Canada and the Sandinistas : a case study of the determinants of Canadian policy towards Nicaragua, 1979-1984

Prongos, Peter George

doi:10.14288/1.0097169

Open Collections

UBC Theses and Dissertations

Featured Collection

UBC Theses and Dissertations

Canada and the Sandinistas : a case study of the determinants of Canadian policy towards Nicaragua, 1979-1984 Prongos, Peter George 1986

Page Metadata

Item Metadata

Title	Canada and the Sandinistas : a case study of the determinants of Canadian policy towards Nicaragua, 1979-1984
Creator	Prongos, Peter George
Publisher	University of British Columbia
Date Issued	1986
Description	This thesis examines Canadian responses to developments surrounding Sandinista rule in Nicaragua. The questions addressed in this thesis are: 1) What was the nature of the Trudeau government's policy toward the Sandinista government of Nicaragua? 2) What were the determinants of this policy? 3) What alternative policies were available to the Canadian government? A brief- overview of the evolution of Canadian policy towards Latin America in the 20th century is followed by a discussion of the major elements of Canadian relations with the Sandinista government, a history of the evolution of that policy, and an examination of the role of Canadian non-governmental actors, i.e. business, labour, churches, aid and solidarity groups, and the press. The next section focuses on the influence of international actors on Canadian policy, particulary the United States. The last part analyzes the determinants of Canadian relations with the Sandinistas and offers a critique of Canada's policy. This study finds that official interest in Nicaragua gradually increased after the Sandinista victory, following that of the Canadian public. The Clark government mirrored the attitude of the Carter administration, which was suspicious of the new government in Managua. In spite of the enormous devastation wrought in Nicaragua, the Tories provided no direct bilateral aid. The return of the Liberals under Pierre Trudeau did not signal an immediate change of policy towards Managua, while Reagan's inauguration in 1981 brought to power an administration determined to "roll back" the Sandinista revolution. Canada's initial response was "quiet acquiescence". Although not completely unsympathetic to the Sandinistas, Canada was wary of angering the United States. Canada granted more assistance to Honduras in spite of its deplorable human rights record and support for the Contra attacks against Nicaragua. Canada decided to back the Contadora peace process as the only alternative to increasing U.S. militarization, but this support was primarily confined to rhetoric. As Canada grew increasingly worried about Washington's actions, llttawa began to be more openly critical. The government eventually made a few moves to implement its own policy toward Nicaragua (some aid, stronger rhetoric), but llttawa did not undertake any major peace or development initiatives, either unilaterally or with other nations. Canada's ambiguous rhetoric was essentially compatible with U.S. policy, the main difference being questions of method. Policy tended to be piecemeal and inconsistent, determined primarily by the hope of winning the good will of the United States, modified slightly by the fear of the consequences of an escalating crisis on trade and wor order, and, to a lesser degree, by public opinion in Canada. The Canadian government is found to have failed to live up either to its principles or its potential to help resolve the crisis that developed around the Sandinista revolution.
Genre	Thesis/Dissertation
Type	Text
Language	eng
Date Available	2010-07-17
Provider	Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Rights	For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use.
IsShownAt	10.14288/1.0097169
URI	http://hdl.handle.net/2429/26596
Degree	Master of Arts - MA
Program	Political Science
Affiliation	Arts, Faculty of Political Science, Department of
Degree Grantor	University of British Columbia
Campus	UBCV
Scholarly Level	Graduate
AggregatedSourceRepository	DSpace

Download

Media: 831-UBC_1986_A8 P76.pdf [ 7.16MB ]
Metadata: JSON: 831-1.0097169.json; JSON-LD: 831-1.0097169-ld.json; RDF/XML (Pretty): 831-1.0097169-rdf.xml; RDF/JSON: 831-1.0097169-rdf.json; Turtle: 831-1.0097169-turtle.txt; N-Triples: 831-1.0097169-rdf-ntriples.txt; Original Record: 831-1.0097169-source.json
Full Text: 831-1.0097169-fulltext.txt
Citation: 831-1.0097169.ris

