one d ead b ody l e f t on t h e c o l d t i l e i n t h e e v e n i n g a f t e r t h e o t h e r b e e s h a d a l l e n t e r e d t h e h i v e . " ) Any o r d i n a r y w r i t e r , s a y s T a n i z a k i , w o u l d have w r i t t e n t h i s i n a f a r more r o u n d a b o u t way: " H i ga k u r e r u t o t a no h a c h i wa m i n a s u n i h a i t t e s h i m a t t e sono s h i g a i dake ga t s u m e t a i kawara no ue n i h i t o t s u n o k o t t e i t a ga, s o r e o 4 6 m i r u t o . . . " ( " A f t e r i t h a d grown d a r k and t h e o t h e r b e e s had a l l gone i n t o t h e h i v e , o n l y t h e dead body w o u l d be l e f t b e h i n d , a l l a l o n e , on t h e c o l d t i l e ; when I saw i t . . . " ) . T an-i z a k i d e s c r i b e s S h i g a ' s s e n t e n c e as h a v i n g been " t i g h t e n e d up" ( h i k i s h i m e t a j?| jffij^  fcf> ) and s a y s t h a t " t h i s v e r y ' t i g h t -e n i n g up' e n a b l e s t h e s e n t e n c e t o c o n v e y i t s i m p r e s s i o n s w i t h 47 a l l t h e more c l a r i t y . " As a f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s p o i n t he q u o t e s S h i g a ' s g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e b e e s : " H a c h i wa hame no awai k a r a s u r i n u k e t e d e r u t o h i t o m a z u genkan no yane n i o r i t a . Soko de hane y a s h o k k a k u o m a e a s h i y a u s h i r o a s h i de t e i n e i n i t o t o n o e r u t o s u k o s h i a r u k i m a w a r u y a t s u mo a r u ga sugu h o s o n a g a i hane o r y o h o e s h i k -- 57 -k a r i t o h a t t e buuun t o t o b i t a t s u . T o b i t a t s u t o k y u n i h a y a k u 48 n a t t e t o n d e y u k u . " ("Pushing t h e i r way o u t f r o m between t h e b o a r d s t h e y w o u l d pause on t h e r o o f o f t h e e n t r a n c e w a y . Some wo u l d walk a r o u n d f o r a moment a f t e r t h e y had a r r a n g e d t h e i r w i n g s and f e e l e r s w i t h t h e i r f r o n t and h i n d l e g s , and immed-i a t e l y t h e y t o o w o u l d s p r e a d t h e i r s l e n d e r w i n g s t a u t and t a k e o f f w i t h a h e a v y d r o n i n g . Once i n t h e a i r t h e y moved q u i c k l y 49 away." ) "Here t h e b e e s ' movements", s a y s T a n i z a k i , " a r e d e s -c r i b e d p r e c i s e l y as one w o u l d see them t h r o u g h c l o s e o b s e r v a -t i o n . The r e a d e r f e e l s t h a t he i s a c t u a l l y s e e i n g e a c h m o t i o n b e c a u s e a l l waste has b een e l i m i n a t e d i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n ; any 50 word t h a t i s n o t a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y has b een l e f t o u t . " R e s p o n d i n g t o T a n i z a k i ' s a n a l y s i s , T a n i k a w a T e t s u z o , p e r -haps more i n c o n s o n a n c e w i t h S h i g a ' s own way o f t h i n k i n g , em-p h a s i z e s t h a t t h e power o f S h i g a ' s w r i t i n g d e r i v e s n o t m e r e l y f r o m h i s t a l e n t f o r " c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n " b u t a l s o f r o m h i s deep s e n s i t i v i t y t o w a r d s t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d and e v e n f r o m h i s p e r -s o n a l s t r e n g t h o f c h a r a c t e r : I f e e l a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e p a s s a g e w h i c h d e s c r i b e s t h e r a t ' s d e a t h . What i s shown h e r e i s S h i g a ' s power as a r e a l i s t — I mean n o t m e r e l y h i s powers o f d e s c r i p -t i o n b u t t h e power o f h i s h e a r t t o g a z e u n f l i n c h i n g l y V, and w i t h o u t r e g r e t a t any s c e n e w h a t s o e v e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , S h i g a h a s t h e s o r t o f temperament t h a t i s more t h a n u s u a l l y t e s p o n s i v e t o s u c h s c e n e s . I n t h i s c a s e a l s o he s a y s f i n a l l y : 'I f e l t l o n e l y and unhappy. 1 B u t h a v i n g s a i d t h i s , he does n o t t u r n h i s e y e s away f r o m t h e s c e n e . One c a n f i n d t h i s k i n d o f example e v e r y w h e r e i n S h i g a . He i s t h e same i n r e g a r d t o t h e human h e a r t . He s e e s what he must s e e , he f e e l s what he must f e e l ; he does n o t , l i k e t h e f a i n t - h e a r ^ d , t u r n h i s e y e s away o r t r y t o c o v e r t h i n g s up." - 58 -Erom t h e comments o f t h e s e m a j o r J a p a n e s e c r i t i c s , t h e n , we may t a k e i t t h a t " K i n o s a k i n i t e " i s r e g a r d e d , on g r o u n d s o f s t y l e a l o n e , as a m a s t e r p i e c e o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u g e n r e , and t h u s may f a i r l y s t a n d t o r e p r e s e n t t h i s g e n r e i n any com-p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f i t w i t h , s a y , t h e modern W e s t e r n s h o r t s t o r y . I t i s f o r t u n a t e , t h e n , t h a t t h e r e happens t o be a h i g h l y " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e " W e s t e r n s t o r y b u i l t a r o u n d l a r g e l y t h e same i d e a a s S h i g a ' s b u t w r i t t e n v e r y much i n t h e E u r o p e a n manner: T o l s t o y ' s " T h r e e D e a t h s " (and who c o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e W e s t e r n f i c t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n b e t t e r t h a n T o l s t o y ? ) I t w i l l t e l l us much, I t h i n k , a b o u t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n a t u r e and s p e c i a l m e r i t s o f the/..;shi-shosetsu g e n r e t o compare t h e way i n w h i c h t h e s e two d i f f e r e n t w r i t e r s h a n d l e a b a s i c a l l y s i m i l a r s t o r y c o n c e p t . The q u e s t i o n o f " i n f l u e n c e d s h o u l d be q u i c k l y d i s p o s e d 52 o f . A l t h o u g h S l i g a was a g r e a t a d m i r e r o f T o l s t o y , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h i s i s a c a s e o f " d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e " . As I have a l r e a d y q u o t e d him as s a y i n g , S h i g a b a s e d t h e s t o r y on e v e n t s he had a c t u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d . I t i s one o f t h e o b v i o u s v i r t u e s o f " a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l " w r i t e r s i n g e n e r a l t h a t t h e y a r e f a i r l y immune t o any k i n d o f d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e . Whether S h i g a was " i n d i r e c t l y " i n f l u e n c e d t o make a s t o r y o u t o f t h e e v e n t s he w i t n e s s e d b e c a u s e he had r e a d t h e T o l s t o y s t o r y i s a r a t h e r e s o t e r i c q u e s t i o n , and one t h a t i s anyway more o f b i o g r a p h i -c a l t h a n o f c r i t i c a l i n t e r e s t . - 59 -T o l s t o y ' s s t o r y , a s i t s t i t l e i m p l i e s , i s s t r u c t u r e d , l i k e " K i n o s a k i n i t e " , a r o u n d t h r e e s e p a r a t e d e a t h s : t h a t o f a w e a l t h y l a d y , t h a t o f an o l d p e a s a n t and t h a t o f a young t r e e . The s t o r y i s d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r numbered p a r t s . I n t h e f i r s t p a r t , we a r e i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e l a d y , t r a v e l l i n g f r o m R u s s i a t o I t a l y by s t a g e c o a c h w i t h h e r h u s b a n d , h e r d o c t o r and h e r m a i d s e r v a n t . The g r o u p has s t o p p e d a t a p o s t - s t a t i o n and h e r e t h e d o c t o r a d v i s e s t h e h u s b a n d n o t t o c o n t i n u e w i t h t h e j o u r n e y , a s h i s w i f e w i l l s u r e l y d i e a l o n g t h e way. The h u s -band t r i e s t o p r e v a i l upon h i s w i f e t o t u r n b a c k , b u t s h e , a c t i n g l i k e a r a t h e r p e t u l a n t , s p o i l e d c h i l d , i n s i s t s t h a t , i f o n l y she c a n e e a c h t h e warm c l i m a t e o f t h e s o u t h , h e r t u b e r -c u l o s i s w i l l v a n i s h . I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t we a r e t a k e n i n s i d e t h e d r i v e r s ' room a t t h e p o s t - s t a t i o n and h e r e i n t r o d u c e d t o U n c l e T h e o d o r e , an o l d d r i v e r who i s a l s o , l i k e the. l a d y , d y i n g o f t u b e r c u -l o s i s . I n s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o t h e l a d y , however, he a c c e p t s h i s coming d e a t h w i t h c a l m s t o i c i s m , e v e n a p o l o g i z i n g t o t h e woman o f t h e house f o r t h e i n c o n v e n i e n c e h i s i l l n e s s h a s c a u s e d h e r . When a young d r i v e r a s k s f o r h i s b o o t s , s i n c e he w i l l no l o n g -e r be n e e d i n g them, t h e o l d man a c c e d e s w i t h o u t c o m p l a i n t , a s k i n g o n l y t h a t t h e y o u t h buy a g r a v e s t o n e f o r him when he i s dead. In t h e t h i r d p a r t i t i s a b o u t h a l f a y e a r l a t e r and t h e s c e n e i s t h e w e a l t h y l a d y ' s house i n R u s s i a . She d i d n o t go - 60 -on t o I t a l y a f t e r a l l and now we w i t n e s s <the so l e m n s c e n e o f h e r g r i e v i n g f a m i l y g a t h e r e d a r o u n d h e r d e a t h b e d . The s o l e m n i t y o f t h e o c c a s i o n , t h o u g h , i s somewhat m a r r e d by t h e l a d y ' s c o n t i n u i n g i n s i s t e n c e t h a t , i f o n l y h e r h u s b a n d had a l l o w e d h e r t o p r o c e e d t o I t a l y , she w o u l d be f u l l y r e c o v e r e d by now. Up t o h e r l a s t moment she r e f u s e s t o a c c e p t t h e i n -e v i t a b l e ; she r e j e c t s t h e v e r y i d e a o f d e a t h w i t h an i n s t i n c -t i v e f e r o c i t y w h i c h r e c a l l s t h e f u t i l e s t r u g g l e o f S h i g a ' s r a t . O n l y when d e a t h f i n a l l y comes does she a c h i e v e a d i g n i -f i e d c a l m . Now we a r e r e m i n d e d o f t h e q u i e t u d e o f S h i g a ' s d e ad b e e : "The d e a d woman's f a c e l o o k e d s t e r n and m a j e s t i c . N e i t h e r i n t h e c l e a r c o l d brow n o r i n t h e f i r m l y c l o s e d l i p s 53 was t h e r e any movement." I n t h e s t o r y ' s f o u r t h and f i n a l c h a p t e r we a r e t a k e n b a c k t o t h e p o s t - s t a t i o n . U n c l e T h e o d o r e has been d e a d now many months b u t he s t i l l has no g r a v e s t o n e . The young d r i v e r who p r o m i s e d him one i s p r o d d e d by t h e woman o f t h e house u n t i l f i n a l l y he a g r e e s t o go o u t and c u t down a t r e e , so t h a t t h e o l d man m i g h t have a t l e a s t a wooden c r o s s o v e r him. I n t h e f i n a l s c e n e o f t h e s t o r y T o l s t o y "draws b a c k " and d e s c r i b e s t h e t r e e ' s d e a t h n o t t h r o u g h t h e young d r i v e r ' s e y e s b u t as i f f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f N a t u r e i t s e l f -- t h e way t h e axe-b l o w s , f o r i n s t a n c e , d i s t u r b t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e f o r e s t . And when t h e young a s h has f a l l e n , t h e o t h e r t r e e s a r o u n d i t a r e d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g " f l a u n t e d t h e b e a u t y o f t h e i r m o t i o n l e s s - 61 -54 b r a n c h e s s t i l l more j o y o u s l y i n t h e newly c l e a r e d s p a c e . ' As t h i s l a s t q u o t e i m m e d i a t e l y s u g g e s t s , t h e two s t o r i e s have more i n common t h a t m e r e l y t h e i r o v e r a l l c o n c e p t i o n . I n t h i s c a s e , i t i s t h e use o f t h e d e v i c e o f c o n t r a s t i n a q u i t e s p e c i f i c way: t o g i v e a p r o f o u n d s e n s e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between l i f e and d e a t h . We have a l r e a d y s e e n how S h i g a ' s c o n -t r a s t o f t h e m o t i o n l e s s d e a d bee w i t h t h e b u s i l y a c t i v e o nes s u c c e e d e d i n g i v i n g t h i s s e n s e . The f i n a l s e n t e n c e o f T o l s t o y ' s s t o r y a c h i e v e s t h e same e f f e c t i n much t h e same way: " t h e sappy l e a v e s w h i s p e r e d g l a d l y and p e a c e f u l l y on t h e t r e e t o p s , and t h e b r a n c h e s o f t h o s e t h a t were l i v i n g b egan t o r u s t l e s l o w l y 55 and m a j e s t i c a l l y o v e r t h e d e a d and p r o s t r a t e t r e e . " T o l s t o y , i n f a c t , u s e s t h i s d e v i c e more e x t e n s i v e l y t h a n S h i g a . F o r example, he c o n t r a s t s t h e f e e b l e , i r r i t a b l e d y i n g l a d y w i t h h e r e n e r g e t i c , c h e e r f u l m a i d s e r v a n t who p o s s e s s e s a " f u l l 56 bosom" and " q u i c k b&ack e y e s " , and l i k e w i s e he c o n t r a s t s t h e g e n t l e o l d T h e o d o r e w i t h t h e young d r i v e r , i n s o l e n t b u t f u l l o f l i f e , who demands h i s b o o t s . B o t h a u t h o r s a l s o , o f c o u r s e , c o n t r a s t t h e t h r e e d e a t h s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s t o r i e s , b u t now t o q u i t e d i f -f e r e n t e f f e c t . I n T o l s t o y t h e c o n t r a s t s e r v e s l a r g e l y a m o r a l and s a t i r i c o u r p o s e : as h i s E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t o r r e m a r k s , he c o n t r a s t s " t h e q u e r u l o u s i n v a l i d l a d y w i t h t h e d y i n g p e a s a n t 57 and t h e u s e f u l t r e e w h i c h made no demands on anyone." I n o t h e r w o rds, e v e n i n t h i s e a r l y s t o r y o f T o l s t o y ' s we f i n d h i s p e r e n n i a l theme o f t h e d e c a d e n c e o f t h e u p p e r c l a s s e s as o p p o s e d t o t h e p e a s a n t r y and t o t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e i n g e n e r a l (to w h i c h , i n T o l s t o y ' s v i e w , t h e p e a s a n t r y a l s o b e l o n g ) -- a w o r l d r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e by t h e t r e e . As we w o u l d e x p e c t , S h i g a i s f a r l e s s m o r a l and c e r e b r a l . What he c o n t r a s t s m a i n l y a r e h i s d i f f e r e n t e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s t o t h e t h r e e d e a t h s , r a n g i n g as we have s e e n , f r o m t h e p o s i t i v e t o t h e n e g a t i v e . A s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e may be r e m a r k e d i n t h e r o l e t h a t n a t u r e p l a y s i n t h e two s t o r i e s . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f S h i g a ' s t o t a l o p us, " K i n o s a k i n i t e " i s i m p o r t a n t i n t h a t i t r e c o r d s t h e " S h i g a h e r o ' s " f i r s t r e a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e . " A r u A s a : , as we have s e e n , was c o n c e r n e d e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h t h e n a r r o w w o r l d o f human r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n a f a m i l y s e t t i n g t h a t seemed " c l a u s t r o p h o b i c " f o r a young man y e a r n i n g t o e x p r e s s h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y . " K i n o s a k i n i t e " p r o -v i d e s t h e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n o f how t h e S h i g a h e r o w i l l s e e k e s c a p e f r o m t h e s e o p p r e s s i v e c o n f i n e s : by t u r n i n g more and more t o w a r d s t h e w i d e r w o r l d o f n a t u r e . We c a n d i s c e r n t h e g r o w t h o f t h i s t e n d e n c y t h r o u g h o u t S h i g a ' s l a t e r works u n t i l , as we s h a l l s e e , i t r e a c h e s a k i n d o f c l i m a x i n h i s n o v e l , An'ya K o r o . I n h i s f i n a l y e a r s S h i g a t u r n e d away f r o m t h e human w o r l d e v e n more, s a y i n g t h a t " t h e t r o u b l e s o m e c o m p l i c a -t i o n s o f human a f f a i r s have g r a d u a l l y come t o be most d i s t a s t e 5 8 f u l t o me." H i s v e r y l a s t s t o r i e s a r e c o n c e r n e d a l m o s t en-t i r e l y w i t h p l a n t s and a n i m a l s . As F r a n c i s Mathy s a y s : "Now t h a t S h i g a had e s t a b l i s h e d an a l m o s t p e r f e c t r a p p o r t w i t h n a t u r e he no l o n g e r f e l t t h e u r g e t o w r i t e a b o u t t h e c o m p l i -c a t i o n s o f human a f f a i r s , b u t was c o n t e n t t o l i v e immersed i n 5 9 n a t u r e , q u i e t l y e n j o y i n g t h e b e a u t y t h a t s u r r o u n d e d him." I n " K i n o s a k i n i t e " , t h e n , t h e r e i s a l r e a d y some h i n t o f what we m i g h t c a l l S h i g a ' s g r o w i n g " d i s t a s t e " f o r human n a t u r e . The o n l y human b e i n g s t o a p p e a r i n t h e s t o r y , b e s i d e s t h e n a r -r a t o r h i m s e l f , a r e t h e o n l o o k e r s who c r u e l l y t o r m e n t t h e d y i n g r a t . And e v e n t h e n a r r a t o r h i m s e l f i s n o t p r e s e n t e d i n an e n t i r e l y f a v o u r a b l e l i g h t : t h r o u g h c a r e l e s s n e s s , a l b e i t un-i n t e n t i o n a l l y , he i s t h e a g e n t o f t h e u n f o r t u n a t e l i z a r d ' s d e a t h . I n T o l s t o y ' s s t o r y t o o t h e r e i s a s t r o n g s e n s e o f t h e p u r i t y o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d a s o p p o s e d , a t l e a s t , t o t h e w o r l d o f t h e R u s s i a n a r i s t o c r a c y ; b u t s t i l l t h e s t o r y i s c e n t r e d f a r more on human l i f e . F o r one t h i n g , t h e s t o i c a l p e a s a n t s a r e s e e n as e v e r y b i t a p a r t o f n a t u r e as t h e t r e e s i n t h e f o r e s t s . And T o l s t o y i s , a f t e r a l l , a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y W e s t e r n w r i t e r what he i s i n t e r e s t e d i n above a l l i s t h e p o r t r a y a l o f human c h a r a c t e r . E v e n i n t h i s s t o r y o f o n l y a b o u t f i f t e e n p a ges ( a l m o s t t h r e e t i m e s t h e l e n g t h o f S h i g a ' s s t o r y b u t v e r y s h o r t i n d e e d f o r T o l s t o y ! ) a whole g a l l e r y o f c h a r a c t e r s i s p r e s e n t e d , and ev e n t h e m i n o r ones seem t o s p r i n g i n t o l i f e w i t h j u s t a few s t r o k e s o f t h e m a s t e r ' s pen. I n S h i g a ' s s t o r y t h e r e a r e no " c h a r a c t e r s " i n t h i s s e n s e -- o n l y t h e " d i s e m -b o d i e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e n a r r a t o r . B u t I s h a l l r e t u r n t o t h i s p o i n t i n - m o r e d e t a i l l a t e r . B e c a u s e T o l s t o y employs " n a t u r e " , i n c l u d i n g t h e p e a s a n t r y l a r g e l y f o r t h e m o r a l p u r p o s e o f s a t i r i z i n g t h e a r i s t o c r a c y , h i s v i e w o f n a t u r e , as we m i g h t e x p e c t , t e n d s t o be i d e a l i s t i c , e v en s e n t i m e n t a l . We a l l know how p e r s i s t e n t l y he i d e a l i z e d t h e R u s s i a n p e a s a n t , b u t i n t h e p r e s e n t s t o r y we c a n see how he a l s o t e n d s t o i d e a l i z e i n a n i m a t e n a t u r e , by a k i n d o f a n t h -r o p o m o r p h i s m t h a t i s r a t h e r u n c o n v i n c i n g t o t h e modern mind. We s e e t h i s , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e s e n t e n c e a l r e a d y q u o t e d : "The t r e e s f l a u n t e d t h e b e a u t y o f t h e i r m o t i o n l e s s b r a n c h e s s t i l l more j o y o u s l y i n t h e newly c l e a r e d s p a c e . T o l s t o y ' s p i c t u r e o f t h e t r e e ' s d e a t h , i n f a c t , seems an a l t o g e t h e r t o o p r e t t y one i f we compare i t w i t h S h i g a ' s u n c o m p r o m i s i n g l y r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a y a l o f t h e r a t ' s d e s p e r a t e s t r u g g l e f o r s u r -v i v a l and t h e l i z a r d ' s a b s u r d d e a t h by m i s c h a n c e . A l t h o u g h S h i g a , l i k e T o l s t o y , t u r n s t o n a t u r e as a welcome a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e humal w o r l d , he d e s c r i b e s what he s e e s t h e r e w i t h a c l e a r , u n f l i n c h i n g e y e , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e he h a s no " v e s t e d i n t e r e s t " i n making a m o r a l p o i n t . T h e r e i s , as I have men-t i o n e d , some h i n t h e r e o f h i s g r o w i n g " d i s t a s t e " (I u s e t h e word a d v i s e d l y , t o c o n n o t e more an e m o t i o n a l t h a n a m o r a l r e s p o n s e ) f o r human b e i n g s — b u t t h i s i s by no means t h e m a i n p o i n t o f t h e s t o r y . I n s e t t i n g h i m s e l f up as t h e j u d g e i n s t e a d o f as m e r e l y , l i k e S h i g a ' s n a r r a t o r , t h e e x p e r i e n c e r o f t h e w o r l d , T o l s t o y n a t u r a l l y assumes t h e G o d - l i k e , " o m n i s c i e n t " p o i n t o f v i e w . A j u d g e , a f t e r a l l , must a p p e a r t o be " o b j e c t i v e " , and t h i s - 65 -p r e t e n c e t o o b j e c t i v i t y w o u l d be f a r l e s s c o n v i n c i n g i f a f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e v i e w p o i n t were u s e d . Here l i e s , i t seems t o me, t h e v e r y c r u x o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between S h i g a ' s s t o r y and T o l s t o y ' s -- and i n d e e d between t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u and t h e m a i n s t r e a m t r a d i t i o n o f W e s t e r n f i c t i o n i n g e n e r a l . I t i s n o t m e r e l y a t e c h n i c a l d i f f e r e n c e b u t a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e way o f a p p r e h e n d i n g t h e w o r l d . On t h e s e s p e c i f i c g r o u n d s , S h i g a and t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u seem t o o f f e r c e r t a i n d i s t i n c t a d -v a n t a g e s , e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e modern r e a d e r who i s wary o f a w r i t e r who makes a b s o l u t e j u d g m e n t s . The f e e l i n g t h a t t h e t h i r d - p e r s o n " o m n i s c i e n t " n a r r a -t i v e v i e w p o i n t i s i n some way " a r t i f i c i a l " i s c e r t a i n l y n o t c o n f i n e d t o J a p a n e s e c r i t i c s . I n h i s s e m i n a l s t u d y , The  R h e t o r i c o f F i c t i o n , Wayne B o o t h r e m a r k s : "One o f t h e m o s t o b v i o u s l y a r t i f i c i a l d e v i c e s o f t h e s t o r y t e l l e r i s t h e t r i c k o f g o i n g b e n e a t h t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e a c t i o n t o o b t a i n a r e -l i a b l e v i e w o f a c h a r a c t e r ' s mind and h e a r t . Whatever o u r i d e a s may be - b o u t t h e n a t u r a l way t o t e l l a s t o r y , a r t i f i c e i s u n m i s t a k a b l y p r e s e n t whenever t h e a u t h o r t e l l s us what no one i n s o - c a l l e d r e a l l i f e c o u l d p o s s i b l y know. I n l i f e we n e v e r know anyone b u t o u r s e l v e s by t h o r o u g h l y r e l i a b l e i n -t e r n a l s i g n s . . . " ^ U n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , I am s u r e , t h i s d i s t i n -g u i s h e d A m e r i c a n c r i t i c has h e r e w r i t t e n a c o n v i n c i n g d e f e n s e o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u a e s t h e t i c . I have a l r e a d y u s e d Ueda M a k o t o 1 s t e r m , t h e " S t a t u r a l p l o t " t o d e s c r i b e an " a s s o c i a t i v e " r a t h e r t h a n a c a s u a l n a r r a t i v e - 66 -l i n e , b u t now we c a n see t h a t t h i s " n a t u r a l n e s s " i s a l s o r e -l a t e d t o t h e n a r r a t i v e v i e w p o i n t . As B o o t h p o i n t s o u t , t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g u n d e n i a b l y a r t i f i c i a l a b o u t an a u t h o r t e l l i n g us t h e i n n e r t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s o f a v a r i e t y o f c h a r a c t e r s — and t h i s a r t i f i c i a l i t y becomes p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p a r e n t i n T o l s t o y ' s c a s e , as we have s e e n , when he goe s so f a r as t o t e l l us t h e " i n n e r f e e l i n g s " o f n a t u r a l o b j e c t s s u c h as t r e e s . B u t I w o u l d go f u r t h e r t h a n B o o t h and say t h a t t h i s a r t i f i c i a l i t y e x t e n d s e v e n t o t h e n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f a s t o r y w r i t t e n f r o m an " o m n i s c i e n t " p o i n t of- v i e w . The " t h r e e d e a t h s " o f T o l s t o y ' s s t o r y , f o r i n s t a n c e , a r e n o t i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n a t u r a l , s e a m l e s s whole as s u c c e s s f u l l y as t h o s e o f " K i n o s a k i n i t e " . T h i s i s made i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t by t h e f a c t t h a t T o l s t o y i s o b l i g e d t o d i v i d e h i s s t o r y i n t o f o u r d i s t i n c t numbered p a r t s , whereas S h i g a ' s s t o r y i s a l l " o f a p i e c e " . I n " T h r e e D e a t h s " , t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e l a d y ' s d e a t h t o t h a t o f t h e o l d p e a s a n t i s , on t h e s u r f a c e l e v e l o f t h e a c t i o n , p u r e l y c o i n c i d e n t a l : i t j u s t so happens t h a t t h e l a d y ' s c a r r i a g e h a s s t o p p e d a t t h e p o s t - h o u s e where t h e i p e a s a n t l i e s d y i n g . On a d e e p e r , t h e m a t i c l e v e l , t h e r e a d e r i s aware t h a t t h e a u t h o r has b r o u g h t t h e s e two d e a t h s t o g e t h e r t o c o n t r a s t them and so t o make a m o r a l p o i n t . The t r e e ' s d e a t h i s c a u s a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p p e a s a n t ' s d e a t h i n t h e u s u a l " s y l l o g i s t i c " manner o f W e s t e r n n a r r a t i v e : b e c a u s e A, t h e r e f o r e B. B u t a g a i n , i t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e l a d y ' s d e a t h t h e m a t i c a l l y o n l y t o make a m o r a l - 67 -p o i n t ; i n d e e d , i f t h e r e a d e r were unaware o f t h e s e t h e m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h i c h have been " a r t i f i c i a l l y " i mposed upon t h e t h r e e d e a t h s by t h e a u t h o r ' s m o r a l w i l l , t h e n t h e s t o r y w o u l d seem p o i n t l e s s . What e n a b l e s " K i n o s a k i n i t e " t o have s u c h a " n a t u r a l " s t r u c t u r e i s i t s c o m p l e t e and u n d i s g u i s e d s u b j e c t i v i t y . I n t h e f i r s t p a r a g r a p h o f t h e s t o r y , as we have s e e n , t h e n a r r a t o r i n f o r m s us o f h i s n e a r e s c a p e f r o m d e a t h j u s t b e f o r e h i s t r i p t o K i n o s a k i . I t t h e r e f o r e seems p e r f e c t l y n a t u r a l , i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h a t he i s e s p e c i a l l y o b s e r v a n t o f d e a t h i n t h e w o r l d a b o u t him, e v e n i n s m a l l f o r m s t h a t a " n o r m a l " p e r s o n m i g h t f a i l t o n o t i c e , and, i n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , t h a t he s h o u l d r e s p o n d t o e v e n t h e s e " s m a l l " d e a t h s w i t h e x c e p t i o n a l l y deep f e e l i n g . I n o t h e r words, t h e f i r s t p a r a g r a p h d e f i n e s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h r o u g h w h i c h a l l t h e e v e n t s o f t h e s t o r y w i l l be f i l t e r e d ; t h e r e i s no p r e t e n c e a t a l l , as i n T o l s t o y ' s s t o r y , t h a t we a r e t o be p r e s e n t e d w i t h an " o b j e c t i v e " God's eye v i e w o f r e a l i t y . As a r e s u l t , t h e r e a d e r i s p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t t h e e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d as a n a t u r a l , i n d e e d i n e v i t a b l e , e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e n a r r a t o r ' s s t a t e o f mind (thus i t i s a s h i n k y o s h o s e t s u i n t h e f u l l e s t s e n s e o f t h e t e r m ) . " K i n o s a k i n i t e " , t h e n , i s an e x c e l l e n t example o f t h e t o t a l s u b j e c t i v i t y o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u g e n r e . T h i s i s n o t m e r e l y a m a t t e r o f t h e s t o r y b e i n g w r i t t e n i n t h e f i r s t - p e r s o n s i n g u l a r o r b e i n g f a i t h f u l l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l . I f , f o r i n s t a n c e , we f i n d t h a t t h e n a r r a t o r ' s " s t a t e o f mind" p e r m e a t e s t h e whole - 68 -story even i n the smallest d e t a i l s . The entire story i s per-vaded by the psychological atmosphere of a traumatized mind, the mind of a man s t i l l i n a mild state of shock a f t e r having suffered a serious accident. The narrator t e l l s us himself in the second paragraph of the story: "My head was s t i l l not 6 2 c l ear." And indeed he seems to wander about Kinosaki, it= se l f a rather "unreal" resort town, as i n a waking dream. There i s a dream-like q u a l i t y ^ for instance, to the in t e n s i t y and minute d e t a i l of his observation of the bees. But the f i n a l scene of the story i n p a r t i c u l a r verges on the surreal-i s t i c . The narrator i s out for a walk one evening on a moun-ta i n road above the town. He fe e l s strongly compelled to go on and on as i n a dream: "I kept thinking I would go back, but each time I went on to see what, was around the next cor-6 3 ner." And the nature surrounding him takes on a mysterious dream-like ambience: The quiet made me strangely r e s t l e s s . There was a large mulberry tree beside the road. A leaf on one branch that protruded out over the road from the far side f l u t t e r e d rhythmically back and forth. There was no wind, everything except the stream was sunk i n s ilence, only that one leaf f l u t t e r e d on. I thought i t odd. I was a l i t t l e a f r a i d even, but I was curious. I went down and looked at i t for a time. A breeze came up. The leaf stopped moving. 6 4 This seemingly i r r a t i o n a l behaviour of the single leaf creates the proper a i r of mystery for what i s about to happen: The narrator spots a water l i z a r d s i t t i n g on a rock beside a stream. I t just so happens that l i z a r d s have a kind of per-sonal symbolic significance for him: - 69 -Some y e a r s b e f o r e , when I was s t a y i n g i n t h e moun-t a i n s n o t f a r f r o m T o k y o , I had s e e n w a t e r l i z a r d s g a t h e r e d a r o u n d a d r a i n f r o m t h e i n n , and I had t h o u g h t how I wo u l d h a t e t o be a w a t e r l i z a r d , what i t wo u l d be l i k e t o be r e b o r n one. I d i d n o t l i k e t o come on w a t e r l i z a r d s b e c a u s e t h e y a l w a y s b r o u g h t on t h e same t h o u g h t . 6 5 I t i s t h e r e f o r e as i f t h i s p r e s e n t l i z a r d h a s s p r u n g f r o m some deep " o b s e s s i v e " r e g i o n o f h i s own u n c o n s c i o u s mind, a g a i n as i n a dream. Thus when he c a s u a l l y t h r o w s a s t o n e and " a c c i -d e n t a l l y " k i l l s t h e l i z a r d , one need n o t c a l l on t h e good d o c t o r o f V i e n n a t o see t h e o b v i o u s s y m b o l i c meaning t h a t t h i s " d r e a m - l i k e " a c t i o n h a s . W i t h t h i s l a s t e xample, t h o u g h , we a r e m o v i n g f r o m t h e f o r m a l t o t h e t h e m a t i c l e v e l , and i n d e e d i t i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f how w e l l - i n t e g r a t e d t h e s e two l e v e l s a r e i n S h i g a t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o t a l k o f them s e p a r a t e l y . Not o n l y i s t h e n a r r a t o r ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h e " f i l t e r " o f a l l e x t e r n a l e v e n t s b u t t h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s i t s e l f i s a l s o t h e a c t u a l s u b j e c t o f t h e s t o r y . T h i s t o o i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u : t h e c e n t r a l i n t e r e s t o f t h e s t o r y l i e s i n t h e s e r i e s o f c h a n g e s w h i c h t h e n a r r a t o r ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s u n d e r g o e s as i t w i t n e s s e s o r e x p e r i e n c e s t h e e v e n t s t h e s t o r y d e s c r i b e s . The g e n r e t h u s may c l a i m a u n i q u e r e c i p r o c a l i n t e r a c t i o n between f o r m and c o n t e n t : t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e n a r r a t i o n i s t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e n a r r a t o r ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h i c h a r e i n t u r n r e f l e c t e d i n t h e n a r r a t i v e s t y l e and s t r u c t u r e — and so on, one m i g h t s a y , ad i n f i n i t u m . L e s t t h i s a l l b e g i n t o sound o v e r l y a b s t r a c t , what i t means i n more c o n c r e t e t e r m s i s an e x t r a o r d i n a r y d e p t h o f i n s i g h t i n t o t h e human p s y c h e . As we have s e e n , S h i g a ' s s t o r y c a n n o t b e g i n t o compare w i t h T o l s t o y ' s i n t e r m s o f " b r e a d t h " -- t h a t i f c , i n t h e r a n g e o f " c h a r a e t e r s " i t p r e -s e n t s . I n f a c t , one m i g h t w e l l s a y t h a t S h i g a o f f e r s us no f u l l - b l o o d e d , " r o u n d e d " c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e t y p e E.M. F o r s t e r has d e l i n e a t e d i n h i s c e l e b r a t e d s t u d y o f t h e n o v e l . ^ 6 E v e n t h e n a r r a t o r i n S h i g a ' s s t o r y i s l i t t l e more t h a n a " d i s -embodied" c o n s c i o u s n e s s . S h i g a employes none o f t h e t r i c k s o f w h i c h T o l s t o y was s u c h a m a s t e r , t h o s e l i t t l e d e t a i l s o f p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e , p e r s o n a l m annerism o r i d i o s y n c r a t i c b e -h a v i o u r w h i c h c a n make ev e n a m i n o r c h a r a c t e r s p r i n g t o l i f e . We know n o t h i n g " p e r s o n a l " a b o u t S h i g a ' s n a r r a t o r e x c e p t t h a t he i s a w r i t e r ; he i s , i n f a c t , h a r d l y i d e n t i f i a b l e as an i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s i s p e r h a p s t h e c e n t r a l p a r a d o x t h a t emerges f r o m a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e two s t o r i e s : t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u i s d e e p l y s u b j e c t i v e b u t , a t t h e same t i m e , a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y im p e r s o n a l ; t h e W e s t e r n s t o r y , on t h e o t h e r hand, d e s p i t e i t s p o s e o f o b j e c t i v i t y , i s f a r more " p e r s o n a l " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t p r e s e n t s i n d i v i d u a l human p e r s o n a l i t i e s and, as we have s e e n , e v e n t e n d s t o " p e r s o n i f y " n a t u r a l o b j e c t s s u c h as t r e e s Of c o u r s e , we w o u l d e x p e c t an " o b j e c t i v e " w r i t e r s u c h as T o l s t o y t o p r e s e n t a w i d e r r a n g e o f c h a r a c t e r s , b u t t h e n we w o u l d a l s o e x p e c t t h a t S h i g a ' s n a r r a t o r , a t l e a s t , s i n c e t h e whole s t o r y i s f o c u s e d on him, w o u l d be more h i g h l y " i n d i v i d -- 71 -u a t e d " t h a n any o f T o l s t o y ' s c h a r a c t e r s . B u t t h i s i s c e r t a i n -l y n o t t h e c a s e . I f , however, we examine more c l o s e l y t h e n a t u r e o f human p e r s o n a l i t y -- a t l e a s t as i t u s u a l l y a p p e a r s i n f i c t i o n -- what seemed t o be a p a r a d o x may no l o n g e r seem so. What g i v e s T o l s t o y ' s c h a r a c t e r s p e r s o n a l i t y , as I have a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , i s h i s use o f s u c h l a r g e l y s u r f a c e d e t a i l s as t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s a p p e a r a n c e , m a n n e r i s m s , o p i n i o n s and so on. S h i g a ' s n a r r a t o r , on t h e o t h e r hand, i s p r e s e n t e d a t s u c h a deep l e v e l o f h i s p s y c h i c b e i n g t h a t he a p p e a r s t o be a l m o s t a n o n - i n d i v i d u a t e d "everyman". I t seems t h a t t h e d e e p e r a w r i t e r goes i n t o t h e human p s y c h e t h e l e s s d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a -t u r e s he f i n d s t h e r e — a t t h e d e e p e s t l e v e l , p e r h a p s i t i s q u i t e l i t e r a l l y t r u e t h a t " a l l men a r e one". And t h i s s e n s e o f u n i v e r s a l i t y i s added t o by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m t h a t t h e n a r r a t o r c o n f r o n t s i n t h i s s t o r y i s , a f t e r u a l l , t h e most u n i v e r s a l p r o b l e m o f a l l : d e a t h i t s e l f . T h i s a s p e c t o f " i m p e r s o n a l i t y " a l s o e x p l a i n s why t h e r e a d e r i s n o t o f f e n d e d by t h e s e l f - a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e s h i -s h o s e t s u g e n r e , a t l e a s t as p r a c t i s e d by S h i g a . I q u o t e d e a r l i e r F l a u b e r t ' s c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e " e g o t i s m : o f any work " i n w h i c h 6 7 t h e a u t h o r ' s f a c e i s r e f l e c t e d . " B u t i n S h i g a ' s work, one m i g h t c o u n t e r , i t i s n o t t h e a u t h o r ' s " f a c e " t h a t i s r e f l e c t e d b u t h i s " s o u l " , and one m i g h t add, t h e i m p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e human p s y c h e a t i t s d e e p e s t l e v e l i s a t t e s t e d t o by W e s t e r n p s y c h o l o g y as much as by E a s t e r n p h i l o s o p h y ( e . g . , J u n g ' s " c o l l e c t i v e u n c o n s c i o u s " ) . The p o i n t emerges more c l e a r l y i f we c o n t r a s t t h e way i n w h i c h S h i g a and T o l s t o y a p p r o a c h d e a t h , w h i c h may be r e g a r d e d as t h e c e n t r a l theme o f b o t h s t o r i e s . T h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r a p p r o a c h e s h e r e p a r a l l e l t o t h a t we f o u n d b e f o r e i n t h e way t h e y d e a l t w i t h n a t u r e . T o l s t o y i s m a i n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n u s i n g h i s " t h r e e d e a t h s " t o make a m o r a l and s a t i r i c p o i n t , S h i g a , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , a t t e m p t s t o c o n f r o n t the; v e r y n a t u r e o f d e a t h i t s e l f , w i t h i t s s e n s e o f p e a c e b u t a l s o w i t h i t s c r u e l t y and a r b i t r a r i n e s s . He i s t h u s w o r k i n g on a f a r more u n i v e r s a l l e v e l : a b a s i c human c o n s c i o u s n e s s , s t r i p p e d o f a l -most a l l " p e r s o n a l i t y " , c o n f r o n t i n g a f u n d a m e n t a l human p r o b -lem. Thus t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r ' s " e g o t i s m " p r e v e n t i n g t h e r e a d e r ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e n a r r a t o r --b e c a u s e t h e o n l y p a r t o f h i m s e l f t h a t he " e x h i b i t s " t o us i s t h e d e e p e s t p a r t , t h e p a r t t h a t we s h a r e w i t h him. I n t h i s s e n s e t h e " I " o f a S h i g a s t o r y i s t h e same as t h e " I " b e h i n d s a y , a Basho h a i k u o r a W e s t e r n l y r i c a l poem -- i t i s human c o n s c i o u s n e s s a t i t s most b a s i c and u n i v e r s a l l e v e l . I t h i n k we a r e j u s t i f i e d , t h e n , i n s a y i n g t h a t what S h i g a -- and t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u a t i t s b e s t — s a c r i f i e e s i n " b r e a d t h " he g a i n s i n " d e p t h " . I have a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d on t h e " r e c i p r o c i t y " o f f o r m and c o n t e n t i n S h i g a ' s s t o r y , b u t t h e u l t i m a t e example o f i t i s t h i s : n o t o n l y i s t h e n a r r a t i v e v o i c e l a r g e l y i m p e r s o n a l , b u t i m p e r s o n a l i t y i t s e l f i s t h e n a r r a t o r ' s f i n a l " g o a l " — t h a t i s t h e s e r i e s o f c h a n g es w h i c h t h e n a r r a t o r ' s c o n s c i o u s -n e s s u n d e r g o e s , and w h i c h a r e t h e s t o r y ' s t r u e f o c a l p o i n t , a r e a l l i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i m p e r s o n a l i t y . The c r i t i c Y o s h i d a S e i - i c h i , as I have a l r e a d y shown a t 6 8 some l e n g t h , h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d how S h i g a o f t e n makes use o f t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f a word o r p h r a s e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e " p s y c h o -l o g i c a l a t m o s p h e r e " o f h i s s t o r i e s . I n " K i n o s a k i n i t e " t h e most i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e words i s s a b i s h i i , u s u a l l y t r a n s l a t e d as " l o n e l y " . I n i t s a d j e c t i v a l o r n o m i n a l f o r m , t h e word i s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e n a r r a t o r ' s e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o e a c h o f t h e t h r e e d e a t h s he w i t n e s s e s . S e e i n g t h e d e ad bee "gave me a f e e l i n g o f u t t e r q u i e t n e s s . Of l o n e l i n e s s . I t was l o n e l y t o see t h e d e a d body l e f t t h e r e on t h e c o l d t i l e i n t h e e v e n i n g 69 when t h e r e s t had gone x n s i d e . " Watchxng t h e doomed r a t : 70 " I f e l t l o n e l y and unhappy." And, h a v i n g k i l l e d t h s l i z a r d : " I was f i l l e d w i t h a s a d n e s s f o r t h e l i z a r d , w i t h a s e n s e o f t h e l o n e l i n e s s o f t h e l i v i n g c r e a t u r e . Q u i t e by a c c i d e n t , I had l i v e d . Q u i t e by a c c i d e n t t h e l i z a r d had d i e d . I was l o n e -l y , and p r e s e n t l y I s t a r t e d back t o w a r d t h e i n n down t h e r o a d 71 s t i l l v i s i b l e a t my f e e t . " O b v i o u s l y i f a w r i t e r s u c h as S h i g a , famous f o r n o t w a s t i n g words, r e p e a t s one word so o f t e n , t h e n we m i g h t e x p e c t t h a t word t o c a r r y more t h a n i t s n o r m a l w e i g h t o f m e aning. Un-f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e E n g l i s h word " l o n e l y " i s n o t a b l e t o b e a r t h a t w e i g h t -- i t h a s , o f c o u r s e , none o f t h e r i c h c u l t u r a l a s s o c i a t i o n s o f t h e J a p a n e s e word s a b i s h i i . As W i l l i a m S i p l e y p o i n t s o u t , s a b i s h i i i n t h e c o n t e x t o f S h i g a ' s s t o r y d e s c r i b e s a " q u i t e p o s i t i v e , i f l a r g e l y p a s s i v e , e s t h e t i c - e m o t i o n a l „72 e x p e r i e n c e . . . The key word s a b i , d e r i v e d f r o m s a b i s h i i , i s , o f c o u r s e , a key t e r m o f J a p a n e s e a e s t h e t i c s , and i s u s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e p o e t i c s o f Basho's s c h o o l o f h a i k u . Basho h i m s e l f , as Ueda Makoto p o i n t s o u t , o f t e n u s e d t h e word s a b i s h i i . B u t he c o n c e i v e d o f l o n e l i n e s s , s a y s Ueda, "as an i m p e r s o n a l atmos-p h e r e , i n c o n t r a s t w i t h g r i e f o r s o r r o w , w h i c h i s a p e r s o n a l e m o t i o n . The c o n t r a s t c a n n o t be o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d , b e c a u s e l o n e l i n e s s t h u s c o n c e i v e d l a y a t t h s b o t t o m o f B a s h o ' s v i e w o f l i f e , p o i n t i n g t o w a r d a way i n w h i c h h i s p l e a ' r e t u r n t o 73 n a t u r e ' c a n be f u l f i l l e d . " S o r r o w , i n o t h e r w ords, b e l o n g s t o t h e human w o r l d , whereas " l o n e l i n e s s " b e l o n g s t o t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e . Thus, i f i t were p o s s i b l e f o r men t o e s c a p e f r o m s o r r o w , " i t w o u l d be o n l y t h r o u g h a d e n i a l o f h u m a n i t y , t h r o u g h men's d e h u m a n i z i n g t h e m s e l v e s . They c a n e s c a p e f r o m s o r r o w o n l y when t h e y t r a n s f o r m i t i n t o an i m p e r s o n a l atmos-74 p h e r e , l o n e l i n e s s . " T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s b r o u g h t a b o u t by a deep communion w i t h n a t u r e , as i n t h e f o l l o w i n g h a i k u o f Basho: My s o r r o w f u l s o u l --Make i t f e e l onesome, You, a c u c k o o . 