Bioregionalism : a territorial approach to governance and development of northwest British Columbia

Aberley, Douglas Carroll
doi:10.14288/1.0096377
UBC Theses and Dissertations

Featured Collection
UBC Theses and Dissertations

Bioregionalism : a territorial approach to governance and development of northwest British Columbia Aberley, Douglas Carroll 1985

Page Metadata

Item Metadata

Title	Bioregionalism : a territorial approach to governance and development of northwest British Columbia
Creator	Aberley, Douglas Carroll
Publisher	University of British Columbia
Date Issued	1985
Description	The purpose of this thesis is to explore the concept of bioregionalism as an alternate approach to the governance and development of Northwest British Columbia. Bioregionalism is a territorially oriented perception and practice based on the capability of a bounded physical environment to sustain both its native ecosystems and a level of human activity. The hypothesis that bioregionalism could better guide the Northwest's governance and development is argued by employing five major premises. First, the Northwest is introduced as a region where the effect of increasing industrial activity, based solely on large-scale natural resource extraction, is becoming a major concern of region residents. The potential that Native people will soon evolve methods of self-government which better address this concern is offered as a logical reason for non-Native residents of the same region to investigate similar representation. Second, a review of 10,000 years of Northwest history is organized to describe seven major eras of economic activity. This overview shows that the region has one, a distinct indentity, and two, that European explorers, colonists and industrial interests have for two centuries badly exploited both the region's natural resources and indigenous peoples. The third premise examines the structures of governance and development which currently control the region. These structures are shown to have serious flaws which perpetuate absentee government and an economy based on widespread ecosystem destruction. Extended quotes, originating from region interest groups, are offered to emphasize resistance felt against these practices and an optimism that a more positive alternative exists. The fourth premise introduces bioregionalism as one alternative way to guide the Northwest's future. The concept's literature is reviewed, its 200-year intellectual pedigree outlined and, from both these exercises, a practical Utopian working structure is developed. Bioregional theory is shown to be based on a single dominant theme: that a region population with political control over an ecolocically regulated economy would be the basic building block of a modern and responsible governance structure. The fifth premise applies the ideas of bioregionalism specifically to the Northwest. A bioregional survey is completed which both defines the area's new borders and explains in great detail the output of its present economy. Annual extraction and harvest levels of thirty natural resources over varying periods between 1877 and 1984 are presented. These figures demonstrate the Northwest's native wealth and provide a strong reference for a more detailed understanding of how the region economy operates. Finally, bioregionalism is shown to be already unconsciously practiced across the Northwest, with many more opportunities existing to expand its influence. This extended argument in favour of a bioregional alternative for the Northwest makes several conclusions. The concept would provide a better way to guide the region's future. It could be successfully implemented in the Northwest only, or be more boldly applied to all British Columbia bioregions, which are speculated as being equally rich. The broad structure of the thesis presentation, integrating both theory and place related topics, is concluded to be a useful method to address complex problems of rural regions. This approach has delivered a viable conceptual framework, a starting point from which systematic further investigation into the details of bioregionalism1s application can be tested.
Subject	Regional planning - British Columbia, Northwestern
Genre	Thesis/Dissertation
Type	Text
Language	eng
Date Available	2010-05-28
Provider	Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library
Rights	For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use.
DOI	10.14288/1.0096377
URI	http://hdl.handle.net/2429/25155
Degree	Master of Arts - MA
Program	Planning
Affiliation	Applied Science, Faculty of Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of
Degree Grantor	University of British Columbia
Campus	UBCV
Scholarly Level	Graduate
AggregatedSourceRepository	DSpace
Download

Media: 831-UBC_1985_A8 A24.pdf [ 23.89MB ]
Metadata: JSON: 831-1.0096377.json; JSON-LD: 831-1.0096377-ld.json; RDF/XML (Pretty): 831-1.0096377-rdf.xml; RDF/JSON: 831-1.0096377-rdf.json; Turtle: 831-1.0096377-turtle.txt; N-Triples: 831-1.0096377-rdf-ntriples.txt; Original Record: 831-1.0096377-source.json
Full Text: 831-1.0096377-fulltext.txt
Citation: 831-1.0096377.ris
Full Text

BIOREGIONALISM: A TERRITORIAL APPROACH TO GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORTHWEST BRITISH COLUMBIA By DOUGLAS CARROLL ABERLEY A., C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y a t Sonoma, 1973 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES ( S c h o o l o f Community and R e g i o n a l P l a n n i n g ) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September 1985 (c) Douglas C a r r o l l A b e r l e y , 1985 I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I a g r e e t h a t t h e L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e a n d s t u d y . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may b e g r a n t e d by t h e h e a d o f my d e p a r t m e n t o r b y h i s o r h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t b e a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . D e p a r t m e n t o f S^V-gr t> -^ 6 ^ C^£^v^\^^^^^~^ (L^Jk T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a 1956 Main M a l l V a n c o u v e r , C a n a d a V6T 1Y3 D a t e DE-6 i i ABSTRACT The purpose of t h i s t h e s i s i s t o e x p l o r e t h e c o n c e p t o f b i o r e g i o n a l i s m as an a l t e r n a t e approach t o the governance and development of Northwest B r i t i s h Columbia. B i o r e g i o n a l i s m i s a t e r r i t o r i a l l y o r i e n t e d p e r c e p t i o n and p r a c t i c e b a s e d on t h e c a p a b i l i t y o f a bounded p h y s i c a l environment t o s u s t a i n b oth i t s n a t i v e ecosystems and a l e v e l of human a c t i v i t y . The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t b i o r e g i o n a l i s m c o u l d b e t t e r g u i d e the N o r t h w e s t ' s governance and development i s argued by employing f i v e major p r e m i s e s . F i r s t , the Northwest i s i n t r o d u c e d as a r e g i o n where t h e e f f e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y , based s o l e l y on l a r g e -s c a l e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e e x t r a c t i o n , i s becoming a m a j o r c o n c e r n o f r e g i o n r e s i d e n t s . The p o t e n t i a l t h a t N a t i v e p e o p l e w i l l s o o n e v o l v e methods o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h b e t t e r a d d r e s s t h i s c o n c e r n i s o f f e r e d as a l o g i c a l r e a son f o r non-Native r e s i d e n t s of the same r e g i o n t o i n v e s t i g a t e s i m i l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . S e c o n d , a r e v i e w o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s o f Northwest h i s t o r y i s o r g a n i z e d t o d e s c r i b e s e v e n m a j o r e r a s o f e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y . T h i s o v e r v i e w shows t h a t the r e g i o n has one, a d i s t i n c t i n d e n t i t y , and two, t h a t European e x p l o r e r s , c o l o n i s t s and i n d u s t r i a l i n t e r e s t s have f o r two c e n t u r i e s b a d l y e x p l o i t e d b oth the r e g i o n ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s . The t h i r d p remise examines the s t r u c t u r e s of governance and development which c u r r e n t l y c o n t r o l the r e g i o n . These s t r u c t u r e s a r e shown t o have s e r i o u s f l a w s which p e r p e t u a t e absentee government and an economy based on w i d e s p r e a d ecosystem d e s t r u c t i o n . Extended i i i q u o t e s , o r i g i n a t i n g from r e g i o n i n t e r e s t groups, a r e o f f e r e d t o emphasize r e s i s t a n c e f e l t a g a i n s t t h e s e p r a c t i c e s and an o p t i m i s m t h a t a more p o s i t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e e x i s t s . The f o u r t h premise i n t r o d u c e s b i o r e g i o n a l i s m as one a l t e r n a t i v e way t o g u i d e the Northwest's f u t u r e . The c o n c e p t ' s l i t e r a t u r e i s r e v i e w e d , i t s 200-year i n t e l l e c t u a l p e d i g r e e o u t l i n e d and, from b o t h t h e s e e x e r c i s e s , a p r a c t i c a l U t o p i a n w o r k i n g s t r u c t u r e i s d e v e l o p e d . B i o r e g i o n a l t h e o r y i s shown t o be based on a s i n g l e dominant theme: t h a t a r e g i o n p o p u l a t i o n w i t h p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l over an e c o l o c i