Full Text

CANADA AND THE SANDINISTAS A Case Study of the Determinants o-f Canadian P o l i c y Towards Nicaragua, 1979-1984 By PETER GEORGE PRONGOS B.A., The U n i v e r s i t y o-f Colorado, 1978 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department of P o l i t i c a l Science} We accept t h i s t h e s i s as con-forming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA February 1986 (c?) Peter George Prongos, 1986 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. r Department of The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 DE-6(3/81) A b s t r a c t T h i s t h e s i s e x a m i n e s C a n a d i a n r e s p o n s e s t o d e v e l o p m e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g S a n d i n i s t a r u l e i n N i c a r a g u a . The q u e s t i o n s a d d r e s s e d i n t h i s t h e s i s a r e : 1) What was t h e n a t u r e o f t h e T r u d e a u g o v e r n m e n t ' s p o l i c y t o w a r d t h e S a n d i n i s t a g o v e r n m e n t o f N i c a r a g u a ? 2) What w e r e t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h i s p o l i c y ? 3) What a l t e r n a t i v e p o l i c i e s w e r e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t ? A b r i e f - o v e r v i e w o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f C a n a d i a n p o l i c y t o w a r d s L a t i n A m e r i c a i n t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y i s f o l l o w e d b y a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m a j o r e l e m e n t s o f C a n a d i a n r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S a n d i n i s t a g o v e r n m e n t , a h i s t o r y o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h a t p o l i c y , a n d a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f C a n a d i a n n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l a c t o r s , i . e . b u s i n e s s , l a b o u r , c h u r c h e s , a i d a n d s o l i d a r i t y g r o u p s , a n d t h e p r e s s . T h e n e x t s e c t i o n f o c u s e s o n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t o r s o n C a n a d i a n p o l i c y , p a r t i c u l a r y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The l a s t p a r t a n a l y z e s t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f C a n a d i a n r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S a n d i n i s t a s a n d o f f e r s a c r i t i q u e o f C a n a d a ' s p o l i c y . T h i s s t u d y f i n d s t h a t o f f i c i a l i n t e r e s t i n N i c a r a g u a g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d a f t e r t h e S a n d i n i s t a v i c t o r y , f o l l o w i n g t h a t o f t h e C a n a d i a n p u b l i c . The C l a r k g o v e r n m e n t m i r r o r e d t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i c h was s u s p i c i o u s o f t h e new g o v e r n m e n t i n M a n a g u a . I n s p i t e o f t h e e n o r m o u s d e v a s t a t i o n w r o u g h t i n N i c a r a g u a , t h e T o r i e s p r o v i d e d no d i r e c t b i l a t e r a l a i d . The r e t u r n o f t h e L i b e r a l s u n d e r P i e r r e T r u d e a u d i d n o t s i g n a l a n i m m e d i a t e c h a n g e o f p o l i c y t o w a r d s M a n a g u a , w h i l e R e a g a n ' s i n a u g u r a t i o n i n 1981 b r o u g h t t o p o w e r a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d t o " r o l l b a c k " t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n . C a n a d a ' s i n i t i a l r e s p o n s e was " q u i e t a c q u i e s c e n c e " . A l t h o u g h n o t c o m p l e t e l y u n s y m p a t h e t i c t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , C a n a d a was w a r y o f a n g e r i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . C a n a d a g r a n t e d m o r e a s s i s t a n c e t o H o n d u r a s i n s p i t e o f i t s d e p l o r a b l e human r i g h t s r e c o r d a n d s u p p o r t f o r t h e C o n t r a a t t a c k s a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a . C a n a d a d e c i d e d t o b a c k t h e C o n t a d o r a p e a c e p r o c e s s a s t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e t o i n c r e a s i n g U . S . m i l i t a r i z a t i o n , b u t t h i s s u p p o r t was p r i m a r i l y c o n f i n e d t o r h e t o r i c . A s C a n a d a g r e w i n c r e a s i n g l y w o r r i e d a b o u t W a s h i n g t o n ' s a c t i o n s , l l t t a w a b e g a n t o be m o r e o p e n l y c r i t i c a l . The g o v e r n m e n t e v e n t u a l l y made a f e w moves t o i m p l e m e n t i t s own p o l i c y t o w a r d N i c a r a g u a (some a i d , s t r o n g e r r h e t o r i c ) , b u t l l t t a w a d i d n o t u n d e r t a k e a n y m a j o r p e a c e o r d e v e l o p m e n t i n i t i a t i v e s , e i t h e r u n i l a t e r a l l y o r w i t h o t h e r n a t i o n s . C a n a d a ' s a m b i g u o u s r h e t o r i c was e s s e n t i a l l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h U . S . p o l i c y , t h e m a i n d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g q u e s t i o n s o f m e t h o d . P o l i c y t e n d e d t o be p i e c e m e a l a n d i n c o n s i s t e n t , d e t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y b y t h e h o p e o f w i n n i n g t h e g o o d w i l l o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , m o d i f i e d s l i g h t l y b y t h e f e a r - i i i -o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n e s c a l a t i n g c r i s i s o n t r a d e a n d w o r o r d e r , a n d , t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e , b y p u b l i c o p i n i o n i n C a n a d a . The C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t i s f o u n d t o h a v e f a i l e d t o l i v e u p e i t h e r t o i t s p r i n c i p l e s o r i t s p o t e n t i a l t o h e l p r e s o l v e t h e c r i s i s t h a t d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n . - i v -T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s L i s t o f T a b l e s v i i A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s v i i i I n t r o d u c t i o n 1 C h a p t e r 1 . O f f i c i a l R e l a t i o n s 3 a ) B a c k g r o u n d 3 b ) P o l i t i c a l R e l a t i o n s 13 c ) D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e 29 C h a p t e r 2 . D o m e s t i c A c t o r s 3 7 a ) C o m m e r c i a l R e l a t i o n s 37 b) N o n - G o v e r n m e n t a l O r g a n i z a t i o n s 42 L a b o u r 4 2 C h u r c h e s 47 A i d a n d S o l i d a r i t y G r o u p s 50 c ) P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s 57 T h e New D e m o c r a t s 5 7 The C o n s e r v a t i v e s 60 The L i b e r a l s 62 d) T h e P r e s s 64 C h a p t e r 3 . I n t e r n a t i o n a l A c t o r s 72 a ) N i c a r a g u a 72 b ) T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s 78 c ) O t h e r C o u n t r i e s 84 v . C h a p t e r 4 . A n a l y s i s 88 a ) O r i e n t a t i o n , R o l e s , O b j e c t i v e s 93 b ) D e t e r m i n a n t s o f C a n a d a ' s P o l i c i e s T o w a r d s t h e S a n d i n i s t a s 96 1) The I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y s t e m 96 2) C a n a d a ' s N a t i o n a l A t t r i b u t e s 102 c ) D e c i s i o n M a k i n g 105 1) The G o v e r n m e n t 106 2) N o n - G o v e r n m e n t a l A c t o r s 108 B u s i n e s s P u b l i c O p i n i o n 109 d ) C r i t i q u e a n d C o n c l u s i o n s 113 N o t e s 129 B i b l i o g r a p h y 144 A p p e n d i c e s 152 - v i . -L i s t o f T a b l e s T a b l e I . C a n a d i a n A i d t o N i c a r a g u a - - 1 9 7 3 - 7 8 . 8 . T a b l e I I . C a n a d i a n - N i c a r a g u a n T r a d e - - 1 9 7 5 - 7 9 . 9 . T a b l e I I I . C a n a d i a n - C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n T r a d e . 1 0 . T a b l e I V . T o t a l C a n a d i a n B i - L a t e r a l A i d t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a — 1 9 8 0 / 8 1 - 8 3 / 8 4 . 3 1 . T a b l e V . C a n a d i a n - N i c a r a g u a n T r a d e - - 1 9 7 9 / 8 0 / 8 4 . 3 5 . A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k t h o s e i n t h e P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e D e p a r t m e n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a w h o s e a d v i c e a n d c r i t i c i s m w e r e i n v a l u a b l e i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s : P r o f . Don M u n t o n , P r o f . P e t e r B u s c h , P r o f . K . J . H o l s t i a n d P r o f . P h i l i p R e s n i c k . I w o u l d a l s o l i k e t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e many p e o p l e who f a c i l i t a t e d my r e s e a r c h i n V a n c o u v e r , O t t a w a , a n d T o r o n t o , w i t s p e c i a l t h a n k s f o r t h o s e who c o n s e n t e d t o be i n t e r v i e w e d a n d t t h e p e o p l e a t C A P A . - v i i i -CANADA a n d t h e S A N D I N I S T A S A C a s e S t u d y o f t h e D e t e r m i n a n t s o f C a n a d i a n P o l i c y T o w a r d s N i c a r a g u a , 1 9 7 9 - 1 9 8 4 I n t r o d u c t i o n The v i c t o r y o f t h e " F r e n t e S a n d i n i s t a de L i b e r a c i o n N a c i o n a l " ( F S L N ) a n d i t s s u p p o r t e r s o v e r t h e Somoza d i c t a t o r s h i p i n J u l y 1979 h a s h a d p r o f o u n d r e p e r c u s s i o n s , n o t o n l y i n N i c a r a g u a a n d C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , b u t t h r o u g h o u t t h e h e m i s p h e r e a n d b e y o n d . T h i s t h e s i s e x a m i n e s C a n a d i a n r e s p o n s e s t o d e v e l o p m e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g S a n d i n i s t a r u l e i n N i c a r a g u a . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h i s e x a m i n a t i o n a t t e m p t s t o s h e d l i g h t o n t h r e e q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e d t o C a n a d i a n p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n : 1) What was t h e n a t u r e o f t h e T r u d e a u g o v e r n m e n t ' s p o l i c y t o w a r d t h e S a n d i n i s t a g o v e r n m e n t o f N i c a r a g u a ? 2) What w e r e t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h i s p o l i c y ? 3) What a l t e r n a t i v e p o l i c i e s w e r e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t ? C a n a d i a n i n t e r e s t i n N i c a r a g u a h a s g r o w n s i n c e t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s . E c o n o m i c , h u m a n i t a r i a n , a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h a v e c o m b i n e d t o r a i s e t h e s a l i e n c e o f N i c a r a g u a f o r C a n a d i a n s a n d f o r t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t . T h i s i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t was a c c o m p a n i e d b y c h a n g e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s , a n d i s a s u b j e c t t h a t h a s y e t t o be f u l l y - 2 -e x p l o r e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s h o p e d t h a t t h i s s t u d y , b y s u g g e s t i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f C a n a d a ' s r e c e n t f o r e i g n p o l i c y , w i l l p r o v i d e c l u e s a b o u t t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f C a n a d i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n g e n e r a l . The n a t u r e o f t h e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d , t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o C a n a d a ' s i n t e r n a t i o n a l r o l e s a n d o b j e c t i v e s , t h e u n u s u a l l e v e l o f p u b l i c i n t e r e s t , a n d t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a r e some o f t h e f a c t o r s t h a t make a s t u d y o f t h i s p r o b l e m i m p o r t a n t . The c o n t i n u i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e o f many o f t h e s u b j e c t s d i s c u s s e d , s u c h a s t h e o n - g o i n g c r i s i s i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , t h e p r o b l e m o f u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e p u b l i c i n f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s , make t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n t i m e l y a s w e l l . A f t e r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e m a j o r e l e m e n t s o f C a n a d i a n p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e S a n d i n i s t a g o v e r n m e n t , t h e r e w i l l be a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f C a n a d i a n n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l a c t o r s . The t h i r d s e c t i o n w i l l f o c u s o n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t o r s o n C a n a d i a n p o l i c y . . The l a s t p a r t w i l l a n a l y z e t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f C a n a d i a n r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S a n d i n i s t a s a n d o f f e r a c r i t i q u e o f C a n a d a ' s p o l i c y . - 3 -C h a p t e r 1 - O f f i c i a l R e l a t i o n s a ) B a c k g r o u n d C a n a d i a n i n t e r e s t i n i t s h e m i s p h e r i c n e i g h b o u r s s o u t h o f t h e R i o G r a n d e was a r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t . T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l b r i e f l y o u t l i n e some o f t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s t h a t m a r k e d C a n a d a ' s i n c r e a s i n g i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h N i c a r a g u a , k e e p i n g i n m i n d t h a t , " i t i s m o s t d i f f i c u l t i n t h e C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n c o n t e x t t o t r e a t a n y p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y i n i s o l a t i o n " . (1 ) I t w a s n ' t u n t i l t h e s e c o n d d e c a d e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h a t C a n a d i a n s b e g a n t o e s t a b l i s h l i n k s w i t h N i c a r a g u a . I n 1 9 1 6 , W i n n i p e g b u s i n e s s m e n d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r e s t i n b u i l d i n g a r a i l r o a d t h r o u g h t h e c o u n t r y . N e g o t i a t i o n s p r o d u c e d a c o n t r a c t , b u t t h e n a h o l d was p u t o n t h e p r o j e c t . "The r e a s o n a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n t h a t a U n i t e d S t a t e s c o m p a n y h a d u s e d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e t o g a i n t h e c o n c e s s i o n . " (2) ( N i c a r a g u a was u n d e r U . S . o c c u p a t i o n a t t h e t i m e . ) A s i d e f r o m some m i n o r i n v e s t m e n t , t r a d e , a n d b a n k i n g a c t i v i t i e s , C a n a d a h a d a l m o s t no i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h N i c a r a g u a o v e r t h e n e x t s e v e r a l d e c a d e s . H o w e v e r , a d i s p u t e o v e r N i c a r a g u a i n 1928 e x e m p l i f i e d a t heme t h a t e m e r g e d e a r l y i n t h e c e n t u r y a n d w h i c h h a s p e r s i s t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t : C a n a d a ' s c o n c e r n t o a v o i d t a k i n g p o s i t i o n s v i s - a - v i s L a t i n A m e r i c a w h i c h w o u l d u n d u l y u p s e t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The M e x i c a n d e l e g a t i o n t o t h e S i x t h I n t e r - A m e r i c a n C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e P a n A m e r i c a n U n i o n c o n s i d e r e d p r o p o s i n g C a n a d i a n m e m b e r s h i p i n t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n . B u t P r e s i d e n t C o o l i d g e h a d j u s t o r d e r e d t h e r e - o c c u p a t i o n o f N i c a r a g u a b y U . S . M a r i n e s . H a i t i was a l s o o c c u p i e d , w h i l e M e x i c o , P a n a m a , C o l o m b i a , C u b a , a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c h a d a l l b e e n r e c e n t l y i n v a d e d b y t h e U . S . O t t a w a c o u l d n o t s u p p o r t t h i s i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d f e a r e d t h a t j o i n i n g t h e U n i o n w o u l d r e q u i r e C a n a d a t o v o t e w i t h t h e L a t i n A m e r i c a n s a g a i n s t t h e U . S . r e - o c c u p a t i o n o f N i c a r a g u a , t h e r e b y a n t a g o n i z i n g W a s h i n g t o n . C a n a d a c h o s e t h e s a f e c o u r s e - - a v o i d i n g m e m b e r s h i p a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e n e e d t o t a k e a s t a n d . C a n a d a r e c o g n i z e d t h e r e g i m e o f t h e f i r s t Somoza s o o n a f t e r he s e i z e d p o w e r i n 1 9 3 6 , a n d N i c a r a g u a m a i n t a i n e d a c o n s u l a t e i n M o n t r e a l i n t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 s a n d ' 4 0 s . A t r a d e a g r e e m e n t was s i g n e d b e t w e e n O t t a w a a n d M a n a g u a i n 1 9 4 6 , a n d i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s C a n a d i a n C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s , many f r o m Q u e b e c , became i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d i n N i c a r a g u a a n d o t h e r C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n c o u n t r i e s . (3 ) C a n a d a ' s r e f u s a l t o b r e a k d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h C u b a i n 1959 was t h e f i r s t o f a n u m b e r o f moves w h i c h s i g n a l l e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a somewha t m o r e i n d e p e n d e n t C a n a d i a n p o l i c y f o r t h e r e g i o n , due p a r t l y t o a g r o w i n g C a n a d i a n i n t e r e s t i n L a t i n A m e r i c a . T h i s a c t i o n was f o l l o w e d , i n 1 9 6 0 , b y a d e c i s i o n o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s (DEA) t o e s t a b l i s h a L a t i n A m e r i c a n D i v i s i o n . C a n a d a j o i n e d t h e P a n A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e o f G e o g r a p h y a n d H i s t o r y i n 1960 a n d t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s E c o n o m i c C o m m i s s i o n f o r L a t i n A m e r i c a i n 1 9 6 1 . A d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n , o p e n e d i n S e p t e m b e r o f t h a t y e a r i n C o s t a R i c a , was a l s o a c c r e d i t e d t o N i c a r a g u a , H o n d u r a s , P a n a m a , a n d E l S a l v a d o r . When t h e C a n a d i a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t A g e n c y ( C I D A ) was - 5 -e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 9 6 8 , C e n t r a l A m e r i c a was one a r e a o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n . C I D A ' s m a n d a t e , " t o s u p p o r t t h e e f f o r t s o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n f o s t e r i n g e c o n o m i c g r o w t h a n d s o c i a l p r o g r a m s " , was b a s e d o n s k i l l s a t w h i c h C a n a d i a n s w e r e n o t e d : e d u c a t i o n , a g r i c u l t u r e , f i s h e r i e s , f o r e s t r y , a n d p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . (4 ) 'On 29 May 1 9 6 8 , n e w l y e l e c t e d P r i m e M i n i s t e r , P i e r r e T r u d e a u , a c k n o w l e d g e d t h i s c h a n g e o f d i r e c t i o n f o r C a n a d i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y : "We h a v e t o t a k e g r e a t e r a c c o u n t o f t h e t i e s w h i c h b i n d u s t o o t h e r n a t i o n s i n t h i s h e m i s p h e r e - i n t h e C a r i b b e a n , L a t i n A m e r i c a - a n d o f t h e i r e c o n o m i c n e e d s . We h a v e t o e x p l o r e new a v e n u e s o f i n c r e a s i n g o u r p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h L a t i n A m e r i c a w h e r e m o r e t h a n f o u r h u n d r e d m i l l i o n p e o p l e w i l l l i v e b y t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y a n d w h e r e we h a v e s u b s t a n t i a l i n t e r e s t s . " (5 ) S e v e r a l m o n t h s l a t e r , T r u d e a u d i s p a t c h e d f i v e m i n i s t e r s a n d 30 c i v i l s e r v a n t s o n m o n t h - l o n g t o u r o f n i n e L a t i n A m e r i c a n c o u n t r i e s . I t was t h e l a r g e s t o f f i c i a l d e l e g a t i o n e v e r s e n t t o t h e r e g i o n . T h e s e moves w e r e b a s e d o n t h e new g o v e r n m e n t ' s d e c i s i o n t o b r o a d e n i t s r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s f o r p u r p o s e s o f t r a d e a n d i n v e s t m e n t , a n d i n o r d e r t o d i m i n i s h C a n a d i a n v u l n e r a b i l i t y v i s - a - v i s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n 1 9 6 9 , t h e b i r t h o f s e v e r a l L a t i n - A m e r i c a o r i e n t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n C a n a d a s i g n i f i e d t h e c o n t i n u e d r i s e i n t h i s a r e a ' s i m p o r t a n c e t o C a n a d i a n s . The C a n a d i a n A s s o c i a t i o n o f L a t i n A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s , f o r m e d t o f o s t e r t h e s p r e a d o f i n f o r m a t i o n , p u b l i s h e d " N o r t h - S o u t h : C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f L a t i n A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s " . T h i s y e a r a l s o w i t n e s s e d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f - 6 -t h e O n t a r i o C o o p e r a t i v e P r o g r a m m e i n L a t i n A m e r i c a n a n d C a r i b b e a n S t u d i e s , w h o s e p u r p o s e was t o l i n k s t u d e n t s o f L a t i n A m e r i c a w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e . The C a n a d i a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r L a t i n A m e r i c a ( a n d t h e C a r i b b e a n ) , ( C A L A ) , was c r e a t e d b y 50 c o r p o r a t i o n s i n t h e same y e a r . T h i s i n f l u e n t i a l g r o u p o f b u s i n e s s p e o p l e p r o m o t e d i n v e s t m e n t a n d t r a d e , a n d d e v e l o p e d s t r o n g t i e s w i t h C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s . O t t a w a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y r e v i e w f r o m 1968 t o 1970 p r o d u c e d a m a j o r r e p o r t : " F o r e i g n P o l i c y f o r C a n a d i a n s " . W h i l e L a t i n A m e r i c a r a t e d i t s own d i s c u s s i o n , i t was s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t e v e n a t t h i s l a t e d a t e t h e r e was no s p e c i f i c m e n t i o n o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a ( o r N i c a r a g u a ) i n t h e r e p o r t . The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n r e f l e c t s k e y e l e m e n t s o f C a n a d a ' s p o s t - w a r a p p r o a c h t o f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s : S p e c i a l n o t e i s t a k e n o f L a t i n A m e r i c a , a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t t h i s a r e a i s b e c o m i n g a ' f o r c e i n t h e w o r l d ' . The b a s e s o f C a n a d a ' s i n t e r e s t s a n d r e l a t i o n s w i t h L a t i n A m e r i c a a r e i d e n t i f i e d a s : e c o n o m i c g r o w t h , e n h a n c e m e n t o f t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e , a n d t h e p r o m o t i o n o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e . The o b j e c t i v e o f t h e new p o l i c y i s t o d e v e l o p C a n a d a ' s d i s t i n c t p o s i t i o n i n t h e W e s t e r n H e m i s p h e r e a s a m i d d l e p o w e r w i t h t h e a s p e c t s o f b o t h a d e v e l o p e d a n d a d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y . C l o s e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h L a t i n A m e r i c a w e r e e x p e c t e d t o e n h a n c e C a n a d i a n s o v e r e i g n t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e t h r o u g h t r a d e a n d i n v e s t m e n t , w h i l e ' c l o s e r d i a l o g u e ' a b o u t w o r l d p r o b l e m s w o u l d e n h a n c e C a n a d a ' s c a p a c i t y t o p l a y a n i n d e p e n d e n t r o l e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s . ' " (6 ) C a n a d a ' s a c t i o n s r e f l e c t e d t h i s new a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s L a t i n A m e r i c a , w h i c h i t s e l f was p a r t o f t h e T h i r d O p t i o n , t h e T r u d e a u g o v e r n m e n t ' s p l a n t o d e c r e a s e C a n a d i a n d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e U . S . b y b r o a d e n i n g c o m m e r c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l l i n k s w i t h E u r o p e , J a p a n , a n d T h i r d W o r l d n a t i o n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , C a n a d a j o i n e d b o t h t h e P a n A m e r i c a n H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h e I n t e r - A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e o f - 7 -A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s i n 1 9 7 1 . C a n a d a a s s u m e d " p e r m a n e n t o b s e r v e r " s t a t u s i n t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n S t a t e s (OAS) i n 1 9 7 2 , w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g a p o l i c y o f n o n - m e m b e r s h i p . (7 ) T h i s a p p r o a c h was c o n s i s t e n t w i t h C a n a d a ' s t r a d i t i o n a l r e l u c t a n c e t o become i n v o l v e d i n p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s w h i c h w o u l d f o r c e O t t a w a t o t a k e s i d e s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a g a i n s t L a t i n A m e r i c a o r v i c e v e r s a - e x a c t l y t h e k i n d o f p r o b l e m t h a t C a n a d a w o u l d l a t e r f a c e o v e r N i c a r a g u a . I n t h e same y e a r , C a n a d a j o i n e d t h e I n t e r - A m e r i c a n D e v e l o p m e n t B a n k , t o w h i c h O t t a w a h a d c o n t r i b u t e d , b u t w i t h o u t a v o t e , s i n c e 1 9 6 4 . " B y t h a t t i m e h a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d t h e c r i t e r i a f o r i t s own b i l a t e r a l a i d p r o g r a m m e s , t h e g o v e r n m e n t f e l t i t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y g o a l s w o u l d n o t b e l o s t i n i n c r e a s i n g a i d t h r o u g h a m u l t i l a t e r a l a g e n c y " . (8) C a n a d a ' s i n i t i a l s u b s c r i p t i o n was US $ 2 6 3 . 5 m i l l i o n , w h i c h g r e w b y 1983 t o US $ 9 8 3 . 6 m i l l i o n . (9) O t t a w a r e s p o n d e d t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r b y j o i n i n g t h e I A D B , h o p i n g t o g i v e C a n a d i a n f i r m s s i g n i f i c a n t a d v a n t a g e s i n t r a d e a n d o t h e r c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . ( 1 0 ) The n e x t m a j o r s t e p was T r u d e a u ' s v i s i t s t o C u b a , M e x i c o , a n d V e n e z u e l a i n 1 9 7 6 , ( h i s f i r s t a s P r i m e M i n i s t e r ) , f o l l o w e d b y a m a j o r t r a d e t o u r t o L a t i n A m e r i c a f o r C a n a d i a n b u s i n e s s i n e a r l y 1 9 7 9 , o r g a n i z e d b y I n d u s t r y , T r a d e a n d C o m m e r c e . T h e s e a c t i o n s h e l p e d t o r a i s e C a n a d a ' s p r o f i l e w h i l e e s t a b l i s h i n g i m p o r t a n t l i n e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I n s p i t e o f t h e s e i n c r e a s i n g t i e s t o L a t i n A m e r i c a , N i c a r a g u a r e m a i n e d v i r t u a l l y i g n o r e d , s t i l l s h a r i n g a n a m b a s s a d o r w i t h f o u r o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . A l t h o u g h C a n a d a b e g a n i t s b i l a t e r a l a i d p r o g r a m t o L a t i n A m e r i c a i n 1 9 7 1 , t h e r e was n o a s s i s t a n c e f o r N i c a r a g u a . I n t h e s i x y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e N i c a r a g u a e a r t h q u a k e i n 1 9 7 2 , C a n a d a p r o v i d e d $ 3 . 5 4 m i l l i o n i n a i d t o t h e Somoza r e g i m e . ( 1 1 ) - 8 -T a b l e I . C a n a d i a n A i d t o N i c a r a g u a 1 9 7 3 - 7 8 ($ m i l l i o n s ) I 11 c 1 /. Y7 ,/3 S o u r c e : LAWG R e s o u r c e K i t The R o y a l B a n k h a d l o a n e d t h e Somoza r e g i m e $ 4 2 . 8 m i l l i o n , b u t r e j e c t e d a r e q u e s t f o r a f u r t h e r $20 m i l l i o n a t t h e t i m e o f t h e p o p u l a r u p r i s i n g s i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 8 . ( 1 2 ) ( M o s t o f t h e money w h i c h h a d b e e n l o a n e d t o t h e N i c a r a g u a n s t a t e d e v e l o p m e n t a g e n c y , I N F O N A C , w e n t t o f i r m s c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e Somoza f a m i l y . ) T h i s b r i e f o v e r v i e w d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e t w o m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f C a n a d i a n p o l i c y t o w a r d s p r e - S a n d i n i s t a N i c a r a g u a . F i r s t , t h e r e r e a l l y was no p o l i c y , i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g d e t a i l e d o r w e l l t h o u g h t - o u t . W h i l e n o t c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r e d , N i c a r a g u a ' s p r o f i l e i n O t t a w a was s o l o w a s t o be b a r e l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h o s e o f d o z e n s o f o t h e r s m a l l T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s . N i c a r a g u a was n o t a s t o p f o r t h e m a j o r o f f i c i a l C a n a d i a n t o u r s . The l a c k o f s u b s t a n t i a l e c o n o m i c o r o t h e r t i e s l a r g e l y a c c o u n t e d f o r C a n a d a ' s l a c k o f i n t e r e s t . The R o y a l was t h e o n l y C a n a d i a n b a n k i n v o l v e d w i t h N i c a r a g u a a n d N o r a n d a owned a g o l d m i n e , b u t n e i t h e r i n t e r e s t was s u b s t a n t i a l . A s T a b l e I I . i n d i c a t e s , t r a d e r e l a t i o n s r e m a i n e d m i n i m a l . ( 1 3 ) - 9 -T a b l e I I . C a n a d i a n - N i c a r a g u a n T r a d e 1 9 7 5 - 7 9 ($ m i l l i o n s ) /1?S EXPORTS ¥-0 v . ? / M P O R T S . (from Nicaragua) I 3 . 0 / 3 . 0 S o u r c e : M u r r a y , 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 A s e c o n d r e a s o n f o r t h i s l a c k o f i n t e r e s t was t h e v i e w t h a t N i c a r a g u a , l i k e a l l t h e n a t i o n s o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , was c o n s i d e r e d t o be i n a s u p e r p o w e r ' s s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e . " A r e v i e w o f C a n a d i a n - L a t i n A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s , 1 8 6 6 - 1 9 6 8 , r e v e a l s t h a t . . . B r i t i s h a n d U . S . i n f l u e n c e s h a v e a l s o d e t e r m i n e d t h e e x t e n t o f C a n a d a ' s t i e s w i t h t h e r e g i o n . " ( 1 4 ) B o t h o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s h a d s i g n i f i c a n t e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t i n L a t i n A m e r i c a i n t h i s p e r i o d . U . S . a n d B r i t i s h i n t e r f e r e n c e i n N i c a r a g u a b e g a n a s a r i v a l r y o v e r r a i l r o a d s , b a n k l o a n s , a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a n i n t e r o c e a n c a n a l . B y t h e s t a r t o f t h e T r u d e a u e r a , a n u p s w i n g i n C a n a d i a n i n v o l v e m e n t i n L a t i n A m e r i c a was d i s c e r n a b l e . The r e a s o n s h a d o n l y a l i t t l e t o d o w i t h C a n a d i a n t r a d e a n d b u s i n e s s t i e s . W h i l e c o m m e r c i a l t i e s d i d g r o w s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n a b s o l u t e t e r m s , a s a p e r c e n t a g e o f t o t a l C a n a d i a n e x p o r t s , L a t i n A m e r i c a ' s s h a r e i n c r e a s e d o n l y m a r g i n a l l y , f r o m 5.0% i n 1965 a n d 5.2% i n 1 9 8 0 . A s a p e r c e n t a g e , i m p o r t s f r o m t h a t r e g i o n a c t u a l l y d r o p p e d s l i g h t l y o v e r t h i s p e r i o d , f r o m 6.3% t o 5 . 9 % . The same m e a s u r e s f o r C e n t r a l A m e r i c a show s u b s t a n t i a l d r o p s i n t r a d e . ( 1 5 ) - 1 0 -T a b l e I I I . C a n a d i a n - C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n T r a d e / 4 6 5 mo MIS 33 2.3 2. / 2.1 i . r /.2 S o u r c e : M u r r a y , 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 H o w e v e r , b y t h e l a t e 1 9 7 0 s a n o t h e r f a c t o r b e g a n t o demand m o r e o f O t t a w a ' s a t t e n t i o n : t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s i g n i f i c a n t t h r e a t s t o t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e c o u n t r i e s o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . C a n a d a h a d b o t h p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s t o be c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t u r m o i l i n t h e r e g i o n . T o t a l C a n a d i a n i n v e s t m e n t t o p p e d $300 m i l l i o n , a n d t r a d e " g r e w n e a r l y 200% b e t w e e n 1975 a n d 1 9 7 9 . I n 1980 i t s h o t u p b y an a d d i t i o n a l 34%" . ( 1 6 ) The C a n a d i a n A m b a s s a d o r ' s p o s t i n S a n J o s e , w h i c h h a d b e e n v a c a n t f o r a l m o s t a y e a r , was f i l l e d i n 1979 b y D o u g l a s S i r r s . H i s b a c k g r o u n d was c o m m e r c i a l r a t h e r t h a n d i p l o m a t i c , a n d o n e r e p o r t c l a i m e d t h a t S i r r s ' " t h i n k i n g r u n s more t o w a r d s d o l l a r s a n d c e n t s t h a n human r i g h t s " . S i r r s h i m s e l f s t r e s s e d t h a t " t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s a r e a i n e c o n o m i c t e r m s " f o r C a n a d a was " a v e r y d e f i n i t e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r u s t o become i n v o l v e d i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e w o r l d , w h e r e t h e r e i s a n e e d f o r t h e t e c h n o l o g y , s k i l l s , a n d e x p e r t i s e w e ' v e d e v e l o p e d a n d w h i c h l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e k i n d o f d e v e l o p m e n t r e q u i r e d h e r e . " S i r r s a d d e d t h a t C a n a d a d i d n ' t " g e t t o o i n v o l v e d " w i t h t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e r e g i o n b e c a u s e O t t a w a d i d n o t w a n t t o " i n t r u d e " . ( 1 7 ) The o v e r t h r o w o f t h e U . S . - b a c k e d N i c a r a g u a n d i c t a t o r A n a s t a c i o S o m o z a , " t h e l a s t M a r i n e " , u n d e r l i n e d t h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h e u n r e s t - 1 1 -t h a t was g r o w i n g i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . A s t h e c a s u a l t y t o l l r o s e i n N i c a r a g u a ' s c i v i l w a r , t h e p r i m a r y r e s p o n s e o f t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t was t h r o u g h C I D A , w h i c h p r o v i d e d $ 4 3 4 , 5 1 4 i n h u m a n i t a r i a n a s s i s t a n c e . " A $ 1 . 8 m i l l i o n p e t i t i o n f r o m t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o f t h e R e d C r o s s was met w i t h a $ 1 8 0 , 0 0 0 g r a n t f r o m C I D A . . . " ( 1 8 ) M e a n w h i l e , E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s s u p p o r t e d t h e p r o p o s a l s made b y U . S . S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e V a n c e t o t h e OAS o n J u n e 21 f o r a " p e a c e - k e e p i n g f o r c e " , u n d e r U . S . c o n t r o l , t o be d i s p a t c h e d t o N i c a r a g u a . H o w e v e r , no o t h e r OAS member b a c k e d t h e p l a n , w h i c h t h e y p e r c e i v e d t o be a t h i n l y d i s g u i s e d f o r m o f U . S . i n t e r v e n t i o n t o p r e v e n t a S a n d i n i s t a v i c t o r y . W a s h i n g t o n h o p e d t o e n s u r e a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e o l d " S o m o c i s t a " s y s t e m , w i t h o u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e d i c t a t o r h i m s e l f . O t t a w a c o n t i n u e d t o r e c o g n i z e t h e Somoza r e g i m e w h i l e i s s u i n g s t a t e m e n t s d e p l o r i n g t h e v i o l e n c e a n d b l o o d s h e d . " I n a J u n e 2 2 n d m e e t i n g w i t h M r . P a s t o r V a l l e - G a r a y , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e N i c a r a g u a n P r o v i s i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t , E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s s a i d t h e r e was p r e c e d e n t n e i t h e r f o r w i t h d r a w i n g r e c o g n i t i o n f r o m a g o v e r n m e n t l i k e S o m o z a ' s n o r f o r r e c o g n i z i n g a p r o v i s i o n a l o n e l i k e t h e N i c a r a g u a n g o v e r n m e n t - i n - e x i l e . " ( 1 9 ) M o r e o v e r , t h e C l a r k g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t o p p o s e a $66 m i l l i o n l o a n f r o m t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l M o n e t a r y F u n d t o Somoza a s l a t e a s J u n e , 1 9 7 9 , o n l y one m o n t h b e f o r e t h e d i c t a t o r f l e d t o M i a m i . Many N i c a r a g u a n s w a r n e d t h a t t h e money w o u l d e n d up i n S o m o z a ' s p o c k e t s . (When he f l e d , Somoza l e f t o n l y $ 3 . 5 m i l l i o n i n t h e T r e a s u r y a n d a f o r e i g n d e b t o f $ 1 . 6 b i l l i o n . ) I n J u l y , F l o r a M a c D o n a l d , S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s , s a i d t h a t h e r " g o v e r n m e n t h a s v i e w e d w i t h g r o w i n g c o n c e r n t h e g r o w t h a n d p e r s i s t a n t v i o l a t i o n o f human r i g h t s b y t h e N i c a r a g u a n a u t h o r i t i e s " a n d s t a t e d t h a t C a n a d a h a d - 1 2 -e x p r e s s e d t h i s p o s i t i o n a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s a n d t h e O A S , b u t t h e r e was no r e f e r e n c e t o s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r N i c a r a g u a o r t o p o s t - w a r a i d . N e i t h e r d i d M a c D o n a l d c r i t i c i z e W a s h i n g t o n ' s p o l i t i c a l m a n o u v e r s . C a n a d a w i t h h e l d r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p r o v i s i o n a l S a n d i n i s t a g o v e r n m e n t u n t i l J u l y 2 4 , a f t e r W a s h i n g t o n e s t a b l i s h e d r e l a t i o n s , a n d a f u l l week a f t e r Somoza h a d e s c a p e d t o M i a m i . ( 2 0 ) - 1 3 -b) P o l i t i c a l R e l a t i o n s The d e f e a t o f t h e s h o r t - l i v e d C l a r k g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e r e t u r n o f P i e r r e T r u d e a u d i d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y r e s u l t i n a c h a n g e o f p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . A s s i s t a n c e f o r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n r e m a i n e d m i n i m a l . A t t h e p o l i t i c a l l e v e l , A m b a s s a d o r S i r r s , f o r e x a m p l e , d e p l o r e d t h e p o w e r o f t h e " M a r x i s t " S a n d i n i s t a s a n d e x p r e s s e d s u p p o r t f o r " m o d e r a t e e l e m e n t s " . (He a l s o s t a t e d t h a t t h e j u n t a i n E l S a l v a d o r was " s e e k i n g a d e m o c r a t i c s o l u t i o n " i n t h a t c o u n t r y a n d r e p r e s e n t e d " t h e o n l y v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e " . ) ( 2 1 ) S t i l l , many members o f t h e L i b e r a l g o v e r n m e n t , i n c l u d i n g t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r , w e r e i n c l i n e d t o v i e w t h e N i c a r a g u a n r e v o l u t i o n a s a p r o d u c t o f i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s s u c h a s p o v e r t y a n d o p p r e s s i o n , r a t h e r t h a n a s p a r t o f " c o m m u n i s t c o n s p i r a c y " o r c h e s t r a t e d b y t h e U . S . S . R . a n d C u b a . C a n a d a ' s a t t i t u d e c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f m o s t L a t i n A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t s . F o r i n s t a n c e , when M e x i c a n P r e s i d e n t L o p e z P o r t i l l o v i s i t e d O t t a w a i n May 1 9 8 0 , he a n d P r i m e M i n i s t e r T r u d e a u i s s u e d a j o i n t c o m m u n i q u e w h i c h n o t e d " w i t h c o n c e r n t h e i n c r e a s i n g s o c i o - e c o n o m i c i n s t a b i l i t y " i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , a n d e x p r e s s e d t h e h o p e t h a t t h e s e p r o b l e m s w o u l d b e o v e r c o m e " t h r o u g h t h e f r e e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e w i l l o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e p e o p l e s a n d w i t h o u t f o r e i g n i n t e r f e r e n c e . " ( 2 2 ) A l t h o u g h t h i s s t a t e m e n t was a m b i g u o u s , i t d i d s i g n i f y C a n a d a ' s g r o w i n g c o n c e r n o v e r d e v e l o p m e n t s i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n i s m a n d e s c a l a t i n g v i o l e n c e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e n U n d e r - S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s A l l a n G o t t l i e b , 1980 was " t h e moment o f m a j o r - 1 4 -c h a n g e . . . i n C a n a d i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y (when) we i d e n t i f i e d t h e C a r i b b e a n r e g i o n , i n c l u d i n g C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , a s a k e y a r e a o f i n t e r e s t f o r C a n a d a . " ( 2 3 ) The i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e R e a g a n r e g i m e i n 1981 b r o u g h t t o p o w e r a g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h was d e t e r m i n e d t o f i g h t a "new c o l d w a r " a n d w h i c h , a s p a r t o f i t s s t r a t e g y , d e c i d e d t o " p r e v e n t c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f a S a n d i n i s t a r e g i m e " b y c u t t i n g o f f e c o n o m i c a i d a n d b y e n d o r s i n g a' " c o v e r t " C I A p l a n t o d e s t a b i l i z e N i c a r a g u a . ( 2 4 ) C a n a d a d i d n o t s h a r e t h e e n t h u s i a s m f o r s u c h a n i d e o l o g i c a l c r u s a d e . I n a n i n t e r v i e w p u b l i s h e d i n J a n u a r y , 1 9 8 1 , E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s M i n i s t e r M a r k M a c G u i g a n s eemed t o t r y t o d i s t a n c e h i s g o v e r n m e n t somewha t f r o m U . S . p o l i c y i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . T h e M i n i s t e r commen ted t h a t " [ t ] h e d a n g e r i s t h a t a n A m e r i c a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n m i g h t , a s some h a v e i n t h e p a s t , t e n d t o s e e t h e N o r t h - S o u t h r e l a t i o n s h i p o n t h e same E a s t - W e s t l i n e s , a n d t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y h a d t o be h a w k i s h t o w a r d s c o u n t r i e s i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d t h a t a r e n o t d i r e c t e d b y M o s c o w . " (25 ) B u t M a c G u i g a n l a t e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t C a n a d a w o u l d a c q u i e s c e i n W a s h i n g t o n ' s p l a n s w h e n , i n M a r c h , he t o l d P a r l i a m e n t : " I am n o t a w a r e t h a t we h a v e a n y s e r i o u s o b l i g a t i o n i n t h a t p a r t o f t h e w o r l d , i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , w h i c h i s n o t a n a r e a o f t r a d i t i o n a l C a n a d i a n i n t e r e s t . " ( 2 6 ) When R e a g a n v i s i t e d O t t a w a o n M a r c h 1 0 , M a c G u i g a n saw a c o n v e r g e n c e o f C a n a d i a n a n d U . S . a p p r o a c h e s t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a : " T h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p o s i t i o n s o f o u r t w o g o v e r n m e n t s , a n d i n d e e d , t h e r e was no e m p h a s i s i n A m e r i c a n t h o u g h t a n d p l a n n i n g o n a m i l i t a r y s o l u t i o n . " ( 2 7 ) T h i s f o r m u l a t i o n , w i t h t h e i m p l i e d h o p e ( o r n a i v e b e l i e f ) t h a t t h e - 1 5 -U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d n o t p u r s u e " a m i l i t a r y s o l u t i o n " i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , e x e m p l i f i e s t h e d i f f i c u l t t a s k f a c i n g t h e T r u d e a u g o v e r n m e n t . I t f e a r e d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f W a s h i n g t o n ' s b e l l i g e r e n c e t o w a r d s t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , b u t i t was w a r y o f a n g e r i n g t h e new R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . C a n a d a ' s n e x t m a j o r i n o l v e m e n t i n t h e r e g i o n came i n J u l y w h e n , a l o n g w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , M e x i c o , a n d V e n e z u e l a , i t h e l p e d o r g a n i z e t h e N a s s a u G r o u p , ( a f o r e r u n n e r o f t h e C a r i b b e a n B a s i n I n i t i a t i v e ) . The a v o w e d i n t e n t i o n was t o i n c r e a s e a i d a n d s t a b i l i t y i n t h a t r e g i o n , b u t s k e p t i c s w e r e s u s p i c i o u s o f W a s h i n g t o n ' s m o t i v e s . I n t e s t i m o n y t o a P a r l i a m e n t a r y S u b - c o m m i t t e e , C o n s e r v a t i v e MP D o u g l a s R o c h e s p e c u l a t e d t h a t " t h e n e t e f f e c t o f t h i s j o i n t e f f o r t . . . w i l l h a v e b e e n f o r C a n a d a t o h a v e b e e n u s e d i n t h r o w i n g a c l o a k o f r e s p e c t a b i l i t y o v e r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e U . S . p o l i c y o f m i l i t a r y a i d " t o t h e r e g i o n . ( 2 8 ) B u t a s t h e y e a r w e n t o n , d i f f e r e n c e s b e g a n t o e m e r g e b e t w e e n C a n a d a ' s v i e w o f N i c a r a g u a a n d t h a t o f t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h i s c h a n g e was due p r i m a r i l y t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y m i l i t a r i s t i c a p p r o a c h t a k e n b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e C I A ' s c r e a t i o n o f t h e a n t i - S a n d i n i s t a " C o n t r a s " , who w e r e a t t a c k i n g N i c a r a g u a f r o m s a n c t u a r i e s i n H o n d u r a s a n d C o s t a R i c a . T h i s d i v e r g e n c e w i t h t h e U . S . s e t t h e t o n e f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s t h a t s u b s e q u e n t l y e v o l v e d . W h i l e C a n a d a was h o p i n g t h a t a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e S a n d i n i s t a s w o u l d h e l p t o " m o d e r a t e " t h e i r p o l i c i e s , W a s h i n g t o n was r e l y i n g o n v a r i o u s t y p e s o f e c o n o m i c a n d m i l i t a r y c o e r c i o n . S u c h t a c t i c s w e n t a g a i n s t C a n a d a ' s t r a d i t i o n a l p r e f e r e n c e f o r - 1 6 -d i p l o m a t i c s o l u t i o n s a n d c o m p r o m i s e s . I n t h i s v e i n , M a c G u i g a n t o l d t h e H o u s e o n D e c e m b e r 2 t h a t , d e s p i t e some "human r i g h t s " c o n c e r n s , C a n a d a s h o u l d c o n t i n u e t o p r o v i d e a i d t o N i c a r a g u a . S p e a k i n g t o t h e E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s C o m m i t t e e , M a c G u i g a n c i t e d t h e a l l e g e d c l o s u r e o f a n e w s p a p e r , d i s r u p t i o n o f o p p o s i t i o n p a r t y r a l l i e s , a n d a r r e s t s o f p r o m i n e n t b u s i n e s s m e n a s t h e c a u s e s o f w o r r y . B u t t h e m i n i s t e r s a i d t h a t he f e a r e d a n a i d c u t - o f f m i g h t p u s h N i c a r a g u a " i n a d i r e c t i o n we w o u l d n o t w a n t t o s e e i t g o . " ( 2 9 ) P a r l i a m e n t was a l s o g r o w i n g c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e way i n w h i c h t h e t r o u b l e s i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a w e r e m u l t i p l y i n g . A n a l l - p a r t y d e l e g a t i o n o f M P s , i n c l u d i n g B o b O g l e ( N D P ) , M a u r i c e D u p r a s ( L ) , a n d F l o r a M a c D o n a l d ( P C ) , made a f a c t - f i n d i n g t o u r i n l a t e J a n u a r y 1982 t h a t i n c l u d e d C o s t a R i c a , N i c a r a g u a a n d E l S a l v a d o r . T h e y met w i t h g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s , c h u r c h l e a d e r s , a n d b u s i n e s s m e n , a n d , t h o u g h t h e v i s i t " d i d n o t m o d i f y t h e i r v i e w s v e r y m u c h . . . m a n y o f t h e members w e r e d i s e n c h a n t e d . . . w i t h t h e b r i e f i n g o n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a f r o m C a n a d a ' s a m b a s s a d o r i n C o s t a R i c a , who c o v e r s t h e s i x c o u n t r i e s . T h e y f e l t O t t a w a m u s t be g e t t i n g a v e r y o n e - s i d e d v i e w o f t h e c h a n g e s g o i n g on t h e r e i f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n t h e y r e c e i v e d o n t h e S o v i e t - C u b a n ' m a s t e r p l a n ' f o r N i c a r a g u a , E l S a l v a d o r , a n d G u a t e m a l a was a n e x a m p l e o f h i s r e p o r t i n g " . ( 3 0 ) C a n a d a ' s u n e a s i n e s s w i t h R e a g a n ' s h a w k i s h a p p r o a c h c o n t i n u e d t o m o u n t , a s o u t l i n e d i n a s p e e c h M a c G u i g a n d e l i v e r e d t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o Law F a c u l t y i n M a r c h , 1 9 8 2 : " I d o n ' t b e l i e v e t h a t when a c o u n t r y c h o o s e s a s o c i a l i s t o r e v e n a M a r x i s t p a t h i t n e c e s s a r i l y b u y s a ' p a c k a g e ' w h i c h a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n j e c t s i t i n t o t h e - / 7 -S o v i e t o r b i t . T h i s . . . i s w h e r e o u r v i e w s a n d t h o s e o f t h e USA may d i v e r g e . T h e i n t e r n a l s y s t e m s a d o p t e d b y t h e c o u n t r i e s o f L a t i n A m e r i c a a n d t h e C a r i b b e a n , w h a t e v e r t h e s e s y s t e m s may b e , do n o t i n t h e m s e l v e s p o s e a s e c u r i t y t h r e a t t o t h i s h e m i s p h e r e . " ( 3 1 ) T h i s was t h e c l e a r e s t p r e s e n t a t i o n y e t o f how d i f f e r e n t l y t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s v i e w e d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c h a n g e i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . C a n a d a ' s e s t r a n g e m e n t f r o m U . S . p o l i c i e s i n c r e a s e d when A l l a n M a c E a c h e n , t h e D e p u t y P r i m e M i n i s t e r , r e p l a c e d M a c G u i g a n a s S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s i n O c t o b e r 1 9 8 2 . W i t h t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f M a c E a c h a n , C a n a d i a n p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e S a n d i n i s t a c h a n g e d " s l i g h t l y " . ( 3 2 ) M a c E a c h e n , a l t h o u g h w a r y o f S a n d i n i s t a " M a r x i s m " , u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e w a r a g a i n s t t h e C I A - s u p p o r t e d C o n t r a s n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f a " S t a t e o f E m e r g e n c y " . He was i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s t h a t t h e S a n d i n i s t a j u n t a h a d made i n h e a l t h a n d e d u c a t i o n , a n d e s p e c i a l l y h e a r t e n e d b y t h e d e c i s i o n t o h o l d n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n s i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 4 . M a c E a c h e n a l s o a p p r o v e d t h e i d e a o f s e n d i n g o b s e r v e r s t o m o n i t o r t h e v o t i n g . H i s h a n d was s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e f i n a l r e p o r t o f t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y S u b - c o m m i t t e e o n C a n a d a ' s R e l a t i o n s w i t h L a t i n A m e r i c a a n d t h e C a r i b b e a n , w h i c h h a d b e g u n i t s w o r k i n May 1 9 8 1 . The c r e a t i o n o f t h e S u b - c o m m i t t e e was a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e new i m p o r t a n c e o f L a t i n A m e r i c a t o t h e p u b l i c , t o b u s i n e s s , a n d t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t . The f i r s t s u c h g r o u p i n C a n a d i a n h i s t o r y , i t was c o m p o s e d o f e i g h t L i b e r a l s , f i v e C o n s e r v a t i v e s , a n d t w o New D e m o c r a t s . T h e i r r e p o r t , i s s u e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 2 , u r g e d f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e s i n C a n a d i a n p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h a t p a r t o f t h e w o r l d . The s t u d y r e c o m m e n d e d , i n t e r a l i a : * A h e m i s p h e r i c c o n f e r e n c e o n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a a n d t h e C a r i b b e a n t o p r o t e c t t h e a r e a f r o m s u p e r p o w e r i n t e r v e n t i o n ; * U s i n g a i d s e l e c t i v e l y t o p r o m o t e human r i g h t s ; * T h a t C e n t r a l A m e r i c a a n d t h e C a r i b b e a n be made r e g i o n s o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n C a n a d a ' s f o r e i g n p o i c y ; * T h a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s s h o u l d b a s e t h e i r a i d p r o j e c t s o n d e v e l o p m e n t a l r a t h e r t h a n i d e o l o g i c a l g r o u n d s ; * T h a t a t l e a s t o n e m o r e C a n a d i a n e m b a s s y s h o u l d be o p e n e d i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a ; * T h a t t h e u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r a l c a u s e s f o r t h e r e g i o n ' s p r o b l e m s b e g i v e n g r e a t e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n s e e k i n g t o p r o m o t e s t a b i l i t y ; * T h a t n e g o t i a t i o n s b e t w e e n c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e U . S . , C u b a , a n d o t h e r s , b e a c t i v e l y e n c o u r a g e d i n o r d e r t o r e s o l v e c o n f l i c t s ; * T h a t human r i g h t s , d e f i n e d a s " b o t h t h e r i g h t t o a d e c e n t m a t e r i a l e x i s t e n c e , s u c h a s a c c e s s t o f o o d , s h e l t e r , e m p l o y m e n t , a n d h e a l t h c a r e , a n d c i v i l a n d p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s " , become " o n e o f t h e e s s e n t i a l p u r p o s e s a n d g u i d i n g l i g h t s " o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y ; a n d * T h a t C a n a d a j o i n t h e O A S . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e S u b - c o m m i t t e e d e s c r i b e d " t h e p r o m o t i o n o f s t a b i l i t y " a s " t h e c e n t r a l , m e d i u m - t e r m o b j e c t i v e o f C a n a d i a n p o l i c y " . ( 3 3 ) M e a n w h i l e , t h e T r u d e a u g o v e r n m e n t t r i e d t o c a r r y o n a b a l a n c i n g a c t b e t w e e n w h a t i t saw a s u n w a r r e n t e d i n t e r f e r e n c e b y W a s h i n g t o n i n t h e s o v e r e i g n a f f a i r s o f a n o t h e r c o u n t r y a n d i t s f e a r o f a n t a g o n i z i n g t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n D e c e m b e r M a c E a c h e n p u b l i c l y o p p o s e d U . S . p l a n s t o o v e r t h r o w t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , w h i l e s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t i n g ^ M e x i c a n - V e n e z u e l a n i n i t i a t i v e f o r t a l k s b e t w e e n W a s h i n g t o n , T e g u c i g a l p a , a n d M a n a g u a . S p e a k i n g f o r M a c E a c h e n , DEA o f f i c i a l C h a r l e s L a P o i n t e t o l d t h e H o u s e t h a t C a n a d a "made r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o t h e A m e r i c a n s t o e x p r e s s o u r c o n c e r n a n d c o n s t e r n a t i o n v i s - a - v i s d e s t a b i l i z i n g i n t e r f e r e n c e b y f o r e i g n p o w e r s i n N i c a r a g u a ' s d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s . " ( 3 4 ) S e v e r a l m o n t h s l a t e r T r u d e a u e c h o e d t h a t p o s i t i o n when he s a i d t h a t C a n a d i a n s " o b j e c t t o t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s b y a n y m a j o r p o w e r , e v e n i f t h a t p o w e r i s o u r f r i e n d " . ( 3 5 ) I t was t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s s t r o n g e s t s t a t e m e n t t o d a t e . B u t r h e t o r i c was a s f a r a s T r u d e a u was p r e p a r e d t o go i n o p p o s i n g t h e U . S . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , O t t a w a was s t i l l w o r r i e d b y i t s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e o f d o m e s t i c e v o l u t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a . When N i c a r a g u a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r M i g u e l d ' E s c o t o p a i d a v i s i t t o Ijttawa F e b r u a r y 1 4 - 1 6 , 1 9 8 3 , M a c E a c h e n r e m a r k e d d u r i n g one m e e t i n g t h a t "many C a n a d i a n s " a r e c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e S a n d i n i s t a g o v e r n m e n t was a b a n d o n i n g " n o b l e d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s " i n f a v o r o f " r e p r e s s i v e M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m " . ( 3 6 ) A s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f s o l i d a r i t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e v i s - a - v i s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e C o n t a d o r a g r o u p i n J a n u a r y was a r e m a r k a b l e e v e n t i n L a t i n A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y , a n d o n e w h i c h p r o v i d e d C a n a d a w i t h a c h a n c e t o p r e s s i t s c o n c e r n s t h r o u g h a m u l t i l a t e r a l f o r u m . The C o n t a d o r a c o u n t r i e s , M e x i c o , V e n e z u e l a , P a n a m a , a n d C o l o m b i a , w e r e h o p i n g t o f i n d a - 2 0 -d i p l o m a t i c s o l u t i o n t o f o r e i g n i n t e r v e n t i o n i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a w h i l e d e m i l i t a r i z i n g t h e r e g i o n . A l t h o u g h T r u d e a u h a d s e n t p e r s o n a l l e t t e r s o f e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t h e p r e s i d e n t s o f M e x i c o a n d V e n e z u e l a when t h e y s u g g e s t e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e g r o u p , O t t a w a , a g a i n , t o o k a c a u t i o u s a p p r o a c h : I n t h e Commmons, T r u d e a u s t a t e d t h a t C o n t a d o r a ' s g o a l o f e n d i n g o u t s i d e i n t e r f e r e n c e i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a i s s h a r e d b y C a n a d a a n d t h e U . S . " a n d c e r t a i n l y we a r e p r e p a r e d t o a s s i s t t h e m i n t h e o b t a i n i n g o f t h a t o b j e c t i v e " . He d i d n o t e l a b o r a t e . A s e n i o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s o f f i c i a l s a i d . . . C a n a d a w o u l d b e r e a d y t o t a k e p a r t i n p e a c e i n i t i a t i v e s i n E l S a l v a d o r a n d N i c a r a g u a b u t o n l y a t t h e i n v i t a t i o n o f t h o s e c o u n t r i e s . T r u d e a u h a s come u n d e r f i r e f o r h i s s t a t e m e n t s o n U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a f o l l o w i n g a m e e t i n g w i t h U . S . P r e s i d e n t R o n a l d R e a g a n l a s t w e e k . U . S . a n d C a n a d i a n o f f i c i a l s r e p o r t e d a f t e r t h e m e e t i n g t h a t t h e p r i m e m i n i s t e r s p e c i f i e d t h a t a n y n a t i o n h a s a r i g h t t o c h o o s e i t s own p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , " b u t when t h a t s o c i e t y e x p o r t s t r o u b l e , t h a t i s a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . " ( 3 7 ) I n M a y , f o u r m o n t h s a f t e r i t s i n c e p t i o n , M a c E a c h e n a n n o u n c e d C a n a d a ' s f u l l s u p p o r t f o r t h e C o n t a d o r a p r o c e s s . ( 3 8 ) The g r o w i n g d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n C a n a d i a n a n d U . S . p o l i c i e s was e v i d e n t w h e n , i n l a t e J u l y , M a c E a c h e n r e f e r r e d t o a s i x - p o i n t N i c a r a g u a n p e a c e p r o p o s a l a s , " a n e n c o u r a g i n g a n d p o s i t i v e s t e p . " ( 3 9 ) B u t O t t a w a s a i d n o t h i n g when t h e U . S . s u m m a r i l y r e j e c t e d t h e i n i t i a t i v e . F u r t h e r d i s a g r e e m e n t s s u r f a c e d when t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n c r e a s e d i t s e f f o r t s t o p o l i t i c i z e I n t e r n a t i o n a l F i n a n c i a l I n s t i t u t i o n s ( I F I s ) : t h e W o r l d B a n k G r o u p , t h e I M F , a n d t h e I n t e r - A m e r i c a n D e v e l o p m e n t B a n k ( I A D B ) . N i c a r a g u a was a s p e c i a l t a r g e t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The c o n s e n s u s a t t h e I F I s was t o o p p o s e moves b y W a s h i n g t o n t o o b s t r u c t " h a r d " l o a n s t o M a n a g u a . (The U . S . h a d v e t o p o w e r o v e r " s o f t " l o a n s , i . e . l o n g - t e r m , l o w - i n t e r e s t l o a n s ) . - 2 1 -" D e c i s i o n s t a k e n b y t h e b o a r d o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y b a s e d o n c o n s e n s u s . C a n a d a h a s a l w a y s j o i n e d t h a t c o n s e n s u s w i t h r e s p e c t t o l o a n s t o N i c a r a g u a . " ( 4 0 ) W h i l e a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n O c t o b e r , T r u d e a u met w i t h Commandan te O r t e g a w h i l e b o t h w e r e a t t h e U N , b u t n o t h i n g a p p a r e n t l y came o f t h i s e n c o u n t e r . A m i n o r r o w e r u p t e d i n t h e Commons a f t e r a n o f f i c i a l w i t h C a n a d a ' s e m b a s s y i n C o s t a R i c a r e v e a l e d o n N o v e m b e r 14 t h a t C a n a d a p l a n n e d t o a s k t h e U . S . t o e v a c u a t e C a n a d i a n n a t i o n a l s f r o m N i c a r a g u a i n t h e e v e n t o f w a r o r i n v a s i o n . C a n a d i a n s i n N i c a r a g u a o b j e c t e d s t r o n g l y t o a n y scheme " t o be s a v e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t t h a t h a s p u t o u r l i v e s , a n d t h o s e o f N i c a r a g u a n s , i n d a n g e r . " ( 4 1 ) A s W a s h i n g t o n ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n i n c r e a s e d , O t t a w a was b e c o m i n g m o r e c o n c e r n e d a n d m o r e w i l l i n g t o d i s a g r e e o p e n l y w i t h R e a g a n ' s a n t i - S a n d i n i s t a c r u s a d e . I n t h e H o u s e o n D e c e m b e r 2 0 , M a c E a c h e n a g a i n e m p h a s i z e d t h a t , " C a n a d a h a s o p p o s e d t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . We h a v e e x p r e s s e d t h o s e v i e w s t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o n a n u m b e r o f o c c a s i o n s . " The m i n i s t e r a d d e d t h a t he h a d r e a c h e d no c o n c l u s i o n r e g a r d i n g h a l t i n g a i d t o H o n d u r a s b e c a u s e o f t h a t c o u n t r y ' s s u p p o r t f o r t h e C o n t r a s . ( 4 2 ) The v i s i t o f C o l o m b i a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r R o d r i g o L l o r e d a i n F e b r u a r y 1984 was t h e o c c a s i o n f o r M a c E a c h e n t o o u t l i n e t h e m a j o r e l e m e n t s o f C a n a d a ' s c h a n g i n g p o s i t i o n . He e m p h a s i z e d t h e n e e d f o r e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a i n o r d e r t o o v e r c o m e s o c i a l i n e q u i t i e s . T h e M i n i s t e r r e i t e r a t e d O t t a w a ' s s u p p o r t f o r t h e C o n t a d o r a p r o c e s s , i n d i c a t e d t h a t - 2 2 -Canada would seek o b s e r v e r s t a t u s w i t h i t s commissions, and r e s t a t e d h i s o p p o s t i t i o n t o t h i r d p a r t y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . The S e c r e t a r y t h e n a t t a c k e d some elements o f t h e r e c e n t l y - r e l e a s e d K i s s i n g e r R e p o r t because " m i l i t a r y a i d i s a major c o m p o n e n t . . . M i l i t a r i z a t i o n engenders p o l i t i c a l p o l a r i z a t i o n . . . w e a k e n i n g t h o s e moderate p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s w h i c h . . . a r e i n d i s p e n s a b l e i f n a t i o n a l r e c o n c i l i a t i o n i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s i s t o be a c h i e v e d . " He a d m i t t e d t h a t " [ t ] h e r e i s a g rowing Canadian p u b l i c i n t e r e s t i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . There i s e v e r y r e a s o n f o r Canadians t o be i n t e r e s t e d and c o n c e rned. Geography a l o n e i s a r e a s o n . I t i s t h e c l o s e s t a r e a t o us of  i n s t a b i l i t y and East/West c o n f r o n t a t i o n . . . We oppose c o n t i n u e d m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t f o r a n t i - S a n d i n i s t a i n s u r g e n t s . . . " (My emphasis) ( 4 3 ) T h i s was t h e M i n i s t e r ' s s t o n g e s t statement t o d a t e on t h e u n r e s t i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , and i n d i c a t i v e o f a g rowing f e a r about th e p o t e n t i a l dangers of Washington's e s c a l a t i o n o f h o s t i l i t i e s . F o r h i s p a r t , L l o r e d a welcomed i n c r e a s e d Canadian i n t e r e s t i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , s a y i n g t h a t t h e OAS was e f f e c t i v e l y p a r a l y z e d . S t a t i n g t h a t he d i d not want t o see t h e r e g i o n become a superpower b a t t l e g r o u n d , L l o r e d a added, "We want t h e i r p r e s e n c e t o c r e a t e , not destroy...Among i n d u s t r i a l i z e d n a t i o n s , Canada has t h e b e s t t i t l e t o e x e r c i s e a p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . " ( 4 4 ) S e e k i n g t o use t h a t " p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e " , MacEachen announced t h a t he would v i s i t N i c a r a g u a and s e v e r a l o t h e r C e n t r a l American c o u n t r i e s i n A p r i l , t h e f i r s t Canadian m i n i s t e r t o do so. The t r i p was a r e s ponse t o "mounting -23-c o n c e r n i n P a r l i a m e n t and t h e media about d e t e r i o r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e r e g i o n t h a t t h r e a t e n t o t u r n i n t o w i d e s p r e a d c o n f l i c t s . . . C e n t r a l A m e r i c a and the C a r i b b e a n a r e key a r e a s f o r Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y . . " (45) MacEachen c o n s u l t e d f o r two days i n Washington w i t h U.S. S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e S c h u l t z b e f o r e h e a d i n g t o C e n t r a l A m erica. MacEachen r e f u s e d a p u b l i c r e q u e s t from S c h u l t z t o add E l S a l v a d o r t o h i s i t i n e r a r y . He i n d i c a t e d t h a t he hoped t o g e t a f i r s t - h a n d l o o k a t t h e s i t u a t i o n and " t o t e s t Canadian p o l i c y a g a i n s t t h e r e a l i t y " . (46) D u r i n g t h e t a l k s , U.S. o f f i c i a l s d e n i e d any i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e m i n i n g of N i c a r a g u a n p o r t s , which had j u s t come t o l i g h t . (U.S. o f f i c i a l Langhorn M o t l e y t o l d [now] Ambassador A l l a n G o t l i e b t h e same s t o r y on March 24.) (47) D u r i n g h i s t h r e e - d a y v i s i t t o N i c a r a g u a , MacEachen h e l d d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h deputy f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r s Nora A s t o r g a and V i c t o r T i n o c o , A g r i c u l t u r e M i n i s t e r Jaime Wheelock, t h e d i r e c t o r of t h e N i c a r a g u a n R e c o n s t r u c t i o n Agency, and j u n t a member D a n i e l O r tega. He a l s o met w i t h c h u r c h o f f i c i a l s and l e a d e r s of o p p o s i t i o n groups. MacEachen s t a t e d t h a t h i s government was c o n s i d e r i n g t h e opening of a d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n i n Managua, b u t t h a t b u d g e t a r y r a t h e r t h a n p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s were h o l d i n g up t h e p r o c e s s . R e g a r d i n g t h e N i c a r a g u a n e l e c t i o n s , t h e M i n i s t e r r e j e c t e d Reagan's condemnations, s a y i n g he p r e f e r r e d t o w a i t and see, t h e n "judge them by o b s e r v i n g . . . not b l i n d e d by i d e o l o g i c a l b l i n d e r s . " A t t h e same time he warned N i c a r a g u a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r D 'Escoto t h a t c r i t i c i s m o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s might a l t e r Canadian a t t i t u d e s . But Canadian o f f i c i a l s took p a i n s t o s t a t e t h a t t h e y would "not -24-a l t e r Canadian p o l i c y a t Washington's b e h e s t . " (48) Speaking i n T e g u c i g a l p a a t t h e end o f h i s t r i p , MacEachen c o n t i n u e d t o m a i n t a i n t h a t Honduran s u p p o r t f o r t h e C o n t r a s would not a f f e c t t h e $90 m i l l i o n i n proposed Canadian a i d t o t h a t c o u n t r y . He j u s t i f i e d t h i s p o s i t i o n by d e c l a r i n g , "What would we do t h e n i n N i c a r a g u a about t h e a l l e g a t i o n s t h a t t h e y a r e a c t i v e l y s u p p o r t i n g the S a l v a d o r a n g u e r r i l l a s ? " , t h e n r e i t e r a t e d h i s v i e w t h a t Canadian economic a s s i s t a n c e s h o u l d not be used t o p r e s s u r e o t h e r n a t i o n s . (49) Canada r e a c t e d n e g a t i v e l y t o t h e m i n i n g of N i c a r a g u a n p o r t s by agents of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . W h i l e i n Managua, MacEachen p u b l i c l y denounced th e m i n i n g as "an element of t e n s i o n t h a t doesn't c o n t r i b u t e i n t h e l e a s t t o r e s o l v i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . " (50) On A p r i l 10, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Trade M i n i s t e r G e r a l d Regan t o l d t h e Commons t h a t Canada's "concern...has been conveyed t o t h e U.S. government... We s u p p o r t t h e r u l e o f law, and we b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r u l e of law s h o u l d a p p l y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h i s m a t t e r " . But Regan a d m i t t e d t h a t , w h i l e Canada co m p l a i n e d t o t h e U.S. about t h e v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a i n g e n e r a l , t h e m i n i n g i t s e l f was not mentioned d u r i n g MacEachen's t a l k s w i t h S c h u l t z . * (51) * Trudeau s a i d t h a t Canada would not h e l p w i t h t h e removal of t h e mines because of a p r a c t i c e o f not s e n d i n g s h i p s i n t o dangerous a r e a s w i t h o u t a U n i t e d N a t i o n s mandate. (Canadian s h i p p i n g t o N i c a r a g u a was not s e r i o u s l y impeded.) (52) -25-n the 1 1 t h , Trudeau r e f u s e d t o condemn the U.S., c l a i m i n g t h a t he d i d not know who was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r " t h i s a c t of t e r r o r i s m . " S t i l l s t r i v i n g t o keep a " b a l a n c e d " approach, Trudeau went on t o say t h a t , " I f we can a s c e r t a i n t h a t t h e a c t s a r e coming s p e c i f i c a l l y from th e U.S. a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , we w i l l condemn them, as we have condemned the use o f arms i n t h e a r e a by t h e U.S. and Cuba." * (53) As was t y p i c a l i n h i s s t a t e m e n t s on N i c a r a g u a , Trudeau was u n a b le t o say a n y t h i n g n e g a t i v e about U.S. p o l i c y w i t h o u t making i t c l e a r t h a t he h e l d t h e U.S.S.R. and/or Cuba e q u a l l y c u l p a b l e . A nother example o c c u r e d when the Prime M i n i s t e r t o l d t h e House on May 7 t h a t C e n t r a l American problems " . . . a r e more of a s o c i o - e c o n o m i c n a t u r e and s h o u l d not be t u r n e d i n t o a ( n ) . . . i d e o l o g i c a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n between E a s t and West. That meant r e g r e t t i n g any m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e , not o n l y from Washington but from Cuba i n t e r p o s i n g i t s e l f f o r t h e S o v i e t Union." (54) In a CBC i n t e r v i e w upon h i s r e t u r n , MacEachen s a i d t h a t Canada's d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h Washington "have become even c l e a r e r on t h i s m i n i n g q u e s t i o n " . T h i s emphatic p o s i t i o n was u n d e r l i n e d by t h e M i n i s t e r ' s p r a i s e o f the S a n d i n i s t a s : " I t h i n k t h a t we have t o acknowledge t h a t r e q u i r e d changes have t a k e n p l a c e i n N i c a r a g u a . . . t h a t improvements have t a k e n p l a c e . " (55) T h i s statement was t h e most p o s i t i v e remark t h a t any h i g h Canadian o f f i c i a l had made t o d a t e about th e S a n d i n i s t a s . MacEachen's words and a c t i o n s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e M i n i s t e r f e l t * On t h e p r e v i o u s day, t h e U.S. Senate o v e r w h e l m i n g l y condemned th e m i n i n g a f t e r c o n c l u d i n g t h a t i t was d i r e c t e d by t h e CIA. -26-h i m s e l f f o r c e d t o be more c a n d i d about Canadian d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h t h e U.S. ov e r N i c a r a g u a . The m i n i n g , a l o n g w i t h t h e r e c e n t U.S. i n v a s i o n o f Grenada, r a i s e d f e a r s t h a t t h e U.S. might i n c r e a s e i t s "gunboat d i p l o m a c y " towards N i c a r a g u a . One o f Canada's concerns was i t s dependence on U.S. s o u r c e s f o r i n f o r m a t i o n about N i c a r a g u a , and t h i s problem was an i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n f o r c o n s i d e r i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a Canadian embassy i n Managua. When q u e s t i o n e d i n t h e House on A p r i l 16 by P a u l i n e J e w e t t about t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , MacEachen responded t h a t Canadian p e r s o n n e l i n C o s t a R i c a were a t t e m p t i n g t o keep Ottawa i n t o u c h w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a . MacEachen a d m i t t e d t h a t " i t would be b e t t e r i f we c o u l d e s t a b l i s h a f u l l - t i m e embassy i n Managua... However, t h a t d e c i s i o n w i l l have t o be t a k e n i n t h e l i g h t of b u d g e t a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and p r i o r i t i e s e l s e w h e r e . . . " (56) A sp o k e s p e r s o n f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s c l a i m e d t h a t Canada's new ambassador t o C o s t a R i c a , F r a n c i s F i l l e u l , "spends a t l e a s t one week a month ( i n N i c a r a g u a , a n d ) . . . t h e Canadian government i s q u i t e i n f o r m e d . " (57) Only a few months e a r l i e r , however, a c c o r d i n g t o NDP MP Ian W a d d e l l , t h e Mexican Ambassador t o N i c a r a g u a s a i d t h a t he had not heard from t h e Canadian ambassador f o r a y e a r and a h a l f . (58) Canada's s u p p o r t f o r a n e g o t i a t e d s e t t l e m e n t i n C e n t r a l America prompted Canada t o send o b s e r v e r s t o t h e t h r e e Contadora w o r k i n g groups, w h i l e MacEachen d e n i e d a r e p o r t t h a t he was c o n s i d e r i n g t h e use of Canadian t r o o p s t o m o n i t o r any c e a s e f i r e . (59) Canada's i n c r e a s i n g w i l l i n g n e s s t o o p e n l y c h a l l e n g e t h e assumptions and m i l i t a r i s t i c a c t i o n s o f t h e U.S. -27-towards N i c a r a g u a was a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d a t a forum h e l d on A p r i l 30 a t t h e Woodrow W i l s o n C e n t r e i n Washington. L i b e r a l MP M a u r i c e Dupras was j o i n e d by Ambassador G o t l i e b and Claude C h a r l a n d , A s s i s t a n t Deputy M i n i s t e r ( E x t e r n a l ) , i n o u t l i n i n g Canada's d i s a g r e e m e n t s . W h i l e t h e s e remarks g e n e r a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d one of the c l e a r e s t p u b l i c b r e a k s y e t w i t h t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , C h a r l a n d made a p o i n t o f s t a t i n g t h a t , " . . . I do not see t h a t our o b j e c t i v e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o N i c a r a g u a a r e so w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t . " (60) The t h r e e - d a y v i s i t o f Mexican P r e s i d e n t de l a M a d r i d t o Ottawa i n May was seen by some o b s e r v e r s as an i m p o r t a n t g e s t u r e a c k n o w l e d g i n g Canada's o p p o s i t i o n t o U.S. p o l i c y and Contadora's need f o r Canadian s u p p o r t . De l a M a d r i d e x p r e s s e d t h e need f o r t h e " c o l l a b o r a t i o n and j o i n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f Canada and Mexico i n s o l v i n g r e g i o n a l problems". He urged "a new d i a l o g u e " between N o r t h and C e n t r a l American c o u n t r i e s t o ensure peace. "Mexico and t h e Contadora group r e j e c t ( t h e i d e a ) t h a t t h e C e n t r a l American problem s h o u l d become a b a t t l e g r o u n d between t h e two g r e a t w o r l d powers. Canada has e x p r e s s e d t h e same o p i n i o n . I b e l i e v e t h a t Canada can be a v e r y i m p o r t a n t element i n w o r k i n g w i t h t h e Contadora group." (61) A j o i n t communique e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r "the i n c r e a s i n g t e n s i o n , t h e r e g i o n a l arms r a c e , d e s t a b i l i z i n g a c t i v i t i e s and t h e f o r e i g n m i l i t a r y p r e s e nce i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . (62) N e v e r t h e l e s s , n e i t h e r man b r o u g h t up the q u e s t i o n of c o o p e r a t i n g t o p r e s s u r e t h e U.S. t o withdraw i t s m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e from C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , o r r e p o r t s t h a t "the U.S. a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s p l a n n i n g t o p r e s s u r e Canada and Mexico i n a - 2 8 -b i d t o get some s u p p o r t f o r i t s own approach i n L a t i n A m e r i c a " . (63) Prime M i n i s t e r Trudeau l e f t o f f i c e s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r . -29-c) Development A s s i s t a n c e The Canadian I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Agency was formed i n 1968. I t s immediate p r e d e c e s s o r was t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e Department of E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s i n 1960 from t h e Department of Trade and Commerce. I t s mandate i s t o o p e r a t e and a d m i n i s t e r Canada's o f f i c i a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l development a s s i s t a n c e program. Canada's L a t i n American a i d program commenced i n 1970, but l i t t l e a i d was p r o v i d e d t o Managua because of t h e c o r r u p t and o p p r e s s i v e n a t u r e o f Somoza's r u l e . A l t h o u g h i t r e c o g n i z e d the d i c t a t o r s h i p , "Canada d i d not s u p p o r t t h e regime". (64) T o t a l b i l a t e r a l a i d d i s b u r s e m e n t s t o N i c a r a g u a from 1971 t o 1980 were $3,740,000. (65) (No E x p o r t Development C o r p o r a t i o n l o a n s o r c r e d i t s were g i v e n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . ) An e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s p o l i c y o c c u r e d a f t e r a d e v a s t a t i n g e a r t h q uake s t r u c k N i c a r a g u a on 23 December 1972. Canada responded t o t h i s emergency w i t h a f o o d - a i d package wor t h o v e r $1 m i l l i o n , p l u s $2.5 m i l l i o n i n " g r a n t s and c o n c e s s i o n a r y l o a n s f o r t r u c k s , f i r e e n g i n e s , o t h e r heavy equipment, and p r e f a b r i c a t e d b u i l d i n g s f o r use as h o s p i t a l s . . . " S u b s e q u e n t l y , $90,000 was p r o v i d e d by CIDA t o t r a i n 400 a p p r e n t i c e c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k e r s . (66) D i r e c t Canadian b i l a t e r a l a i d s u b s e q u e n t l y dropped o f f , so t h a t by f i s c a l y e a r 1976/77, f o r example, i t t o t a l e d j u s t $570,000. ( F i s c a l y e a r s b e g i n on A p r i l 1.) T h i s f i g u r e f e l l t o $400,000 the f o l l o w i n g y e a r , and no d i r e c t a i d a t a l l was g i v e n i n FY 78/79, as t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p i n c r e a s e d i t s r e p r e s s i o n i n t h e e f f o r t t o c r u s h t h e a n t i - S o m o z a r e b e l l i o n . CIDA d i d , however, c o n t r i b u t e $185,000 d u r i n g t h i s -30-p e r i o d under i t s " I n t e r n a t i o n a l Emergency R e l i e f " program t o h e l p t h e v i c t i m s of t h e c i v i l c o n f l i c t . (67) Even a f t e r d i p l o m a t i c r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e new S a n d i n i s t a government, r e c o n s t r u c t i o n a i d from Canada was slow i n coming. An u n o f f i c i a l group from N i c a r a g u a was t o l d t h a t a i d t o t h e war-ravaged c o u n t r y was s m a l l because of "budgetary r e s t r a i n t s . " (68) CIDA's a t t i t u d e t o the new l e a d e r s h i p i n N i c a r a g u a seems t o have been c a u t i o u s a t f i r s t . "The Canadian government t o d a t e [Oct. 31, 1979] has not made N i c a r a g u a a c o u n t r y of p r i o r i t y f o r b i l a t e r a l a i d , and most Canadian a s s i s t a n c e i n i t i a t i v e s have been t a k e n by non-governmental a s s o c i a t i o n s i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h community a g e n c i e s i n N i c a r a g u a i t s e l f " . (69) The f i r s t o f f i c i a l Canadian a s s i s t a n c e t o post-war N i c a r a g u a c o n s i s t e d o f $655,000 f o r a s t u d y o f f o o d s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y and $107,000 c h a n n e l l e d t h r o u g h the Red C r o s s . (70) I n June 1980 CIDA agreed t o p r o v i d e $250,000 i n m atching funds t o Canadian NGiQ's which were r a i s i n g money t o h e l p t h e N i c a r a g u a n L i t e r a c y Campaign. CIDA had o r i g i n a l l y b a l k e d a t t h e p l a n due t o i t s p e r c e p t i o n o f "Cuban i n f l u e n c e " and a " r a d i c a l c u r r i c u l u m " . " F o l l o w i n g l e t t e r s of c o n c e r n and v i s i t a t i o n s from many... Canadian o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s , and upon r e c e i v i n g t h e r e p o r t of t h e A p r i l v i s i t by a team of f o u r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n T o r o n t o YMCA", CIDA r e v e r s e d i t s p o l i c y and agreed t o p r o v i d e t h e f u n d s . (71) In t h i s p e r i o d (FY 1979/80), CIDA p r o v i d e d o n l y $200,000 i n d i r e c t a i d and about th e same f o r r e l i e f p r o j e c t s . (72) But w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f one f i s c a l y e a r , (1982/83, when no f o o d -31-a i d was g i v e n ) , Canadian a i d t o .Nicaragua showed a s t e a d y i n c r e a s e t h a t t o t a l e d o v e r $24 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s by FY 1983/84. These f i g u r e s i n c l u d e d i r e c t a i d , M i s s i o n A d m i n i s t e r e d Funds, NG|| c o n t r i b u t i o n s ( i n c l u d i n g m a tching CIDA g r a n t s ) , f o o d a i d , and f u n d i n g from th e I n d u s t r i a l C o o p e r a t i o n and I n s t i t u t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i o n programs. * (Appendix 2) The i n i t i a l low l e v e l o f a s s i s t a n c e from th e Trudeau government towards Managua i n v i t e d charges t h a t Ottawa was d e l i b e r a t e l y i g n o r i n g N i c a r a g u a ' s d e s p e r a t e need f o r a i d . In a r e p o r t p u b l i s h e d i n J u l y , Ambassador S i r r s d e n i e d t h a t Canada was b o y c o t t i n g t h e S a n d i n i s t a government. " I t h i n k what has happened i s no p o l i c y , r a t h e r t h a n any d e c i s i o n t o b o y c o t t . " S i r r s added, " N i c a r a g u a has never been d e s i g n a t e d as an a i d - r e c e i v i n g n a t i o n and t h a t d a t e s b a c k . . . t o t h e Somoza e r a , because of h i s d r e a d f u l human r i g h t s r e c o r d . " (73) A team of Canadian a i d e x p e r t s v i s i t e d N i c a r a g u a i n November 1980 and a g a i n e a r l y i n 1981 t o l o o k i n t o a t h r e e - t o - f i v e y e a r a i d package f o c u s i n g on f o r e s t r y and water problems. The team was i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e N i c a r a g u a n s w i t h whom t h e y worked, and f e l t t h a t t h e N i c a r a g u a n government had l a r g e l y e l i m i n a t e d t h e p r e v i o u s l y endemic c o r r u p t i o n . Ambassador S i r r s , however, i n s i s t e d t h a t a i d would be c o n t i n g e n t upon N i c a r a g u a m a i n t a i n i n g a mixed economy, p o l i t i c a l p l u r a l i s m , and a p o l i c y o f n o n - i n t e r v e n t i o n . He * These f i g u r e s do not i n c l u d e m u l t i l a t e r a l a s s i s t a n c e p r o v i d e d t h r o u g h a g e n c i e s such as the I n t e r - A m e r i c a n Development Bank and t h e Red C r o s s . (75) -32-acknowleged t h a t Canada was "a l i t t l e slow" t o respond t o e v e n t s i n N i c a r a g u a and t h a t t h e embassy's r e s o u r c e s were a t t h e same l e v e l as i n 1979. The ambassador added, "There's always a payback ( f o r Canada) i n t r a d e . There's a h u m a n i t a r i a n element as w e l l . We need an e n l i g h t e n e d v i e w of development a i d . " (74) These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , and t h e i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e on t h e government by C a n a d i a n s , l e d j|ttawa t o r e c l a s s i f y N i c a r a g u a as a " p r o j e c t c o u n t r y " i n 1981, " a l t h o u g h i m p l e m e n t a t i o n has been slow due t o p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e w i t h i n E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s " . (76) But i t was Honduras which r e c e i v e d t h e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y d e s i g n a t i o n as a "core c o u n t r y " . T h i s a c t i o n was d e c i d e d "not by p o l i t i c a l whim but by s o c i o - e c o n o m i c l e v e l s o f development", a c c o r d i n g t o CIDA. (77) " P r o j e c t c o u n t r y " s t a t u s opens the way f o r Canadian a s s i s t a n c e on a p r o j e c t - b y - p r o j e c t b a s i s , w h i l e a " c o r e " c o u n t r y i s e n t i t l e d t o "a c o n c e n t r a t e d program of development a s s i s t a n c e . . . o ver a m u l t i - y e a r p l a n n i n g p e r i o d . . . " (78) (Appendix 1) I n F e b r u a r y 1982 CIDA announced i t s i n t e n t i o n . a l m o s t t o t r i p l e t h e amount of Canadian a s s i s t a n c e t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . CIDA a l l o c a t e d $106 m i l l i o n f o r the r e g i o n o ver th e n e x t f i v e y e a r s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e $40 m i l l i o n spent i n t h e p r e v i o u s f i v e y e a r s , (and o n l y $20 m i l l i o n from 1972 - 1977). The government a s s e r t e d t h a t i t s d e c i s i o n was based on " i t s deep c o n c e r n f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of p o v e r t y and economic d i s l o c a t i o n i n C e n t r a l America which l i e beneath th e c u r r e n t i n s t a b i l i t y and t r a u m a t i c s o c i a l change t h e r e . " (79) The a c t u a l v a l u e o f t h i s i n c r e a s e , however, was v e r y l i t t l e once i n f l a t i o n and t h e -33-d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e Canadian d o l l a r were c o n s i d e r e d . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h i s a i d package r e f l e c t e d Canadian p r i o r i t i e s f o r C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . Honduras, th e o n l y c o r e c o u n t r y i n t h e r e g i o n , was a l l o t e d t h e most a i d , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40% o f t h e t o t a l . T h i s a s s i s t a n c e was a l l o c a t e d d e s p i t e t h e knowledge t h a t Honduras was s e r v i n g as a base f o r armed a t t a c k s on N i c a r a g u a by t h e e x - s o l d i e r s i n Somoza's hated N a t i o n a l Guard ( i n c l u d i n g thousands who had been pardoned by t h e S a n d i n i s t a government). Democratic C o s t a R i c a would be g i v e n 30%, w h i l e w a r - t o r n N i c a r a g u a would r e c e i v e o n l y 20%. (80) ( A i d t o b o t h Guatemala and E l S a l v a d o r had been t e r m i n a t e d because of l a r g e - s c a l e and s y s t e m a t i c human r i g h t s abuses, as w e l l as w i d e - s p r e a d c o r r u p t i o n . ) In June, MacGuigan announced t h a t t h e Canadian government was p r o v i d i n g N i c a r a g u a w i t h $4.5 m i l l i o n i n f o o d a i d . The 16,000 t o n s o f g r a i n was "a response t o N i c a r a g u a ' s c r i t i c a l f o o d s i t u a t i o n , " w hich i t s e l f was p a r t l y due t o the c a n c e l l a t i o n o f a $9.6 m i l l i o n U.S. l o a n i n F e b r u a r y . (81) S u b s e q u e n t l y , i n FY 1983/84, d i r e c t b i l a t e r a l a i d t o N i c a r a g u a topped $4 m i l l i o n (compared w i t h a q u a r t e r m i l l i o n the p r e v i o u s y e a r ) , w h i l e NGp funds more t h a n doubled t o over $3 m i l l i o n . (82) On 13 J a n u a r y 1984, t h e Canada approved a l o n g s t a n d i n g (3 y e a r s ) N i c a r a g u a n r e q u e s t f o r a $13.4 m i l l i o n l i n e o f c r e d i t f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l s u p p l i e s and equipment. T h i s a i d package was t h e l a r g e s t e v e r g i v e n t o N i c a r a g u a , but t h e funds were t i e d t o t h e s a l e o f Canadian goods such as f e r t i l i z e r s , f a r m equipment, and H o l s t e i n c a l v e s . A $5 m i l l i o n p l a n f o r p o t a b l e water -34-p r o j e c t was s t i l l s t a l l e d a t CIDA. The i n t e r e s t - f r e e l o a n was r e p a y a b l e i n 50 y e a r s a f t e r a 10-year g r a c e p e r i o d . (83) CIDA f i g u r e s (Appendix 3) can g i v e a f a l s e i m p r e s s i o n o f i t s a i d p r i o r i t i e s . C o n s i d e r i n g government-to-government ( b i l a t e r a l ) a i d from FY 80/81 t o FY 83/84, (a f u n c t i o n o f e x p l i c i t CIDA d e c i s i o n s ) , e v e r y o t h e r C e n t r a l American c o u n t r y e x c e p t Panama r e c e i v e d more d i r e c t a i d t h a n d i d N i c a r a g u a . " N i c a r a g u a ended up w i t h more CIDA d o l l a r s o n l y because Canadian N G 0 s c o n c e n t r a t e d p r o j e c t s t h e r e which i n t u r n r e c e i v e m a t ching funds from CIDA. I n f a c t , d i r e c t CIDA b i l a t e r a l a i d was l e s s t h a n h a l f t h e CIDA a i d p a s s i n g t h r o u g h Canadian non-governmantal a g e n c i e s . " (84) (Funding r a t i o s can be as h i g h as 3:1.) W h i l e t h e low l e v e l o f a i d given d u r i n g t h e Somoza e r a was r e p l a c e d by an uneven but s i g n i f i c a n t growth, t h e s m a l l amount of d i r e c t , b i l a t e r a l a i d f o r N i c a r a g u a (compared t o o t h e r C e n t r a l American n a t i o n s ) , i s a r e v e a l i n g i n d i c a t i o n o f Canadian p o l i c i e s . (85) T a b l e IV. T o t a l Canadian B i - l a t e r a l A i d t o C e n t r a l America 1980/81-83/84 ($ m i l l i o n s ) EL SALVADOR Co^ra 'RICA GUATEMALA 'PANAMA II. £5" 7.<?7 ¥ . 2 1 o i Source: C e n t r a l America Update J u l y / A u g . 1984. - 3 5 -I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e CIDA w i l l c o n s i d e r h i g h e r l e v e l s o f a i d t o N i c a r a g u a when peace i s r e s t o r e d , i . e . i f and when the U n i t e d S t a t e s ceases i t s o v e r t h o s t i l i t y t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a government. I t i s n e c e s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h e p a t t e r n o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f Canadian a i d t o N i c a r a g u a i n t h e l i g h t o f the g r e a t e r l e v e l s o f c o r r u p t i o n and i n e f f i c i e n c y i n Honduras, w h i c h r e c e i v e s t h e l i o n ' s s h are o f a s s i s t a n c e . I n c o n t r a s t , " N i c a r a g u a has a good a b s o r b i n g c a p a c i t y " , an o f f i c i a l a t E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s n o t e d . "The NGOs a r e w e l l - o r g a n i z e d . C o r r u p t i o n , b r i b e r y , and t h e l i k e have a l l been wiped o u t . I t ' s a r e m a r k a b l e t h i n g i n t h e L a t i n American c o n t e x t . " (86) E c h o i n g t h i s judgement, a CIDA r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d e s c r i b e d t h e S a n d i n i s t a government as an "honest a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " . Asked i f CIDA had any problems w i t h t h e way N i c a r a g u a h a n d l e d Canadian a s s i s t a n c e , she r e l i e d , "None whatsoever." (87) She c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a was a major f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g a i d l e v e l s . But s i n c e t h e U.S.-backed regime i n Honduras r e c e i v e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more a s s i s t a n c e t h a n N i c a r a g u a , th e q u e s t i o n o f what c o n s t i t u t e s an a c c e p t a b l e " p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n " f o r Canada i s u n c l e a r . T h i s p o l i c y seems t o c o n t r a d i c t t h e a s s e r t i o n s t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f Canadian development a s s i s t a n c e i s not based on i d e o l o g i c a l grounds. F u r t h e r , CIDA admits t h a t "...Canada has not d e v e l o p e d a s i n g l e , a b s o l u t e n o r m a t i v e s t a n d a r d a g a i n s t which t o judge th e human r i g h t s b e h a v i o u r of o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . . . The approach has been t o t r y t o a s s i m i l a t e human r i g h t s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t o t h e b r o a d e r m a t r i x o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y . . . " (88) I t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t good r e l a t i o n s - 3 6 -w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a r e a key element of t h i s " m a t r i x " , and t h a t t h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n may have p l a y e d a p a r t i n t h e d e c i s i o n t o g i v e so much a i d t o Honduras. Indeed, i t can be argued t h a t Canada's a i d p o l i c y r e f l e c t s U.S. p r i o r i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n r a t h e r t h a n a c o n c e r n f o r t h e l o n g - t e r m development of C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , s i n c e N i c a r a g u a has demonstrated t h a t i t uses i t s a i d more e f f i c i e n t l y . W h i l e th e a l l o t m e n t o f any a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a government would not p l e a s e t h e U.S., t h e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n o f Canadian a i d t o t h e two c o u n t r i e s was not u n a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . However, Canada " l i n e d up w i t h a m a j o r i t y of member c o u n t r i e s i n t h e I n t e r - A m e r i c a n Development Bank a g a i n s t moves by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o c u t o f f funds f o r N i c a r a g u a . . . " (89) and, as mentioned, has c o n s i s t e n t l y oppossed th e p o l i t i c i z a t i o n of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l F i n a n c i a l I n s t i t u t i o n s . F i n a l l y , i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t , a l o n g w i t h p o l i t i c a l and h u m a n i t a r i a n m o t i v e s , commercial c o n s i d e r a t i o n s were an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n Canada's O f f i c i a l Development A s s i s t a n c e (ODA) s t r a t e g y . O v e r a l l , 80% o f Ottawa's a i d i s " t i e d " t o t h e p urchase of Canadian goods, and CIDA c l a i m s t h a t t h e ODA programme has brought s u b s t a n t i a l r e t u r n s t o Canada, opened up new markets abroad, and s p u r r e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e . (90) G i v e n t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p o t e n t i a l f o r t r a d e w i t h N i c a r a g u a as w e l l as t h e p r e f e r e n c e s of t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t a t i o n , i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Honduras was t h e r e c i p i e n t o f t h e l a r g e s t Canadian a i d package i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . -37-Chapter 2 - Domestic A c t o r s a) Commercial R e l a t i o n s A l t h o u g h t r a d e w i t h C e n t r a l America i n t h e 1970s and e a r l y 1980s d i d not i n c r e a s e as a p r o p o r t i o n o f Canada's t o t a l t r a d e , t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f Canadian b u s i n e s s had been growing s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n a b s o l u t e terms. As noted above, Canadian i m p o r t s and e x p o r t s w i t h t h e r e g i o n grew about 200% between 1975 and 1979, and by an a d d i t i o n a l 34% i n 1980. Canadian i n v e s t m e n t i n C e n t r a l America topped $300 m i l l i o n by 1981. (1) By l a t e 1979, t h e Canadian A s s o c i a t i o n f o r L a t i n America and t h e C a r i b b e a n had grown t o 215 c o r p o r a t e members, from 50 j u s t a decade e a r l i e r , an i n c r e a s e o f o v e r 400%. I n a s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e f e d e r a l government, CALA s t a t e d : "We m a i n t a i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h a l l n a t i o n s o f t h e r e g i o n , and i n t h e major c o u n t r i e s have s u p p o r t e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s p e c i a l b i l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between th e b u s i n e s s communities of t h o s e c o u n t r i e s and our own." (2) Canadian i n v e s t m e n t and t r a d e w i t h N i c a r a g u a , which had never been v e r y h i g h , s u f f e r e d a s h a r p d e c r e a s e as t h e c i v i l war e n t e r e d i t s l a s t y e a r . At t h e t i m e o f t h e S a n d i n i s t a v i c t o r y , Canada's R o y a l Bank was N i c a r a g u a ' s t h i r d l a r g e s t p r i v a t e c r e d i t o r . "The R o y a l had l e n t o v er $42.8 m i l l i o n t o N i c a r a g u a . . . and h e l d about 15% t o 20% o f N i c a r a g u a ' s debt t o p r i v a t e f o r e i g n banks. (3) Three months a f t e r v i c t o r y , t h e S a n d i n i s t a s n a t i o n a l i z e d t h e Empresa M i n e r a E l S e t e n t r i o n , N i c a r a g u a ' s l a r g e s t g o l d and s i l v e r mine, and a s u b s i d i a r y of -38-Noranda. "In 1975 Noranda's p r o f i t s h are was $3.9 m i l l i o n . However, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e company, p r o f i t s r e c e i v e d i n the t h r e e y e a r s p r e c e e d i n g t h e t a k e - o v e r t o t a l e d o n l y $4.7 m i l l i o n . " (4) The r a t e o f pay under Somoza " f o r Noranda's N i c a r a g u a n workers [was] 56 c e n t s / h o u r , under w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h a t [ f o r m e r ] N i c a r a g u a n congressman E. M o l i n a [ c a l l e d ] 'subhuman - t h e w o r s t i n t h e c o u n t r y ' . " I n 1977 Noranda " c a l l e d i n t h e N a t i o n a l Guard t o end w o r k e r s ' p r o t e s t s f o r b e t t e r wages and w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s . The p r o t e s t l e a d e r s were j a i l e d and b e a t e n . " (Wages were t r i p l e d a f t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n . ) (5) I n 1980, A r t u r o Cruz e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e t a k e o v e r was p a r t o f a p o l i c y o f g i v i n g N i c a r a g u a ownership of i t s own n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . But he a s s s u r e d w o r r i e d s t o c k h o l d e r s t h a t "we a r e not b a n d i t s . Our a u d i t o r s a r e now c o m p l e t i n g an a n a l y s i s o f t h e v a l u e o f t h e Noranda p r o p e r t i e s and t h e y w i l l be a d e q u a t e l y compensated." (6) As r e l a t i o n s between t h e U.S. and t h e S a n d i n i s t a s d e t e r i o r a t e d , new o p p o r t u n i t i e s opened up i n N i c a r a g u a f o r Canadians, and b o t h e x p o r t s and i m p o r t s i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y . (7) T a b l e V. C a n a d i a n - N i c a r a g u a n Trade 1979, 1980, 1984 (4f millions) (to Nicaragua) £/r\VOF>TS (fro* Nt'caraQvd) 19 8 V IF.) 11.5" HH.O Source: Murray, 1981/82; Vancouver Sun (24 May 1985 - 3 9 -The t r a d e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s f a v o r e d N i c a r a g u a , p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f C a n a d i a n e f f o r t s t o i n c r e a s e t r a d e w i t h d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f N i c a r a g u a ' s d i f f i c u l t i e s i n o b t a i n i n g f i n a n c i n g . C a n a d a was a n x i o u s t o i m p r o v e t r a d e w i t h M a n a g u a , b u t N i c a r a g u a n a m b a s s a d o r P a s t o r V a l l e - G a r a y f e l t t h a t C a n a d i a n - N i c a r a g u a n t r a d e " h a s a l m o s t b e e n i g n o r e d " b y O t t a w a . He a d d e d , "We f e l t t h a t C a n a d a w o u l d be a b l e t o d e a l w i t h u s f a i r l y , t h a t p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g i e s w o u l d n o t make v e r y much d i f f e r e n c e , a s l o n g a s we a r e a b l e t o p a y " . A s t h e q u a n t i t y o f t r a d e i n c r e a s e d , s o d i d t h e v a r i e t y . C a n a d i a n i m p o r t s f r o m N i c a r a g u a i n c l u d e d s h r i m p , l o b s t e r , c o f f e e , a n d s e s a m e s e e d s , a s w e l l a s b a n a n a s a n d g o l d a l l o y s . " C a n a d a i s b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t t o N i c a r a g u a a s a s u p p l i e r o f b a s i c c o n s u m e r g o o d s . . . s u c h a s p o w d e r e d m i l k , w h e a t , p h a r m a c e u t i c a l s , p a p e r , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e q u i p m e n t a n d e l e c t r i c a l a p p l i a n c e s . " I r o n o r e , a i r c r a f t p a r t s , m a l t , a l u m i n u m , a n d c h e m i c a l s w e r e a l s o e x p o r t e d t o N i c a r a g u a . ( 8 ) S i n c e N i c a r a g u a ' s d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s f o c u s o n l o c a l i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , a n i m p o r t a n t p o t e n t i a l m a r k e t e x i s t s f o r " C a n a d i a n s u p p l i e r s o f m o t o r s , p u m p s , m e t a l w o r k i n g a n d f o o d p r o c e s s i n g e q u i p m e n t , a g r i c u l t u r a l t o o l s a n d i m p l e m e n t s a n d many o t h e r c a p i t a l g o o d s a n d t e c h n o l o g i e s s u i t a b l e t o s m a l l s c a l e i n d u s t r y . . . " C o m p a n i e s w h i c h d e a l t w i t h N i c a r a g u a i n c l u d e d I B M C a n a d a , C a n a d a P a c k e r s , R . A . C h i s h o l m , J o h n s - M a n v i l l e C a n a d a , S h e r r i t t M i n t , C o n n a u g h t L a b o r a t o r i e s , B r i s t o l - M e y e r s C a n a d a I n c . , S m i t h K l i n e & F r e n c h C a n a d a , W e s t i n g h o u s e C a n a d a , C a n r o n I n c . , N o r c a s t I n c . , a n d S c i n t r e x -40-L t d . , and o t h e r s . To encourage t r a d e , t h e f e d e r a l government o f f e r e d i m p o r t e r s and e x p o r t e r s a number of programs and s u b s i d i e s which t o t a l l e d o v e r $750,000 f o r N i c a r a g u a n p r o j e c t s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1980/84 (out o f about $2.8 m i l l i o n f o r a l l of C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . But i n 1984, a number of Canadian b u s i n e s s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s who had i n d i c a t e d an i n t e r e s t i n e x p o r t i n g t o N i c a r a g u a c i t e d t h e " d i f f i c u l t y o f o b t a i n i n g i n s u r a n c e from t h e E x p o r t Development C o r p o r a t i o n (EDC) f o r commercial e x p o r t c r e d i t s as a s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e t o i n c r e a s e d t r a d e . . . A t t h a t t i m e , a l l of C e n t r a l America...was ' o f f c o v e r ' f o r r e g u l a r EDC e x p o r t c r e d i t i n s u r a n c e . . . " (9) The f i g u r e s c i t e d above i n d i c a t e how economic r e l a t i o n s between Canada and N i c a r a g u a (and a l l o f C e n t r a l America) i n c r e a s e d . Moreover, f o r r e a s o n s of geography, r e s o u r c e s , and development needs, t h e r e was a g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r t r a d e and i n v e s t m e n t t h a t would have b e n e f i t e d b o t h c o u n t r i e s . The-p i c t u r e f o r t r a d e between Canada and N i c a r a g u a improved as U.S. h o s t i l i t y c l o s e d t r a d i t i o n a l markets i n t h a t c o u n t r y . S t i l l , t h e d i v e r s i o n o f N i c a r a g u a n r e s o u r c e s t o t h e C o n t r a war and t h e t h r e a t o f a U.S. i n v a s i o n s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d t h e a b i l i t y o f N i c a r a g u a t o buy o r s e l l t o Canada. An i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n between p r o s p e c t s f o r t r a d e and f o r i n v e s t m e n t s h o u l d be noted h e r e . A l t h o u g h i n s t a b i l i t y hampers b o t h forms of commercial r e l a t i o n s , i t d e p r e s s e s i n v e s t m e n t t o a g r e a t e r degree s i n c e t h e r i s k f a c t o r i s i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . Growing t r a d e w i t h N i c a r a g u a and t h e r e s t o f t h e r e g i o n c r e a t e d i n t e r e s t s w i t h i n t h e Canadian p r i v a t e s e c t o r t h a t f a v o r e d a p e a c e f u l r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e t u r m o i l t h e r e . However, - 4 1 -t h e dominant c o n c e r n of t h e b u s i n e s s e l i t e i n Canada remained good r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , c o r p o r a t i o n s which depended on "peace, o r d e r , and good government" i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a rena as p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r t h e i r c o m m e r i c i a l a c t i v i t i e s r e c o g n i z e d t h e danger t o t r a d e and i n v e s t m e n t t h a t accompanied s t r i f e and u n r e s t . G i v e n t h e s e v a r i o u s c o n c e r n s , i t was t o be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e " b u s i n e s s community" would not speak w i t h a s i n g l e v o i c e as t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f C e n t r a l America i n t e n s i f i e d . b) Non-Governmental O r g a n i z a t i o n s Canadian Non-Governmental O r g a n i z a t i o n s (NGOs) have p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f C a n a d i a n - N i c a r a g u a n r e l a t i o n s . But w i t h a few e x c e p t i o n s (such as t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h ) , NGOs had l i t t l e i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h N i c a r a g u a b e f o r e the 1979 S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n . Perhaps th e most i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n f o r t h i s l a c k o f i n t e r e s t was t h e n a t u r e o f t h e Somoza d i c t a t o r s h i p : most NGOs was f e l t t h a t v e r y l i t t l e c o u l d be a c c o m p l i s h e d i n c o n d i t i o n s o f such c o r r u p t i o n and o p p r e s s i o n . The growing s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t Somoza i n t h e l a t e 1970s not o n l y f o c u s e d more a t t e n t i o n on N i c a r a g u a , but gave NGOs hope t h a t f u t u r e c o n d i t i o n s might prove f a v o r a b l e f o r development a s s i s t a n c e . The S a n d i n i s t a v i c t o r y s p a r k e d new e n t h u s i a s m among many NGOs, whi c h p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r d r a m a t i c s o c i a l change might p r e s e n t an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a t h o r o u g h - g o i n g a t t a c k on underdevelopment. T h i s response mushroomed t o the p o i n t t h a t , by 1984, one o b s e r v e r c o u l d r e p o r t , "Thousands of Canadians a r e showing t h e i r c o n c e r n . . . i n modest ways, and hundreds a r e r i s k i n g t h e i r s e c u r i t y , t h e i r incomes, and t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n s by g o i n g t o ( N i c a r a g u a ) . . . t o do e x h a u s t i n g work, t o w i t n e s s b o r d e r r a i d s and r e f u g e e camps, t o s e t up peace camps, and t o r e t u r n t o Canada i n o r d e r t o s p r e a d t h i s f i r s t - h a n d i n f o r m a t i o n . . . " (10) Labour Even b e f o r e Somoza's o u s t e r , t h e Canadian Labour Congress (CLC), r e p r e s e n t i n g two m i l l i o n t r a d e u n i o n i s t s , asked the - 4 3 -f e d e r a l government t o r e c o g n i z e t h e N i c a r a g u a n P r o v i s i o n a l Government of R e c o n s t r u c t i o n , s e v e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p , p u b l i c l y speak out on human r i g h t s abuses, and i n c r e a s e h u m a n i t a r i a n a i d t o v i c t i m s o f t h e c i v i l war. As mentioned, t h e C l a r k government's response was l i m i t e d t o g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s d e p l o r i n g t h e s u f f e r i n g . Immediately f o l l o w i n g t h e S a n d i n i s t a t r i u m p h , a d e l e g a t i o n from t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e d e r a t i o n of F r e e Trade Unions (ICFTU), which i n c l u d e d t h e CLC's E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y , v i s i t e d N i c a r a g u a . They r e p o r t e d f i n d i n g N i c a r a g u a n s " s t a r v i n g , d e s t i t u t e , and e c o n o m i c a l l y r u i n e d . " In r e s p o n s e , t h e CLC l a u n c h e d a d r i v e t o r a i s e $500,000 i n r e l i e f f o r N i c a r a g u a . S h e l t e r s , baby f o o d , c l o t h i n g , and a m i l l i o n doses of v a c c i n e were among c o n t r i b u t i o n s c o l l e c t e d , w h i l e j|ttawa p r o v i d e d t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . (11) Unions i n Quebec h e l p e d by such a c t i o n s as t h e d o n a t i o n o f hundreds of thousands o f d o l l a r s towards t h e N i c a r a g u a n L i t e r a c y Campaign, which commenced i n F e b r u a r y 1980. I n A p r i l , a member of t h e CLC's I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s Committee s t a t e d t h a t "the CLC's s u p p o r t f o r a s m a l l t r a d e u n i o n c e n t r a l [CUS] t h a t has been d e n i e d o f f i c i a l b a c k i n g i n N i c a r a g u a would not p r e v e n t c o n t i n u e d s t r o n g s u p p o r t " . ( A l l CLC a i d had been c h a n n e l e d t h r o u g h CUS.) (12) Soon a f t e r w a r d , however, t h e CLC began t o back away from i t s s u p p o r t o f t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . The C o n g r e s s ' D i r e c t o r f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , John H a r k e r , c o m p l a i n e d t h a t S a n d i n i s t a Commandante Tomas Borge "and h i s c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s a r e g a t h e r i n g power unto t h e m s e l v e s " a t t h e expense of more moderate i n t e r e s t s . " There was a l s o ^ c o n c e r n about the s t a u s o f CUS. Harker r e j e c t e d c a l l s from a n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e r e p r e s e n t i n g 4 2 NGOs t h a t the CLC i n c r e a s e i t s s u p p o r t f o r N i c a r a g u a . (13) C o n t a c t w i t h developments i n N i c a r a g u a were m a i n t a i n e d i n s p i t e o f t h i s t r e n d i n the CLC h i e r a r c h y . B.C. t r a d e u n i o n i s t s , f o r example, t o u r e d N i c a r a g u a i n F e b r u a r y 1981 and met w i t h government o f f i c i a l s and u n i o n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . T h i s t r i p l e d t o t h e f i r s t " T o o l s f o r Peace" campaign i n September 1981, when the N i c a r a g u a n g r a i n c a r r i e r Monimbo l e f t Vancouver w i t h an e x t r a c a r g o o f 2,000 pounds of f i s h i n g gear and n e t s donated by members of t h e U n i t e d Fisherman and A l l i e d Workers Union. (14) The f i s h i n g gear s y m b o l i z e d l a b o u r ' s s h i f t back t o s t r o n g but not u n c r i t i c a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . Over t h e n e x t few y e a r s , many u n i o n s and l a b o u r c o u n c i l s deepened t h e i r s u p p o r t f o r t h e N i c a r a g u a n r e v o l u t i o n and demanded t h a t Canada t a k e c o n c r e t e a c t i o n t o oppose Washington's h o s t i l e p o l i c i e s . Labour groups c o n t i n u e d t o v i s i t N i c a r a g u a t o a p p r a i s e t h e s i t u a t i o n f o r t h e m s e l v e s . As i n t e r v e n t i o n by the U n i t e d S t a t e s grew, so d i d l a b o u r ' s c o n c e r n s . I n November 1983, CLC P r e s i d e n t Dennis McDermott i s s u e d h i s s t r o n g e s t d e n u n c i a t i o n y e t o f U.S. i n t e v e n t i o n i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a and d e c l a r e d Labour's s u p p o r t of t h e Contadora p r o c e s s . McDermott s a i d t h a t , "The Canadian Labour Congress i s . . . a p p a l l e d a t the p r e s e n t U.S. p o l i c y v i s - a - v i s N i c a r a g u a , which i s undoubtedly d e s i g n e d t o t u r n t h e c l o c k back on one o f t h e most p r o m i s i n g developments towards s o c i a l and economic j u s t i c e i n C e n t r a l American h i s t o r y . " (15) On December 7, James Donaldson o f t h e I r o n w o r k e r s i n T o r o n t o , a l o n g w i t h twenty l e a d e r s o f most major i n d u s t r i a l and -45-p u b l i c s e c t o r u n i o n s i n Canada made a s i m i l a r d e c l a r a t i o n . D e s p i t e p r e s s u r e s from the U.S. and c o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y f o r c e s , t h e S a n d i n i s t a government's N a t i o n a l R e c o n s t r u c t i o n Program has made g r e a t s t r i d e s i n e d u c a t i o n , h e a l t h c a r e , and a g r a r i a n r e f o r m . Based on t h e independent r e p o r t s o f many Canadian t r a d e u n i o n i s t s who have v i s i t e d N i c a r a g u a , we ar e c o n v i n c e d t h a t i t i s t h e w o r k i n g p e o p l e o f N i c a r a g u a who have b e n e f i t e d from the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n program. Through t h e i r own unique r e v o l u t i o n , t h e w o r k i n g p e o p l e o f N i c a r a g u a have g a i n e d a v o i c e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e i r d e s t i n y t h r o u g h f r e e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t r a d e u n i o n s , i n t h e C o u n c i l o f S t a t e , and i n o t h e r d e m o c r a t i c and p o p u l a r l y s u p p o r t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The r e s o l u t i o n a l s o c a l l e d on t h e government t o " a c t i v e l y s u p p o r t t h e Contadora Peace I n i t i a t i v e . " S i g n i t o r i e s i n c l u d e d Jean-Claude P a r r o t ( p o s t a l w o r k e r s ) , J e f f Rose ( p u b l i c e m p l o y e s s ) , P i e r r e Samson ( p u b l i c s e r v i c e ) , Mike Rygus ( m a c h i n i s t s ) , C l i f f P i l k e y (OFL), R o b e r t White (UAW), and Dave P a t t e r s o n ( s t e e l w o r k e r s ) . (16) The t w i n p o l i c i e s o f p r o v i d i n g m a t e r i a l a s s i s t a n c e and demanding t h a t t h e Canadian government t a k e s t r o n g e r a c t i o n s i n defense o f N i c a r a g u a were r e i t e r a t e d a t the CLC annual c o n v e n t i o n i n M o n t r e a l i n mid-1984, which a l s o c a l l e d on Canada t o w i t h h o l d a i d t o c o u n t r i e s (such as Honduras) which s e r v e as bases f o r U.S. m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a . (17) C o n t i n u i n g s o l i d a r i t y w i t h N i c a r a g u a from l a b o u r i n Quebec was e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e N a t i o n a l Trade Unions (CSN) d o n a t i o n o f 45 to n s o f n e w s p r i n t t o N i c a r a g u a , r e p r e s e n t i n g "a growing sense by Quebec u n i o n i s t s o f t h e i r a f f i n i t y w i t h t h e s o c i a l change o c c u r i n g i n N i c a r a g u a . " (18) S e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f l a b o u r ' s p o s t u r e toward t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n s h o u l d be noted. The f i r s t c oncerns t h e depth of p r o - N i c a r a g u a n s e n t i m e n t , which was not c o n f i n e d t o the l a b o u r -46-h i e r a r c h y . Those l a b o u r l e a d e r s who s u p p o r t e d t h e S a n d i n i s t a s e n j o y e d w i d e s p r e a d s u p p o r t a t t h e g r a s s - r o o t s l e v e l . I n many c a s e s , o f which t h e "Tools f o r Peace" campaign (see below) i s t h e most d r a m a t i c , i n d i v i d u a l t r a d e u n i o n i s t s and t h e i r l o c a l s p l a y e d key r o l e s . Those l a b o u r l e a d e r s who b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e S a n d i n i s t a s were S o v i e t stooges who had b e t r a y e d t h e i r r e v o l u t i o n and were c o n s t r u c t i n g an a u t h o r i t a r i a n , M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t s t a t e , were a m i n o r i t y . The o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n c o ncerns l a b o u r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e i n t e r n a l e v o l u t i o n o f N i c a r a g u a n s o c i e t y under S a n d i n i s t a l e a d e r s h i p . Some u n i o n i s t s argued t h a t t h e S a n d i n i s t a s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y L a t i n S t a l i n i s t s who smashed f r e e t r a d e u n i o n s , c e n s o r e d t h e p r e s s , and r e f u s e d t o t o l e r a t e p o l i t i c a l p l u r a l i s m . But t h e predominant i n t e r p r e t a t i o n found l i t t l e t o j u s t i f y the such a v i e w , and s t r e s s e d t h e hope t h a t N i c a r a g u a would be a l l o w e d t o f i n d i t s own p a t h t o a more humane and d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y . Labour's a t t i t u d e was summarized by John F r y e r , p r e s i d e n t of t h e N a t i o n a l Union of P r o v i n c i a l Government Employees, a f t e r r e t u r n i n g from N i c a r a g u a i n May 1984: To u n d e r s t a n d t h e N i c a r a g u a n s i t u a t i o n f a i r l y one must b a l a n c e t h e d i s q u i e t i n g t h i n g s one sees and h e a r s -such as p r e s s c e n s o r s h i p , t h e ban on p o l i t i c a l c a n v a s s i n g and t h e discouragement of independent t r a d e u n i o n i s m - a g a i n s t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e U.S.