75 The p o e t , s a y s Ueda, "as he s e t o u t t o compose thspoem, was s t i l l i n t h e w o r l d o f h u m a n i t y , w i t h a p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g l i k e s o r r o w . The c u c k o o , on t h e o t h e r hand, seemed t o have « 75 -a l r e a d y t r a n s c e n d e d s o r r o w , as i t was c l o s e r t o t h e h e a r t o f n a t u r e . T h e r e u p o n t h e p o e t w i s h e d t h a t t h e b i r d ' s c r y m i g h t e n l i g h t e n h i s s o u l and e v e n t u a l l y l e a d h i m i n t o t h e r e a l m o f i m p e r s o n a l l o n e l i n e s s , , where he w o u l d no l o n g e r f e e l s o r r o w . . . Such a d i s s o l u t i o n o f p e r s o n a l e m o t i o n i n t o an i m p e r s o n a l a t m o s p h e r e c o n s t i t u t e s t h e c o r e o f Ba s h o ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d l i f e " . 7 6 I f we r e v i e w t h e way i n w h i c h S h i g a u s e s t h e word s a b i s h i i , we f i n d t h a t more and more t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t o r y i t comes t o t a k e on Basho's s e n s e o f an " i m p e r s o n a l a t m o s p h e r e " p e r v a d i n g n a t u r e . And t h e e f f e c t w h i c h t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f t h i s " a t m o s p h e r e " has on t h e n a r r a t o r ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s t o p r o d u c e a g r e a t e r and g r e a t e r s e n s e o f d e t a c h m e n t . H i s c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f t h e d e a d bee g i v e s h i m a s e n s e o f " l o n e l i n e s s " b u t " a t 77 t h e same t i m e i t was t r a n q u i l , s o o t h i n g . " A l r e a d y , t h e n , i n Basho's t e r m s t h i s i s n o t a " p e r s o n a l s o r r o w " b u t a l i b e r a t i n g , i m p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g d e r i v e d d i r e c t l y f r o m n a t u r e . H i s r e s p o n s e t o t h e s i g h t o f t h e doomed r a t s t r u g g l i n g f o r s u r v i v a l a t f i r s t seems more " s o r r o w f u l " and t h e r e f o r e " p e r s o n a l " -- i n f a c t , i t r e m i n d s him o f h i s own s t r u g g l e t o s u r v i v e a f t e r h h i s a c c i d e n t . B u t f u r t h e r c o n t e m p l a t i o n l e a d s him on t o t h e k i n d o f " t r a n s -f o r m a t i o n " Basho demands f r o m t h e c u c k o o i n h i s h a i k u : by i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h e r a t , he comes t o see t h a t t o s t r u g g l e t o s u r v i v e i s a u n i v e r s a l i n s t i n c t , p r e s e n t i n t h e r a t as much as i n h i m s e l f , and t h a t t h e r e f o r e i t w o u l d be a b s u r d f o r him t o t a k e i t " p e r s o n a l l y " , i . e . , f o r him t o f e e l b a d t h a t he had -76 -acted " l i k e an animal" after his accident, that he too had been driven by an i r r e s i s t a b l e force. This r e a l i z a t i o n gives him the necessary sense of detachment: I would have behaved but l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t l y indeed from the rat. Even now, I decided, i t would be much the same — l e t i t be. My mood at the moment, i t was clear could have l i t t l e immediate e f f e c t . And the truth lay on both sides. It was very good i f there was such an e f f e c t , and i t was very good i f there was none. That was a l l . 7 8 The narrator's profound sense of detachment i s even fur-ther i n t e n s i f i e d by his accidental k i l l i n g of the l i z a r d . He i s f i l l e d with "a sense of the loneliness of the l i v i n g creature. Quite by accident I had l i v e d . Quite by accident 7 9 the l i z a r d had died. I was lonely..." In other words, by id e n t i f y i n g with the l i z a r d as he had with the r a t , he re-ceives a further i n s i g h t : that death st r i k e s a r b i t r a r i l y . He feels that he himself might just as e a s i l y be dead now — i f he had been as unlucky as the l i z a r d at the time of his a c c i -dent. The thought i s enough to make him lose his attachment to l i f e : "And I who had not died was walking here. I knew I should be g r a t e f u l . But the proper f e e l i n g o f happiness re-fused to come. To be a l i v e and to be dead were not two oppo-s i t e extremes. There did not seem to be much difference be-8 0 tween them." Thus, i t seems, the narrator has reached an ultimate l e v e l of "impersonality" and detachment since, though he knows he w i l l i n s t i n c t i v e l y struggle for sur v i v a l i f the need ari s e s , he no longer r e a l l y cares, i n t e l l e c t u a l l y at leas t , whether he l i v e s or dies. - 77 -B u t what i s t h e p u r p o s e , t h e r e a d e r may w e l l a s k , o f a c h i e v i n g s u c h an "unhuman" d e t a c h m e n t ? What i s i t s w i d e r s i g n i f i c a n c e ? We have a l r e a d y s e e n t h a t Basho a d v o c a t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f an i m p e r s o n a l s t a t e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s as a way 81 o f " r e t u r n i n g t o n a t u r e " . A c c o r d i n g t o F r a n c i s Mathy, i t i s e x a c t l y t h i s s e n s e o f c l o s e n e s s t o n a t u r e t h a t S h i g a i s e x p r e s s i n g i n " K i n o s a k i n i t e " ' i a f t e r h i s e n c o u n t e r w i t h d e a t h , he " f o u n d h i m s e l f e n t e r i n g a new w o r l d o f u n i o n and harmony 8 2 w i t h n a t u r e . " W i l l i a m S i b l e y e m p h a s i z e s t h e " S h i g a h e r o ' s " m a t u r e a c c e p t a n c e o f d e a t h t h a t has been b r o u g h t a b o u t by h i s deep communion w i t h n a t u r e . And S i b l e y r e l a t e s t h i s t o 8 3 t h e "more f u l l y d e l i n e a t e d e x p e r i e n c e o f K ensaku" , t h e h e r o o f S h i g a ' s n o v e l , An'ya K o r o ( $fj %L *ft A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g ) . I n t h e p e n u l t i m a t e c h a p t e r o f t h i s l o n g n o v e l , K ensaku r e t r e a t s l i k e a t r a d i t i o n a l h e r m i t t o Mount D a i s e n and t h e r e u n d e r g o e s a " m y s t i c a l " e x p e r i e n c e o f s e l f - d i s s o l u -t i o n and u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e . S h o r t l y b e f o r e he h a s t h i s e x p e r -i e n c e , we a r e t o l d t h a t "he was i r r e s i s t a b l y a t t r a c t e d t o t h e r e a l m t h e B u d d h i s t s c a l l ' n i r v a n a ' o r ' j a k u m e t s u i r a k u ' 84 (the b l i s s o f a n n i h i l i a t i o n ) . " U n d o u b t e d l y t h e r e i s some r e l a t i o n between K e n s a k u ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f " s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i o n : and u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e and t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f , d e t a c h m e n t and " i m p e r s o n a l i t y " o f t h e n a r -r a t o r o f " K i n o s a k i n i t e " , b u t I d o u b t t h a t i t i s as s t r a i g h t -f o r w a r d as Mathy and S i b l e y w o u l d have us b e l i e v e . I f we l o o k a g a i n a t t h e f i n a l p a r t o f t h e s t o r y , we f i n d t h a t t h e narrator's experience has by no means l e f t him i n an unalloyed state of b l i s s . He feels none of theeeuphoria that Kensaku experiences on Mount Daisen. In f a c t , he feels rather miser-able and confused. The f i n a l scene of thesstory makes i t quite cldar that his "dark night" has not yet passed: "My sense of sight took i n dmly the distant lights,and the f e e l of my feet against the ground, cut of f from my sight, seemed uncertain i n the extreme. Only my head worked on as i t would. 8 5 I t lead me deeper and deeper into these fancies." These l a s t two sentences i n p a r t i c u l a r , i t seems to me, t e l l us why the narrator has not yet achieved the psychic breakthrough — the " s a t o r i " — he i s a f t e r : he continues to i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e , to fantasize, and therefore to stand apart from nature. He has not yet surrendered his whole mind and soul to nature as Kensaku does on Mount Daisen. There i s , i n fact , something suspicieusly " i n t e l l e c t u a l " even about his sense of detachment. When he says: "To be a l i v e and to be dead were not two opposite extremes", he i s stating an idea rather than describing an experience — and i t i s doubtful whether any Zen master (or for that matter, any reader) would accept t h i s as r e a l proof of s p i r i t u a l transformation. When Kensaku experiences complete union with nature on Mount Daisen, he remembers that he has had similar experiences before, but that he had "always t r i e d i n s t i n c t i v e l y to r e s i s t i t , and on finding such resistance d i f f i c u l t , he had f e l t a d i s t i n c t uneasiness. But this time, he had not the s l i g h t e s t w i l l t o r e s i s t ; and c o n t e n t e d l y , w i t h o u t a t r a c e o f t h e o l d 8 6 u n e a s i n e s s , he a c c e p t e d n a t u r e ' s embrace." I f , l i k e Koba-y a s h i H i d e o and W i l l i a m S i b l e y among o t h e r s , we see t h e " S h i g a h e r o " as one c o n s i s t e n t c h a r a c t e r t h r o u g h o u t , a t l e a s t , S h i g a ' s " a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l " w o r k s , t h e n we m i g h t say t h a t " K i n o s a k i n i t e " d e s c r i b e s one o f t h o s e e a r l i e r e x p e r i e n c e s when he " t r i e d i n s t i n c t i v e l y " t o r e s i s t " n a t u r e ' s embrace". W i t h o u t d w e l l i n g on t h e p r o b l e m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n o f n i r v a n a t o d e a t h i n o r t h o d o x B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h y , we m i g h t c e r t a i n l y c l a i m t h a t t h e " K i n o s a k n i t e " n a r r a t o r ' s e a r l y a t t r a c t i o n t o t h e q u i e t u d e o f d e a t h may be r e l a t e d t o K e n s a k u ' s a t t r a c t i o n t o t h e " b l i s s o f a n n i -h i l a t i o n " . What seems t o be y e a r n e d f o r i n b o t h c a s e s i s t h e d e a t h o f t h e t r o u b l e s o m e i n d i v i d u a l human s e l f so t h a t i t may be r e p l a c e d by an " i m p e r s o n a l " s t a t e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t i s t o t a l l y a t one w i t h t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d . T h i s w o u l d e x p l a i n why t h e n a r r a t o r i s t r o u b l e d by h i s own " i n s t i n c t t o s u r v i v e " a f t e r he i s r e m i n d e d o f i t by t h e s t r u g g l i n g r a t -- t h i s i n s t i n c t t o r e s i s t d e a t h i s , a f t e r a l l , an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t same i n s t i n c t t h a t K e n s a ku s p e a k s o f , t o r e s i s t c o m p l e t e mergence w i t h n a t u r e . The n a r r a t o r o f " K i n o s a k i n i t e " i s o b v i o u s l y n o t y e t r e a d y f o r s u c h a c o m p l e t e s u r r e n d e r o f s e l f , t h o u g h he i s moving h e s i t a n t l y i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n . B e f o r e he i s c a p a b l e o f so u n r e s e r v e d l y " l e t t i n g go", t h e g r i p o f h i s ego must be l o o s e n e d by a whole s e r i e s o f t r a u m a t i c s h o c k s . B u t we s h a l l see t h i s more c l e a r l y when we come t o An'ya K o r o . - 80 -C h a p t e r 3 " T a k i b i " "$ ( " B o n f i r e " , 1920) s h a r e s a p l a c e w i t h " K i n o s a k i n i t e " as one o f S h i g a ' s two o r t h r e e most c e l e -b r a t e d s h o r t s i b o r i e s . J u s t as " K i n o s a k i n i t e " was o f f e r e d as a p a r a g o n o f t h e S h i g a s t y l e by T a n i z a k i J u n i c h i r o , " T a k i b i " was s e l e c t e d by a n o t h e r g r e a t c o n t e m p o r a r y , Akutagawa Ryunosuke, t o s e r v e as a model o f what he c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e f i n e s t q u a l i t i e s o f S h i g a ; s a r t o f f i c t i o n , w h i c h was a 'Jkind o f f i c t i o n a p p r o a c h i n g p o e t r y " . 1 What was q u i n t e s s e n t i a l t o t h i s a r t , a c c o r d i n g t o Akutagawa, was i t s t r a d i t i o n a l J a p a n e s e l y r i c i s m , i t s i n t e n s e l y " s i n c e r e " , e x a l t e d mood t h a t tr a n s * * f o r m e d t h e r a t h e r o r d i n a r y , e v e r y d a y e v e n t s t h e s t o r y d e s c r i b e d i n t o p u r e p o e t r y . A l t h o u g h he saw S h i g a as a " r e a l i s t who 2 does n o t depend on f a n c y o r f a n t a s y "  (£i.e., as an " a u t o b i o -g r a p h i c a l " w r i t e r ) , he was a l s o c o n v i n c e d t h a t "what makes S h i g a ' s r e a l i s m u n i q u e i s h i s p o e t i c s p i r i t w h i c h i s d e e p l y 3 e n t r e n c h e d i n O r i e n t a l t r a d i t i o n " ; t h i s , " c o u p l e d w i t h h i s t e c h n i c a l m a s t e r y , endows h i s most p c o s a i c work w i t h a s i n g u -4 l a r b e a u t y " . Thus i t was p o s s i b l e f o r a " p u r e s t o r y " ( j u n s h o s e t s u ) s u c h as " T a k i b i " t o be a " p l o t l e s s s<bory" ( h a n a s h i 5 no n a i s h o s e t s u ) , b e c a u s e t h e p e r v a s i v e l y r i c a l mood, and n o t a h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d p l o t - l i n e , was t h e u n i f y i n g p r i n c i p l e o f t h e work. As I s h a l l make c l e a r l a t e r , i t seems t o me t h a t A k u t a -gawa, p e r h a p s a l i t t l e t o o e a g e r t o make a p o i n t , p r e s e n t e d h e r e an o v e r - s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s i s o f S h i g a ' s a r t , s i n c e he - 8 1 -t r i e d t o r e d u c e i t t o m e r e l y one o f i t s m a j o r i n g r e d i e n t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i f we compare " T a k i b i " w i t h " K i n o s a k i n i t e " f o r a moment, we may see why i t was a h i g h l y a p p r o p r i a t e c h o i c e t o i l l u s t r a t e S h i g a ' s " l y r i c i s m " . The w o r l d o f n a t u r e p l a y s a d o m i n a n t r o l e i n b o t h s t o r i e s b u t i n " K i n o s a k i n i t e " , as we h-ve s e e n , t h e n a r r a t o r ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h i s w o r l d i s an am-b i g u o u s one. He i s a t f i r s t a t t r a c t e d t o t h e a b s o l u t e s t i l l -n e s s a t i t s c o r e — w h e t h e r t h i s be c a l l e d " d e a t h " o r " n i r v a n a " — b u t t h e n he r e c o i l s back i n t o t h e s h e l l o f h i s own ego when he s e e s t h e v i o l e n c e and s u f f e r i n g t h a t n e c e s s a r i l y p r e c e d e s t h a t s t i l l n e s s . " T a k i b i " , w r i t t e n a b o u t t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , i s t h e p r o d u c t o f a f a r d i f f e r e n t frame o f mind; w i t h o u t t r o u b l i n g h i m s e l f a b o u t " l i f e v e r s u s d e a t h " a s an i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o b l e m , t h e S h i g a h e r o J i s now a b l e t o immerse h i m s e l f w i t h -o u t r e s t r a i n t i n t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d and, as a somewhat p a r a -d o x i c a l r e s u l t , he i s a l s o a b l e t o commune more c o m f o r t a b l y w i t h h i s f e l l o w man. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e r a t h e r d a r k , somber mood o f " K i n o s a k i n i t e " , t h e n , t h e o v e r a l l modd o f " T a k i b i " i s one o f p r o f o u n d t r a n q u i l i t y and j o y . The " n a r r a t i v e p r o g r e s s i o n " o f t h e s t o r y may be s e e n as a s t e a d y d e e p e n i n g o f t h i s mood -- r a t h e r t h a n , as i n c o n v e n -t i o n a l f i c t i o n , t h e b u i l d i n g up o f c a H i a a l l y - r e l a t e d e v e n t s t o w a r d s a " c l i m a x " . A t f i r s t , t h e mood i s a n y t h i n g b u t l y r i c a l , a s t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h o f t h e s t o r y makes c l e a r : I t r a i n e d t h a t day f r o m m o r n i n g o n . A l l . ' t h r o u g h t h e a f t e r n o o n I p l a y e d c a r d s i n my room u p s t a i r s w i t h my w i f e , t h e p a i n t e r S., and K., t h e i n n k e e p e r . The - 82 -smoke^filled room made everyone f e e l drowsy. By three o'clock we were sick of card-playing and had over-stuffed ourselves with cakes. 6 S i g n i f i c a n t l y , then, the narrator and his friends are f i r s t presented to us indoors, and they are i n a bored and res t l e s s mood. In other words, they are confined within the same narrow, claustrophobic world as the narrator of "Aru Asa", and the st u f f y , smoke-filled room seems to aptly represent this world. But r e l i e f i s soon at hand: One of as stood up and s l i d open the paper-screen window. At some point the r a i n had stopped. C h i l l mountain a i r charged with the scent of fresh green streamed into the room, driving the tobacco smoke into swirls. We a l l exchanged glances, as i f sud-denly-coming to l i f e . 7 In the second paragraph of the story, then, there i s a l -ready a turn away from the human world and towards nature. The windows are l i t e r a l l y thrown open to l e t i n some of nature's fresh a i r , wliiich clears out the tobacco somke and makes the people inside f e e l as i f they have been brought back to l i f e . At t his point, i t might be appropriate to make a few re-marks on Shiga's use of imagery. In the hands of a more cere-bral writer than he, the use of imagery such as the above could well seem l i k e a form of s i m p l i s t i c , over-obvious "symbolism". But this i s another important advantage of the casual, d i a r y - l i k e style of the shi-shosetsu: even i f the author does i n s e r t some imaginary d e t a i l s to s u i t his thematic purpose, the reader s t i l l has the sense that he i s simply des-cr i b i n g thigs "as they happened", and i s not s t r a i n i n g to - 83 -c r e a t e m e a n i n g f u l b u t a r t i f i c i a l "symbols'.'V As S h i g a h i m s e l f s a i d o f a n o t h e - s t o r y : " I n a r e l a x e d frame o f mine I w r o t e Q down t h e d a y ' s h a p p e n i n g s as t h e y a c t u a l l y o c c u r r e d . " The i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i s t h a t he m a i n t a i n s t h i s " r e l a x e d " s t y l e e v e n i n h i s more " f i c t i o n a l " and more " s y m b o l i c " w o r k s , as we s h a l l see when we come t o An'ya K o r o . Thus t h e r e a d e r w o u l d u s u a l l y f a i l e v e n t o n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e i s any f o r m o f s y m b o l i s m p r e s e n t -- a l t h o u g h , o f c o u r s e , i t m i g h t a l l t h e w h i l e be h a v i n g i t s c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t on h i s mind, s u b t l y and u n n o t i c e d . I n t h i s as i n o t h e r a r e a s , we may see t h e s u c c e s s o f S h i g a ' s a e s t h e t i c "program" t o a b o l i s h a l l t r a c e s o f a r t i f i c i a l i t y . I n f a c t , one h e s i t a t e s e v e n t o a p p l y t h e t e r m " s y m b o l i s m " w h i c h u s u a l l y c a r r i e s s u c h a w e i g h t o f m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n n o t a -t i o n i n t h e West, t o S h i g a ' s s i m p l e -- i n d e e d , a l m o s t p r i m i -t i v e -- u s e o f i m a g e r y . An o b j e c t i n S h i g a r a r e l y s t a n d s f o r s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n i t i s i n i t s e l f : t h e s t r e a m o f f r e s h m o u n t a i n a i r does n o t r e a l l y " s y m b o l i z e " n a t u r e — i t is_ n a t u r e ; l i k e w i s e t h e s t u f f y , s m o k e - f i l l e d room d o e s n o t m e r e l y " r e p r e s e n t " t h e c l a u s t r o p h o b i c human w o r l d -- i t is_ t h a t w o r l d . In o t h e r words, S h i g a ' s " s y m b o l i s m " does n o t u s u a l l y amount t o a n y t h i n g more t h a n t h e mose e l e m e n t a r y f o r m o f s y n e c d o c h e , p e r h a p s t h e o l d e s t and most n a t u r a l o f a l l s y m b o l i c u s e s o f l a n g u a g e , s i n c e i t i s embodied i n s u c h e v e r y d a y e x p r e s s i o n s as " t h i r t y h e a d o f c a t t e l " . I n " T a k i b i " t h e r e i s one i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s w h i c h we s h a l l n o t e l a t e r , an e x c e p t i o n w h i c h s t a n d s o u t c o n s p i c u o u s l y b e c a u s e i t i s a more complex - 84 -k i n d o f s y m b o l . F o r t h e most p a r t , t h o u g h , S h i g a ' s i m a g e r y i s c o n c r e t e and " t h i s - w o r l d l y " . To r e t u r n t o o u r s t o r y , t h e n e t e f f e c t o f t h e i n - r u s h i n g s t r e a m o f " e h i l l m o u n t a i n a i r " i s t o e n t i c e t h e g r o u p o f b o r e d , r e s t l e s s humans o u t i n t o t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e , where t h e y know t h e i r s p i r i t s w i l l be f u r t h e r r e f r e s h e d . E v e n t u a l l y t h e y a l l c l i m b t o a p l a c e some way up t h e m o u n t a i n where t o g e t h e r t h e y a r e b u i l d i n - a s m a l l h u t f o r t h e n a r r a t o r and h i s w i f e t o l i v e i n . T h i s w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r o u t d o o r s g i v e s them a v e r y r e a l s e n s e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n : T w i l i g h t on t h e m o u n t a i n a l w a y s p u t s one i n a m e l l o w mood, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r a r a i n f a l l . And when, as now, we h a d b e e n w o r k i n g and p a u s e d t o o b s e r v e o u r d a y ' s work w h i l e h a v i n g a smake, a f l e e t i n g k i n d o f j o y a r o s e between u s . 9 v A l r e a d y we s e e , t h e n , an i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e between " T a k i b i " and " K i n o s a k i n i t e " : now t h e r e i s none o f t h e s e n s e o f " l o n e l i n e s s " w h i c h , as we saw, was t h e d o m i n a n t mood o f t h e e a r l i e r s t o r y . The n a r r a t o r no l o n g e r c o n f r o n t s n a t u r e a l o n e . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e r e i s now a s t r o n g s e n s e o f "com-munal s p i r i t " t h a t i s m a n i f e s t e d n o t o n l y i n t h e g r o u p ' s w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r b u t a l s o , t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t o r y , i n t h e i r s h a r i n g t h e j o y s o f communing w i t h n a t u r e . T h i s s e n s e o f " j o y f u l s h a r i n g " i s f u r t h e r i n t e n s i f i e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h when t h e n a r -r a t o r r e c a l l s t h e good t i m e t h e y had had t o g e t h e r on t h e p r e -v i o u s day: On t h e day b e f o r e i t h a d a l s o c l e a r e d up i n t h e a f t e r -noon and t h e t w i l i g h t had b e en b e a u t i f u l . I t was made a l l t h e more b e a u t i f u l by a g r e a t r a i n b o w t h a t e x t e n d e d a l l theiway f r o m T o r i i P a s s t o B l a c k C y p r e s s M o u n t a i n . - 85 -We had l i n g e r e d n e a r t h e h u t f o r a l o n g t i m e . I t was p l a c e d among a g r o v e oa oaks and we c o u l d n ' t r e s i s t c l i m b i n g them. E v e n my w i f e had w a nted t o c l i m b up t o have a good l o o k a t t h e r a i n b o w , so K. and I h e l p e d h e r c l i m b t o a h e i g h t o f more t h a n s i x m e t r e s . " I t ' s as c o m f o r t a b l e as an a r m c h a i r " , K. h a d s h o u t e d down t o u s . He l a y f a c e up i n a f o r k o f h i g h b r a n c h e s t h a t were c o n v e n i e n t l y w i d e - s p r e a d and, p u f f i n g on a c i g a r -e t t e , he s e t t h e b r a n c h e s s w a y i n g l i k e g r e a t waves. 10 T h i s happy memory l e a d s t h e n a r r a t o r t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y s h o u l d a l l go b o a t i n g on t h e l a k e t h a t n i g h t . Thus b e g i n s , i n t h i s h i g h l y c a s u a l manner, t h e s t o r y ' s main e v e n t : t h e g r o u p ' s e x p e d i t i o n on a m o u n t a i n l a k e one q u i e t e v e n i n g i n s p r i n g . S i g i n i f i c a n t l y , on t h e i r way t o t h e l a k e t h e . g r o u p p a s s e s t h r o u g h " t h e d a r k p r e c i n c t s o f a S h i n t o s h r i n e t h a t was h i d d e n among t a l l f i r trees.""'""'" As we s h a l l s e e , t h e g r o u p ' s coming e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d w i l l g i v e themaa " p r i m i t i v e " a n i m i s t i c s e n s e o f t h e awesome, m y s t e r i o u s power o f n a t u r e --t h e s t o r y , i n f a c t , t a k e s on an e v e r - d e e p e n i n g a t m o s p h e r e o f " n a t u r e - w o r s h i p " t h a t i s s t r o n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f S h i n t o . Thus t h e s h r i n e forms a h i g h l y a p p r o p r i a t e "gateway" f o r t h e g r o u p ' s e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d . A t f i r s t , t h o u g h , t h e g r o u p ' s h i g h s p i r i t s s e t them a p a r t f r o m t h e n a t u r e t h a t s u r r o u n d s them. They a c t l i k e e x c i t e d c h i l d r e n o u t f o r a n i g h t ' s a d v e n t u r e . When t h e y s e e a b r a c k e n -g a t h e r e r ' s b o n f i r e b u r n i n g on t h e o p p o s i t e s h o r e o f t h e l a k e , t h e y row o v e r o u t o f c u r i o s i t y t o t a k e a l o o k . T h e r e i s a s u b t l e c o n t r a s t s e t up between t h e g r o u p ' s l i g h t - h e a r t e d c h a t t e r and t h e q u i e t , solemn mood o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d as d a r k n e s s d e s c e n d s . V i v i d images o f n a t u r e a r e i n t e r p o s e d w i t h - 86 -snatches of conversation. On" the one hand: " I t was a tran-q u i l evening. Some f a i n t after-glow of the sunset s t i l l re-mained i n the western sky. But the mountains on a l l sides were black, and I thought they resembled the backs of crouching 12 water l i z a r d s . " And: "From Bird Island to the mainland the water was es p e c i a l l y calm. Looking oyer the sides of the boat, we oould see below us a perfect mirror-image of the star-13 f i l l e d sky." And, on the other hand: " ' I t seemed a l i t t l e cold', I said, dipping my hand into the water. 'But when I spent a few days viewing the autumn leaves around Ashino Lake a while ago, I went swimming there early one morning 'and i t wasn't as cold as I thought i t would be. I have even gone swimming around there i n early A p r i l . ' 'My, you were r e a l l y something i n thesold days', said my wife teasingly, knowing 14 f u l l well how I am usually so sensitive to cold." But gradually this p l a y f u l , light-hearted mood of the four people diminishes as they are drawn deeper and deeper into the quieter, more solemn mood of nature i t s e l f . What seems to make fior a "turning point" i n t h i s regard i s the l i g h t i n g of the bonfire which, as indicated by the t i t l e , stands as the central image of the story. Now they are no longer merely passive observers of the natural scene; by the " r i t u a l i s t i c " act of l i g h t i n g a f i r e , they themselves become active "celebrants" of nature's mysterious beauty and power. In f a c t , before they can even attempt to l i g h t the f i r e , they must begin to relate to t h e i r environment i n a more intimate - 87 -way t h a t n a t u r a l l y h e i g h t e n s t h e i r a w a r e n e s s o f i t : To c o l l e c t m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e b o n f i r e , we a l l e n t e r e d t h e d a r k f o r e s t . T h e r e was e v e r y w h e r e a l u x u r i a n t g r o w t h o f f e r n s , w i l d p l a n t s , y e l l o w - f l o w e r e d s h r u b s and s o on. We a l l went o u r s e p a r a t e ways b u t , whenever K. o r S. p u f f e d on a c i g a r e t t e , we c o u l d see where t h e y were by t h e s m a l l r e d glow. Where t h e o l d b a r k o f t h e w h i t e b i r c h e s was a l r e a d y p e e l i n g , i t s r o u g h edges t u r n e d o u t , i t was e a s y t o t e a r o f f . E v e r y now and t h e n , t h e sound o f K. s n a p p i n g o f f a b r a n c h b r o k e t h e deep s i l e n c e o f t h e f o r e s t . When we had g a t h e r e d as much as we c o u J d l h a n d l e , we c a r r i e d i t b a c k t o t h e b e a c h . 15 And when f i n a l l y t h e y l i g h t t h e f i r e , i t i s as i f t h e whole w o r l d a r o u n d them i s t r a n s f o r m e d by t h i s a c t : The a r e a a r o u n d us s u d d e n l y grew b r i g h t . The f i r e l i g h t was r e f l e c t e d a c r o s s t h e w a t e r and e v e n o n t o t h e t r e e s o p p o s i t e us on B i r d I s l a n d . 16 As we s h a l l s e e , S h i g a u s e s t h e image o f f i r e t o g r e a t e f f e c t a g a i n i n h i s n o v e l , A n'ya K o r o , b u t now c o n n e c t e d mor e x p l i c i t l y w i t h a S h i n t o r i t u a l , t h e " f i r e f e s t i v a l " o f Kurama.' — 18 F i r e p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n S h i n t o p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t e s , a l o n g , o f c o u r s e , w i t h w a t e r — w h i c h , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i s t h e o t h e r d o m i n a n t image o f " T a k i b i " . When we remember t h a t t h e g r o u p has f i r s t c r o s s e d o v e r a body o f w a t e r ( a c c o r d i n g t o Norman F r i e d m a n , a " u n i v e r s a l l y u n d e r s t o o d " symbol o f "some 19 s o r t o f s p i r i t u a l t r a n s i t i o n " ) and t h e n l i t a b o n f i r e , i t becomes e v i d e n t t h a t S h i g a i s u s i n g t h e s e e l e m e n t a l images t o s u g g e s t t h e d e e p e r n a t u r e o f t h e g r o u p ' s e x p e r i e n c e . B u t why do t h e s e p e o p l e s t a n d i n need o f " p u r i f i c a t i o n " and what manner o f " s p i r i t u a l t r a n s i t i o n " do t h e y u n d e r g o ? I f we r e c a l l t h e f i r s t s c e n e o f t h e s t o r y — t h e t i r e d , b o r e d , r e s t l e s s g r o u p t h a t has o v e r s t u f f e d i t s e l f on c a k e s — I t h i n k t h e answer - 88 -becomes c l e a r . L i g h t i n g t h e b o n f i r e c o m p l e t e s t h e p r o c e s s o f p s y c h i c " p u r i f i c a t i o n " , o f s p i r i t u a l as w e l l as p h y s i c a l r e -f r e s h m e n t , t h a t t h e i n r u s h o f f r e s h m o u n t a i n a i r f i r s t b e gan; and by c r o s s i n g o v e r t h e l a k e t h e g r o u p has l i t e r a l l y removed i t s e l f f a r f r o m t h e s t u f f y , s m o k e - f i l l e d room — t h e human w o r l d — and so i s now a b l e t o immerse i t s e l f © v e r d e e p e r i n t o t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e . As t h e f o u r p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c e t h i s im-m e r s i o n , t h e i r mood o r s t a t e o f mind c h a n g e s p e r c e p t i b l y . What g i v e s e x p r e s s i o n t o t h i s change o f mood p r i m a r i l y a r e t h e s t o r i e s t o l d as t h e g r o u p s i t s a r o u n d t h e b o n f i r e by K., t h e i n n k e e p e r . K. i s t h e o n l y l o n g - t i m e r e s i d e n t o f t h e m o u n t a i n i n t h e g r o u p and h i s c l o s e n e s s t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s p o t on e a r t h i s e m p h a s i z e d by t h e s t o r i e s he t e l l s . Thus he i s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p e r s o n t o l e a d t h e o t h e r s t o a g r e a t e r s e n s e o f harmony w i t h t h e s u r r o u n d i n g n a t u r e -- h i s v o i c e , i n f a c t , comes t o seem, i f n o t t h e v o i c e o f n a t u r e i t s e l f , a t l e a s t o f t h e g e n i u s l o c i . K.'s f i r s t s t o r y "deepens" t h e g r o u p ' s mood by r e m i n d i n g them, i n a way r e m i n i s c e n t o f " K i n o s a k i n i t e " , t h a t n o t b e a u t y a l o n e b u t a l s o t e r r o r and d e a t h a r e p r e s e n t i n n a t u r e : "were t h e r e any w i l d dogs a b o u t i n t h e o l d d a y s ? " a s k e d S. "As a boy I o f t e n h e a r d them," answered K. "Some-t i m e s i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e n i g h t I h e a r d them h o w l i n g i n t h e d i s t a n c e and I remember i t gave me a t e r r i b l e f e e l i n g o f l o n e l i n e s s . " He t h e n t o l d us a s t o r y a b o u t h i s f a t h e r , now d e a d , who had l i k e d t o go n i g h t - f i s h i n g . One n i g h t t h e w i l d dogs had s u r r o u n d e d him and, t o e s c a p e them, he h a d had t o make h i s way home t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r a l o n g t h e s h o r e l i n e . And t h e y e a r when t h e y had f i r s t p u t t h e i r h o r s e s o u t t o g r a z e on t h e m o u n t a i n , he had s e e n one o f them t h a t had been a t t a c k e d and h a l f - d e v o u r e d by t h e d o g s . 