c a l l y r e g u l a t e d economy would be the b a s i c b u i l d i n g b l o c k of a modern and r e s p o n s i b l e governance s t r u c t u r e . The f i f t h premise a p p l i e s the i d e a s o f b i o r e g i o n a l i s m s p e c i -f i c a l l y t o the N o r t h w e s t . A b i o r e g i o n a l s u r v e y i s c o m p l e t e d which b o t h d e f i n e s the a r e a ' s new b o r d e r s and e x p l a i n s i n g r e a t d e t a i l the o u t p u t of i t s p r e s e n t economy. Annual e x t r a c t i o n and h a r v e s t l e v e l s of t h i r t y n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s over v a r y i n g p e r i o d s between 1877 and 1984 are p r e s e n t e d . These f i g u r e s demonstrate the Nor t h w e s t ' s n a t i v e w e a l t h and p r o v i d e a s t r o n g r e f e r e n c e f o r a more d e t a i l e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how t h e r e g i o n economy o p e r a t e s . F i n a l l y , b i o r e g i o n a l i s m i s shown t o be a l r e a d y u n c o n s c i o u s l y p r a c t i c e d a c r o s s t h e N o r t h w e s t , w i t h many more o p p o r t u n i t i e s e x i s t i n g t o expand i t s i n f l u e n c e . T h i s extended argument i n f a v o u r o f a b i o r e g i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e f o r the Northwest makes s e v e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s . The concept would p r o v i d e a b e t t e r way to gu i d e the r e g i o n ' s f u t u r e . I t c o u l d be s u c c e s s f u l l y implemented i n the Northwest o n l y , o r be more b o l d l y i v applied to a l l B r i t i s h Columbia bioregions, which are speculated as being equally r i c h . The broad structure of the thesis presentation, integrating both theory and place related topics, i s concluded to be a useful method to address complex problems of r u r a l regions. This approach has delivered a viable conceptual framework, a s t a r t i n g point from which systematic further investigation into the d e t a i l s of bioregionalism 1s application can be tested. V T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s Page A b s t r a c t i i Tab l e of Co n t e n t s v L i s t of T a b l e s v i i L i s t of F i g u r e s . v i i i L i s t of Maps x Acknowledgements x i 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 2.0 PLACE AND QUEST 5 3.0 NORTHWEST HISTORY 12 3.1 8000 B.C. - 1740 AD: Another World 14 3.2 1740 - 1835: The Gre a t E x p l o r a t i o n 26 3.3 1835 - 1890: C o l o n i z a t i o n 37 3.4 1890 - 1920: 'Boom' Years 50 3.5 1920 - 1940: The; Golden Age, Almost 59 3.6 1940 - 1975: War Abroad: War At Home 65 3.7 1975 - 1985: The P r e s e n t 79 4.0 NORTHWEST B.C. STRUCTURES OF GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT 82 4.1 Governance 82 4.2 Development . . . . . 107 4.3 S t r u c t u r e Success A g a i n s t R e g i o n a l Needs And A s p i r a t i o n s 130 5.0 BIOREGIONALISM 142 5.1 L i t e r a t u r e Review 143 5.2 R e g i o n a l P l a n n i n g P e d i g r e e 175 5.3 I n t e g r a t i o n / E x p a n s i o n 205 6.0 APPLICATION TO NORTHWEST BRITISH COLUMBIA 219 6.1 P e r c e p t i o n 220 6.2 P r a c t i c e 2 5 1 7.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 274 Works C i t e d 2 8 4 Appendix A B i o r e g i o n Survey 298 Appendix B B i o r e g i o n Annual H e r r i n g and H a l i b u t C atches by Landed Weight: 1888-1982 . . . . . 423 v i Appendix C B i o r e g i o n Annual Salmonid C a t c h by S p e c i e s Weight: 1877-1982 (cwt) 426 Appendix D B i o r e g i o n Annual Salmonid Catch by S p e c i e s Numbers: 1877-1982 429 Appendix E B i o r e g i o n Major F i s h i n g Area Annual Catch by Weight and Numbers Weight (cwt) and Numbers 1877-1982 432 Appendix F Annual Cases of Salmonids Packed by Nass and Skeena R i v e r C a n n e r i e s : 1877-1958 435 Appendix G B i o r e g i o n Annual M i n e r a l P r o d u c t i o n by M i n e r a l : 1902-1953 ( m e t r i c ) 437 Appendix H Number of B i o r e g i o n Mines O p e r a t i n g by Year: 1900-1983 440 Appendix I P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Timber H a r v e s t by S p e c i e s : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) . 442 Appendix J P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region T o t a l Annual Timber H a r v e s t by Coast and I n t e r i o r S t a t i s t i c a l A r e a s : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 444 Appendix K P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual I n t e r i o r S t a t i s t i c a l Area H a r v e s t by S p e c i e s : 1937-1983 (cu f t ) 446 Appendix L P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Coast S t a t i s t i c a l Area H a r v e s t by S p e c i e s : 1937-1983 (cu f t ) 448 Appendix M P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Timber H a r v e s t C o n v e r s i o n s : 1914-1983 . . . . 450 Appendix N B i o r e g i o n P u l p and Paper P r o d u c t i o n : 1909-1984 ( m e t r i c t o n s ) . 452 Appendix 0 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Number of S a w m i l l s : 1915-1980 454 v i i L i s t of Tables No. T i t l e Page I Development P r o j e c t M a t r i x 8 I I Communities by S t a t u s and S u b r e g i o n 10 I I I B i o r e g i o n T o t a l M i n e r a l P r o d u c t i o n 1902-1983 ( m e t r i c ) . 244 IV S e l e c t e d Northwest B.C. R i v e r D i s c h a r g e Means (cms) . . 311 V P h y s i o g r a p h i c Regions 314 VI B i o r e g i o n Area 328 V I I B i o r e g i o n C l i m a t e L o c a t i o n Key • 331 V I I I B i o r e g i o n C l i m a t e P r o f i l e 333 IX B i o r e g i o n Growing Season 334 X B i o r e g i o n S o l a r Income 335 XI B i o r e g i o n P o p u l a t i o n : 1901-1981 338 X I I B i o r e g i o n Mine I d e n t i f i c a t i o n Key 375 X I I I B i o r e g i o n T o t a l M i n e r a l P r o d u c t i o n : 1902-1983 ( m e t r i c ) 379 XIV B i o r e g i o n M i n e r a l P r o d u c t i o n by D r a i n a g e A r e a : 1902-1983 ( m e t r i c ) 380 XV B i o r e g i o n M i n e r a l P r o d u c t i o n by Mine: 1902-1983 ( m e t r i c ) 381 XVI O p e r a t i n g L i f e of B i o r e g i o n Mines: 1902-1983 387 v i i i L i s t o f F i g u r e s No. T i t l e Page 1 N a t i v e S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n 17 2 Economic C y c l e o f the G i t k s a n 20 3 I n t e r c o r p o r a t e Ownership of the Northwest B r i t i s h Columbia F o r e s t I n d u s t r y 1980 80 4 C u r r e n t S t r u c t u r e and S c a l e of Governance 84 5 B u r e a u c r a t i c O r g a n i z a t i o n a l S t r u c t u r e 94 6 Changes i n B r i t i s h Columbia M i n i s t r y O r g a n i z a t i o n . . . 104 7 Energy P r o j e c t Review P r o c e s s . 116 8 I n t e r - A g e n c y Framework 117 9 C e r t i f i c a t i o n P r o c e d u r e s 118 10 B i o r e g i o n a l i s m ' s R e g i o n a l P l a n n i n g P r e c u r s o r s 181 11 B i o r e g i o n Governance S t r u c t u r e 213 12 B i o r e g i o n Economic S t r u c t u r e 215 13 B i o r e g i o n Annual Salmon Catch by Numbers: 1877-1982 240 14 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Timber H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 248 15 S e l e c t e d Northwest B.C. R i v e r D i s c h a r g e Means (cms) . . 312 16 B i o r e g i o n P o p u l a t i o n : 1901-1981 339 17 B i o r e g i o n Governance S t r u c t u r e 345 18 B i o r e g i o n Economic S t r u c t u r e . . 349 19 B i o r e g i o n Annual H e r r i n g Catch by Landed h e i g h t : 1877-1982 (cwt) 358 20 B i o r e g i o n Annual H a l i b u t Catch by Landed Weight: 1877-1982 (cwt) 359 21 B i o r e g i o n Annual Salmonid Catch by Numbers: 1877-1982 360 22 B i o r e g i o n Annual P i n k Catch by Weight (cwt) and Numbers: 1877-1982 . 361 23 B i o r e g i o n Annual Sockeye Catch by Weight (cwt) and Numbers: 1877-1982 362 24 B i o r e g i o n Annual Chinook Catch by Weight, (cwt) and Numbers: 1877-1982 . . 363 25 B i o r e g i o n Annual Chum Catch by Weight, (cwt) and Numbers: 1877-1982 364 26 B i o r e g i o n Annual Coho Catch by Weight, (cwt) and Numbers: 1877-1982 365 27 B i o r e g i o n Annual S t e e l h e a d C a t c h by Weight, (cwt) and Numbers: 1877-1982 366 28 Skeena R i v e r Annual Salmonid Catch by Numbers: 1877-1982 367 29 Nass R i v e r Annual Salmonid Catch by Numbers: 1877-1982 368 30 Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s Annual Salmonid Catch by Numbers: 1877-1982 369 31 B u t e d a l e - G a r d n e r Annual Salmonid Catch by Numbers: 1877-1982 370 i x 32 Annual Cases of Salmonids Packed by Nass and Skeena R i v e r C a n n e r i e s : 1877-1958 (48 l b . c a s e s ) . . . . 371 33 Number of B i o r e g i o n Mines O p e r a t i n g by Year: 1902-1983 388 34 B i o r e g i o n Annual Gold P r o d u c t i o n : 1902-1983 (gm) . . . 389 35 B i o r e g i o n Annual S i l v e r P r o d u c t i o n : 1902-1983 (gm) . . 390 36 B i o r e g i o n Annual Copper P r o d u c t i o n : 1902-1983 (kg) . . 391 37 B i o r e g i o n Annual Lead P r o d u c t i o n : 1902-1983 (kg) . . . 392 38 B i o r e g i o n Annual Z i n c P r o d u c t i o n : 1902-1983 (kg) . . . 393 39 B i o r e g i o n Annual Molybdenum P r o d u c t i o n : 1902-1983 (kg) 394 40 B i o r e g i o n Annual I r o n P r o d u c t i o n : 1902-1983 (;g) . . . 