-backed a g g r e s s i o n i s i n v a r i a b l y c i t e d by a l l s i d e s t o be t h e s i n g l e major r o a d b l o c k s t a n d i n g i n the way o f making p r o g r e s s toward p l u r a l i s m . (19) The Canadian l a b o u r movement, as a whole, c o n t i n u e d t o champion the o v e r a l l t h r u s t o f t h e S a n d i n i s t a R e v o l u t i o n and t h e r i g h t o f N i c a r a g u a n s t o d e t e r m i n e f o r t hemselves th e t y p e of s o c i e t y i n which t h e y would l i v e . -47-Churches Canadian churches had l o n g been i n t h e f o r e f r o n t o f NGO a c t i v i t y r e g a r d i n g N i c a r a g u a . I n November 1978, c h u r c h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s accompanied F a t h e r E r n e s t o C a r d e n a l , N i c a r a g u a n poet and p r i e s t , d u r i n g t a l k s w i t h E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s o f f i c i a l s and members o f P a r l i a m e n t . A l s o i n November, a d e l e g a t i o n from t h e I n t e r - C h u r c h Committe on Human R i g h t s i n L a t i n America (ICCHRLA) p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e f i r s t o f a number o f v i s i t s t o N i c a r a g u a . I n June 1979, t h e A n g l i c a n , U n i t e d , and C a t h o l i c c h u r c h e s , among o t h e r s , urged the government t o v o t e a g a i n s t t h e $66 m i l l i o n IMF l o a n t o t h e Somoza regime and t o break d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s . They a l s o r e q u e s t e d t h a t F l o r a MacDonald, t h e n C o n s e r v a t i v e E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s m i n i s t e r , p r e s s the U n i t e d S t a t e s and the U n i t e d N a t i o n s t o condemn the d i c t a t o r s h i p , r e c o g n i z e t h e p r o v i s i o n a l government, and t e r m i n a t e a l l b i l a t e r a l agreements w i t h Somoza. (20) A f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e new government i n ' N i c a r a g u a , churches took t h e l e a d i n t r y i n g t o p r o c u r e government a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e d e v a s t a t e d c o u n t r y . John F o s t e r , U n i t e d Church o f f i c i a l and co-chairman of ICCHRLA, s a i d i n October 1979, t h a t Canada s h o u l d a t l e a s t match th e $20 m i l l i o n g i v e n t o N i c a r a g u a by t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . He s t r e s s e d t h a t NGOs can do l i t t l e compared t o t h e f e d e r a l government and urged Ottawa t o make the p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n t o h e l p N i c a r a g u a by making a i d a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h CIDA. (21) A d e l e g a t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e Canadian C o n f e r e n c e of C a t h o l i c B i s h o p s and t h e Canadian C o n f e r e n c e on Development and Peace v i s i t e d N i c a r a g u a from November 1-11 1980. They i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e -48-e v o l u t i o n o f N i c a r a g u a n s o c i e t y , government p o l i c i e s , f o r e i g n i n t e r f e r e n c e , and t h e r o l e o f c h u r c h e s , and t h e i r r e p o r t c a l l e d on Canada " t o i n c r e a s e i t s a i d and t r a d e w i t h t h e C e n t r a l American c o u n t r y and urged c o n t i n u e d s o l i d a r i t y w i t h N i c a r a g u a ' s p e o p l e from p r i v a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e Churches." (22) ICCHRLA o u t l i n e d t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f i t s member churches t o t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y Sub-committee on L a t i n A m e r i c a i n 1981, d e c l a r i n g t h a t , "Canadian p o l i c y s h o u l d be geared toward a i d i n g t h e development of governments t h a t a r e more e q u i t a b l e and p a r t i c i p a t o r y , l e s s m i l i t a r i s t i c and r e p r e s s i v e . We f u r t h e r b e l i e v e t h a t Canadian p o l i c y m a k e r s must b u i l d l i n k s w i t h t h e p o p u l a r movements which a r e coming t o s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s and m a t u r i t y i n L a t i n A m e r i c a , and g i v e up t h e s h o r t - t e r m g a i n s which might d e r i v e from t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e p o l i c y o f b u s i n e s s as u s u a l w i t h m i l i t a r y d i c t a t o r s and o u t r i g h t a l l i a n c e w i t h some o l i g a r c h i e s . " (23) In October 1983, ICCHRLA p r e s e n t e d MacEachen w i t h a b r i e f c a l l i n g on 0:.ttawa t o " p l a y a f r e s h , independent and e n e r g e t i c r o l e i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . " They asked how Canada c o u l d remain s i l e n t i n t h e f a c e o f open U.S. and Honduran i n t e r v e n t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a . The c h u r c h l e a d e r s s a i d t h a t , " c l e a r , p u b l i c and s u s t a i n e d o p p o s i t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e v e r s e t h e s e a g g r e s s i v e i n i t i a t i v e s . " (24) Canadian churches made a s p e c i a l e f f o r t t o t e l l t h e p u b l i c t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o U.S. c l a i m s , freedom of r e l i g i o n was not t h r e a t e n e d i n N i c a r a g u a . Moreover, a c h u r c h o f f i c i a l who v i s i t e d N i c a r a g u a f o r t h e World C o u n c i l o f Churches s a i d t h a t h i s group's i m p r e s s i o n was t h a t most of t h e c l e r g y and l a i t y i n N i c a r a g u a s u p p o r t t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . (25) Church members p a r t i c i p a t e d i n v i g i l s , c o n d ucted e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s , -49-p r o v i d e d m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t , and undertook a v a r i e t y of o t h e r s o l i d a r i t y e f f o r t s . One o f t h e most d r a m a t i c examples o f t h i s committment were th e v i s i t s made i n 1984 by s c o r e s o f Canadians, many of whom were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h u r c h e s , t o N i c a r a g u a as "Witnesses f o r J u s t i c e and Peace" i n e a r l y 1984. The W i t n e s s e s went t o N i c a r a g u a t o work, t o see t h e S a n d i n i s t a R e v o l u t i o n , and t o " s t a n d a l o n g s i d e t h e N i c a r a g u a n s . " They p l a n n e d t o spend up t o a month i n a war zone, h o p i n g t o d e t e r a U.S. i n v a s i o n . (26) Upon r e t u r n i n g t o Canada, they, used t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e t o educate Canadians t h r o u g h s l i d e - s h o w s , t a l k s , and o t h e r p u b l i c e v e n t s . Many of t h e f a c t o r s which prompted o t h e r NGOs t o s u p p o r t t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e promise o f development w i t h democracy, a t t r a c t e d c h u r ches as w e l l . The l a r g e number of p r i e s t s i n t h e N i c a r a g u a n government and t h e i m p o r t a n c e of r e l i g i o n i n t h e S a n d i n i s t a movement added t o t h e c h u r c h e s ' i n t e r e s t . Such c h u r c h a c t i v i s m i s r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t i n Canada, d a t i n g from t h e l a t e 1960s. B e f o r e t h a t t i m e , Canadian churches were g e n e r a l l y c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e main t h r u s t o f Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y , and s o c i a l advocacy was not common. But new i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s s u e s , from Vietnam t o a p a r t h e i d t o underdevelopment, began t o g a l v a n i z e c h u r c h p e o p l e . The easy r e l a t i o n between c h u r c h and s t a t e i n Canada became s t r a i n e d . Developments i n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c i r c l e s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d the c h u r c h e s . The appearance o f " l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g y " i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h i t s " p r e f e r e n t i a l o p t i o n f o r t h e p o o r " , had r e p e r c u s s i o n s beyond i t s C a t h o l i c o r i g i n s . O v e r a l l , i t was -50-" . . . t h e more g e n e r a l a c t i v i s m o f t h e c h u r c h i n the T h i r d World and i n t h e World C o u n c i l o f Churches t h a t had a p r o f o u n d impact on the way Canadian churches viewed i n t e r n a t i o n a l development and w o r l d p o l i t i c s . " (27) A i d and S o l i d a r i t y Groups The N i c a r a g u a n r e v o l u t i o n s e r v e d as a c a t a l y s t f o r the f o r m a t i o n o f many a i d and s o l i d a r i t y groups i n Canada. As e a r l y as August 1979, f o r example, Canadian A c t i o n f o r N i c a r a g u a (CAN) and M e d i c a l A i d t o N i c a r a g u a (MATN) were formed f o r t h e d u a l purposes of s u p p o r t i n g m e d i c a l p r o j e c t s i n N i c a r a g u a and l o b b y i n g t h e Canadian government t o i n c r e a s e a l l forms o f a i d . MATN s e n t t h e f i r s t Canadian m e d i c a l team t o post-war N i c a r a g u a i n J a n u a r y 1980, t o e s t a b l i s h a system of m o t h e r - a n d - c h i l d c a r e f a c i l i t i e s . (28) A l a r g e number of s u p p o r t groups s p r a n g up i n Quebec, such as t h e M o n t r e a l C o o r d i n a t i n g Committee f o r S o l i d a r i t y w i t h N i c a r a g u a , which opened an o f f i c e w i t h f u l l - t i m e s t a f f , funded by Quebec u n i o n s . With t h e S a n d i n i s t a v i c t o r y , t h e N i c a r a g u a n Human R i g h t s Committee i n Vancouver became th e C e n t r a l American Support Committee (CASC), whose p r i m a r y g o a l was t o a s s i s t w i t h r e c o n s t r u c t i o n e f f o r t s . CASC a l s o brought r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the FSLN on a s p e a k i n g t o u r , d i d p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n , and p u b l i s h e d t h e p e r i o d i c a l , "Centro America L i b r e " . ||ne of CASC's f i r s t e f f o r t s c o l l e c t e d $28,000 i n d o n a t i o n s f o r the L i t e r a c y Campaign from the B.C. Teacher's F e d e r a t i o n . M a t e r i a l a i d from Canadian NGp's i n 1980 was " w e l l o v er $1.5 m i l l i o n e x c l u s i v e of t h e v e r y s i z a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f v a r i o u s Canadian -51-l a b o u r c e n t r a l s . I n a d d i t i o n t o e x t e n s i v e s u p p o r t f o r (the) l i t e r a c y (campaign) coming from t h e c h u r c h e s , Oxfam, p r o v i n c i a l t e a c h e r s ' f e d e r a t i o n s , and t h e YWCA...Canadians a r e a s s i s t i n g a wide v a r i e y of s e l f - h e l p . . . " p r o j e c t s . (29) Oxfam-Canada was a n o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n whose i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h N i c a r a g u a began t o grow i n 1979. Oxfam e s t a b l i s h e d a c l i n i c i n a b a r r i o where none had e x i s t e d b e f o r e ; began a program t o t e a c h women a g r i c u l t u r a l w orkers about o c c u p a t i o n a l h e a l t h and s a f e t y ; and funded a c l o t h i n g / s e w i n g c o o p e r a t i v e and day c a r e c e n t r e s , as w e l l as p r o j e c t s t o h e l p s m a l l f a r mers i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i o n . Oxfam s e l e c t e d C e n t r a l America as "the r e g i o n o f p r i n c i p a l emphasis", and d e s c r i b e d N i c a r a g u a i n p a r t i c u l a r as "a c o u n t r y whose p o l i c i e s and l e v e l o f p o p u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e v e r y f a v o r a b l e t o a development p r o c e s s which b e n e f i t s t h e p o p u l a t i o n a t l a r g e " . (30) Oxfam a l s o worked t o i n f o r m Canadians about N i c a r a g u a and l o b b i e d t h e government t o i n c r e a s e a i d and oppose U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n . Canadian e n t e r t a i n e r s Bruce Cockburn and Nancy White d e l i v e r e d m e d i c a l s u p p l i e s t o N i c a r a g u a i n F e b r u a r y 1983 w h i l e on a t o u r s p o n s o red by Oxfam. Both have been outspoken s i n c e t h e i r r e t u r n and have w r i t t e n songs and a r t i c l e s about t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s . Only two weeks a f t e r i t s f i r s t shipment (see a b o v e ) , " T o o l s f o r Peace" s e n t a second one worth $70,000, t h a t was o r g a n i z e d by s e v e r a l NGOs and c o - o r d i n a t e d by CAN. Donations i n c l u d e d m e d i c a l s u p p l i e s , o f f i c e and p h o t o g r a p h i c equipment, c l o t h i n g , and more f i s h i n g g e a r . A Canadian who was i n t h e N i c a r a g u a n p o r t of C o r i n t o when t h e second s h i p a r r i v e d w r o t e : -52-L i g i a V i r g i l , o f t h e Augusto Cesar Sandino F o u n d a t i o n , w h i c h i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f o r e i g n a i d t o be c h a n n e l e d t o p o p u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n s . . . s a i d t h a t , a t t h e l e v e l o f NGOs and t h e p u b l i c , Canadians l e a d a l l o f t h e c i t i z e n s of th e A mericas i n t h e i r s u p p o r t o f N i c a r a g u a . j|n her l a s t v i s i t t o Canada, she was i m p r e s s e d by how w e l l - i n f o r m e d about, and i n t e r e s t e d i n N i c a r a g u a , t h e Canadian p u b l i c was... Spokesmen f o r t h e two l a r g e s t t r a d e u n i o n c e n t r a l s w h i c h w i l l r e c e i v e some of t h e s u p p l i e s , s a i d t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e - t o - p e o p l e d o n a t i o n s a r e i m p o r t a n t b o t h i n th e m a t e r i a l and i n t h e moral sense..." (31) " T o o l s f o r Peace" became an annual e f f o r t w hich demonstrated t h e depth o f p u b l i c c o n c e r n f o r N i c a r a g u a . CAN c o l l e c t e d about $125,000 worth o f a i d f o r N i c a r a g u a i n December 1982. Most of t h e a i d , which i n c l u d e d farm equipment, a new j e e p , f i s h i n g equipment, m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s , m e d i c a l s u p p l i e s , t o o l s , s p o r t i n g goods, t o y s , and s c h o o l s u p p l i e s , was c o l l e c t e d i n B r i t i s h C o lumbia, w i t h s u p p o r t coming from a number of t r a d e u n i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e B.C. Government Employees, Telecommunications Workers, and t h e P u l p , Paper, and Woodworkers of Canada. B u s i n e s s donors,, i n c l u d i n g CP T r a n s p o r t and B a r b e r - E l l i s , j o i n e d i n c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e d r i v e , which s u r p a s s e d i t s i n i t i a l g o a l . (32) The 1983 " T o o l s f o r Peace" campaign, now a n a t i o n - w i d e e f f o r t , c o l l e c t e d o v e r $1 m i l l i o n i n cash and m a t e r i a l a i d , more t h a n t h r e e t i m e s t h e amount of non-food a i d g i v e n by the Canadian government i n t h e p r e v i o u s t h r e e y e a r s combined. The l a r g e s t m a t e r i a l d o n a t i o n came from the P r a i r i e p r o v i n c e s (over $300,000), w h i l e B.C. added o v e r $100,000 w o r t h . (33) The 1984 t o t a l approached $2 m i l l i o n and was c h a n n e l e d t o h o s p i t a l s , s c h o o l s , d a y c a r e c e n t r e s , and o t h e r community s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . CAN a l s o conducted a "Music f o r N i c a r a g u a ! " d r i v e , t o s u p p l y equipment f o r the f l o u r i s h i n g i n d i g e n o u s music scene. C o r p o r a t e donors i n 1984 i n c l u d e d CP -53-R a i l and T i l d e n Rent-A-Car, w h i l e the C i t y o f Vancouver donated warehouse space. T h i s "Boat P r o j e c t " was o n l y one f o c u s i n a l a r g e r e f f o r t of s o l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e N i c a r a g u a n r e v o l u t i o n which went beyond r e l i e f a i d . T o o l s f o r Peace a l s o t r i e d t o r a i s e p u b l i c awareness about N i c a r a g u a , ( f o r example, b r i n g i n g former CIA a n a l y s t D a v i d MacMichael on a s p e a k i n g t o u r i n 1984). The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o aimed " t o persuade th e Canadian government t o re-examine f o r e i g n p o l i c y towards N i c a r a g u a . T o o l s f o r Peace encourages th e government t o e s t a b l i s h a Canadian embassy i n N i c a r a g u a ; t o oppose U.S. m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e r e g i o n ; and t o s u p p o r t th e Contadora p r o p o s a l s f o r peace i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . " (35) Sue M i t c h e l l , p r o j e c t c o - o r d i n a t o r , d e c l a r e d , " T h i s i s u l t i m a t e l y our most i m p o r t a n t work". (36) N o n - i n t e r v e n t i o n i n C e n t r a l America (NICA) began i t s work i n December 1983 w i t h an open l e t t e r p r i n t e d as a f u l l page ad i n t h e Globe & M a i l . The l e t t e r c a l l e d on Prime M i n i s t e r Trudeau t o t a k e s t e p s t o h e l p p r e v e n t t h e e s c a l a t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . A second ad was p u b l i s h e d on t h e eve of MacEachan's t r i p t o t h e r e g i o n and t h e q u e s t i o n s i t r a i s e d were used by t h e CBC t o q u i z t h e M i n i s t e r p r i o r t o h i s t r i p . (37) NICA a l s o commissioned a G a l l u p p o l l l a t e r t h a t y e a r which i n d i c a t e d t h a t Canadians opposed U.S. m i l i t a r i z a t i o n i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a by o ver 2 t o 1 (a f i n d i n g d e s c r i b e d by a G a l l u p r e p r e s e n t a t i v e as " v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t " ) . (38) S i n c e J u l y 1979 d e m o n s t r a t i o n s i n s u p p o r t of the S a n d i n i s t a s and a g a i n s t U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n have o c c a s i o n a l l y t a k e n p l a c e i n Canada. I n one of the l a r g e s t , o v e r 15,000 p e o p l e marched on P a r l i a m e n t H i l l on 30 October 1982. (39) j|n 30 September 1983, c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e aimed a t Canadian s i l e n c e over Washington's p o l i c i e s took p l a c e a t DEA o f f i c e s i n Ottawa. F i f t e e n p e o p l e were a r r e s t e d w h i l e 50 o t h e r s s u p p o r t e d t h e p r o t e s t o r s . (40) S i x hundred p e o p l e t u r n e d up o u t s i d e o f t h e h o t e l i n Vancouver where Henry K i s s i n g e r was s p e a k i n g a t a $ 1 5 0 - a - p l a t e d i n n e r i n Vancouver i n F e b r u a r y 1984. They came t o r e g i s t e r t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e m i l i t a r i s t i c and a n t i - N i c a r a g u a n elements t h a t Nixon's former S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e recommended i n t h e r e p o r t o f t h e B i p a r t i s a n Committee on C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . Throughout t h i s p e r i o d , as n oted above, s e v e r a l thousand Canadians went t o see N i c a r a g u a f o r t h e m s e l v e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o c h u r c h t o u r s , a number of work b r i g a d e s were o r g a n i z e d t o h e l p w i t h such t h i n g s as p i c k i n g c o f f e e , b u i l d i n g a c a r p e n t e r y s c h o o l , and p r o v i d i n g m e d i c a l a s s i s t a n c e . Other Canadians p a i d $1300-1500 f o r t h e chance t o p i c k c o t t o n and show t h e i r s u p o r t f o r t h e N i c a r a g u a n r e v o l u t i o n . Up-to-date i n f o r m a t i o n and a n a l y s i s about developments c o n c e r n i n g N i c a r g u a was produced by r e s e a r c h groups such as t h e C a n a d a - C a r i b b e a n - C e n t r a l America P o l i c y A l t e r n a t i v e s (CAPA) and t h e L a t i n American Working Group (LAWG). A l t h o u g h b o t h of t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s had a w i d e r scope, much of t h e i r work s i n c e 1979 was s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o N i c a r a g u a . They a l s o c onducted s e m i n a r s , l o b b i e d government o f f i c i a l s , and c a r r i e d on r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s i n s u p p o r t o f t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n . (One r e s u l t o f t h e o r g a n i z i n g done by NGOs was a c o n f e r e n c e on 8 December 1984, when a p p r o x i m a t e l y 140 p e o p l e - 5 5 -met i n T o r o n t o t o l a u n c h an broad-based A n t i - I n t e r v e n t i o n C o a l i t i o n w hich f o c u s e d on t h e t h r e a t of d i r e c t m i l i t a r y i n v o l v e m e n t by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n N i c a r a g u a [and E l S a l v a d o r ] ) . (41) T h i s b r i e f summary om i t s f a r more th a n i t i n c l u d e s o f t h e h i s t o r y o f non-governmental a c t i v i t i e s i n s u p p o r t o f N i c a r a g u a . I t i s s a f e t o say t h a t t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e Candian p u b l i c ' s i n t e r e s t and i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n i s unprecedented. No o t h e r comparable T h i r d World i s s u e has been so s a l i e n t s i n c e t h e S p a n i s h C i v i l War. ( I n f a c t , b o t h i s s u e s i n v o l v e d s i m i l a r mixes o f p e r s o n a l , p o l i t i c a l , and h u m a n i t a r i a n elements.) N e i t h e r t h e Cuban nor C h i n e s e r e v o l u t i o n s , nor t h e B i a f r a n war, nor even t h e U.S. war a g a i n s t I n d o c h i n a aroused such e x t e n s i v e and l o n g - t e r m i n v o l v e m e n t by Canadians. The hopes ar o u s e d by t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , t h e h o s t i l i t y o f t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e r e l a t i v e a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f N i c a r a g u a , and the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e ev e n t s f o r the f u t u r e o f development and peace a l l c o n t r i b u t e d t o c a t c h i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n o f Canadians. T h e i r work r e s u l t e d i n a i d p r o j e c t s f o r N i c a r a g u a whose t o t a l v a l u e as o f F e b r u a r y , 1984, was o v e r $80 m i l l i o n . (42) The en t h u s i a s m o f t h e s e Canadians was summed up by one a i d worker: " I t i s s m a l l wonder t h e n t h a t so many of Canada's v o l u n t a r y a i d a g e n c i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s were e x c i t e d about t h e i r work i n N i c a r a g u a . T h i s i s i n d e e d , i n t h e t r u e s t sense of t h e word, a d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y . Things happen. E s s e n t i a l needs r e c e i v e a t t e n t i o n . P e o p l e a re o r g a n i z e d f o r development." (43) T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e -56-NGOs, as e x p r e s s e d i n t h e f i n a l communique o f t h e " F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o f Non-Governmental O r g a n i z a t i o n " t h a t was h e l d i n Managua December 6-10, 1983. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of 100 NGOs ( i n c l u d i n g I n t e r p a r e s , CUSO, SUCO, Oxfam, Development and Peace, and CANSAVE) from 23 n a t i o n s d e c l a r e d : We m a i n t a i n t h a t N i c a r a g u a , d e s p i t e t h e l i m i t a t i o n s caused by t h e economic and m i l i t a r y b l o c k a d e , i s an a l t e r n a t i v e model f o r s o c i a l and economic development and t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e , which b e n e f i t s t h e m a j o r i t y and has s t a r t e d t o s o l v e t h e b a s i c problems of underdevelopment. (44) As f o r t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , t h e y f e l t t h a t t h e NGOs had p l a y e d two v e r y i m p o r t a n t r o l e s . "The f i r s t i s t o h e l p s m a l l community development p r o j e c t s , l i k e i n a g r i c u l t u r e and t h e l i t e r a c y campaign." The second f a c t o r has been i n c r e a s e d p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n Canada. "The NGOs have p l a y e d a key r o l e i n making t h e Canadian p u b l i c aware o f what i s g o i n g on i n N i c a r a g u a by o r g a n i z i n g t o u r s , ( i n f o u r y e a r s we have r e c e i v e d 1,000 o r 1,500 C a n a d i a n s ) , o r s e n d i n g m e d i c a l teams, o r e s t a b l i s h i n g . . . a v e r y s u c c e s s f u l 'Boat P r o j e c t ' . (45) (As no t e d , Canadians were more a c t i v e t h a n any o t h e r p e o p l e i n t h e Western Hemisphere.) T h i s l a s t element, t h e impact o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n on government a i d f o r Managua, was c r u c i a l , s i n c e NGOs o b v i o u s l y c o u l d n o t , by t h e m s e l v e s , make t h e N i c a r a g u a n economy s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t i n terms o f e x p o r t c r o p s o r a t t r a c t i n g f o r e i g n revenue o r c u r r e n c y . That i s why N i c a r a g u a a t t a c h e d g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t o p u b l i c e f f o r t s t o p r e s s u r e Ottawa t o g r a n t generous b i l a t e r a l a i d . -57-c) P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s The New Democrats The New D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y had s u p p o r t e d t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n w h i l e Somoza was s t i l l i n power, and m a i n t a i n e d t h a t p o s i t i o n a f t e r w a r d s . A f t e r t h e FSLN v i c t o r y , t h e NDP c o n t i n u e d t o p r e s s t h e Canadian government i n t h e Commons t o do more f o r N i c a r a g u a , w h i l e h e l p i n g w i t h campaigns such as t h e L i t e r a c y Crusade and " T o o l s f o r Peace". Many NDPers v i s i t e d N i c a r a g u a . In 1982, f o r i n s t a n c e , a d e l e g a t i o n o r g a n i z e d by Dan Heap from h i s S padina NDP R i d i n g A s s o c i a t i o n spent two weeks i n N i c a r a g u a . Robert Ogle, MP f o r Saskatoon E a s t v i s i t e d N i c a r a g u a l a t e i n 1982 as p a r t o f a S o c i a l i s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l d e l e g a t i o n . Upon r e t u r n i n g , Ogle s a i d , "There must be some p r e s s u r e brought t o bear a g a i n s t Honduras by V e n e z u e l a , M e x i c o , Canada, and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s c h a l l e n g i n g . . . t h e i r r i g h t t o s u p p o r t Somocistas on t h e i r b o r d e r s . " (44) The p a r t y ' s p r o - S a n d i n i s t a p o l i c e s r e c e i v e d s t r o n g g r a s s - r o o t s s u p p o r t . For example, d e l e g a t e s a t t h e 1983 NDP n a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n v o t e d unanimously t o send t h e f o l l o w i n g t e l e g r a m t o t h e N i c a r a g u a n government: The NDP, r e p r e s e n t i n g o v e r 100,000 Canadians, extends t h e warmest g r e e t i n g s t o t h e p e o p l e and government of N i c a r a g u a on t h e f o u r t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e o v e r t h r o w o f t h e Somoza d i c t a t o r s h i p . The NDP i s committed t o s u p p o r t i n g your s t r u g g l e and k e e p i n g N i c a r a g u a d e m o c r a t i c and f r e e o f U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n . We w h o l e h e a r t e d l y commend the achievements o f your p e o p l e and government s i n c e 1979. In h i s keynote a d d r e s s , Broadbent added h i s v o i c e , s t a t i n g -58-t h a t , "The c o u n t r y and t h e government d e s e r v e our t o t a l s u p p o r t . " (45) M.P. P a u l i n e J e w e t t , E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s C r i t i c , was one of th e most outspoken a d v o c a t e s o f Canadian s u p p o r t f o r N i c a r a g u a . She l e d t h e NDP d e l e g a t i o n t o t h e f o u r t h a n n i v e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n i n Managua and, upon her r e t u r n , denounced U.S. p o l i c i e s i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a w h i l e c r i t i c i z i n g t h e Canadian government f o r f a i l i n g t o e x e r c i s e i t s i n f l u e n c e t o b r i n g peace t o the r e g i o n . " I w i l l urge Prime M i n i s t e r Trudeau t o get i n t o u c h w i t h t h e Contadora group...so t h a t t h e government l e n d s i t s s u p p o r t o p e n l y and p u b l i c l y t o t h e i r e f f o r t s t o b r i n g peace". J e w e t t added t h a t , " I t i s c r u c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t f o r Canada t o d i s t a n c e i t s e l f from U.S. p o l i c y " . (46) She a l s o p r a i s e d t h e s i x - p o i n t peace p l a n put f o r w a r d on ( J u l y 19) by D a n i e l Ortega...as " r e f l e c t i v e and t h o u g h t f u l " . (As n o t e d , t h e government of Canada a l s o p r a i s e d t h i s p r o p o s a l . ) The NDP's c o n c e r n o v e r t h e l a c k o f a m e a n i n g f u l Canadian p r e s e n c e i n N i c a r a g u a was u n d e r l i n e d when word l e a k e d out t h a t Canada was c o u n t i n g on Washington t o guarantee t h e s a f e t y o f Canadians i n N i c a r a g u a i n t h e event o f a U.S. i n v a s i o n . J e w e t t was o u t r a g e d , s a y i n g , "The l a s t t h i n g ( t h e Canadians) need i s t o be used as a p r e t e x t f o r an A m e r i c a n - i n s p i r e d i n v a s i o n . . . " (47) Dan Heap l a i d out t h e s p e c i f i c s o f New Democratic p o l i c y on N i c a r a g u a when he c a l l e d on t h e Canadian government " t o e s t a b l i s h our independent p r e s e n c e i n N i c a r a g u a by s e n d i n g our S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s t o N i c a r a g u a t o d i s c u s s t h e i r r e c e n t p r o p o s a l s . . . and by opening an embassy i n Managua -59-t o p r o v i d e d i r e c t , independent day-to-day i n f o r m a t i o n . . . and by w o r k i n g c l o s e l y w i t h t h e Contadora group t o b l o c k U.S. p l a n s f o r war and t o i n c r e a s e economic a i d t o N i c a r a g u a " . (48) In 1984, Heap l e d a n o t h e r group of h i s c o n s t i t u e n t s t o N i c a r a g u a and, on J a n u a r y 14, met w i t h P r e s i d e n t o f t h e C o u n c i l o f S t a t e i n Managua. Upon h i s r e t u r n , Heap made a unique p r o p o s a l : t h a t the NDP send a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t o Managua i f the f e d e r a l government r e f u s e d t o s e t up a Canadian embassy t h e r e . " I t ' s i m p o r t a n t t o have much b e t t e r , more d i r e c t communication", he s a i d . (49) I n A p r i l , J e w e t t r e i t e r a t e d t h a t her p a r t y wanted t o e s t a b l i s h "our own Canada House, c o u r t e s y o f t h e NDP, i n Managua." She added t h a t t h e NDP had a f a v o r a b l e r e sponse from N i c a r a g u a n o f f i c i a l s , and t h a t t h e l e g a t i o n would be s t a f f e d by Canadians w i t h N i c a r a g u a n backgrounds. (50) Such a move would have been t h e f i r s t t i m e a Canadian p o l i t i c a l p a r t y i n v o l v e d i t s e l f d i r e c t l y i n the d i p l o m a t i c a f f a i r s o f a f o r e i g n government, but t h e e x p e r i m e n t was not c a r r i e d o u t . The NDP t o o k t h e l e a d i n denouncing th e m i n i n g of N i c a r a g u a n p o r t s by t h e CIA. Broadbent p r e s s e d t h e L i b e r a l government t o condemn t h e a c t i o n , c a l l i n g i t " l e g a l l y i n d e f e n s i b l e " . (51) Other New D e m o c r a t i c M.P.s p r e s s e d the i s s u e . J i m F u l t o n d e c l a r e d t h e m i n i n g "an a c t o f war which i s i n r e a l i t y no d i f f e r e n t from th e S o v i e t i n v a s i o n of A f g a n i s t a n " . (52) P r o v i n c i a l New Democrats a l s o v o i c e d t h e i r s u p p o r t f o r N i c a r a g u a . The l e a d e r o f t h e B r i t i s h Columbia NDP, Robert S k e l l y , s p e a k i n g a t a r a l l y o r g a n i z e d by t h e B.C. N i c a r a g u a S o l i d a r i t y Committee, d e c l a r e d , "We must change the o p i n i o n of - 6 0 -t h e f e d e r a l government and i t s a p p r o v a l o f t h e a t t i t u d e [ o f ] t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . . . " ( B e f o r e becoming p a r t y l e a d e r , S k e l l y spent 5 weeks i n N i c a r a g u a ) . (53) The C o n s e r v a t i v e s W h i l e P r o g r e s s i v e C o n s e r v a t i v e s have been the most h o s t i l e t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , one can d i s t i n g u i s h between the approach of Tory r i g h t - w i n g e r s and t h a t o f t h e moderates, i n c l u d i n g B r i a n Mulroney and Joe C l a r k . Sometimes the remarks o f r i g h t - w i n g T o r i e s came c l o s e t o c a r i c a t u r e , as when John Gamble, d u r i n g a Commons debate over t h e p o s s i b i l t y o f s e n d i n g o l d f i s h i n g b o a t s t o N i c a r a g u a , demanded a s s u r a n c e from MacGuigan t h a t t h e v e s s e l s would not "be used as gunboats f o r t h e purpose of s p r e a d i n g r e v o l u t i o n i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . (54) E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s c r i t i c S i n c l a i r S t e v e n s , who, l i k e Gamble, i s on t h e PC r i g h t - w i n g , r i d i c u l e d any t a l k o f a U.S. i n v a s i o n o f N i c a r a g u a as " S o c i a l i s t propaganda". (55) S t e v e n s ' v i e w s , l i k e t h o s e o f many of h i s c o l l e g u e s , g e n e r a l l y m i r r o r e d U.S. p o s i t i o n s . He a s s e r t e d i n March 1984 t h a t , "We i n t h e P r o g r e s s i v e C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y s u p p o r t t h e e f f o r t s o f the Contadora Group..." b u t , l i k e t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , he c l a i m e d t h a t "the S a n d i n i s t a s have b e t r a y e d t h e i r own r e v o l u t i o n . . . ( a n d ) moved t o m o n o p o l i z e p o l i t i c a l power, t o d e s t r o y freedom o f t h e p r e s s , and t o suppress t h e i ndependent l a b o u r movement...The m i l i t a r i z a t i o n i n Honduras p a l e s b e s i d e t h e m i l i t a r y b u i l d u p i n N i c a r a g u a . E m u l a t i n g t h e - 6 / -Cuban model, N i c a r a g u a has b u i l t t he l a r g e s t m i l i t a r y f o r c e i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , f a r beyond any l e g i t i m a t e d e f e n s e needs..." (56) S t e v e n s ' i d e a s were not c o n f i n e d t o o f f e r i n g r h e t o r i c a l s u p p o r t f o r U.S. p o l i c y . When he accompanied Mulroney, t h e n l e a d e r o f t h e O p p o s i t i o n , t o Washington, Stevens d i s c u s s e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f Canada e s t a b l i s h i n g a s p e c i a l m i l i t a r y u n i t t o accompany t h e Americans on m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n s , such as t h e i n v a s i o n o f Grenada. (57) But, as new C o n s e r v a t i v e p a r t y l e a d e r , M u l r o n e y , a l t h o u g h w i l l i n g t o g i v e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e " b e n e f i t o f t h e doubt", seemed t o p e r c e i v e t h e u n r e s t i n C e n t r a l America i n a s l i g h l y d i f f e r e n t l i g h t t h a n Washington d i d . He w r o t e : I b e l i e v e t h a t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l , economic, and s o c i a l autonomy of a l l C e n t r a l American c o u n t r i e s be r e s p e c t e d as t h e i r governments n e g o t i a t e r e s o l u t i o n s t o c i v i l and r e g i o n a l d i s p u t e s . I t has always been t h e P r o g r e s s i v e C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y ' s p o l i c y t o encourage i n d i v i d u a l o r c o l l e c t i v e t h i r d - p a r t y m e d i a t i o n and t o d i s c o u r a g e t h i r d p a r t y i n t e r v e n t i o n . . . w e have commended t h e Contadora group... (58) The emphasis on n e g o t i a t i o n was n o t , of c o u r s e , a u n i q u e l y C o n s e r v a t i v e i d e a . Canada has always s t r o n g l y f a v o r e d d i a l o g u e o v er t h e use o f f o r c e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s p u t e s . L i k e w i s e , Canadians h i s t o r i c a l l y have been s u s p i c i o u s o f excuses f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n i s m . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Mulroney's s t a t e m e n t was t h a t much o f h i s p a r t y would not a c c e p t t h e argument t h a t t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l Canadian a t t i t u d e was a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h e case o f U.S. i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e a f f a i r s of C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . But d u r i n g t h e 1984 e l e c t i o n campaign, Tory p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t s on N i c a r a g u a tended t o r e f l e c t t h i s moderate view. One PC -62-e l e c t i o n document conceded t h a t , s i n c e "many o f t h e problems i n C e n t r a l America a r e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c i n o r i g i n . . . Canada must t a k e a more a c t i v e r o l e t h r o u g h o f f i c i a l development a s s i s t a n c e . . . " The paper a d m i t s t h a t Canadian d i p l o m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a i s "somewhat i n a d e q u a t e " and commits t h e p a r t y t o "a major f o r e i g n p o l i c y r e v i e w " which would i n c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f an i n c r e a s e i n "embassies, c o n s u l a t e s and s t a f f " i n i n t h e r e g i o n . (59) The L i b e r a l s L i k e t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e s but u n l i k e t h e New Democrats, t h e g o v e r n i n g L i b e r a l s never a c h i e v e d a concensus on t h e b e s t way t o d e a l w i t h t h e S a n d i n i s t a s on t h e one hand and t h e U.S. on the o t h e r . A l t h o u g h i n d i v i d u a l L i b e r a l MPs g e n e r a l l y echoed government p o l i c y , a few were outspoken i n t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o elements o f Canada's p o s i t i o n . L i b e r a l MP Warren A l l m a n d , f o r i n s t a n c e , urged MacEachen t o "withdraw a l l f o r e i g n a i d t o Honduras u n t i l i t s t o p s p e r m i t t i n g t h e C o n t r a s t o use i t s t e r r i t o r y . . . " He a l s o asked t h a t "the M i n i s t e r make c l e a r t o Honduras and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h a t Canada opposes... t h e f u n d i n g o f t h e s e C o n t r a t r o o p s which c o n s t i t u t e a v i o l a t i o n o f th e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h a r t e r " . (60) In e a r l y 1984, MP M a u r i c e Dupras, a n o t h e r m a v e r i c k L i b e r a l , condemned U.S. a c t i o n s i n C e n t r a l America and accused the Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f "a l a c k o f s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e w i l l of t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y of t h e p e o p l e " i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . (61) In A p r i l , Dupras even c r i t i c i z e d h i s own government's t i m i d i t y -63-o v e r C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . S p e a k i n g a t a c o n f e r e n c e on "Canada, th e U n i t e d S t a t e s , and L a t i n A m e r i c a " , the former chairman o f t h e Commons subcommittee on r e l a t i o n s w i t h L a t i n A m e r i c a and t h e C a r i b b e a n s a i d t h a t Canada's r o l e s h o u l d be " t o put p r e s s u r e on t h e p r e s e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n Washington" t o d e m i l i t a r i z e C e n t r a l A merica. (62) There were r e p o r t s t h a t t h e s e remarks were encouraged by S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e MacEachen who, by t h i s t i m e , was growing i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p r e h e n s i v e about U.S. p o l i c i e s toward N i c a r a g u a . (63) As e v e n t s p r o g r e s s e d and MacEachen began p u b l i c l y t o d i s t a n c e Ottawa's p o l i c i e s from t h o s e o f t h e U.S., o t h e r L i b e r a l s were encouraged t o speak o u t . D u r i n g t h e 1984 L i b e r a l l e a d e r s h i p r a c e , even Mark MacGuigan was r e p o r t e d t o have " c a s t i g a t e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r i t s p o l i c i e s i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . . . " (64) Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e s t a n d s o f Canada's t h r e e main p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s toward t h e S a n d i n i s t a s tended t o c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h e i r p o s i t i o n on t h e p o l i t i c a l spectrum. The C o n s e r v a t i v e s were t h e most r e s e r v e d toward t h e new government i n Managua, w h i l e t h e New Democrats s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d N i c a r a g u a . L i b e r a l s were g e n e r a l l y a m b i v a l e n t , w i t h some elements s y m p a t h e t i c and o t h e r s s u s p i c i o u s . The L i b e r a l l e a d e r s h i p p a i d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e views r e g a r d i n g government, p o l i c y toward N i c a r a g u a , p a r t l y because t h e r e was not a s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e p a r t i e s f o r most of t h i s p e r i o d , and p a r t l y because t h e T o r i e s never t o o k t h e i s s u e v e r y s e r i o u s l y i n P a r l i a m e n t . N i c a r a g u a was never a major i s s u e , e i t h e r i n P a r l i a m e n t o r w i t h t h e -64-e l e c t o r a t e . A t t a c k s on Trudeau's p o l i c y from t h e NDP were more c o n s i s t e n t and p r o b a b l y had a g r e a t e r e f f e c t . Towards t h e end . of i t s term, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e L i b e r a l government's a t t i t u d e toward N i c a r a g u a drew c l o s e r t o t h a t o f t h e NDP i n terms of opening an embassy, i n c r e a s i n g a i d , and o p p o s i n g t o Washington's a c t i o n s . The NDP made more o f an i s s u e of N i c a r a g u a t h a n d i d t h e T o r i e s , and th e y had c r e d i b l e a l l i e s among c h u r c h e s , NGOs, and l a b o u r . Indeed, o n l y t h e NDP was s u f f i c i e n t l y c oncerned about N i c a r a g u a t o work w i t h non-governmental groups i n p r e s s i n g t h e government t o a l t e r i t s approach. N i c a r a g u a , l i k e most o t h e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s s u e s , p l a y e d no s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n the C o n s e r v a t i v e e l e c t o r a l sweep o f September 1984. 4) The P r e s s I t i s beyond t h e scope o f t h i s work t o p r o v i d e a comprehensive a c c o u n t o f t h e media's t r e a t m e n t o f e i t h e r N i c a r a g u a o r Canadian p o l i c i e s towards t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l o f f e r an i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c s u r v e y of mainstream o p i n i o n as r e f l e c t e d i n t h e two most p o p u l a r n a t i o n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s , t h e Tor o n t o Globe & M a i l and Maclean's magazine, b o t h o f which g e n e r a l l y t a k e a m i d d l e - o f - t h e - r o a d approach, e d i t o r i a l l y and i n t h e i r news cov e r a g e . An u n s c i e n t i f i c sample o f o t h e r newspapers and magazines i s a l s o i n c l u d e d . There was e x t r e m e l y l i t t l e news o f N i c a r a g u a b e f o r e 1978, -65-when the f i n a l s t r u g g l e t o o v e r t h r o w Somoza began. R e f e r r i n g t o t h e a t t e n t i o n t h a t d e v e l o p e d i n 1978 and 1979, one a n a l y s i s a s s e r t e d t h a t , " . . . t h e Canadian media have not promoted t h e development o f a p r o g r e s s i v e p o l i t i c a l r o l e f o r Canada", and p o i n t e d t o a Globe & M a i l e d i t o r i a l w hich s u p p o r t e d t h e U.S. p r o p o s a l f o r an OAS "peacekeeping" f o r c e under de f a c t o U.S. c o n t r o l t o be s e n t t o N i c a r a g u a . (65) Other Globe e d i t o r i a l s c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l e d the s t a n d t a k e n by t h e f e d e r a l government. For i n s t a n c e , a l t h o u g h i t condemned th e most f l a g r a n t U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n , such as t h e m i n i n g o f N i c a r a g u a n p o r t s , t h e Globe has g e n e r a l l y backed Washington's o v e r a l l aims i n N i c a r a g u a . An e d i t o r i a l p u b l i s h e d on J u l y 1983, f o r example, warned a g a i n s t t h e " M a r x i s t , a u t h o r i t a r i a n b e n t " o f the S a n d i n i s t a s . The e d i t o r i a l a l s o a c c e p t e d t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s unproved charge t h a t arms were r e a c h i n g S a l v a d o r a n g u e r r i l l a s v i a N i c a r a g u a and Cuba. (66) L a t e r , t h e e d i t o r s c l a i m e d t h a t o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s w i t h i n N i c a r a g u a d e v e l o p e d p r i m a r i l y because t h e S a n d i n i s t a s "abused" t h e i r power, a charge l e v e l e d by t h e U.S. and a c c e p t e d f o r a t i m e by t h e Canadian government. (67) Another e d i t o r i a l r i d i c u l e d what i t termed t h e " S a n d i n i s t a c h e e r i n g s e c t i o n i n Canada", (68) and d e c r i e d "the w i l l f u l b l i n d n e s s o f much of t h e Canadian L e f t " which does not c a r e about such a t r o c i t i e s as f o r c i n g "the s m a l l J e w i s h community i n t o e x i l e , " (69) (an event which never took p l a c e ) . But the Globe was g e n u i n e l y alarmed when Washington o r g a n i z e d t h e m i n i n g o f N i c a r a g u a n h a r b o u r s . The paper p o i n t e d out t h a t " N i c a r a g u a has shown no i n t e r e s t i n becoming a S o v i e t - 6 6 -beachhead"; r a t h e r , "the U.S. a p p l i e s m i l i t a r y p r e s s u r e t h a t d r i v e s t h e S a n d i n i s t a s i n t o t h e S o v i e t camp, t h e n c i t e s t h i s ' h e m i s p h e r i c s e c u r i t y t h r e a t ' as j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e i r o v e r t h r o w " . (70) The Globe's a t t i t u d e i s summed up i n t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s from an e d i t o r i a l i n May 1 9 8 4 : N i c a r a g u a i s a l r e a d y c o n t r o l l e d by a M a r x i s t - o r i e n t e d regime which has been heavy-handed toward M i s k i t o i n d i a n s , t h e C a t h o l i c Church, and o t h e r s e c t o r s o f N i c a r a g u a n s o c i e t y . But w h i l e U.S. h o s t i l i t y toward such t r e n d s i s j u s t i f i e d , t h a t does not make U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n i n C e n t r a l America a sound p o l i c y , e i t h e r e t h i c a l l y o r s t r a t e g i c a l l y . . . ( b u t ) The U.S. cannot be i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e s e c u r i t y t h r e a t t h a t would be posed by Communist s u b v e r s i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e hemisphere and by t h e mass exodus toward t h e U.S. of C e n t r a l Americans f l e e i n g Communist r u l e . " * (71) News coverage about N i c a r a g u a i n t h e Globe & M a i l was more v a r i e d . W h i l e some o f t h e Globe's c o l u m n i s t s agreed w i t h Washington's p o r t r a y a l o f N i c a r a g u a as a s i m p l e C o l d War i s s u e , o t h e r s , such as R i c h a r d J . Doyle and L a t i n American c o r r e s p o n d e n t Oakland Ross, demonstrated a more complex u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e f o r c e s a t work i n N i c a r a g u a . By and l a r g e , t h e s e w r i t e r s had a v i e w o f t h e S a n d i n i s t a s t h a t i s more i n a c c o r d w i t h Ottawa's p o s i t i o n t h a t the t r o u b l e s o f C e n t r a l A merica have more t o do w i t h i n d i g i n o u s f a c t o r s t h a n w i t h S o v i e t s u b v e r s i o n . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e Globe & M a i l , o t h e r d a i l y newspapers * The w r i t e r seems t o have been unaware t h a t the overwhelming m a j o r i t y o f C e n t r a l American r e f u g e e s were f l e e i n g from U.S. c l i e n t s t a t e s [ e . g . E l S a l v a d o r and G u a t e m a l a ] , w h i l e N i c a r a g u a a c t u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d a net i n f l u x o f d i s p l a c e d p e r s o n s . -67-have t a k e n e d i t o r i a l p o s i t i o n s l e s s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h o s e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The T o r o n t o S t a r r e g u l a r l y slammed Washington's i n t e r f e r e n c e i n N i c a r a g u a . When N i c a r a g u a ' s h a r b o u r s were b e i n g mined, th e S t a r e d i t o r i a l i z e d : W i t h East-West r e l a t i o n s a t t h e i r l o w e s t p o i n t i n 20 y e a r s , Canadians and everyone e l s e have an enormous s t a k e i n not s e e i n g t h e U.S. government i n d u l g e i n any i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c k l e s s n e s s . . . Yet Washington i s i n c r e a s i n g l y p u r s u i n g j u s t t h a t c o u r s e , w i t h i t s . . . u n d e c l a r e d war a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a . . . (72) The S t a r a l s o d e c l a r e d t h a t "the Canadian government s h o u l d p u b l i c l y l o b b y " i n f a v o r o f C o n t a d o r a . (73) W h i l e th e S t a r a c c e p t e d as f a c t t h e charge t h a t t h e r e was s i g n i f i c a n t " S o v i e t - b a c k e d . . . m i l i t a r y m e d d l i n g " i n C e n t r a l America ( 7 4 ) , i t n e v e r t h e l e s s d e c l a r e d t h a t , "No regime i n t h e a r e a poses a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o U.S. i n t e r e s t s . (75) A number o f o t h e r major Canadian newspapers d i s a g r e e d w i t h U.S. p o l i c y . N i c a r a g u a ' s 1983 peace p r o p o s a l , a l o n g w i t h i d e a of e s t a b l i s h i n g a Canadian embassy i n Managua, were applauded i n a e d i t o r i a l i n t h e Ottawa C i t i z e n . (76) The M o n t r e a l G a z e t t e d e c l a r e d Reagan's p o l i c i e s i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " s t u p i d " ( 7 7 ) , w h i l e t h e Vancouver Sun d e s c r i b e d Washington's i n v o l v e m e n t as "one of t h e s o r r i e r c h a p t e r s o f U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . (78) Wire s e r v i c e s t o r i e s were a s o u r c e o f a s i g n i f i c a n t amount of c o v e r a g e . Those from th e A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s and UPI g e n e r a l l y r e f l e c t e d a U.S. b i a s , w h i l e t h o s e from R e u t e r s were u s u a l l y more b a l a n c e d and had more d e p t h . To c i t e o n l y one example o f t h i s b i a s : i n F e b r u a r y 1984, when D a n i e l Ortega announced t h e date of N i c a r a g u a ' s f i r s t f r e e e l e c t i o n , he added t h a t -68-" C h r i s t i a n i t y and Marxism a r e p a r t o f S a n d i n i s t a democracy". The A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s s t o r y began w i t h the statement t h a t , " N i c a r a g u a ' s l e f t i s t l e a d e r s say t h e y w i l l not abandon Marxism r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e outcome of t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l and l e g i s l a t i v e e l e c t i o n s . . . " (79) As might be e x p e c t e d o f a we e k l y , Maclean's had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r o v i d e more i n - d e p t h i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g N i c a r a g u a . A s t o r y i n e a r l y 1981 which d e s c r i b e d b o t h t h e t r i u m p h s and t h e h a r d s h i p s o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n s t a t e d t h a t t h e " s a c r i f i c e s a r e not g i v e n b e g r u d g i n g l y , but r a t h e r w i t h f i e r c e p r i d e . " A f t e r p o i n t i n g out t h e l a c k o f e v i d e n c e f o r some of Washington's a c c u s a t i o n s , the a r t i c l e c o n c l u d e d t h a t N i c a r a g u a n s " w i l l not g i v e up t h e independence t h e y won a t a c o s t o f an e s t i m a t e d 50,000 l i v e s . " (80) A l a t e r p i e c e about t h e s t r i f e i n C e n t r a l America d e t a i l e d b o t h Washington's a c c u s a t i o n s and t h e l a c k o f e v i d e n c e f o r t h o s e c h a r g e s . I t co v e r e d t h e o r i g i n of t h e C o n t r a s , t h e s o - c a l l e d K i s s i n g e r Commission, t h e Contadora t a l k s , and i n t e r n a l developments i n N i c a r a g u a (such as p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n s ) . (81) Maclean's a g a i n p r i n t e d a s u b s t a n t i a l account o f C e n t r a l A merica w i t h s p e c i a l emphasis on N i c a r a g u a i n August 1983. T h i s s t o r y c o n t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r s , such as d e s c r i b i n g Commandante D a n i e l Ortega as " h a r d - l i n e , " when, i n f a c t , he r e p r e s e n t s a moderate element i n t h e S a n d i n i s t a l e a d e r s h i p . More s e r i o u s was the statement t h a t " e l e c t i o n s have been r e p e a t e d l y postponed". ( A c t u a l l y , t h e S a n d i n i s t a s k e p t t h e i r p r omise t o h o l d e l e t i o n s w i t h i n 5 y e a r s a f t e r t h e o u s t e r o f Somoza.) The a r t i c l e a l s o s t a t e d t h a t , " D e s p i t e t h e -69-S a n d i n i s t a s ' r e p u t a t i o n f o r M a r x i s t f a n a t i c i s m " , N i c a r a g u a has "been n o t a b l y f r e e o f i n t e r n e c i n e v i o l e n c e . . . i n marked c o n t r a s t t o i t s r i g h t i s t n e i g h b o u r s . . . " ( 8 2 ) An accompanying a r t i c l e d e s c r i b e d Canada's p o s i t i o n as "the m i d d l e p a t h " . The r e p o r t e r n o t e d , however, t h a t , w h i l e N i c a r a g u a was a l l o c a t e d $6.8 m i l l i o n i n a i d from 1980 t o 1983, "$58 m i l l i o n has gone t o t h e r i g h t i s t regimes i n Guatemala, E l S a l v a d o r , and Honduras o v e r th e same p e r i o d . " (83) I n December, Maclean's c l a i m e d t h a t t h e r e were "2,000 l e f t - w i n g r e b e l l e a d e r s [ s i c ] from n e i g h b o r i n g E l S a l v a d o r " i n Managua, a number which would r e p r e s e n t a s i z a b l e p e r c e n t a g e of t h e e n t i r e FMLN g u e r r i l l a f o r c e . (84) Maclean's p r o v i d e d d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n about th e m i n i n g of N i c a r a g u a n p o r t s i n t h e S p r i n g o f 1984 and p o i n t e d out t h a t t h e s e developments "took p l a c e a g a i n s t t h e background of Washington's s t e a d y m i l i t a r y b u i l d u p " i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . But t h e a r t i c l e took a t f a c e v a l u e Washington's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e U.S. "openly s u p p o r t s t h e slow-moving Contadora p r o c e s s " . (85) A s t o r y i n August 1984 about th e a p p r o a c h i n g N i c a r a g u a n e l e c t i o n was headed, "The o p p o s i t i o n c a l l s a b o y c o t t , " and i n c l u d e d a quote from an unnamed d i p l o m a t who r e f e r r e d t o "the a b s t e n t i o n o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n . . . " Nowhere was t h e r e any i n d i c a t i o n t h a t o n l y 4 of t h e 11 p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s were p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e b o y c o t t , o r t h e t i e s o f t h e s e n o n - p a r t i c i p a n t s w i t h t h e C I A - d i r e c t e d c o n t r a s . (86) The impact of s m a l l - c i r c u l a t i o n magazines on Canadian o p i n i o n must not be o v e r l o o k e d . P u b l i c a t i o n s such as C e n t r a l  A merica Update, Canadian Dimension, Our Times, C e n t r o America -70-L i b r e , Our G e n e r a t i o n , and Canadian Forum s e r v e d as a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n f o r many Canadians who s u p p o r t e d N i c a r a g u a n independence. These p e r i o d i c a l s a l s o p r o v i d e d a means o f communication bewteen i n t e r e s t e d elements o f t h e Canadian p u b l i c , p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , and f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e work of NGOs. Wh i l e t h e Canadian p r i n t media i n g e n e r a l appeared somewhat s k e p t i c a l o f U.S. i n t e n t i o n s toward N i c a r a g u a , t h e y u s u a l l y p r o v i d e d l i t t l e background i n f o r m a t i o n . Unproven U.S. pronouncements were o f t e n a c c e p t e d a t f a c e v a l u e and went u n c h a l l e n g e d , w h i l e t h e N i c a r a g u a n s i d e o f t h e argument o f t e n went unheard. S t i l l , t h o u g h t f u l p i e c e s d i d appear and i n t e r e s t i n N i c a r a g u a , as r e f l e c t e d by t h e number o f l e t t e r s - t o - t h e - e d i t o r , was not i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r s m a l l c o u n t r i e s . I t s h o u l d be noted t h a t p u b l i c i n t e r e s t i n t h e S a n d i n i s t a s has been h i g h e r t h a n t h a t shown f o r many o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y s m a l l T h i r d World n a t i o n s . The e x t e n t t o which t h i s i n t e r e s t a f f e c t e d t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of media coverage o f N i c a r a g u a i s an unanswered b u t i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o gauge w i t h any c e r t a i n t y t h e impact of the p r i n t media i n Canada on p u b l i c o p i n i o n about N i c a r a g u a . One s t u d y o f t h e media i n g e n e r a l c o n c l u d e d t h a t , r e l a t i v e t o t e l e v i s i o n , newspapers "are used a t l e a s t e q u a l l y and perhaps more s e r i o u s l y f o r news." S i g n i f i c a n t l y , " a t t e n t i v e p u b l i c s a r e more l i k e l y i n f l u e n c e d by newspapers t h a n by t e l e v i s i o n o r r a d i o . " (87) To t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t i n f l u e n c e s p u b l i c p e r c e p t i o n and b e h a v i o u r , t h e media has an i n d i r e c t a f f e c t on - 7 1 -d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s . S t a i r s argues t h a t w h i l e t h e p r e s s has v e r y l i t t l e e f f e c t upon the s u b s t a n c e o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y per s e . . . i t e x e r t s a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t impact upon the...men who make i t . . . ( t h r o u g h ) coverage of e x t e r n a l e v e n t s t h e m s e l v e s , r e p o r t s o f p u b l i c debate on s p e c i f i c i s s u e s , and e d i t o r i a l o p i n i o n . ( 8 8 ) I f t h e s e f i n d i n g s a r e a c c u r a t e , t h e n i t i s p r o b a b l y s a f e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e g e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e s t a n c e t a k e n by newspaper e d i t o r i a l i s t s a g a i n s t U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a h e l p e d t o r e i n f o r c e t h e p u b l i c ' s p r e - e x i s t i n g s k e p t i c i s m about t h e s e a c t i o n s . However, t h e r e l i a n c e on U.S. news s o u r c e s , a l o n g w i t h t h e u s u a l d e f i c i e n c i e s i n r e p o r t i n g f o r e i g n news i n Canada, p r o b a b l y r e s u l t e d i n a pro-Washington b i a s i n t h e news coverage i t s e l f , w h ich would r e f l e c t t h e agenda and d e f i n i t i o n s p r e f e r r e d by t h e Reagan regime. The mass media g e n e r a l l y based any o p p o s i t i o n t o U.S. p o l i c y l e s s on s u p p o r t f o r t h e S a n d i n i s t a s t h a n on a sense t h a t Washington was v i o l a t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n and a g g r a v a t i n g the b l o o d s h e d i n t h e r e g i o n . T h i s tendency may have been the r e s u l t o f i g n o r a n c e about t h e r e a l i t i e s i n N i c a r a g u a , o r an i n a b i l i t y on t h e p a r t o f N o r t h Americans t o u n d e r s t a n d th e v a l u e s , t r a d i t i o n , and c i r c u m s t a n c e s of a s m a l l S p a n i s h - s p e a k i n g n a t i o n . T h i s a m b i v a l e n c e i n t h e p r i n t media r e f l e c t e d t h i s u n f a m i l i a r i t y , w h i c h i n t u r n p r o b a b l y d i l u t e d t h e media's e f f e c t s on t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c and on t h e Canadian government. But i t s o v e r a l l e f f e c t on t h e i n t e r e s t e d p u b l i c seems t o have been t o h e l p s t i r i n t e r e s t i n and sympathy f o r N i c a r a g u a , t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e on Ottawa w h i l e c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e e f f o r t s o f v a r i o u s non-governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s . -72-Chapter 3 - I n t e r n a t i o n a l A c t o r s I n t r o d u c t i o n The a c t i o n s o f s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n i n f l u e n c i n g t h e n a t u r e o f Canada's r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . A l o n g w i t h developments i n N i c a r a g u a i t s e l f , t h e p o l i c y o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was t h e most s a l i e n t f o r Ottawa. I t i s t h e r e f o r e i m p o r t a n t t o examine Canada's b i l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e s e two n a t i o n s . The a t t i t u d e s o f t h e Contadora c o u n