2 0 - 89 -K. 1s second story i s a kind of i r o n i c prelude to his f i n a l and most important one: The story was that K., as a c h i l d , was coming home from Maebashi one night when he saw t h i s thing i n a large pine grove about eight kilometres past Kogure. An area about three hundred metres i n front of him glowed with a vague l i g h t and a black figure over two metres high moved within i t . But when he walked further on he came across a man with a large pack on his back resting by the roadside, and he r e a l i z e d that i t had been t h i s man, occasionally s t r i k i n g a match to l i g h t a cigarette as he walked along, whom he had taken for the giant within the halo of l i g h t . 21 This experience of K.'s with the pseudo-giant leads the group to a discussion of "mysteries" i n general. "Mysteries usually turn out that way, don;t they?" said S. "But I think there are some r e a l mysteries, 'I said my wife. "I don't know about giants and such but I believe, for instance, that things are sometimes revealed to us in dreams." "Well, that's something else ggain now, i s n ' t i t ? " said S. And then, as i f suddenly remembering something: "Say, K.-san, that story about when you were trapped i n the snow l a s t year, that's pretty mysterious, i s n ' t i t ? " And, turning around to me: "Have you heard about that yet?" "No, I haven't." "Yes, that was r e a l l y quite strange," said K. And he proceeded to t e l l the story. 22 Thus the second story of a "false mystery" leads to K.'s extended account of a genuine mystery he has experienced, and this l a s t story-within-a-story r e a l l y forms a kind of "climax" (or high-point, at least) to the whole development of "Takibi" as we have been tracing i t . The incident had occurred during the previous winter. Returning to the mountain from a t r i p to Tokyo, K. had arrived at the nearby town of Mizumuma at about three o'clock i n the afternoon. Since i t was s t i l l early and home was so near, he - 90 -did not f e e l l i k e waiting fintil the next day to ascent the mountain. Thinking that he would go as far as the foot of the mountain anyway and then decide whether to climb or not, he l e f t Mizunuma. Dusk had just s e t t l e d as he approached the second of the series of Shinto archways at the foot of the moun-tain . There was ample moonlight and he f e l t to t i r e d -ness i n either body or mind. He decided to climb. 23 One notes again that K. must pass through a t o r i i (a Shinto "archway") before he enters more deeply into the world of nature -- as the group i t s e l f had done e a r l i e r i n the story before they crossed the lake. K. soon finds himself, i n f a c t , i n danger of being "im-mersed" i n nature not just s p i r i t u a l l y but i n a l i t e r a l , physi-c a l sense. The snow grows deeper the higher he climbs, so that even he, who has grown up on the mountain., loses the t r a i l . A l l he can do i s head upwards, higher and higher. He continued climbing, urging himself on step by step. He didn't f e e l e s p e c i a l l y a f r a i d or uneasy. But he f e l t a certain vagueness encroaching upon his mind. "Thinking about i t now, I know I was i n r e a l danger," said K. "People who die i n the snow usually get that way and then they f a l l asleep. They end up dying i n th e i r sleep." Strangely enough, even though he had known a l l t h i s , K. had not f e l t the s l i g h t e s t uneasi-ness at the time. 24 The theme of the a t t r a c t i o n of death, of the " b l i s s of a n n i h i l a t i o n " , appears at this point i n "Takibi" too, then, and just as i n "Kinosaki n i te" and An'ya Koro, i t i s associated with Shiga's major theme of the achievement of t o t a l union with nature. - 91 -B u t K. manages t o r e s i s t t h e " s i r e n - s o n g " o f d e a t h a n d f i n a l l y r e a c h e s t h e t o p o f t h e m o u n t a i n - p a s s . As he b e g i n s h i s d e s c e n t , he n o t i c e s two l a n t e r n s c o m i n g t o w a r d s h i m i n t h e d i s t a n c e . He i s s u r p r i s e d t h a t a n y one s h o u l d be o u t a t t h i s l a t e h o u r . He i s e v e n more s u r p r i s e d , t h o u g h , when he m e e t s up w i t h t h e l a n t e r n - b e a r e r s a n d f i n d s t h a t i t i s h i s b r o t h e r -i n - l a w w i t h t h r e e g u e s t s o f t h e i r i n n . E v e n t h o u g h no-one c o u l d h a v e known t h a t he was c o m i n g b a c k a t t h i s t i m e , t h e y t e l l h i m t h a t h i s m o t h e r h a d g o t them up and s e n t them o u t t o meet h i m . She h a d a s s u r e d t h e m t h a t K. h a d j u s t c a l l e d o u t t o h e r . She had s p o k e so c l e a r l y a n d f i r m l y t h a t t h e y h a d n o t t h o u g h t t o q u e s t i o n w h a t she s a i d . "When I a s k e d a b o u t i t l a t e r , " s a g s K., " i t t u r n e d o u t t h a t t h i s was e x a c t l y t h e t i m e when I was. m o s t weak and h a d t h a t s l i g h t f e e l i n g o f v a g u e n e s s . On t h e m o u n t a i n we go t o b e d e a r l y , a t s e v e n o r e i g h t , s o i t was j u s t a g o u n d t h a t t i m e when e v e r y o n e h a d f a l l e n i n t o t h e d e e p e s t s l e e p . E v e n s o , my m o t h e r woke up f o u r men and s e n t them o u t i n t o t h e n i g h t — so I t h i n k s h e m u s t h a v e h e a r d t h a t c a l l v e r y c l e a r l y . " "And d i d y o u i n f a c t c a l l o u t t o h e r ? " a s k e d my w i f e . "No, I c e r t a i n l y d i d n ' t . B e c a u s e no m a t t e r how h a r d I h a d c a l l e d f r o m t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e p a s s , no-one w o u l d h a v e h e a r d me." "Of c o u r s e , " s a i d my w i f e . O b v i o u s l y she h a d b e e n v e r y moved by t h e s t o r y . T h e r e w e r e t e a r s i n h e r e y e s . 25 K.'s t a l e o f r e a l - l i f e m y s t e r y r e d u c e s t h e g r o u p t o an a w e s t r u c k s i l e n c e t h a t i s i n t e l l i n g c o n t r a s t t o t h e i r e a r l i e r l i g h t - h e a r t e d c h a t t e r . Whereas up t o t h i s p o i n t i n t h e e v e n i n g t h e y h a v e e n j o y e d communing ' w i t h n a t u r e a n d w i t h e a c h o t h e r o n a r a t h e r s u p e r f i c i a l l e v e l , K.'s s t o r y r e m i n d s them o f t h e much d e e p e r l e v e l o f communion p o s s i b l e b e t w e e n human b e i n g s -- i n - 92 -t h i s c a s e , t h e l o v e between m o t h e r and s o n . The n a r r a t o r t i v e s f u r t h e r e m p h a s i s t o t h e p o i n t w i t h some comments o f h i s own: I f one knew a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between K. and h i s m o t h e r , one was e v e n more d e e p l y moved by t h i s s t o r y . I d i d n ' t know him v e r y w e l l b u t K.'s d e a d f a t h e r , who was n i c k n a m e d " I b s e n " b e c a u s e o f h i s r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e p l a y w r i g h t , d i d n ' t seem a p a r t i c u l a r l y b a d man b u t , t o sa y t h e l e a s t , he d i d n ' t amount t o much as a husband. They say t h a t he l i v e d most o f t h e t i m e a r o u n d M a e b a s h i w i t h h i s young m i s t r e s s and, come summerm he w o u l d b r i n g h e r w i t h h i m t o t h e m o u n t a i n , p i c k up h i s e a r n i n g s f r o m t h e i n n and t h e n l e a v e . K. was d e e p l y u p s e t by h i s f a t h e r ' s b e h a v i o u r and o f t e n c l a s h e d w i t h him. And t h i s maSe K. a l l t h e more d e e p l y a t t a c h e d t o h i s m o t h e r and h i s mother a l l t h e more d e e p l y a t t a c h e d t o him. 26 But i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h i s m o ving i n s i g h t i n t o t h e d e p t h s o f a human r e l a t i o n s h i p does n o t d i s t r a c t t h e g r o u p f r o m t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e t h a t s u r r o u n d s them. On t h e c o n t r a r y , what t h e y come t o f e e l i s t h a t t h i s m o t h e r ' s l o v e , w h i c h i s a b l e e v e n t o t r a n s c e n d t h e bounds o f t i m e and s p a c e , i s as awe-some , m y s t e r i o u s and e l e m e n t a l a power o f n a t u r e as t h e f i r e t h e y have l i t on t h e b e a c h t h i s e v e n i n g . I n o t h e r w o r d s , a t t h i s d e e p e s t l e v e l man and n a t u r e a r e one, s i n c e b o t h a r e an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t same e l e m e n t a l , i n e f f a b l e f o r c e t h a t S h i g a has e l s e w h e r e c a l l e d "rhythm".. E a r l i e r we saw t h a t i t was t h e s h a r i n g o f t h i s e l e m e n t a l f o r c e t h a t made p o s s i b l e a deep com-munion between w r i t e r and r e a d e r ; now, on a much w i d e r s c a l e , we c a n see t h a t i t i s l i k e w i s e t h i s a l l - p e r v a s i v e " r h y t h m" w h i c h e n a b l e s man t o a c h i e v e u n i o n b o t h w i t h h i s f e l l o w man and w i t h n a t u r e . - 93 -Thus, i n t h e c l o s i n g p a s s a g e s o f t h e s t o r y , when t h e g r o u p t u r n t h e i r e y e s b a c k t o t h e w o r l d a r o u n d them, i t i s w i t h a v a s t l y d e e p e n e d s e n s e o f o n e n e s s . T h i s i s b r i l l i a n t l y s y m b o l i z e d by t h e i r f i n a l "commanal" ( i n more s e n s e s t h a n one) a c t i o n : K. p i c k e d a w e l l - c h a r r e d b r a n c h o u t o f t h e f i r e and h u r l e d i t w i t h a l l h i s m i g h t f a r o u t o v e r t h e l a k e . Red s p a r k s s c a t t e r e d f r o m t h e b r a n c h as i t went f l y i n g t h r o u g h t h e a i r . I n s i m u l t a n e o u s r e f l e c t i o n , a b r a n c h s c a t t e r i n g r e d s p a r k s went f l y i n g t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r . The u p p e r and l o w e r b r a n c h e s d e s c r i b e d t h e same a r c , one t h o u g h a i r , t h e o t h e r t h r o u g h w a t e r , u n t i l , t h e i n s t a n t t h e y came t o g e t h e r a t t h e w a t e r ' s s u r f a c e , t h e y s i z z l e d o u t and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a f e l l b a c k i n t o d a r k n e s s . The e f f e c t was f a s c i n a t i n g . The r e s t o f us a l s o began t o p i c k up s m o l d e r i n g b r a n c h e s and h u r l them o u t o v e r t h e l a k e . 2 7 T h e r e i s a s e n s e o f e x h i l i r a t i o n , a l m o s t o f e c s t a c y , i n t h e s e l f - a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e s e f o u r p e o p l e as t h e y f l i n g f i r e y b r a n c h e s o u t o v e r t h e l a k e , T h e r e i s a l s o a s e n s e o f r i t u a l - l i k e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e c r e a t i n g o f an awesome and b e a u t i f u l n a t u r a l phenomenon, as t h e r e was when t h e y f i r s t l i t t h e b o n f i r e -- b u t now w i t h t h i s s e n s e o f j o y f u l abandon. We may a l s o n o t e how S h i g a , i n t h i s f i n a l b r i l l i a n s c e n e , b r i n g s t o g e t h e r t h e t h r e e e l e m e n t a l images he has u s e d so e f f e c t i v e l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t o r y : a i r , w a t e r and f i r e . /And now we c a n see c l e a r l y t h e f u l l s y m b o l i c a l meaning o f " f i r e " , t h e s t o r y ' s c e n t r a l image. I t i s b o t h t h e a g e n t and t h e symbol o f t h a t " m y s t i c a l u n i o n " w h i c h i s t h e m a i n theme o f " T a k i b i " and i n d e e d , one m i g h t s a y , o f S h i g a ' s e n t i r e o p u s . J u s t as t h e r i t u a l o f l i g h t i n g t h e b o n f i r e p r e c i p i t a t e d t h e - 94 -g r o u p ' s f e e l i n g o f o n e n e s s w i t h n a t u r e , , s o now i t i s f i r e , i n t h e f o r m o f b u r n i n g b r a n c h e s , t h a t b r i n g s t o g e t h e r t h e moun-t a i n a i r (which s t r e a m e d i n t o t h e s m o k e - f i l l e d room i n t h e s t o r y ' s f i r s t s c e n e ) and t h e w a t e r (the l a k e t h e g r o u p has e a r l i e r c r o s s e d ) i n a symbol o f p e r f e c t u n i o n and, i t i s even s u g g e s t e d , o f f i n a l d e a t h o r n i r v a n a : "The u p p e r and l o w e r b r a n c h e s d e s c r i b e d t h e same a r c , one t h r o u g h a i r , t h e o t h e r t h r o u g h w a t e r , u n t i l , t h e i n s t a n t t h e y came t o g e t h e r a t t h e w a t e r ' s s u r f a c e , t h e y s i z z l e d o u t and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a 2 8 f e l l b a c k i n t o d a r k n e s s . " (My own e m p h a s i s . ) As t h e s t o r y c l o s e s t h e g r o u p i s s i l e n t , t h o r o u g h l y im-m e r s e d i n t h e p e a c e and b e a u t y o f t h e w o r l d a r o u n d them — i n f a c t , as much an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e l a n d s c a p e t h e m s e l v e s as t h e t i n y f i g u r e s i n a t r a d i t i o n a l F a r E a s t e r n s a n s u i i n k p a i n t i n g (an a r t w h i c h S h i g a g r e a t l y a d m i r e d and e v e n t r i e d 29 t o e m u l a t e i n h i s w r i t i n g ). As i n " K i n o s a k i n i t e " we a r e l e f t w i t h t h e " i m p e r s o n a l " a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d , B u t whereas i n t h e e a r l i e r s t o r y t h e s e n s e was o f "man a l o n e w i t h n a t u r e " , now i t i s j u s t s i m p l y o f " n a t u r e a l o n e w i t h n a t u r e " : We b o a r d e d t h e b o a t . The b r a c k e n - g a t h e r e r ' s b o n f i r e a c r o s s t h e l a k e had now a l s o d i e d o u t . Our b o a t r o u n d e d B i r d I s l a n d and g l i d e d q u i e t l y t o w a r d s t h e weods a r o u n d t h e S h i n t o s h r i n e . 2Q The c a l l s o f t h e owl grew more and more d i s t a n t . The n a r r a t i v e l i n e o f " T a k i b i " t h u s may p e r h a p s b e t t e r be s e e n as " o s c i l l a t i n g " r a t h e r t h a n as s t r a i g h t : t h a t i s , i t s w i n g s l i k e a pendulum ba c k and f o r t h between t h e human and t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d s u n t i l f i n a l l y t h e s e two w o r l d s a r e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r and t h e pendulum s t o p s . O r , t o u s e a " s o n i c " f i g u r e t h a t i s p e r h a p s more a p p r o p r i a t e , i t i s a s i f a b e l l were s t r u c k i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s and we l i s t e n t o i t s g e n t l y d y i n g r e v e r b r a t i o n s — t h e n a r r a t i v e movement between t h e two w o r l d s may be s e e n t o f o r m t h e " w a v e - l e n g t h " o f t h i s s o u n d , t h e p e a k s o f w h i c h g r a d u a l l y d i m i n i s h u n t i l f i n a l l y t h e y come t o g e t h e r and t h e r e v - i s s i l e n c e - - i . e . , t h e end o f t h e s t o r y . A t any r a t e , i t i s t h e movement between t h e two w o r l d s t h a t forms t h e e s s e n t i a l d ynamic o f t h e s t o r y , i t s b a s i c n a r r a t i v e "rhythm", r a t h e r t h a n t h e movement f r o m c o n f l i c t t o r e s o l u -t i o n o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f i c t i o n . I n " T a k i b i " , t h e n , we have a n o t h e r f o r m o f S h i g a ' s " n a t u r a l p l o t " . Whereas i n " K i n o s a k i n i t e " t h e i n c i d e n t s a r o s e by v i r t u e o f t h e a s s o c i a t i v e w o r k i n g o f t h e n a r r a t o r ' s d e a t h -o b s s e s s e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i n t h e p r e s e n t s t o r y t h e y a r i s e f r o m t h e y e a r n i n g o f a g r o u p o f p e o p l e , c o n f i n e d t o o l o n g i n a s t u f f y room, t o r e f r e s h t h e i r s p i r i t s by communion w i t h n a t u r e . (And p e r h a p s i n t h e end, t h e y g e t more "communion" t h a n t h e y b a r g a i n e d f o r . ) B o t h s t o r i e s a r i s e n a t u r a l l y f r o m t h e s t a t e o f m i n d o f t h e n a r r a t o r (and, i n t h e l a t t e r c a s e , o f h i s f r i e n d s ) . I n t h i s s e n s e t h e y a r e u l t i m a t e l y " s u b j e c t i v e " . And, t h o u g h t h e dynamic p r i n c i p l e o f . t h e i r n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t , i n b o t h c a s e s t h e " p l o t " i s s t r u c t u r e d i n an u n c o n v e n t i o n a l way t h a t may e v e n make t h e s t o r i e s seem " p l o t l e s s " , as Akutagawa c l a i m s t h e y a r e . I t i s d o u b t f u l , - 96 -t h o u g h , w h e t h e r t h e r e c a n e x i s t any s u c h r a r a a v i s as a " p l o t -l e s s s t o r y " -- one m i g h t as w e l l speak o f " s o u n d l e s s m u s i c " o r " i n v i s i b l e p a i n t i n g " . A t r u l y p l o t l e s s s t o r y w o u l d have no d i s c e r n i b l e n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e w h a t s o e v e r -- and t h e n , o f c o u r s e , i t w o u l d no l o n g e r be a s t o r y . C e r t a i n l y S h i g a ' s s t o r i e s , as I hope t o have shown, have an i n t e g r a l s t r u c t u r e , an a l m o s t r i g o r o u s i n t e r n a l l o g i c o f t h e i r own, and e v e n a d e f i n a b l e movement t o w a r d s a k i n d o f c l i m a x and denoument ( a l b e i t v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n n a t u r e t o t h o s e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f i e -t i o n ) , so t h a t t o c a l l them " p l o t l e s s " i s , i n t h e e n d , an a b s u r d m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . One s u s p e c t s e i t h e r t h a t Akutagawa and l i k e - m i n d e d c r i t i c s had f a i l e d t o l o o k c l o s e l y enough a t t h e works t h e m s e l v e s o r , what i s more l i k e l y , were o v e r - i n -f l u e n c e d by n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y W e s t e r n p a r a d i g m s o f t h e s h o r t s t o r y . P l o t , a f t e r a l l , as t h e O x f o r d E n g l i s h d i c t i o n a r y 31 r e m i n d s u s , has t o do w i t h t h e way e v e n t s i n a s t o r y a r e c o n n e c t e d t o e a c h o t h e r . As I have a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , i n t r a d i t i o n a l W e s t e r n f i c t i o n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i s u s u a l l y c a s u a l . I n S h i g a i t u s u a l l y t a k e s o t h e r f o r m s — but s t i l l a c o n n e c t -i n g p r i n c i p l e i s v e r y much t h e r e i f a c r i t i c t a k e s t h e t r o u b l e t o l o o k f o r i t . S h i g a ' s r e a l p r o b l e m i n r e g a r d t o n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e , i t seems t o me, i s q u i t e an o p p o s i t e one. G i v e n t h e e l e m e n t a l , a l m o s t e p i c - l i k e n a t u r e o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g a c t i o n o f h i s s t o r i e s -- as shown by h i s use o f c e r t a i n u n i v e r s a l , a r c h e t y p a l s y m b o l s : c r o s s i n g t h e l a k e and l i g h t i n g t h e f i r e i n " T a k i b i " , t h e " j o u r n e y t h r o u g h d a r k n i g h t " and t h e f i n a l a s c e n t o f t h e moun-t a i n i n An'ya K o r o -- t h e r e i s a c t u a l l y a d a n g e r t h a t h i s s t o r i e s m i g h t become t o o s c h e m a t i c , t o o f o r m a l i z e d i n s t r u c -t u r e f o r modern t a s t e . I t i s h e r e t h a t t h e d i a r y - l i k e i n f o r -m a l i t y o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u g e n r e has come t o h i s r e s c u e , d i s -g u i s i n g t h e e p i c - l i k e o r p a r a b l e - l i k e f o r m a l i t y o f t h e S h i g a s t o r y ' s t h e m a t i c c o n c e p t i o n so s u c c e s s f u l l y t h a t , as we have s e e n , some n e a r - s i g h t e d c r i t i c s have a c c u s e d i f o f " f o r m l e s s -n e s s " . B u t I s h a l l p p r s u e t h i s p o i n t a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h when I come t o d e a l w i t h An'ya K o r o . I n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r we f o u n d some f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r -e n c e s between t h e S h i g a s h i - s h o s e t s u as r e p r e s e n t e d by " K i n o s a k i n i t e " and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l W e s t e r n s h o r t s t o r y as r e p r e s e n t e d by T o l s t o y ' s " T h r e e D e a t h s " . I f we l o o k among more c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n w r i t e r s , however, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d , i f n o t e x a c t p a r a l l e l s , a t l e a s t much c l o s e r a n a l o g i e s t o S h i g a ' s " n a t u r a l l y p l o t t e d " s t o r i e s . I am t h i n k i n g , i n p a r t i c u l a r , o f t h e e a r l y s h o r t s t o r i e s o f a w r i t e r who made h i s d e b u t j u s t o v e r a decade a f t e r S h i g a , E r n e s t Hemingway. I have a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h e r e m a r k a b l e s i m i l a r i t y b e-32 tween S h i g a ' s s t y l e and Hemingway's -- t h a t i s , o f c o u r s e , a f t e r we have t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t t h e g u l f t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e i r two r e s p e c t i v e l a n g u a g e s . T h e r e i s i n b o t h w r i t e r s a d e s i r e t o eschew a l l forms o f " a r t i f i c i a l i t y " , i n c l u d i n g t h e k i n d o f " b i g words" and a b s t r a c t r h e t o r i c t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e " i n t e l -l e c t u a l d i s c o u r s e " i n any l a n g u a g e . T h e i r p r e f e r e n c e i s f o r a s i m p l e , d o w n - t o - e a r t h mode o f e x p r e s s i o n . As a r e s u l t , t h e y b o t h t e n d t o w r i t e s h o r t d e c l a r a t i v e s e n t e n c e s f r e e o f sub-o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s and t h i s g i v e s t h e i r p r o s e a s t r o n g , a l m o s t s t a c c a t o r h y t h m . They a l s o b o t h use a s i m p l e c o l l o q u i a l d i c t i o n w h i c h i n c l u d e s o n l y a few o f t h e most commonplace o f t h o s e ad-j e c t i v e s w h i c h e x p r e s s e m o t i o n a l o r i n t e l l e c t u a l judgments ( i . e . , words s u c h as "good" o r " n i c e " ) . A w i d e r use o f s u c h a d j e c t i v e s , t h e y b o t h seem t o f e e l , w o u l d make t h e i r w r i t i n g o v e r l y i n t e l l e c t u a l and a b s t r a c t . C o n c o m i t a n t l y , t h e y f i l l t h e i r w r i t i n g w i t h s i m p l e , c o n c r e t e nouns t h a t name a c t u a l p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s . T h i s " a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m " i s a l s o e x p r e s s e d by t h e p r e f e r e n c e o f b o t h w r i t e r s f o r t h e " n o n - l o g i c a l " use o f l a n g u a g e — most n o t a b l y , t h e way i n w h i c h b o t h w i l l r e p e a t a key word o r p h r a s e c o n t a n t l y r a t h e r t h a n r e s o r t t o e x p l i c i t 33 argument t o make t h e i r p o i n t . Above a l l , t h e s t y l e s o f b o t h w r i t e r s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s u c h a d i s c i p l i n e d economy --p a c k i n g ahe g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e m e a n i n g i n t o t h e f e w e s t p o s s i b l e words -- and by s u c h a v i v i d immediacy -- c a p t u r i n g t h e e x a c t f e e l i n g o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e -- t h a t c r i t i c s o f b o t h have o f t e n c l a i m e d t h a t t h e i r p r o s e a p p r o a c h e s t h e q u a l i t y o f p o e t r y . A t t h e feame t i m e , however, t h e s e c r i t i c s i n s i s t on i t s e x t r e m e " n a t u r a l n e s s ' 1 , and t h e y o f t e n use images t a k e n f r o m t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t . I have a l r e a d y q u o t e d t h e b e a u t i f u l s e r i e s o f m e t a p h o r s t h a t K o b a y a s h i H i d e o u s e d t o d e s -c r i b e t h e "immediacy" o f S h i g a ' s s t y l e , s a y i n g t h a t i t was l i k e " t h e w i n gs o f t h e p t a r m i g a n t u r n i n g w h i t e w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f 34 w i n t e r " and so on. The f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e t h a t F o r d Madox F o r d w r o t e on Hemingway's s t y l e i s much i n t h e same v e i n : Hemingway's words s t r i k e y o u , e a c h one, as i f t h e y were p e b b l e s f e t c h e d f r e s h f r o m a b r o o k . They l i v e and s h i n e , e a c h i n i t s p l a c e . So one o f h i s pages has t h e e f f e c t o f a b r o o k - b o t t o m i n t o w h i c h y o u l o o k down t h r o u g h t h e f l o w i n g w a t e r . 35 3 6 B u t s i n c e " l e s t y l e e s t l'homme meme", i t i s h a r d l y s u r -p r i s i n g t h a t , on c l o s e r o b s e r v a t i o n , t h e r e a r e some d e e p e r a f f i n -i t i e s between t h e s e two w r i t e r s whose s t y l e s have so much i n common. T h e i r u l t i m a t e a f f i n i t y , i t seems t o me, i s t h a t b o t h b e l o n g t o t h a t s e e m i n g l y p a r a d o x i c a l c a t e g o r y o f man, t h e modern " p r i m i t i v i s t " . As M.H. Abrams p o i n t s o u t , t h e r e i s a s t r o n g t r a d i t i o n o f " c u l t u r a l p r i m i t i v i s m " i n t h e West w h i c h may be t r a c e d b a c k t o R o u s s e a u and t h e R o m a n t i c s -- i . e . , t o a b o u t t h e t i m e t h e l v l n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n was b e g i n n i n g t o make i t s i m p a c t f e l t . C u l t u r a l p r i m i t i v i s m i s t h e p r e f e r e n c e o f " n a t u r e " o v e r " a r t " i n any f i e l d o f human c u l t u r e and v a l u e s . F o r example i n e t h i c s a p r i r j i i t i v i s t l a u d s t h e " n a t u r a l " , o r " i n n a t e " i n s t i n c t s and p a s s i o n s o v e r t h e d i c t a t e s p f r e a s o n and p r u d e n t i a l f o r e t h o u g h t ; i n s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y , t h e i d e a l i s t h e s i m p l e and " n a t u r a l " f o r m s o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l o r d e r i n p l a c e o f t h e a n x i e t i e s and f r u s t r a t i o n s e n g e n d e r e d by a complex and h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d s o c i a l o r g a n -i z a t i o n ; i n m i l i e u , a p r i m i t i v i s t p r e f e r s o u t d o o r " n a t u r e " , u n m o d i f i e d by human i n t e r v e n t i o n , t o c i t i e s o r a r t f u l g a r d e n s ; and i n l i t e r a t u r e and t h e o t h e r a r t s , he p u t s h i s r e l i a n c e on s p o n t a n e i t y , t h e f r e e e x p r e s s i o n o f emo-t i o n , and t h e i n t u i t i v e p r o d u c t s o f " n a t u r a l g e n i u s " , as a g a i n s t t h e r e a s o n e d a d a p t a t i o n o f a r t i s t i c means t o f o r s e e n ends and t h e r e l i a n c e on " a r t i f i c i a l " f o r m s , r u l e s and c o n v e n t i o n s . To t h i s o b v i o u s l y a p p o s i t e summation, I m i g h t add some-t h i n g t h a t a l s o seems q u i t e germane t o o u r p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n : - 100 -namely, t h a t t h e l i t e r a r y " p r i m i t i v i s t " , b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t v a l u e he p l a c e s i n " s p o n t a n e i t y , t h e f r e e e x p r e s s i o n o f emo-t i o n , and t h e i n t u i t i v e p r o d u c t s o f ' n a t u r a l g e n i u s ' " — i n o t h e r w o rds, on immediacy -- has u s u a l l y t e n d e d t o t a k e h i m s e l f as h i s f i r s t and f o r e m o s t s u b j e c t , b e c a u s e , as Hemingway once 3 8 a s k e d : "Does a w r i t e r know anyone b e t t e r ? " R o u s s e a u h i m s e l f , o f c o u r s e , began t h i s t r a d i t i o n w i t h h i s g r e a t C o n f e s s i o n s , and t h e f i g u r e o f t h e s e l f - a b s o r b e d B y r o n i c " e g o t i s t " became a f a m i l i a r one i n R o m a n t i c l i t e r a t u r e . The c a r e e r o f E r n e s t Hemingway i s an i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e i n p o i n t . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , i t seems t h a t t h e f u r t h e r tie drew away f r o m h i s own i m m e d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e , t h e more h i s w r i t i n g l o s t i t s o r i g i n a l power. C r i t i c s a r e g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t h i s e a r l y s t o r i e s and h i s f i r s t two n o v e l s a r e h i s most s u c c e s s f u l 39 w o r k s , and t h e s e a r e a l s o h i s most c l o s e l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l . The change r e f l e c t e d i n t h e n o t i c e a b l e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e famous "Hemingway s t y l e " i n h i s l a t e r w o rks. As S c o t t D o n a l d s o n p o i n t s o u t , h i s s t y l e c h a nged " f r o m an e a r l y economy o f l a n g u a g e and o b j e c t i v i t y o f p r e s e n t a t i o n t o a much l o n g e r , more d i s c u r -s i v e , and, f o r a l m o s t a l l o b s e r v e r s , l e s s s u c c e s s f u l l a t e r s t y l e . 40 I t was t h e f i r s t s t y l e t h a t became famous and i m i t a t e d . " 'It i s a l s o p e r t i n e n t t o o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f S h i g a ' s s h i - s h o s e t s u t o n o t e t h a t s u c h l a t e r , n o n - a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l Heming-way n o v e l s as F o r Whom t h e B e l l T o l l s (1940) a r e more c o n v e n -t i o n a l l y s t r u c t u r e d t h a n h i s e a r l i e r w o rks. The c l o s e l y a u t o -b i o g r a p h i c a l " N i c k Adams s t o r i e s " , on t h e o t h e r hand, may w e l l - 101-be r e g a r d e d as b e i n g " n a t u r a l l y p l o t t e d " i n a way s i m i l a r t o S h i g a ' s s h i - s h o s e t s u . To e a r l y r e a d e r s , i n f a c t , t h e y a p p e a r e d n o t as "well-made" s t o r i e s b u t as f o r m l e s s " s l i c e s o f l i f e " . R e m i n i s c i n g a b o u t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f h i s e a r l y c a r e e r , when p u b l i s h e r s r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t h i s r a d i c a l l y new v e r s i o n s o f t h e s h o r t - s t o r y f o r m , Hemingway o n c e w r o t e o f " a l l o f t h e s t o r i e s b a c k i n t h e m a i l . . . w i t h n o t e s o f r e j e c t i o n t h a t w o u l d n e v e r c a l l them s t o r i e s , b u t a l w a y s a n e c d o t e s , s k e t c h e s , c o n t e s , 41 e t c . " As we have a l r e a d y s e e n , S h i g a s t i l l h a s t h e same p r o b -l e m w i t h c e r t a i n W e s t e r n c r i t i c s -- p e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e y have n o t y e t c a u g h t up w i t h t h e r e m a r k a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e W e s t e r n s h o r t s t o r y between T o l s t o y and Hemingway. A l t h o u g h , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e c a n be no q u e s t i o n o f any d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e e i t h e r way between S h i g a and Hemingway ( s i n c e t h e l a t t e r r e a d no J a p a n e s e and t h e f o r m e r had w r i t t e n t h e b u l k o f h i s work b e f o r e Hemingway was p u b l i s h e d ) , t h e r e i s , n e v e r -t h e l e s s , an i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t " J a p a n e s e c o n n e c t i o n " i n Hemingway's c a s e w h i c h may a c c o u n t , t o some e x t e n t , f o r t h e a f f i n i t i e s between them. D u r i n g t h e y e a r s o f h i s " a p p r e n t i c e -s h i p " i n t h e e a r l y 1920's i n P a r i s , Hemingway came u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s o - c a l l e d " I m a g i s t s " , and e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e mentor o f them a l l , E z r a Pound. Pound, i n f a c t , e x e r -c i s e d h i s " b l u e p e n c i l " on Hemingway's e a r l y s t o r i e s i n t h e same way a s he d i d on t h e e a r l y p o e t r y o f T.S. E l i o t . The J a p a n e s e i n f l u e n c e on Pound and t h e o t h e r I m a g i s t s has b een 42 w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d , and t h i s i n f l u e n c e , i n t u r n , may be s e e n t o - 102 -have r e a c h e d Hemingway m a i n l y t h r o u g h Pound. What i t amounts t o i n Hemingway's c a s e , above a l l , i s a v e r y p r e c i s e and c o n -c r e t e use o f i m a g e r y t o c r e a t e an e m o t i o n o r a p s y c h o l o g i c a l atmosp-here. I t i s t h e t e c h n i q u e made famous u n d e r E l i o t ' s t e r m o f t h e " o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e " , a l t h o u g h , as J a c k s o n Benson 4 3 p o i n t s o u t , James J o y c e ' s " e p i p h a n y " e x p r e s s e s a v e r y s i m i l a r c o n c e p t . I n f a c t , t h i s c e n t r a l d o c t r i n e o f Imagism may be s e e n t o l i e a t t h e c o r e o f t h e a e s t h e t i c t h e o r y o f t h e whole "Pound-44 L e w i s - F o r d - J o y c e ^ S t e i n - E l i o t g r o u p " so t h a t , i f we add, as we must, t h e name o f W.B. Y e a t s t o t h i s l i s t , i t i s h a r d l y an e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e i n f l u e n c e on e a r l y t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a t u r e i n E n g l i s h was a c r u c i a l one. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , Hemingway h i m s e l f e x p r e s s e d h i s i m a g i s t c r e d o i n r a t h e r more c o n c r e t e t e r m s t h a t " e p i p h a n y " o r " o b j e c -t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e " . What he t r i e d t o c a p t u r e i n h i s work, he once w r o t e , was " t h e r e a l t h i n g , t h e s e q u e n c e o f m o t i o n and 45 f a c t w h i c h made t h e e m o t i o n . " Hemingway's c o n c e p t h e r e o f t h e " r e a l t h i n g " seems r e m a r k a b l y c l o s e t o S h i g a ' s " r e a l f e e l -i n g " ( j i k k a n ) w h i c h , as we have a l r e a d y s e e n , was c e n t r a l t o h i s a e s t h e t i c p r o g r a m . B o t h w r i t e r s , t h e n , m i g h t be c a l l e d " l y r i c a l r e a l i s t s " , and i t i s t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e p r e c i s e image w i t h t h e t r u e e m o t i o n i n t h e i r work t h a t l i n k s i t t o t h e J a p a n e s e p o e t i c t r a d i t i o n . As J a c k s o n Benson p o i n t s o u t i n r e g a r d t o some o f Hemingway's " H a i k u - l i k e " s e n t e n c e s , " t h e r e i s a s e n s e o f t i m e l e s s n e s s : t h e v i s i o n o f an i n s t a n t and a l l i t s i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s , i s o l a t e d and c a p t u r e d , y e t s p e a k i n g f o r - 103 -i t s e l f . The m a t t e r - o f - f a c t n e s s i s j o u r n a l i s t i c , b u t i t i s a l s o p o e t i c . T h e s e s e n t e n c e s a r e v e r y much l i k e Pound's 'In a S t a t i o n o f t h e M e t r o ' w h i c h he c a l l e d a ' h o k k u - l i k e s e n t e n c e ' . What Benson s a y s h e r e o f Hemingway's s t y l e i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o what Akutagawa s a y s o f S h i g a ; s s t y l e i n t h e p a s s a g e I h a v e a l -47 r e a d y q u o t e d . N e e d l e s s t o s a y , one need n o t l o o k f o r a Pound i n S h i g a s s b a c k g r o u n d — he comes by t h i s t r a d i t i o n q u i t e " n a t u r a l l y " . I n Hemingway;s c a s e , as i n S h i g a ' s t h e e m p h a s i s on emo-t i o n a l v e r a c i t y l e a d s t h e w r i t e r p e r f o r c e t o a heavy r e l i a n c e on t h e d a t a o f h i s own l i f e — f o r , as Hemingway p o i n t e d o u t , he knows h i s own f e e l i n g s b e s t - C a r l o s B a k e r has d e s c r i b e d t h e way i n w h i c h t h e young Hemingway a r r i v e d a t t h i s " a u t o -b i o g r a p h i c a l " p r e f e r e n c e : " A l l y o u have t o do i s w r i t e one t r u e s e n t e n c e , " he t o l d h i m s e l f . " W r i t e t h e t r u e s t s e n t e n c e t h a t y o u know." I t must be above a l l a " t r u e s i m p l e d e c l a r a t i v e s e n t e n c e w i t h o u t s c r o l l w o r k o r o r n a m e n t a l l a n g u a g e o f any s o r t . I t must d e a l w i t h s o m e t h i n g he knew f r o m p e r s o n a l ex-p e r i e n c e . S t o r i e s l i k e "The p a s s i n g o f P i c k l e s M c C a r t y " o r "Wolves and D oughnuts" had b e en l a r g e l y i n v e n t e d . They g r a z e d h i s own e x p e r i e n c e i n I t a l y and I l l i n o i s w i t h o u t k e e p i n g t h e c e n t r a l f a c t s i n f o c u s . Now he wanted t o p l a c e h i s f a i t h i n t h e d i r e c t t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f what he saw. T h a t and no more. Somehow t h e e m o t i o n t h a t he wanted t o c o n v e y w o u l d f i l t e r t h r o u g h t h e r e -p o r t e d f a c t s . 48 I t was i n e v i t a b l e t h a t , w i t h h i s p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s on p e r -s o n a l e m o t i o n , Hemingway, l i k e S h i g a , w o u l d w r i t e a new k i n d o f f i c t i o n . B e i n g so s e l f - c e n t r e d , he w o u l d o b v i o u s l y n o t w r i t e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l E n g l i s h " s o c i a l n o v e l " , n o r , w i t h h i s - 104 -d i s t r u s t o f a b s t r a c t i d e a s , w o u l d he w r i t e t h e more F r e n c h s t y l e " t h e s i s - n o v e l " . E s p e c i a l l y i n h i s e a r l i e r (and b e s t ) works, Hemingway, l i k e S h i g a , was a p r a c t i t i o n e r o f t h a t f i c -t i o n a l f o r m t h a t has r i s e n t o p r o m i n e n c e o n l y i n t h i s c e n t u r y , 49 w h i c h R a l p h Freedman has c a l l e d t h e " l y r i c a l n o v e l " . As a r e s u l t , t h e "Hemingway h e r o " , l i k e t h e " S h i g a h e r o " , . i s a f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t c h a r a c t e r who a p p e a r s as t h e p r o t a g o n i s t o f a l l Hemingway's m a j o r w o r k s , f r o m t h e " N i c k Adams" o f h i s f i r s t s t o r i e s t o t h e "Thomas Hudson" o f h i s f i n a l , posthumous n o v e l , I s l a n d s i n t h e S t r e a m ( 1 9 7 0 ) , and t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s an i d e n t i f i a b l e p e r s o n a o f t h e a u t h o r h i m s e l f . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g a l s o t o n o t e t h a t , b e c a u s e o f h i s p r i -mary r e l i a n c e on t h e " f a c t s " o f h i s own e x p e r i e n c e , Hemingway, l i k e S h i g a , d i d n o t make t h e r i g i d d i s t i n c t i o n s between " f i c -t i o n ? and " n o n - f i c t i o n " t h a t have been c u s t o m a r y i n t h e West. As S h e r i d a n B a k e r p o i n t s o u t , Hemingway D c o n s i s t e n t l y shows a k i n d o f w i l f u l n e s s i n r e p o r t i n g f a c t w i t h j o u r n a l i s t i c a c c u r -a c y and t h e n i n s i s t i n g t h a t i t i s a l l f i c t i o n , t h a t ' t h e r e a r e 50 no r e a l p e o p l e i n t h i s v olume'." I n d e e d , some o f t h e works i n c l u d e d i n h i s s h o r t s t o r y c o l l e c t i o n s were f i r s t w r i t t e n and p u b l i s h e d as newspaper r e p o r t s , j u s t as a S h i g a s t o r y s u c h as " A r u A s a " was f i r s t w r i t t e n as a d i a r y e n t r y . G r e e n  H i l l s o f A f r i c a (1985) i s a v e r y l i t e r a l a c c o u n t o f one o f Hemingway's A f r i c a n s a f a r i s , b u t i t i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o r m o f a n o v e l , c o m p l e t e w i t h e x t e n s i v e d i a l o g u e . As Hemingway - 105 -s a y s i n t h e f o r e w o r d : "The w r i t e r h a s a t t e m p t e d t o w r i t e an a b s o l u t e l y t r u e book t o see w h e t h e r t h e shape o f a ' c o u n t r y and t h e p a t t e r n o f a month's a c t i o n c a n , i f t r u l y p r e s e n t e d , com-p e t e w i t h t h e imagination."^"'" S i m i l a r l y , h i s P a r i s memoir, A M o v a b l e F e a s t (1964) i s p r e s e n t e d i n a n o v e l i s t i c f o r m and Hemingway w r i t e s i n t h e p r e f a c e : " I f t h e r e a d e r p r e f e r s , t h i s 52 book may be r e g a r d e d as f i c t i o n . " I n h i s "Memoir as F i c t i o n " F r a s e r S u t h e r l a n d d e f e n d s t h i s p r a c t i s e o f Hemingway)s by a r -g u i n g t h a t " s i n c e t h e w r i t e r ' s mind i s a l w a y s a t work, e v e r y -t h i n g he w r i t e s i s f i c t i o n . And w h e t h e r t h e w r i t e r p r e t e n d s t o w r i t e 'pure' f i c t i o n o r p u r e n o n - f i c t i o n , he p r o d u c e s a new „ 53 image. J a c k s o n B enson, however, t e l l s us t h a t t h e r e i s r e a l l y n o t h i n g new a b o u t t h i s m i x i n g o f " j o u r n a l i s t i c " f a c t w i t h f i c t i o n — t h e v e r y word " n o v e l " , a f t e r a l l , i s r e l a t e d t o "news". Hemingway's use o f j o u r n a l i s t i c s t y l e and c o n t e n t "was r e a l l y a new a p p l i c a t i o n o f an o l d a p p r o a c h t h a t goes b a c k t o t h e ' t r u e a c c o u n t s ' o f D e f o e and t h e e a r l y n o v e l i s t s . F i c -t i o n , t h e h i s t o r y o f f i c t i o n t e l l s u s , must n e v e r be f i c t i o n , n e v e r 'made up', b u t a l w a y s p r e s e n t e d as s o m e t h i n g t h a t r e a l l y happened — e i t h e r h i s t o r y , a d i s c o v e r e d 'document' o r b i o -g r a p h y , a d i s c o v e r e d ' d i a r y ' . B u t t h e modern temper demands 54 more immediacy, more a u t h e n t i c i t y , more i m p e r s o n a l i t y . " A n o t h e r way o f p u t t i n g t h i s , as we h a v e s e e n i n S h i g a ' s c a s e , i s t h a t t h e s t o r y must seem " n a t u r a l " ( i . e . , t a k e n d i r e c t l y - 1 0 6 -f r o m n a t u r e ) a s o p p o s e d t o " a r t i f i c i a l " . I n t h i s s e n s e Hemingway, l i k e S h i g a , w a n t e d t o w r i t e an " a n t i - l i t e r a r y 55 l i t e r a t u r e " . As R o b e r t Weeks h a s t e s t i f i e d , Hemingway's "consummate a r t " - i s an " a r t so u n o b t r u s i v e a s t o e l i c i t t h e c h a r g e o f n o t b e i n g a r t a t a l l " " * 6 i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e b e s t a r t o f a l l t o Hemingway, a s t o S h i g a , i s one t h a t a p p e a r s t o be ' a r t l e s s " . A t t h i s p o i n t a s c e p t i c a l r e a d e r m i g h t w e l l a s k : e x a c t l y w h e r e i n , t h e n , d o e s t h e s e e m i n g l y i n v i s i b l e a r t o f s u c h w r i t e r s l i e ? The a n s w e r , o f c o u r s e , i s : f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t , i n t h e v e r y p r o c e s s o f s e l e c t i o n . T h i s was summed up by E z r a P o und i n h i s famous b i l i n g u a l m o t t o , o b t a i n e d by c h a n c e f r o m a 57 G e r m a n - I t a l i a n d i c t i o n a r y : " D i c h t e n = c o n d e n s a r e . " A c c o r d i n g ^ t o J a c k s o n B e n s o n , i t was Hemingway's " r e p o r t o r i a l s k i l l s " t h a t e n a b l e d h i m t o p u t t h i s m o t t o i n t o p r a c t i s e a n d , by d o i n g s o , " w r i t i n g p r o s e i n t h e manner o f modern p o e t r y . H i s e f f o r t i n v o l v e d l o o k i n g c a r e f u l l y , g e t t i n g a t t h e e s s e n t i a l f a c t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n he o b s e r v e d , p u t t i n g t h e s e f a c t s down i n a s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d , e c o n o m i c a l f a s h i o n , a n d t h e n l e t t i n g t h i s 5 8 ' c o n d e n s e d e s s e n c e ' s p e a k t h e e m o t i o n f o r i t s e l f . " B u t t h e famous "economy" o f Hemingway's s t y l e , a s o f S h i g a ' s i s n o t m e r e l y a m a t t e r o f p a c k i n g t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e m e a n i n g i n t o t h e f e w e s t p o s s i b l e w o r d s ; t h e w r i t e r i s a l s o " e c o n o m i c a l " i n h i s s e l e c t i o n o f h i s m a t e r i a l , s o t h a t w h a t 59 i s l e f t o u t i s o f t e n a s i m p o r t a n t a s w h a t i s i n c l u d e d . " I a l w a y s t r y t o w r i t e , " Hemingway o n c e r e m a r k e d , "on t h e p r i n -c i p l e o f t h e i c e b e r g . T h e r e i s s e v e n e i g h t h s o f i t u n d e r w a t e r f o r e v e r y p a r t t h a t shows. A n y t h i n g y o u know yo u c a n e l i m i n a t e and i t o n l y s t r e n g t h e n s y o u r i c e b e r g . " ^ 0 T h i s " i c e b e r g p r i n c i p l e " i s b r i l l i a n t l y i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e m a j o r s t o r y o f Hemingway's f i r s t c o l l e c t i o n , I n o u r Time (1925). The s t o r y , " B i g T w o - H e a r t e d R i v e r " , i s , as i t happens a d m i r a b l y s u i t e d f o r c o m p a r i s o n and c o n t r a s t w i t h " T a k i b i " . As i t S h i g a ' s s t o r y , v e r y l i t t l e seems t o happen on t h e s u r f a c e ' : we a r e shown N i c k Adams, t h e p r o t a g o n i s t o f a whole s e r i e s o f e a r l y Hemingway s t o r i e s , r e t u r n i n g a l o n e t o f i s h a r a v e r i n n o r t h e r n M i c h i g a n where he o f t e n f i s h e d when y o u n g e r . He h i k e s a few m i l e s , s e t s up camp, c o o k s h i m s e l f a m e a l , beds down f o r t h e n i g h t , g e t s up t h e n e x t m o r n i n g and c a t c h e s a few t r o u t --t h i s i s t h e e x t e n t o f t h e s t o r y ' s a c t i o n and i t i s a l l d e s -c r i b e d w i t h a l m o s t m i c r o s c o p i c r e a l i s m . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e a r e h i n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t o r y t h a t t h i s i s no o r d i n a r y " f i s h i n g t r i p " -- t h a t i s , i n f a c t , a r a t h e r d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t t o a d m i n i s t e r t h e r a p y t o h i s own d e e p l y wounded p s y c h e . And t h e s o u r c e o f t h i s wound? "The s t o r y , " Hemingway h i m s e l f s a i d y e a r s a f t e r he w r o t e i t , "was a b o u t coming b a c k f r o m t h e war b u t t h e r e was no m e n t i o n 61 o f t h e war i n i t . " Once we have r e a l i z e d t h i s f a c t , t h e s t o r y ' s i m a g e r y and a c t i o n become c o m p r e h e n s i b l e on a much d e e p e r l e v e l . The " b u r n e d - o v e r " c o u n t r y w h i c h i s t h e o p e n i n g image o f t h e s t o r y , f o r i n s t a n c e , (and w h i c h i s so r e m i n i s c e n t o f - 108 -T.S. E l i o t ' s "Waste L a n d " , w r i t t e n j u s t a c o u p l e o f y e a r s b e f o r e ) now seems t o s y m b o l i z e b o t h t h e - . p h y s i c a l r u i n o f t h e war N i c k has j u s t r e t u r n e d f r o m , and t h e p s y c h i c s c a r s i t has c a u s e d i n him. Hemingway's " b u r n e d - o v e r " c o u n t r y , i n f a c t , p e r f o r m s much t h e same f u n c t i o n i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s s t o r y as S h i g a ' s " s t u f f y , s m o k e - f i l l e d room" do e s i n " T a k i b i " ? i t s e r v e s as a v e r y c o n c r e t e i m a g i s t i c embodiment o f a l l t h a t t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i s a b o u t t o e s c a p e f r o m -- w h i c h , i n b o t h c a s e s , may be d e s c r i b e d as t h e " i l l s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n " . S h i g a ' s g r o u p t a k e a b o a t o u t o v e r t h e l a k e , Hemingway's p r o t a g o n i s t h i k e s up t o t h e "good c o u n t r y " n o t y e t d e v a s t a t e d by man; t h e p r i n -c i p a l a c t i o n o f b o t h s t o r i e s , i n o t h e r words -- as we w o u l d o n l y e x p e c t f r o m two " p r i m i t i v i s t " w r i t e r s -- i s an e s c a p e f r o m i z i v i l i a a t i o n i n t o t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e . B u t t h e s i m i l a r i t y between t h e s e two s t o r i e s d o e s n o t end t h e r e . J u s t as t h e S h i g a g r o u p engaged i n c e r t a i n " p r i m i ^ t i v e " r i t u a l s t o b r i n g t h e m s e l v e s i n t o d e e p e r harmony w i t h n a t u r e -- l i g h t i n g t h e b o n f i r e , t h r o w i n g t h e f i r e y b r a n c h e s o u t o v e r t h e l a k e — t o an e v e n g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h e Hemingway p r o t a g o n i s t i s shown engaged c o n t i n u o u s l y i n r i t u a l i s t i c a c t i o n s : m a k i n g camp, c o o k i n g m e a l s , p r e p a r i n g h i s f i s h i n g e q u i p m e n t , f i s h i n g i t s e l f -- i n d e e d , t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s o c c u p y a l m o s t t h e e n t i r e s t o r y , and t h e y a r e d e s c r i b e d i n s u c h m i n u t e , a l m o s t monotonous d e t a i l t h a t t h e r e a d e r c a n have no d o u b t a b o u t t h e i r " r i t u a l i s t i c " n a t u r e . - 109 -I n t h e Hemingway s t o r y , t h e s e r i t u a l s seem t o have a d o u b l e p u r p o s e : as i n t h e S h i g a s t o r y , t h e y h e l p t o b r i n g t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i n t o c l o s e r t o u c h w i t h n a t u r e , b u t t h e y a l s o have a more u r g e n t f u n c t i o n — t h e y h e l p him t o e x e r c i s e c o n t r o l o v e r h i s own d i s o r d e r e d , t r a u m a t i z e d mind. The w a r - s c a r r e d N i c k , as E l i z a b e t h W e l l s p o i n t s o u t , "does n o t want t o t h i n k . He wants t o a c t . He i s , i n f a c t , c o n s c i o u s l y p u t t i n g h i m s e l f 6 2 t h r o u g h a r i t u a l t h a t w i l l k e e p him f r o m t h i n k i n g . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e i s a s t r a i n o f " n a t u r e m y s t i c i s m " i n Hemingway, as i n S h i g a , and N i c k ' s r i t u a l s do b r i n g h i m a t l e a s t a momentary " u n i i z i v e " e x p e r i e n c e w i t h n a t u r e . T h i s comes t h r o u g h t h e s t o r y ' s c e n t r a l r i t u a l (and, as J a c k s o n Benson 6 3 p o i n t s o u t , t h e c e n t r a l r i t u a l o f a l l t h e N i c k Adams s t o r i e s ) : f i s h i n g . When he c a t c h e s h i s f i r s t t r o u t , N i c k a c h i e v e s a momentary o n e n e s s w i t h t h e f i s h w h i c h r e l e a s e s him b r i e f l y f r o m t h e o p p r e s s i v e c o n f i n e s o f h i s own t r o u b l e d s e l f . As P h i l i p Young p o i n t s o u t , t h i s momentary r e l e a s e i s r e f l e c t e d e v e n i n t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e s t o r y ' i "When t h e r e i s t h e extreme e x c i t e m e n t o f a b i g s t r i k e f r o m a t r o u t t h e s t y l e c h a n g e s a b r u p t l y . The p r e s s u r e i s o f f t h e man, he i s nowhere b u t r i g h t t h e r e p l a y i n g t h e f i s h , and t h e n t h e s e n t e n c e s l e n g t h e n g r e a t l y 64 and become a p p r o p r i a t e l y g r a c e f u l . " Hemingway d e s c r i b e s an i d e n t i c a l k i n d o f e x p e r i e n c e more e x p l i c i t l y i n an e a r l i e r s t o r y o f I n o u r Time c a l l e d " C r o s s - C o u n t r y Snow", b u t t h i s t i m e N i c k i s s k i i n g : "The r u s h and t h e s u d d en swoop as he d r o p p e d - n o -down a s t e e p u n d u l a t i o n i n t h e m o u n t a i n s i d e p l u c k e d N i c k ' s mind o u t and l e f t h i m o n l y t h e w o n d e r f u l f l y i n g , d r o p p i n g s e n s a t i o n 6 5 i n h i s body." As S h e r i d a n B a k e r s a y s : "The p e a c e f o r w h i c h N i c k i s s e a r c h i n g , i n o u r t i m e , i s n o t u n l i k e -- i n a t o u g h , e a r t h b o u n d s o r t o f way — t h a t w h i c h p a s s e s a l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . " -In some ways, " B i t T w o - H e a r t e d R i v e r " may seem t o r e m i n d us more o f " K i n o s a k i n i t e " t h a n <bf " T a k i b i " . I n t h e e a r l i e r S h i g a s t o r y , as we may r e c a l l , t h e p r o t a g o n i s t a l s o r e t i r e d a l o n e t o n a t u r e t o t r y t o r e c o v e r f r o m t h e r e c e n t t r a u m a o f a n e a r - f a t a l a c c i d e n t . L i k e N i c k t o o he had t r o u b l e e x e r c i s i n g c o n t r o l o v e r h i s t r a u m a t i z e d mind. I n t h e f i n a l s c e n e o f t h e s t o r y he i s f a i r l y o verwhelmed by t h o u g h t s o f d e a t h : " O n l y my head worked on as i t w o u l d . I t l e d me d e e p e r and d e e p e r 6 7 i n t o t h e s e f a n c i e s . " W h i l e t h e mood o f " B i g T w o ^ Hearted R i v e r " i s n o t as l i g h t and t r a n q u i l as t h a t o f " T a k i b i " , however, n e i t h e r i s i t as d a r k and t o r t u r e d as t h a t o f " K i n o s a k i n i t e " . T h r o u g h t h e s t u d i e d p r a c t i s e o f h i s " r i t u a l s " , N i c k d o e s manage t o k e e p h i s t h o u g h t s i n c h e c k : " H i s mind was s t a r t i n g t o work. He 6 8 knew he c o u l d choke i t b e c a u s e he was t i r e d enough." And, as we have s e e n , he does a c h i e v e a few moments o f s e l f -o b l i v i o n and u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e . Now he knows, a t l e a s t , t h e d i r e c t i o n h i s r e c o v e r y must t a k e . T h e r e i s hope h e r e f o r t h e f u t u r e . The s t o r y , i n f a c t , ends on t h i s e m p h a t i c a l l y o p t i -m i s t i c n o t e : " T h e r e were p l e n t y o f d a y s coming when he c o u l d u *.u » 6 9 f i s h t h e swamp. On the other hand, the mood of "Takibi" i s not as un-reservedly "light-hearted" as might f i r s t appear. Here too there are shadows in the background and, again, they are not made too e x p l i c i t because Shiga, l i k e Hemingway, believes i n the power of "the thing l e f t out". On closer view of the story, i n f a c t , we f i n d that, just as Nick's war^ experience i s an "unspoken presence" i n "Big Two-Hearted River", so the Shiga narrator's near-fatal accident s t i l l looms i n the back-ground of "Takibi". Francis Mathy perceptively notices this when, in speakingoof Shiga's l i f e on Mount Akagi, the s i t e of "Takibi", he remarks: "The quiet melancholy that Shiga had begun to experience after his brush with death was further deepened here on this mountain. It i s the f e e l i n g of quiet 70 melancholy that informs the story 'Bonfire'";.." In the same way as Hemingway refers symbolically to the war with his image of the "burnt-over" country at the opening of his story, early i n "Takibi" Shiga makes use of a s t r i k i n g image that immed-i a t e l y puts us i n mind of "Kinosaki n i te" and the near-fatal accident: "But the mountains on a l l sides were black, and I 7 thought they resembled the backs of crouching water l i z a r d s . " When we r e c a l l the f i n a l episode of "Kinosaki ni te", i n which the narrator k i l l s a water l i z a r d , as well as the deep sym-b o l i c significance which he t e l l s us these creatures have for him, then i t i s d i f f i c u l t to believe that t h i s i s just a casually-dropped simile (and, of course, i t i s also made con-spicuous by the fact that Shiga rarely uses auch s i m i l e s ) . As t h e s t o r y p r o g r e s s e s , t o o , t h i s d a r k e r n o t e emerges more e x p l i c i t l y when K. t e l l s h i s s t o r y o f t h e w i l d dogs who h a d once k i l l e d a h o r s e on t h e m o u n t a i n and who had e v e n , one n i g h t , t h r e a t e n e d t o k i l l h i s f a t h e r ; and t h e n a r r a t o r h i m s e l f t h e n t e l l s o f t h e s k u l l o f "a s m a l l w i l d a n i m a l " he h a d f o u n d i n " H e l l V a l l e y " j u s t a few d a y s b e f o r e . D e a t h b e i n g p e r h a p s 72 t h e m a j o r theme o f S h i g a ' s work, as i t i s o f Hemingway's, i t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t i t i s n o t e n t i r e l y a b s e n t e v e n f r o m " T a k i b i " , o n e a o f S h i g a ' s most " l i g h t - h e a r t e d " s t o r i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a m i d s t t h e b e a u t y o f t h e m o u n t a i n and t h e l a k e on a t r a n q u i l e v e n i n g i n s p r i n g , d e a t h seems b u t a d i s t a n t shadow — a l b e i t a n e c e s s a r y " f o i l " t o s e t o f f t h e j o y f u l s e n s e o f l i f e t h a t o c c u p i e s t h e f o r e g r o u n d . T h o u g h t s o f d e a t h no l o n g e r overwhelm t h e S h i g a n a r r a t o r , as i n " K i n o s a k i n i t e " , d i s t u r b i n g ibhe q u i e t n e s s o f mind n e c e s s a r y f o r h i m t o a c h i e v e harmony b o t h w i t h n a t u r e and w i t h h i s f e l l o w man. As t h e f i n a l s c e n e o f " T a k i b i " shows, he i s , i n f a c t , w e l l on t h e way t o t h e " e n l i g h t e n m e n t " t h a t i s , as we s h a l l s e e , t h e c u l m i n a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e o f An'ya K o r o and, i n d e e d , o f S h i g a ' s e n t i r e opus. C h a p t e r 4 W i t h w r i t e r s more p r o l i f i c t h a t S h i g a Naoya, t h e r e may be some d i s p u t e as t o w h i c h o f t h e i r works may be r e g a r d e d as t h e most i m p o r t a n t o r t h e most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ; i n S h i g a ' s c a s e , however, t h e r e i s o n l y one work w h i c h c a n be s i n g l e d o u t u n r e s e r v e d l y as h i s magnum opus : An 'ya K o r o X8&$L.4^$?T A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , 1937) . A t • a b o u t f o u r h u n d r e d p a g e s , i t i s h i s o n l y r e a l l y s u b s t a n t i a l , n o v e l - l e n g t h work — a l l h i s o t h e r f i c t i o n a l w r i t i n g s a r e e i t h e r s h o r t s t o r i e s o r n o v e l l a s F u r t h e r m o r e A n 1 y a K o r o c o n t a i n s t h e c l e a r e s t , most f o r c e f u l ex-p r e s s i o n o f S h i g a ' s m a j o r themes and t h e f i n e s t p a s s a g e s o f h i s c e l e b r a t e d p r o s e s t y l e . I n d e e d , he seemed t o have p u t a l l t h a t he had i n t o t h i s one n o v e l , as e v i d e n c e d , f i r s t , by t h e f a c t t h a t i t t o o k him a b o u t t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s o f i n t e r m i t t e n t e f f o r t t o w r i t e i t ( f r o m 1912 t o 1937) and, s e c o n d , by t h e f a c t t h a t a f t e r * : i t was f i n a l l y done w i t h , he w r o t e v e r y l i t t l e e l s e , t h o u g h he l i v e d a n o t h e r t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s . R e g a r d i n g t h i s n o v e l Agawa H i r o y u k i has w r i t t e n : "Here i s t o be f o u n d e v e r y -t h i n g S h i g a p o s s e s s e s , e v e r y t h i n g t h a t he a s p i r e d t o i n h i s l i f e and work."''" And, as F r a n c i s Mathy p o i n t s o u t : "Some J a p a n e s e c r i t i c s go so f a r as t o c a l l i t t h e h i g h e s t peak o f modern , 2 J a p a n e s e l i t e r a t u r e . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , An'ya K o r o i s n o t so " p u r e " an example o f t h e q u i n t e s s e n t i a l S h i g a Naoya s h i - s h o s e t s u as t h e s h o r t s t o r i e s we have examined up t o t h i s p o i n t . I t i s t h a t s e e m i n g l y a d u l t -e r a t e d f o r m , t h e " f i c t i o n a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y " , i n two d i s t i n c t s e n s e s . On t h e one hand, i f we r e g a r d t h e n o v e l as t h e a u t h o r ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y , we d i s c o v e r t h a t , t h o u g h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , T o k i t o K e n s a k u , i s o b v i o u s l y a p e r s o n a o f S h i g a h i m s e l f , many o f t h e e v e n t s t h e n o v e l d e s c r i b e s a r e f i c t i t i o u s . As S h i g a once w r o t e : " K e n s a k u 1 s a c t i o n s and f e e l i n g s r e p r e s e n t what I m y s e l f w o u l d do i f p l a c e d i n s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , o r what I w o u l d want t o 3 do, o r what I have a c t u a l l y done." On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e n o v e l i s a l s o a " f i c t i o n a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t i s p r e s e n t e d as t h e a c t u a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f t h e f i c t i o n a l c h a r -a c t e r , T o k i t o K e n s a k u . On t h i s l e v e l , An'ya K o r o , as we s h a l l s e e , may be r e g a r d e d a s a n o v e l a b o u t a man t r y i n g t o w r i t e A n ' ya K o r o . I n my d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e work, I s h a l l be more i n t e r e s t e d i n i t s b e i n g an a u t o b i o g r a p h y i n t h i s s e c o n d s e n s e --t h a t i s , qua t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f t h e c h a r a c t e r , T o k i t o K e n s a k u r a t h e r t h a n o f t h e man, S h i g a Naoya. To t h e b e s t o f my know-l e d g e , p r e v i o u s c r i t i c s o f t h e work have f a i l e d t o e m p h a s i z e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , t h o u g h i t seems t o me c r u c i a l t o a f u l l u n d e r -s t a n d i n g o f t h e a e s t h e t i c a c h i e v e m e n t and t h e m a t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e n o v e l . W i t h t h e i r l a r g e l y " b i o g r a p h i c a l " a p p r o a c h , J a p a n e s e c r i t i c s seem t o c o n t e n t t h e m s e l v e s w i t h f e r r e t i n g o u t t h o s e c o r r e s p o n -d e n c e s w h i c h do e x i s t between t h e a u t h o r ' s l i f e and t h i s p a r t i -c u l a r work. One r a t h e r h o s t i l e c r i t i c , Nakamura M i t s u o , e v e n goes so f a r as t o say t h a t r e a d e r s c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h S h i g a a c c e p t e d An'ya K o r o as a g r e a t n o v e l , e v e n t h o u g h t h e main - 115 -c h a r a c t e r i s " n e v e r more t h a n a k i n d o f a b s t r a c t e x i s t e n c e " o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y "saw b e h i n d t h e a b s t r a c t h e r o t h e f i g u r e o f t h e w r i t e r h i m s e l f . I t was b e c a u s e t h e r e a d e r s a c c e p t e d t h e n o v e l u n c e n d i t i o n a l l y as an a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l p r e -s e n t i n g t h e i d e a l i z e d s e l f o f t h e w r i t e r . " A W e s t e r n c r i t i c s u c h as F r a n c i s Mathy, on t h e o t h e r hand, seems t o r e g a r d i t as a k i n d o f ''admission o f d e f e a t " on S h i g a ' s p a r t t h a t he w o u l d w r i t e a f i c t i o n a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y r a t h e r t h a n a p u r e s h i -s h o s e t s u . The way Mathy s e e s i t , S h i g a d i d n o t have enough m a t e r i a l i n h i s own l i f e t o f i l l a l e n g t h y n o v e l , and so had t o r e s o r t t o some o f t h e v e r y " f a b r i c a t i o n s " he h a d a l w a y s 5 f r o w n e d upon. He a l s o w i s h e d t o a v o i d t h e p a i n o f i n t r o -s p e c t i o n : To s a l v a g e t h e p a r t s he had a l r e a d y w r i t t e n and go on t o c o m p l e t e t h e n o v e l , he had r e c o u r s e t o f i c t i o n : he d e s i g n e d t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e two " s i n s " , t h e " s i n " o f y.he h e r o ' s mother and t h a t o f h i s w i f e , and i n t o t h i s s t r u c t u r e were f i t t e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s . S i n c e i t was n e v e r more t h a n a c o n v e n i e n t t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e , i t i s no wonder t h a t i t has s o l i t t l e o r g a n i c f u n c t i o n i n t h e n o v e l . S h i g a ' s i n a b i l i t y t o c o n t i n u e t h e work w i t h -o u t r e c o u r s e t o f i c t i o n a l e l e m e n t s i s e l o q u e n t t e s t i m o n y o f t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e d e s i r e t o "mine what i s i n me" had begun t o y i e l d t o t h e d e s i r e f o r harmony and p e a c e . 6 I n m aking t h e s e v a r i o u s p o i n t s , however, Mathy l i k e t h e J a p a n e s e c r i t i c s , i s s t i l l r e g a r d i n g An'ya K o r o as a f i c t i o n a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y o n l y i n t h e f i r s t and, i t seems t o me, l e s s e r s e n s e — qua t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f S h i g a t h e man. I hope t o show t h a t , o nce we r e g a r d t h e n o v e l i n i t s p r o p e r l i g h t — as a f i c -t i o n a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y i n b o t h s e n s e s — we d i s c o v e r t h a t t h e c o m ples m i x t u r e o f f i c t i o n and r e a l i t y i t c o n t a i n s , f a r f r o m b e i n g " i n o r g a n i c " , i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e n o v e l ' s f o r m and theme f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g . W i t h t h i s n o v e l , i n f a c t , S h i g a c o n s c i o u s l y c o n f r o n t s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u and t h e p r o b l e m s , b o t h p e r s o n a l and a e s t h e t i c , t h a t t h e w r i t i n g o f i t i n v o l v e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e t e n s i o n between t h e " r e a l " and t h e " f i c t i o n a l " i s a p a r t o f t h a t l a r g e r t e n s i o n w h i c h S h i g a , as a " p r i m i t i v i s t " , i n e v i t a b l y f e l t , and w h i c h f o r m s t h e b a s i c dy-namic o f An'ya K o r o : t h e t e n s i o n between m a n / a r t / c i v i l i z a t i o n on t h e one hand and n a t u r e on t h e o t h e r . T h i s i s t h e t e n s i o n t h a t i s u l t i m a t e l y r e s o l v e d i n t h e u n i o n o f man and n a t u r e i n t h e c l i m a c t i c s c e n e on Mount D a i s e n , . a n d I hope t o show t h a t , o n ce we r e g a r d An'ya K o r o as t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y o f T o k i t o K e n s a k u , we f i n d t h a t i t i s b e c a u s e o f t h i s u l t i m a t e r e s o l u -t i o n t h a t K e n s a ku i s a b l e t o go on t o w r i t e t h i s v e r y work. Not t o r e g a r d t h e work a s K e n s a k u ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y i s , t h e n , t o m i s s a good p a r t o f i t s m e aning. An, lya K o r o opens w i t h a s h o r t p r o l o g u e e n t i t l e d , "The H e r o ' s R e m i n i s c e n c e s " , i n w h i c h K e n s a k u r e c a l l s f i v e m a j o r e p i s o d e s f r o m h i s c h i l d h o o d . A l l f i v e d e a l w i t h h i s d i f f i c u l t , i n v o l v e d r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s f a m i l y . I n t h e f i r s t i t i s h i s " g r a n d f a t h e r " : t h e boy K e n s a k u ' s i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e o l d man a r e u n f a v o r a b l e f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g — he i s " s e e d y " and d i s -r e p u t a b l e - l o o k i n g — so t h a t when K e n s a k u i s s e n t t o l i v e w i t h him he i s b a f f l e d and r e s e n t f u l t h a t o f a l l h i s f a m i l y he has been s i n g l e d o u t f o r t h i s s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t , a l t h o u g h " s i n c e my i n f a n c y I had come t o e x p e c t i n j u s t i c e . " The s e c o n d e p i s o d e c o n c e r n s K e n s a k u ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s mother. Once, when he was f o u r o r f i v e y e a r s o l d , h i s mother f o u n d him p e r c h e d d a n g e r o u s l y h i g h on a r o o f . She h e l d him t h e r e by r i v e t i n g f o r c e o f h e r e y e s u n t i l he c o u l d be r e s -c u e d by two m a n s e r v a n t s . K e n s a k u s t i l l c h e r i s h e s t h i s memory as a p r o o f t h a t he was l o v e d by a t l e a s t one member o f h i s f a m i l y . " F o r y e a r s a f t e r , my e y e s w o u l d f i l l w i t h t e a r s when-e v e r I remembered i t . And I have t h o u g h t t o m y s e l f : w h a t e v e r g e l s e , my mother a t l e a s t l o v e d me v e r y much." The t h i r d e p i s o d e a l s o c o n c e r n s K e n s a k u ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s mother. When she r e f u s e s t o g i v e h i m some ca k e t h a t h i s f a t h e r h as b o u g h t , he p e r s i s t e n t l y and a g g r e s s i v e l y c o n t i n u e s t o demand some. As t h e n a r r a t o r r e m a r k s i n r e t r o s p e c t , he d i d n o t r e a l l y want t h e c a k e , he o n l y wanted " t o c r y my h e a r t o u t , o r t o be s h o u t e d a t , o r t o be b e a t e n — i t d i d n ' t m a t t e r w h i c h , so l o n g as s o m e t h i n g was done t o s o o t h e my n e r v e s , t o g e t r i d 9 o f t h e t e r r i b l e f e e l i n g o f o p p r e s s i o n . " Thus he p a x n t s a p i c t u r e o f h i m s e l f as a r a t h e r gloomy, h i g h - s t r u n g boy who f e e l s s o r e l y n e g l e c t e d — c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t , as we a r e t o s e e , s t a y w i t h him i n t o a d u l t h o o d . The f o u r t h e p i a o d e c o n c e r n s t h e young Kensaku's l i f e a t h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s house where " e v e r y t h i n g was s l o v e n l y . " " ' " 0 The house was a g a t h e r i n g - p l a c e f o r a l l s o r t s o f d i s r e p u t a b l e c h a r a c t e r s , who d r o p p e d i n a t n i g h t t o p l a y c a r d s . K e n s a k u ' s - 118 -o n l y c o n s o l a t i o n was h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s y o u n g m i s t r e s s , O e i , who a c t e d as a k i n d o f s u b s t i t u t e m o t h e r f o r him ( s i n c e h i s own m o t h e r wad d e a d by t h e n ) . When she had had a few d r i n k s and was i n a good mood, "she w o u l d p i c k me up and p u t me on h e r k n e e s and h o l d me t i g h t i n h e r s t r o n g , t h i c k arms, I w o u l d f e e l s u c h e c s t a s y t h e n , I h a r d l y c a r e d t h a t I c o u l d n o t b r e a t h e . " ^ I n t h e f i f t h and f i n a l e p i s o d e K e n s a k u i s shown r e l a t i n g w i t h h i s f a t h e r . On t h i s p a r t i c u l a r d a y h i s f a t h e r i s i n a good mood, so he i n v i t e s t h e boy t o w r e s t l e w i t h him. What s t a r t s as a h a r m l e s s p l a y - f i g h t b etween t h e two s u d d e n l y b e -comes a f i g h t i n e a r n e s t whep t h e y b o t h a l l o w t h e i r t r u e f e e l i n g s t o w a r d s e a c h o t h e r t o s u r f a c e . K e n s a k u i s r o u g h l y p u s h e d away by h i s f a t h e r and, when he s t i l l p e r s i s t s , he i s f i n a l l y bound hand and f o o t . As he l i e s h e l p l e s s on t h e f l o o r , he i s f i l l e d w i t h r a g e and h a t r e d t o w a r d s h i s f a t h e r . The f i r s t q u e s t i o n t h a t must a r i s e , i t seems t o me, i n any c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f A n 'ya K o r o , i s : why does S h i g a u s e t h i s u n u s u a l d e v i c e o f o p e n i n g a l o n g t h i r d - p e r s o n n o v e l w i t h a s h o r t p r o l o g u e w r i t t e n by t h e h e r o i n t h e f i r s t p e r s o n ? We m i g h t b e g i n t o answer by s a y i n g , o f c o u r s e , t h a t i t forms a s p l e n d i d i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e n o v e l ' s themes and m o t i f s , s i n c e i n K e nsaku's c a s e p a r t i c u l a r l y " t h e c h i l d i s f a t h e r o f t h e man". T h e r e i s e v e n an e l e m e n t o f s u s p e n s e f u l m y s t e r y i n t h e way t h e p r o l o g u e p o s e s q u e s t i o n s f o r w h i c h t h e n o v e l p r o p e r p r o v i d e s t h e answer. Why i s K e n s a k u ' s g r a n d f a t h e r p r e s e n t e d - 119 -as s u c h an u n s a v o r y c h a r a c t e r ? Why i s K e n s a k u h i m s e l f c o n t i n -u a l l y s i n g l e d o u t f o r " u n j u s t " t r e a t m e n t by h i s f a m i l y , i n -c l u d i n g b e i n g s h i p p e d o f f t o l i v e w i t h h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ? And why i s t h e r e a c e r t a i n t e n s i o n i n h i s r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s mother and o u t r i g h t a n i m o s i t y i n h i s r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s f a t h e r ? To a l l o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s t h e answer comes i n P a r t I I o f t h e n o v e l , when we d i s c o v e r , a l o n g w i t h K e n s a k u , t h a t h i s m other was s e d u c e d by h i s s u p p o s e d " g r a n d f a t h e r " when M s " f a t h e r " was away f r o m home and t h a t he h i m s e l f i s t h e p r o d u c t o f t h i s " s i n f u l " u n i o n . Thus K e n s a k u 1 s " d a r k n i g h t " b e g i n s a t t h e v e r y moment o f h i s b i r t h and, as t h e p r o l o g u e shows, c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h h i s c h i l d h o o d . One may s e e , t h e n , how s k i l l f u l l y S h i g a i n t r o d u c e s h i s m a j o r theme -- K e n s a k u ' s s t r u g g l e t o overcome h i s " d a r k f a t e " -- i n t h e few pages o f t h e ^ p r o l o g u e , w i t h o u t , a t t h e same t i m e , g i v i n g t o o much away. .