395 41 B i o r e g i o n Annual Minor M i n e r a l P r o d u c t i o n : 1902-1983 (kg) 396 42 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Timber H a r v e s t : 1902-1983 (cu f t ) 404 43 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region H a r v e s t by Coast and I n t e r i o r S t a t i s t i c a l A r e a s : 1937-1983 (cu f t ) 405 44 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region S p e c i e s Comparison of T o t a l Coast and I n t e r i o r S t a t i s t i c a l Area H a r v e s t s : 1937-1983 406 45 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Timber H a r v e s t i n S t a n d a r d Tree E q u i v a l e n t s : 1914-1983 407 46 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Timber H a r v e s t i n Boxcar E q u i v a l e n t s : 1914-1983 408 47 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Timber H a r v e s t i n F r e i g h t T r a i n Length E q u i v a l e n t s : 1914-1983 . . 409 48 B i o r e g i o n P u l p and Paper P r o d u c t i o n : 1909-1984 ( m e t r i c t o n s ) 410 49 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Number of S a w m i l l s : 1915-1980 411 50 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual F i r H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 412 51 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Cedar H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 413 52 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Spruce H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 414 53 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Hemlock H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 415 54 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Balsam H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 416 55 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Lodgepole P i n e H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 417 56 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual C o t . t o n w 0 o d H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 418 57 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Cypress H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 419 58 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual Hardwood H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 420 59 P r i n c e Rupert F o r e s t Region Annual M i s c e l l a n e o u s H a r v e s t : 1914-1983 (cu f t ) 421 X L i s t o f Maps No. T i t l e Page 1 Northwest B r i t i s h Columbia 6 2 I n d i a n N a t i o n s of Northwest B r i t i s h Columbia 15 3 Survey Base Map 223 4 B i o r e g i o n B o u n d a r i e s 229 5 B i o r e g i o n Governance U n i t s 235 6 Survey Base Map 302 7 H i s t o r i c C o l o n i a l and I n t e r n a t i o n a l B o u n d a r i e s : 1493-1906 304 8 F i n a l I n t e r n a t i o n a l D i v i s i o n 306 9 Composite I n t e r n a l B o u n d a r i e s 308 10 Watersheds . . . 310 11 P h y s i o g r a p h i c Regions 315 12 C l i m a t e D i v i s i o n 317 13 I n d i a n N a t i o n s o f Northwest B.C . 319 14 C u r r e n t Use P a t t e r n s 321 15 ' S p e c i a l ' or P s y c h o p h y s i c a l P l a c e s 323 16 B i o r e g i o n Composite B o u n d a r i e s 325 17 B i o r e g i o n B o u n d a r i e s 327 18 B i o r e g i o n C l i m a t e S t a t i o n L o c a t i o n s 332 19 N a t i v e S e t t l e m e n t P a t t e r n 340 20 P i o n e e r S e t t l e m e n t P a t t e r n 341 21 C u r r e n t S e t t l e m e n t P a t t e r n 342 22 B i o r e g i o n Governance U n i t s . 346 23 Salmonid Catch S t a t i s t i c a l Areas 357 24 B i o r e g i o n Areas of C o n c e n t r a t e d M i n i n g A c t i v i t y . . . . 378 25 Coast and I n t e r i o r Timber H a r v e s t Areas 403 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT T h i s t h e s i s i s d e d i c a t e d t o ray w i f e and d a u g h t e r , Amandah Lea and C h r i s t i n e L i n ; t o my p a r e n t s , Bob and M a r j o r i e , who have s u p p o r t e d me i n many ways; and t o Mayor A l i c e M a i t l a n d and H a z e l t o n , B.C., who have ta u g h t me 'home'. 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION The p u r p o s e o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t o e x p l o r e the concept of b i o r e g i o n a l i s m as an a l t e r n a t e a p p r o a c h t o t h e g o v e r n a n c e and d e v e l o p m e n t o f N o r t h w e s t B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . B i o r e g i o n a l i s m i s a t e r r i t o r i a l l y o r i e n t e d p e r c e p t i o n and p r a c t i c e b a s e d on t h e a b i l i t i e s of bounded p h y s i c a l environments t o s u p p o r t both themselves and human p o p u l a t i o n s on a s u s t a i n a b l e b a s i s . The worth of such an a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h as opposed t o the c u r r e n t c e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l of s t r i c t l y human d e l i n e a t e d r e g i o n s w i l l be argued v i a the f o l l o w i n g f i v e major a r e a s of i n q u i r y . By way of b a s i c i n t r o d u c t i o n the f i r s t s e c t i o n w i l l i n t r o d u c e p r e s e n t . B r i t i s h Columbia as a r e g i o n where i n c r e a s i n g economic a c t i v i t y , based s o l e l y on l a r g e - s c a l e r e s o u r c e e x t r a c t i o n , i s h e i g h t e n i n g c i t i z e n c o n c e r n s t h a t such a c t i v i t y i s e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y h a r m f u l and not c o n d u c i v e t o d e v e l o p i n g t h e a r e a f o r r e s i d e n t b e n e f i t . F o r e m o s t among gro u p s w i t h such c o n c e r n s are N a t i v e p e o p l e who are b e g i n n i n g t o r e f o r m u l a t e and a p p l y t r a d i t i o n a l b i o c e n t r i c approaches t o governance and development. The i n t r o d u c -t i o n of N a t i v e s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , u s i n g what are e s s e n t i a l l y b i o -r e g i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s , i s used as a main argument t o b e g i n e x p l o r a t i o n of a s i m i l a r g u i d i n g s t r u c t u r e f o r the r e g i o n ' s n o n - I n d i a n p e o p l e s . The s e c o n d s e c t i o n w i l l o u t l i n e a h i s t o r y o f N o r t h w e s t B r i t i s h C o lumbia, h i g h l i g h t i n g the economic d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r e g i o n . T h i s r e v i e w w i l l i d e n t i f y s e v e n e r a s r e l a t e d t o the v a r y i n g r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s p u r s u e d by b o t h i n d i g e n o u s and f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t s . A b a s i c h i s t o r i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n 2 t o the Northwest w i l l p r o v i d e the f o u n d a t i o n upon which arguments i n f a v o u r of a b i o r e g i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e f o r the r e g i o n w i l l be based. T h i r d l y , t h e c u r r e n t s t r u c t u r e s o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a and Canadian c o n t r o l w i l l be b r i e f l y e x p l a i n e d . T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n of governance and development s t r u c t u r e s w i l l be f r o m a r e g i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a v i e w w h i c h w i l l t r y t o a r t i c u l a t e f r u s t r a t i o n s w i t h the d i f f e r e n c e s between the i d e a l s of c e n t r a l i z e d government v e r s u s i t s a c t u a l p r a c t i c e . I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h i s argument w i l l be the p r e m i s e t h a t c u r r e n t s t r u c t u r e s do n o t s a t i s f y t h e i r i n t e r n a l , l i b e r a l i d e o l o g i c a l , c r i t e r i a f o r s u c c e s s . The c u r r e n t s t r u c t u r e s of governance and development w i l l then be l o o k e d a t i n t e r m s of t h e i r s u c c e s s a g a i n s t r e g i o n r e s i d e n t needs and a s p i r a t i o n s . By h i g h l i g h t i n g w r i t t e n o p i n i o n s of v a r i o u s r e g i o n g r o u p s a deep d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h c u r r e n t c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s w i l l be e v i d e n c e d . I n c l u d e d i n t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s a r e r e p e a t e d r e q u e s t s t o a l l o w t h e r e g i o n t o d i s c o v e r ways of g o v e r n a n c e and development more s u i t e d t o i t s p a r t i c u l a r e n v i r o n m e n t and l o n g - t e r m b e n e f i t . The f o u r t h major p r o g r e s s i o n i n t h i s paper w i l l p r o v i d e a d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n of b i o r e g i o n a l i s m i n t h r e e s t a g e s . A l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w w i l l p r e s e n t b i o r e g i o n a l thought t o as c u r r e n t a d e s c r i p t i o n as p o s s i b l e . B i o r e g i o n a l i s m w i l l t h e n be i d e n t i f i e d as t h e newest e v o l u t i o n of r e g i o n a l p l a n n i n g r e l a t e d t h e o r y s t r e t c h i n g back 200 y e a r s . The f i n a l s u b s e c t i o n w i l l attempt t o i n t e g r a t e and expand the b i o r e g i o n a l concept so t h a t i t can more e a s i l y be a p p l i e d by r e s i d e n t s of an a c t u a l r e g i o n . 