t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y Mexico and C o l o m b i a , and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , o f B r a z i l , were not i n s i g n i f i c a n t , and h e l p e d t o c o u n t e r t h a t o f t h e U.S. a) N i c a r a g u a Even b e f o r e t h e o u s t e r o f Somoza, the S a n d i n i s t a s l o o k e d t o Canada as a p r o m i s i n g s o u r c e o f f r i e n d s h i p and s u p p o r t , as demonstrated by F a t h e r C a r d e n a l ' s v i s i t . I n October 1979, an u n o f f i c i a l d e l e g a t i o n from N i c a r a g u a a r r i v e d i n ||ttawa t o t a l k w i t h Canadian o f f i c i a l s about debt r e l i e f and l o n g - t e r m development a i d . The two-week t o u r was a l s o d e s i g n e d t o i n f o r m Canadians about t h e s i t u a t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a . The d e l e g a t e s were d i s a p p o i n t e d i n t h e r e sponse of t h e C l a r k government. A s p o k e s p e r s o n f o r t h e group t o l d r e p o r t e r s t h a t he d i d not u n d e r s t a n d why Canada " c o u l d a s s i g n o n l y $200,000 i n a i d t o N i c a r a g u a . . . " (1) Over t h e n e x t few y e a r s , a number of N i c a r a g u a n s made e f f o r t s t o e x p l a i n t h e i r c o u n t r y ' s needs t o C anadians. In J u l y 1980, A. Cruz d i s c u s s e d some of t h e s p e c i f i c ways i n which Canada c o u l d h e l p N i c a r a g u a . "You s h o u l d open an embassy here and not r e l y on an ambassador who has t o l i v e i n C o s t a R i c a . We need d i r e c t i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h Canada, e s p e c i a l l y from your Canadian I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Agency (CIDA) and we u r g e n t l y need your h e l p i n c e r t a i n t e c h n i c a l a r e a s where you have a c h i e v e d w o r l d renown." Cruz s a i d h i s government was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n w o r k i n g w i t h such i n d u s t r i e s as paper and f o r e s t r y companies, r a i l w a y o p e r a t i o n s , t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , and a g r i c u l t u r e . "We a r e t r u l y p l u r a l i s t i c h e r e . I t i s a mixed economy, something l i k e your own, t h a t we seek. We a r e honest p e o p l e i n t h e S a n d i n i s t a government and we w i l l c r e a t e , i f we a r e a l l o w e d , a s t a b l e c l i m a t e f o r f o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t . Canada has a c r u c i a l r o l e t o p l a y i n i n f l u e n c i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f our development, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f i t can p r o v i d e t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n and c a p i t a l . I u n d e r s c o r e c a p i t a l because i t i s j o i n t v e n t u r e s t h a t we need most u r g e n t l y . " (2) N i c a r a g u a a l s o l o o k e d t o Canada f o r p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t i n i t s s t u g g l e w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n March 1981, a h i g h o f f i c i a l i n t h e M i n i s t r y o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s i n Managua e x p l a i n e d t h a t , from a N i c a r a g u a n p e r s p e c t i v e , "Canada has c l o u t and i n f l u e n c e more t h a n any o t h e r c o u n t r y i n t h e A m e r i c a s " . The o f f i c i a l was h o p e f u l t h a t Canada and Mexico would c o o p e r a t e t o moderate U.S. h o s t i l i t y . (3) And a t a speech d e l i v e r e d t o t h e UN S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l on March 25, 1982, Commandante D a n i e l Ortega made a p o i n t o f p r a i s i n g Canada ( a l o n g w i t h Mexico and V enezuela) f o r p r o p o s i n g "a g l o b a l and -74-n o n - d i s c r i m i n a t o r y programme t o p e r m i t a j o i n t r e s p onse i n t h e economic f i e l d t h a t would h e l p a l l e v i a t e t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s stemming from economic i n j u s t i c e s . " Ortega c o n t r a s t e d t h i s a t t i t u d e towards the "North-South" d i a l o g u e w i t h t h a t o f Washington, which i g n o r e d t h e i n i t i a t i v e . (4) F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r M i g u e l D'Escoto's 3-day v i s i t t o Canada i n F e b r u a r y 1983, f o c u s e d on b i l a t e r a l p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s as w e l l as t r a d e and o t h e r economic r e l a t i o n s . "We a r e not here t o beg...we a r e here t o seek, t h r o u g h d i a l o g u e , mutual u n d e r s t a n d i n g so t h a t r e l a t i o n s between our two c o u n t r i e s deepen and s t r e n g t h e n , " he t o l d a p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e . F a t h e r D 'Escoto d e n i e d c h a r g e s t h a t t h e N i c a r a g u a n p a t h was u n d e m o c r a t i c and b r i e f e d MacEachen on t h e p r o f o u n d h i s t o r i c a l causes o f t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n and t h e r e a s o n s b e h i n d t h e h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e o f t h e U.S..." (5) A l t h o u g h he s t i l l h a r b o u r e d doubts about the n a t u r e o f S a n d i n i s t a d o m e s t i c p o l i c y , MacEachen s t r e s s e d t h e need f o r s t r o n g e r . C a n a d i a n - N i c a r a g u a n r e l a t i o n s , w hich he c h a r a c t e r i z e d as v e r y good. N i c a r a g u a n non-governmental groups l o o k e d t o t h e i r C anadian c o u n t e r p a r t s f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e i r t a s k of r e b u i l d i n g . F o r i n s t a n c e , a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e S a n d i n i s t a ' s t r a d e u n i o n , t h e CST, t o u r e d Canada i n e a r l y 1982. Her t r i p was an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t N i c a r a g u a p l a c e d on s u p p o r t from Canada's l a b o u r movement, which had been h e l p f u l i n t h e p a s t and which was p e r c e i v e d as a p o w e r f u l f r i e n d i n Canada. One chance t o cement C a n a d i a n - N i c a r a g u a n r e l a t i o n s was -75-l o s t when a v i s i t by FSLN Commandante Tomas Borge was postponed i n d e f i n i t e l y due t o s e c u r i t y problems. A d i p l o m a t i c s o u r c e r e p o r t e d t h a t Borge was a prime t a r g e t f o r t h o s e opposed t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a government and t h a t h i s l i f e would *be i n danger even i n Canada. "'The Canadian i n v i t a t i o n d a t e s back t o 1980. Tomas Borge has k e p t i n v e r y c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h Canadian groups. When he was d e n i e d a U.S. v i s a , t h e Canadian u n i v e r s i t i e s jumped a t t h e chance, s a i d a n o t h e r d i p l o m a t i c s o u r c e . " (6) L a t e r t h a t y e a r , a d e l e g a t i o n o f N i c a r a g u a n a g r i c u l t u r a l o f f i c i a l s , l e d by the deputy m i n i s t e r o f a g r a r i a n r e f o r m , v i s i t e d Canada t o l e a r n about Canadian f a r m i n g methods. T h i s t r i p a g a i n " r e f l e c t e d a d e s i r e t o s t r e n g t h e n t i e s " w i t h Canada, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e M i n i s t e r . (7) Ottawa's a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e S a n d i n i s t a s as a l e g i t i m a t e government was w e l l - r e c e i v e d i n N i c a r a g u a . The independent newspaper E l Nuevo D i a r i o commented t h a t "the Canadian p o s t u r e towards N i c a r a g u a c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h a t o f i t s ponderous n e i g h b o u r t o t h e s o u t h . . . " (8) A f t e r Canada approved t h e a i d package o f F e b r u a r y 1984 t h e S a n d i n i s t a w e e k l y , B a r r i c a d a  I n t e r n a c i o n a l wrote t h a t , "The Canadian government and p e o p l e have extended a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of a i d t o N i c a r a g u a . . . " , c i t i n g t h e " l o n g - t e r m , i n t e r e s t - f r e e l o a n w o r t h US $13.4 m i l l i o n . " (9) Because t h e S a n d i n i s t a s b e l i e v e d t h a t U.S. economic l e v e r a g e o v e r Canada l i m i t e d Ottawa's o p t i o n s , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e l i n e o f c r e d i t was seen by Managua as a s i g n i f i c a n t g e s t u r e . R e f e r r i n g t o U.S. economic and p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e o v e r Canadian p o l i c y , a c o u n s e l l o r a t t h e N i c a r a g u a n - 7 6 -embassy i n Ottawa, Jamie D a v i l a s a i d : "We know t h a t f o r Canada i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t p o l i t i c a l l y , v e r y c o s t l y , t o have g i v e n a l i n e o f c r e d i t . . . ( a n d i t t o ok) an u n u s u a l l y l o n g t i m e . " Indeed, i t t o o k about 2 1/2 y e a r s , d e s p i t e t h e s m a l l s i z e of t h e l o a n . So t h e J u n t a o f N a t i o n a l R e c o n s t r u c t i o n was " g r a t e f u l about Canada's s t e p f o r w a r d " , a l t h o u g h t h e d e l a y "doesn't show us an independent f o r e i g n p o l i c y " . (10) For Managua, a n o t h e r s i g n o f U.S. i n f l u e n c e was the Canadian promise of g r e a t e r a i d t o Honduras even though t h a t c o u n t r y was a base f o r A m e r i c a n - s u p p o r t e d C o n t r a a t t a c k s a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a . "We f i n d i t h a r d t o u n d e r s t a n d why a c o u n t r y w h i c h i s b e i n g used by the USA t o a s s a s i n a t e N i c a r a g u a n s i s b e i n g h e l p e d by Canada." (11) D e s p i t e t h i s t y p e of problem, N i c a r a g u a a p p r e c i a t e d t h e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t e x i s t e d between the U.S. and Canada. For i n s t a n c e , D a v i l a n o t e d h o p e f u l l y t h a t , "Canadians a r e not l e a v i n g t h e r e s t o f t h e hemisphere t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . . . t h e h o r i z o n f o r Canadians i s no l o n g e r t h e U.S. b o r d e r . " (12) And a t t h e end o f MacEachen's t a l k s i n Managua, Commandante Ortega s a i d t h a t , "The government of Canada has a c o n s t r u c t i v e a t t i t u d e towards C e n t r a l America which i s t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the p o l i c y of a g g r e s s i o n implemented by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . " (13) But t h e S a n d i n i s t a s needed more h e l p from Canada. D a v i l a e x p l a i n e d t h a t s u p p o r t f o r peace e f f o r t s as w e l l as economic and t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e "are t h e two main a r e a s i n which we have e x p e c t a t i o n s from Canada". He p o i n t e d out t h a t N i c a r a g u a had i n v i t e d Canada t o j o i n t h e Contadora e f f o r t s t o b r i n g peace t o t h e r e g i o n . "We were v e r y -77-e n t h u s i a s t i c about t h e statement made by M i n i s t e r MacEachen i n F e b r u a r y (1984) t h a t he would send c o n s u l t a n t s t o t h e t h r e e committees o f t h e Contadora group and t h a t Canada sees ,a-nother s o l u t i o n f o r C e n t r a l America t h a n t h e m i l i t a n t p o i n t ,of v i e w t h a t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s t a k i n g a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a . " (14) I n A p r i l 1984, N i c a r a g u a p r e s e n t e d a r e q u e s t f o r a t o t a l of $162 m i l l i o n i n Canadian a i d o v e r a f i v e y e a r p e r i o d (1984-89). The p r o j e c t s i n c l u d e d : 1) A Geothermal p r o j e c t ($11 M i l l i o n ) ; 2) C o o p e r a t i v e development ($8 m i l l i o n ) ; Vs* r 3) A new p o t a b l e water system ($11.7 m i l l i o n ) ; 4) Maintenance o f p r e s e n t water s e r v i c e ($5 m i l l i o n ) ; 5) The second s t a g e o f d a i r y p r o j e c t ($12 m i l l i o n ) ; and 6) I n c r e a s e d a g r o - e x p o r t c a p a b i l i t y and b a s i c g r a i n p r o d u c t i o n ($114.3 m i l l i o n ) . "Canada i s a v e r y r i c h c o u n t r y w i t h g r e a t knowledge i n m i n i n g , f o r e s t r y , i n d a i r y p r o d u c t s " , D a v i l a added, and N i c a r a g u a wanted h e l p t h r o u g h a l i n e o f c r e d i t and t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e s e a r e a s . S i n c e 1980, N i c a r a g u a has made e f f o r t s t o e s t a b l i s h good r e l a t i o n s w i t h Canadian i n d u s t r i e s as a s o u r c e o f b a s i c equipment. A Canadian embassy i n Managua would be e s p e c i a l l y welcome, he s a i d . (15) The r e c o r d demonstrates t h a t N i c a r a g u a viewed Canada as a p o t e n t i a l l y i m p o r t a n t a l l y i n i t s s t r u g g l e f o r development. Canada p o s s e s s e d t h e n e c e s s a r y e x p e r t i s e and r e s o u r c e s t o be o f g r e a t b e n e f i t , and i s a w e a l t h y c o u n t r y , e s p e c i a l l y by C e n t r a l American s t a n d a r d s . But S a n d i n i s t a hopes were tempered by an - 7 8 -u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t C a n a d a was r e l u c t a n t t o a n t a g o n i z e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The S a n d i n i s t a s a l s o h o p e d t h a t C a n a d a ( . a long w i t h o t h e r U . S . a l l i e s ) w o u l d t r y t o d i s c o u r a g e t h e U . S . f r o m c o n t i n u i n g i t s e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , a n d m i l i t a r y a t a c k . s o n N i c a r a g u a . T h i s e f f o r t was c r i t i c a l i n N i c a r a g u a n r e l a t i o n s w i t h O t t a w a a s " t h e M e x i c a n p o s i t i o n a n d C a n a d a ' s p o s i t i o n may v e r y w e l l b e t h e l a r g e s t o b s t a c l e t o d i r e c t i n t e r v e n t i o n i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . " ( 1 6 ) S a n d i n i s t a f o r e i g n p o l i c y h a s a t t e m p t e d t o e n l i s t t h e s u p p o r t o f o t h e r n a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g C a n a d a , i n b u i l d i n g a d i p l o m a t i c w a l l t o r a i s e t h e c o s t s o f W a s h i n g t o n ' s a c t i o n s . T h i s w a l l i s "made u p o f a n e t w o r k o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h W e s t e r n g o v e r n m e n t s , s o c i a l d e m o c r a t i c p a r t i e s , a n d t r a n s n a t i o n a l b o d i e s . . . " A c c o r d i n g t o o n e s e n i o r N i c a r a g u a n o f f i c i a l , " T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s n o t i n v a d e d N i c a r a g u a . . . n o t b e c a u s e i t h a s n o t w a n t e d t o . I t i s b e c a u s e i t h a s n o t b e e n p o l i t i c a l l y e x p e d i e n t " . ( 1 7 ) C a n a d a ' s s l o w l y e v o l v i n g s k e p t i c i s m o v e r t h e U . S . p o l i c y t o w a r d s N i c a r a g u a was p r o b a b l y - o f some i m p o r t a n c e i n d e n y i n g W a s h i n g t o n t h a t c r u c i a l p o l i t c a l s u p p o r t , w h i l e t h e ( g r a d u a l ) i n c r e a s e i n C a n a d i a n a s s i s t a n c e was c e r t a i n l y w e l c o m e d b y N i c a r a g u a . B u t t h e S a n d i n i s t a s h o p e d t h a t C a n a d a w o u l d make a m o r e d e t e r m i n e d e f f o r t , b o t h e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d p o l i t i c a l l y , t o make p o s s i b l e t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e i r c o u n t r y . b ) The U n i t e d S t a t e s The e l e m e n t s o f C a n a d i a n - U . S . r e l a t i o n s w h i c h a r e d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y r e l e v e n t t o N i c a r a g u a a r e l e g i o n a n d c o m p l e x . -79-Th e f o c u s o f t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l be t h e a c t i o n s and p e r c e p t i o n s o f b o t h c o u n t r i e s which s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e t o Canada's N i c a r a g u a n p o l i c y . A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f U.S. p o l i c i e s i s not d i r e c t l y r e l e v e n t t o t h i s work: i t w i l l be t r e a t e d as a g i v e n . More g e n e r a l f a c t o r s (e.g. Canada's i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n and o b j e c t i v e s ) w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . The U n i t e d S t a t e s n a t u r a l l y w i shed t o have t h e s u p p o r t o f i t s c l o s e s t a l l i e s on q u e s t i o n s t h a t i t deemed v i t a l . Because Canada d i d not f u l l y s u p p o r t U.S. p o l i c y toward N i c a r a g u a , Ottawa had t o c o n s i d e r Washington's r e a c t i o n when d e c i d i n g on i t s approach t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . Canada had t o weigh th e p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t s t h a t might a c c r u e i n o t h e r b i l a t e r a l m a t t e r s i f i t a c q u i e s c e d i n Washington's a c t i o n s , as w e l l as t h e p o t e n t i a l harm t o Canadian i n t e r e s t s i f t h e U.S. was "provoked" by t h e l a c k o f s u p p o r t . T h i s worry o v e r " l i n k a g e " was a form of a n t i c i p a t e d r e a c t i o n , s i n c e "poor Canada-United S t a t e s p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s do o f t e n s p i l l o v e r i n t o o t h e r a r e a s . . . " ( 1 8 ) , such as t r a d e , a c i d r a i n t a l k s , o r q u e s t i o n s of s o v e r e i g n t y i n t h e A r c t i c . Statements by t o p Canadian o f f i c i a l s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d i n d i c a t e d j u s t how i m p o r t a n t good r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U.S. were t o o v e r a l l Canadian g o a l s . (19) H o s t i l i t y c o u l d r e s u l t i n a l a c k o f c o o p e r a t i o n by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s on b i l a t e r a l i s s u e s ( " l i n k a g e by o m i s s i o n " ) as w e l l as d i r e c t r e t a l i a t i o n . The problem was made more a c u t e by .the g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n t e n s i o n t h a t had d e v e l o p e d i n t h e " s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p " by the l a t e 1970s and e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e a r l y 1980s. The e v e n t s of t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e Reagan -80-a d m i n i s t r a t i o n "demonstrated how t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s between Washington and Ottawa were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c u t e s t r e s s i n whi c h . . . b o t h s i d e s r e a c t e d w i t h h y s t e r i a , p a n i c , and o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e y f e l t t h e i r v a l u e s were t h r e a t e n e d by what the o t h e r s i d e was d o i n g t o them". (20) A l t h o u g h i t i s h a r d t o g e t i n f o r m a t i o n about how t h e U.S. t r i e d t o i n f l u e n c e Canada o v e r N i c a r a g u a ( s i n c e b o t h governments would be d i s c o m f i t t e d i f i t s e x i s t e n c e was made p u b l i c ) , the l a c k o f " o v e r t p r e s s u r e " does not p r e c l u d e s u b t l e r methods. Canadian o f f i c i a l s knew t h a t Washington would be more i r r i t a t e d by open and f o r c e f u l d isagreement t h a n by a q u i e t , d i p l o m a t i c approach. T h i s was t h e predominant s t y l e o f t h e Canadian government when i t f i r s t became d i s e n c h a n t e d w i t h Reagan's a n t i - S a n d i n i s t a p o s t u r e , ( d a t i n g from e a r l y 1982 t o l a t e 1983). But i n c r e a s i n g U.S. s u p p o r t f o r t h e C o n t r a s , t h e m i n i n g of N i c a r a g u a n p o r t s , and t h e i n v a s i o n o f Grenada were among t h e a c t i o n s which i m p e l l e d Canada t o be more v o c a l o v e r i t s d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h Washington. An o f f i c i a l a t E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s conceded t h a t , as a consequence o f t h e Canadian s t a n d , Ottawa now e n j o y e d "more l i m i t e d a c c e s s t o t h e U.S. S t a t e Department. 0!ur views have been heard and f i l e d away." But he s t a t e d c a t a g o r i c a l l y t h a t , "There's no o v e r t p r e s s u r e f o r us t o toe a p a r t i c u l a r l i n e . What t h e y t r i e d t o do was t o pursuade us t h r o u g h argument t h a t t h e y ' r e r i g h t . " (21) . ;V. Fo r i t s p a r t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h r o u g h i t s I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e a t i t s Ottawa embassy, m a i n t a i n e d t h a t "the U.S. government does not w i s h t o i n t e r f e r e i n p o l i c y m a t t e r s of an a l l i e d f o r e i g n government and would not go beyond t h i s f r i e n d l y -81-p e r s u a s i o n i n most cases (my e m p h a s i s ) . R e g a r d i n g the amount of i n f l u e n c e t h e U.S. has o v er Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y , " t h i s i s e n t i r e l y a m a t t e r of o p i n i o n . " (22) Other r e p o r t s , however, suggest a d i f f e r e n t s t o r y . X a b i e r G o r o s t i a g a , a s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t now w o r k i n g i n Managua, wrote t h a t i t was U.S. p r e s s u r e w h i c h caused Canada t o g i v e t h e b u l k of i t s C e n t r a l American a i d t o Honduras i n s t e a d o f N i c a r a g u a . (23) "Canada's a i d programme ( t o Honduras) can be seen as b u t t r e s s i n g U.S. aims." (24) Newspaper r e p o r t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t Washington was t r y i n g t o " i n f l u e n c e " Canada and Mexico t o f o l l o w i t s l i n e i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . (25) One p u b l i c m a i n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s p r e s s u r e on Canada was t h e open l e t t e r from S c h u l t z t o MacEachen i n 1984, a s k i n g t h e l a t t e r t o add E l S a l v a d o r t o h i s C e n t r a l American i t i n e r a r y . T h i s move seems t o have been c a l c u l a t e d t o put MacEachen on t h e s p o t by f o r c i n g him t o demonstrate o p e n l y h i s government's p o s i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o U.S. a c t i o n s i n t h e r e g i o n . By l a t e 1981, as t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n began t o i n c r e a s e i t s s u p p o r t th e C o n t r a s , "the p r e s s u r e from Washington f o r i t s Western a l l i e s t o t o e t h e l i n e on C e n t r a l America was i n t e n s e . " A European d i p l o m a t was quoted as s a y i n g t h a t , " I t i s a v e r y , v e r y d e l i c a t e i s s u e r i g h t now," w i t h governments t r y i n g t o "walk a t h i n l i n e between t h e i r committment t o s o c i a l j u s t i c e and t h e i r d e s i r e f o r a w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . " (26) P r e s s r e p o r t s from Mexico i n 1984 t o l d of t h e i n c r e a s i n g s u c c e s s of U.S. p r e s u r e on t h a t c o u n t r y . An o i l d e a l w i t h N i c a r a g u a was suspended, o s t e n s i b l y because the Managua had t r o u b l e p a y i n g i t s b i l l s . I n f a c t , Reagan s i g n e d a -82-document i n mid-May which o r d e r e d an i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e on Mexico t o f o r c e i t t o reduce i t s "economic and d i p l o m a t i c s u p p o r t f o r t h e N i c a r a g u a n government." (27) On t h e o c c a s i o n o f Mexican P r e s i d e n t de l a M a d r i d ' s t r i p t o Ottawa t h a t same month, Canadian o f f i c i a l s a d m i t t e d t h a t Washington was " p l a n n i n g t o p r e s s u r e Canada and Mexico i n a b i d t o g e t some su p p o r t f o r i t s own approach t o L a t i n A m e r i c a . . . the i s s u e o f how t o d e a l w i t h the U . S . . . w i l l l i k e l y be d i s c u s s e d b e f o r e de l a M a d r i d l e a v e s Ottawa". (28) The s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t t o f o r c e t h e F r e n c h t o c a n c e l a s m a l l ($16 m i l l i o n ) arms s a l e i n 1982 and t h e u n s u c c e s s f u l b i d t o g e t t h e EEC not t o i n c r e a s e "economic o r any p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t f o r N i c a r a g u a " (29) i n 1984 suggest t h a t Canada t o o f a c e d some p r e s s u r e o ver i t s s t a n d on t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . One o v e r t way i n which th e U.S. attempted t o a f f e c t Canadian p o l i c y was t o p r e s e n t i t s case t o i n f l u e n t i a l C a n a dians. T h i s p r a c t i c e , o f c o u r s e , goes on a l l t h e t i m e , f o r m a l l y and i n f o r m a l l y . For i n s t a n c e , i n March 1983 , t h e U. S embassy c i r c u l a t e d i t s v e r s i o n o f peace t a l k s w i t h t h e S a n d i n i s t a s t o a number of prominent Canadians, i n c l u d i n g John Harker of t h e CLC and T e r r y M i l e s k i , a CBC j o u r n a l i s t . (30) I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on U.S. p r e s s u r e aimed a t Canada. So f a r , t h e r e i s no i n f o r m a t i o n about s p e c i f i c t h r e a t s t o Canada from th e U.S. on t h i s m a t t e r . But t h e r e a r e p r e c e d e n t s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f U.S.-Canadian r e l a t i o n s w hich seem analogous t o t h e d i s p u t e o ver N i c a r a g u a . Canada's response t o t h e Cuban r e v o l u t i o n seems t o p r o v i d e t h e c l o s e s t p a r a l l e l . As J o c e l y n Ghent w r o t e , "Canadians were more -83-f l e x i b l e and p r a g m a t i c i n d e a l i n g " w i t h t h e C a s t r o government t h a n was t h e U.S. (31) S e v e r a l f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n Ottawa's a t t i t u d e t o Cuba a r e r e l e v e n t t o t h e case of N i c a r a g u a : Canada's dependence on f o r e i g n t r a d e made i t r e l u c t a n t t o use economic s a n c t i o n s ; c o n c e r n t h a t p r e s s u r e would f o r c e Havana i n t o a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e S o v i e t Union; and t h e f e a r t h a t f u r t h e r U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n "would s t i r up a h o r n e t ' s n e s t i n L a t i n America and t h e UN and not s e t t l e the problem i n t h e l o n g r u n . " (32) These i d e n t i c a l c o n cerns have been a r t i c u l a t e d by t h e Canadian government r e g a r d i n g U.S. a c t i o n s toward Managua. In t h e Cuban c a s e , Washington r e s e n t e d what i t c o n s i d e r e d Canada's l a c k o f c o o p e r a t i o n by c o n t i n u i n g ( n o n - s t r a t e g i c ) t r a d e , and making a p u b l i c o f f e r t o mediate between t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and Cuba. (33) U.S. d i p l o m a t i c p r e s s u r e r e s u l t e d i n " s i l e n c i n g " E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s M i n i s t e r Howard Green's c r i t i c i s m s of Washington's Cuban p o l i c y , as w e l l as i n f o r c i n g a change of emphasis i n Canadian s t a t e m e n t s on t h e m a t t e r of "communist s u b v e r s i o n " i n the hemisphere. (34) A p o s s i b l e example of a n t i c i p a t e d r e a c t i o n was Prime M i n i s t e r D i e f e n b a k e r ' s hope t h a t g i v i n g more s u p p o r t t o t h e Kennedy a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s l i n e about Cuba would cause th e U.S. t o ease i t s p r e s s u r e on Canada t o a c c e p t n u c l e a r arms, a key i s s u e f o r D i e f e n b a k e r . (35) Canadian s u p p o r t f o r t h e a d m i s s i o n o f m a i n l a n d C h i n a t o t h e UN was a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e where f e a r o f U.S. r e t a l i a t o r y measures ( i n t h i s c a s e , r e g a r d i n g t h e Auto P a c t , and lumber and o i l e x p o r t s ) caused Ottawa t o p r o c e e d w i t h c a u t i o n . (36) More r e c e n t l y , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a and t h e Reagan regime, MacGuigan, who had condemned "the a t r o c i t i e s p e r p e t r a t e d by t h e j u n t a [ i n E l S a l v a d o r ] i n s u p p r e s s i n g t h e peasant r e v o l t . . . a p p a r e n t l y responded t o d i r e c t p r e s s u r e from A l e x a n d e r H a i g and gave t a c i t s u p p o r t " t o t h e m i l i t a r y government. (37) I t would be s u r p r i s i n g i f Canada, u n l i k e o t h e r n a t i o n s , had not been s u b j e c t e d t o s i m i l a r p r e s s u r e s over i t s d e a l i n g s w i t h N i c a r a g u a , a c o u n t r y which i s c o n s i d e r e d by U.S. s t r a t e g i c p l a n n e r s t o be t h e "hegemonic c o r e o f ( i t s ) n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y zone". (38) R o b e r t White, former U.S. Ambassador t o E l S a l v a d o r , went so f a r as t o say t h a t , "Canadian p o l i c y i n C e n t r a l America i s . . . u s u a l l y d i c t a t e d by t h e degree of p r e s s u r e imposed by R o n a l d Reagan's White House". (39) Ottawa's t r a d i t i o n a l d e f e r e n c e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s over " s e c u r i t y " m a t t e r s i n C e n t r a l America was a f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e narrow l i m i t s w i t h i n which Canada would d i s s e n t from U.S. h o s t i l i t y t o the S a n d i n i s t a s . But improved b i l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h Washington (seen by Canada as a " s i n e qua non" f o r t h e achievment of Ottawa's o v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e s ) , a l o n g w i t h g e n e r a l l y q u i e t d i p l o m a t i c p r e s s u r e from t h e U.S., seems t o have been a key f a c t o r i n r e s t r i c t i n g t h e r o l e t h a t Canada was a b l e t o p l a y r e g a r d i n g N i c a r a g u a . As we have seen, Canada has t r a d i t i o n a l l y tended t o i g n o r e e v e n t s s o u t h o f t h e R i o Grande i f t h e r e was a chance of a n g e r i n g U n c l e Sam. c) Other C o u n t r i e s E x c e p t i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , Canada had more c o n t a c t w i t h -85-M e x i c o t h a n any o t h e r c o u n t r y r e g a r d i n g N i c a r a g u a . S e v e r a l f a c t o r s were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s s i t u a t i o n . Both c o u n t r i e s s h are l o n g b o r d e r s w i t h t h e U.S. and a r e a f f e c t e d s t r o n g l y by Washington's p o l i c i e s . Both see t h e t u r m o i l i n C e n t r a l America as r o o t e d p r i m a r i l y i n d o m e s t i c s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s r a t h e r t h a n as an e x t e n s i o n o f an " e v i l empire". Moreover, Mexico i s a p o w e r f u l a c t o r i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a i n i t s own r i g h t . I t was o n l y n a t u r a l t h a t Canada and Mexico would l o o k t o each o t h e r f o r mutual s u p p o r t and c o o p e r a t i o n when i n p r o f o u n d d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e i r p o w e r f u l n e i g h b o u r . R e l a t i o n s between Mexico and Canada have g e n e r a l l y been q u i t e c o r d i a l . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n 1977, Mexico chose Canada as one o f t h e f i v e c o u n t r i e s w i t h which i t most wanted t o expand r e l a t i o n s , a development w h i c h would have i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e t h r o u g h o u t the 1980s., and Canada r e c i p r o c a t e d t h e honor. J u s t as s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e two c o u n t r i e s share a s i m i l a r o u t l o o k on many T h i r d World i s s u e s . D u r i n g de l a M a d r i d ' s v i s i t t o Ottawa, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e Mexican p r e s i d e n t s a i d t h a t he wanted t o "show t h e r e c o g n i t i o n Mexico g i v e s t o Canada and Prime M i n i s t e r P i e r r e Trudeau" f o r h i s " b a l a n c e d " p o s i t i o n on r e l a t i o n s between t h e d e v e l o p i n g and d e v e l o p e d w o r l d . (40) ( T h i s s e n t i m e n t was a l s o emphasized when when P r e s i d e n t Lopez P o r t i l l o came t o Canada -- see above). R e g a r d i n g C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , de l a M a d r i d and Trudeau "warned t h a t f o r e i g n i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e r e g i o n i s u n d e r m i n i n g M e x i c a n - l e d e f f o r t s t o f i n d p e a c e f u l s o l u t i o n s . " (41) The Mexican l e a d e r r e j e c t e d t h e "domino t h e o r y " as a p p l i e d t o C e n t r a l America and "seemed t o be a t t e m p t i n g t o e s t a b l i s h Canada and Mexico as n a t u r a l -86-a l l i e s . . . " R e f e r r i n g t o Canada's s u p p o r t f o r t h e Contadora group, de l a M a d r i d o f f e r e d , "The c o o p e r a t i o n of Canada i s a p o s i t i v e f a c t o r i n our e f f o r t s . " (42) But a l t h o u g h Canada had o f f e r e d t o p l a y a p e a c e k e e p i n g r o l e i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a once a d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n agreement was r e a c h e d , Trudeau d i d not o f f e r any h e l p t o a c h i e v e such a b r e a k t h r o u g h , and de l a M a d r i d d i d not make such a r e q u e s t . Nor d i d t h e Mexican P r e s i d e n t ask Canada t o j o i n C o n t a d o r a . Canada and Mexico e s p e c i a l l y f e a r e d t h e e s c a l a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t y i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . At a d i n n e r w i t h Canada's b u s i n e s s and p o l i t i c a l e l i t e , de l a M a d r i d warned t h a t "the o u t b r e a k o f a g e n e r a l i z e d war i s b e g i n n i n g t o become a r e a l i t y " i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . (43) Y e t , t h e two l e a d e r s d i d not d i s c u s s "any p o s s i b l e moves t o j o i n t l y p r e s s u r e Washington t o p u l l i t s m i l i t a r y f o r c e s out o f t h e r e g i o n " . They d i d agree t h a t i t would be a m i s t a k e t o i s o l a t e N i c a r a g u a e i t h e r e c o n o m i c a l l y o r p o l i t i c a l l y . (44) So, w h i l e Mexico remained a more a c t i v e d e f e n d e r of t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n t h a n Canada, the s p e c t r e o f U.S. power seemed t o temper t h e words and deeds of b o t h c o u n t r i e s . A nother Contadora c o u n t r y , C o l o m b i a , a l s o hoped f o r Canadian s u p p o r t f o r the peace e f f o r t . I n A p r i l 1984, Colombian F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r R o d e r i g o L l o r e d a welcomed MacEachen's statement t h a t Canada was p r e p a r e d t o t a k e a more a c t i v e p a r t i n t h e qu e s t f o r peace i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . "Canada has a r o l e t o p l a y . I t i s a c o u n t r y t h a t i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d w e l l i n L a t i n A m e r i c a . I t has a good image and t r u s t . . . ( C a n a d a ) can h e l p o t h e r L a t i n American c o u n t r i e s l i k e - 8 7 -o u r s t o do a job f o r which o u t s i d e h e l p i s e s s e n t i a l . " (.45) Only t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , M e x i c o , Colombia, and V e n e z u e l a appear t o have had s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t a c t w i t h Ottawa r e g a r d i n g N i c a r a g u a . There i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t Canada has made an e f f o r t t o l i n e up w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s which s h a r e d i t s m i s g i v i n g s o v e r U.S. a c t i o n s toward N i c a r a g u a , a l t h o u g h such e f f o r t s were recommended i n t h e r e p o r t o f t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y Sub-committee on L a t i n A m erica. I n f a c t , Trudeau and de l a M a d r i d seem t o have gone out o f t h e i r way t o a v o i d j o i n t a c t i o n s t h a t might u p s e t t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . S t i l l , many L a t i n Americans hoped t h a t Canada would p l a y a l a r g e r and more independent r o l e i n th e hemisphere. I n p r i v a t e , a Mexican o f f i c i a l c o m p l a i n e d t h a t , "Sometimes L a t i n A m e r i c a w i s h e s f o r more from Canada r e g a r d i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . When ac c o u n t s a r e s e t t l e d , Canada i s always i n f a v o r o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . " (46) - 8 8 -Chapter 4 - A n a l y s i s I n t r o d u c t i o n Canadian c o n t a c t s w i t h N i c a r a g u a b e f o r e the S a n d i n i s t a R e v o l u t i o n were e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d . "We i g n o r e d t h e s i t u a t i o n . . . I n f a c t , a l l o f C e n t r a l America was a b i t o f a w a s t e l a n d f o r Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y . " (1) Even w i t h t h e o v e r t h r o w o f Somoza, the immediate Canadian r e s p o n s e , a p a r t from th e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e l a b o u r movement, some p r i v a t e g r oups, and s e v e r a l c h u r c h e s , was m i n i m a l . The C l a r k government, whose " l i m i t a t i o n s were most e v i d e n t i n . . . f o r e i g n a f f a i r s " , t ended t o m i r r o r t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , which was c o o l but not c o m p l e t e l y h o s t i l e t o t h e new Government of N a t i o n a l R e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n Managua. (2) Canada welcomed the t h r e e b a s i c S a n d i n i s t a p r i n c i p l e s : n o n - i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e a f f a i r s o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ; t h e committment t o a mixed economy; and p r o m i s e s of p o l i t i c a l p l u r a l i s m . N i c a r a g u a ' need f o r a s s i s t a n c e was enormous. D u r i n g the c i v i l war, about 50,000 p e o p l e had been k i l l e d , 40,000 c h i l d r e n orphaned, and o n e - f i f t h o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n l e f t homeless. Somoza had d e l i b e r a t e l y bombed t h e i n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e b e f o r e f l e e i n g , and s a d d l e d N i c a r a g u a w i t h a f o r e i g n debt o f US $1.5 b i l l i o n . "The c o u n t r y was l i t t l e more tha n a r u i n . " (3) But i n s p i t e of t h e enormous d e v a s t a t i o n wrought i n N i c a r a g u a , C l a r k government p r o v i d e d no d i r e c t b i l a t e r a l a i d . The r e t u r n of the L i b e r a l s under P i e r r e Trudeau d i d not -89-s i g n a l any immediate change of p o l i c y towards Managua. "The Canadian government, under b o t h th e L i b e r a l and C o n s e r v a t i v e m i n i s t r i e s , has been e x t r e m e l y slow i n r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e N i c a r a g u a n emergency". (4) Reagan's i n a u g u r a t i o n i n J a n u a r y 1981 brought t o power an a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d t o " r o l l back" t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n . Canada's i n i t i a l r esponse was, i n t h e words of E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s M i n i s t e r Mark MacGuigan, " q u i e t a c q u i e s c e n c e " . (5) A l t h o u g h not c o m p l e t e l y u n s y m p a t h e t i c t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , Canada d i d not want t o put f o r t h a p o l i c y t h a t would anger th e U n i t e d S t a t e s . But MacGuigan a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t moves s h o u l d not be made whi c h would h e l p t o d r i v e t h e S a n d i n i s t a s i n t o a S o v i e t o r b i t . T h i s s t r a t e g y was m a n i f e s t e d by Ottawa's 1981 d e c i s i o n t o d e s i g n a t e N i c a r a g u a as a " p r o j e c t c o u n t r y " f o r development a s s i s t a n c e and i n t h e subsequent i n c r e a s e s i n development a s s i s t a n c e t o Managua. Canada, however, m a i n t a i n e d i t s p o l i c y o f g r a n t i n g h i g h e r l e v e l s o f a s s i s t a n c e t o Honduras, a c o u n t r y w i t h "no r e s p e c t f o r human r i g h t s " and which s u p p o r t e d t h e C o n t r a war a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a . (6) Yet MacGuigan had s t a t e d t h a t Canada opposed any c o u n t r y " d e s t a b i l i z i n g t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s o r u s i n g t h e i r t e r r i t o r y t o i n j e c t East-West r i v a l r i e s i n t o t h e r e g i o n . . . ( o r f a i l i n g ) t o c a r r y out t h e s o c i a l and economic r e f o r m s u r g e n t l y needed..." (7) These a i d d e c i s i o n s seemed t o c o n t r a d i c t Canada's n o b l e r h e t o r i c . Canadian e n t h u s i a s m f o r t h e Contadora peace p r o c e s s was based on t h e assessment t h a t i t o f f e r e d t h e o n l y r e a l i s t i c a l t e r n a t i v e t o i n c r e a s e d U.S. m i l i t a r i z a t i o n . MacEachen, f o r h i s p a r t , grew i n c r e a s i n g l y w o r r i e d about Washington's p l a n s , -90-e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t h e i n v a s i o n o f Grenada, which shook h i s c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e U.S. He began t o speak of t h e need f o r Canada t o "go a f t e r c o u n t r i e s t h a t a r e impeding th e p r o c e s s , t h e o u t s i d e c o u n t r i e s t h a t a r e s u p p l y i n g arms and m i l i t a r y a d v i s o r s . . . So i t ' s up t o us t o put p r e s s u r e on them t o get out so t h e p r o c e s s can get g o i n g . " (8) I t was c l e a r t h a t MacEachen was r e f e r r i n g t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The M i n i s t e r had never been more o p e n l y c r i t i c a l o f U.S. p o l i c y towards N i c a r a g u a or so c a n d i d about d i f f e r i n g w i t h t h e U.S. But r e a l i z i n g t h a t Canada a l o n e c o u l d do l i t t l e , he s t r e s s e d , upon h i s r e t u r n from N i c a r a g u a i n 1984, t h a t what was r e q u i r e d was "a major i n t e r n a t i o n a l e f f o r t t h r o u g h t h e e x p r e s s i o n of w o r l d o p i n i o n t o put p r e s s u r e on t h e c o u n t r i e s i n t h e r e t o move out under some o r d e r l y c o n d i t i o n s . . . " (9) E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s never "worked out t h e c o n c r e t e ways t o do t h i s . " (10) W h i l e th e L i b e r a l government e v e n t u a l l y made a few moves t o implement i t s own p o l i c y toward N i c a r a g u a (some a i d , s t r o n g e r r h e t o r i c ) , Ottawa d i d not t a k e any s i g n i f i c a n t u n i l a t e r a l o r m u l t i l a t e r a l i n i t i a t i v e s t o h e l p N i c a r a g u a r e b u i l d o r t o r e s t r i c t i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e r e g i o n . One a n a l y s t m a i n t a i n e d , "the t r a g e d y i s t h a t . . . Canada c o u l d have made a modest, i f l i f e - s a v i n g d i f f e r e n c e by p l a y i n g a c o n s t r u c t i v e m e d i a t i o n r o l e " . (11) W ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f some s t a t e m e n t s towards th e end of MacEachen's t e n u r e a t E x t e r n a l , Canadian p o l i c y was e s s e n t i a l l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h a t o f t h e U.S. For i n s t a n c e , Ottawa a c c e p t e d th e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' c l a i m t o have l e g i t i m a t e s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s i n N i c a r a g u a and m a i n t a i n e d t h a t Washington was s i n c e r e l y concerned w i t h t h e problems of development, s e c u r e b o r d e r s , d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n , and democracy. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e DEA, t h e main d i f f e r e n c e between th e U n i t e d S t a t e s and Canada was t h e q u e s t i o n o f how t o a c h i e v e t h e i r mutual g o a l s . Because of c o n f l i c t i n g p r e s s u r e s on Ottawa, Canadian government p o l i c y towards N i c a r a g u a was i n e f f e c t i v e and c o n t r a d i c t o r y . I t s r e s p o n s e s tended t o be p i e c e m e a l , "governed by no apparent s t r a t e g y o t h e r t h a n t o r e t a i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' g o o d w i l l " ( 1 2 ) , moderated by f e a r of t h e e f f e c t s of an e s c a l a t i n g c r i s i s on t r a d e and w o r l d o r d e r and, t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , by Canadian p u b l i c o p i n i o n . A h o s t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l , n a t i o n a l , d o m e s t i c , and i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r s went i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f Canada's response t o the S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l t r y , i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e p r e c e e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n , t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r and summarize t h e major elements of t h i s p o l i c y . Canada's p o s i t i o n v i s - a - v i s t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l system of s t a t e s ( i . e o r i e n t a t i o n and r o l e s ) and i t s p o l i t i c a l and economic o b j e c t i v e s w i t h i n t h a t system w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d as t h e y a r e c e n t r a l t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s of t h e Canadian p o l i c y . Domestic Canadian f a c t o r s w i l l t h e n be c o n s i d e r e d , b o t h i n terms of t h e a c t o r s i n v o l v e d and t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s i n Ottawa. As t h e Canadian p o s i t i o n e v o l v e d , some f a c t o r s remained c o n s t a n t (such as a g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e " r i g h t " of Washington t o m a i n t a i n hegemony i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a and c o n c e r n over l i n k a g e i n b i l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U.S.), w h i l e o t h e r s showed marked e v o l u t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g Canada's - 9 2 -d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h s p e c i f i c U.S. a c t i o n s , i t s w i l l i n g n e s s t o d i s a g r e e o p e n l y w i t h t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and t h e i n c r e a s e i n development a s s i s t a n c e t o Managua). Both changes and c o n t i n u i t e s w i l l be a n a l y z e d and t h e d i s c u s s i o n w i l l c o n c l u d e w i t h a c r i t i q u e o f Canadian p o l i c y , i n c l u d i n g s u g g e s t i o n s of p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s . -93-a) O r i e n t a t i o n , R o l e s , O b j e c t i v e s Canada's contemporary o r i e n t a t i o n towards t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l system o f s t a t e s grew d i r e c t l y out o f t h e Second World War. The i s o l a t i o n i s m o f t h e pre-war e r a was r e p l a c e d by a s t r o n g sense o f Canadian i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d , e s p e c i a l l y i n economic and m i l i t a r y m a t t e r s . T h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m was based on a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t " o n l y w i t h a s t r o n g committment by s t a t e s t o an i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o l l e c t i v e l y s e c u r i n g t h e peace, c o u l d a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e carnage of t o t a l war be a v o i d e d " . (13) Canada's s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s was a prime example o f Ottawa's approach t o peace and s e c u r i t y i n t h e w o r l d . True t o Canada's t r a d i t i o n a l s t a t u s as a Western c o u n t r y , Ottawa was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f NATO i n 1949, as w e l l as a prominent member o f t h e Commonwealth, and a p a r t i c i p a n t i n many o t h e r m u l t i l a t e r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . Canada viewed such i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s as s e r v i n g i t s own n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e b e n e f i t i n g t h e r e s t of t h e w o r l d . A l t h o u g h some elements o f Canada's f o r e i g n p o l i c y g o a l s s h i f t e d d u r i n g t h e nex t f o u r decades, (as a r e s u l t of changes i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t , o r a f t e r t h e 1973 o i l embargo, f o r example) t h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t , Western o r i e n t a t i o n remained f u n d a m e n t a l . S i n c e World War Two, Canadian o f f i c i a l s have p e r c e i v e d Canada as a "middle power". As such, Ottawa has t a k e n on a number o f r o l e s w i t h i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l system, sometimes s t r e s s i n g one o r two a t t h e expense o f o t h e r s , sometimes making - 9 4 -a p r e v i o u s l y minor a s p e c t i n t o a major one. S e v e r a l o f t h e s e r o l e c o n c e p t i o n s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v e n t i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e N i c a r a g u a n c r i s i s . Canada has sometimes a c t e d a peacekeeper (e.g. i n C y p r u s , I n d o c h i n a ) , a " h e l p f u l f i x e r " ( t h e Commonwealth and South A f r i c a ) , o r b r i d g e b u i l d e r between n a t i o n s ( C h i n a and t h e U.S.). Moreover, Ottawa has o f t e n been u n c o m f o r t a b l e when t h e t e n s i o n s i n c r e a s e between the U.S.S.R. and Washington. "Thus, when superpower r e l a t i o n s d e t e r i o r a t e , Canada o f t e n t r i e s t o r e v e r s e t h a t s l i d e and r e s t o r e a sense of p r o p o r t i o n and b a l a n c e . " (14) Canada's s e c u r i t y a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and Europe has been a c e n t r a l f e a t u r e o f t h e post-war y e a r s , and a l t h o u g h some d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h Ottawa was o c c a s i o n a l l y e x p r e s s e d by i t s NATO a l l i e s , Canada's committment has never wavered. One r e a s o n t h a t Canada v a l u e s t h i s i d e n t i t y as a f a i t h f u l a l l y i s t h e hope t h a t i t s c r e d i b i l i t y as a key member of th e Western b l o c would i n c r e a s e i t s i n f l u e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n terms of the U.S. Because of Canada's t i e s t o t h e A l l i a n c e , and because i t s p o t e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e o v e r S o v i e t p o l i c y i s n e g l i g i b l e , " [ t ] h e n a t i o n t o be 'moderated' has most o f t e n been the U n i t e d S t a t e s . . . " (15) A nother c o n s t a n t r o l e has been t h a t of f r i e n d t o d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n a l m o s t e v e r y p a r t o f t h e w o r l d . A l t h o u g h Canada has not been e s p e c i a l l y generous i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r donor c o u n t r i e s , i t has p r o v i d e d s t e a d y a i d and has spoken up f o r t h e LDCs i n many i n t e r n a t i o n a l f o r a . These r o l e s were p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v e n t i n l i g h t o f t h e -95"-deepening c r i s i s i n C e n t r a l America and h e l p e d shape Canada's r e a c t i o n t o i t . The Trudeau government had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o t r y t o use Canada's i n f l u e n c e and c r e d i b i l i t y w i t h t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e Americas t o ease t h e mounting t e n s i o n s between N i c a r a g u a and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . B u i l d i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and regimes and a committment t o f u n c t i o n a l ism ( t h e n o t i o n t h a t a c o u n t r y ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s s h o u l d be commensurate w i t h i t s c a p a b i l i t i e s ) were c e n t r a l f o r e i g n p o l i c y o b j e c t i v e s i n t h e f i r s t decades f o l l o w i n g WW I I . The d e c l i n e o f i d e a l i s t i c i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m as the dominant theme of Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y came w i t h t h e e l e c t i o n o f Trudeau i n 1968 r e s u l t e d i n a f o r e i g n p o l i c y r e v i e w . The new Trudeau D o c t r i n e s u g g e s t e d t h a t Canadian e f f o r t s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a rena had o f t e n been made a t t h e expense o f t h e n a t i o n a l and d o m e s t i c i n t e r e s t s which must now t a k e p r i o r i t y . F o s t e r i n g d o m e s t i c economic growth and s a f e g u a r d i n g s o v e r e i g n t y and independence headed t h e l i s t of t h e s i x themes t h a t formed t h e new framework o f Canada's f o r e i g n p o l i c y g o a l s . Working f o r peace and s e c u r i t y t h r o u g h "peacekeeping, t h e r e l a x a t i o n o f t e n s i o n s , i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, o r improvement o f b i l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s " was a n o t h e r major g o a l . The p r o m o t i o n o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e f o c u s e d on t h e problems o f r a c i s m and d e v e l o p m e n t a l a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e LDC's. (16) W h i l e a l l f o u r o f t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s i n f l u e n c e d Canada's response t o the c r i s i s o v e r N i c a r a g u a , economic and s e c u r i t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s seemed t o be t h e most s a l i e n t t o p o l i c y m a k e r s i n Ottawa. - 9 6 -b) D e t e r m i n a n t s o f Canada's P o l i c i e s Toward t h e S a n d i n i s t a s G i v e n Canada's i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n , r o l e , and o v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e s , how can t h e h i s t o r y of Canadian a c t i o n s towards N i c a r a g u a and t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n be e x p l a i n e d ? T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l examine f i v e broad c a t a g o r i e s o f e x p l a n a t i o n , s e e k i n g t o h i g h l i g h t t h o s e elements which were most s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f Canadian p o l i c y . 1) The I n t e r n a t i o n a l System W i t h i n t h e contemporary m u l t i p o l a r i n t e r n a t i o n a l e nvironment, Canada i s f i r m l y a l l i e d t o t h e West, under t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . But Canada i s not an u n c r i t i c a l a l l y , e s p e c i a l l y when i t p e r c e i v e s t h a t i t s own i n t e r e s t s a r e t h r e a t e n e d , as i s sometimes t h e case when Washington o v e r r e a c t s t o a " c r i s i s " . When such problems o c c u r , Ottawa i s n e c e s s a r i l y t a c t f u l i n i t s approach, a s t y l e known as " q u i e t d i p l o m a c y " . I t has l o n g been a t e n e t o f Canadian p o l i c y t h a t "the degree o f c o n f l i c t and c o m p e t i t i o n i n East-West r e l a t i o n s can be moderated and a m e l i o r a t e d by sound d i p l o m a c y and n e g o t i a t i o n s " . (17) When t e n s i o n s between t h e superpowers i n c r e a s e , Canada sometimes a t t e m p t s t o moderate U n i t e d S t a t e s a c t i o n s , but not i n such a way as t o pose a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o Canadian-U.S. r e l a t i o n s . Ottawa cannot i g n o r e demands f o r a l l i a n c e s o l i d a r i t y ( i . e . s u p p o r t i n g U.S. p o l i c i e s ) . As t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n sought t o r e e s t a b l i s h Washington's - 9 7 -p r e - V i e t n a m i n f l u e n c e i n t h e w o r l d , i t p l a c e d renewed emphasis on t h e l o y a l t y o f i t s a l l i e s . Canada's s t r o n g m i l i t a r y , c u l t u r a l , s o c i a l , and e s p e c i a l l y , economic r e l a t i o n s w i t h Washington l e a v e s i t v u l n e r a b l e t o s u b t l e and n o t - s o - s u b t l e p r e s s u r e s t o conform t o U.S. p o l i c i e s . " I n g e n e r a l , a c o u n t r y t h a t needs something from a n o t h e r i s v u l n e r a b l e t o i t s a c t s of i n f l u e n c e . " (18) As p a r t o f i t s s t r a t e g y f o r s u c c e s s f u l b i l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h Washington, Canada a l s o needed t o c u l t i v a t e f a v o r w i t h t h o s e elements w i t h i n t h e U.S. government (e.g. the White House, the S t a t e Department) which might be e x p e c t e d t o d e f e n d Canadian i n t e r e s t s a g a i n s t demands from v a r i o u s d o m e s t i c a c t o r s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n a l s o m i t i g a t e d a g a i n s t a s t r o n g e r Canadian s t a n c e a g a i n s t Washington's a g r e s s i v e N i c a r a g u a n p o l i c i e s . The d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o v e r N i c a r a g u a were based on c o n f l i c t i n g p e r c e p t i o n s o f how t o d e a l w i t h t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n . Washington's p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e S a n d i n i s t a s were a t h r e a t t o U.S. hegemony i n C e n t r a l America c l a s h e d w i t h t h e Canadian v i e w th e t h a t , f o r a l l i t s f a u l t s , t h e S a n d i n i s t a government was l e g i t i m a t e and t h a t t h e use of f o r c e t o o v e r t h r o w i t would be c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e i n t h e l o n g term. The U n i t e d S t a t e s , w h i c h i n s i s t e d on c a s t i n g N i c a r a g u a as a S o v i e t / C u b a n puppet bent on s p r e a d i n g "communist s u b v e r s i o n " , g r a d u a l l y came t o be seen by t h e Trudeau government as t h e main e x t e r n a l s o u r c e o f i n s t a b i l i t y i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , but whose c o o p e r a t i o n was e s s e n t i a l i f t h e r e was t o be any chance of peace i n t h e r e g i o n . -98-The s t r a i n s on t h e NATO a l l i a n c e from U.S. p o l i c i e s towards N i c a r a g u a was a n o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r Canada. Moreove, "any l a r g e - s c a l e m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n C e n t r a l America would put s e v e r e s t r a i n s on t h e NATO a l l i a n c e , " a c c o r d i n g t o t h e U.S. C o u n c i l on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s . (19) The a l m o s t t o t a l l a c k of s u p p o r t by NATO c o u n t r i e s f o r U.S. p o l i c y a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a , such as t h e i r r e f u s a l t o go a l o n g w i t h Washington's t r a d e embargo, g i v e no r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t e i t h e r NATO governments o r t h e i r c i t i z e n s would s u p p o r t an i n v a s i o n . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e s e governments would p r o b a b l y be under c o n s i d e r a b l e d o m e s t i c p r e s s u r e t o d i s t a n c e t h e m s e l v e s from U n i t e d S t a t e s a c t i o n s . Most o f Washington's a l l i e s would l i k e l y v i e w an i n v a s i o n as m i s g u i d e d because t h e y t e n d t o vi e w t h e g r e a t e r t h r e a t t o t h e West as coming from such f a c t o r s as t h e d i v i s i o n o f Europe, t h e arms r a c e , mass p o v e r t y , o r economic s t a g n a t i o n - none o f which were a d d r e s s e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' h o s t i l e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a . "A major c l a s h between t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and Europe over C e n t r a l America c o u l d soon l e a d t o overwhelming p r e s s u r e s w i t h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r a r e d e f i n i t i o n o f i t s r o l e i n NATO - even t o t h e p o i n t o f t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f U.S. f o r c e s from the European c o n t i n e n t " , a c c o r d i n g t o one U.S. commentator. (20) Canada and Europe see danger t o w o r l d o r d e r , n o t from S o v i e t s u b v e r s i o n i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , but i n t h e chance t h a t t h e c r i s i s c o u l d produce a r e g i o n a l war ("a U.S. i n v a s i o n o f N i c a r a g u a would q u i c k l y provoke a war o f g u e r r i l l a s t h r o u g h o u t a l l o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , from Guatemala t o Panama...