(We a r e r e m i n d e d h e r e a g a i n o f Hemingway's " p r i n c i p l e o f t h e i c e b e r g " and t h e s t r a t e g i c " t h i n g l e f t o u t " . ) N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t seems t o me t h a t t h e p r o l o g u e s e r v e s a n o t h e r f u n c t i o n t h a t i s a t l e a s t as i m p o r t a n t : i t e s t a b l i s h e s K e n s a k u as a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u and s o , a t l e a s t p o t e n t i a l l y , as t h e a u t h o r o f An'ya K o r o i t s e l f . The p r o l o g u e , a f t e r a l l , m i g h t have been w r i t t e n , l i k e t h e r e s t o f t h e n o v e l , i n t h e t h i r d p e r s o n and i n t h i s f o r m m i g h t h ave p r e s e n t e d i t s " i n t r o d u c t o r y " m a t e r i a l j u s t as w e l l . By c a s t i n g i t as a s h i - s h o s e t s u w r i t t e n by K e n s a k u , S h i g a a c t u a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e s t h r e e t h i n g s : he i n t r o -d u c e s t h e c o n c e p t o f a f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r b e i n g t h e a u t h o r - 120 -o f a work t h a t we know, o f c o u r s e , was a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n by S h i g a h i m s e l f ( t h u s p r e p a r i n g us t o a c c e p t t h e i d e a t h a t t h e whole n o v e l i s a l s o meant t o have b e e n w r i t t e n by t h i s c h a r a c -t e r ) ; and f i n a l l y , he i n t r o d u c e s t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u g e n r e i t s e l f , and t h e complex p r o b l e m o f " f i c t i o n v e r s u s r e a l i t y " t h a t i t i n v o l v e s , s i n c e t h e p r o l o g u e i s a " p u r e " example o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u o n l y q ua authored'-By K e n s a k u ( i f we r e g a r d S h i g a as t h e a u t h o r t h e n i t c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l f i c t i t i o u s e l e m e n t s , most n o t a b l y t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e g r a n d f a t h e r , who i s p u r p o s e l y made t o be d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e t o S h i g a ' s own g r e a t l y r e v e r e d p a t e r n a l g r a n d f a t h e r -- a s a m u r a i o f t h e o l d s c h o o l ) . The q u e s t i o n t h e n a r i s e s : why d i d n o t S h i g a go on t o w r i t e t h e r e s t o f t h e n o v e l i n t h e f i r s t p e r s o n , p r e s e n t i n g i t o u t -r i g h t , l i k e t h e p r o l o g u e , a s t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u o f T o k i t o Kensaku? G e n e r a l l y , one m i g h t answer t h a t t o have done so w o u l d have b e e n t o have u p s e t t h e d e l i c a t e b a l a n c e o f f i c t i o n and r e a l i t y w h i c h forms t h e n o v e l ' s u n d e r l y i n g a e s t h e t i c t e n s i o n . B u t s i n c e t h e n o v e l o p e r a t e s i n two d i f f e r e n t s e n s e s as a " f i c t i o n -a l a u t o b i o g r a p h y " , t h e q u e s t i o n must be answered on two d i f f e r -e n t l e v e l s . F i r s t l y , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s a " s p i r i t u a l " i d e n t i t y between t h e a u t h o r and h i s p r o t a g o n i s t , t h e r e a r e a l s o l a r g e e l e m e n t s o f f i c t i o n i n t h e n o v e l , so t h a t i t was n e c e s s a r y f o r S h i g a t o e s t a b l i s h some d i s t a n c e between h i m s e l f and Kensaku. I n a l e n g t h y s h i - s h o s e t s u s u c h as Wakai ( 4fO Recon-c i l i a t i o n , 1 9 1 7 ) , f o r i n s t a n c e , S h i g a d o e s w r i t e i n t h e f i r s t p e r s o n w h i l e c a l l i n g h i m s e l f by a f i c t i t i o u s name, b u t t h i s - 121 -work i s a d i r e c t t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f e v e n t s f r o m h i s own l i f e . By w r i t i n g A n ' y a K o r o i n t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , he s e r v e s n o t i c e t h a t i t i s n o t so s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l as h i s e a r l i e r w o rks. F u r t h e r m o r e , i n t h i s work, as I hope t o show, he w i s h e d t o w r i t e n o t m e r e l y a s h i - s h o s e t s u ( " f i c t i o n a l " o r o t h e r w i s e ) b u t an e x t e n d e d commentary on t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u g e n r e , and f o r t h i s p u r p o s e a l s o he needed some d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e f o r m i t s e l f . S e c o n d l y , An'ya K o r o ' s b e i n g w r i t t e n i n t h e t h i r d p e r s o n does n o t p r e v e n t us f r o m r e g a r d i n g i t as Kensaku's s h i - s h o s e t s u . On t h e c o n t r a r y , i t seems t o me more t o p o i n t i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . A l t h o u g h , as we have s e e n , S h i g a u s u a l l y w r o t e h i s own " p u r e " s h i - s h o s e t s u i n t h e f i r s t p e r s o n , t h i s p r a c t i s e was by ho means u n i v e r s a l among o t h e r w r i t e r s o f t h e g e n r e -- i n c l u d i n g t h e " f o u n d e r " , Tayama K a t a i — d e s p i t e i t s d e s i g n a t i o n ("'I' n o v e l " ) . A f t e r a l l , i t i s e a s y enough f o r a w r i t e r t o change " I " t o "he" i f he wants t o m a i n t a i n some se m b l a n c e o f f i c t i o n -a l i t y . B u t t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t , i n t h e c a s e o f An'ya K o r o , i s t h a t t h e w h o l e n n o v e l , w i t h one b r i e f b u t i m p o r t a n t e x c e p -t i o n t h a t I s h a l l d i s c u s s l a t e r , i s t o l d f r o m K e n s a k u ' s p o i n t o f v i e w . J u s t a s , i n t h e p r o l o g u e , we do n o t know t h e r o o t c a u s e o f t h e boy K e n s a k u 1 s " d a r k f a t e " b e c a u s e he h i m s e l f d o e s n o t know i t , s o , t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e s t o f t h e n o v e l , we p e r c e i v e t h e w o r l d e n t i r e l y t h r o u g h h i s e y e s . B u t t h e r e i s , i t seems t o me, a d e e p e r r e a s o n , r e l a t e d t o t h e n o v e l ' s c e n t r a l theme, why K e n s a k u s h o u l d be made t o - 122 -w r i t e h i s s p i r i t u a l autobiography i n the t h i r d person, a reason which I s h a l l b r i e f l y o u t l i n e here but r e t u r n to i n more d e t a i l l a t e r . Throughout the novel we are presented again and again with Kensaku as a f r u s t r a t e d w r i t e r unable to b r i n g any of h i s s h i - s h o s e t s u to a s u c c e s s f u l c o n c l u s i o n . By the novel's end we know why: he has been i n s u f f i c i e n t l y de-tached from the c o m p l i c a t i o n s of h i s l i f e and, above a l l , from h i s own t y r a n n i c a l l y e g o t i s t i c a l s e l f ; without t h i s detachment, q u i t e n a t u r a l l y , i t has been i m p o s s i b l e f o r him to w r i t e , as an author of s h i - s h o s e t s u must do, about e i t h e r h i s l i f e or h i m s e l f . Only when he has achieved the supreme detachment t h a t comes wit h h i s f i n a l union with nature on Mount Daisen i s he f r e e to w r i t e -- and, I would argue, what he goes on to w r i t e i s t h i s n o v el c a l l e d An'ya Koro. That he has w r i t t e n the novel i n the t h i r d person, then, s i g n i f i e s h i s new-found de-tachment from h i s form e r l y o p p r e s s i v e s e l f . Shiga continues the s h i - s h o s e t s u m o t i f i n the f i r s t chap-t e r of the novel proper, but now i n a l i g h t e r , even s a t i r i c a l v e i n . The chapter opens wi t h a scene r e m i n i s c e n t of "Aru Asa": the p r o t a g o n i s t , unable to s l e e p , r e a d i n g i n bed u n t i l the e a r l y hours of the morning. What Kensaku i s re a d i n g here, though, i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t : i t i s a s h i - s h o s e t s u w r i t t e n by an acquaintance, Sakaguchi. And i t does not ple a s e Kensaku; i n f a c t , i t leaves "a nasty t a s t e i n h i s mouth" and confirms the "mounting d i s l i k e f o r Sakaguchi" t h a t he has f e l t f o r some 12 time. He throws the s t o r y aside and, i n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, - 123 -s e e k s r e f u g e i n a 'harmless l i t t l e book", a " h i s t o r i c a l r o -13 mance" c a l l e d T s u k a h a r a Bokuden (the a d v e n t u r e o f a m a s t e r swordsman o f t h e Muromachi p e r i o d ) . Thus t h e f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y d i a l e c t i c i s i n t r o d u c e d i n a r a t h e r humorous f a s h i o n a t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n o v e l . B u t t h e r e i s more. When K e n s a k u awakes t h e f o l l o w i n g a f t e r n o o n , he f i n d s t h a t S a k a g u c h i h i m s e l f has come t o c a l l on him, t o g e t h e r w i t h a n o t h e r a c q u a i n t a n c e , T a t s u o k a . K e n s a k u a t f i r s t r e f u s e s t o s e e S a k a g u c h i , b u t q u i c k l y r e l e n t s . We arev'then t o l d : The s t o r y b y S a k a g u c h i t h a t K e n s a k u ha d f o u n d s o un-p l e a s a n t was a b o u t a man who has an a f f a i r w i t h h i s f i f t e e n - y e a r - o l d h o u s e m a i d ; t h e h o u s e m a i d becomes p r e g n a n t and i s s e n t t o an a b o r t i o n i s t . K e n s a ku t h o u g h t i t most l i k e l y t h a t i t was b a s e d on t h e a u t h o r ' s own e x p e r i e n c e . The f a c t s d e s c r i b e d were i n t h e m s e l v e s u n p l e a s a n t enough; b u t what he r e a l l y d i s l i k e d was t h e o b v i o u s f l i p p a n c y o f t h e a u t h o r . He c o u l d have f o r g i v e n t h e f a c t s i f he had b e en a l l o w e d t o f e e l some sympathy f o r t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ; b u t t h e f l i p p a n c y , t h e s u p e r c i l i -o u s n e s s o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t (and o f S a k a g u c h i ) l e f t no room f o r s u c h sympathy. He was a n g e r e d , t o o , by t h e way t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s f r i e n d , who he was c e r t a i n had b e en m o d e l e d on h i m s e l f , was d e s c r i b e d . 14 B e c a u s e S a k a g u c h i p r o t r a y s him i n t h e s t o r y as "an unknow-i n g o b s e r v e r , h a r b o r i n g what amounted t o a s e c r e t l o n g i n g f o r 15 t h e g i r l " , t h e i r a t e K e n s a k u i s s u r p r i s e d t h a t S a k a g u c h i w o u l d have t h e n e r v e t o come c a l l on him. Had he e x p e c t e d t o g e t an a n g r y l e t t e r f r o m K e n s aku and when i t d i d n ' t come, become u n e a s y and begun t o f e e l t h r e a t e n e d by t h e uncanny s i l e n c e ? Or had he come t o p l a y t h e s t a g e v i l l a i n , g l o a t i n g o v e r h i s own n a s t i n e s s ? He had b e t t e r be c a r e f u l , K e n s a k u t h o u g h t , o r I ' l l g i v e him a p i e c e o f my mind. Thus h i s f a n c i e s <- 124 -a b o u t S a k a g u c h i became l e s s and l e s s r e s t r a i n e d ; and by t h e t i m e he had f i n i s h e d w a s h i n g h i s f a c e , he was i n a s t a t e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e a g i t a t i o n . 16 When Kensaku j o i n s h i s g u e s t s , however, he f i n d s t h a t T a t s u o k a i s e q u a l l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t he i s t h e model f o r Saka-g u e h i 1 s u n i n t e l l i g e n t c h a r a c t e r . "He s a y s most o f t h e s t o r y i s i m a g i n e d " , he t e l l s K e n s a ku, " b u t I d o u b t i t . He's j u s t t h e s o r t o f f e l l o w w h o ' l l w r i t e a b o u t h i s f r i e n d s b e h i n d t h e i r 17 . . . b a c k s . " S a k a g u c h i h i m s e l f m a i n t a i n s a h a u g h t y s i l e n c e i n th e f a c e o f t h e s e a c c u s a t i o n s : One t h i n g a t l e a s t was c l e a r -- he was e n j o y i n g h i m s e l f , Why e l s e w o u l d he have t h a t s m i r k on h i s f a c e ? I n h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f a s h i o n , he was f l a u n t i n g h i s s u p e r -i o r i t y . 18 When he f i n a l l y t r i e s t o s i l e n c e T a t s u o k a , t h o u g h , t h e two men come c l o s e t o b l o w s . B u t S a k a g u c h i must b e a t a h a s t y r e t r e a t , b e c a u s e he i s "no match f o r T a t s u o k a p h y s i c a l l y , who was n o t o n l y t w i c e as l a r g e b u t a t h i r d - g r a d e b l a c k b e l t i n 19 j u d o . " K e n s a k u f i n d s h i m s e l f t h r u s t i n t o t h e u n e x p e c t e d r o l e o f m e d i a t o r between t h e two. B u t he i s s t i l l n o t c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e f i r e n d i n t h e s t o r y i s T a t s u o k a . To p r o t e s t a b o u t i t , t h o u g h , w o u l d be t o a d m i t t h a t he s e e s some s i m i l a r i t y between t h i s " u n a d m i r a b l e " c h a r a c t e r and h i m s e l f , so t h a t S a k a g u c h i , who i s s u c h a " s l i p p e r y c u s t o m e r " , m i g h t e a s i l y a s k : "'Do yo u r e a l l y have s u c h a low o p i n i o n o f y o u r own c h a r a c t e r t h a t 2 0 y o u s h o u l d s e e y o u r s e l f i n h i m l ' " K e n s a k u e v e n s u s p e c t s t h a t T a t s u o k a i s o n l y p r e t e n d i n g t o t h i n k t h a t he i s t h e model f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r , h o p i n g t h a t , by d o i n g s o , he w i l l p r e v e n t Ken-s a k u , t h e r e a l m o d e l , f r o m b r e a k i n g o f f h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h S a k a g u c h i . At any rate, one thing these rather convoluted agonies of suspicion seem to i l l u s t r a t e , with more than a touch of humour, are the occupational hazards of a writer of shi-sho-setsu, the p e r i l s of mixing f i c t i o n with r e a l i t y . Although the scene approaches farce when the engineer and the writer almost come to blows, there i s , nevertheless, an undercurrent of serious comment here. To begin with, Sakaguchi 1s story, as an account of the author's a f f a i r with his young maid, i s highly reminiscent of Tayama Katai's Futon ( ^ The Qui l t , 1980), the f i r s t " n a t u r a l i s t " shi-shosetsu of modern Jpaan, and the work which f i r s t popularized t h i s genre. Shiga, then, seems to be serving notice here that his shtb-shosetsu i s to be i n some important way d i f f e r e n t to those of Tayama and the "n a t u r a l i s t s " . How he perceives t h i s difference be-comes clear i f we look again at Kensaku's c r i t i c i s m of Saka-gushi's story. I t i s not the "unpleasant" facts that disburb him (and the " n a t u r a l i s t s " were well known for wallowing i n the mud), i t i s the unsympathetic attitude of the author and of the protagonist, his a l t e r ego. "He could have forgiven the facts i f he had beel allowed to f e e l some sympathy for the pro-tagonist; but the flippancy, the superciliousness of thevpro-21 tagonist (and of Sakaguchi) l e f t no room for such sympathy." The cynical protagonist i s shown cu r e l l y mistreating the young maid for his own amusement, although the r e a l g i r l was, as 22 Kensaku knows, "innocent and good-hearted". In other words, Sakaguchi lacks the one quality that i s absolutely e s s e n t i a l i n a writer of shi-shosetsu: s i n c e r i t y . If the author lacks - 1 2 6 -t h i s q u a l i t y t h e n s o , i n e v i t a b l y , w i l l h i s f i c t i o n a l p e r s o n a , and h i s w o r k , no m a t t e r how b r i l l i a n t i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , w i l l f a l l f l a t b e c a u s e , as K e n s a k u t e l l s u s , i t w i l l f a i l t o a r o u s e o u r s y m p a t h y , i . e . , i t w i l l n o t b r i n g a b o u t t h a t a l l - i m p o r t a n t communion o f s p i r i t b e t w e e n r e a d e r a n d w r i t e r w h i c h , as we h a v e s e e n , S h i g a c a l l e d ' " r h y t h m " . By e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s c l o s e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n p e r s o n a l c h a r -a c t e r and a e s t h e t i c v a l u e i n t h e w r i t i n g o f s h i - s h o s e t s u (a r e l a t i o n t h a t h a s a l w a y s b e e n e m p h a s i z e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l J a p a n e s e a e s t h e t i c s ) , S h i g a a l s o p r e p a r e s us f o r t h e theme t h a t I h a v e a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d i s c e n t r a l t o t h e n o v e l : K e n s a k u m u s t s o l v e h i s f u n d a m e n t a l " p r o b l e m o f t h e s e l f " b e f o r e he c a n S u c c e e d a s a w r i t e r -- and go on t o w r i t e t h i s v e r y n o v e l . A l r e a d y i n t l a i s f i r s t s c e n e , d e s p i t e i t s a l m o s t c o m i c t o n e , we a r e g i v e n some h i n t s o f t h e d e p t h s o f t h i s p r o b l e m : h i s a n g e r and m e n t a l a g i -t a t i o n , w h i c h seem o u t o f a l l p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r r a t h e r t r i v i a l c a u s e ; h i s s u s p i c i o n , a m o u n t i n g t o a l m o s t p a r a n o i a , n o t o n l y o f S a k a g u c h i b u t e v e n o f t h e h a r m l e s s T a t s u o k a ; a n d , f i n a l l y , h i s s e l f - d o u b t s r e v e a l e d , as he h i m s e l f a d m i t s , by t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t he i d e n t i f i e s w i t h t h e d i s a g r e e a b l e c h a r a c t e r p o r -t r a y e d by S a k a g u c h i , n o t on t h e b a s i s o f any e x t e r n a l e v i d e n c e b u t e n t i r e l y b e c a u s e o f w h a t he p e r c e i v e s as a " s i m i l a r i t y o f c h a r a c t e r " . ^ On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h i s o p e n i n g s c e n e a l s o g i v e s us j u s t as c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e r e i s much t o be h o p e d f o r f r o m K e n s a k u . I n t e l l i n g c o n t r a s t t o t h e smug, s e l f - s a t i s f i e d Sakaguchi, Kensaku i s at least aware — p a i n f u l l y aware -- that something within him i s seriously awry. He admits to himself that he i s being "far too suspicious of Sakaguchi" and that, "ever since his experience with Aiko", he has found i t increas-24 ingly d i f f i c u l t to t r u s t people". (As i s consistent with this being Kensaku's shi-shosetsu, his own "stream of conscious-ness", we do not understand t h i s reference to "Aiko" u n t i l l a t e r i n the novel). He also admits that he does not " l i k e t h i s ten-2 dency i n himself, but there was not.much he could do about i t . " Nevertheless, by this very act of painf u l self-awareness, he has taken the f i r s t step on the road that w i l l lead him u l t i -mately out of his "dark night". What t h i s f i r s t scene shows us, i n Shiga's admirably economical fashion, i s that Kensaku, unlike his fellow-writer, Sakaguchi, possesses at le a s t the s i n c e r i t y necessary to make progress as a human being -- and so as a writer of shi-shosetsu. Throughout the remainder of Part I of the novel, however, Kensaku's development seems more i n the nature of a "rake's progress". He begins to frequent the teahouses and, eventually, the brodihels of Yoshiwara, conducting liasons with several-d i f f e r e n t geisha, but without being r e a l l y s a t i s f i e d with any of them. Ultimately he must admit to himself his i n a b i l i t y to control his sexual desires, as he admitted e a r l i e r that he could not control his suspicions; and this too i s a symptom of some deeper malaise: - 128 -The truth was that he was drawn to almost every woman he saw...And before he could stop himself, he was asking himself the unwelcome question: "What i s i t that I want?" He knew the answer; but i t was so un-pleasant, he wanted to hide from i t . 2 6 F i n a l l y , Kensaku's sexual desire becomes fixed on Oei, his "grandfather's" ex-mistress who i s now l i v i n g with him as^-a kind of housekeeper. He recognizes i n s t i n c t i v e l y , though that his increasing "self-indulgence" might lead him now to vi o l a t e some deep taboo, which could prove disastrous: With every passing day, his self-indulgence became more intense. As his l i f e grew more anarchic, so did his mind, and his lewd fantasies about Oei became more and more un-controlled. He wondered f e a r f u l l y what would happen to them i f his present condition were to p e r s i s t . This woman, who had been his grandfather's mistress, was almost twenty years older than he. He imagined . th e i r future together. What he saw — and he shrank before the prospect -- was his own destruction. 27 As Part I ends, Kensaku decides that he must get away from Tokyo for six months or a year, to try to come to grips with himself on his own, away from Oei and from the d i s t r a c -tions of his perpetually carousing friends. As he t e l l s Oei, he also hopes that i n solitude he w i l l "get a l o t of work 2 8 done". This i s the f i r s t important statement i n the novel of the li n k between Kensaku's s p i r i t u a l well-being and his capacity to write. Also, by going away to face himself alone, he acknowledges, at least unconsciously, that his fundamental problem does not l i e i n his external circumstances but i n his inner condition — which he alone can change. This i s the beginning of a process of progressive " i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n " i n - 129 -K e nsaku's p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s own p r o b l e m w h i c h , as we s h a l l s e e , c u l m i n a t e s i n t h e f i n a l p a r t o f t h e n o v e l when he o p e n l y c o n -f r o n t s h i s own " t y r a n i c a l " e g o t i s m . H i s g o i n g i n t o h e r m e t i c a l r e t r e a t t o seek p e a c e o f mind i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l O r i e n t a l f a s h i o n a t t h e end o f P a r t I a l s o f o r e s h a d o w s h i s f i n a l " r e -t r e a t " on Mount D a i s e n a t t h e end o f P a r t IV. As P a r t I I o p e n s , K e nsaku i s on h i s way by s h i p t o Ono-m i c h i , a s m a l l p r o v i n c i a l town b e a u t i f u l l y s i t u a t e d on t h e I n l a n d S e a , w h i c h he has c h o s e n as t h e s i t e o f h i s r e t r e a t . S t a n d i n g a l o n e on t h e s h i p ' s d e c k , he has an e x p e r i e n c e t h a t i s an i m p o r t a n t p r e l u d e t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e he w i l l have on Mount D a i s e n s e v e r a l y e a r s l a t e r : Above and b e l o w , t o h i s r i g h t and l e f t , t h e d a r k n e s s s t r e t c h e d w i t h o u t l i m i t . And h e r e he was, s t a n d i n g i n t h e v e r y m i d d l e o f t h i s enormous t h i n g . . . H e a l o n e s t o o d f a c e t o f a c e w i t h n a t u r e , as mankind's c h o s e n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . B u t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h i s e x a g g e r a t e d s e n s e o f s e l f - i m p o r t a n c e came t h e h o p e l e s s f e e l i n g t h a t he was a b o u t t o be s w a l l o w e d up by t h e g r e a t d a r k n e s s a r o u n d him. I t was n o t a l t o g e t h e r u n p l e a s a n t . He f o u g h t a g a i n s t i t n e v e r t h e l e s s . As i f t o p r o v e t o him-s e l f h i s own p r e s e n c e , he t i g h t e n e d t h e m u s c l e s i n h i s l o w e r abdomen and b r e a t h e d d e e p l y . As s o o n as he s t o p p e d d o i n g s o , however, he a g a i n f e l t i n d a n g e r o f b e i n g s w a l l o w e d up. 29 I t i s o b v i o u s f r o m t h i s t h a t K e n s a k u i s n o t y e t r e a d y t o " l e t go" and c o m p l e t e l y l o s e h i m s e l f i n n a t u r e , e v e n t h o u g h he a l r e a d y r e c o g n i z e s t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e i s " n o t a l t o g e t h e r unpleasant'. 1. And i t i s a l s o o b v i o u s what i s s t o p p i n g him: h i s " e x a g g e r a t e d s e n s e o f s e l f - i m p o r t a n c e " — i . e . , h i s ego --t h e o t h e r s i d e o f w h i c h i s f e a r , t h e f e a r o f l o s i n g h i m s e l f , - 130 -o f b e i n g " s w a l l o w e d up". To c o u n t e r a c t t h i s f e a r o f what i n Zen i s c a l l e d " n o t h i n g n e s s " (mu ^ ) , K e n s a k u t i g h t e n s h i s a b d o m i n a l m u s c l e s and b r e a t h e s d e e p l y , "as i f t o p r o v e t o h i m s e l f h i s own p r e s e n c e " . The Zen way, o f c o u r s e , and t h e way K e n s a k u h i m s e l f w i l l come t o e v e n t u a l l y , i s t o embrace t h i s n o t h i n g n e s s ; b u t , f o r t h e moment, h i s e x c e s s i v e e g o t i s m p r e v e n t s t h e k i n d o f s e l f - s u r r e n d e r t h a t t h i s r e q u i r e s . A t f i r s t K e n s a k u r e s p o n d s w e l l t o h i s p e a c e f u l l i f e on t h e m o u n t a i n s i d e above O n o m i c h i . "At l e a s t he f e l t r e l a x e d enough t o s t a r t on a l o n g - r a n g e p r o j e c t he had b e e n p l a n n i n g . T h i s was t o be a work b a s e d on h i s l i f e f r o m c h i l d h o o d t o t h e p r e s e n t . I n o t h e r w o rds, he has begun t o w r i t e A n 'ya K o r o s p e c i f i c a l l y , we may s p e c u l a t e , t h e p a r t t h a t l a t e r becomes t h e p r o l o g u e , t h e " h e r o ' s r e m i n i s c e n c e s - " o f h i s c h i l d h o o d . T h i s w o u l d a c c o u n t f o r t h e p r o l o g u e ' s b e i n g w r i t t e n i n t h e f i r s t p e r s o n : i t was w r i t t e n b e f o r e K e n s a k u ha d a t t a i n e d t h e " p o s t - D a i s e n " d e t a c h m e n t I spoke o f e a r l i e r . The f a c t t h a t he l a c k s s u c h d e t a c h m e n t i s shown by h i s i n a b i l i t y t o c o n t i n u e w r i t i n g a t O n o m i c M . A w r i t e r o f s h i -3 1 s h o s e t s u , as S h i g a once s a i d , must "mine" what i s i n him, b u t t h i s o f t e n i n v o l v e s p a i n f u l i n t r o s p e c t i o n and s e l f - a n a l y s i s . K e n s a k u , f o r i n s t a n c e , i s t r o u b l e d by a memory o f h a v i n g t o u c h e d h i s m o t h e r ' s g e n i t a l s w h i l e s l e e p i n g w i t h h e r as a f o u r - y e a r - o l d , and h a v i n g b een r e p r i m a n d e d by h e r f o r d o i n g s o . He f e l t shame s t i l l as he remembered t h e i n c i d e n t . He was a l s o p u z z l e d by t h e memory. What.had made h i m do s u c h a t h i n g ? Was i t c u r i o s i t y o r was i t some k i n d o f - 131 -u r g e ? . . . P e r h a p s , he t h o u g h t w e t c h e d l y , he had i n h e r i t e d s u c h an i n c l i n a t i o n ; p e r h a p s e v e n w i t h s u c h t h i n g s , one may be c u r s e d by t h e s i n s o f one's f o r e f a t h e r s . I t was w i t h c h i l d h o o d r e m i n i s c e n c e s l i k e t h e s e , t h e n , t h a t he began h i s w r i t i n g . 32 B u t , a f t e r a b o u t a month o f r e a w a k e n i n g s u c h p a i n f u l mem-o r i e s , t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e p a s t becomes a b i t t o o much f o r K e n s a k u : " F o r a b o u t a month h i s work p r o g r e s s e d a t a s t e a d y p a c e , and b o t h h i s d a i l y l i f e and h i s h e a l t h seemed s a t i s f a c -33 t o r y . Then g r a d u a l l y e v e r y t h i n g b e g an t o d e t e r i o r a t e . " And: "As h i s work f a l t e r e d he b e g a n t o s u f f e r f r o m t h e mono-34 t o n y o f h i s l i f e . E v e r y day was t h e same." He r e we h a v e , t h e n , a somewhat more s e r i o u s example o f t h e h a z a r d s o f w r i t i n g s h i - s h o s e t s u t h a n was p r e s e n t e d i n t h e n o v e l ' s o p e n i n g s c e n e , and one t h a t demands f r o m t h e w r i t e r a good d e a l o f s e l f -d e t a c h m e n t , s i n c e t h e " s e l f " i s h i s p r i n c i p l e s u b j e c t . F i n d i n g , t h e n , t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e t h a t b u i l d s up d u r i n g s o l i f i u d e i s , as y e t , t o o much f o r him t o b e a r , K e n s a k u t u r n s t o an e x t e r n a l s o u r c e f o r r e l i e f : he w r i t e s t o h i s b r o t h e r , N o b u y u k i , a s k i n g him t o c o n v e y h i s p r o p o s a l o f m a r r i a g e t o O e i . N o b u y u k i ' s answer b r i n g s a d o u b l e s h o c k ; n o t o n l y d o e s O e i a d a m a n t l y r e f u s e h i s p r o p o s a l , b u t N o b u y u k i r e v e a l s t h e r e a -son why she must: t h e "shoddy, common, w o r t h l e s s o l d man" t o whom she was m i s t r e s s i s K e n s a k u ' s r e a l f a t h e r . T h i s unwelcome p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n i s t h e d e e p e s t blow y e t t o Kensaku's s e n s e o f s e l f ; i t s h a k e s him t o t h e v e r y c o r e . I t was a l l l i k e a dream t o him. The b e i n g t h a t was h i m s e l f , t h e p e r s o n he had known u n t i l now as h i m s e l f , seemed t o be g o i n g f a r t h e r and f a r t h e r i n t o t h e d i s -t a n c e l i k e a t h i n n i n g m i s t . 35 - 132 -Again, then, Kensaku feels threatened by a sense of "nothing-ness". S i g n i f i c a n t l y , what saves him at t h i s point i s the sud-den surge of sympathy he feels for his dead mother: His mother and that shoddy, common, worthless old man — the mere thought of the association was ugly and unclean. He was then suddenly f i l l e d with overwhelming p i t y for his mother, his mother who had been d e f i l e d by that man. "Mama!" he c r i e d out, l i k e a boy about to throw himself into his mother's arms. 36 By t h i s spontaneous cry from the depths of his soui: Kensaku turns a l l his attention away from himself and towards another, thus freeing himself, at least momentarily, from his own per-sonal pain. Although this i s an e n t i r e l y i n s t i n c t i v e action here, i t i s , nevertheless, an important indicat i o n of the way that, ultimately, Kensaku must consciously embrace: the way of self-transcendence, of "freeing the s e l f from the s e l f " . In the l e t t e r that he sends hack to his brother, Kensaku makes i t clear that he i s determined to make positi v e use of his new "self-knowledge", however p a i n f u l , both as a man and as a writer of shi-shosetsu: Through my new knowledge about myself I s h a l l be able to do my work with greater determination than before. And i n that new determination I s h a l l seek my salvation. There i s no .other way for me. By that means, I s h a l l be able to accomplish two things at once: do the work I want to do and f i n d myself. 37 Here, then, we have the most e x p l i c i t statement yet of the intimate r e l a t i o n between Kensaku's "finding himself" and his capacity to write. - 133 -T h e r e i s a l s o some i r o n i c , a l m o s t c o m i c comment h e r e on a s u b j e c t f a m i l i a r by now: t h e p e r i l s o f w r i t i n g s h i - s h o s e t s u . N o b u y u k i has e x p r e s s e d h i s c o n c e r n t h a t t h e " f a m i l y s c a n d a l " w i l l make i t s way i n t o K e n s a k u ' s w r i t i n g s , so t h a t K e n s a ku must t r y t o r e a s s u r e him: I c a n s y m p a t h i z e w i t h y o u r f e a r l e s t t h e a f f a i r s o f o u r f a m i l y s h o u l d a p p e a r i n my w r i t i n g s . I c a n n o t p r o m i s e t h a t t h e y w i l l n o t a p p e a r i n some f o r m o r o t h e r . B u t I s h a l l t r y t o be c a r e f u l n o t t o c a u s e d i s c o m f o r t . 3 8 L e f t a l o n e w i t h h i s t h o u g h t s a t O n o m i c h i , K e n s a k u n a t u r a l l y i s t e mpted t o brooS. a t t i m e s a b o u t h i s b e i n g b o r n a " c h i l d o f s i n " . B u t , a l r e a d y , l o n g b e f o r e h i s e x p e r i e n c e on Mount D a i s e n , he knows i n t u i t i v e l y t h a t r e l i e f c a n be f o u n d o n l y i f he i s a b l e t o " d i s s o l v e " h i s t r o u b l e d s e l f i n t h e v a s t w o r l d o f n a -t u r e t h a t s u r r o u n d s him: He made h i m s e l f t h i n k o f t h e v a s t n e s s o f t h e w o r l d a r o u n d h i m . . . i n t h e m i d s t o f t h i s v a s t n e s s t h e r e was t h i s m i n u t e p a r t i c l e t h a t was h i m s e l f , b u s i l y w e a v i n g a web o f m i s e r y i n t h e l i t t l e w o r l d o f h i s mind. Such was h i s c u s t o m a r y way o f c o m b a t t i n g h i s own f i t s o f d e p r e s s i o r j . . . 39 N e v e r t h e l e s s , K e n s a ku does n o t y e t f e e l s t r o n g enough t o h e a l h i s own wounded s p i r i t a l l by h i m s e l f . He d e c i d e s t o r e -t u r n t o T o k y o , a l t h o u g h w i t h m i s g i v i n g s t h a t he m i g h t r e l a p s e a g a i n i n t o h i s o l d l i f e o f d i s s i p a t i o n . The t h o u g h t o f - l i v i n g once more t h e way he had done t h o s e l a s t t h r e e mo&ths i n Tokyo was a l m o s t enough t o d e t a i n him. T h e r e was h i s work t o o , nowhere n e a r c o m p l e t i o n . How c o u l d he l i v e l i k e t h a t a g a i n , he wondered, r u s h i n g a b o u t f r a n t i c a l l y y e t a l w a y s w i t h t h a t o p p r e s s i v e f e e l i n g o f g u i l t ? 40 Back i n T o k y o , K e n s a k u f i n d s t h a t h i s b r o t h e r has d e c i d e d t o r e s i g n f r o m h i s company and t a k e up t h e s t u d y o f Zen. The - 134 -st a r t l e d Kensaku "could hardly share Nobuyuki's confidence i n the E f f i c a c y of Zen. Sen was becoming awfully fashionable, 41 and Kensaku naturally f e l t animosity toward i t . " He also disapproves of the Zen master Nobuyuki has chosen to study with: "He was the sort that spoke to large audiences at such places as the Mitsui Assembly H a l l . For men l i k e him, who went about scattering seed indiscriminately on barren ground, Kensaku had no r e s p e c t . " 4 2 This i s the f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t mention of Zen Buddhism i n An'ya Kore. There i s an in t e r e s t i n g d i a l e c t i c a l r e l a t i o n be-tween this novel and the "meditation" sect that has exercised such an overwhelming influence on Japanese culture. As some of my comments have already suggested, Kensaku's "journey through dark night" -- his struggle to free himself from his own egotism and his eventual achievement of t h i s by total" union with nature — f a l l p e r f e c t l y within the Zen view of l i f e and of the basic human predicament. Later i n the novel, i n fact, Kensaku i s shown to be reading and admiring the Zen c l a s s i c s : the "enlightenment s t o r i e s " , i n p a r t i c u l a r , "appealed deeply to his susceptible mind. And each time he heard the words, 'Thus i n an instant there was enlightenment', he would f e e l 43 l i k e c r y i h g i " And, just before his Daisen experience, we are t o l d : "Though he knew nothing about Buddhism, such realms believed i n by Buddhists as 'nirvana' and 'the realm of b l i s s ' 44 ssemed i r r e s i s t i b l y a t t r a c t i v e to him." While l i v i n g on - 135 -Mount D a i s e n , i n f a c t , he e v e n comes c l o s e t o a t t e n d i n g a Zen s e s s h i n ( e x t e n d e d p e r i o d o f l e c t u r e s and m e d i t a t i o n ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , An'ya K o r o i s n o t a r e l i g i o u s t r a c t b u t a n o v e l , so t h a t S h i g a , w h a t e v e r h i s p e r s o n a l v i e w s on t h e m a t t e r , i s w i s e t o b a l a n c e K e n s a k u ' s p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g s a b o u t Zen i n i t s " p u r e " f o r m w i t h some r a t h e r n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s a b o u t Zen as a modern o r g a n i z e d r e l i g i o n (an example o f w h i c h we saw i n h i s contemptuous o p i n i o n o f t h e " i n d i s c r i m i n a t e " Zen m a s t e r q u o t e d a b o v e ) . The i m p o r t a n t p o i n t , t h o u g h , i s t h a t K e n s a k u , a l t h o u g h u n d o u b t e d l y somewhat u n d e r t h e sway o f Zen i d e a s , does n o t , i n c o n t r a s t t o h i s b r o t h e r , t a k e up t h e a c t u a l p r a c t i s e o f Zen. I f h i s Mount D a i s e n e x p e r i e n c e i s a g e n u i n e Zen s a t o r i , i t has b e en a c h i e v e d " n a t u r a l l y " and n o t by z a z e n ( m e d i t a t i o n ) o r k oan p r a c t i s e . K e n s a k u i s d e f i n i t e l y t h e t y p e o f man who must go h i s own way -- i f o n l y b e c a u s e o f t h e e n o r m i t y o f h i s ego. As we a r e t o l d : " i t d i s t r e s s e d h i m t o i m a g i n e h i m s e l f s i t t i n g 45 humbly a t t h e f e e t o f some smug Zen p r i e s t " . On one l e v e l , t h e n , An'ya K o r o may be r e g a r d e d as p a r t o f t h a t s e r i e s o f m a j o r modern J a p a n e s e n o v e l s and s t o r i e s t h a t t r y t o come t o t e r ms w i t h t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t o f J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e , t h e i n e f f a b l e widdom o f Zen. The l i s t i n c l u d e s M o r i O g a i ' s "Kanzan J i t t o k u " ( 1 9 1 6 ) , Natsume S o s e k i ' s Mon (The G a t e , 1 9 1 0 ) , and, more r e c e n t l y , M i s h i m a Y u k i o ' s K i n k a k u j i (The  Temple o f t h e G o l d e n P a v i l i o n , 1 9 5 6 ) . Of a l l t h e s e w o r k s , t h o u g h , i t seems t o me t h a t S h i g a ' s d e s p i t e i t s a p p a r e n t r e j e c -t i o n o f " o r t h o d o x " Zen, comes c l o s e s t t o p r e s e n t i n g t h e a u t h e n -t i c Zen e x p e r i e n c e o f a g r e a t s p i r i t u a l l i b e r a t i o n a c h i e v e d - 136 -a f t e r y e a r s o f p a i n f u l e f f o r t . P e r h a p s t h i s a c c o u n t s f o r t h e v e r y p a l p a b l e s p i r i t u a l power o f t h e n o v e l , w h i c h gave i t s o m e t h i n g o f a " c u l t f o l l o w i n g " among s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s o f J a p a n e s e r e a d e r s . To r e t u r n t o t h e s t o r y i t s e l f , t h o u g h : as P a r t I I draws t o a c l o s e , K e n s a k u d e s p i t e a l l h i s good r e s o l u t i o n s , does r e t u r n t o h i s f o r m e r l i f e - s t y l e o f f r e q u e n t i n g t h e t e a h o u s e s and b r o t h e l s o f Y o s h i w a r a . He "once more began t o d e c l i n e , b o t h i n s p i r i t and i n b o d y . . . H i s way o f l i f e a g a i n became d i s o r d e r -N II 4 6 l y " . A t t h e same t i m e , however, he dreams o f e s c a p i n g e n t i r e l y f r o m t h e w o r l d o f men, much l i k e a t r a d i t i o n a l h e r m i t : He w o u l d f i n d a w o r l d where t h e v e r y a i r he b r e a t h e d was d i f f e r e n t . He w o u l d l i v e a t t h e f o o t o f some g r e a t m o u n t a i n , among p e a s a n t s who knew n o t h i n g . And i f he c o u l d l i v e a p a r t e v e n f r o m them, a l l t h e b e t t e r . . . How good i t w o u l d be t o l i v e and e v e n t u a l l y d i e i n t h a t c o n d i t i o n — f o r g o t t e n , unknown, u n t o u c h e d by t h e o u t e r w o r l d ! 47 W a l k i n g t h r o u g h t h e G i n z a one n i g h t , he t r i e s t o evoke w i t h i n h i m s e l f t h e s p i r i t o f a Zen man o f o l d l i k e Han-Shan: He must l o o k s t r a i g h t ahead w i t h t h e e y e s o f a c a l m and c o n t r o l l e d man and n o t l o o k a b o u t him n e r v o u s l y as he was wont t o do. He wanted t o be l i k e a man s t r i d i n g a l o n e t h r o u g h t h e w i l d e r n e s s i n t h e t w i l i g h t , u n m i n d f u l o f t h e c r y i n g p i n e s and t h e w h i s p e r i n g g r a s s . (Had N o b u y u k i s a i d t h e image was t o be f o u n d i n a poem by Han-Shan?) He wanted t o c a p t u r e t h e s p i r i t o f s u c h a man -- e v e n h e r e on G i n z a . And he d i d n o t a l t o g e t h e r f a i l t o do s o . I n h i s p r e s e n t frame o f mind he n e e ded d e s p e r a t e l y t o c l i n g t o some s u c h i d e a l . 48 As we w o u l d e x p e c t f r o m h i s p r e s e n t m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n , K e n s a k u a l s o f a i l s t o make any p r o g r e s s i n h i s w r i t i n g . " T h e r e was t h e l o n g p i e c e t h a t he had worked on i n O n o m i c h i and was - 137 -s t i l l u n f i n i s h e d , b u t he d i d n o t w a n t t o t o u c h t h a t f o r t h e 49 t i m e b e i n g . " ( K e n s a k u i s r e f e r r i n g h e r e , o f c o u r s e , t o An y a  K o r o i t s e l f . ) S i n c e he i s i n no mood t o e n g a g e i n t h e k i n d o f p a i n f u l i n t r o s p e c t i o n t h a t t h e w r i t i n g o f h i s l e n g t h y s h i -s h o s e t s u w o u l d r e q u i r e , he f e e l s t h a t he m i g h t t r y w r i t i n g a w ork o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f i c t i o n , d r a w i n g on h i s e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e "gay q u a r t e r " . W h i l e v i s i t i n g a t e a h o u s e one n i g h t he h a d h e a r d f r o m two g e i s h a t h e s t o r y o f E i h a n a , " t h e m o s t w i c k e d 50 g e i s h a i n t w o n " , whom K e n s a k u h a d s e e n p e r f o r m when s h e was a g i r l . She h a d t r a i n e d when y o u n g t o become a b a l l a d - s i n g e r b u t h a d r u n away b e f o r e h e r t r a i n i n g was f i n i s h e d t o l i v e w i t h t h e s o n o f a l o c a l b o o k s e l l e r . B u t t h e b o y was s o o n t a k e n b a c k by h i s p a r e n t s a n d s h e was d i s o w n e d by h e r s . She was p r e g n a n t b y t h e n a n d r u m o r h a d i t t h a t s h e h a d d e s t r o y e d h e r own c h i l d a n d t a k e n up w i t h t h e f i r s t man who h a p p e n e d a l o n g , who t u r n e d o u t t o be a p i m p . She h a d d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m T o k y o f o r a f e w y e a r s b u t now s h e was b a c k and w o r k i n g a s a g e i s h a i n Y a n a g i b a s h i , one o f t h e p l e a s u r e q u a r t e r s f r e q u e n t e d b y K e n s a k u . T h i s t a l e o f E i h a n a i s t h e f i r s t o f a s e r i e s o f " s t o r i e s w i t h i n t h e s t o r y " t h a t a p p e a r i n A n ' y a K o r o ( o t h e r e x a m p l e s a r e t h e s a m u r a i t a l e t o l d b y N a o k o ' s u n c l e , O e i ' s m i s a d v e n t u r e s i n C h i n a , t h e s t o r y o f t h e K o r e a n n o b l e m a n m i s t r e a t e d by J a p a n -e s e c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e g o s s i p t h a t K e n s a k u h e a r s on Mount D a i s e n a b o u t t h e m e l o d r a m a t i c g o i n g s - o n t h a t s u r r o u n d - 138 -t h e " s l u t t i s h " w i f e o f t h e w o o d c u t t e r T a k e ) . As we saw i n " T a k i b i " , t h i s i s a f a v o r i t e d e v i c e o f S h i g a ' s . J u s t as t h e " s u p e r n a t u r a l " m a t e r i a l i n " T a k i b i " i s made more a c c e p t a b l e by b e i n g p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s k i n d o f framework ( s i n c e t h e a u t h o r seems " d e t a c h e d " f r o m t h e m a t e r i a l — he i s m e r e l y " r e p o r t i n g " s o m e t h i n g he has h e a r d ) , so i s t h e r a t h e r m e l o d r a m a t i c m a t e r -i a l h e r e made more p a l a t a b l e by b e i n g p r e s e n t e d m e r e l y as g o s s i p K e n s a k u h a s h e a r d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s e " c o n v e n t i o n a l -s t y l e " s t o r i e s do have an i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n i n An'ga K o r o . Q u i t e a p a r t f r o m t h e i r i n t r i n s i c i n t e r e s t a s s t o r i e s p e r s e , t h e y s e r v e t o r e p r e s e n t t r a d i t i o n a l , c o n v e n t i o n a l f i c t i o n w i t h i n t h e n o v e l ( t h e s t o r y o f E i h a n a , f o r i n s t a n c e , sounds l i k e s o m e t h i n g o u t o f t h e g e s a k u l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e Tokugawa p e r i o d , w i t h i t s h i g h l y c o l o u r e d t a l e s o f t h e " f l o a t i n g w o r l d " ) ; and t h u s t h e y f u n c t i o n , w i t h i n t h e f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y d i a l e c t i c , a s t h e o p p o s i t e end o f t h e p o l e t o t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u . I n o t h e r words, S h i g a makes good u s e o f t h e p r i n c i p l e , h e r e as e l s e -where, t h a t t h e b e s t way t o d e f i n e s o m e t h i n g i s by c o n t r a s t w i t h i t s o p p o s i t e . When, f o r i n s t a n c e , K e n s a k u ' s f r i e n d I s h i m o t o s u g g e s t s t h a t " a l l t h a t b a c k g r o u n d s t u f f a b o u t E i h a n a " w o u l d make a good s t o r y , K e n s a k u ' s d r e a c t i o n i s s i g n i -f i c a n t : " Q u i t e s o , " s a i d K e n s a k u w i t h an o b v i o u s l a c k o f e n t h u -s i a s m . " A t l e a s t , i t ' s good c o n v e r s a t i o n m a t e r i a l . " T h i s l a s t remark was u n g r a c i o u s , b u t he h a d t o make i t ; f o r he r e s e n t e d I s h i m o t o ' s a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e s t u f f o f g o s s i p c o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o w r i t i n g . 