3 The f i f t h s e c t i o n w i l l a p p l y the b i o r e g i o n a l model developed i n s e c t i o n f o u r t o the s p e c i f i c r e a l i t y of Northwest B.C. T h i s a p p l i c a t i o n w i l l t a k e two forms. F i r s t , and i n most d e t a i l , an attempt w i l l be made t o b u i l d a p e r c e p t i o n of j u s t what i s the Northwest b i o r e g i o n . T h i s l a y e r i n g o f p r e v i o u s l y a g g r e g a t e d d a t a w i l l f o r the f i r s t time a l l o w r e g i o n r e s i d e n t s t o d e s c r i b e 'home' i n terms of b i o r e g i o n p arameters. Second, a b r i e f attempt w i l l be made t o d e f i n e what would be b i o r e g i o n a l p r a c t i c e i n the r e g i o n . W i d e l y h e l d b i o r e g i o n a l p e r c e p t i o n s , l i n k e d w i t h a s y s t e m a t i c e x t e n s i o n of b i o r e g i o n a l p r a c t i c e , would combine t o c r e a t e a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e t o c u r r e n t governance and development s t r u c t u r e s . The f i n a l s e c t i o n w i l l p r o v i d e a summary of the major t h e s i s arguments and make a p r e d i c t i o n r e g a r d i n g the p o s s i b l e f u t u r e of b i o r e g i o n a l i s m ' s p o t e n t promise i n both Northwest B.C. and B r i t i s h C o lumbia. B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g w i t h the arguments o u t l i n e d above i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c l e a r l y e x p l a i n o v e r a l l t h e s i s s t r u c t u r e and scope, as w e l l as the o r i e n t a t i o n of the w r i t e r t o the t o p i c and r e g i o n of s t u d y . I t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the r e s e a r c h c o v e r s as g r e a t d e a l o f ' t e r r i t o r y ' . T h i s u n u s u a l l y b r o a d a p p r o a c h t o a t h e s i s has been adopted p u r p o s e f u l l y as the p r e f e r r e d way t o f r e e z e a m u l t i f a c e t e d t o p i c i n t o an a c c e s s i b l e framework of under-s t a n d i n g and a p p l i c a t i o n . T h i s type of p r e s e n t a t i o n w i l l a l l o w b i o r e g i o n a l i s m t o be d e s c r i b e d as a p o p u l i s t movement and c u l m i n a t i o n 4 of l o n g c r o s s - d i s c i p l i n a r y c o e v o l u t i o n . I t w i l l a l s o f i r m l y ground e x p l o r a t i o n of the concept t o an a p p l i c a t i o n based on the s p e c i f i c r e a l i t y and o p p o r t u n i t y of Northwest B.C. As w i l l be shown, t h i s b a l a n c e of t h e o r y and a p p l i c a t i o n i s an e s s e n t i a l element of the b i o r e g i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e and d o v e t a i l s w i t h t h e w r i t e r ' s b e l i e f t h a t academic r e s e a r c h s h o u l d have p r a c t i c a l v a l u e . Because the b r o a d s t r u c t u r e a d o p t e d a l l a s p e c t s o f t h i s t h e s i s cannot be p r e s e n t e d i n g r e a t d e p t h . What w i l l be o f f e r e d i s t r e a t m e n t of a l l the premis e s i n a way which p l a c e s i n d i v i d u a l a r g u m e n t s i n p e r s p e c t i v e , i n o r d e r t h a t the next s t e p i n the r e s e a r c h can be e x p l a i n e d . Thus, more time has been spent on a r e v i e w of h i s t o r y , b i o r e g i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e , and development of a b i o r e g i o n a l p e r c e p t i o n o f N o r t h w e s t B.C., t h a n on t h e o t h e r a r e a s o f i n q u i r y . More d e t a i l e d r e s e a r c h , beyond the i l l u s -t r a t i v e approach adopted i n t h e s e a r e a s i s n e c e s s a r y , b u t was beyond t h e time a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s work. A f u r t h e r c a u t i o n a r y note i s r e q u i r e d i n t h a t t h i s t o p i c i n v o l v e s i n t e g r a t i o n of many d i s c i p l i n e s of which the w r i t e r , o r a b i o r e g i o n a l i s t , i s master of none. The p e r s p e c t i v e i n c o r p o r a t e d i s t h a t of a p u r p o s e f u l g e n e r a l i s t who has been taught the v a l u e of both o v e r v i e w and b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r d i v e r s e i s o l a t e d s o u r c e s of knowledge. The f i n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s work i s t h a t the w r i t e r has a p e r s o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n the b i o r e g i o n a l movement and i s a l s o a decade l o n g r e s i d e n t of the r e g i o n t o which the concept w i l l be a p p l i e d . These t i e s i n c l u d e a l o n g s t a n d i n g membership i n the P l a n e t Drum F o u n d a t i o n , a t t e n d a n c e a t two major b i o r e g i o n a l 5 C o n g r e s s e s , as w e l l as l i v i n g / w o r k i n g i n N o r t h w e s t B.C. as a r e g i o n a l p l a n n e r , community p l a n n e r , m u n i c i p a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r , concerned c i t i z e n , and p a r e n t . I f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t r o d u c e b i a s t o the f o l l o w i n g work the r e a d e r i s f o r w a r n e d . I t i s hoped t h a t advocacy w i l l be more than compensated f o r by the b e n e f i t s extended e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t o p i c and p l a c e w i l l a f f o r d . 2 . 0 PLACE AND QUEST Northwest B r i t i s h Columbia i s a c u l t u r a l l y and b i o p h y s i c a l l y d e f i n a b l e r e g i o n c o n s i s t i n g of a l a n d and water area of approx-i m a t e l y 71,875 s q u a r e m i l e s . T h i s a r e a has been i n h a b i t e d f o r upwards of 8,000 y e a r s and i s c u r r e n t l y home t o a human p o p u l a t i o n o f 80,000 persons (Borden, 1975, 20-21; B r i t i s h Columbia: 1978, 627). L o c a t e d i n an i s o l a t e d p a r t of N o r t h America and Canada the r e g i o n has o n l y r e c e n t l y l e f t c o n t r o l of i t s o r i g i n a l a b o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s t o become a f r o n t i e r z one o f w e s t e r n i n d u s t r i a l c i v i l i z a t i o n (Map 1 ) . D u r i n g the 175 y e a r s of t h i s o c c u p a t i o n , Northwest B r i t i s h Columbia has been e x p l o i t e d f o r a wide range of r e s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g a b o r i g i n a l l a b o u r , sea o t t e r and o t h e r f u r s , m i n e r a l s , s a l m o n i d s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c c e s s t o i n t e r i o r Canada, f o r e s t p r o d u c t s and h y d r o e l e c t r i c power. T h i s e x p l o i t a t i o n has taken p l a c e l a r g e l y t o s e r v e a w o r l d market economy t h a t has seen t h e d r a m a t i c m a j o r i t y of h a r v e s t e d a r e a r e s o u r c e s s h i p p e d away f o r p r o c e s s i n g and c o n s u m p t i o n i n C h i n a , E n g l a n d , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and s o u t h e r n Canada. The b e n e f i t s a c c r u i n g t o g e n e r a t i o n s of Northwest B.C. r e s i d e n t s so employed have been r e l a t i v e absence 7 of war, i n c r e a s e i n l i f e s p a n , i n t r o d u c t i o n of w e s t e r n t e c h n o l o g i e s , and v a r y i n g l e v e l s of s u p p o r t o f f e r e d by the c o n t r o l l i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s of B r i t i s h Columbia and Canada. As time has passed the number and s c a l e of r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s have i n c r e a s e d i n t h e r e g i o n . T h i s e s c a l a t i o n o f e f f o r t has c o i n c i d e d w i t h a growing i n t e r e s t by r e g i o n r e s i d e n t s r e g a r d i n g the impact of development p r o j e c t s on community, c u l t u r e and environment. To the p r e s e n t , t h i s c o ncern has been ex p r e s s e d by a wide range of a c t i o n s ; i n c l u d i n g l o b b y i n g by i n d i v i d u a l s , g r oups, and l o c a l governments; e n v i r o n m e n t a l a c t i v i s m ; a b o r i g i n a l l a n d - c l a i m movements; and i n extreme i n s t a n c e s , s a b otage. Viewed as a t r e n d , t h e s e r e g i o n based i n t e r e s t s s u r f a c e d i n the e a r l y 1900's and have e s c a l a t e d i n t o a s u s t a i n e d and s t e a d i l y growing c o n c e r n . I n t h e 1980's N o r t h w e s t B.C. has become a g r e a t l y more complex r e g i o n t h a t i s f a c i n g a del u g e of new economic development p r o p o s a l s . These p r o j e c t s , over 35 i n number and r e p r e s e n t i n g a c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t of t e n s o f b i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s , o f f e r a mix o f t a n t a l i z i n g b e n e f i t s a t c o s t s t h a t a r e a c h a l l e n g e t o human m i t i g a t i v e i n g e n u i t y ( T a b l e I ) . At w o r s t , t h e i m p a c t s o f t h e s e p r o j e c t s , p l u s those of the a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80 e x i s t i n g i n d u s t r i a l o r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a d v e n t u r e s , make up a s i t u a t i o n t h a t i s b e l i e v e d by many a r e a r e s i d e n t s t o be s o c i a l l y and e n v i r o n -m e n t a l l y unmanageable. C i t i z e n s of the r e g i o n ' s 13 i n c o r p o r a t e d m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , 21 u n i n c o r p o r a t e d s e t t l e m e n t s and 24 I n d i a n communities are i n c r e a s i n g l y aware t h a t l a r g e - s c a l e developments 8 Table I Development Project Matrix Area Stew. K i t i . Terrace Haz. P.R. Q.C.I. Nass Stik. Houst. Smith Proj. Type Sawmill 1/0 0 0/2 0/1 1/0 0 0 0 0/2 0/2 Grain Term. 0 0 0, 0 0/2 0 0 0 0 0 Pulp M i l l 1/0 0/1 0 1/0 0/2 0 0 0 0 1/0 Port 1/1 1/1 0 0 0/2 0 0 0 0 0 Road Net. 