[and] d e s t a b i l i z e t h e c o u n t r i e s i m m e d i a t e l y n o r t h and s o u t h of t h e e m b a t t l e d r e g i o n . . . " a c c o r d i n g t o an a n a y l s i s i n t h e New York Times) ( 2 1 ) ; undermine t h e p o l i t i c a l economy o f Mexico and o t h e r p r o x i m a t e s t a t e s ; d i s c r e d i t t h e U.S. i n L a t i n and Western p u b l i c o p i n i o n ; d i v e r t U.S. f o r c e s t o t h e r e g i o n , e n d a n g e r i n g o t h e r a r e a s ; " r i s k superpower c o n f r o n t a t i o n ; and d e f l e c t c o n c e r n away from o t h e r s e c u r i t y problems. (22) Indeed, many a n a l y s t s b e l i e v e t h a t a n u c l e a r war i s much more l i k e l y t o be t r i g g e r e d by i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e underdeveloped w o r l d t h a n by a S o v i e t a t t a c k i n Europe. Canada c o u l d not a f f o r d t o i g n o r e t h e growing t u r m o i l i n v o l v i n g N i c a r a g u a f o r o t h e r r e a s o n s . As Ambassador G o t l i e b o b s e r v e d , " L a t i n A m e r i c a , C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , and t h e C a r i b b e a n -t h e s e a r e now [1984] seen by al m o s t a l l Canadians as a r e a s o f s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e t o Canada and t o our own w e l l - b e i n g and s e c u r i t y . " (23) Canada's a t t i t u d e toward C e n t r a l America i n p a r t i c u l a r has undergone a d r a m a t i c e v o l u t i o n o v er t h e l a s t few decades. As one h i g h - r a n k i n g DEA o f f i c i a l p ut i t : " I t i s not now a q u e s t i o n o f whether we w i s h t o become i n v o l v e d i n t h e r e g i o n , but how." (24) Canada's dependence on i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e and commerce a l s o e x p l a i n s p a r t o f t h e a n x i e t y i n Ottawa o v e r t h e more b e l l i g e r e n t a c t i o n s o f t h e U.S. a g a i n s t t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . "Canada i s a major t r a d i n g n a t i o n . ||ur p r o s p e r i t y . . . depends not a l i t t l e on t h e f u t u r e o f w o r l d t r a d e , " (25) ( e x p o r t s g e n e r a t e about 30% o f Canada's GNP). (26) W h i l e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s remains Canada's l a r g e s t t r a d i n g p a r t n e r , t h e Canadian economy does a s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f b u s i n e s s w i t h t h e r e s t of the w o r l d ( e . g . about 35% o f Canadian e x p o r t s i n 1979). (27) -loo-As a m i d d l e power whose r e l a t i v e l y open economy i s bound up w i t h w o r l d t r a d e , Canada i s dependent on c o n t i n u i n g p e a c e f u l i n t e r n a t i o n a l commerce, w h i l e U.S. a c t i o n s i n C e n t r a l America were i n c r e a s i n g t h e u n r e s t and l e v e l o f c o n f l i c t . Trade i s i m p o r t a n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e n a t i o n s s o u t h o f t h e R i o Grande. Numerous government o f f i c i a l s have e x p r e s s e d th e v i e w t h a t , "the Canadian government and Canadians i n g e n e r a l have a v e s t e d p o l i t i c a l and s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t i n . . . t h e f u r t h e r i n g o f l o n g term s t a b i l i t y and development i n L a t i n A m erica and t h e C a r i b b e a n . . . because o f our r e a l mutual i n t e r e s t s i n economic development, t r a d e , f i n a n c e , and i n v e s t m e n t . . . " (28) The development o f t h e s e k i n d s o f m u t u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l r e l a t i o n s was s e r i o u s l y t h r e a t e n e d by t h e c o n t i n u i n g u n r e s t and impoverishment t h a t e x i s t e d i n t h e r e g i o n . Peace and s t a b i l i t y a r e needed i f w o r l d t r a d e i s t o f l o u r i s h , b u t p o v e r t y and t h e absence of economic development a r e major causes o f s o c i a l u n r e s t i n t h e w o r l d t o d a y . A g l a r i n g example i s C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , where t h e wide gap between t h e economic e l i t e and t h e peasant c l a s s c r e a t e s s t r e s s e s t h a t p r o v i d e f e r t i l e ground f o r e x t e r n a l f o r c e s t o i n t e r f e r e . Such p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l s t r e s s e s , even i f t h e y do not l e a d t o armed c o n f l i c t , i n e v i t a b l y d i v e r t economic r e s o u r c e s t o m a i n t a i n i n g a m i l i t a r y c a p a b i l i t y , and money t h a t c o u l d go i n t o development goes i n s t e a d t o buy arms. (29) The Trudeau government u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e e s c a l a t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t s i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a would not be i n Canada's economic i n t e r e s t s . P e a c e f u l i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s a r e a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r expanding t r a d e and commercial r e l a t i o n s h i p s . "Canada has a c r u c i a l s t a k e i n t h e development o f s t a b l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic arrangments... E f f o r t s t o promote s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g growth i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s w i l l pay d i v i d e n d s i n terms o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f markets f o r Canadian raw -101-m a t e r i a l s and manufactured goods, as w e l l as t h e c r e a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e s o f s u p p l y f o r . . . g o o d s not produced i n Canada." (30) F o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t s were a n o t h e r f a c t o r . Canadian banks had o v e r $22 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s i n a s s e t s i n L a t i n America and t h e C a r i b b e a n by 1982, r e p r e s e n t i n g o ver 20% of t h e wor l d - w i d e t o t a l . But "the i n s t a b i l i t y of C e n t r a l America makes major p r o j e c t f u n d i n g u n l i k e l y " w h i l e t h e c r i s i s remains u n r e s o l v e d . (31) In r e f e r e n c e t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s t h e m s e l v e s , w h i l e Ottawa d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o v o i c e i t s c o n c e r n t h a t N i c a r a g u a ' s d o m e s t i c p o l i c i e s might be t u r n i n g r e p r e s s i v e , t h e r e was a growing awareness t h a t t h e S a n d i n i s t a s were s t r i v i n g t o p r o v i d e a s t a b l e and p o p u l a r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , one w i t h which Canada c o u l d l i v e and do b u s i n e s s . Because t h e Canadian government's a t t i t u d e t o a l t e r n a t e p a t h s t o development was g e n e r a l l y t o l e r a n t , Ottawa saw no v i r t u e i n d e s t a b i l i z i n g l e g i t i m a t e r e v o l u t i o n a r y governments and has been w i l l i n g t o a s s i s t such n a t i o n s d e v e l o p t o t h e p o i n t where s t a b i l i t y and t h e growth of t r a d e and i n v e s t m e n t have a "moderating" e f f e c t . As d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , Canadian o p p o s i t i o n t o U.S. p o l i c y was made i n t h e c o n t e x t o f g e n e r a l l y h e i g h t e n e d t e n s i o n s between t h e two c o u n t r i e s . N e i t h e r one wanted t o add an o t h e r c o n t e n t i o u s i s s u e t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , but t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f N i c a r a g u a and t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n v o l v e d made i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r Canada t o i g n o r e Washington's a c t i o n s , even though N i c a r a g u a i t s e l f was o f l i t t l e d i r e c t consequence t o Ottawa. A l o n g w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l and d o m e s t i c f a c t o r s a l r e a d y mentioned, t h e s e economic and g e o p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s were -102-c r i t i c a l t o the e v o l u t i o n o f Canada's response t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . 2) Canadian N a t i o n a l A t t r i b u t e s Geography had an o b v i o u s r e l a t i o n t o t h e i n t e r e s t shown i n N i c a r a g u a by Canada and C a nadians. I n a d d i t i o n t o s h a r i n g a l o n g b o r d e r w i t h the U n i t e d S t a t e s , Canada sh a r e s a c o n t i n e n t w i t h C e n t r a l America and t h e hemisphere w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e L a t i n c o u n t r i e s . These f a c t o r s made the t u r m o i l i n c e n t r a l America h a r d e r t o i g n o r e . S e v e r a l elements of Canadian p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e and v a l u e s , i n c l u d i n g "a n o n - m i l i t a r y t r a d i t i o n . . . ( a n d ) a fondness f o r l e g a l i s t i c and d i p l o m a t i c s o l u t i o n s " i n c l i n e f o r e i g n p o l i c y makers t o be wary of t h e use o f f o r c e t o s e t t l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s p u t e s . (32) I t i s f e l t t h a t , w h i l e c o n f l i c t cannot be t o t a l l y e l i m i n a t e d , i t can be c o n t r o l l e d . Indeed, th e v a l u e of p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n i s o f t e n seen t o l i e l e s s i n i t s ends and more i n t h e degree t o which i t promotes p a c i f i c s o l u t i o n s t o problems. I n f l u e n c e d t o a l a r g e degree by e x p e r i e n c e s of d o m e s t i c p o l i t i c a l b a r g a i n i n g , Canadians t e n d t o b e l i e v e t h a t "peace, o r d e r , and good government", based on l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s and d i p l o m a c y , a r e t h e keys t o t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l s t r i f e . Q u a l i t i e s such as p a t i e n c e , f l e x i b i l i t y , t o l e r a n c e , m o d e r a t i o n , and t h e a b i l i t y t o empathize w i t h o t h e r s a r e a l s o p a r t o f t h e Canadian p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e . ( T h i s t y p e of p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s , however, "may a l s o r e q u i r e . . . a r e s i g n e d a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e i n c o n v e n i e n c e of b e i n g weak - a r e c o g n i t i o n , - 1 0 3 -t h a t i s , o f t h e r e a l i t i e s o f power".) (33) I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , Canada f a v o r s t h e p r i n c i p l e s of s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n and n o n - i n t e r v e n t i o n , and saw i n N i c a r a g u a a case where v i o l a t i o n o f t h o s e p r i n c i p l e s by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o u l d l e a d t o an even g r e a t e r d i s a s t e r . Canada i s h e i r t o t h e v e n e r a b l e t r a d i t i o n t h a t t r a d e between n a t i o n s i s not o n l y p r e f e r r a b l e t o war between n a t i o n s , but t o t h e c o r o l l a r y t h a t such t r a d e may f u n c t i o n as a d i s i n c e n t i v e t o a d v e n t u r i s m by h e l p i n g t o "moderate" governments w h i l e i n c r e a s i n g mutual i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e . Canadian r e l a t i o n s w i t h E a s t e r n Europe, C h i n a , Cuba, as w e l l as N i c a r a g u a , e x e m p l i f y t h i s approach. The norms and v a l u e s o f one's own c u l t u r e c e r t a i n l y i n f l u e n c e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f i t s c i t i z e n s . Most h i g h - l e v e l d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s i n Ottawa would n a t u r a l l y h o l d Canada's mixed c a p i t a l i s t economy and i t s l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l system as a model and s t a n d a r d w i t h which t o judge th e p o l i t i c a l economy of o t h e r n a t i o n s . Canadian p o l i c y - m a k e r s would t e n d t o s h a r e t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t o be s u s p i c i o u s o f emerging systems whose v a l u e s d i f f e r e d t o any s i g n i f i c a n t degree. They would n a t u r a l l y be wary of t h e avowed Marxism of t h e S a n d i n i s t a l e a d e r s h i p , t h e o c c a s i o n a l p r e s s c e n s o r s h i p , t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f some p r i v a t e b u s i n e s s e s , and t h e f r a t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h Cuba. j|n t h e o t h e r hand, Ottawa has f r e q u e n t l y d e c l a r e d i t s openess t o v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l and economic systems i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d , and was i m p r e s s e d by such N i c a r a g u a n s u c c e s s e s as t h e l i t e r a c y campaign, th e drop i n i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y , t h e g r e a t amount of p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s freedom, and t h e promise of f r e e e l e c t i o n s . I t i s not - 1 0 4 -s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e r e were mixed f e e l i n g s i n Ottawa about t h e n a t u r e o f "Sandinismo", w h i c h would c o n t r i b u t e t o the d i f f i c u l t y o f a s s e s s i n g e v e n t s i n N i c a r a g u a and t o a tendency t o " w a i t and see" b e f o r e making s i g n i f i c a n t committments. F i n a l l y , t h e Canadian economy, b a t t e r e d though i t may have been a t t i m e s , gave Ottawa t h e p o t e n t i a l t o p l a y an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n terms f o r development a s s i s t a n c e , i n f l u e n c e , and t h e f i n a n c i n g and t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p p o r t o f any peace p r o c e s s t h a t grew out o f t h e work o f C o n t a d o r a . -105-c) D e c i s i o n Making I n t r o d u c t i o n There i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e Canadian P a r l i a m e n t p l a y e d more t h a n a v e r y s m a l l r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e government's N i c a r a g u a n p o l i c i e s . Major d e c i s i o n s were made i n t h e Department of E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s and C a b i n e t under the l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e Prime M i n i s t e r and the SSEA. Such a c o n c l u s i o n i s not u n x p e c t e d , s i n c e "the f o r m u l a t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s l a r g e l y t h e p e r o g a t i v e o f t h e e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h . " (34) T h i s p a t t e r n seems t o have h e l d i n t h e case of N i c a r a g u a , where p a r t y s o l i d a r i t y , q u i e t d i p l o m a c y and s e c r e c y , and t h e l a c k of f e a r o f s u f f e r i n g a t the p o l l s k e p t t h i n g s r e l a t i v e l y q u i e t . These f a c t o r s a r e t r a d i t i o n a l i n t h e Canadian system, w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t " . . . n o n - c a b i n e t members of P a r l i a m e n t (even of t h e p a r t y i n power) p l a y a v e r y minor r o l e i n p o l i c y - m a k i n g , and p a r l i a m e n t a r y committees w i e l d l i t t l e e f f e c t i v e l e g i s l a t i v e power". (35) The Sub-committee r e p o r t s on L a t i n America d i d not seem t o have made any s i g n i f i c a n t impact on e i t h e r the House o r t h e government, a l t h o u g h t h e y might have s e r v e d t o r a i s e t h e awareness of some MPs and m i n i s t e r s . C o n f r o n t e d by t h e demands of v a r i o u s " e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s , by p r e s s u r e s from Canadian b u s i n e s s not t o upset t h e A m e r icans, and by demands from c h u r c h and s o l i d a r i t y groups f o r g r e a t e r d i s t a n c i n g from Reagan's p o l i c y , t h e L i b e r a l s were t r y i n g t o f i n d a way o f t a k i n g a p o s i t i o n t h a t would be independent , but not so -106-independent as t o o f f e n d t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n more th a n m i l d l y . " (36) But as t h e White House e s c a l a t e d i t s h o s t i l i t y toward t h e S a n d i n i s t a government, Ottawa was f o r c e d t o make i t s d i s a g r e e m e n t s s h a r p e r and more o p e n l y . 1) The Government The Department of E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s was t h e main b u r e a u c r a t i c arena i n which N i c a r a g u a n p o l i c y was worked o u t . W h i l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e and development a s s i s t a n c e were a l s o r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f E x t e r n a l ( t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s i s t h e m i n i s t e r d e s i g n a t e d f o r CIDA), th e g e o p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e N i c a r a g u a n q u e s t i o n were t h e most s a l i e n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , so major d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g a l l a s p e c t s o f N i c a r a g u a n p o l i c y were c e n t e r e d i n DEA. "No o t h e r m i n i s t r y has an o p p o s i n g v i e w , i f t h e y have a view a t a l l . There's no i n t e r - d e p a r t m e n t a l debate - i t ' s l e f t t o us." (37) CIDA i t s e l f was u n l i k e l y t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t s o u r c e of p o l i c y a t t h e C a b i n e t l e v e l because i t i s w i t h o u t i t s own m i n i s t e r and because of i t s l i m i t e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e Prime M i n i s t e r has t r a d i t i o n a l l y had a s t r o n g hand i n f o r e i g n p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s , t h i s does not seem t o have been t h e case w i t h r e s p e c t t o N i c a r a g u a . R a t h e r , Trudeau's r o l e seems t o have been c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s approach t o f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n g e n e r a l : t o d e l i n e a t e b road p o l i c y o u t l i n e s w h i l e l e a v i n g day-to-day a f f a i r s t o h i s m i n i s t e r s . (38) P a r t o f t h e r e a s o n was Trudeau's l a c k o f i n t e r e s t i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e , w hich he d i d not c o n s i d e r v i t a l . But the PM s e t t h e tone w i t h -107-h i s p e r c e p t i o n t h a t "the overwhelming t h r e a t t o Canada w i l l not come from... f o r e i g n i d e o l o g i e s , o r even ... n u c l e a r weapons. I t w i l l come i n s t e a d from t h e t w o - t h i r d s o f the p e o p l e who a r e s t e a d i l y f a l l i n g f u r t h e r and f u r t h e r b e h i n d i n t h e s e a r c h f o r a decent s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g " . (39) The p r i m a r y d e c i s i o n - m a k e r i n the Trudeau government w i t h r e s p e c t t o N i c a r a g u a appears t o have been MacGuigan and, f o l l o w i n g him, MacEachen, " w i t h t h e a d v i c e o f C a b i n e t and a s t r o n g prime m i n i s t e r i a l i n f l u e n c e . S i n c e MacEachen a r r i v e d , he has been the d e c i s i o n - m a k e r . As Deputy Prime M i n i s t e r , he's been the major s o u r c e o f p o l i c y f o r t h e r e g i o n . " (40) I f Trudeau p a i d r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o N i c a r a g u a , t h e n i t i s l i k e l y t h a t p a r t o f the g rowing r i f t between the U.S. and Canada can be t r a c e d t o the r e p l a c e m e n t of MacGuigan as SSEA by A l l a n MacEachen. MacEachen's p e r c e p t i o n s and a t t i t u d e s d i f f e r e d i n i m p o r t a n t ways from t h o s e o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r . F o r i n s t a n c e , "MacGuigan wasn't a l l t h a t c o m f o r t a b l e d e a l i n g w i t h L a t i n A m e r i c a n s . He was much more i n the Western European-American c i r c u i t . " (41) MacEachen on t h e o t h e r hand, had a more " i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t " o u t l o o k and was more s k e p t i c a l o f the Manichean w o r l d - v i e w e x p r e s s e d by the Reagan regime. I n a d d i t i o n t o p o s e s s i n g wide e x p e r i e n c e i n government and a somewhat more s o p h i s t i c a t e d p e r s p e c t i v e , MacEachen was concerned w i t h N i c a r a g u a and C e n t r a l America as an u n s t a b l e region caught up i n an East/West confrontat ion . Other f a c t o r s i n c l u d e d t h e M i n i s t e r ' s v iew t h a t t h e r e was a c l e a r l i n k between Canadian in teres t s and those o f th e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y " h i s e f f o r t s t o l i n k Canada's economic - 1 0 8 -i n t e r e s t s w i t h t h o s e o f an i n c r e a s i n g l y a s s e r t i v e t h e T h i r d W o r ld." (42) The M i n i s t e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r o o t causes o f t h e u n r e s t i n C e n t r a l America was a n o t h e r element. MacEachen o b s e r v e d , "The fundamental problems o f C e n t r a l America a r e the r e s u l t o f a l o n g h i s t o r y o f p o l i t i c a l , economic, and s o c i a l r e p r e s s i o n . S t a b i l i t y cannot be r e s t o r e d u n t i l t h e f o r c e s f o r change have been accomodated, u n t i l s o c i a l and economic p r o g r e s s can remove t h e e x p l o s i v e p r e s s u r e s o f p o p u l a r f r u s t r a t i o n . " (43) Other s t a t e m e n t s demonstrated h i s disagreement w i t h t h e m i l i t a r y s o l u t i o n t h a t was i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g p u r s u e d by t h e U.S. Over t i m e , a number o f lower r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l s a t DEA became more concerned about t h e d i r e c t i o n o f U n i t e d S t a t e s p o l i c i e s , t h u s p r o v i d i n g a base o f s u p p o r t f o r MacEachen's i n c r e a s i n g l y c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e . 2) Non-Governmental A c t o r s B u s i n e s s Some a n a l y s t s have argued t h a t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s from t h e c o r p o r a t e s e c t o r get much more of a h e a r i n g from government o f f i c i a l s t h a n t h o s e from " i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y - o r i e n t e d p u b l i c i n t e r e s t g r o u p s " , so t h a t t h e net a f f e c t i s a " b i a s toward b u s i n e s s " i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y . "The government does not d e a l w i t h c r i t i c a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y - o r i e n t e d p u b l i c i n t e r e s t groups i n t h e same way as i t d e a l s w i t h b u s i n e s s and i n d u s t r y because i t n e i t h e r a t t a c h e s t h e same - 1 0 9 -i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e i s s u e s t h e y r a i s e nor i s i t s e r i o u s l y c o n c erned t o i n c o r p o r a t e them i n t o t h e government-led concensus." (44) Even so, i t i s argued, non-commercial NGOs are t o o i m p o r t a n t t o appear t o i g n o r e , so t h e government has d e v e l o p e d s t r a t e g i e s t o co-opt them. Whatever t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h a t p e r c e p t i o n as a g e n e r a l r u l e , i m p o r t a n t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s must be made r e g a r d i n g N i c a r a g u a . F i r s t , N i c a r a g u a and t h e r e s t o f t h e r e g i o n were not i n s i g n i f i c a n t c oncerns t o t h e government. I n f a c t , t h e g e o p o l i t i c a l r a m i f i c a t i o n s were p o t e n t i a l l y v e r y s e r i o u s w h i l e , i n c o n t r a s t , t h e r e was l i t t l e b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a as a whole, o r i n N i c a r a g u a i n p a r t i c u l a r . (U.S. i n v e s t m e n t s and t r a d e w i t h C e n t r a l America were much g r e a t e r . ) Second, t h e l a c k of a s t r o n g consensus i n t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r a l l o w e d t h e government w i d e r l a t i t u d e t o c o n s i d e r t h e demands of o t h e r d o m e s t i c a c t o r s . The t h i r d c o n s i d e r a t i o n was the s t r e n g t h o f p u b l i c s u p p o r t f o r N i c a r a g u a . The muted v o i c e of b u s i n e s s r e l a t i v e t o t h e NGOs gave the l a t t e r c o m p a r a t i v e l y s t r o n g e r i n f l u e n c e t h a n one might o t h e r w i s e p r e d i c t . P u b l i c O p i n i o n P u b l i c o p i n i o n about f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s has r a r e l y been i m p o r t a n t i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f p o l i c y . I n Canada, f o r e i g n a f f a i r s have t r a d i t i o n a l l y had low s a l i e n c e w i t h t h e p u b l i c , and " f o r e i g n p o l i c y remains th e p r e s e r v e o f t h e s t a t e and i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y embedded c o m p e t i t o r s , P a r l i a m e n t [ s i c ] and t h e p r o v i n c e s , r a t h e r t h a n of t h e a c t o r s w i t h i n s o c i e t y i t s e l f " . - 1 1 0 -(45) The Prime M i n i s t e r ' s a t t i t u d e toward t h o s e c i t i z e n s who a r e a t t e n t i v e has u s u a l l y been one o f c o n d e s c e n s i o n t o t h o s e whom he f e e l s a r e not knowledgable and who a r e m o t i v a t e d more by p a s s i o n t h a n r e a s o n . The government g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d p u b l i c i n v o l v e m e n t i n f o r e i g n i s s u e s meddlesome and a burden, but as an element w h i c h c o u l d be u s e f u l t o s u p p o r t p o l i c i e s w hich were a l r e a d y f a v o u r e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f a c e o f p r e s s u r e from e x t e r n a l a c t o r s ( t h e U.S. i n p a r t i c u l a r ) . Canadian o p i n i o n about N i c a r a g u a was m a n i f e s t e d i n p o l l s , m eetings and d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , t h e work of NGOs, and communications w i t h t h e media and t h e government. As n o t e d above, t h e r e a c t i o n o f l a r g e numbers of Canadians t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a R e v o l u t i o n , U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n , and t h e government's response was unique i n many ways. Two out o f t h r e e Canadians su r v e y e d i n 1984 opposed U.S. a t t a c k s on N i c a r a g u a (see a b o v e ) . An o f f i c i a l w i t h t h e DEA a d m i t t e d : S i n c e 1979, t h e r e has been a much more s u s t a i n e d i n t e r e s t by t h e Canadian p u b l i c . I t ' s s u r p r i s i n g because th e Canadian p u b l i c i s g e n e r a l l y , from our p e r c e p t i o n , i s s u e c o n s c i o u s f o r v e r y s h o r t p e r i o d s . . . A f g a n i s t a n i s a v e r y good example. C e n t r a l A m e r i c a i s d i f f e r e n t . There has been a s u s t a i n e d , g r o w i n g , and c o n s t a n t i n t e r e s t i n t h e r e g i o n , and a v e r y w e l l - o r g a n i z e d network of i n t e r e s t groups t h a t a r e s t u d y i n g t h e a r e a v e r y c a r e f u l l y . I t ' s a v e r y i n f o r m e d p u b l i c . So t h a t has been an i n f l u e n c e on Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y . (46) The i n f l u e n c e o f Canadian p u b l i c o p i n i o n on t h e government, a l t h o u g h not d e c i s i v e , seems t o have been s i g n i f i c a n t . W h i l e MacGuigan p a i d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e NGOs, MacEachen, who had some sympathy w i t h t h e i r g o a l s , was l e s s h o s t i l e . P u b l i c i n t e r e s t i n N i c a r a g u a was s t r o n g e r d u r i n g MacEachen's t e n u r e as M i n i s t e r , and t h i s growth gave the NGOs - I l l -more i n f l u e n c e as t h e y were not r e p r e s e n t i n g o n l y t h e i r o r g a n i z a t o n s , but a much l a r g e r c o n s t i t u e n c y . T h i s i n f l u e n c e was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n g e t t i n g N i c a r a g u a i n c r e a s e d a i d by p u r s u a d i n g t h e government t o d e s i g n a t e i t as a " p r o j e c t c o u n t r y " . ( 4 7 ) Another a s p e c t o f t h i s i n f l u e n c e stems' from th e dependence of E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s on non-governmental s o u r c e s f o r much of i t s i n f o r m a t i o n about N i c a r a g u a , a l l o w i n g t h e Department t o g e t a w i d e r p e r s p e c t i v e t h a n would be p o s s i b l e i f i t r e l i e d s o l e y on o f f i c i a l Canadian o r U.S. c h a n n e l s . The DEA r e c e i v e d i t s most r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n from r e t u r n i n g m i s s i o n a r i e s , academics, development w o r k e r s , and o t h e r s who had f i r s t - h a n d knowledge o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a . T h i s dependency i n c r e a s e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h o s e Canadians who s u p p l i e d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , most of whom f a v o r e d more p o l i t i c a l and economic s u p p o r t f o r N i c a r a g u a . But i t would be a m i s t a k e t o c r e d i t p u b l i c o p i n i o n , even as m a n i f e s t e d by v a r i o u s NGOs, w i t h h a v i n g a l o t o f p o l i t i c a l c l o u t i n Ottawa. The most common demands a r t i c u l a t e d by t h e c h u r c h e s , s o l i d a r i t y g roups, and l a b o u r were the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a Canadian embassy i n Managua, a s t r o n g p u b l i c condemnation of t h e p o l i c i e s o f the Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r s u p p o r t f o r t h e C o n t r a s ) , and a r e f o c u s i n g o f o f f i c i a l development a s s i s t a n c e from Honduras t o N i c a r a g u a . When Ottawa d i d b e g i n t o e x p r e s s some d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h U.S. p o l i c i e s , most o f t h e s t a t e m e n t s tended t o be m i l d and/or ambiguous. B i l a t e r a l l o a n s t o N i c a r a g u a were i n c r e a s e d , but o n l y a f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s , w h i l e t o t a l a i d was s t i l l much l e s s t h a n t h a t p r o v i d e d t o Honduras. The embassy i n N i c a r a g u a never - 1 1 2 -m a t e r i a l i z e d . P u b l i c p r e s s u r e d i d s u p p o r t t h o s e government o f f i c i a l s who, because o f t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s mentioned above, were t r y i n g t o a l t e r Candian p o l i c y . P u b l i c o p i n i o n was u s e f u l because i t a l l o w e d t h e government, i n t h e f a c e o f s t r o n g d i s a p p r o v a l from t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t o j u s t i f y i t s d e c i s i o n t o c o n t i n u e and even expand b i l a t e r a l a i d t o N i c a r a g u a . The o v e r a l l f e e l i n g among many NGOs was f r u s t r a t i o n i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e government, and "most p e r c e i v e d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e t o be f a i r l y s m a l l . " (48) S t i l l , a l t h o u g h Ambassador G o t l i e b may have been e x a g g e r a t i n g t h e l e v e l o f governmental r e s p o n s i v e n e s s f o r d o m e s t i c r e a s o n s , t h e r e was p r o b a b l y some t r u t h t o h i s remark t h a t : S t a t i s t i c s have been c i t e d about t h e e x t e n t o f our t r a d e and i n v e s t m e n t and t h e s i z e o f our a i d program. The s t a t i s t i c s a r e i m p r e s s i v e , i n Canadian terms. The s t a t i s t i c s a r e not as i m p o r t a n t , however, as t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a growing concensus among Canadians about t h e c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r e g i o n t o Canada and t o Canadian i n t e r e s t s . (49) - 1 1 3 -d) C r i t i q u e and C o n c l u s i o n s When t h e elements d i s c u s s e d above a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n the l i g h t o f t h e s u b s t a n c e o f Canadian p o l i c y towards t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , i t appears t h a t t h e s e d e c i s i o n s were u l t i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d l e s s by d o m e s t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and more by e x t e r n a l a c t o r s (e.g. N i c a r a g u a , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ) and e x t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n s (e.g. g e o p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , commercial r e l a t i o n s ) . The i n t e r n a t i o n a l environment i s a p e r v a s i v e , day-to-day i n f l u e n c e on Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y , w hich tends t o be r e a c t i v e i n n a t u r e . I t t h e r e f o r e c o n s t r a i n s t h e a b i l i t y o f i n t e r e s t groups t o i n f l u e n c e the b r o a d e r , major i s s u e s on which e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s must be responded t o . I n g e n e r a l , t h e d e c i s i o n c o s t s of f o r e i g n p o l i c y c h o i c e a r e g r e a t l y d e t e r m i n e d a t t h i s l e v e l , s e t t i n g t h e c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h i n t e r e s t group a c t i v i t y must t a k e p l a c e . . . ( 5 0 ) V a r i o u s p o l i c y o p t i o n s towards N i c a r a g u a were c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s , each o f which tended r e s t r i c t t h e number o f a l t e r n a t i v e s open t o Canada. I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n o f Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y , John Holmes sums up a v i e w which c o u l d a l s o be a p p l i e d i n t h e case o f N i c a r a g u a : Canadian p o l i c i e s i n r e c e n t y e a r s have been d e t e r m i n t e d more by what has happened i n Washington o r Houston, B r u s s e l s o r T e g u c i g a l p a , t h a n by what has been d e c i d e d o r sought i n Ottawa... Canadian p o l i c i e s would not have been v e r y d i f f e r e n t i f t h e r e had been a n o t h e r L i b e r a l l e a d e r o r a l o n g e r C o n s e r v a t i v e government... The range of Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y . . . 1 i m i t e d by b a s i c g e o p o l i t i c a l , economic and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s . . . and t h e room f o r r a d i c a l change i s c i r c u m s c r i b e d . (51) The Trudeau government was much more concerned about t h e p o t e n t i a l e s c a l a t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , and - I m -p o s s i b l e damage t o Canadian i n t e r e s t s from a n g e r i n g t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h a n by any f o r e s e e a b l e d o m e s t i c consequences. A l t h o u g h Trudeau had always t r i e d t o a v o i d u p s e t t i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s u n n e c e s s a r i l y , g rowing b i l a t e r a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n a number of a r e a s , a l o n g w i t h t h e renewed emphasis on economic n a t i o n a l i s m m a n i f e s t e d by t h e L i b e r a l s i n t h e 1980 e l e c t i o n campaign, r a i s e d t h e l e v e l s o f t e n s i o n between Ottawa and Washington t o t h e p o i n t where MacGuigan warned t h a t "normal r e l a t i o n s between t h e two c o u n t r i e s may no l o n g e r be p o s s i b l e " . (52) I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e p r e s s i n g c o n c e r n s , Trudeau seemed t o go out o f h i s way t o a v o i d p i c k i n g a f i g h t w i t h Washington over what began as a r e l a t i v e l y minor problem i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' " b a c k y a r d " . (The t o u g h e r s t a t e m e n t s were l e f t t o MacEachen.) The i n c r e a s i n g s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s a c t i o n s a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a was the p r i m a r y cause o f Ottawa's g r a d u a l move away from s u p p o r t i n g t h e U.S. Domestic Canadian o p i n i o n , a l t h o u g h i t a n t i c i p a t e d t h e subsequent d r i f t o f o f f i c i a l p o l i c y , was a secondary, r e i n f o r c i n g f a c t o r i n t h a t e v o l u t i o n . W i t h i n t h i s o v e r a l l c o n t e x t , p u b l i c o p i n i o n seemed t o have had more o f an impact on Canadian a i d p o l i c y t h a n on s t r i c t l y p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n s . As C r a n f o r d P r a t t o b s e r v e d , "The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f development t o s t a b i l i t y i n t h e C a r i b b e a n and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , p a r t i c u l a r l y the r e l a t i o n s h i p between e x t e r n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n , i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l change, and fundamental economic r i g h t s , i s unaddressed by t h e Canadian government, no doubt f o r f e a r of r a i s i n g y e t a n o t h e r c o n f l i c t w i t h Washington..." (53) The Canadian d e c i s i o n t o f o c u s i t s e f f o r t s on development -115-a s s i s t a n c e , f o r i n s t a n c e , was due i n l a r g e measure t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t i t was not l i k e l y t o o v e r l y a n t a g o n i z e the Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The s m a l l amount of a i d p r o v i d e d t o N i c a r a g u a , not t o mention i t s u n u s u a l l y l o n g d e l a y f o l l o w i n g t h e d o w n f a l l of Somoza, e x e m p l i f i e d Ottawa's h e s i t a n t approach. The r e s u l t has been a p o l i c y f u l l o f i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s , w h i c h , i n t u r n , have r e n d e r e d Canadian a c t i o n s r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f e c t i v e . Canadian " q u i e t d i p l o m a c y " had no e f f e c t on t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e i r r e a c t i o n was: " T h i s i s t h e way our p o l i c y i s . Take i t o r l e a v e i t . " (54) Canadian s u p p o r t f o r v a r i o u s peace p l a n s and i t s a t t e m p t s t o promote d i a l o g u e between the v a r i o u s a c t o r s i n t h e r e g i o n have been l i k e w i s e f r u i t l e s s . Canada must t a k e some o f t h e blame f o r t h i s f a i l u r e , s i n c e i t s s u p p o r t f o r Contadora was l i t t l e more th a n r h e t o r i c a l . No m a t t e r how s i n c e r e l y meant, Canadian a c t i o n s l a c k e d s i g n i f i c a n t , c o n c r e t e e f f o r t s and t h e f o l l o w - t h r o u g h n e c e s s a r y t o make a p r o c e s s l i k e Contadora succeed. The 6 - p o i n t N i c a r a g u a n peace p l a n o f 1983, f o r example, was endorsed i n p r i n c i p l e by Ottawa and p r o m p t l y f o r g o t t e n when Washington i g n o r e d i t . These f a i l u r e s a r e e s p e c i a l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n l i g h t o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h a t Canada c o u l d have made w i t h a more c o h e r e n t and d e t e r m i n e d p o l i c y (see b e l o w ) . One r e a s o n f o r Ottawa's ad hoc approach has been the l a c k o f knowledge of N i c a r a g u a among Canadian o f f i c i a l s who, u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1980s, hadn't "had t o d e v e l o p d i s t i n c t Canadian p o l i c i e s towards ... i n d i v i d u a l C e n t r a l American r e p u b l i c s . . . N i c a r a g u a i s an enigma t o Canadian p o l i c y - m a k e r s . " -116-(55) The s h o r t a g e of knowledgable s t a f f a t E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s , w h i l e c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e absence o f an o v e r a l l s t a t e g y , was i t s e l f a symptom of Canada's r e f u s a l t o become s e r i o u s l y i n v o l v e d i n w o r k i n g toward a p e a c e f u l s o l u t i o n i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . T h i s r e f u s a l i n d i c a t e d t o t h e U.S. t h a t Ottawa was not p r e p a r e d t o make a s e r i o u s i s s u e o v er Washington's e f f o r t s t o d e s t r o y t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n i f i t would f u r t h e r damage Canadian-U.S. r e l a t i o n s . D e s p i t e t h i s ad hoc a pproach, however, a number of c o n s i s t e n t themes can be d i s c e r n e d i n t h e h i s t o r y o f Canada's approach t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . The f i r s t , and most o b v i o u s , i s Canada's c o n c e r n about th e r e a c t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s f e a r may not have been based on any s p e c i f i c t h r e a t : " t h r e a t s a r e e x t r e m e l y r a r e among Canadian and American a c t i o n s " , and " s p i l l o v e r " from one i s s u e a r e a t o a n o t h e r i s u n u s u a l . (56) S t i l l , no n a t i o n i n Canada's v u l n e r a b l e p o s i t i o n c o u l d a f f o r d not t o c o n s i d e r t h e a t t i t u d e of so p o w e r f u l a n e i g h b o u r . The S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n "impinges on (Canada's) o v e r a l l r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U.S., and t h a t ' s been a v e r y c o n s t r a i n i n g f a c t o r i n our whole approach t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . " (57) The f e a r o f p r o v o k i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e c o n c u r r e n t hope f o r a " s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p " r u n t h r o u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r (and many o t h e r s ) o f t h e h i s t o r y of Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y . Indeed, i n t h e MacGuigan p e r i o d i t can be f a i r l y s a i d t h a t Canada was f o l l o w i n g a p o l i c y o f " n o n d e c i s i o n " i n r e g a r d t o b o t h N i c a r a g u a and U.S. p o l i c y towards t h a t c o u n t r y . L a t e r , Ottawa made no s i g n i f i c a n t d e c i s i o n s about N i c a r a g u a w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g p o s s i b l e U.S. - 1 1 7 -r e s p o n s e s , as " [ t ] h e f e a r o f r e t a l i a t i o n l u r k s below t h e s u r f a c e o f Ottawa's p o l i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e . " (58) Fear o f t h e t u r m o i l t h a t might r e s u l t from U n i t e d S t a t e s heavy-handedness towards N i c a r a g u a was the o t h e r major r e c u r r i n g theme. Foremost among t h e s e f e a r s was t h e r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e war a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a c o u l d d e s t a b i l i z e t h e r e g i o n , e s p e c i a l l y "Mexico and V e n e z u e l a , two c o u n t r i e s i n v e r y c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o t h e a r e a o f c o n f l i c t " . (59) The war a g a i n s t Vietnam, which e s c a l a t e d t o a war a g a i n s t a l l t h r e e c o u n t r i e s o f I n d o c h i n a , was a r e c e n t reminder o f how h o s t i l i t i e s , once begun, c o u l d be d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t a i n . T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , and t h e consequences i t might engender (see above) was t h e s i n g l e most p o w e r f u l f a c t o r i n e n c o u r a g i n g o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e U.S. Canadian s u p p o r t f o r some elements o f Washington's N i c a r a g u a n p o l i c y , based as i t was on common p e r c e p t i o n s and t r a d i t i o n s , was c o n s i s t a n t t h r o u g h t h i s p e r i o d . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e r e was agreement t h a t N i c a r a g u a was i n t h e l e g i t i m a t e s e c u r i t y sphere o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h a t b o t h c o u n t r i e s p r e f e r r e d t o see change t a k e p l a c e i n a " n o n - r e v o l u t i o n a r y way" ( 6 0 ) , and t h a t a b o u r g o i s regime was p r e f e r a b l e t o a " M a r x i s t " one. F o r most o f t h i s p e r i o d , Canada a c c e p t e d U.S. charges t h a t t h e S a n d i n i s t a s were a c t i v e l y t r y i n g t o promote r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t r u g g l e t h r o u g h o u t C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , e s p e c i a l l y i n E l S a l v a d o r . A l t h o u g h Canada's assessment o f N i c a r a g u a ' s i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l development v a r i e d s l i g h t l y d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , s u s p i c i o n s t h a t t h e FSLN was t r y i n g t o c o n s t r u c t an a u t h o r i t a r i a n M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t s t a t e remained a c o n c e r n from -119-t h e day t h a t t h e S a n d i n i s t a s s e i z e d power. "The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f C e n t r a l American h i s t o r y s i n c e 1979 which sees 'Nicaragua as p l a t f o r m f o r r e v o l u t i o n ' w i t h t h e S a n d i n i s t a s h a v i n g ' b e t r a y e d ' t h e i r i d e a l s , has g a i n e d many a d h e r e n t s among Canadian o f f i c i a l s . " (61) Canada's d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h Washington stemmed from s e v e r a l f a c t o r s : i t s "middle power" s t a t u s , some d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e , d i s a g r e e m e n t about the n a t u r e and causes o f the S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n and, most of a l l , f e a r o f the consequences o f Washington's m i l i t a r i s t i c approach. Canadian o f f i c i a l s had a more t o l e r a n t , more "European" v i e w o f change i n t h e T h i r d World, and d i d not see an " e v i l empire" b e h i n d e v e r y d i s t u r b a n c e . Canada saw t h e problems of p o v e r t y , d i s e a s e , p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s s i o n , and s o c i a l j u s t i c e as t h e r e a l dangers t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . Ottawa was concerned t h a t Washingtons's h o s t i l i t y t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s would d r i v e them i n t o t h e S o v i e t b l o c , much as was t h e case w i t h Cuba twenty y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y . As i n t h e case o f Cuba, Canada r e j e c t e d "the U.S. assumption t h a t i n t e r n a l change i n t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e C a r i b b e a n B a s i n t h r e a t e n s US s e c u r i t y . " (62) W i t h t h e p o s s b i l e e x c e p t i o n o f a s h o r t p e r i o d d u r i n g MacGuigan's t e n u r e a t E x t e r n a l , Canada m a i n t a i n e d t h a t N i c a r a g u a was not a S o v i e t o r Cuban c l i e n t s t a t e and t h a t S o v i e t e x p a n s i o n i s m was not an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r . ( A l t h o u g h as l a t e as May 1984, Trudeau remarked t h a t b o t h t h e U.S. and t h e S o v i e t s were " t r y i n g t o t u r n t h e m i s e r y o f t h e r e g i o n i n t o a c o n t e s t between communist and d e m o c r a t i c i d e a l s " . ) (63) Because Ottawa d i d not b e l i e v e t h a t N i c a r a g u a was a S o v i e t puppet o r a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t h e - I n -s e c u r i t y o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , i t viewed U.S. a c t i o n s and t h e r i s k s t h a t were i n v o l v e d as a g r a v e m i s c a l c u l a t i o n . Canada's p r i m a r y r esponse was t h e use o f " q u i e t d i p l o m a c y " t o t r y t o moderate W a s h i n g t o n ' s , a n t i - S a n d i n i s t a c r u s a d e . These elements were the most c o n s i s t e n t themes i n Canadian p o l i c y towards N i c a r a g u a . But t h e r e were i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s and c o n t r a d i c t i o n s between Ottawa's r h e t o r i c and p r a c t i c e , and between some a c t i o n s and o t h e r s . Development a s s i s t a n c e i s a case i n p o i n t . The Canadian government spoke of "human s o l i d a r i t y " , and "the p o w e r f u l h u m a n i t a r i a n m o t i v e " upon which i t based i t s e f f o r t s t o h e l p t h o s e " t r a p p e d i n w o r l d p o v e r t y t o e x p e r i e n c e a more decent l i f e . . . " ( 6 4 ) . But Ottawa t i e d 80% of i t s a i d t o t h e purchase of Canadian goods (one o f t h e h i g h e s t r a t e s i n t h e w o r l d ) , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t Managua was not a b l e t o "shop around" f o r t h e l o w e s t p r i c e s o r h i g h e s t q u a l i t y . T i e d a i d a l s o f a v o u r s " i m p o r t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s . . . and makes i t e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o employ a i d f o r d i r e c t p o v e r t y - a l l e v i a t i n g p r o j e c t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r u r a l a r e a s . . . " (65) A n other problem l a y w i t h Canada's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t " a i d i s not d e s i g n e d as a t o o l t o reward o r p u n i s h f o r e i g n governments" and i s "not d e t e r m i n e d by p o l i t i c a l whim but by s o c i o - e c o n o m i c l e v e l s o f development". (66) These p r i n c i p l e s were a p p l i e d d i f f e r e n t l y i n t h e c ases of N i c a r a g u a and Honduras. Canada used N i c a r a g u a ' s need f o r development a s s i s t a n c e as a l e v e r t o push f o r a r e v e r s a l o f Managua's a l l e g e d " a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m " and " s u b v e r s i o n " o f n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r i e s (e.g. MacEachen's remarks d u r i n g h i s t r i p t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , comments from CIDA - 1 2 0 -o f i c i a l s and Amb. S i r r s , above) Honduras, however, which had a much worse human r i g h t s r e c o r d , was g r a n t e d more Canadian a s s i s t a n c e t h a n any o t h e r c o u n t r y i n t h e r e g i o n . T h i s l a r g e s s e was g r a n t e d even though "Canada does not approve of t h e s u p p l y of armaments by any c o u n t r y t o o p p o s i n g f a c t i o n s i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " (67) and Honduras was t h e p r i m a r y s u p p l y and s t a g i n g base f o r C o n t r a a t t a c k s on N i c a r a g u a n s . When q u e s t i o n e d about t h i s p r a c t i c e , E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s responded t h a t Canada has r e i t e r a t e d i t s " s e r i o u s c o n c e r n about t h e e s c a l a t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t " t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s , Honduras, and Cuba ( s i c ! ) . The DEA m a i n t a i n e d t h e dubious p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e a i d w i l l g i v e Canada more l e v e r a g e w i t h t h e Honduran government i n o r d e r t o promote a " p e a c e f u l s o l u t i o n " . (68) In any c a s e , t h i s " b e n e f i t o f t h e doubt" was not extended t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s g r e a t e r s i n c e N i c a r a g u a i s a d m i t t e d l y a b l e t o use t h e a i d i t r e c e i v e s more e f f i c i e n t l y t h an Honduras. A r e p o r t from ICHRLA i n 1984 n o t e s "the e x c e l l e n t t r a c k r e c o r d o f t h e N i c a r a g u a n government i n d e l i v e r i n g a i d t o t h e g r a s s r o o t s p o p u l a t i o n . . . " and adds t h a t t h e need f o r a s s i s t a n c e i s " r e i n f o r c e d by t h e c r i p p l i n g a t t a c k s " t h r o u g h b o t h th e " d i r t y war" and t h e economic b o y c o t t promoted by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . (69) The d e s i g n a t i o n of Honduras as a "core c o u n t r y " f o r a i d , w h i l e g r a n t i n g N i c a r a g u a o n l y " p r o j e c t c o u n t r y " s t a t u s does not f i t w i t h Canada's p r o f e s s e d i n t e n t i o n o f m a x i m i z i n g th e impact of i t s a i d programs t o b e n e f i t t h e w o r l d ' s poor. Not o n l y does the r e c o r d demonstrate t h a t t h e funds would be used more e f f e c t i v e l y i n N i c a r a g u a i t s e l f , b u t t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e found t h e r e , such — lav -as a g r a r i a n r e f o r m , mass m o b i l i z a t i o n , and t h e v e r i t a b l e absence of c o r r u p t i o n , might s e r v e as i n s p i r a t i o n s f o r s u c c e s s f u l development i n o t h e r poor c o u n t r i e s - i f t h e S a n d i n i s t a s were a l l o w e d t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h s o c i a l r e f o r m i n peace. * T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n was a n a l y z e d by Edgar Dosman: S i n c e Honduras i s t h e o n l y d e s i g n a t e d c o r e c o u n t r y f o r Canadian a i d i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , a m e a n i n g f u l s i g n a l f o r showing d i s p l e a s u r e toward t h a t c o u n t r y f o r i t s p a r t i n t h e c o v e r t war a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a would be e i t h e r t o c u r t a i l f u r t h e r a i d o r t o s c a l e i t back t o t h e N i c a r a g u a n l e v e l . A l t h o u g h p r e s s e d t o be c o n s i s t e n t i n i t s a c t i o n i n c u r t a i l i n g a i d t o Cuba i n r e t a l i a t i o n f o r t h a t c o u n t r y ' s " a d v e n t u r i s m " and i n t e r v e n t i o n i n A f r i c a n a f f a i r s , t h e Trudeau government c o n s i s t e n t l y r e f u s e d t o r e c o g n i z e t h e p a r a l l e l i n t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f Honduras and i t s use as a base f o r the a n t i - S a n d i n i s t a " c o n t r a s . . . " (71) The o t h e r major i n c o n s i s t e n c y was t h e d i s p a r i t y between the Canada's t r a d i t i o n a l p r e f e r e n c e f o r a m u l t i l a t e r a l approach t o p e a c e f u l l y r e s o v i n g c o n f l i c t s when a superpower, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , * One o b s e r v e r h o l d s t h a t U.S. h o s t i l i t y t o t h e S a n d i n i s t a s stems from th e f a c t t h a t " . . . t h e p r i o r i t i e s o f t h e new government 'meant t h a t N i c a r a g u a ' s poor m a j o r i t y would have a c c e s s t o , and be t h e p r i m a r y b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f , p u b l i c programs,' the f a c t t h a t i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y f e l l so d r a m a t i c a l l y t h a t N i c a r a g u a won an award from th e World H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r t h e b e s t h e a l t h achievement i n a T h i r d World n a t i o n , h e a l t h s t a n d a r d s and l i t e r a c y s h a r p l y improved, a s u c c e s s f u l a g r a r i a n r e f o r m was c a r r i e d o u t , GDP expanded by 5% i n 1983 i n c o n t r a s t t o o t h e r c o u n t r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n , p r o d u c t i o n and consumption of c o r n , beans, and r i c e r o s e d r a m a t i c a l l y and N i c a r a g u a came c l o s e r t o s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y t h a n any o t h e r C e n t r a l American n a t i o n and made the most i m p r e s s i v e g a i n s o f any L a t i n American n a t i o n i n t h e Q u a l i t y o f L i f e Index of t h e Overseas Development C o u n c i l , based on l i t e r a c y , i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y , and l i f e e x p e c t a n c y . . . 'Nicaragua s h o u l d , i n many ways, s t a n d as an example f o r C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , not i t s o u t c a s t . The g r i m s o c i a l s t a t i s t i c s from Honduras... s t a n d i n s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o the r e c e n t achievements i n N i c a r a g u a . (70) -122-i s i n v o l v e d , and i t s f a i l u r e t o work s e r i o u s l y w i t h such o r g a n i z a t i o n s as the U n i t e d N a t i o n s , t h e European Economic Community, and e s p e c i a l l y Contadora i n o r d e r t o t r y t o b r i n g peace t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . (Canada had made such e f f o r t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e Korean War, C h i n a , Cuba, t h e Vietnam War, arms c o n t r o l t a l k s , and i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s . ) (72) But a l t h o u g h Canadian s u p p o r t f o r t h e Contadora e f f o r t was s i n c e r e , i t was l i t t l e more t h a n words. There i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e Canadian government made any s e r i o u s e f f o r t t o h e l p m o b i l i z e t h e r e s o u r c e s and i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s o r o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e i r member s t a t e s i n an e f f o r t b r i n g p r e s s u r e t o bear f o r an end t o h o s t i l i t i e s , o r t o moderate t h o s e elements o f U.S. p o l i c y t o N i c a r a g u a which Canada opposed. Canada has more i n f l u e n c e as p a r t o f a l a r g e r team, and c o u n t r i e s l i k e Mexico and V e n e z u e l a might have been h e l p f u l a l l i e s . By h e l p i n g t o s t r e n g t h e n w o r l d o p i n i o n i n f a v o r o f a n e g o t i a t e d s e t t l e m e n t w i t h N i c a r a g u a and by e n c o u r a g i n g c o n t i n u e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , Canada might have h e l p e d t o f o r c e Washington t o r e t h i n k t h e c o s t s and r i s k s o f i t s p o l i c y o f o v e r t h r o w i n g t h e government of N i c a r a g u a . The o p p o r t u n i t y was t h e r e . " I n a ti m e o f American m i l i t a r y and economic d e c l i n e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y weakend t h a t i t i s now f o r c e d t o l i s t e n t o i t s a l l i e s , s i n c e i t can no l o n g e r impose on them i t s p r e f e r r e d s o l u t i o n s t o w o r l d problems...America cannot a f f o r d n o t t o g e t on w e l l w i t h i t s c o n t i n e n t a l p a r t n e r . " (73) Canada's f a i l u r e t o use i t s i n f l u e n c e i s a l l t h e more s i g n i f i c a n t because - 1 2 3 -Among t h e d i s p a r a t e group o f "middle powers", from b o t h t h e N o r t h and South, w i t h enough c l o u t and c r e d i b i l t y t o l e a d i n d e f i n i n g new c o l l e c t i v e management, and i n r a d i c a l l y i m p r o v i n g e x i s t i n g m u l t i l a t e r a l systems, Canada re-emerges, i n s i s t e n t l y and n a t u r a l l y , because of b o t h i t s t r a d i t i o n s and i t s i n t e r e s t s . (74) Had t h e Canadian government so d e s i r e d , t h e r e was room t o a c t u n i l a t e r a l l y . Ottawa c o u l d have been more e x p l i c i t about i t s s e r i o u s d i s a g r e e m e n t s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a c t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e b a c k i n g f o r t h e C o n t r a s and t h e m i n i n g o r N i c a r a g u a n h a r b o u r s . By c l e a r l y o p p o s i n g Reagan's a c t i o n s , Canada, as one o f Washington's c l o s e s t a l l i e s , would have d e n i e d t h e U.S. i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t w h i l e u n d e r c u t t i n g t h e " l e g i t i m a c y " o f i t s p o l i c i e s . But Canada tended t o a v o i d d i r e c t condemnations about t h e s e a c t s o f war, and, as n o t e d , when vague statement were made denouncing " o u t s i d e i n t e r f e r e n c e " , t h e S o v i e t Union and Cuba were u s u a l l y added t o t h e U.S. f o r " b a l a n c e " . The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a Canadian embassy i n Managua would have u n d e r l i n e d Canada's d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h Washington, demonstrated i t s s u p p o r t f o r N i c a r a g u a n s o v e r e i g n t y and independence, w h i l e p r o v i d i n g Canada w i t h a v a l u a b l e s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n . Such a move was needed because of t h e u n i q u e , r e v o l u t i o n a r y s i t u a t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a , as w e l l as t h e a n t i - S a n d i n i s t a d i s i n f o m a t i o n campaign o r c h e s t r a t e d by t h e White House. The t r a n s f e r o f a i d funds t o N i c a r a g u a from Honduras was a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e o p t i o n , and one whose e f f e c t would be b o t h c o n c r e t e and s y m b o l i c . O f f e r r i n g such s u p p o r t t o t h e N i c a r a g u a n economy would reduce some of t h e damage caused by t h e U.S.