51 I n o t h e r w o rds, t h e mere f a c t t h a t s o m e t h i n g h a s a c t u a l l y happened does n o t q u a l i f y i t as m a t e r i a l f o r a w r i t e r o f s h i -- 139 -s h o s e t s u . L i f e i t s e l f i s o f t e n as f u l l o f melodrama as t h e most v u l g a r soap o p e r a , b u t t h e w r i t e r , as an a r t i s t , must s e l e c t as h i s m a t e r i a l o n l y what seems most a p p r o p r i a t e and 52 " n a t u r a l " t o him. N e v e r t h e l e s s , K e n s a k u h a s a momentary change o f h e a r t a b o u t t h e E i h a n a s t o r y as m a t e r i a l f o r h i s w r i t i n g , and t h i s t e l l s us much a b o u t what m o t i v a t e s h i m as a w r i t e r . When he and h i s b r o t h e r r e t u r n home f r o m t h e t e a h o u s e : N o b u y u k i r e c o u n t e d f o r O e i ' s b e n e f i t t h e s t o r y o f E i h a n a . I t was a t a l e t o l d w i t h l i t t l e p i t y and i n a s p i r i t o f c e n s u r e a b o u t a woman s t e e p e d i n e v i l . . . K e n s a k u was f i l l e d w i t h a n g e r . He t h o u g h t o f t h a t l i t t l e p a l e - f a c e d g i r l on t h e s t a g e , so h e l p l e s s y e t p r o u d , and wanted t o t e l l them, " I t ' s n o t E i h a n a t h a t ' s b a d ! " B u t t h e y had n e v e r s e e n t h e g i r l , and t h e y w o u l d n o t know what he meant; and as he s a t t h e r e t r y i n g t o c o n t a i n h i s a n g e r , i t s u d d e n l y o c c u r r e d t o him t h a t t h e r e was s o m e t h i n g he c o u l d w r i t e a b o u t . 53 I t i s c l e a r , t h e n , t h a t K e n s a k u must have a s t r o n g p e r s o n -a l f e e l i n g a b o u t s o m e t h i n g b e f o r e he i s a b l e t o w r i t e a b o u t i t . I n t h e c a s e o f E i h a n a , t h e r e i s , i n f a c t , an e v e n d e e p e r p e r -s o n a l r e a s o n t h a n t h e one i n d i c a t e d i n t h e above q u o t e : as a 54 " f a l l e n woman", she r e m i n d s him o f h i s m o t h e r . S t i l l , t h e r e i s one c r u c i a l s t u m b l i n g - b l o c k : as an a u t h o r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u how i s he t o w r i t e a b o u t someone o t h e r t h a n h i m s e l f ? He t r i e d w r i t i n g a b o u t E i h a n a f r o m h i s own p o i n t o f v i e w ; q u i c k l y i t became e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s t o r y w o u l d be t o o b a r e t o l d t h a t way, and he d e c i d e d t o t e l l i t f r o m h e r p o i n t o f v i e w , g i v i n g h i s i m a g i n a t i o n f r e e  r e i n . He t o y e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f h a v i n g h e r meet Omasa t h e V i p e r . . . H e l i k e d t h e s t o r y l e s s and l e s s as i t d e v e l o p e d . I t seemed t o him t o become p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n t r i v e d a f t e r t h e h e r o i n e ' s j o u r n e y t o H o k k a i d o . B e s i d e s , he f o u n d t e l l i n g a s t o r y f r o m a woman's p o i n t o f v i e w , w h i c h he had n e v e r a t t e m p t e d b e f o r e , f a r more d i f f i c u l t t h a n he had i m a g i n e d . 55 (My e m p h a s i s . ) - 140 -Here we have one o f t h e most e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t s o f S h i g a ' s " c r e d o " as a w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u : t h a t , a t l e a s t f o r h i m s e l f , t o t r y t o t e l l a s t o r y f r o m any p o i n t o f v i e w o t h e r t h a n h i s own w o u l d be t o r i s k t h e k i n d o f a r t i f i c i a l , " c o n t r i v e d " w r i t i n g he a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l f i c t i o n . And, i n d e e d , i f we l o o k a t e v e n h i s own " f i c t i o n a l " s t o r i e s , we f i n d t h a t , i n a l m o s t e v e r y c a s e , t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e i d e n t i f i a b l e p r o j e c t i o n s o f h i m s e l f : t h e "Han" o f "Han no H a n z a i " (Han's C r i m e ) , t h e " K a k i t a " o f " A k a n i s h i K a k i t a " , t h e " C l a u d i u s " o f " K u r a d i a s u no N i k k i " ("The D i a r y o f C l a u d i u s " ) and so on. As P a r t I I I o f t h e n o v e l o p e n s , Kensaku's s p i r i t s have r e v i v e d somewhat f r o m t h e d o l d r u m s we l a s t saw him i n . He has moved t o K y o t o , t h e o l d c a p i t a l o f J a p a n , whose " a n c i e n t t e m p l e s and works o f a r t l e d h i m g e n t l y b a c k t o a n c i e n t t i m e s , i n v i t i n g a r e s p o n s e f r o m him t h a t he had n o t t h o u g h t p o s s i b l e . " " ^ He s pends most o f h i s t i m e j u s t w a l k i n g a r o u n d t h e o l d c i t y , ad-m i r i n g i t s t e m p l e s , g a r d e n s and a r t works and s o a k i n g i n i t s p e a c e f u l a t m o s p h e r e . On:one s u c h o u t i n g he h a p p e ns t o c a t c h s i g h t o f a young woman i n a n e a r b y h o u s e , who p r e s e n t s an i n -v i t i n g p i c t u r e o f d o m e s t i c i t y t o t h e l o n e l y K e n s a ku as she goes a b o u t h e r h o u s e h o l d c h o r e s . "She was a p l e a s i n g and wholesome 57 s i g h t , and he was i m m e d i a t e l y drawn t o h e r . " So drawn i s he, i n f a c t , t h a t t h e i m p u l s i v e K e n s a k u r e s o l v e s t o m a r r y h e r , more o r l e s s on t h e s p o t . I n d o i n g s o , he i d e n t i f i e s h i m s e l f , i n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, w i t h p e r h a p s t h e most famous o f a l l f i c -t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s , Don Q u i x o t e , and hopes t h a t h i s new-found - 141 -love might rais e him above himself as did the "blind" love of Quixote for Dulcinea. These hopes seem to be r e a l i z e d , at f i r s t , when the g i r l and her family accept his proposal and Kensaku s e t t l e s down with his new bride, Naoko, to a l i f e of comfortable domestic b l i s s i n the bea u t i f u l suburbs of north-ern Kyoto. But there i s some suggestion that, for a writer of shi-shosetsu his l i f e i s now a l i t t l e too comfortable: "He would often s i t at his desk and simply stare at the view, not 5 8 writing a word." Marriage, though, soon brings i t s own great t r i a l s . About a month afte r the newly wed couple's f i r s t c h i l d i s born, i t dies a slow, agonizing death from erysipelas. Kensaku, who had f e l t great delight at becoming a father, i s plunged back into the depths of despair. He feels great bitterness towards what he perceives to be his e v i l fate, which has destroyed his new-found happiness just at i t s inception: "why must he be be-trayed now, when afte r years of journeying down the dark road, he had thought that the waiting and seeking had not been i n vain, that the dawn had at l a s t come?... he could not i n the end escape the conviction that he was the vic t i m of some e v i l force 59 bent on hurting him." S i g n i f i c a n t l y , then, Kensaku xs s t i l l i n c l i n e d to place the bl-ame for his misery on some power ex-t e r i o r to himself. He turns to his writing for therapy, but that too f a i l s him: "Kensaku sought to immerse himself i n his work, which had l a i n discarded too long. But he f e l t so weighed down by a sense of fatigue -- i t was l i k e a heavy - 142 -c h a i n wrapped a r o u n d h i m -- t h a t he was i n c a p a b l e o f s u c h im-m e r s i o n . " ^ 0 P a r t I I I e n d s , t h e n , w i t h K e n s a k u a t t h e n a d i r o f h i s d e s p a i r . One f i n a l g r e a t ' t r i a l a w a i t s him, t h o u g h , and t h i s i s r e c o u n t e d i n t h e o p e n i n g c h a p t e r s o f P a r t IV. He i s o b l i g e d t o t a k e a t e n - d a y t r i p t o K o r e a t o r e s c u e O e i , who has b een s t r a n d e d t h e r e a f t e r f a i l i n g t o s e t up a " g e i s h a " b u s i n e s s . When he r e t u r n s t o K y o t o , t h e i n t u i t i v e K e n s a k u i m m e d i a t e l y s e s n s e s , f r o m h i s w i f e ' s b e h a v i o r , t h a t o s o m e t h i n g i s s e r i o u s l y wrong. He p r e s s e s Naoko t o r e v e a l what i s t r o u b l i n g h e r and f i n a l l y she b r e a k s down and t e l l s him. D u r i n g h i s a b s e n c e she was v i s i t e d by h e r c o u s i n , Kaname. When t h e y were c h i l d r e n , he and Naoko had once p l a y e d a game t o g e t h e r t h a t had d i s -t i n c t l y e r o t i c o v e r t o n e s , so t h a t she s t i l l f e l t u n c o m f o r t a b l e i n h i s p r e s e n c e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , she had a l l o w e d him t o s t a y w i t h h e r and, one n i g h t a f t e r t h e y had p l a y e d c a r d s u n t i l l a t e , she had o f f e r e d t o massage h i s b a c k . T a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , Kaname had f o r c e d h i m s e l f upon h e r . Naoko r e s i s t e d f o r some t i m e , b u t e v e n t u a l l y she " f e l t h e r s e l f d r a i n e d o f a l l power t o r e s i s t . I n d e e d , she s o o n l o s t e v e n t h e c a p a c i t y t o t h i n k . T h e i n c i d e n t i s t h u s ambiguous, h a l f s e d u c t i o n and h a l f r a p e , b u t t h i s d o e s n o t h i n g t o l e s s e n K e n s a k u 1 s s h o c k . He s t r u g g l e s b r a v e l y , however, t o overcome h i s e m o t i o n a l t u r m o i l and do t h e b e s t t h i n g f o r b o t h h i s w i f e and h i m s e l f . " ' I do n o t want t o condemn h e r ' , he s a i d t o h i m s e l f , r e p e a t i n g - 143 -what he had s a i d t o Naoko t h e n i g h t b e f o r e . 'I want t o f o r -6 2 g i v e h e r . ' " B u t , w i t h h i s l a r g e ego so b a d l y b r u i s e d , t h i s i s e a s i e r s a i d t h a n d o n e : "A moment l a t e r , however, he c o u l d n o t a v o i d a d d i n g , 'And so I s h a l l be t h e o n l y f o o l i n t h e e n -6 3 t i r e a f f a i r , t h e o n l y l o s e r . ' " An i m p o r t a n t h i n t as t o t h e o n l y way o u t o f t h i s e m o t i o n a l l a b y r i n t h i s p r o v i d e d b y K e n s a k u ' s f r i e n d , Suematsu. Though s t i l l unaware o f t h e r e a l c a u s e o f K e n s a k u ' s p r e s e n t " t o u c h i -n e s s " , Suematsu b e r a t e s him f o r t h e q u i c k , " i r r a t i o n a l " way i n w h i c h he j u d g e s p e o p l e . I n m a t t e r s i n v o l v i n g y o u r f e e l i n g s , y o u r e a l l y a r e a t y r a n t . Y o u ' r e a t e r r i b l e e g o i s t , youkknow. T r u e , y o u ' r e n o t a c a l c u l a t i n g p e r s o n , and I s u p p o s e t h a t ' s a good t h i n g . B u t y o u c a n be v e r y t h o u g h t l e s s . . . L e t me p u t i t a n o t h e r way. P e r h a p s y o u y o u r s e l f a r e n ' t t y r a n n i c a l ; r a t h e r , i t ' s as t h o u g h a l i t t l e t y r a n t i s l i v i n g i n s i d e y o u somewhere. I s u p p o s e i t ' s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r e a l v i c t i m i s t h e r e f o r e y o u . " 64 B e c a u s e o f h i s b a s i c " s i n c e r i t y " , K e n s a k u i s f o r c e d t o a d m i t t o h i m s e l f t h e t r u t h o f h i s f r i e n d ' s words. Kensaku had a l w a y s a l l o w e d h i s e m o t i o n s t o t y r a n n i z e o v e r him; b u t he had n o t b e f o r e t h o u g h t t o d e s c r i b e h i s own c o n d i t i o n q u i t e i n t h e s e words. Now, as he remembered t h e v a r i o u s i n c i d e n t s i n h i s l i f e , he had a g a i n t o g r a n t t h a t more o f t e n t h a n n o t he had b e e n w r e s t l i n g w i t h him-s e l f , t h a t h i s enemy had been a c r e a t u r e r e s i d i n g w i t h i n him. 65 T h i s i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s o f " i n t e r i o r i z a -t i o n " I m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e . K e n s a ku now no l o n g e r p e r c e i v e s h i s f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m as c a u s e d by some e x t e r i o r " e v i l f a t e " — he knows now t h a t t h e p r o b l e m l i e s w i t h i n . W i t h t h i s r e a l i z a -t i o n he has t a k e n a m a j o r s t e p t o w a r d s h i s s p i r i t u a l f r e e d o m . - 144 -A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e a few more s t r u g g l e s t o come, he i s s u r e now, a t l e a s t , o f t h e d i r e c t i o n he must t r a v e l t o emerge f r o m h i s 'dark n i g h t " . And a p r o p h e t i c p r o m i s e o f what l i e s a t t h e end i s a l s o g i v e n by Suematsu. When Kensaku a s k s : " ' I f I am g o i n g t o s pend t h e r e s t o f my l i f e f i g h t i n g w i t h t h i s t h i n g t h a t ' s i n s i d e me, what was t h e p o i n t o f my h a v i n g b e en b o r n ? " , Suematsu t e l l s him, w i t h a " c o n s o l i n g l o o k " : " ' P e r h a p s i t i s n ' t so b a d , i f a t t h e end o f i t a l l t h e r e ' s p e a c e o f mind w a i t i n g . ' " 6 6 Suematsu's p o i n t a b o u t t h e " t y r a n t " ego i s f u r t h e r d r i v e n home t o K e n s a ku by an i n c i d e n t t h a t o c c u r s a few months l a t e r . By t h i s t i m e K e n s a k u h a s b e e n b l e s s e d w i t h a n o t h e r c h i l d , and one w o u l d e x p e c t t o f i n d h i m i n a b e t t e r frame o f mind. On t h e s u r f a c e a l l d o e s seem t o be c a l m b u t t h e f a c t t h a t K e n s a k u i s s t i l l s u b j e c t t o u n p r e d i c t a b l e r a g e s shows t h a t he has by no means r e s o l v e d h i s i n n e r t e n s i o n s . One day he t a k e s Naoko w i t h some o t h e r s on an o u t i n g t o a n e a r b y r e s o r t . A t t h e t r a i n s t a t i o n she goes t o u s e t h e t o i l e t and K e n s a k u i s i n f u r i a t e d by h e r s l o w n e s s . The t r a i n has a l r e a d y begun t o p u l l o u t when Naoko t r i e s t o b o a r d i t . K e n s a k u o r d e r s h e r t o r e t u r n home. When she p e r s i s t s i n t r y i n g t o g e t a b o a r d , K e n s a k u , "as i n a r e f l e x a c t i o n " , p u s h e s h e r o f f . She f a l l s o n t o t h e s t a t i o n p l a t f o r m , i n j u r i n g h e r s e l f 6 8 s l i g h t l y . T h i n k i n g t h a t he must have had "some s o r t o f f i t " K ensaku i s n a t u r a l l y v e r y s h o c k e d by h i s own b e h a v i o r : "He c o u l d s t i l l s e e t h e s t r a n g e l o o k i n Naoko's e y e s a s she f e l l o f f t h e t r a i n . I t was u n b e a r a b l e . Oh God, he t h o u g h t , I've - 145 -69 done s o m e t h i n g i r r e p a r a b l e . " And "he d a r e d n o t c o n t e m p l a t e 7 0 what h i s a c t i o n had done t o t h e i r f u t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p . " I t i s i n d e e d as i f some u n c o n t r o l l a b l e " t y r a n t " w i t h i n h i m had a c t e d , r a t h e r t h a n h i s t r u e s e l f . , Naoko's r e a c t i o n i s one o f deep b u t kn o w i n g s a d n e s s . She a c c u s e s K e n s a k u o f h a v i n g n o t r e a l l y f o r g i v e n h e r i n h i s h e a r t o f h e a r t s : 1 11 was t e r r i b l y p l e a s e d when y o u s a i d y o u w e r e n ' t g o i n g t o h a t e me, y o u w e r e n ' t g o i n g t o b r o o d a b o u t i t , s i n c e h a t i n g and b r o o d i n g d i d no one any good. B u t y o u c a n ' t e x p e c t me t o go on b e l i e v i n g whiat y o u s a i d when y o u do s o m e t h i n g l i k e what y o u d i d t h e o t h e r day. I c a n ' t h e l p t h i n k i n g t h a t d e e p 71 i n s i d e , y o u do r e s e n t me." A l t h o u g h K e n s a ku i s a n g e r e d by h e r s u g g e s t i o n t h a t even h i s f o r g i v e n e s s i s t i n g e d w i t h e g o t i s m , s t i l l he must a d m i t t h a t : "As y o u s a y , my f e e l i n g s a r e n ' t as 72 magnanimous as my i d e a s . " He s e e s t h i s , t h o u g h , as a p r o b -lem w h i c h he must s o l v e a l o n e . "A d o c t o r may s a y I'm s u f f e r i n g f r o m a n e r v o u s breakdown. B u t e v e n i f I am, I d o n ' t want t o 73 go t o a d o c t o r f o r h e l p . " As a r e s u l t : " I want m e r e l y t o go away t o some m o u n t a i n f o r h a l f a y e a r , and l i v e q u i e t l y by m y s e l f . As h i s p l a c e o f r e t r e a t t h i s t i m e K e n s a ku c h o o s e s Mount 75 D a i s e n , "a h o l y p l a c e o f t h e T e n d a i s e c t " , where he c a n s t a y i n a B u d d h i s t t e m p l e . B e f o r e l e a v i n g he t e l l s Naoko j o k i n g l y t h a t he w i l l " c o n c e n t r a t e on a t t a i n i n g Buddhahood" and " s h a l l r e t u r n as Buddha". B u t t h e r e i s a s e r i o u s u n d e r t o n e t o t h i s j e s t i n g : "He was i n d e e d l e a v i n g i n a frame o f mind a k i n t o t h a t o f a man a b o u t t o t a k e h o l y o r d e r s , b u t he c o u l d h a r d l y 77 t e l l Naoko s o . " When O e i o b j e c t s t h a t t h e s i m i l a r r e t r e a t he had made t o O n o m i c h i a few y e a r s b e f o r e d i d him l i t t l e good, he e x p l a i n s t o h e r t h a t h i s m o t i v e s now a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t : " I went t o O n o m i c h i t o f o r c e m y s e l f t o g e t some work done; I f o u n d t h a t i t was t o o d i f f i c u l t , and I f a i l e d . B u t t h i s t i m e , work i s n o t my p r i m a r y c o n c e r n . I'm g o i n g i n o r d e r t o f i n d s p i r i t u a l w e l l - b e i n g , y o u m i g h t s a y , and t o r e c o v e r my p h y s i -7 8 c a l s t r e n g t h . " T h i s d i f f e r e n c e makes c l e a r how s e r i o u s --and how d e s p e r a t e — K e n s aku has become a b o u t h i s s p i r i t u a l q u e s t , now t h a t he has s e e n t h e t e r r i b l e d e p t h s o f h i s own ego-t i s m . And, a l t h o u g h h i s " s p i r i t u a l w e l l - b e i n g " and n o t h i s w r i t i n g i s now h i s " p r i m a r y c o n c e r n " , b e c a u s e he i s an a u t h o r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u t h e two a r e r e a l l y i n s e p a r a b l e . A s p i r i t u a l b r e a k - t h r o u g h w i l l a l s o e n a b l e him t o b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e w r i t e r ' s b l o c k he has s u f f e r e d a l l t h r o u g h t h e n o v e l . As s o o n as K e n s a k u a r r i v e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f Mount D a i s e n , h i s s p i r i t s b e g i n t o r e v i v e . He i s i m m e d i a t e l y s t r u c k by t h e g r e a t c o n t r a s t between p e o p l e who l i v e i n t h e c i t y and t h o s e who l i v e c l o s e t o n a t u r e . "As t h o u g h f o r t h e f i r s t s t i m e , he was made aware t h a t s u c h a w o r l d as t h i s e x i s t e d . T h e r e a r e p e o p l e , he t h o u g h t , t h a t l i v e l i k e w i l d c a t s i n a c a v e , f o r e v e r 79 s n a r l i n g a t e a c h o t h e r ; and t h e n t h e r e i s t h i s l i f e . " When he a s c e n d s t h e m o u n t a i n i t s e l f , he comes a c r o s s a " s e r e n e o l d man" a t a t e a s h o p who seems an i d e a l example o f a man who l i v e s c l o s e t o n a t u r e ; "He must have g a z e d a t t h e same s c e n e c o u n t -l e s s t i m e s b e f o r e ; y e t h e r e he was, s t i l l g a z i n g a t i t w i t h o u t - 147 -apparent boredom...he was l i k e an ancient tree i n the mountains, he was l i k e a moss-covered rock that had been placed there i n front of the view. I f he was thinking at a l l , he was thinking as an old tree or a rock would think. He seemed so t r a n q u i l , 8 0 Kensaku envied him." Here, then, i s a perfect image of what i t means to be "dissolved" i n nature, "mindless" i n the Zen sense, untroubled by any of the petty concerns of the human world -- free even of one's own memories, one's, own " i d e n t i t y " . Here i s an image, i n fa c t , of everything that Kensaku hopes to become. There i s another "natural" man whom Kensaku meets l a t e r on the mountain: Take, the C h r i s t - l i k e carpenter who fixes the temple buildings without pay. His wife i s a notorious " s l u t " with several lovers but Take, i n t e l l i n g contrast to Kensaku, 81 "could not bring himself to hate her". Kensaku marvels at Take's forbearance which, he speculates, probably comes from "his t o t a l understanding of what his wife was...Of course Take must have suffered, he must be suffering now. Yet he had some-8 2 how managed to r i s e above his misfortune." This simple car-penter, then, has attained the state of egolessness that Kensaku aspires to. In his new c o n c i l i a t o r y mood, Kensaku writes a l e t t e r home to Naoko. He explains to her the changes that have a l -ready occurred i n his state of mind: "Since coming to th i s mountain I've spent a l o t of time looking at the l i t t l e birds, the insects, the trees, the water, the rocks. As I observe - 148 -c l o s e l y a l l t h e s e t h i n g s by m y s e l f , I f i n d t h a t t h e y g i v e r i s e t o a l l k i n d s o f f e e l i n g s and t h o u g h t s t h a t I h e v e r had b e f o r e . T h a t a w o r l d w h i c h had n e v e r e x i s t e d f o r me b e f o r e has opened 8 3 i t s e l f up t o me has g i v e n me a s e n s e o f j o y . " S i g n i f i c a n t l y , w i t h h i s p s y c h i c c o n d i t i o n i m p r o v e d he has a l s o begun t o w r i t e a g a i n , and he e n c l o s e s an example o f h i s work i n h i s l e t t e r t o Naoko -- as we w o u l d expect',, a " n a t u r e s k e t c h " . We now a p p r o a c h what may be r e g a r d e d as t h e c l i m a c t i c s c e n e n o t o n l y o f An'ya K o r o b u t o f S h i g a ' s e n t i r e o p u s. Ken-s a k u d e c i d e s t o h i k e up t o t h e t o p o f Mount D a i s e n oae n i g h t , so as t o watch t h e s u n r i s e f r o m t h e r e t h e f o l l o w i n g m o r n i n g . He i s a c c o m p a n i e d by a g r o u p o f company em p l o y e e s f r o m Osaka, whose b o i s t e r o u s h o l i d a y s p i r i t s c o n t r a s t s h a r p l y w i t h Ken-s a k u 's own q u i e t , subdued mood. I n d e e d , t h e y s h a r e l i t t l e o f h i s g r o w i n g s e n s i t i v i t y t o n a t u r e . When he t e l l s them he has a l r e a d y b e e n on t h e m o u n t a i n a f o r t n i g h t , t h e y a s k : "How c a n 84 y o u s t a n d i t ? We'd go mad a f t e r two d a y s h e r e . " We a r e t h u s g i v e n a d i s t i n c t s e n s e o f i r o n y when t h e y a l l b r e a k i n t o a t r a d i t i o n a l p i l g r i m ' s c h a n t as t h e y b e g i n t o a s c e n t t h e " h o l y m o u n t a i n " : "Begone a l l t h e s e n s e s , l e t t h e s p i r i t s g u i d e us 8 5 t o t h e c l e a r s k y above." R e g a r d e d f r o m K e n s a k u ' s p r e s e n t s t a t e o f mind, however, t h e s e words have an e n t i r e l y a p p r o -p r i a t e t e n o r , and may e v e n be r e g a r d e d as p r o p h e t i c o f h i s coming e x p e r i e n c e . T h a t t h e r e a r e s t i l l , t h o u g h , f o r t h e moment, some t r a c e s o f w o r l d l y e g o t i s m l e f t i n h im i s made c l e a r by t h e " c o m p e t i -- 1 4 9 -t i v e " f e e l i n g he h a s , as t h e o n l y Tokyo man i n t h e g r o u p , t o -wards t h e o t h e r y o u n d men, who a r e a l l f r o m t h e r i v a l c i t y o f O s aka. T h i s makes him p u s h on up t h e m o u n t a i n a t t h e same p a c e as t h e i r s , i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t he i s s t i l l s u f f e r -i n g t h e a f t e r e f f e c t s o f a " s e v e r e a t t a c k o f d i a r r h e a " he had 8 6 e a r l i e r t h a t day. When t h e g r o u p p a u s e s t o r e s t a f t e r a b o u t an h o u r ' s h i k e , t h o u g h , K e n s a k u f e e l s t h a t he has no more s t r e n g t h t o c o n t i n u e . He t e l l s t h e o t h e r s t h a t he w i l l r e s t t h e r e u n t i l dawn, and t h e n r e t u r n home by h i m s e l f . R e l u c t a n t l y , t h e g r o u p c o n t i n u e s o n up t h e m o u n t a i n w i t h o u t him. L e f t a l o n e on t h e m o u n t a i n i n t h e q u i e t o f t h e n i g h t , K e n s a k u i s now a b l e t o commune w i t h n a t u r e as n e v e r b e f o r e . He s i t s down on t h e g r a s s and b e g i n s " b r e a t h i n g d e e p l y t h r o u g h 8 7 h i s n o s e , h i s e y e s c l o s e d " ( i n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l way a Zen a d e p t q u i e t s h i s m i n d b e f o r e m e d i t a t i o n ) . Then comes p e r h a p s t h e most c e l e b r a t e d p a s s a g e i n a l l o f S h i g a : He f e l t h i s e x h a u s t i o n t u r n i n t o a s t r a n g e s t a t e o f r a p t u r e . He c o u l d f e e l h i s m i n d and h i s body b o t h g r a d u a l l y m e r g i n g i n t o t h i s g r e a t n a t u r e t h a t s u r r o u n d e d him. I t was n o t n a t u r e t h a t was v i s i b l e t o t h e e y e s ; r a t h e r , i t was l i k e a l i m i t l e s s body o f a i r t h a t wrapped i t s e l f t a r o u n d him, t h i s t i n y c r e a t u r e no l a r g e r t h a n a poppy s e e d . To be g e n t l y drawn i n t o i t , and t h e r e be r e s t o r e d , was a p l e a s u r e b e y o n d t h e power o f words t o d e s c r i b e . . . He had e x p e r i e n c e d t h i s f e e l i n g o f b e i n g a b s o r b e d by n a t u r e b e f o r e ; b u t t h i s was t h e f i r s t t i m e t h a t i t was a c c o m p a n i e d by s u c h r a p t u r e . I n p r e v i o u s i n s t a n c e s , t h e f e e l i n g p e r h a p s h a d b e e n more t h a t o f b e i n g s u c k e d i n by n a t u r e t h a n t h a t o f m e r g i n g i n t o i t ; and t h o u g h t h e r e had b e e n some p l e a s u r e a t t a c h e d t o i t , he had a t t h e same t i m e a l w a y s t r i e d i n s t i n c t i v e -l y t o r e s i s t i t , and on f i n d i n g s u c h r e s i s t a n c e d i f f i c u l t , he had f e l t a d i s t i n c t u n e a s i n e s s . B u t t h i s t i m e , he had n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t w i l l t o r e s i s t ; and c o n t e n t e d l y , w i t h o u t a t r a d e o f t h e o l d u n e a s i n e s s ; he a c c e p t e d n a t u r e ' s embrace. 88 - 150 -I t i s i m p o r t a n t , f i r s t , t o b o t e K ensaku's c o n d i t i o n immed-i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g t h i s e x p e r i e n c e : he was t h o r o u g h l y worn o u t by h i s i l l n e s s and by t h e e f f o r t o f c o m p e t i n g w i t h t h e b o i s -t e r o u s Osaka men. Beyond t h i s , o f c o u r s e , we must r e c a l l a l l t h e g r e a t t r i a l s he has u n d e r g o n e t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u r s e o f t h e n o v e l , w h i c h have t a x e d h i s s p i r i t c l o s e \ t o b r e a k i n g - p o i n t . As t h e f a m i l i a r C h r i s t i a n p h r a s e has i t : "Man's e x t r e m i t y i s God's o p p o r t u n i t y . " And t h i s t r u t h h as a l s o been made an i n t e -g r a l p a r t o f Zen t r a i n i n g , as we know f r o m t h e i n n u m e r a b l e . 8' " e n l i g h t e n m e n t s t o r i e s " r e c o u n t e d i n t h e works o f D.T. S u z u k i , i n w h i c h t h e a d e p t f r e q u e n t l y a t t a i n s s a t o r i o n l y when p u s h e d t o t h e v e r y end o f h i s t e t h e r . I t i s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e v i s e -l i k e g r i p o f e g o t i s m on human c o n s c i o u s n e s s c a n be l o o s e n e d o n l y i n t h i s e x a c t i n g way, and c e r t a i n l y i n K e n s a k u ' s c a s e t h i s seems t o be b o r n e o u t . As he h i m s e l f r e c a l l s i n t h e above p a s s a g e , when he had e x p e r i e n c e d a s i m i l a r f e e l i n g o f b e i n g " d i s s o l v e d " i n n a t u r e b e f o r e (as I have n o t e d e a r l i e r , on t h e b o a t t o O n o m i c h i ) , he had " i n s t i n c t i v e l y " r e s i s t e d i t , f e a r i n g l o s s o f h i s i d e n t i t y (as he s a y s , o f b e i n g " s u c k e d i n " ) . The g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e now i s t h a t h i s s e n s e o f i n d i v i d u a l s e l f h as s i n c e r e c e i v e d a good many s h o c k s , w h i c h h ave g r e a t l y r e d u c e d i t s h o l d on h im and, more i m p o r t a n t l y , K e n s a k u h i m s e l f , a s we have s e e n , has a d m i t t e d h i s own e g o t i s m t o be h i s f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m and has c o n s i i o u s l y t a k e n m e a s u r e s t o overcome i t ( f o r one t h i n g , coming t o t h i s m o u n t a i n ) . And s o , " t h i s t i m e , he had n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t w i l l t o r e s i s t ; and c o n t e n t e d l y , w i t h o u t - 151 -9 o a t r a c e o f t h e o l d u n e a s i n e s s , he a c c e p t e d n a t u r e ' s e m b r a c e . " H e r e , t h e n , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h a t p r o c e s s o f i n -c r e a s i n g u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e w h i c h I h a v e t r a c e d t h r o u g h f o u r o f S h i g a ' s m a j o r w o r k s . I n h i s e a r l i e s t s t o r y , " A r u A s a " , t h e b a r e o u t l i n e o f t h e p r o b l e m was p r e s e n t e d : how was a h y p e r -s e n s i t i v e y o u n g man t o c o p e w i t h t h e f r i c t i o n s t h a t i n e v i t a b l y r e s u l t e d f r o m h i s r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h i n t h e n a r r o w , r a t h e r o p p r e s s i v e c o n f i n e s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l J a p a n e s e f a m i l y . By " K i n o s a k i n i t e " he h a s r e c e i v e d a more s e v e r e s h o c k t o h i s d e l i c a t e s e n s e o f s e l f -- a n e a r - f a t a l a c c i d e n t b u t he a l s o i s g i v e n some i n k l i n g o f a way o u t : by t u r n i n g away f r o m t h e human w o r l d a n d t o w a r d s n a t u r e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , he i s n o t y e t r e a d y f o r t h e d e g r e e o f s e l f - s u r r e n d e r t h a t a t o t a l m e r g e n c e w i t h n a t u r e w o u l d r e q u i r e , a s i s e v i d e n c e d by h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l d o u b t s t o w a r d s t h e s t o r y ' s e n d , w h i c h a r i s e f r o m h i s e q u a t i n g s u c h a s t a t e o f u n i o n w i t h d e a t h . ( I n t e r -e s t i n g l y , t h e s e d o u b t s a r e a n s w e r e d by K e n s a k u i n t h e p a r a g r a p h f o l l o w i n g t h e p a s s a g e q u o t e d a b o v e : "He f e l t as i f he h a d j u s t t a k e n a s t e p o n t h e r o a d t o e t e r n i t y . D e a t h h e l d no t h r e a t f o r h i m . I f t h i s means d y i n g , he t h o u g h t , I c a n d i e w i t h o u t r e g r e t . B u t t o h i m t h e n , t h i s j o u r n e y t o e t e r n i t y d i d n o t 91 seem t h e same a s d e a t h . " ) I n " T a k i b i " t h e S h i g a p r o t a g o n i s t h a s a l r e a d y a t t a i n e d some d e g r e e o f u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e b u t , s h a r e d a s i t i s among a g r o u p o f c o n v i v i a l f r i e n d s , t h i s seems more l i k e a p a s s i n g mood -- l i k e t h e momentary c a l m o f t h e l a k e ' s s u r f a c e i n t h e s t o r y — r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r o f o u n d e x p e r -i e n c e o f s e l f - s u r r e n d e r t h a t t h e s o l i t a r y K e n s a k u u n d e r g o e s , - 152 -an e x p e r i e n c e one f e e l s w i l l have l a s t i n g and r a d i c a l e f f e c t s on t h e man's whole b e i n g and c h a r a c t e r . An'ya K o r o , i n f a c t , c o n t a i n s a l l t h e s t a g e s we have o b s e r v e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s t o r i e s , b u t i n much l a r g e r d i m e n s i o n s : t h a t i s , t h e wounds t h a t K e n s a k u r e c e i v e s t o h i s s e n s e o f s e l f a r e f a r more c r i t i -c a l and p r o l o n g e d t h a n t h o s e o f t h e e a r l i e r p r o t a g o n i s t s , j u s t as h i s u l t i m a t e e x p e r i e n c e o f l i b e r a t i o n i s f a r more p r o f o u n d . B u t t h e c y c l e i s n o t q u i t e y e t c o m p l e t e : s i n c e i t began i n t h e human w o r l d , n o t i n t h e w o r l d o f n a t u r e , i t must a l s o end t h e r e . As we have s e e n , t h e S h i g a p r o t a g o n i s t ' s f i r s t p e r c e p t i o n t h a t s o m e t h i n g was b a s i c a l l y awry -- b o t h i n " A r u A s a " and i n An'ya K o r o — a r o s e f r o m h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e -' l a t i n g w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e . Now t h a t , s u p p o s e d l y , he has e l i m -i n a t e d t h e r o o t c a u s e ,-- h i s own e g o t i s m -- i t i s o n l y n a t u r a l t h a t he be shown d e s c e n d i n g f r o m h i s m o u n t a i n r e t r e a t and r e -l a t i n g w i t h o t h e r s i n a new and f r e e r way. T h i s w o u l d c o r r e s -pond t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f i n a l s t a g e o f t h e " e n l i g h t e n e d " man's l i f e known as " r e - e n t e r i n g t h e m a r k e t p l a c e " and i n v a r i a b l y i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e l a s t o f t h e Zen o x - h e r d i n g p i c t u r e s one f i n d s i n m o n a s t e r i e s a l l o v e r E a s t A s i a . S u c h , i n f a c t , i s t h e i m p o r t o f An'ya K o r o ' s f i n a l s c e n e . P e r h a p s so as n o t t o be o v e r l y o b v i o u s a b o u t i t , S h i g a k e e p s t h e s c e n e s h o r t and, r a t h e r t h a n employ t h e s y m b o l i s m o f Ken-s a k u a c t u a l l y d e s c e n d i n g f r o m t h e m o u n t a i n , he has t h e human w o r l d b e l o w — i n t h e f o r m o f Naoko — come t o Kensaku i n s t e a d . B u t t h e t r u e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s c e n e i s n e v e r t h e l e s s q u i t e - 153 -a p p a r e n t . When Naoko a r r i v e s , K e n s a k u i s l y i n g p r o s t r a t e i n bed, t h o r o u g h l y e x h a u s t e d , and h i s worn a p p e a r a n c e i n i t i a l l y s h o c k s h e r . B u t when she draws n e a r t o him, she soon f o r g e t s h e r a n x i e t y and f a l l s u n d e r t h e s p e l l o f h i s new p r e s e n c e : H i s g a z e was l i k e a c a r e s s . She t h o u g h t she had n e v e r s e e n s u c h g e n t l e m e s s , s u c h l o v e , i n anyone's e y e s be-f o r e . She was a b o u t t o s a y , " E v e r y t h i n g i s a l l r i g h t now," b u t she r e f r a i n e d , f o r i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f s u c h c o n t e n t m e n t and q u i e t , t h e words seemed h o l l o w . 