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 1/1 1/1 0/1 0/1 Dam 0 0 0 1/0 0/1 1/0 0 4/0 0 0 Smelter 0 2/1 1/0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hydro Grid 1/0 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 0 0/1 1/0 0/1 0/1 Offshore Oil 0 0/1 0 0 0/1 1/0 0 0 0 0 Coal Mine 0 0 0 1/0 0 0 0 1/0 0 1/1 Nat. Gas 0 0/1 0/1 1/0 0/1 0 0 0 0/1 0/1 New Town 0/1 0/1 0 0 0 0 0/2 2/1 0 0 Rail 0 0/1 0/1 1/1 0/1 0 0 1/1 0/1 0/1 Logging 1/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 1/1 0/1 0/1 Copper 1/0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4/0 0 0 Salmon Hatch. 0 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/2 0 0 0 0/2 Moly. Mine 0 0 0 0 0 0 0/1 0 0 1/0 Silver Mine 0 0 0 0/1 0 0 0 0 0/1 0 Gold Mine 0 0 0 0 0 1/0 0 0 0 0 Airport 0/1 0 0/1 1/0 0/1 0/1 0 0 0 0/1 Petro Chem. 0 1/1 0 0 0/1 0 0 0 0 0 Coal Port 1/0 0 0 0 0/1 0 0 0 0 0 Oil Port 0 1/0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 LNG Port 0 0 0 0 1/0 0 0 0 0 0 Fish. Pro. 0 0 0 0 0/4 0 0 0/1 0 0 Total 7/5 5/12 1/9 6/7 2/21 3/5 1/6 15/5 0/8 3/11 Future/Existing 9 o c c u r on t e r m s w h i c h a r e o f t e n e x c l u s i v e o f l o c a l i n t e r e s t s ( T a b l e I I ) . T h i s r e a l i z a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y on the p a r t of I n d i a n p e o p l e s , has f o r c e d a l a r g e number of r e g i o n r e s i d e n t s t o expand t h e i r d e t a i l e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s t o i n c l u d e t o o l s o f w i d e r a n a l y s i s . Where a p r o j e c t was once ' s o l d ' l o c a l l y by t h e number o f j o b s i t w o u l d b r i n g , t h e f o c u s now i s more on measuring e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o s t s , i m p a c t s on community s t a b i l i t y and p o t e n t i a l f o r l o n g - t e r m and s p i n - o f f b e n e f i t s . In many cases t h e s e and a host of r e l a t e d i s s u e s have become the dominant f o c u s of p u b l i c c oncern over the e n t i r e r e g i o n . An outgrowth of t h i s t r e n d has been f o r a b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s t o combine i n t o T r i b a l C o u n c i l s t o r e s e a r c h and d e f e n d v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f p e r c e i v e d s o v e r e i g n t y . An e x c i t i n g e v o l u t i o n of T r i b a l C o u n c i l a c t i v i t y has been a s t e a d y s h i f t from c r i s i s management t o a more s t r u c t u r a l l y o r i e n t e d problem s o l v i n g approach. I n s t e a d of o n l y r e a c t i n g t o i n d i v i d u a l i s s u e s which c o n f l i c t w i t h N a t i v e n o t i o n s of c u l t u r e o r community ' h e a l t h ' , t h e y have begun t o q u e s t i o n t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e of governance t h a t c r e a t e s t h e s e c o n f l i c t s . In o t h e r words they a re b e g i n n i n g t o argue t h a t the governments of B r i t i s h Columbia and Canada do not p o s s e s s the mechanisms by which the o b v i o u s bounty of the r e g i o n can be managed i n c o n s o r t w i t h t h e i r r e s i d e n t needs and a s p i r a t i o n s . The r e s u l t of t h i s t h i n k i n g i s a g e n e r a l l a n d -c l a i m p h i l o s o p h y t h a t would e s s e n t i a l l y t r a n s f e r l a r g e s e c t i o n s of the Northwest from P r o v i n c i a l government t o r e g i o n a l T r i b a l C o u n c i l c o n t r o l . R e g a r d l e s s of the e x a c t form, or degree, of 10 Table II Communities and Status by Subregion Non Indian Incorporated Regional Dis tr i c t Non Indian Unincorp. Indian Reserve Tr iba l Council 1. Masset Port Clements 2. Prince Rupert Port Edward Skeena/Q.C. Skeena/Q.C. Queen Char. City Juskatla Sandspit Oona River Dodge Cove Skidegate Masset Port Simpson Metlakatla Kitkatla Council of the Haida Nation North Coast Tribal Council 3. Terrace Kitimat-Stikine Copper River Lakelse Lake Thornhill Usk Rosswood Kitsumkalum Kitselas North Coast Tribal Council 4. Hazelton New Hazelton Kitimat-Stikine Two Mile South Hazelton Kispoix Vly. Ki iwanga CeJarvale 5. Smithera-Telkwa Bulkley-Nechako High Road 6. Stewart Kitimat-Stikine Meziadin Lk. 7. Kitimat Kitimat-Stikine Kitwancool Kitseguecla Hagwilget Gitanmaax Glen Vowell Kiapiox Kisgegas Kitwangak Moricetown Hartley Bay Klemtu Gitksan-Wetseweten Tribal Council Gitksan-W. T .C. Nisgha Tribal Council North Coast T .C. 8. Houston-Granisle Bulkley-Nechako Perow Topley Landing Babine Sekanni-Carrier 9. - Kitimat-Stikine Telegraph Ck. Kaska Kinaskan Iskut United Tahltans 10. - Kitimat-Stikine Nass Camp Kitsault Alice Arm Aiyensh Greenville Canyon City Kincolith Nishga Tribal Council 11 T r i b a l C o u n c i l s o v e r e i g n t y e s t a b l i s h e d , i t becomes e s s e n t i a l t o u n d e r s t a n d the impact t h a t such a b a s i c change i n the governance s t r u c t u r e would have. Without i d e a l i z i n g the r e s u l t s of t r i b a l c o n t r o l , w i d e s p r e a d s i t u a t i o n s w o u l d e x i s t where a c t i o n s o f r e g i o n a l l y m o t i v a t e d a b o r i g i n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s would be i n c r e a s i n g l y compared t o the l e s s r e s p o n s i v e a c t i v i t i e s of t r a d i t i o n a l V i c t o r i a and Ottawa based governments. I t i s a l o g i c a l s t e p t o t r a n s f e r the c o n c e r n t h a t a b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s have developed t o the w i d e r p o p u l a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e r e g i o n . I f (1 ) development p r o j e c t s are c o n t i n u o u s l y b e i n g proposed t h a t d i s r e g a r d the needs and a s p i r a t i o n s of a s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t a g e o f e x i s t i n g r e g i o n r e s i d e n t s , and ( 2 ) i f 20% of the r e g i o n ' s r e s i d e n t s who a r e of a b o r i g i n a l d e s c e n t w i l l be d e v e l o p i n g a s e p a r a t e and more l o c a l l y r e s p o n s i v e g o v e r n a n c e system, then (3 ) i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o e xpect t h a t n o n - I n d i a n r e s i d e n t s of the r e g i o n s h o u l d i n v e s t i g a t e a complementary a l t e r n a t i v e governance and development model. The n o t i o n of changing a l o n g e s t a b l i s h e d system of governance i s f r a u g h t w i t h r e a c t i o n a r y p i t f a l l s . A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , and t o some e x t e n t the e t h n i c Quebecois, have a h i s t o r i c a l or c u l t u r a l i n s u l a r i t y t h a t makes c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f s p e c i a l g o v e r n a n c e t e c h n i q u e s at l e a s t m i n i m a l l y p a l a t a b l e t o C a nadians. I t becomes a much more n o v e l concept t o p r e s e n t t h e i d e a t h a t a r e g i o n , because of i t s b i o p h y s i c a l and m u l t i - c u l t u r a l p e r s o n a l i t y , s h o u l d a l s o be a l l o w e d t o e v o l v e unique t o o l s f o r r e l a t i n g i n w a r d l y t o i t s e l f , and o u t w a r d l y t o l a r g e r Canadian and w o r l d s o c i e t i e s . 12 T h i s e v o l u t i o n r e q u i r e s a freedom which i s u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c u r r e n t Canadian p o l i t i c a l and economic o r g a n i z a t i o n . But, upon r e f l e c t i o n , the changes r e q u i r e d t o a l l o w a b e t t e r s y s t e m o f t e r r i t o r i a l g o v e r n a n c e need n o t be a t a l l i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h c o n t i n u e d l e g i t i m a c y of e x i s t i n g P r o v i n c i a l and F e d e r a l governments. The c h a n g e s t h a t c o u l d be proposed would be p e a c e f u l , p r e s e r v e the s o v e r e i g n t y of Canada, m a i n t a i n many e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , and p r o t e c t the c a p i t a l i s t mannas of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y and freedom t o p r o f i t . Growth would be encouraged and movement o f p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h i n and out of the r e g i o n would be u n r e s t r i c t e d . I f t h e above r e v o l u t i o n d i s c l a i m e r i s a c c e p t a b l e , t h e n h o p e f u l l y i t i s p o s s i b l e t o q u a l i f y the Utopian l a b e l . Whatever shape a b i o r e g i o n a l government and development model would u l t i m a t e l y t a k e , i t would not be i s o l a t i o n i s t o r so d r a s t i c a replacement as t o n o t i c e a b l y d i s t i n g u i s h the r e g i o n from o t h e r p a r t s of Canada. There would be no m e s s i a n i c l e a d e r s , s e p a r a t e r e l i g i o n s or a r m i e s . In f a c t , the model s h o u l d be so f l e x i b l e as t o be a b l e t o be i n s t i t u t e d over a l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e . The form of governance may someday be t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t than e x p e r i e n c e d today, but i t would have been a g r a d u a l change, c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the slow speed r e q u i r e d f o r b a s i c g o v e r n a n c e s t r u c t u r e r e f o r m and e v e n t u a l r e p l a c e m e n t . 