-backed C o n t r a s . By p r o v i d i n g g r a n t s ( i n s t e a d o f l o a n s ) , p r e f e r e n t i a l t r a d e agreements, t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e , and o t h e r forms o f a s s i s t a n c e (e.g. c r e d i t i n s u r a n c e f o r Canadian companies t h r o u g h t h e E x p o r t Development C o r p o r a t i o n ) , Canada c o u l d have backed i t s r h e t o r i c about s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t deeds. As i t was, t h e modest i n c r e a s e i n Canadian a i d t o N i c a r a g u a a l s o s e r v e d Ottawa as an excuse f o r not d o i n g more and as a sop t o p u b l i c o p i n i o n . More use c o u l d have been made of NGOs f o r t h i s work. CIDA found t h a t "NGOs... r e p r e s e n t one o f t h e most p r a c t i c a l and e f f e c t i v e forms o f human c o o p e r a t i o n i n t h e w o r l d . They have the p o t e n t i a l t o be i n s t r u m e n t s o f change, t o p r o v i d e l e a d e r s h i p and b u i l d b r i d g e s o f p r a c t i c a l a c t i o n between N o r t h and South." (75) A c t i o n s such as t h e m u l t i l a t e r a l and u n i l a t e r a l ones l i s t e d above would c e r t a i n l y have h e l p e d N i c a r a g u a t o s u r v i v e . By s e t t i n g such an example, Canada might have encouraged o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r : o w n a i d programs t o N i c a r a g u a and t o be more o p e n l y c r i t i c a l o f U.S. p o l i c y . A t t h e v e r y l e a s t , Canada would have been p r o v i d i n g v i t a l h e l p t o a s m a l l c o u n t r y i n i t s s t r u g g l e f o r n a t i o n a l independence and development. As i t was, Ottawa's e f f o r t s were i n a d e q u a t e a t b e s t . An E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s o f f i c i a l conceded t h a t Canadian a t t e m p t s t o moderate Washington's m i l i t a r y approach w i t h " q u i e t d i p l o m a c y " had f a i l e d . "We don't have much i n f l u e n c e " , he a d m i t t e d . (76) Of c o u r s e , Ottawa's i n f l u e n c e on Washington has always been l i m i t e d and i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o draw any f i r m c o n c l u s i o n s as t o what impact a s t r o n g e r p o s i t i o n might have had on t h e U.S., i f any. But "Canada i s b e t t e r p l a c e d t h a n any o t h e r c o u n t r y t o - 1 2 5 -a c t as a moderate m e d i a t i n g i n f l u e n c e between the'U.S. ,and L a t i n A m e r i c a " p r e c i s e l y because o f i t s t i e s t o t h e U.S., i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n , i t s w e a l t h , and o t h e r f a c t p r s . (77) Canada's o p p o s i t i o n t o an o u t r i g h t U.S. i n v a s i o n was a not i n s i g n i f i c a n t element i n d e t e r r i n g such a move. Y e t , Canada's own c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p e a c e f u l l y r e s o l v i n g t h e c r i s i s o v e r N i c a r a g u a was m i n i m a l . No s u s t a i n e d o r d e t e r m i n e d e f f o r t was made t o f i n d a m u l t i l a t e r a l s o l u t i o n . A i d was s l o w i n a r r i v i n g and cannot be deemed generous. Trudeau d i d not l a u n c h a "peace i n i t i a t i v e " f o r C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , not o n l y because he d i d n ' t c o n s i d e r t h e c r i s i s s e r i o u s enough, bu t because he seemed t o s u b s c r i b e t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Canadian n o t i o n t h a t , i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , power c o u l d "be a f f e c t e d o n l y m a r g i n a l l y by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f l e g a l r u l e s o r by i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s . " (78) One can o n l y s p e c u l a t e about what might have been a c c o m p l i s h e d had Canada a l l o c a t e d more r e s o u r c e s e i t h e r t o a s s i s t N i c a r a g u a u n i l a t e r a l l y o r t o pursue a m u l t i l a t e r a l approach w i t h t h o s e L a t i n and European n a t i o n s which share Canada's c o n c e r n s . The i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f s t r a t e g i e s such as t h o s e s u g g e s t e d above, because t h e y would have c l e a r l y run c o u n t e r t o U.S. p o l i c y , would c o n s t i t u t e s t r o n g e v i d e n c e o f an independent f o r e i g n p o l i c y . The f a i l u r e t o p l a y a v i t a l and independent r o l e i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , however, " c a s t s doubt upon Canada's i d e n t i t y as a ( n independent) member-nation of t h e c o n t i n e n t o f t h e A m e r i c a s . . . " (79) C o n s i d e r i n g a l l t h e l i m i t a t i o n s on Canada's o p t i o n s , i t would be u n r e a l i s t i c t o t h i n k t h a t Ottawa c o u l d have pursued - 1 2 6 -r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t p o l i c i e s . Indeed, g i v e n t h e f a c t o r s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s t u d y , i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Canada r e a c t e d as i t d i d . However, had some of t h e c o n d i t i o n s been changed, a markedly a l t e r e d p o l i c y might have been p o s s i b l e . F o r example, had t h e Prime M i n i s t e r ( o r perhaps t h e M i n i s t e r f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s ) , been w i l l i n g t o r i s k Washington's anger, he might have adopted one o r more o f the p o l i c i e s mentioned above. A s t r o n g e r and more o r g a n i z e d p u b l i c e f f o r t i n s u p p o r t of t h e S a n d i n i s t a s might have r e s u l t e d i n a more f o r t h r i g h t s t a n d by t h e Canadian government. W h i l e some elements of Canada's r e l a t i o n s w i t h N i c a r a g u a (e.g t i e d a i d , s u s p i c i o n of " M a r x i s t " t e n d e n c i e s ) would have e x i s t e d even w i t h o u t Washington's h o s t i l i t y t o t h e government i n Managua, Canada's t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e r n f o r d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , a l o n g w i t h t h e growing s u p p o r t o f t h e Canadian p u b l i c , s u g g e s t s t h a t Ottawa might have been s i g n i f i c a n t l y more generous and s u p p o r t i v e of the S a n d i n i s t a e x p e r i m e n t i n s o c i a l development. To say t h a t Canada pursued a more e n l i g h t e n e d p o l i c y toward N i c a r a g u a than t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d i d i s t o say l i t t l e . A more r e a s o n a b l e , and damning, comparison i s w i t h t h e a c t i o n s of o t h e r m i d d l e powers, such as M e x i c o , t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , and Sweden, whi c h o f f e r e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y more p o l i t i c a l and economic s u p p o r t t o the S a n d i n i s t a s . Canadian p o l i c y , i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s , o p t e d f o r p r o f i t s o v e r p r i n c i p l e , t r a d e over i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, and narrow s e l f - i n t e r e s t o v er t h e l i v e s o f N i c a r a g u a n s . Examining N i c a r a g u a as a f o r e i g n p o l i c y q u e s t i o n can i l l u m i n a t e t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s i n o t h e r c a s e s , but -127-some unique a s p e c t s o f t h i s i s s u e ( e . g . t h e l a c k o f any str.on.-g i n p u t from b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t s ; t h e depth o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n ; t h e u n u s u a l l y h i g h l e v e l s o f t e n s i o n w i t h t h e U.S..; and t h e seeming absence o f major d i f f e r e n c e s among v a r i o u s m i n i s t r i e s ) r e q u i r e c a u t i o n b e f o r e g e n e r a l i z i n g t o o t h e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y o u t p u t s . More complete answers about t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f Canada's N i c a r a g u a n p o l i c y (and i t s r e l a t i o n t o v a r i o u s d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g models) w i l l c e r t a i n l y be p o s s i b l e as more documents, p a p e r s , and memoires become a v a i l a b l e . I n a d d i t i o n , r e s e a r c h w i l l be needed on q u e s t i o n s such a s : 1) To what e x t e n t d i d a n t i c i p a t e d r e a c t i o n , d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t p r e s s u r e s , " s p i l l o v e r " , and o t h e r a s p e c t s o f Canadian-U.S. r e l a t i o n s a f f e c t Ottawa's N i c a r a g u a n p o l i c y ? 2) What a c t i o n s d i d Canada u n d e r t a k e i n i t s " q u i e t d i p l o m a c y " w i t h Washington i n o r d e r t o t r y t o moderate the l a t t e r ' s p o l i c y towards t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n ? 3) D i d Canada pursue any as y e t u n d i s c l o s e d a t t e m p t s t o r a l l y i n t e r n a t i o n a l and/or m u l t i l a t e r a l s u p p o r t f o r i t s o p p o s i t i o n t o U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n a g a i n s t N i c a r a g u a ? 4) What e f f o r t s d i d t h e S a n d i n i s t a s make t o t r y t o win Canadian s u p p o r t ? 5) What recommendations d i d CIDA make about a i d t o N i c a r a g u a , and how much i n f l u e n c e d i d i t have a) w i t h i n t h e Department o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s ? b) i n C a b i n e t ? 6) D i d t h e media i n f l u e n c e t h e views o f e i t h e r t h e p u b l i c or t h e d e c i s i o n makers i n Ottawa? I n what ways? 7) Who was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r making d e c i s i o n s ( o r n o n d e c i s i o n s ) f o r a g i v e n p o l i c y ? The development o f a more - 1 2 8 -complete u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s and p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e p o l i c y - m a k e r s t h e m s e l v e s would p r o b a b l y y i e l d t h e g r e a t e s t i n s i g h t i n t o the e v o l u t i o n o f Canada's p o l i c y towards t h e S a n d i n i s t a r e v o l u t i o n . -129-Notes C h a p t e r 1 1) D a v i d B i c k f o r d , (DEA), p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w , 7 May 1984. 2) J .CM. O g i l s b y , G r i n g o s from the Far N o r t h ( T o r o n t o : M a c M i l l a n , 1976) 101. 3) O g i l s b y 326. 4) CIDA, 1983-84 Annual R e p o r t ( H u l l , 1984) 4. 5) C a n a d a - C a r i b b e a n - C e n t r a l America P o l i c y A l t e r n a t i v e s ( h e n c e f o r t h CAPA), B r i e f on Canada and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a ( T o r o n t o , 1984) 20. 6) CAPA, C a n a d a - C e n t r a l A m e r i c a R e l a t i o n s ( T o r o n t o , 1984) 20. 7) CAPA, Canada 11. 8) CAPA, Canada 10-11. 9) CIDA, Canada and t h e M u l t i l a t e r a l Development Banks ( H u l l : MSS, 1984) 11. 10) "Canadian A i d t o L a t i n A m e r i c a " , LAWG L e t t e r May-August 1981: 35. 11) L a t i n A merica Working Group ( h e n c e f o r t h LAWG), Resource  K i t 37. 12) Tim D r a i m i n , "Canada and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , LARU S t u d i e s , V (1982) : 84 . 13) D.R. Murray, "The B i l a t e r a l Road: Canada and L a t i n A m e r i c a i n t h e 1980s", I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l , 37 (W i n t e r 1981-82): 119-120 . 14) O g i l s b y 287. 15) Murray 117. 16) D r a i m i n , Canada 83. 17) San J o s e News [ C o s t a R i c a ] , 23 May 1980. 18) N i c a r a g u a Update ( h e n c e f o r t h Update, (25 June 1979) 9. 19) Update 8. 20) CAPA, Canada 10. 21) San J o s e News. -130-22) CAPA, Canada 9. 23) A l l a n G o t l i e b , "Canada, The U n i t e d S t a t e s and L a t i n A m e r i c a : Independence and Accomodation"; Washington, 30 A p r i l 1984 . 24) P e t e r R o s s e t and John Vandermeer, eds., The N i c a r a g u a  Reader (New York: Grove P r e s s , 1983), 25. 25) CAPA, Canada 7. 26) Hansard, 2 March 1981, 7767. 27) CAPA, Canada 7. 28) CAPA, Canada 6. 29) Canadian P r e s s , 2 December 1981. 30) John Walker, " F o r e i g n p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n - a p a r l i a m e n t a r y b r e a k t h r o u g h " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e r s p e c t i v e s , May/June 1982: 11. 31) Mark MacGuigan, " C e n t r a l A merica and Canadian F o r e i g n P o l i c y " ; U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o , 31 March 1982. 32) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 33) Sub-Committee on Canada's R e l a t i o n s w i t h L a t i n A merica and the C a r i b b e a n , F i n a l R e p o r t , ( H u l l : MSS, 1982) passim. 34) "Canada and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , C e n t r a l A merica Update ( h e n c e f o r t h , CAU) December 1982: 9. 35) " I n t e r n a t i o n a l Canada", A p r i l / M a y , 1983: 3. 36) Roger A n n i s , "Should Canada a i d N i c a r a g u a ' s enemies?", S o c i a l i s t V o i c e 7 March 1983. 37) "Trudeau backs L a t i n Peace E f f o r t s " , Vancouver Sun ( h e n c e f o r t h , Sun) 4 May 1983. 38) CAPA, Canada 2. 39) Department o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s , " C e n t r a l A m e r i c a - Peace I n i t i a t i v e s " , 29 J u l y 1983. 40) CIDA, l e t t e r t o t h e a u t h o r , 22 May 1985. 41) Thomas Walkom, " L i f t C a n a d i a n s ' s a f e t y o ut o f U.S. hands: NDP", Globe and M a i l ( h e n c e f o r t h , GM) 1 December 1983. 42) CAPA Memo 27 March 1984: 38. -131-43) S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s , "Notes f o r a To a s t O f f e r e d by t h e Honourable A l l a n J . MacEachen on the Oc c a s i o n o f t h e V i s i t o f t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r o f Colombia, H.E. L l o r e d a C a i c e d o " , 20 F e b r u a r y 1984. 44) James Rusk, "Canada p l a n s C e n t r a l American r o l e , GM, 21 F e b r u a r y 1984. 45) GM 31 March 1984. 46) "Canada spurns a p p e a l by U.S. on E l S a l v a d o r " , T o r o n t o  S t a r ( h e n c e f o r t h TS, 3 A p r i l 1984. 47) "U.S. f l a t l y d e n i e d r o l e i n p l a n t i n g mines Ottawa s a y s " , TS, 17 A p r i l 1984. 48) "Canada spurns a p p e a l by U.S. on E l S a l v a d o r " , TS, 3 A p r i l 1984 . 49) "We won't use a i d as b l a c k m a i l - - M a c E a c h e n " , TS, 14 A p r i l 1984. 50) "MacEachen T r i p P r o f i l e s Ottawa's O p p o s i t i o n t o U.S.", CAU (May 1984.) 46 . 51) " M i n i n g o f N i c a r a g u a n p o r t s adds t e n s i o n , MacEachen s a y s " , TS, 11 A p r i l 1984. 52) " W i l l not h e l p N i c a r a g u a n s remove mines, PM s a y s " , GM, 10 A p r i l 1984. 53) J o e l Ruimy, " M i n i n g o f N i c a r a g u a ' s h a r b o r s i s an 'act o f t e r r o r i s m ' , PM s a y s " , TS, 12 A p r i l 1984. 54) On C e n t r a l America (NDP i n f o r m a t i o n package - h e n c e f o r t h OCA), March 1984. 55) "MacEachen", CAU, 46. 56) OCA. 57) "NDP p l a n s l e g a t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a " , GM, 21 A p r i l 1984. 58) OCA. 59) Bruce Ward, "'No chance' our t r o o p s w i l l go t o S a l v a d o r : MacEachen", TS 18 A p r i l 1984. 60) Claude C h a r l a n d , "A Canadian View o f L a t i n America and t h e C a r i b b e a n " , Woodrow W i l s o n C e n t e r , Washington, 30 A p r i l 1984. 61) Sun 26 A p r i l 1984: 1. 62) Glenn S o m e r v i l l e , " R i c h e r n a t i o n s c a l l e d on t o h e l p C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , TS, 9 May 84. -132-63) "Danger o f war r e a l , Mexican p r e s i d e n t s a y s " , Winnipeg  Free P r e s s , 8 May 1984. 64) F r a n c i n e M i l o , (CIDA), p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w , 8 May 1984. 65) LAWG 37. 66) CIDA, C o u n t r y P r o f i l e : N i c a r a g u a , ( H u l l : n.p., 1982) 4. 67) CIDA, Annual R e p o r t : 1978-1979 ( H u l l : MSS, 1979) 43. 68) "Nicaraguans ask f o r more money i n Canadian a i d " , The G a z e t t e ( M o n t r e a l - h e n c e f o r t h MG) 1 November 1979. 69) John W. F o s t e r & Joey Edwardh,. "Canadian A i d t o N i c a r a g u a " , ( B r i e f : 1979) 2. 70) CIDA, Coun t r y P r o f i l e 4. 71) "Canadian D e l e g a t i o n Lauds L i t e r a c y Campaign", CAU (June 1980) 119. 72) CAPA, "Summary o f Canadian A i d t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , CAPA  Memo, June 1984. 73) TS, 27 J u l y 1980. 74) CIDA, Annual R e p o r t , 1979-1980 ( H u l l : MSS, 1980) 41, 56. 75) E r i c M i l l s , " P o s i t i v e N i c a r a g u a r o l e urged f o r Canada", GM, 5 March 1981. 76) CAPA, "Canadian A i d t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , A i d Memo, September 1983. 77) DEA, Response t o t h e I n t e r Church Committee on Human  R i g h t s i n L a t i n America (ICCHRLA) B r i e f of October, 1983:  Canadian P o l i c y on C e n t r a l America (Ottawa: 1984) 5. 78) CIDA, Annual R e p o r t , 1981-1982 ( H u l l : MSS, 1983) 6. 79) CIDA, News R e l e a s e , 12 F e b r u a r y 1982. 80) "Turner Takes Charge", CAU ( J u l y / A u g u s t 1984) 2. 81) CIDA, C o u n t r y P r o f i l e , 4. 82) CAPA, CAPA Memo. 83) CIDA, News R e l e a s e , 13 J a n u a r y 1984. 84) "Turner", CAU , 2. 85) CAPA, CAPA Memo. -133-86) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 87) M i l o ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 88) CIDA, Elements of Canada's O f f i c i a l Development A s s i s t a n c e  S t r a t e g y 1984 ( H u l l : MSS, 1984) 35. 89) "Canada opposes U.S. i n development bank", TS, 6 August 1983 . '.: 90) CIDA, Elements, 14. Chapter 2 1) D r a i m i n , Canada 83. 2) CAPA, Canada 12. 3) "The p e o p l e on t h e o f f e n s i v e " , Canadian Dimension ( h e n c e f o r t h CD), Jan./Feb. 1979: 25-6. 4) "News B r i e f s " CAU, June 1981: 50. 5) CD 25-6 6) TS, 27 J u l y 1980 7) Murray 119, 120; " C l a r k s t a n d s by N i c a r a g u a d e s p i t e back-bench c r i t i c i s m " , Vancouver Sun ( h e n c e f o r t h Sun), 24 May 1985: A14. 8) G a i l Lem, " N i c a r a g u a n s t r i f e b o o s t s t r a d e " , GM 16 J u l y 1984 9) Bob Thomson, Canadian Trade R e l a t i o n s w i t h N i c a r a g u a a f t e r  t h e U.S. Embargo, (CAPA, May 1985) 3. 10) L u c i a Kowaluk, "Peace A c t i o n and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , Qur  G e n e r a t i o n 16.2 (1984): 15. 11) "Unions c o n t r i b u t e t o N i c a r a g u a n r e l i e f f u n d " , Canada  Weekly 24 j|ctober 1979 . 12) "Renew committment t o N i c a r a g u a n a i d , ||ttawa, CLC u r g e d " , GM 8 A p r i l 1980: 9. 13) "CLC t o n i n g down i t s e f f o r t s t o send a i d t o N i c a r a g u a " , GM 12 May 1980. 14) "UFAWU sends n e t s and gear t o N i c a r a g u a " , The Fisherman 25 September 1981: 1. 15) Canadian Labour Congress, "CLC Statement on USA -134-I h t e r v e n t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a " , ( p r e s s r e l e a s e ) , 22 November 19.83. 16) "Canadian Trade Union Leader's Statement on Canada and N i c a r a g u a " , C e n t r o America L i b r e 1 Jan-Feb 1984: 3. 17) "Oppose U.S. v i e w i n L a t i n A m e r i c a , CLC t e l l s Ottawa", GM 1 June 1984. 18) Canadian A c t i o n f o r N i c a r a g u a N e w s l e t t e r , June 1984: 7. 19) John F r y e r , l e t t e r , GM, 15 May 1984. 20) "Canadian Churches: Open L e t t e r on N i c a r a g u a " , 14 June 1979 . 21) John F o s t e r , "Canadian A i d t o N i c a r a g u a , ( b r i e f ) , 31 O c t o b e r 1979. 22) Canadian C a t h o l i c O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r Development and Peace, ( p r e s s r e l e a s e ) n.d. 23) ICCHRLA, "Sub m i s s i o n t o t h e Sub-Committee (of t h e S t a n d i n g Committee on E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s and N a t i o n a l Defence) on Canada's R e l a t i o n s w i t h L a t i n A m e r i c a and t h e C a r i b b e a n " , 9 J u l y 1981: 7 . 24) ICCHRLA, "Canadian P o l i c y on C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , 11 October 1983: 11. 25) "Embassy, more a i d sought f o r S a n d i n i s t a s by c h u r c h " , GM, 10 August 1983. 26) R u s s e l l K e l l y , "Canadians m o n i t o r i n g b a t t l e i n N i c a r a g u a i n push f o r peace", Ottawa C i t i z e n ( h e n c e f o r t h ]_[C) , 10 May 1984 . 27) R o b e r t Matthews and C r a n f o r d P r a t t , eds., Church and  S t a t e : The C h r i s t i a n Churches and Canadian F o r e i g n P o l i c y , T o r o n t o , 2 8 September 198 2 ( T o r o n t o : Canadian I n s t i t u t e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , 1982) 3. 28) " M e d i c a l A i d t o N i c a r a g u a " , CAU March 1980: 105. 29) " A i d Notes", CAU June 1980: 119. 30) Lawrence Cumming, " N a t i o n a l S e c r e t a r y ' s R e p o r t " , I n s i d e  Oxfam: 1983 Annual R e p o r t n.d.: 4. 31) Cathy Gander, l e t t e r , 18 F e b r u a r y 1982.-32) " N i c a r a g u a a i d t o p s B.C. g o a l " , West Ender 2 December 1982. 33) " S h i p t o t a k e a i d t o N i c a r a g u a " , Sun 5 December 1983: C8. -135-34) Robert S a r t i , "War zone asks B.C. f o r t o o l s o f peace", Sun 22 September 1984 . 35) "Tools f o r Peace" (pamphlet) 1984. 36) Gordon C l a r k , The Ubyssey 29 J a n u a r y 1985: 5. 37) GM 27 December 1983, 30 March 1984: 11, N.I.C.A. ( l e t t e r ) 19 June 1984. 38) P a u l Knox, " M a j o r i t y oppose g r e a t e r U.S. r o l e i n L a t i n A m e r i c a " , GM 11 October 1984: 9. 39) " S o l i d a r i t y Coast t o C o a s t " , CAU December 1982: 4. 40) " C i v i l D i s o b e d i e n c e a t E x t e r n a l " , CAU October 1983. 41) Diane G r a n f i e l d , " A n t i - I n t e r v e n t i o n C o a l i t i o n C r e a t e d " , CAN-NEWS Ja n u a r y 1985: 10-11. 42) R o b e r t Thompson, "Canadian NG|| A i d t o N i c a r a g u a " May 1984. 43) Lawrence Cumming, " N i c a r a g u a : W a i t i n g f o r Ottawa", S t a r 7 A p r i l 1984. 44) "Report on t h e F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Non-Govermental A g e n c i e s C o n f e r e n c e i n N i c a r a g u a , December 1983", p r e s s s t a t e m e n t , 15 December 1983. 45) Jamie D a v i l a , p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w , 8 May 1984. 46) M i c h a e l MacDowell, "Canadian m e d i a t i o n r o l e u r g e d " , GM 14 December 1982. 47) "Broadbent: 'Nicaragua d e s e r v e s our s u p p o r t ' " , S o c i a l i s t  V o i c e August 1983 . 48) "Canada urged t o t a k e r o l e i n L a t i n A m e r i c a " , MG 22 J u l y 1983 . 49) Thomas Walkom, " L i f t C a n a d i a n s ' s a f e t y out o f U.S. hands: NDP", GM 1 December 1983. 50) OCA. 51) M i c h a e l McDowell, "NDP s h o u l d p o s t o b s e r v e r i n N i c a r a g u a , MP a r g u e s " , GM 2 0 J a n u a r y 1984. 52) "NDP p l a n s l e g a t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a " , GM 21 A p r i l 1984. 53) "Angry Senate d e c r i e s U.S. a c t s i n N i c a r a g u a " , GM 11 A p r i l 1984 . 54) 0 C A . -136-55) "Independent p o l i c y on N i c a r a g u a u r g e d " , Sun 28 May 19,8,4. 56) Steve Lee, N i c a r a g u a Package (NDP) 2 December 1981. 57) Walkom, " L i f t " . 58) CAPA, Memo 4 May 1984. 59) CAU "Turner". 60) CAPA, Memo October 1984: 21. 61) CAPA, Memo October 1984. 62) CAPA, Memo 27 March 1984: 38. 63) "Canada urged t o push f o r L a t i n peace t a l k s " , GM 11 Jan u a r y 1984. 64) W i l l i a m Johnson, "U.S. L a t i n p o l i c y 'bloody shambles,' Canadian MP s a y s " , GM 1 May 1984: 1. 65) Tim D r a i m i n and John F o s t e r , "Canada, Contadora and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a : N e g o t i a t i o n s o r I n t e r v e n t i o n " , CAPA Memo October 1984. 66) " L i b e r a l c o n t e n d e r s o u t l i n e p o l i c i e s on Canada's m i s s i o n i n t h e w o r l d " , GM 28 May 1984. 67) Update 8. 68) " N i c a r a g u a ' s p r o p o s a l " , e d i t o r i a l , G M 22 J u l y 1983: A6. 69) " C a l l i n g a l l democrats", e d i t o r i a l , GM 28 March 1984: A6. - 70) " F i r s t , t h e s e q u e s t i o n s " , e d i t o r i a l , GM 15 F e b r u a r y 1983: A6 . 71) "The r e v o l u t i o n ' s d r i f t " , e d i t o r i a l , 31 May 1984 : A6. 72) "Undermining freedom o f t h e s e a s " , e d i t o r i a l , GM 10 A p r i l 1984: A6. 73) "The Reagan f o r m u l a " , e d i t o r i a l , GM 11 May 1984: A6. 74) "Reagan's f r i g h t e n i n g war dance", e d i t o r i a l , TS 26 A p r i l 1984 . 75) " C u r b i n g L a t i n American s t r i f e " , e d i t o r i a l , TS 27 A p r i l 1984 . 76) "Some p r o g r e s s i n N i c a r a g u a " , e d i t o r i a l , TS 23 F e b r u a r y 1984 . 77) " B l i n k e r e d on C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , e d i t o r i a l , TS 14 A p r i l - 1 3 7 -1984 . 78) "The N i c a r a g u a mess", e d i t o r i a l , QC 25 J u l y 1 9 8 3 . 79) "U.S. p o l i c i e s boomerang", e d i t o r i a l , MG 13 A p r i l 1 9 8 4 . 80) "Wings of t h e hawk", e d i t o r i a l , Sun 27 June 1 9 8 4 . 81) "Marxism t o remain d e s p i t e v o t e r e s u l t " , Sun 22 F e b r u a r y 1984 . 82) John P i p e r and J a c q u e l i n e T o u p i n , "The S a n d i n i s t a s r i d e the wave of a shaky v i c t o r y " , M acleans's 30 March 1 9 8 1 : 1 0 - 1 2 . 83) Thomas Hopk i n s , " C e n t r a l A m e r i c a a t t h e a b y s s " Macleans 29 March 1 9 8 2 : 2 8 - 3 4 . 84) V a l Ross, "The c a s t o f a dangerous drama", Maclean's 8 August 1 9 8 3 : 2 0 . 85) Susan R i l e y , "Canada's uneasy s t a n d on a t r i c k y i s s u e " , Maclean's 8 August 1983 : 2 2 . 86) D a v i d N o r t h , "Managua moves t o l i m i t t h e d a n g e r s " , Maclean's 5 December 1983 : 4 2 . 87) M i c h a e l P o s n e r , "The d a r k e n i n g war c l o u d s " , Maclean's 7 May 1 9 8 4 : 2 7 . 88) Ann F i n l a y s o n , "The o p p o s i t i o n c a l l s a b o y c o t t t " , Maclean's 6 August 1984 . 89) Don Munton, " P u b l i c o p i n i o n and t h e media i n Canada from C o l d War t o d e t e n t e t o new C o l d War", I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l V o l . XXXIX No. 1 ( W i n t e r 1 9 8 3 - 8 4 ) : 2 0 0 . 90) D a v i d D e w i t t and John K i r t o n , Canada as a P r i n c i p a l Power ( T o r o n t o : W i l e y & Sons, 1 9 8 3 ) 1 8 0 . -138-Chapter 3 1) "Nicaraguans ask f o r more money i n Canadian a i d " , MG 1 November 1979: 48. 2) TS 27 J u l y 1980. 3) E r i c M i l l s , GM. 4) R o s s e t and Vandermeer, Reader 8-9. 5) " S e e k i n g c o o p e r a t i o n , N i c a r a g u a t e l I s 0 t t a w a " , Canadian  T r i b u n e 28 F e b r u a r y 1983. 6) M i c h a e l McDowell, " N i c a r a g u a n postpones t r i p t o Canada", GM 26 A p r i l 1983. 7) "Nicaraguans l e a r n about Canadian f a r m i n g methods", L e n n o x v i l l e Record 18 August 1983. 8) "Prestamo de Canada s i n i n t e r e s e s " , E l Nuevo D i a r i o 16 J a n u a r y 1984. 9) "Canadian m i n i s t e r v i s i t s " , B a r r i c a d a I n t e r n a c i o n a l 9 A p r i l 1984. 10) Jamie D a v i l a , p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w , May 1984. 11) Western P r o d u c e r [Saskatoon] 2 F e b r u a r y 1984. 12) D a v i l a . 13) " D a n i e l d e s t a c a a c t i t u d c o n s t r u c t i v a de Canada", B a r r i c a d a 11 A p r i l 1984. 14) D a v i l a . 15) D a v i l a . 16) "U.S. Neighbours Oppose I n t e r v e n t i o n " , CAU December 1980: 22 . 17) R o b e r t Matthews, "The L i m i t s o f F r i e n d s h i p : N i c a r a g u a and the West", NACLA Repo r t on t h e Americas May/June 1985: 30. 18) C.A. C a n n i z z o , "Canada between th e Superpowers: The Search f o r S t a b i l i t y " , i n B r i a n T o m l i n and Maureen M o l o t , eds., Canada  Among N a t i o n s : 1984 ( T o r o n t o : L o r i m e r , 1985) 41. 19) Stephen C l a r k s o n , Canada and the Reagan C h a l l e n g e ( T o r o n t o : L o r i m e r , 1982) 284-5. 20) C l a r k s o n 271. 21) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . - 1 3 9 -22) U n i t e d S t a t e s I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e , l e t t e r t o t h e a u t h o r , 23 May 1984. 23) R i c h a r d Fagen and Olga P e l l i c e r , eds., The F u t u r e of  C e n t r a l A merica ( S t a n f o r d : S t a n f o r d UP, 1983) 65. 24) Tim D r a i m i n , Honduras Memo June 1983. 25) "Danger o f war r e a l , M exican p r e s i d e n t s a y s " , Winnipeg  Free P r e s s ( h e n c e f o r t h WFP) 8 May 1984. 26) Matthews 28. 27) " R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s f e a r Mexican crackdown", TS Summer 1984. 28) "Danger", WFP. 29) Matthews 30, 32. 30) W i l l i a m H a r b i n , H i s t o r y of U.S. p o l i c y on t a l k i n g t o the  Ni c a r a g u a n s (U.S. embassy, Ottawa) 28 March 1984. 31) J o c e l y n M. Ghent, "Canadian-American R e l a t i o n s and t h e N u c l e a r Weapons C o n t r o v e r s y , 1958-1963", d i s s . , U o f I l l i n o i s , 1976, 160. 32) Ghent 160. 33) Ghent 154. 34) Don Munton, ed., Groups and Governments i n Canadian F o r e i g n P o l i c y (Ottawa: Canadian I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , 1982) 29. 35) C l a r k s o n 283. 36) Edgar Dosman, L a t i n A merica and t h e C a r i b b e a n : A S t r a t e g i c  Framework - A Canadian P e r s p e c t i v e (Ottawa: Department o f N a t i o n a l Defence, 1984) 13. 37) "Ex-envoy a s s a i l s Ottawa over E l S a l v a d o r p o l i c y " GM 19 March 1984. 38) " P l a y r o l e i n OAS, Canada u r g e d " , GM 26 A p r i l 1984. 39) Glenn S o m e r v i l l e , " R i c h e r n a t i o n s c a l l e d on t o h e l p C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , TS 9 May 1984. 40) "Mexican p r e s i d e n t says Canada has key peace r o l e " , TS 26 A p r i l 1984. 41) "Danger" WFP. 42) "End m e d d l i n g i n C e n t r a l American wars, Trudeau", TS 8 May 1984 . 43) "Colombia welcomes Canadian r o l e i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , GM 23 F e b r u a r y 1984. 44) Oakland Ross, "Memory keeps Mexicans wary", GM 3 May 1984. Cha p t e r 4 1) D a v i d B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 2) J e f f e r y Simpson, D i s c i p l i n e of Power ( T o r o n t o : P e r s o n a l L i b r a r y , 1980) 57. 3) W a l t e r LaFeber, I n e v i t a b l e R e v o l u t i o n s (New York: N o r t o n , 1984) 239. 4) John W. F o s t e r , Canadian A i d t o N i c a r a g u a : Review and  P r o s p e c t s , ( I n t e r - C h u r c h Committee on Human R i g h t s i n L a t i n A merica [ h e n c e f o r t h ICCHRLA], 4 A p r i l 1980) 2. 5) GM 5 F e b r u a r y 1981. 6) Tim D r a i m i n , i n t e r v i e w , "Sunday M o r n i n g " , CBC r a d i o , CBO, T o r o n t o , 18 December 1983. 7) Mark MacGuigan, speech, " C e n t r a l A m e r i c a and Canadian F o r e i g n P o l i c y " , U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o , 31 May 1982. 8) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 9) "MacEachen's T r i p P r o f i l e s Ottawa's O p p o s i t i o n t o U.S.", CAU May 1984: 46. 10) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 11) C h r i s t i n e L i n k and C e c i l i o M o r a l e s , J r . , "Canada's r o l e needs e n l a r g i n g " , GM 3 September 1984. 12) Edgar Dosman, "He m i s p h e r i c R e l a t i o n i n t h e 1980s: A p e r s p e c t i v e from Canada", J o u r n a l of Canadian S t u d i e s 4 ( W i n t e r 1984-85) 47. 13) M i c h a e l T u c k e r , Canadian F o r e i g n P o l i c y : Contemporary  I s s u e s and Themes ( T o r o n t o : M c G r a w - H i l l , 1980) 5. 14) C a n n i z z o 38. 15) Peyton Lyon and B r i a n T o m l i n , eds., Canada as an I n t e r n a t i o n a l A c t o r ( T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1979) 20. 16) I n f o r m a t i o n Canada, F o r e i g n P o l i c y f o r Canadians ( H u l l : MSS, 1970) 4-5. 17). C a n n i z z o 38. 18) K . J . H o l s t i , I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s : A Framework f o r  A n a l y s i s , 4 t h ed. (Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1983) 151 . 19) NYT 11 June 1985. 20) Andrew P i e r r e , ed. T h i r d World I n s t a b i l i t y : C e n t r a l  A merica as a European-American I s s u e (New York: C o u n c i l on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s , 1985) 46. 21) NYT 2 A p r i l 1985. 22) Dosman, L a t i n 74-5. 23) G o t l i e b . 24) Claude C h a r l a n d , "A Canadian View o f L a t i n A m e r i c a and t h e C a r i b b e a n " , Woodrow W i l s o n C e n t e r , Washington, 30 A p r i l 1984. 25) P a r l i a m e n t a r y Task F o r c e on N o r t h - S o u t h R e l a t i o n s , R e p o r t  t o the House of Commons ( H u l l : MSS, 1980) 17. 26) A. Roy Megarry, "Canada s h o u l d b o o s t f o r e i g n a i d " , GM 21 June 1984: 7. 27) N o r t h - S o u t h 65. 28) Dupras. 29) Megarry. 30) CIDA, PDA 9. 31) M i c h a e l Kaufman, "The I n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f Canadian Bank C a p i t a l (With a Look a t Bank A c t i v i t y i n t h e C a r i b b e a n and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " , J o u r n a l of Canadian S t u d i e s 4 (1984-85): 69,75. 32) Tucker 3. 33) Denis S t a i r s , "The P o l i t i c a l C u l t u r e of Canadian F o r e i g n P o l i c y " , Canadian J o u r n a l of P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e 4 (December 1982): 679. 34) M i c h a e l Hawes, P r i n c i p a l Power, M i d d l e Power, or  S a t e l l i t e ? ( T o r o n t o : York U, 1984) 14. 35) Howard S t a n i s l a w s k i , "Domestic I n t e r e s t Groups and Canadian and American P o l i c y : The Case of t h e Arab B o y c o t t " , i n R o b e r t Matthews, A r t h u r R u b i n o f f , and J a n i c e S t e i n , eds., I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f l i c t and C o n f l i c t Management (Scarborough: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1984) 138. -142-36) D a v i d M o r r i s o n , - '! I n t r o d u c t i o n : The Mulroney Government and t h e T h i r d ' W o r l d " , J o u r n a l of Canadian S t u d i e s 4 ( 1984-85 )-':' 11. 37) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 38 ) Tucker 14. 39) Bruce Thoradson, Trudeau and F o r e i g n P o l i c y : a s t u d y i n  d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g ( T o r o n t o : O x f o r d UP, 1972) 70. 40) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 41) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 42) Tucker 37. 43) A l l a n MacEachen, "Notes f o r a Speech", UNA seminar, Ottawa, 3 June 1983. 44) C r a n f o r d P r a t t , "Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y : b i a s t o b u s i n e s s " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e r s p e c t i v e s Nov/Dec 1982: 6. 45) John K i r t o n and B l a i r Dimock, "Domestic a c c e s s t o government i n t h e Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y p r o c e s s 1968-1982", I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l 1 ( W i n t e r 1983-84): 69. 46) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 47) D r a i m i n , Overview 84. 48) Quoted i n Don Munton, Groups 22. 49) G o t l i e b . 50) B l a i r Dimock, i n Munton, Groups 24. 51) John Holmes, "Most s a f e l y i n t h e m i d d l e " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l  J o u r n a l 2 ( S p r i n g 1984) 372. 52) "MacGuigan r a k e s U.S. ' i n t e r f e r e n c e ' , TS 19 O c t o b e r 1980. 53) D a v i d Cox, "Trudeau's F o r e i g n P o i c y Speeches", I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e r s p e c t i v e s Nov/Dec 1982: 8. 54) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 55) Murray 128 56) K.J. H o l s t i , "The U n i t e d S t a t e s and Canada", C o n f l i c t i n  World P o l i t i c s , ed. S t e v e n S p i e g e l and Kenneth Waltz (Cambridge: W i n t h r o p , 1971) 385. 57) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 58) Quoted i n C l a r k s o n 324. -143-59) Mark MacGuigan, "Notes f o r an A d d r e s s " , Law F a c u l t y , U o f T o r o n t o , 31 March 1982. 60) G o t l i e b . 61) Edgar Dosman, "Hemispheric R e l a t i o n s i n t h e 1980s: A P e r s p e c t i v e from Canada", J o u r n a l of Canadian S t u d i e s 19.4 ( W i n t e r 1984-85): 55-6. 62) Dosman, L a t i n 73. 63) "Canada c r i t i c a l o f U.S. p o l i c i e s " . L a t i n America Weekly  Report 25 May 1984. 64) CIDA, 1981-82 4; 1982-83 5. 65) G'.K. H e l l e i n e r , "Canada, th e D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economy: What N e x t ? " , J o u r n a l of Canadian S t u d i e s 19.4 ( W i n t e r 1984-85): 18-19. 66) DEA, Response 4. 67) E m i l e M a r t e l (DEA), l e t t e r t o the a u t h o r , 26 J u l y 1984. 68) DEA, Response 4. 69) ICCHRLA Canadian P o l i c y and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a : Renewing the  D i a l o g u e ( T o r o n t o : 12 June 1984) 19. 70) Noam Chomsky, T u r n i n g the T i d e ( B o s t o n : South End P r e s s , 1986) 82-3. 71) Dosman, "H e m i s p h e r i c " 55. 72) S t a i r s 677n. 73) C l a r k s o n 316-7. 74) N o r t h - S o u t h I n s t i t u t e , Review '83 - O u t l o o k '84 (Ottawa,  1984) 3. 75) CIDA, P a r t n e r s i n Tomorrow ( H u l l : MSS, 1984) 12. 76) B i c k f o r d ( i n t e r v i e w ) . 77) Dupras ( s p e e c h ) . 7 9) S t a i r s 675. 79) CAPA, B r i e f on Canada and C e n t r a l America ( T o r o n t o : 2 9 March 1984) 1. -144-B i b l i o g r a p h y Books Chomsky, Noam. T u r n i n g t h e T i d e . B o s t o n : South End P r e s s , 1986. C l a r k s o n , Stephen. Canada and t h e Reagan C h a l l e n g e : C r i s i s i n  t h e Canadian-American R e l a t i o n s h i p . T o r o n t o : L o r i m e r , 1982. D e w i t t , D a v i d and John K i r t o n . Canada as a P r i n c i p a l Power. T o r o n t o : W i l e y & Sons, 1983. Dosman, Edgar. L a t i n America and the C a r i b b e a n : A S t r a t e g i c  Framework - A Canadian P e r s p e c t i v e . Ottawa: Department of N a t i o n a l Defence, 1984. Fagen, R i c h a r d , and Olga P e l l i c e r , eds. The F u t u r e of C e n t r a l  A m e r i c a . S t a n f o r d : S t a n f o r d UP, 1983. Hawes, M i c h a e l . P r i n c i p a l Power, M i d d l e Power, or S a t e l l i t e ? . T o r o n t o : York U, 1984. H o l s t i , K . J . I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s : A Framework f o r A n a l y s i s , 4 t h ed. Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1983. LaFeber, W a l t e r . I n e v i t a b l e R e v o l u t i o n s . New York: N o r t o n , 1984 . Lyon, P e y t o n , and B r i a n T o m l i n , eds. Canada as an  I n t e r n a t i o n a l A c t o r . T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1979. Matthews, R o b e r t , and C r a n f o r d P r a t t , eds. Church and S t a t e :  The C h r i s t i a n Churches and Canadian F o r e i g n P o l i c y . T o r o n t o : Canadian I n s t i t u t e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , 1982. Matthews, R o b e r t , A r t h u r R u b i n o f f , and J a n i c e S t e i n , eds. I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f l i c t and C o n f l i c t Management. Scarborough: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1984. Munton, Don, ed. Groups and Governments i n Canadian F o r e i g n  P o l i c y . T o r o n t o : Canadian I n s t i t u t e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , 1982 . O g i l s b y , J . C M . G r i n g o s from the Far N o r t h . T o r o n t o : M a c M i l l a n , 1976. P i e r r e , Andrew, ed. T h i r d World I n s t a b i l i t y : C e n t r a l America  as a European-American I s s u e . New York: ! C o u n c i l on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s , 1985. R o s s e t , P e t e r , and John Vandermeer, eds. The N i c a r a g u a Reader New York: Grove P r e s s , 1983. Simpson, J e f f e r y . D i s c i p l i n e of Power. T o r o n t o : P e r s o n a l L i b r a r y , 1980. Thoradson, B r u c e . Trudeau and F o r e i g n P o l i c y : a s t u d y i n  d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g . T o r o n t o : Oxford UP, 1972. T o m l i n , B r i a n , and Maureen M o l o t , eds. Canada Among N a t i o n s . T o r o n t o : L o r i m e r , 1985. T u c k e r , M i c h a e l . Canadian F o r e i g n P o l i c y : Contemporary I s s u e s  and Themes. T o r o n t o : M c G r a w - H i l l , 1980. J o u r n a l s Dosman, Edgar. "Hemispheric R e l a t i o n s i n t h e 1980s: A P e r s p e c t i v e from Canada". J o u r n a l of Canadian S t u d i e s 19.4 ( W i n t e r 1984-85): 42-60. D r a i m i n , Tim. "Canada and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . LARU S t u d i e s . V (1982) : 81-93 . H e l l e i n e r , G.K. "Canada, th e D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economy: What N e x t ? " . J o u r n a l of Canadian  S t u d i e s 19.4 ( W i n t e r 1984-85): 16-27. Holmes, John. "Most s a f e l y i n t h e m i d d l e " . I n t e r n a t i o n a l  J o u r n a l 2 ( S p r i n g 1984): 366-88. H o l s t i , K .J. "The U n i t e d S t a t e s and Canada". C o n f l i c t i n  World P o l i t i c s , ed. Steven S p i e g e l and Kenneth W a l t z . (Cambridge: W i n t h r o p , 1971): 375-96. Kaufman, M i c h a e l . "The I n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f Canadian Bank C a p i t a l (With a Look a t Bank A c t i v i t y i n the C a r i b b e a n and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . J o u r n a l of Canadian S t u d i e s 4 (1984-85): 61-81. K i r t o n , John and B l a i r Dimock. "Domestic a c c e s s t o government i n the Canadian f o r e i g n p o l i c y p r o c e s s 1968-1982". I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l 1 ( W i n t e r 1983-84): 69-98. Kowaluk, L u c i a . "Peace A c t i o n and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . Our  G e n e r a t i o n 16.2 (1984): 15-25. Matthews, R o b e r t . "The churches and f o r e i g n p o l i c y " . I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e r s p e c t i v e s . (Jan./Feb. 1983): 18-21. "The L i m i t s o f F r i e n d s h i p : N i c a r a g u a and t h e West". NACLA Repo r t on t h e A m e r i c a s . (May/June 1985): 22-32. M o r r i s o n , D a v i d . " I n t r o d u c t i o n : The Mulroney Government and t h e T h i r d World". J o u r n a l of Canadian S t u d i e s 4 (1984-85): 3-15. - 1 4 6 -Munton, Don. " P u b l i c o p i n i o n and t h e media i n Canada from C o l d War t o d e t e n t e t o new C o l d War". I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l 3 9.1 (Wi n t e r 1983-84): 171-213. Murray, D.R. "The B i l a t e r a l Road: Canada and L a t i n A merica i n the 1980s". I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l . 37 (Wi n t e r 1981-82): 109-131. P r a t t , C r a n f o r d . "Canadian f o r e i g n " p o l i c y : b i a s t o b u s i n e s s " . I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e r s p e c t i v e s . (Nov/Dec 1982): 3-6. S t a i r s , D e n i s . "The P o l i t i c a l C u l t u r e of Canadian F o r e i g n P o l i c y " . Canadian J o u r n a l of P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e 4 (December 1982): 667-690. Walker, John R. " F o r e i g n p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n -- a p a r l i a m e n t a r y b r e a k t h r o u g h " . I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e r s p e c t i v e s . (May/June 1982): 10-14. Government P u b l i c a t i o n s Canada. Canadian I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Agency. Annual  R e p o r t : 1978-1979. H u l l : MSS, 1979. Annual R e p o r t : 1979-1980. H u l l : MSS, 1980. Annual R e p o r t : 1981-1982. H u l l : MSS, 1983. Annual R e p o r t : 1983-84. H u l l : MSS, 1984. H u l l : MSS Canada and the M u l t i l a t e r a l Development Banks. 1984 . Country P r o f i l e : N i c a r a g u a . H u l l : n.p., 1982. Diane Beauchamp. L e t t e r t o t h e a u t h o r . 2 2 May 1985. Elements of Canada's O f f i c i a l Development  A s s i s t a n c e S t r a t e g y 1984. H u l l : MSS, 1984. News R e l e a s e . "Canada t o I n c r e a s e A i d t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . 12 F e b r u a r y 1982. . News R e l e a s e . "Canadian A i d t o N i c a r a g u a " . 13 Jan u a r y 1984. , P a r t n e r s i n Tomorrow H u l l : MSS, 1984. Department o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s . " C e n t r a l America - Peace I n i t i a t i v e s " . 29 J u l y 1983. M a r t e l , E m i l e . L e t t e r t o the a u t h o r . 26 J u l y 1984. Response t o the I n t e r Church Committee on Human R i g h t s i n L a t i n America (ICCHRLA) B r i e f of October, 1983: Canadian  P o l i c y on C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . Ottawa: 1984. Hansard. H u l l : 2 March 1981. House. P a r l i a m e n t a r y Task F o r c e on No r t h - S o u t h R e l a t i o n s . Report t o t h e House of Commons. H u l l : Canadian Government P u b l i s h i n g C e n t r e , 1980. Sub-Committee on Canada's R e l a t i o n s w i t h L a t i n A m erica and t h e C a r i b b e a n . F i n a l R e p o r t . H u l l : MSS, 1982. I n f o r m a t i o n Canada, F o r e i g n P o l i c y f o r Canadians. H u l l : MSS, 1970. R e p o r t s , B r i e f s C a n a d a - C a r i b b e a n - C e n t r a l A m e r i c a P o l i c y A l t e r n a t i v e s . B r i e f on  Canada and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . T o r o n t o : 29 March 1984. Ca n a d a - C e n t r a l America R e l a t i o n s . 1984. "Canadian A i d t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . A i d Memo. September 1983 . D r a i m i n , Tim, and John F o s t e r . "Canada, Contadora and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a : N e g o t i a t i o n s o r I n t e r v e n t i o n " . Memo October 1984 . G o r o s t i a g a , X a b i e r . C e n t r a l America and the C a r i b b e a n : Towards a New R e g i o n a l I n i t i a t i v e . May 1985. Leonard, J u l i e . Canadian L i n k s t o the M i l i t a r i z a t i o n of  the C a r i b b e a n and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . May 1985. . Memo. 27 March 1984: 38. "Summary o f Canadian A i d t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . CAPA Memo. June 1984. Thomson, R o b e r t . Canadian A i d & Trade R e l a t i o n s w i t h  N i c a r a g u a . 6 November 1984. Canadian Trade R e l a t i o n s w i t h N i c a r a g u a a f t e r the  U.S. Embargo. May 1985. Cumming, Lawrence. " N a t i o n a l S e c r e t a r y ' s R e p o r t " , I n s i d e  Oxfam: 1983 Annual Report n.d.: 3-4. D r a i m i n , Tim. Honduras Memo June 1983. F o s t e r , John W., & Joey Edwardh. "Canadian A i d t o N i c a r a g u a " . T o r o n t o : 31 October 1979. - 1 4 8 -F o s t e r , John W. Canadian A i d t o N i c a r a g u a : Review and  P r o s p e c t s . T o r o n t o : ICCHRLA, 4 A p r i l 1980. I n t e r - C h u r c h Committee on Human R i g h t s i n L a t i n A m e r i c a . Canadian P o l i c y and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a : Renewing t h e D i a l o g u e . T o r o n t o : 12 June 1984. "Canadian P o l i c y on C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . 11 October 1983. "Su b m i s s i o n t o the Sub-Committee (of t h e S t a n d i n g Committee on E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s and N a t i o n a l Defence) on Canada's R e l a t i o n s w i t h L a t i n America and the C a r i b b e a n " . T o r o n t o : 9 J u l y 1981. New D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y . N i c a r a g u a Package. 2 December 1981. On C e n t r a l America March 1984. N o r t h - S o u t h I n s i t u t e . Review '83 - '84. Ottawa: 1984. Speeches C h a r l a n d , C l a u d e . "A Canadian View o f L a t i n A merica and the C a r i b b e a n " . Washington, 30 A p r i l 1984. Dupras, M a u r i c e . "Canada's P o l i t i c a l and S e c u r i t y I n t e r e s t s i n L a t i n A m e r i c a and the C a r i b b e a n " . Washington, 30 A p r i l 1984. G o t l i e b , A l l a n . "Canada, The U n i t e d S t a t e s and L a t i n A m e r i c a : Independence and Accomodation". Washington, 30 A p r i l 1984. MacEachen, A l l a n . "Notes f o r a Speech",. UNA seminar, Ottawa, 3 June 1983. . "Notes f o r a Toast O f f e r e d by the Honourable A l l a n J . MacEachen on the O c c a s i o n o f the V i s i t o f the F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r of C o l o m b i a , H.E. L l o r e d a C a i c e d o " . Ottawa: 20 F e b r u a r y 1984. MacGuigan, Mark. " C e n t r a l America and Canadian F o r e i g n P o l i c y " . U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o , 31 May 1982. "Notes f o r an Ad d r e s s " . Law F a c u l t y , U of T o r o n t o , 31 March 1982. A r t i c l e s Canadian Dimension. "The Pe o p l e on the Offensive". Jan./Feb. 1979: 25-6. C e n t r a l America Update. " A i d Notes". June 1980: 119. -149-"Canada and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a " . December 1982: 9. "Canadian D e l e g a t i o n Lauds L i t e r a c y Campaign". June 1980: 119. " C i v i l D i s o b e d i e n c e a t E x t e r n a l " . October 1983. - . "MacEachen T r i p P r o f i l e s Ottawa's O p p o s i t i o n t o U.S.". May 1984: 46. " M e d i c a l A i d t o N i c a r a g u a " . March 1980: 105. " S o l i d a r i t y C oast t o C o a s t " . December 1982: 4. "Turner Takes Charge". J u l y / A u g u s t 1984: 2. "U.S. Neighbours Oppose I n t e r v e n t i o n " . December 1980: 22. F i n l a y s o n , Ann. "The o p p o s i t i o n c a l l s a b o y c o t t t " . Maclean's. 6 August 1984: n.p. Hopkins, Thomas. " C e n t r a l America a t t h e a b y s s " . Macleans. 29 March 1982: 28-34. N o r t h , D a v i d . "Managua moves t o l i m i t t h e dangers". Maclean's. 5 December 1983 : 42. P i p e r , John, and J a c q u e l i n e T o u p i n . "The S a n d i n i s t a s r i d e t h e wave of a shaky v i c t o r y " . M a c l e a n s ' s . 30 March 1981: 10-12. Posner, M i c h a e l . "The d a r k e n i n g war c l o u d s " , Maclean's. 7 May 1984: 26-27. R i l e y , Susan. "Canada's uneasy s t a n d on a t r i c k y i s s u e " . M aclean's. 8 August 1983 : 22. Ross, Val"The c a s t of a dangerous drama". Maclean's. 8 August 1983: 20-1. P e r i o d i c a l s  Canada Weekly. Canadian T r i b u n e . C e n t r o America L i b r e ! [ V a n c o u v e r ] . The Fisherman [ V a n c o u v e r ] . L a t i n America Weekly Report [London]. S o c i a l i s t V o i c e . -150-Newspapers  B a r r i c a d a [Managua]. B a r r i c a d a I n t e r n a c i o n a l [Managua]. E l Nuevo D i a r i o [Managua]. The G a z e t t e [ M o n t r e a l ] . Globe and M a i l [ T o r o n t o ] . L e n n o x v i l l e Record [Quebec]. New York Times• Ottawa C i t i z e n . San J o s e News [C o s t a R i c a ] . T o ronto S t a r . The Ubyssey [ U n i v e r s i t y o f B.C.]. Vancouver Sun. West Ender [ V a n c o u v e r ] . Western Producer [ S a s k a t o o n ] . Winnipeg Free P r e s s . M i s c e l l a n e o u s B i c k f o r d , D a v i d . P e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w . 7 May 1984. Canadian A c t i o n f o r N i c a r a g u a . N e w s l e t t e r . T o r o n t o . Canadian C a t h o l i c O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r Development and Peace. P r e s s r e l e a s e . n.d. Canadian Labour Congress. "CLC Statement on USA I n t e r v e n t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a " . P r e s s r e l e a s e . 22 November 1983. D a v i l a , Jamie. P e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w . 8 May 1984. D r a i m i n , Tim. I n t e r v i e w . Sunday Morning. CBC r a d i o . CBO, To r o n t o . 18 December 1983. Gander, Cathy. L e t t e r t o Oxfam, CUSO. 18 F e b r u a r y 1982. Ghent, J o c e l y n M. "Canadian-American R e l a t i o n s and t h e N u c l e a r Weapons C o n t r o v e r s y , 1958-1963". D i s s . U of I l l i n o i s , 1976. -151-H a r b i n , W i l l i a m . H i s t o r y of U.S. p o l i c y on t a l k i n g t o the  N i c a r a g u a n s . Ottawa: U.S. embassy, 28 March 1984. L a t i n American Working Group. "Canadian A i d t o L a t i n A m e r i c a " . LAWG L e t t e r . T o r o n t o . M i l o , F r a n c i n e [CIDA]. P e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w . 8 May 1984. N i c a r a g u a Update. n.p.: 25 June 1979. "Report on t h e F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Non-Govermental A g e n c i e s C o n f e r e n c e i n N i c a r a g u a , December 1983". P r e s s s t a t e m e n t . 15 December 1983. T o o l s f o r Peace. Help us f i l l a s h i p f o r N i c a r a g u a 1. Vancouver: 19 84. U n i t e d S t a t e s I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e . L e t t e r t o the a u t h o r . 23 May 1984. Appendi x I Country E l i g i b i l i t y - B i l a t e r a l Development A s s i s t a n c e F a c t o r s b e a r i n g on a c o u n t r y ' s e l i g i b i l i t y s t a t u s : - i n terms o f a p a r t i c u l a r d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y , f a c t o r s i n c l u d e i t s l e v e l o f need, i t s commitment t o development, t h e human r i g h t s s i t u a t i o n , a b s o r p t i v e c a p a c i t y , e t c . - i n terms o f Canadian i n t e r e s t s , t h e f a c t o r s i n c l u d e p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s - such as Canada's b i l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s , t h e r o l e of t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y i n t h e r e g i o n a l and w o r l d community, the s t a t u s o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y as a member of t h e Commonwealth o r l a f r a n c o p h o n i e , i n v o l v e m e n t o f Canadian b u s i n e s s , i n s t i t u t i o n s , NGOs o r r e l i g i o u s groups i n t h e c o u n t r y - as w e l l as commercial c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . - s p e c i a l c r i s i s f a c t o r s might i n c l u d e p e r i o d s of r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l s , n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s , e t c . Canadian p o l i c y i n c l u d e s a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a s s i s t a n c e on the p o o r e s t c o u n t r i e s -- 80 p e r c e n t o f b i l a t e r a l a i d i s p r o v i d e d t o low-income d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . Canada u n d e r t a k e s b i l a t e r a l a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n the f o l l o w i n g e l i g i b i l i t y s t r u c t u r e ( p a r t i a l l i s t i n g ) : C a t a g o r y I - Core ("program c o u n t r y " ) A l o n g - t e r m s u b s t a n t i v e commitment t o development i s e n v i s a g e d , and i s r e p r e s e n t e d by r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e b u d g e t a r y a l l o c a t i o n s , l o n g - t e r m , e x t e n s i v e , on-going a n a l y s i s and p l a n n i n g , and s i g n i f i c a n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s o u r c e s . Canadian i n t e r e s t s a r e p r i m a r i l y d e v e l o p m e n t a l , w i t h g e o p o l i t i c a l and commercial i n t e r e s t s as e s s e n t i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . M u l t i - y e a r commitments and t h e use' o f a l l t r a n s f e r mechanisms a r e p e r m i s s a b l e f o r c o u n t r i e s i n t h i s c a t a g o r y . C a t a g o r y I I - Non-core ( " p r o j e c t c o u n t r y " ) T h i s c a t a g o r y i s composed o f c o u n t r i e s where a s i g n i f i c a n t Canadian p r e s e n c e i s r e q u i r e d f o r d e v e l o p m e n t a l , p o l i t i c a l , and c o m m e r i c i a l r e a s o n s , but where - because t h e s e c o u n t r i e s a re r e l a t i v e l y l e s s i m p o r t a n t f o r the 0'DA programme, a r e i n a s t a t e of p o l i t i c a l u n c e r t a i n t y , o r because t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s o u r c e c o n s t r a i n t s - a f u l l - f l e d g e d l o n g - t e r m ODA programme i s n o t a p p r o p r i a t e o r f e a s i b l e a t p r e s e n t . Source: CIDA - Elements of Canada's O f f i c i a l Development  A s s i s t a n c e S t r a t e g y (1984). - 1 5 3 -Appendix I I CIDA has d i v i d e d t h e a i d i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c a t a g o r i e s : B i l a t e r a l - d i r e c t government t o government a i d , e i t h e r g r a n t s o r l o a n s u s u a l l y t i e d t o d i r e c t l y t o t h e purchase of Canadian goods and s e r v i c e s . MAF - M i s s i o n A d m i n i s t e r e d Funds h a n d l e d by t h e Canadian embassies f o r s m a l l , g r a s s r o o t s p r o j e c t s . I n d u s t r i a l C o o p e r a t i o n - p r o j e c t s w h i c h a s s i s t a c o u n t r y i n d e v e l o p i n g i t s b u s i n e s s s e c t o r t h r o u g h f i n a n c i n g Canadian i n i t i a t i v e s i n f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s f o r l a r g e c a p i t a l p r o j e c t s o r j o i n t b u s i n e s s v e n t u r e s , o r s u p p o r t t o t e s t new t e c h n o l o g y . I n s t i t u t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i o n - c o o p e r a t i v e p r o j e c t s between a Canadian i n s t i t u t i o n ( h o s p i t a l , u n i v e r s i t y , e t c . ) and t h e l o c a l c o u n t e r p a r t . Food A i d - the v a l u e o f i n k i n d d o n a t i o n s o f Canadian f o o d p r o d u c t s , u s u a l l y g r a i n . NGO - t h i s r e p r e s e n t ' s CIDA's c o n t i b u t i o n t o a Canadian non-governmental agency's p r o j e c t s . The i n i t i a t i v e f o r t h s e s p r o j e c t s i s t h a t of the NGO, not CIDA, (which e x p l a i n s why t h e l a r g e s t r e c i p i e n t o f t h e s e funds i n C e n t r a l America has been N i c a r a g u a ) . SUMMARY OF CANADIAN AID TO CENTRAL AMERICA  BILATERAL ASSISTANCE, MAF,  SPECIAL 'PROGRAMS AND FOOD AID DISBURSEMENTS IN $000 80/81 81/82 82/83 83/84 TOTAL HONDURAS Bilateral 3,626.0 3,048.3 3,306.0 1,666. 9 11,647.2 *MAF 50.0 200.0 275.0 350. 0 875.0 *NC0 900.0 1,400.0 2025.1 2,443. 2 6,768.3 *Indust. Co-op. 68.0 4 5.0 52.1 128. 0 293.1 *Inst. Co-op. - - 55.0 11. 2 66.2 Food Aid — — - — -TOTAL 4,644.0 4,693.3 5,713.2 4,599. 3 19,649.8 NICARAGUA Bilateral 4.8 1.3 233.7 3,970. 0 4,209.8 MAF 199.6 164.6 350.0 350. 0 1,064.2 NCO 1,500.0 1,820.0 1,450.0 3,102. 4 7,872.4 Indust. Coop. 365.0 165.0 91.2 142. 8 764.0 Inst. Coop. 87.0 640.C 911.7 1,047. .0 2,685.7 Food Aid — 4,500.0 — 3,000. .0 7 ,500. 0 TOTAL 2,156.4 7,290.9 3,036.6 11,612, .2 24,096.1 * MAF: Mission Administered Fund NGO: Non-Governmental Organization Industrial Cooperation Institutional Cooperation May 1984 /C*?A l - / S T -80/81 81/82 82/83 83/84 TOTAL EL SALVADOR Bilat e r a l 2,809.9 6,377.9 435.5 347.4 9,970.7 MAT 20.0 50.0 275.0 350.0 695.0 NGO 157.0 229.0 279.7 598.7 1,264.4 Indust. Coop 10.0 - - - 10.0 Inst. Coop - - — 4.5 4.5 TOTAL 2,996.9 6,656.9 990.2 1,300.6 11,944.6 GUATEMALA Bilateral 1,264.5 850.2 2,187.1 511.3 4,813.1 MAF 60.0 313.0 350.0 350.0 1,073.0 NGO 525.0 396.0 300.0 700.5 1,921.5 Indust. Coop 123.0 154.0 234.3 105.9 617.2 Inst. Coop. — - 73.0 55.9 128.9 TOTAL 1,972.5 1,713.2 3,144.4 1,723.6 8,553.7 COSTA RICA Bilateral 33.7 4.6 2,878.1 6,000.1 8,916.5 MAF 101.0 341.0 350.0 350.0 1,142.0 NGO 60.0 260.0 81.0 211.0 612.0 Indust. Coop. 109.0 254.0 279.5 180.6 823. 1 Inst. Coop. — - 106.0 286.1 392.1 TOTAL 303.7 859.6 * MAF: Mission Administered Fund NGO: Non-Governmental Organization 3,694.6 7,027.8 11,855.7 Industrial Cooperation Institutional Cooperation May '.(984 80/81 81/82 82/83 83/84 TOTAL PANAMA MAF 40.0 150.0 150.0 150.0 490.0 NGO 88.0 210.0 155.0 205.9 658.9 Indusc Coop. 270.0 46.0 20.0 11.7 347.7 Inst. Coop. - 281.0 72.9 353.9 TOTAL 398.0 406.0 606.0 440.5 1850.5 Multilateral assistance to refugees of Central America. The Multilateral Branch of CIDA made the following contributions for Central American refugees: 1981/82: $ 500,000 to the UNHCR* for refugees of C .A. 1982/83: $2,000,000 to the UNHCR for refugees of C. A. $ 250,000 to the UNHCR for refugees in Honduras 1983/84: $3,000,000 to the UNHCR for refugees of C A. Multilateral assistance for displaced persons in E l Salvador. The Multilateral Branch of CIDA made the following contribution to the ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross) in support of i t s efforts to help displaced persons in E l Salvador. 1981/82:' $550,000 1983/84: $975,000 * UNHCR: United Nations High Commission for Refugees May 1984 /