92 T h a t one word d e s c r i b i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f K e n s a k u ' s g a z e --" c a r e s s " -- t e l l s us v o l u m e s a b o u t h i s new-found c a p a c i t y f o r communion w i t h o t h e r s . As was r e v e a l e d i n " T a k i b i " , an i n -c r e a s e d c a p a c i t y f o r u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e b r i n g s an e q u a l l y i n -c r e a s e d c a p a c i t y f o r u n i o n w i t h o n e ' s f e l l o w man s i n c e , a t t h e d e e p e s t l e v e l , man and n a t u r e a r e one. As we r e c a l l , S h i g a u s e d t h e t e r m "rhythm" t o e x p r e s s t h a t f u n d a m e n t a l power t h a t i s s h a r e d by a l l n a t u r a l phenomena, i n c l u d i n g man, and i t i s t h i s " r h y thm", more a s p i r i t u a l t h a n a p h y s i c a l q u a l i t y , t h a t he seems t o be r e f e r r i n g t o by t h e word " n a t u r e " i n t h e p a s -sage q u o t e d a b o v e : " I t was n o t n a t u r e t h a t was v i s i b l e t o 93 t h e e y e s . . . " T h u s , when K e n s a k u becomes i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h i s u n i v e r s a l " r h y thm", he aTso becomes i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e i n n e r m o s t n a t u r e o f man. On t h e l e v e l of human r e l a t i o n s t h e word f o r t h i s " u n i t i v e " c a p a c i t y i s , o f c o u r s e , " l o v e " , and so Naoko " t h o u g h t she had n e v e r s e e n s u c h g e n t l e n e s s , s u c h 94 l o v e , i n a nyone's e y e s b e f o r e . " The f i n a l few p a r a g r a p h s o f t h e n o v e l c o n t a i n an u n u s u a l d e v i c e : t h e n a r r a t i v e v i e w p o i n t , h a v i n g b e e n t h a t o f K e n s a k u - 154 -t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e n o v e l , s u d d e n l y c h a n g e d t o t h a t o f Naoko. T h i s h as d i s t u r b e d some c r i t i c s who, p e r h a p s , h a v e g o t t h e i d e a f r o m P e r c y L u b b o c k t h a t a n o v e l must have a r i g i d l y c o n -95 s i s t e n t p o i n t o f v i e w , b u t , r e g a r d e d w i t h t h e above e x p l i c a -t i o n i n mind, i t seems a p e r f e c t l y a p p r o p r i a t e " o b j e c t i v e c o r r e -l a t i v e " on a f o r m a l l e v e l f o r what i s , on a t h e m a t i c l e v e l , t h e p r o f o u n d d e p t h o f u n i o n a c h i e v e d between Naoko and K e n s a k u . D e s p i t e h e r i n i t i a l w i f e l y a n x i e t y , Naoko has b e e n so drawn i n t o K e n s a k u ' s " t r a n q u i l i t y " t h a t she i s now p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t e v e n t h e i d e a t h a t he m i g h t d i e : She had n e v e r s e e n him i o o k so t r a n q u i l . P e r h a p s , she t h o u g h t , he i s n o t g o i n g t o l i v e t h r o u g h t h i s . B u t t h e t h o u g h t somehow d i d n o t sadden h e r v e r y much. As she s a t t h e r e l o o k i n g a t h i m , she f e l t h e r s e l f b e c o m i n g an i n s e p e r a b l e p a r t o f him; and she k e p t on t h i n k i n g , "Whether he l i v e s o r n o t , I s h a l l n e v e r l e a v e him, I s h a l l go w h e r e v e r he g o e s . " 96 B u t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h i s change o f v i e w -p o i n t w h i c h has been m i s s e d by a c r i t i c l i k e F r a n c i s Mathy, who 97 f a i l s t o t a k e K e n s a ku as t h e " f i c t i o n a l " a u t h o r o f t h e n o v e l . Naoko do e s n o t o n l y a c h i e v e u n i o n w i t h Kensaku -- above a l l , K e n s a k u a c h i e v e s u n i o n w i t h Naoko ( i t i s h e , a f t e r a l l , who has j u s t b e e n " e n l i g h t e n e d " o n t h e m o u n t a i n ) . W i t h h i s new-found c a p a c i t y f o r u n i o n w i t h o t h e r s , K e n s a k u , t h e e r s t w h i l e w r i t e r o f s h i - s h o s e t s u , who had been so t o t a l l y a b s o r b e d i n h i m s e l f t h a t , a s we saw when he t r i e d t o w r i t e t h e s t o r y o f E i h a n a , he c o u l d n e v e r w r i t e f r o m any v i e w p o i n t b u t h i s own, i s now a b l e t o commune w i t h o t h e r s t o s u c h an e x t e n t t h a t he c a n e v e n w r i t e down t h e i r i n n e r m o s t t h o u g h t s . The f a c t t h a t t h e n o v e l ends w i t h a t h o u g h t o f Naoko's r a t h e r t h a n o f K a n s a k u ' s s i g n i -f i e s t h e d e p t h o f s e l f l e s s n e s s t h a t he has a t t a i n e d , and t h e new d i m e n s i o n s t h a t have opened f o r him b o t h as a w r i t e r and a man. Many r e a d e r s o f An'ya K o r o engage i n r a t h e r b o o t l e s s a rguments as t o w h e t h e r Kensaku goes on t o l i v e o r t o d i e a t 98 t h e end. As I r e a d t h e n o v e l t h e r e i s no d o u b t a b o u t t h e answer. R e g a r d i n g S h i g a as t h e a u t h o r , i f he had meant Ken-s a k u t o be presumed d e a d t h e n o v e l w o u l d l o s e much o f i t s meaning as an a n l y s i s o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u and tbeeproblems i n v o l v e d i n i t s c r e a t i o n : p r i n c i p a l l y , t h e f a c t t h a t , b e c a u s e o f t h e i n t i m a t e l i n k between an " a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l " w r i t e r ' s l i f e and work, K e n s a k u ' s " w r i t e r ' s b l o c k " c a n o n l y be o v e r -come by a b s e a k t h r o u g h on t h e p e r s o n a l , p s y c h i c l e v e l , a b r e a k t h r o u g h t h a t w i l l e n a b l e him t o go on t o w r i t e An'ya  K o r o i t s e l f . R e g a r d i n g K e n s aku as t h e a u t h o r , i f he had d i e d t h e n o v e l , o f c o u r s e , w o u l d n o t have e x i s t e d a t a l l . H a v i n g d e n o t e d so much o f my d i s c u s s i o n t o An'ya K o r o qua t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u o f T o k i t o K e n s a k u ( b e c a u s e o t h e r c r i t i c s have f a i l e d t o r e g a r d t h e n o v e l i n t h i s l i g h t and, most i m p o r t a n t l y , b e c a u s e , f o r t h e sake o f c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s , t h e n o v e l i s b e s t v i e w e d f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e ) , I s h o u l d p e r h a p s d e v o t e a few c o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s t o t h e work qua t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u o f S h i g a Naoya h i m s e l f . As we have s e e n , S h i g a o nce a d m i t t e d t h a t K e n s a k u was a 9 9 d i r e c t p r o j e c t i o n o f h i m s e l f and, e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e i s much - 156 -i n v e n t e d m a t e r i a l i n t h e n o v e l — f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e " i l l i c i t " b i r t h o f t h e h e r o and h i s w i f e ' s " s e m i - r a p e " — we a l s o know t h a t many d e t a i l s o f S h i g a ' s own l i f e went i n t o t h e work. Mo s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e i s u n d o u b t e d l y h i s own e x p e r i e n c e o f deep u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e w h i l e on Mount D a i s e n i n t h e summer o f 1914. How s i g n i f i c a n t t h e e x p e r i e n c e was f o r h i m may be j u d g e d by t h e f a c t t h a t he u s e d i t , a l m o s t a q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y l a t e r , as t h e b a s i s f o r t h e " c l i m a x " o f h i s magnum o p u s . B u t , o f c o u r s e , t h e e x p e r i e n c e d i d n o t o c c u p y q u i t e t h e same p o s i t i o n i n S h i g a ' s l i f e as i n K e n s a k u ' s : i t d i d n o t mark t h e c l i m a c t i c h i g h - p o i n t o f h i s g r o w t h as man and a r t i s t , n o r d i d i t e n a b l e h i m t o l i v e t h e r e s t o f h i s d a y s as an a l l - c o m p a s s i o n a t e , e n g i g h t e n e d Buddha. I n o t h e r words, t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f f i c t i o n a l i z a -t i o n t h e D a i s e n e x p e r i e n c e and t h e c h a r a c t e r o f S h i g a h i m s e l f have been made " l a r g e r t h a n l i f e " — t h e y have assumed, i n f a c t , a l m o s t m y t h i c p r o p o r t i o n s . T h i s may b e e s e e n as an i n e v i t a b l e p r o c e s s , r e g a r d l e s s o f how much an a u t h o r draws h i s m a t e r i a l f r o m M s own " e v e r y d a y " l i f e . J u s t as an o b j e t t r o u v e -- s a y , an o l d shoe -- t a k e s on a f o r m a l , s y m b o l i c a s p e c t i f p l a c e d o n a a p e d e s t a l i n a museum, so t o o an a u t h o r ' s own e x p e r i e n c e r e g a r d l e s s how " t r i v i a l " o r p r i v a t e , t a k e s on a s y m b o l i c , u n i -v e r s a l a s p e c t when p l a c e d w i t h i n t h e framework o f a n o v e l . A l l t h e more so i s t h i s t r u e , t h e n , when t h e " e x p e r i e n c e " i n q u e s -t i o n i s s u c h a f u n d a m e n t a l one as a man's " j o u r n e y t h r o u g h d a r k n i g h t " t o w a r d s s p i r i t u a l l i b e r a t i o n . And t h i s m y t h i c , a r c h e t y p a l a s p e c t o f An'ya K o r o a c c o u n t s , o f c o u r s e , f o r much - 157 -o f i t s u n d e r l y i n g power. I t i s n o t s i m p l y t h e s t o r y o f one man's s p i r i t u a l s t r u g g l e b u t a k i n d o f " p i l g r i m ' s p r o g r e s s " o f a modern Everyman (and, i n c o n s o n a n c e w i t h t h i s , K e n s a k u i s a r a t h e r " i m p e r s o n a l " c h a r a c t e r i n t h e s e n s e I n o t e d i n Chap-t e r 2^^^). N e v e r t h e l e s s , b e c a u s e i t i s a modern n o v e l (and, above a l l , a J a p a n e s e n o v e l ) , t h i s t h e m a t i c t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s f o r m a l i t y and a b s t r a c t i o n i s b a l a n c e d by t h e v e r y i n f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e and p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t o f t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u g e n r e i t -s e l f , w h i c h i s , i n t h i s r e s p e c t , a w o r t h y d e s c e n d a n t o f t h e m e d i e v a l n i k k i ( d i a r y ) and z u i h i t s u . (random e s s a y ) . I n t h i s s e s n e , t h e f i c t i o n / r e a l i t y d i a l e c t i c w h i c h S h i g a e s t a b l i s h e s i n An'ya Koro i s one o f a d e l i c a t e and m a s t e r f u l b a l a n c e , b o t h t e r m s o f w h i c h may be s e e n as a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l t o t h e t o t a l a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t . I t i s , however, t h i s v e r y m i x i n g o f " f i c t i o n " and "non-f i c t i o n " , and t h e s u p p o s e d " f o r m l e s s n e s s " t h a t r e s u l t s f r o m i t , w h i c h has d i s t u r b e d some W e s t e r n c r i t i c s o f t h e n o v e l . I n an a r t i c l e on t h e s h i - s h o s e t s u , Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r , i n f a c t , e xpands t h i s c o m p l a i n t t o a c r i t i c i s m o f F a r E a s t e r n L i t e r a -t u r e i n g e n e r a l : I n t h e O r i e n t , t h e n o t i o n o f g e n r e has been a t once t o o e l a b o r a t e and n o t e l a b o r a t e enough, i f t h e s e f u n d a -m e n t a l W e s t e r n d i s t i n c t i o n s between f i c t i o n and non-f i c t i o n , l y r i c and drama, a r e accepted...Some J a p a n e s e c a t e g o r i e s , s u c h as s h o s e t s u and m o n o g a t a r i , seem so b r o a d as t o be m e a n i n g l e s s . They i n c l u d e v i r t u a l l y e v e r y t h i n g , and c u t a c r o s s what i n t h e W e s t e r n t r a d i -t i o n seem l i k e t h e most f u n d a m e n t a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . O t h e r s l i k e s h a r e b o n and K i b y o s h i , seem so n a r r o w as t o be m e a n i n g l e s s . They c o v e r t i n y r e a l m s , and w i t h i n t h e i r t i n y r e a l m s seem c a p a b l e , i n a most p e r v e r s e f a s h i o n , - 158-of mixing f i c t i o n and non-fiction, quite as i n the monogatari empire. 102 As a matter of fact, though, evep the "fundamental Western d i s t i n c t i o n s " are not what they used to be. The rambling auto-biographical journals of Jack Kerouac, for instance, works such as On the Road (1957) and The Dharma Bums (1958), were among the mose celebrated "novels" of the ' f i f t i e s "Best generation". Writing i n a more 'documentary" vein, Truman Capote caaimed to have invented a new genre, the "non-fiction novel", with his In Cold Blood (1965). Norman Mailer also has followed th i s trend with his " r e p o r t o r i a l novels" such as The Armies of the  Night (1968), su b t i t l e d "History as a Novel, the Novel as History", and his more recent The Executioner's Song (1979), s u b t i t l e d "A True L i f e Novel". Time magazine has even invented an ugly neologism for such works: "fact i o n " . Whatever we may think of the l i t e r a r y value of these re-cent American novels, i t i s l i k e l y that, because of t h e i r wide-spread acceptance, the younger generation of Western readers w i l l be less disturbed than their "elders by the "blurred l i n e s " between f i c t i o n and non-fiction i n the works of Shiga Naoya. Perhaps, then, i t i s no coincidence that An'ya Koro f i n a l l y appeared i n English t r a n s l a t i o n i n 1976, about forty years aft e r i t s f i r s t publication i n Japan, even though i t has long been recognized i n i t s own country as a modern C l a s s i c . Shiga, i n fa c t , seems at the same time both p e c u l i a r l y modern and very much within the Japanese t r a d i t i o n . This seeming paradox i s by no means unprecedented: t r a d i t i o n a l Japanese architecture, for instance, with i t s simple l i n e s and uncluttered decor, seems v e r y modern t o t h e W e s t e r n eye -- n o r i s t h i s e n t i r e l y f o r -t u i t o u s , i n v i e w o f i t s s e m i n a l i n f l u e n c e on s u c h a r c h i t e c t s as F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t . I n t h e same way, as we s h a l l i n C h a p t e r I I I , t h e h a i k u h a s a way o f s e e m i n g u l t r a - m o d e r n b e -c a u s e o f i t s a f f i n i t y w i t h and i n f l u e n c e on Imagism and t h e many o f f s h o i b t s o f t h a t e a r l y m o d e r n i s t movement. Whether t h e r e c e n t breakdown i n t h e W e s t e r n n o v e l o f t h e f o r m e r l y s t r i c t d i v i s i o n s between f i c t i o n and n o n - f i c t i o n i s due i n p a r t t o J a p a n e s e i n f l u e n c e i s more d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e . C e r t a i n l y t h e r e was a s t r o n g J a p a n e s e ( e s p e c i a l l y a "Zen") i n f l u e n c e on t h e " B e a t " w r i t e r s w h i c h l e d them t o e m p h a s i z e " s p o n t a n e i t y " , an e m p h a s i s t h a t r e s u l t e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e " a u t o m a t i c " d i a r y - l i k e w r i t i n g o f a J a c k K e r o u a c . B u t t h e r e seems, any-way, s o m e t h i n g i n t h e modern temper -- s h a p e d s o much by news-p a p e r s and t e l e v i s i o n — t h a t demands a t l e a s t a g r e a t e r i l l u s i o n o f " r e a l i t y " . (As any book p u b l i s h e r knows, non-f i c t i o n g e n e r a l l y s e l l s f a r b e t t e r t h a n f i c t i o n ) . A t any r a t e , S h i g a ' s works t o o may be s e e n , on one l e v e l , , t o a p p e a l t o t h e r e a d e r ' s a p p e t i t e f o r " t h e f a c t s " . J u s t as e a r l y E n g l i s h n o v e l i s t s s u c h as D e f o e and R i c h a r d s o n u s e d t h e l e t t e r and t h e d i a r y f o r m t o i m p a r t a s e n s e o f " r e a l i t y " t o t h e i r f i c t i o n a l w o r k s , i n A n 'ya K o r o S h i g a u s e s t h e s h i -s h o s e t s u f o r t h e same p u r p o s e . A e s t h e t i c a l l y , t h i s r e s u l t s i n an i m p r e s s i o n o f " a r t l e s s n e s s " ( s i n c e t h e w r i t e r seems m e r e l y t o be " t r a n s c r i b i n g " r e a l i t y ) w h i c h e n a b l e s S h i g a t o a v o i d what he c o n s i d e r e d t o be " a r t i f i c i a l i t y " o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f i c -t i o n . B u t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r s i d e t o t h e " a r t l e s s a r t " e q u a t i o n - 160 -t h e w r i t e r ' s a r t i t s e l f . T h i s l i e s n o t m e r e l y i n h i s i n v e n t i o n o f c e r t a i n f i c t i o n a l d e t a i l s b u t i n t h e e s s e n t i a l v i s i o n w h i c h o r d e r s t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a l l h i s m a t e r i a l — " f i c t i o n " and "non-f i c t i o n " a l i k e — and w h i c h u n i f i e s t h e e n t i r e work. I n S h i g a ' s c a s e , as I hope t o have shown, t h i s c e n t r a l v i s i o n i s r e d o l e n t o f t h e m a i n s t r e a m s p i r i t u a l c u l t u r e o f t h e O r i e n t . I n i t s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e human p r e d i c a m e n t and o f t h e way t o wisdom and l i b e r a t i o n , i t i s a r e s t a t e m e n t o f an a n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n i n modern t e r m s . I t i s p r i m a r i l y as s u c h , I w o u l d s u g g e s t , t h a t t h e works o f S h i g a Naoya w i l l e v e n t u a l l y f i n d t h e i r way i n t o t h e h e a r t s o f W e s t e r n r e a d e r s . - 161 -I n t r o d u c t i o n 1. Marc M e c r e a n t , t r a n s . , Le S a m o u r a i , by S h i g a Naoya ( P a r i s : M a r a b o u t , 1970). I n c l u d e s twenty-two S h i g a s t o r i e s . 2. Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r , " S t r a n g e l y Shaped N o v e l s " , i n S t u d i e s i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , e d . J o s e p h R o g g e n d o r f (Tokyo: S o p h i a U n i v . P r e s s , 1963) p. 217. 3. I b i d . 4. M i s h i m a Y u k i o , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o New W r i t i n g i n J a p a n , ed . M i s h i m a Y u k i o and G e o f f r e y Bownas (HariSondsworth, M i d d l e s e x : P e n g u i n Books, 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 20. C h a p t e r I 1. see Ueda Makoto, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s and t h e N a t u r e  o f L i t e r a t u r e ( S t a n f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1976) p. 20. 2. F r a n c i s Mathy, S h i g a Naoya (New Y o r k : Twayne, 1974). 3. i b i d . , p. 41 4. i b i d . , p. 42 5. S h i g a Naoya, " A r u A s a " , i n S e i b e i t o H y o t a n (Tokyo: S h i n c h o s h a , 1968) p. 17. My t r a n s l a t i o n . 6 . i b i d . , p. 18 7. A s , f o r i n s t a n c e , a n a l y z e d by Dr. Takeo D o i , The Anatomy  o f Dependende, t r a n s . J o h n B e s t e r (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1 9 7 3 ) . 8. T a n i z a k i J u n i c h i r o , "Bunsho Tokuhon", T a n i z a k i J u n i c h i r o  Z e nshg (Tokyo: Chuo K o r o n s h a , 1958) x x i . pp. 84-90. 9. B o t h w r i t e r s , f o r i n s t a n c e , g e n e r a l l y r e s t r i c t t h e m s e l v e s t o o n l y t h e most s i m p l e a d j e c t i v e s d e s c r i p t i v e o f s u b j e c -t i v e j u d g m e n t s : "good", " n i c e " , " p l e a s a n t " , "bad", e t c . - 162 -10. S h i g a Naoya, "Rhythm", t r a n s . W i l l i a m S i b l e y i n The S h i g a  Hero ( U n i v . o f C h i c a g o Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , 1971) p. 257 11. i b i d . p. 257 12. i b i d . 13. i b i d . , p. 260 14. Mathy, S h i g a , p . 45 15. i b i d . 16. J a y R u b i n , " S o s e k i on I n d i v i d u a l i s m " , i n Monumenta  N i p p o n i c a , v o l . x x x i v , no. 1 (1979) p. 21 17. i b i d . , p. 25 i 18. i b i d . , p. 21 19. Natsume S o s e k i , " W a t a k u s h i no K o M n s h u g i " (My I n d i v i d -u a l i s m ) " , t r a n s . J a y R u b i n i n Monumenta N i p p o n i c a , v o l . x x x i v , no. 1 (1979) p. 43 20. On O g a i ' s r e a c t i o n s t o t h i s i s s u e , see R i c h a r d B o w r i n g , M o r i O g a i and t h e M o d e r n i z a t i o n o f J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e (Cambridge U n i v . P r e s s , 1979) 21. F o r an a c c o u n t o f t h i s - i n c i d e n t , see Mathy, p. 23 22. Akutagawa Ryunosuke, " I s h o " ( S u i c i d e N o t e ) , r e p r i n t e d i n Howard H i b b e t t and Gen I t a s a k a , Modern J a p a n e s e (Cambridge: H a r v a r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 188-193 23. K o b a y a s h i H i d e o Zenshu ( S h i n c h o s h a , 1 9 5 5 - 5 7 ) , v o l . v i , pp. 34-35. T h i s t r a n s l a t i o n by Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r i n h i s e s s a y , " K o b a y a s h i H i d e o " i n T r a d i t i o n and M o d e r n i z a -t i o n i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , e d . D o n a l d S h i v e l y ( P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1971) p. 433 24. Nakamura H a j i m e , Ways o f T h i n k i n g o f E a s t e r n P e o p l e s , - 163 -t r a n s . P h i l i p W i e n e r ( H o n o l u l u : E a s t - W e s t C e n t e r P r e s s , 1964) 25. Q u o t e d i n S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 89 26. S e i d e n s t i c k e r , " S t r a n g e l y Shaped N o v e l s " i n S t u d i e s i n  J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 219 27. S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 126 28. i b i d . 29. i b i d . 30. s.ee Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , p . 104 31. K o b a y a s h i , v o l . v i , pp. 117-19 > r Q u o t e d i n S e i d e n s t i c k e r , " K o b a y a s h i H i d e o " i n T h i s C o u n t r y , J a p a n (Kodansha, 1979) p. 181 32. Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , p. 99 33. i b i d . 34. see S t e p h e n K o h l , S h i g a N aoya: a C r i t i c a l B i o g r a p h y ( U n i v . o f W a s h i n g t o n Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , 1974) p. 21 35. i b i d . , p. 20 36. The word " s h o s e t s u " encompasses a f a r b r o a d e r r a n g e o f works t h a n t h e word " n o v e l " . 37. S e i d e n s t i c k e r , S t u d i e s i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 217 38. Mathy, S h i g a , p. 44 • 39. i b i d . , p. 41 40. i b i d . , 41. Nakamura M i t s u o , S h i g a N a o y a - r o n (Tokjso: Chikuma Shobo, 1966) , p. 91 42. S e i d e n s t i c k e r , J a p a n Q u a r t e r l y , v o l . x i , no. 1, 1964 43a S e i d e n s t i c k e r , T h i s C o u n t r y , J a p a n , p. 100 43b see Ueda, p. 131 - 164 -44. H e r b e r t F r a n k e , I n t r o d u c t i o n , The G o l d e n C a s k e t : C h i n e s e  N o v e l l a s o f Two M i l l e n i a , t r a n s . C h r i s t o p h e r L e v e n s o n (New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and W o r l d , 19 64) p. 3 45. P l a t o , R e p u b l i c , Book X 46. F r a n k e , N o v e l l a s o f Two M i l l e n i a , p. 16 47. M u r a s a k i S h i k i b u The T a l e o f G e n j i , t r a n s . Edward S e i d e n -s t i c k e r (New Y o r k : A l f r e d K n o p f , 1977) pp. 437-38 48. D o n a l d Keene, W o r l d W i t h i n W a l l s (New Y o r k ; H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W i n s t o n , 1976) p. 211 49. i b i d . , p. 211 50. S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 260 51. Keene, W o r l d W i t h i n W a l l s , p. 392 52. i b i d . , p. 371 53. i b i d . , p. 573 54. I v a n M o r r i s , Modern J a p a n e s e S t o r i e s ( R u t l a n d , Vermont: C h a r l e s T u t t l e , 1962) p. 12-13 55. i b i d . , p. 13 56. T a u b o u c h i Shoyo, "The E s s e n c e o f t h e N o v e l " , t r a n s . D o n a l d Keene i n Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e (New Y o r k : Grove P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 ) , pp. 57-58 57. M o r r i s , Modern J a p a n e s e S t o r i e s , p. 15 58. i b i d . , p. 16 59. I t o S e i , "Natsume S o s e k i — H i s P e r s o n a l i t y and Works", i n E s s a y s on Natsume S o s e k i ' s Works (T o k y o : M i n i s t r y o f Edu-c a t i o n , 1970) p. 5 60. i b i d . , pp. 15-16 61. Q u o t e d T s u r m t a K i n y a i n "Akutagawa Ryunosuke and I -N o v e l i s t s " , Monumenta N i p p o n i c a , v o l . xxv, n o s . 1-2 (1970), p. 14 62. i b i d . , j p . 25 V 63. S e i d e n s t m c k e r , "The 'Pure' and t h e 'In-Between' i n Modern J a p a n e s e T h e o r i e s o f t h e N o v e l " , i n T h i s C o u n t r y , J a p a n pp. 98-111 64. S e i d e n s t i c k e r , S t u d i e s i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 212 65. Q u o t e d i n S e i d e n s t i c k e r , T h i s C o u n t r y , J a p a n , p. 102 66. S e i d e n s t i c k e r , S t u d i e s i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 217 67 i b i d . 68. Ueda Makoto, L i t e r a r y and A r t T h e o r i e s i n J a p a n ( C l e v e l a n d P r e s s o f W e s t e r n R e s e r v e U n i v . , 1967) pp. 224-25 69. Q u o t e d i n S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 1 70. A r i s t o t l e , P o e t i c s , C h a p t e r 7 71. On t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f r e n g a , see E a r l M i n e r ' s r e c e n t J a p a n e s e L i n k e d P o e t r y ( P r i n c e t o n U n i v . p r e s s , 1979) 72. Q u o t e d i n S e i d e n s t i c k e r , T r a d i t i o n and M o d e r n i z a t i o n i n  J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 426 73. Q u o t e d i n S i b l e y , S h i g a Hero,, p. 1 74. i b i d . 75. Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , p. 106 C h a p t e r 2 1. See, f o r i n s t a n c e , T a n i k a w a T e t s u z o ' s f u l s o m e p r a i s e i n h i s S h i g a Naoya no S a k u h i n ( v o l . 2 ) , (Tokyo: M i k a s a Shobo, 1942) p. 92 - 166 -2. T a n i z a k i J u n i c h i r o Zenshu (Tokyo: Chuo K o r o n s h a , 1958) x x i p. 90 3. S h i g a Naoya, " A t K i n o s a k i " , t r a n s , Edward S e i d e n s t i c k e r i n Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e (New Y o r k : Grove P r e s s , 1956) P.. 273 4. i b i d . 5. i b i d . 6. i b i d . , p. 274 7. i b i d . 8. i b i d . 9. i b i d . 10. i b i d . , p. 273 11. i b i d . , p. 274 12. i b i d . 13. i b i d . , p. 275 14. i b i d . 15. i b i d . 16. i b i d . 17. i b i d . , p. 276 18. i b i d . , p. 277 19. i b i d . 20. i b i d . 21. i b i d . 22. i b i d . 23. i b i d . 24. i b i d . 25. i b i d . 26. T a n i k a w a , S h i g a Mo S a k u h i n , p. 9 2 - 167 -27. i b i d . 28. Mathy, S h i g a , p. 173 29. Leo T o l s t o y , What i s A r t ? ( O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1929) p. 228 30. Mathy, S h i g a , pp. 64-65 31. F.R. L e a v i s , " R e a l i t y and S i n c e r i t y " , i n h i s A S e l e c t i o n  From S c r u t i n y (Cambridge U n i v . P r e s s , 1968) p . 252 32. i b i d . 33. i b i d . 34. i b i d . , p. 276 35. Q u o t e d i n W i l l i a m B a r r y , H e r a l d s o f R e v o l t ( P o r t W a shing-t o n , New Y o r k : K e n n i k a t P r e s s , 1971) p. 237 36. i b i d . 37. K o b a y a s h i Z e nshu I : 12-13. t r a n s . S e i d e n s t i c k e r , T h i s  C o u n t r y , J a p a n , p . 156 38. Y o s h i d a S e i - i c h i , " S h o s e t s u no Bunsho" i n Bunsho t o B u n t a i (Tokyo: M e i j i S h o i n , 1963) p . 46. My t r a n s l a t i o n . 39. i b i d . 40. i b i d . , p. 47 41. i b i d . 42. i b i d . 43. F o r an a c c o u n t o f T a n i z a k i ' s d e b a t e w i t h Akutagawa on t h i s s u b j e c t , see Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , pp. 71-72 44. Y o s h i d a , Bunsho t o B u n t a i , p. 48 45. T a n i z a k i , Zenshu, x x i , 18 46. i b i d . 47. i b i d . - 168 -i b i d . t r a n s . S e i d e n s t i c k e r , Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 273 t r a n s . S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 76 t a n i k a w a , S h i g a no S a k u h i n , p. 92. My t r a n s l a t i o n . The e n t i r e " S h i r a k a b a g r o u p " a r e sometimes c h a r a c t e r i z e d as " T o l s t o y a n i d e a l i s t s " . Be t h a t as i t may, S & i g a had a l i f e l o n g a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e works o f t h e R u s s i a n m a s t e r L e o T o l s t o y , " T h r e e D e a t h s " (1859) i n N i n e S t o r i e s t r a n s . L o u i s e and A y l m e r Maude (London: O x f o r d U n i v . p r e s s ) , pp. 305-306 i b i d . r a p. 307 i b i d . , p. 308 i b i d . , p . 291 i b i d . , p. v i i i Q u o t e d i n Mathy, S h i g a , p. 161 i b i d . , p. 160 T o l s t o y , N i n e S t o r i e s , p. 307 Wayne B o o t h , The R h e t o r i c o f F i c t i o n ( U n i v . o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1966) p. 3 Keene, Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 27 2 i b i d . , p. 276 i b i d . i b i d . E.M. F o r s t e r , A s p e c t s o f t h e N o v e l (London: Edward A r n o l d , 1927) pp. 73-80 B a r r y , R e v o l t , p. 237 See a b o v e , p. 3 9 - 169 -69. Keene, Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 273 70. i b i d . p. 275 71. i b i d . , p. 277 72. S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 227 73. Ueda, L i t e r a r y and A r t T h e o r i e s i n J a p a n , p. 150 74. i b i d . 75. i b i d . 76. i b i d . 77. Keene, Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 273 78. i b i d . , p. 27 5 89. i b i d . , p. 277 80. i b i d . 81. Ueda, L i t e r a r y and A r t T h e o r i e s , p. 150 82. Mathy, S h i g a , p. 28 83. S i b l e y , S h i g a H e r o , p. 231 84. S h i g a Naoya, A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , t r a n s . Edwin M c C l e l l a n (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1976) p. 375 85. Keene, Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 277 86. S h i g a , A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , pp. 400-401 87. F o r K o b a y a s h i ' s v i e w on t h i s , see S e i d e n s t i c k e r , T r a d i t i o n  and M o d e r n i z a t i o n i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 427 C h a p t e r 3 1. Q u o t e d i n Beongcheon Yu, Akutagaway: an I n t r o d u c t i o n ( D e t r o i Wayne S t a t e U n i v . p r e s s , 1972) p. 79 2. i b i d . 3. i b i d . - 170-i b i d . i b i d . S h i g a Naoya, " T a k i b i " , i n Kozo no Kamisama ( T e k y o : Iwanami S h o t e n , 1928) p. 173. My t r a n s l a t i o n . i b i d . Q u o t e d i n Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , p. 86 S h i g a , Kozo no Kamisama, p. 175 i b i d . i b i d . , p. 176 i b i d . i b i d . , p. 179 i b i d . i b i d . , p. 180 i b i d . , p. 181 S h i g a , A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , p. 290 See, f o r example, D.C. H o l t o m ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e r o l e o f f i r e i n S h i n t o r i t u a l i n h i s The N a t i o n a l F a i t h o f J a p a n (New Y o r k : P a r a g o n Book R e p r i n t C o r p . , 1965) p. 29 Norman F r i e d m a n , "Symbol", i n P r i n c e t o n E n c y c l o p e d i a o f  P o e t r y and P o e t i c s , e d . A l e x P r e m i n g e r ( P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1974) p. 834 S h i g a , Kozo no Kamisama, p. 182. i b i d . , p. 183 i b i d . , pp. 183-4 i b i d . , p. 184 i b i d . , p. 185 i b i d . , p. 187 i b i d . - 171 -27. i b i d . , p. 188 28. i b i d . 29. See Mathy, S h i g a , p. 161 30. S h i g a , Kozo no Kamisama, p. 188 31. O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y , ( O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1971) p. 2210. Q u o t i n g L e w i s Meth. R e a s o n . P o l i t i c s v . 118: " I n e v e r y n a r r a t i v e , t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n c o n n e x i o n o f e v e n t s , w h i c h i n a work o f f i c t i o n , i s c a l l e d a p l o t . " 32. See p. 5 above 33. F o r r e p e t i t i o n as a " n o n - l o g i c a l " u s e o f l a n g u a g e , see E l i z a b e t h W e l l s , " S t a t i s t i c a l /Analysis o f t h e P r o s e S t y l e o f ' B i g T w o - H earted R i v e r ' " i n J a c k s o n B enson, The S h o r t  S t o r i e s o f E r n e s t Hemingway: C r i t i c a l E s s a y s (Durham: Duke U n i v . P r e s s , 1975) p . 131: " I t i s most o f t e n c o n -s i d e r e d t o be t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h o s e i n c a p a b l e o f c a u s e -a n d - e f f e c t r e a s o n i n g . . . " 34. See a b o v e , p. 36 35. Q u o t e d i n Edmund W i l s o n , E i g h t E s s a y s , (New Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1954) pp. 93-94 36. Comte de B u f f o n , D i s c o u r s s u r l e S t y l e (1353) § 7 . M.H. Abrams, A G l o s s a r y o f L i t e r a r y Terms (New Y o r k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W i n s t o n , 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 137 38. Q u o t e d i n A.E. H o t c h n e r , P a p a Hemingway (New Y o r k : Random House, 1966) p. 199 39. See B e n s o n , Hemingway, p. x i 40. S c o t t D o n a l d s o n , By E o r c e o f W i l l : t h e L i f e and A r t o f - 172 -E r n e s t Hemingway (New Y o r k : V i k i n g P r e s s , 1977) p. 242 Hemingway, G r e e n H i l l s o f A f r i c a (New Y o r k : S c r i b n e r ' s , 1935) p. 70 See E a r l M i n e r , The J a p a n e s e T r a d i t i o n i n B r i t i s h and  A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e ( P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1958) E s p e c i a l l y c h a p t e r s v - v i Benson, Hemingway, p. 307 i b i d . Q u o t e d i n D o n a l d s o n , W i l l , p . 247 Ben s o n , Hemingway, p. 30 9 See a b o v e , p. 63 Quoted i n B e n s o n , Hemingway, p. 3 07 R a l p h Freedman, The L y r i c a l N o v e l ( P r i n c e t o n , New J e r s e y : P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1963) Ben s o n , Hemingway, p. 157 Hemingway, A f r i c a , F o r e w o r d Hemingway, A M o v e a b l e F e a s t (New Y o r k : S c r i b n e r ' s , 1964) P r e f a c e F r a s e r S u t h e r l a n d , The S t y l e o f I n n o c e n c e ( T o r o n t o : C l a r k e , I r w i n , 1972) p. 83 Benson, Hemingway, p. 275 i b i d . R o b e r t Weeks, ed. , Hemingway: a C o l l e c t i o n o f C r i t i c a l .  E s s a y s (Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1962) Benson, Hemingway, p. 309 i b i d . - 173 -59. See J u l i a n S m i t h ' s a r t i c l e , "Hemingway and t h e T h i n g L e f t Out" i n Benson, Hemingway, p. 136 60. D o n a l d s o n , W i l l , p. 245 61. Benson, Hemingway, p. 39 62. i b i d . , p. 131 63. i b i d . , p. 297 64. Weeks, Hemingway, p. 106 65. Hemingway, " C r o s s - C o u n t r y Snow" i n I n Our Time (New Y o r k : S c r i b n e r ' s , 1925) p. 107 » 66. Benson, Hemingway, p. 154 67. Keene, Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e , p. 277 68. Hemingway, " B i g Two-Hearted R i v e r " i n I n Our Time, p. 14 2 69. i b i d . , p. 156 70. Mathy, S h i g a , pp. 29-30 71. S h i g a , Kozo no Kamisama, p. 176 72. On Hemingway's o b s e s s i o n w i t h d e a t h , s e e D o n a l d s o n , W i l l p. 282. C h a p t e r 4 1. Quoted i n Mathy, S h i g a , p. 83 2. i b i d . 3 . i b i d . , p. 92 4. i b i d . , p. 101 5. i b i d . , pp 99 and 157 6. i b i d . , p. 157 7. S h i g a Naoya, A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , t r a n s . E d w i n M c C l e l l T o k y o : Kodansha, 1976) p. 16 - 174 -8. i b i d . , p. 17 9. i b i d . , p. 18 10. i b i d . 11. i b i d . , pp. 19-20 12. i b i d . , p. 25 13. i b i d . 14. i t i d . , p. 26 15. i b i d . 16. i b i d . , pp. 26-27 17. i b i d . , p. 27 18. i b i d . 19. i b i d . , p. 28 20. i b i d . , p. 3 0 21. i b i d . , p. 26 22. i b i d . 23. i b i d . , p. 29 24. i b i d . , p. 30 25. i b i d . 26. i b i d . , p. 81 27. i b i d . , p. 101 28. i b i d . , p. 104 29. i b i d . , p. 115 30. i b i d . , p. 123 31. See Mathy, S h i g a , p. 43 32. S h i g a , A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , p. 125 33. " i b i d . 34. i b i d . " 1 7 5 -35. i b i d . , P- 146 36. i b i d . 37. i b i d . , P- 148 38. i b i d . 39. i b i d . , P- 150 40. i b i d . , P- 158 41. x b i d . , P- 172 42. i b i d . 43. i b i d . , P- 186 44. i b i d . , P- 375 45. i b i d . , P- 186-87 46. i b i d . , P- 184 47. i b i d . , P- 193 48. i b i d . , P- 194 49. i b i d . , P- 181 50. i b i d . , P- 174 51. i b i d . , P- 178 52. On t h i s p o i n t , see Ueda, Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s , p. 53. S h i g a , A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , p. 178 54. i b i d . , P- 185 55. i b i d . 56. i b i d . , P- 201 57. i b i d . , P- 202 58. i b i d . , P- 271 59. i b i d . , P i 312 60. i b i d . , PP . 311-12 61. i b i d . , P- 337 62. i b i d . , p. 338 63. i b i d . 64. i b i d . , p. 341 65. i b i d . , p. 341 66. i b i d . 67. i b i d . , p. 251 68. i b i d . 69. i b i d . 70. i b i d . , 352 71. i b i d . , p. 354-55 72. i b i d . , p. 356 73. i b i d . 74. i b i d . 75. i b i d . , p . 357 76. i b i d . , p. 358 77. i b i d . 78. i b i d . , p. 357 79. i b i d . , p. 364 80. i b i d . , p. 369 81. i b i d . , p. 381 82. i b i d . , p. 392 83. i b i d . , pp. 383-84 84. i b i d . , p. 399 85. i b i d . 86. i b i d . , p. 398 87. i b i d . , p. 400 .88. i b i d . , pp. 400-01 - 177 -89. D a i s e t z T e i t a r o S u z u k i , E s s a y s i n Zen Buddhism i n 3 v o l s . (New Y o r k : Samuel W e i s e r , 1971) 80. S h i g a , A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g , p. 401 91 i b i d . 92. i b i d . , p. 407 93. i b i d . , p. 400 95. i b i d . , p. 407 95. P e r c y L u b b o c k , The C r a f t o f F i c t i o n (London: J o h n a t h a n Cape, 1939) 96. i b i d . , p. 408 97. See Mathy, p. 102 98. See, f o r i n s t a n c e , Mathy, p. 102 and Edwin M c C l e l l a n ' s e s s a y i n t h e N i h o n Bungaku Kenkyu S h i r y o Sosho s e r i e s (Tokyo: Y u s e i d o , 1970) pp. 300-01 99. See a b o v e , p. 95 100. See Mathy, S h i g a , p. 28 101. See a b o v e , pp. 53-54 102. S e i d e n s t i c k e r , S t u d i e s i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e , p. 210 - 178 -BIBLIOGRAPHY Benson, J a c k s o n , e d . The S h o r t S t o r i e s o f E r n e s t Hemingway: C r i t i c a l E s s a y s Durham: Duke U n i v . P r e s s , 1975 B o o t h , Wayne. The R h e t o r i c o f F i c t i o n C h i c a g o U n i v . P r e s s , 1966 D o n a l d s o n , S c o t t . By F o r c e o f W i l l : t h e L i f e and A r t o f E r n e s t Hemingway New Y o r k : V i k i n g P r e s s , 1977 F o r s t e r , E.M. A s p e c t s o f t h e N o v e l L o n d o n : Edward A r n o l d , 192 7 Freedman, R a l p h . The L y r i c a l N o v e l P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1963 Hemingway, E r n e s t . I n Our Time New Mork: S c r i b n e r ' s , 19 25 I t o , S e i . E s s a y s on Natsume S o s e k i ' s Works T o k y o : M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n , 197 0 Keene, D o n a l d . W o r l d w i t h i n W a l l s : J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e o f t h e  P r e - M o d e r n E r a , 1600-1867 NewYork: H o l t , R i n e h a r t , W i n s t o n , 1976 . e d . , Modern J a p a n e s e L i t e r a t u r e G r o v e P r e s s 1956 K o b a y a s h i , H i d e o . K o b a y a s h i H i d e o Zenshu T o k y o : S h i n c h o s h a , 1955 L e a v i s , F.R. A S e l e c t i o n f r o m S c r u t i n y Cambridge U n i v . P r e s s , 1968 L u b b o c k , P e r c y . The C r a f t o f F i c t i o n L o n don: J o h n a t h a n Cape, 1939 Mathy, F r a n c i s . S h i g a Naoya New Y o r k : Twayne P u b l i s h e r s , 1974 M i n e r , E a r l . The J a p a n e s e T r a d i t i o n i n B r i t i s h and A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e . P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1958 M o r r i s , I v a n , e d . , Modern J a p a n e s e S t o r i e s R u t l a n d , V ermont: - 179 -C h a r l e s E. T u t t l e , 1962 M i s h i m a , Y u k i o and Bownas, G e o f f r e y . New W r i t i n g i n J a p a n Harmondsworth, M i d d l e s e x : P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1972 R o g g e n d o r f , J o s e p h . S t u d i e s i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e T o k y o : S o p h i a U n i v . P r e s s , 1963 S e i d e n s t i c k e r , Edward. T h i s C o u n t r y , J a p a n T o k y o : Kodansha, 1979 S h i g a , Naoya. S h i g a Naoya Zenshu T o k y o : Iwanami S h o t e n , 1955-56 . S e i b e i t o H y o t a n T o k y o : S h i n c h o s h a , 1968 . Kozo no Kamisama T o k y o , Iwanami S h o t e n , 192 8 _ _ . A Dark N i g h t ' s P a s s i n g t r a n s l a t i o n o f A n'ya Koro by Edwin M c C l e l l a n T o k y o : K o d a n s h a , 197 6 S h i v e l y , D o n a l d . T r a d i t i o n and M o d e r n i z a t i o n i n J a p a n e s e C u l t u r e P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1971 S i b l e y , W i l l i a m . The S h i g a Hero U n i v . o f C h i c a g o Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , 1971 T a n i z a k i , J u n ' i c h i r o . T a n i z a k i J u n ' i c h i r o Zenshu T o k y o : Chuo K o r o n s h a , 195 8 T a n i k a w a , T e t s u z o . S h i g a Naoya no S a k u h i n T o k y o : M i k a s a Shobo, 1942 T o l s t o y , L e o . N i n e S t o r i e s , t r a n s . A y l m e r Maude. O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1929 Ueda, Makoto. Modern J a p a n e s e W r i t e r s and t h e N a t u r e o f L i t e r a t u r e S t a n f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1976 - 180 -. L i t e r a r y and A r t T h e o r i e s i n J a p a n C l e v e l a n d : W e s t e r n R e s e r v e U n i v . , 1967 Weeks, R o b e r t . Hemingway: a C o l l e c t i o n o f C r i t i c a l E s s a y s E n glewood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1962 W i l s o n , Edmund. E i g h t E s s a y s New Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1954 Y o s h i d a , S e i - i c h i . Bunsho t o B u n t a i T o k y o : M e i j i S h o i n , 1963