3.0 NORTHWEST HISTORY I n t h e w r i t t e n h i s t o r i e s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , Canada, and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , v e r y few r e f e r e n c e s a r e made t o e v e n t s i n 13 Northwest B r i t i s h C olumbia. T h i s i n v i s i b i l i t y may e x i s t f o r a v a r i e t y of r e a s o n s , i n c l u d i n g the f a c t t h a t i s o l a t e d h i n t e r l a n d a r e a s u s u a l l y r a t e a mention o n l y when annexed o r f o u g h t o v e r . R e g a r d l e s s o f t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n , N o r t h w e s t B.C. has a h i s t o r y which i s as r i c h and i n t r i c a t e as anywhere on e a r t h . S i n c e the 19 5 0 ' s , d o z e n s o f books have been p u b l i s h e r ' w i t h i n the r e g i o n t h a t h i g h l i g h t b i t s and p i e c e s of the a r e a ' s p a s t . T h i s awakening o f l o c a l a w a r e n e s s has been a major s t e p i n h e l p i n g people t o un d e r s t a n d more about how and why g o v e r n a n c e and d e v e l o p m e n t o c c u r as they do. Y e t , t o d a t e , t h e r e has been no s i n g l e h i s t o r i c a l work which t r i e s t o t r a c e human a c t i v i t y i n the r e g i o n over the t i m e t h e a r e a has been o c c u p i e d . O n l y such an ov e r v i e w w i l l p r o v i d e a broad enough scope t o o u t l i n e the changing t r e n d s i n human a c t i v i t y which d e f i n e major h i s t o r i c a l e r a s . By i s o l a t i n g such major e r a s i t i s hoped p a t t e r n s emerge t h a t w i l l make c h a r t i n g a f u t u r e f o r the r e g i o n a s l i g h t l y e a s i e r p r o p o s i t i o n . I t s h o u l d be noted t h a t h i s t o r y i s a v a l u e l a d e n memory: i t i s s e l e c t i v e , and u s u a l l y d e s i g n e d t o s e r v e a purpose. The h i s t o r y t h a t f o l l o w s i s o f f e r e d from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t t h e r e g i o n has s u f f e r e d from i t s r e l e g a t i o n t o s t a t u s as a f r o n t i e r h i n t e r l a n d . By way of b a l a n c e t o t h i s v i e w , the p e r i o d s o u t l i n e d have i d e n t i f i e d t h emselves v i a f a c t s g l e a n e d from r e a d i n g over 25 l o c a l h i s t o r i e s whose o n l y b i a s i s t h e i r l i m i t e d s c o p e . The d e t a i l o f t h e next pages w i l l h o p e f u l l y p r o v i d e o r i e n t a t i o n t o the n o t i o n t h a t f o r p e o p l e who l i v e i n a p l a c e , the h i s t o r y of t h a t p l a c e i_s the h i s t o r y of the w o r l d . 14 3.1 8000 B . C . - 1740 AD : Another World. I t i s s p e c u l a t e d t h a t the f i r s t human i n h a b i t a n t s of Northwest B.C. a r r i v e d from a r e a s o f what was t o become Yukon and n o r t h - c e n t r a l B r i t i s h C o lumbia. These p e o p l e s t r a v e l l e d mazes of i c e - f r e e openings t o e v e n t u a l l y s e t t l e a l l the major v a l l e y bottom and i s l a n d areas of th e r e g i o n (Map 2 ) . A f t e r c o m p l e x t r a n s i t i o n s i d e n t i f i a b l e c u l t u r e s d e v e l o p e d , nomadic i n the i n t e r i o r and r e l a t i v e l y s e d e n t a r y i n c o a s t and i s l a n d zones. From r o u g h l y 2000 B.C. onward t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t c u l t u r e s t h a t s t i l l i d e n t i f y the Haida, Coast T s i m s h i a n , Southern T s i m s h i a n , G i t k s a n , N i s h g a and H a i s l a were f l o u r i s h i n g ( B o r d e n : 1975, 2 1 ) . At t h e same t i m e , i n t e r i o r Athapaskan p e o p l e s of the T s e t s a u t , T a h l t a n and Wetsuweten t r i b e s , h e a v i l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r c o a s t a l n e i g h b o u r s , were a d a p t i n g t o a more tenuous nomadic e x i s t e n c e i n u p r i v e r a r e a s of the r e g i o n . For the purpose of d e s c r i b i n g the h i s t o r y of what has been c a l l e d by K r o e b e r " p e r h a p s t h e most e l a b o r a t e n o n - p l a n t i n g , n o n - b r e e d i n g c u l t u r e i n t h e w o r l d " two d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s w i l l be used ( 6 1 ) . The f i r s t w i l l p r o v i d e a b r i e f o u t l i n e o f s o c i a l and m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e x i s t i n g i n t h e r e g i o n . T h i s s t a n d a r d e t h n o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e a t t e m p t s t o b u i l d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a whole from d e s c r i p t i o n s of p a r t s . The second approach i n v o l v e s an attempt t o animate the essence of p r e - c o n t a c t N o r t h w e s t s o c i e t y by h i n t i n g a t t h e c o s m o l o g y w h i c h was the dominant r e g i o n / w o r l d view f o r n e a r l y 4000 y e a r s . T h i s s e c o n d method o f t r a n s l a t i n g what was an a b s o l u t e l y f o r e i g n r e a l i t y r e q u i r e s use of i m a g i n a t i o n f r e e d from as much e t h n o c e n t r i c b i a s 16 as p o s s i b l e . A c a u t i o n s h o u l d be i s s u e d t h a t the l e v e l of ov e r v i e w n e c e s s a r y i n both approaches w i l l b l u r many s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between t r i b a l groups. As i l l u s t r a t e d by F i g u r e 1 the t r i b e s of the r e g i o n were o r g a n i z e d on f o u r main l e v e l s as f o l l o w s : 1. R e s i d e n t t r i b e s of the r e g i o n were l a b e l l e d as b e i n g c o a s t a l o r i n t e r i o r p e o p l e s . The Haida o c c u p i e d the Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s , t h e f o u r s e p a r a t e d i v i s i o n s of the T s i m s h i a n ( N i s h g a , G i t k s a n , Southern and C o a s t a l ) the Nass and Skeena b a s i n s and a d j a c e n t c o a s t l i n e s , and the H a i s l a the Douglas Channel - Gardner C a n a l a r e a . The T l i n g i t ranged i n t o the lower S t i k i n e but were not r e s i d e n t t h e r e . The i n t e r i o r Athapaskan p e o p l e s o c c u p i e d u p r i v e r t e r r i t o r i e s w h i c h b o r d e r e d on t h e s t r i c t l y p r o t e c t e d d o w n r i v e r homes of t h e i r c o a s t a l n e i g h b o u r s . The T a h l t a n ranged the mid and upper S t i k i n e , the T s e t s a u t were t r a g i c a l l y sandwiched on the upper Nass and Skeena between the Nishga and G i t k s a n , and the Wetsuweten c l a i m e d the B u l k l e y R i v e r t r i b u t a r y of the Skeena. The p r e - c o n t a c t r e g i o n p o p u l a t i o n i s e s t i m a t e d t o have been 20-30,000 i n d i v i d u a l s ( D u f f : 1 9 6 4 , 39; Hewes:1973, 1 3 5 - 1 3 7 ) . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 permanent w i n t e r v i l l a g e s and hundreds of food g a t h e r i n g t e r r i t o r i e s were m a i n t a i n e d . ( D u f f : 1964, 18-21). 2. V i l l a g e s w i t h i n t r i b e s were g e n e r a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t t e r r i t o r i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic u n i t s . A f f i l i a t i o n of s e t t l e m e n t on a t r i b a l l e v e l was m o s t l y l i m i t e d t o a common language and s h a r i n g of a u n i f o r m c l a n s t r u c t u r e . U s u a l l y t h e r e was no s i n g l e Figure 1 Native Social Organization Source: Compiled from Duff (1964), Garfield (1966), Git.-Car. Tribal Council (1981). 18 v i l l a g e l e a d e r , but a group of l e a d e r s w i t h v a r y i n g amounts o f power based on c e r e m o n i a l l y g a i n e d p r e s t i g e and t e r r i t o r y . 3. The two t o f o u r c l a n s w i t h i n each t r i b e were d e s i g n e d t o r e s t r i c t i n t e r - m a r r i a g e between m a t r i l i n e a l l y d e f i n e d r e l a t i v e s , and t o form a f f i n i t y groups based on a n c e s t r a l r e l a t i o n . M a r r i a g e bans and s u p p o r t r e l a t i o n s h i p s were m a i n t a i n e d between c o r r e s p o n d i n g c l a n s of d i f f e r e n t t r i b e s . 4. C l a n s i n e a c h t r i b e were b r o k e n down f u r t h e r i n t o houses. Each house c o n s i s t e d of an extended f a m i l y o c c u p y i n g a s i n g l e d w e l l i n g u n i t . Each house c o n t r o l l e d f o o d p r o d u c i n g t e r r i t o r i e s which were u n d e r t h e u l t i m a t e s t e w a r d s h i p o f t h e house c h i e f . For i n s t a n c e , the G i t k s a n and Wetsuweten were d i v i d e d i n t o r o u g h l y 50 s e p a r a t e l y a d m i n i s t e r e d l a n d a r e a s . L e a d e r s h i p was d e s i g n a t e d t h rough the p a s s i n g of names from l e a d e r t o l e a d e r , the most i m p o r t a n t names b r i n g i n g the g r e a t e s t power and r e s p o n -s i b i l i t y . The p r e s t i g e o f names was m a i n t a i n e d by a complex s e r i e s of a c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g p r o d u c t i o n and r i t u a l s h a r i n g o f s u r p l u s food and maintenance of an e l a b o r a t e s e t of house myths. Each myth, which r e c o u n t e d the v a r y i n g a s p e c t s of how a house had ga i n e d i t ' s t e r r i t o r y , was s y m b o l i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d by a c r e s t . C r e s t s were p h y s i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d by totem p o l e s , which a c t e d as p u b l i c d i s p l a y s of a n c e s t r a l l y v a l i d a t e d t e r r i t o r i a l ownership. Houses w i t h i n the same c l a n a l s o a c t e d t o g e t h e r i n r i t u a l r e l a t i o n s between o t h e r c l a n s o c c u p y i n g the same v i l l a g e . W i t h i n t h i s s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a r i c h t e c h n o l o g y s p e c i -f i c a l l y adapted t o r a i n c o a s t , f o r e s t and marine h a b i t a t s d e v e l o p e d . 