Cite

Citation Scheme:

Citations by CSL (citeproc-js)

Usage Statistics

Embed

Customize your widget with the following options, then copy and paste the code below into the HTML of your page to embed this item in your website.

Include Metadata Specify width in pixels (leave blank for auto-width):

                        
                            <div id="ubcOpenCollectionsWidgetDisplay">
                            <script id="ubcOpenCollectionsWidget"
                            src="{[{embed.src}]}"
                            data-item="{[{embed.item}]}"
                            data-collection="{[{embed.collection}]}"
                            data-metadata="{[{embed.showMetadata}]}"
                            data-width="{[{embed.width}]}"
                            async >
                            </script>
                            </div>

Our image viewer uses the IIIF 2.0 standard. To load this item in other compatible viewers, use this url:

http://iiif.library.ubc.ca/presentation/dsp.831.1-0097169/manifest

Open Collections

UBC Theses and Dissertations

UBC Theses and Dissertations

Canada and the Sandinistas : a case study of the determinants of Canadian policy towards Nicaragua, 1979-1984 Prongos, Peter George 1986

Page Metadata

Item Metadata

Download

Full Text

Cite

Usage Statistics

Embed

Comment

Related Items

Feedback on Open Collections Website

Open Collections

UBC Theses and Dissertations

Canada and the Sandinistas : a case study of the determinants of Canadian policy towards Nicaragua, 1979-1984 Prongos, Peter George 1986

Page Metadata

Item Metadata

Download

Full Text

Cite

Usage Statistics

Share

Embed

Comment

Related Items

Feedback on Open Collections Website