Cite

Citation Scheme:

Citations by CSL (citeproc-js)

Usage Statistics

Embed

Customize your widget with the following options, then copy and paste the code below into the HTML of your page to embed this item in your website.

Include Metadata Specify width in pixels (leave blank for auto-width):

                        
                            <div id="ubcOpenCollectionsWidgetDisplay">
                            <script id="ubcOpenCollectionsWidget"
                            src="{[{embed.src}]}"
                            data-item="{[{embed.item}]}"
                            data-collection="{[{embed.collection}]}"
                            data-metadata="{[{embed.showMetadata}]}"
                            data-width="{[{embed.width}]}"
                            data-media="{[{embed.selectedMedia}]}"
                            async >
                            </script>
                            </div>

Our image viewer uses the IIIF 2.0 standard. To load this item in other compatible viewers, use this url:

https://iiif.library.ubc.ca/presentation/dsp.831.1-0100240/manifest

Open Collections

UBC Theses and Dissertations

UBC Theses and Dissertations

An artless art : fiction and reality in the work of Shiga Naoya Starrs, Roy 1980

Page Metadata

Item Metadata

Download

Full Text

Cite

Usage Statistics

Embed

Comment

Related Items

Open Collections

UBC Theses and Dissertations

An artless art : fiction and reality in the work of Shiga Naoya Starrs, Roy 1980

Page Metadata

Item Metadata

Download

Full Text

Cite

Usage Statistics

Share

Embed

Comment

Related Items