19 A r t i c l e s made from f u r s , bone and rock were used f o r c l o t h i n g , h o u s i n g , f o o d g a t h e r i n g , c o o k i n g , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and a r t . The main s o u r c e of s u s t e n a n c e was salmon, of which i t i s e s t i m a t e d e a c h i n d i v i d u a l consumed between 260 t o 600 pounds p e r year (Hewes: 1973, 135-137). F i s h consumption tended t o be lower i n the c o a s t a l and S t i k i n e a r e a s due t o a v a i l a b i l i t y of o t h e r food s o u r c e s , w h i l e i n t e r i o r and u p r i v e r c o a s t a l t r i b e s depended much more on s a l m o n i d s f o r p r o t e i n and f a t s . Many o t h e r food s o u r c e s were tapped, i n c l u d i n g b e r r i e s , r o o t s , o o l i c h a n , s h e l l f i s h , seaweed, u n g u l a t e s and marine mammals. The abundance of f o o d , w h i l e g r e a t compared t o o t h e r r e g i o n s , was n o n e t h e l e s s not g u a r a n t e e d . E l a b o r a t e r i t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s were s t r i c t l y m a i n t a i n e d between h u n t e r and hunted and s e a s o n a l famine was not unknown. Trade between t r i b e s and v i l l a g e s o c c u r r e d r o u t i n e l y , w i t h t h e b o u n t y of one a r e a f e t c h i n g t h e d e l i c a c i e s o f a n o t h e r . A g r e a t number of w e l l - t r a v e l l e d t r a i l s s t r e t c h e d between v i l l a g e s and huge cedar canoes g l i d e d s i n g l y and i n f l o t i l l a s a l o n g t h e c o a s t (MacDonald: 1984,75). The day-to-day and y e a r - t o - y e a r h i s t o r y of the p r e - c o n t a c t n o r t h w e s t can be broken i n t o a n n u a l l y r e p e a t i n g a c t i v i t y c y c l e s w h i c h were p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r o d u c t i o n of f o o d . The y e a r l y c y c l e of t h i s a c t i v i t y f o r the G i t k s a n i s i l l u s t r a t e d by F i g u r e 2 (MacDonald: 1981, n.pag.) On a l a r g e r s c a l e , major events or t r e n d s o c c u r r e d which equate more t o t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i c a l i n c a n t a t i o n . E a r l y s p r i n g o o l i c h a n f i s h i n g on the Nass R i v e r e s t u a r y t r i g g e r e d a mass m i g r a t i o n o f n e a r l y a l l t h e c o a s t a l Figure 2 Economic Cycle of the Gitksan Source: MacDonald: 1981, n.p. 21 p e o p l e s . C o n g r e g a t i n g i n N i s h g a t e r r i t o r y , the t r i b e s went through peace ceremonies and reduced tons of s m e l t - l i k e ' c a n d l e f i s h ' to a condiment known as ' g r e a s e 1 . The g a t h e r i n g of t h i s p r e c i o u s f a t a f t e r a long w i n t e r s ' over-supply of p r o t e i n was e s s e n t i a l to s u r v i v a l . E q u a l l y important was the exten d e d c o n t a c t between o t h e r w i s e i s o l a t e d v i l l a g e s . T h i s annual c r o s s - f e r t i l i z a t i o n acted u n i q u e l y to d i s p e r s e new ideas and t o o l s q u i c k l y over the e n t i r e r e g i o n . The H a i d a d e v e l o p e d i n t o f a r r a n g i n g bands of c o a s t l i n e t r a d e r s and marauders. N i n e t y - f o o t c a n o es, burned and c a r v e d from g i a n t cedar, p l i e d a l l navigable r i v e r s i n the r e g i o n , as w e l l as the P a c i f i c shore as f a r south as San F r a n s c i s c o Bay. The G i t k s a n and Wetsuweten were b r o u g h t s t e a d i l y c l o s e r together through i n t e r m a r r i a g e a l l i a n c e s and s h a r i n g of a t r a d i n g and salmon f i s h i n g s i t e at Hagwilget Canyon. The T s e t s a u t were n e a r l y exterminated by neighbouring t r i b e s and harsh h a b i t a t . Remnants of t h i s now e x t i n c t race were f i n a l l y adopted by the Nishga. The Coast Tsimshian of the lower Skeena and the coast between the Skeena and Nass e s t u a r i e s , began t o e v o l v e a v i l l a g e and t r i b a l c h i e f s y s t e m . T h i s d e p a r t u r e from the independence of household c h i e f s came about from the s h a r i n g of t r a n s i e n t camping s i t e s d u r i n g m i g r a t i o n to o o l i c h a n f i s h i n g . A tendency to revere a p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g v i l l a g e house c h i e f was enlarged to s i m i l a r l y regard the power of the s t r o n g e s t v i l l a g e l e a d e r . In t h i s e v o l u t i o n 22 a dynasty of the house of Legaic developed which controlled trade on the Skeena River for over 60 years (McDonald: 1984, 42). The Tahltan and T l i n g i t l i v e d together every summer when the stronger c o a s t a l t r i b e would migrate to the juncture of the Tahltan and Stikine Rivers to catch and dry salmon. Through i n t e r m i t t e n t warfare between houses, v i l l a g e s and sometimes t r i b e s , slaves were taken both as emblems of status and as t o o l s by which a greater house food surplus could be generated. Elaborate a l l i a n c e s were maintained by inter-marriage and negotiation. Forts occupied strategic locations and t r i b a l contact was generally by regularized ceremonial occasions or via skirmish. The survival of the house, protection of t e r r i t o r y and enhancement of prestige were the major elements r u l i n g existence. General sources of the preceeding descriptions, other than those already c i t e d , i n c l u d e works c i t e d i n the b i b l i o g r a p h y by G a r f i e l d , Sequin et a l . , G i t k s a n - C a r r i e r T r i b a l C o u n c i l , Barbeau, Boas, Darling, and Harris. Beyond the l i s t i n g of temporal organization and technology l i e s an understanding of the way northwest coast peoples viewed the r e l a t i o n between themselves and the u t t e r l y d i f f e r e n t world they inhabited. The task of 'seeing' t h i s world i s extremely d i f f i c u l t . To be able to escape from the boundaries of one's own cosmology i s hard enough, i t i s harder s t i l l to r e c r eate the native universe that was l i t e r a l l y destroyed by European contact. Luckily there are students of these perceptions who are s i f t i n g through t r a d i t i o n a l ethnographic works to find what was i n v i s i b l e 23 t o t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s . M a r i e - F r a n c o i s e Guedon has s t u d i e d t h e T s i m s h i a n t o f i n d : a p e r s o n a l i z e d u n i v e r s e where t h i n g s a r e not n e c e s s a r i l y what they seem t o be, where b e a r s t a l k t o human b e i n g s , where a m a g i c a l box can t u r n i n t o a f r i e n d l y monster, where human b e i n g s t h e m s e l v e s can draw upon what they a r e , r a t h e r than what they a r e made of and so become c h i e f s , h u n t e r s o r h e a l e r s . (137) S i m i l a r l y , Margaret Seguin d e s c r i b e s t h a t "the t r a d i t i o n a l T s i m s h i a n d i d not view the u n i v e r s e a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c a l l y ; they were aware of p a r a l l e l w o r l d s , some i n h a b i t e d by a n i m a l p e o p l e , and some by naxox [any b e i n g e v e n t o r a b i l i t y which appears t o e x h i b i t or e x p r e s s some form of "power"]. ..."(118-119). A w o r l d e x i s t s where each a n i m a l s p e c i e s l i v e s i n a v i l l a g e as do humavts. In t h e i r v i l l a g e s a n i m a l s l o o k l i k e humans, o n l y p u t t i n g on t h e i r s p e c i e s ' s k i n s ' when s e e n by o t h e r b e i n g s . To humans, a n i m a l s , as w e l l as o b j e c t s and p u r e l y s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s , a l l have power which must be r e s p e c t e d and can sometimes be t a p p e d . Such power comes t o ' r e a l 1 p e o p l e who l e a d p u r e l i v e s ; Shamen, h i g h c h i e f s , s e c r e t s o c i e t y d a n c e r s , h u n t e r s and o t h e r s . Shamen, because of the s p e c i a l p u r i t y of t h e i r a s c e t i c e x i s t e n c e , can jump between human and o t h e r w o r l d s and w i e l d the p o w e r f u l g i f t s such t r a n s f o r m a t i o n b r i n g s . A l l v i l l a g e members, r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t w i t h power, f o l l o w hundreds of p r e s c r i p t e d r i t u a l s and p r a c t i c e s t o m a i n t a i n e q u i l i b r i u m between a n i m a l s , s p i r i t s and the human community. E x p e r i e n c e s w i t h o t h e r w o r l d s are embodied i n h e r e d i t a r y names passed on from i n d i v i d u a l t o i n d i v i d u a l . These s t o r i e s a re 24 r e e n a c t e d i n r e g u l a r w i n t e r ceremonies, the f e a s t o r ' p o t l a t c h ' , w h i c h r e i n f o r c e d the p a r a l l e l w o r l d cosmology and i n v e s t e d the g i f t of p a s t s u p e r n a t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e on t h e new name h o l d e r . Power was i n v e s t e d i n the name, not i n the i n d i v i d u a l : t o ta k e on a name was t o a c c e p t the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o use s u c h h e r i t a g e w i s e l y . Groups of ranked names made up the i n d i v i d u a l household s o c i e t y , the t r a n s c i e n t h o l d e r s of each name t h e n had a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e of the s o c i e t y was much more i m p o r t a n t t h a n any s i n g u l a r l i f e . H i s t o r y was not a l i n e a r p r o g r e s s i o n o f human c e n t e r e d e v e n t s , but a r e p e t i t i v e c y c l i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between many f o r c e s m a i n t a i n e d on a h o m e o s t a t i c b a s i s . These e x p l a n a t i o n s go some d i s t a n c e i n d e s c r i b i n g the p h y c h i c a l -l y independent cosmology t h a t e x i s t e d i n the Northwest. What i s m i s s i n g t h o u g h i s the u n d e r l y i n g reason f o r i n v e s t i n g a n i m a l s , o b j e c t s , and t h e i r e n t i r e c u l t u r e , w i t h such a r e a l i t y . A s e m i n a l work by S t a n l e y Walens t i t l e d F e a s t i n g With C a n n i b a l s : An Essay on K w a k i u t l Cosmology seems t o p r o v i d e the a n i m a t i n g f o r c e we a r e l o o k i n g f o r . A l t h o u g h w r i t t e n about the s o u t h e r n neighbours of the T s i m s h i a n , Walens' work appears t o address elements of s o c i e t a l o r i e n t a t i o n which a r e a r g u a b l y common t o a l l Northwest c u l t u r e s . Two passages from Walens' work w i l l be q u o t e d t o g l i m p s e t h e u l t i m a t e l o g i c of the w o r l d we hope t o u n d e r s t a n d : The K w a k i u t l u n i v e r s e i s p r e d i c a t e d on a s i n g l e f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n : t h a t t h e u n i v e r s e i s a p l a c e where some b e i n g s a r e e a t e n by o t h e r b e i n g s and where i t i s the r o l e o f some b e i n g s t o d i e so t h a t o t h e r b e i n g s may f e e d on them and l i v e . T h e i r s 25 i s a w o r l d where the a c t of e a t i n g becomes t h e s i n g l e m e t a p h o r by w h i c h t h e r e s t o f t h e i r l i v e s i s i n t e r p r e t e d . Food p r o v i d e s f o r them a m o d e l o f t h e n a t u r e o f l i f e ; t he a c t of e a t i n g p r o v i d e s a model of a s s i m i l a -t i o n t h a t r e c u r s t hroughout e v e r y a s p e c t of t h e i r c u l t u r e ; and t h e f o o d c h a i n i t s e l f p r o v i d e s t h e l i n k b e t w e e n one human and a n o t h e r and between humans and t h e r e s t o f the w o r l d . (12) L i n k e d w i t h an o r a l i t y t h a t p e r m e a t e d c o a s t a l c u l t u r e was a busy e n v i r o n m e n t o f s p i r i t s , m a g i c , shamen, myth and l e g e n d as e x h i b i t e d by Walen's second o b s e r v a t i o n : Hunger i s the energy, the f o r c e , t h a t m o t i v a t e s the w o r l d , but u l t i m a t e l y i t i s m o r a l i t y t h a t i s the s o u r c e of power. Hunger i s p o w e r f u l , b u t the knowledge of how t o c o n t r o l hunger, t o use i t t o move the w o r l d i n the d i r e c t i o n one w a n t s , i s a f a r g r e a t e r power, and the man who masters hunger i s the r e a l master of power. M o r a l i t y i s the t r u e p r o p e r t y , the t r u e w e a l t h , of humankind. M o r a l i t y i s t h e g i f t humans c e l e b r a t e i n t h e i r c e r e m o n i e s , the g i f t they c h e r i s h above a l l o t h e r s , the g i f t t h a t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n m y r i a d g u i s e s . One thanks the a n i m a l s not o n l y f o r g i v i n g t h e i r b o d i e s f o r f o o d , but a l s o f o r g i v i n g t h e i r b o d i e s so t h a t humans may have the chance t o p e r f o r m t h e p r o p e r r i t u a l s upon them. The s p i r i t s g i v e not freedom from hunger but the knowledge t o conquer and tame hunger. Knowledge, power, and m o r a l c h o i c e a r e t h e same; t o know i s t o c o n t r o l . The power o f h u n g e r i s b l i n d , b u t t h e power t o c o n q u e r h u n g e r i s n o t ; i t i s t h e r e s u l t of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , awareness, w i l l , c h o i c e , a c t i o n . (124-125) A d d i t i o n a l d e s c r i p t i o n s of w a y s - o f - b e i n g p e r f e c t l y s u i t e d t o the t e m p e r m e n t a l b o u n t y o f t h e N o r t h w e s t c o u l d f i l l many p a g e s . I t i s s u f f i c e t o summarize t h a t f o r thousands of y e a r s a p o p u l a t i o n of 20-30,000 p e r s o n s l i v e d i n r i c h c u l t u r a l and m a t e r i a l d i v e r s i t y . A l t h o u g h we can o n l y s p e c u l a t e on the e x a c t 26 d e t a i l s of t h i s h i s t o r y i t i s perhaps enough t o u n d e r s t a n d o n l y the b a r e s t r u c t u r e of a s o c i e t y t h a t was p e r f e c t l y matched t o time and environment. 3.2 1740 - 1835: The Great Exploration. The i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f E u r o p e a n c o n t a c t does r o t f o c u s e x c l u s i v e l y on N o r t h w e s t B.C., but on the s h i p and l a n d a c t i v i t i e s of f i v e n a t i o n s p u r s u i n g more g e n e r a l o b j e c t i v e s on t h e west c o a s t o f N o r t h A m e r i c a . These d i f f e r i n g but i n t e r r e l a t e d i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e d e x p l o r a t i o n f o r the f a b l e d N o r t h w e s t P a s s a g e , e s t a b l i s h m e n t o r e x t e n s i o n of s o v e r e i g n t y , t r a n s i e n t and permanently based t r a d e , and c o l o n i z a -t i o n . To s o r t out the s p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t s of the competing n a t i o n a l p l a y e r s , as w e l l as t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d monopoly and independent t r a d e r s , i s a r e q u i s i t e s t e p i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the l a t e r h i s t o r y of the r e g i o n under s t u d y . Over a p e r i o d of e i g h t y y e a r s , b e g i n n i n g i n 1741, Northwest B.C. was v i s i t e d by S p a n i s h , B r i t i s h , R u s s i a n , A m e r i c a n and French e x p l o r e r s and t r a d e r s . Because r e p u t e d e x p l o r a t i o n s by de Fuca, de F o n t e , de A g u i l a r , Maldenado, Ch i n e s e and P o l y n e s i a n ' s cannot be v e r i f i e d , the honour of f i r s t a c c e p t e d presence on the c o a s t goes t o the R u s s i a n s ( S m i t h : 1969, 1 ) . Under o r d e r s from P e t e r the G r e a t t h r e e o f f i c i a l e x p e d i t i o n s were mounted i n 1723, 1741 and 1768. R e p o r t s of t h e s e j o u r n e y s by B e r i n g , C h e r i k o v and K r e n i t s i n s p a r k e d a r u s h by independent R u s s i a n t r a d e r s who began to e x p l o i t the a r e a ' s o b v i o u s bounty of v a l u a b l e sea o t t e r f u r s . 27 When t h e S p a n i s h r e c e i v e d word o f R u s s i a n a c t i v i t y o f f t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t t h e y were m o t i v a t e d t o send e x p l o r e r s t o the a r e a t h e m s e l v e s . The S p a n i s h had been g i v e n s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r most o f N o r t h and S o u t h A m e r i c a by Pope A l e x a n d e r VI i n 1493 and wished t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r c e l e s t i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d mandate. C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n 1774 C a p t a i n J u a n P e r e z was s e n t n o r t h from Monterey, C a l i f o r n i a i n the c o r v e t t e S a n t i a g o . A f t e r a 16 day j o u r n e y P e r e z and h i s 86 man crew s i g h t e d what i s now c a l l e d Langara I s l a n d o f f t h e n o r t h e r n t i p o f t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e s . P e r e z i s c r e d i t e d as b e i n g the f i r s t European t o t r a d e w i t h a Northwest n a t i v e group, the H a i d a , on J u l y 17, 1774 ( D a l z e l l : 1968, 1 4 ) . Two o t h e r e x p e d i t i o n s l e a d by Bodeqa y Quadra and A r t e g a were sen t n o r t h by the S p a n i s h i n 1775 and 1779. A f t e r t h e s e voyages the V i c e r o y i n Mexico f e l t h i s c l a i m t o the r e g i o n was s e c u r e and no o t h e r S p a n i s h e x p e d i t i o n v i s i t e d the r e g i o n u n t i l 1788. A f t e r h e a r i n g about S p a n i s h a c t i v i t y on the northwest c o a s t i t was the t u r n of the B r i t i s h t o become alarmed. In 1778 C a p t a i n James Cook's o f f i c i a l B r i t i s h e x p e d i t i o n reached Nootka Sound on the west c o a s t of Vancouver I s l a n d . The j o u r n a l s and mapping of t h i s e x p e r t n a v i g a t o r e s t a b l i s h e d f o r the f i r s t time the " b a s i c c o n t o u r s of n o r t h w e s t e r n geography" ( S m i t h : 1965,35). O f f i c i a l and u n o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s o f Cook's d i s c o v e r i e s were i n g e n e r a l c i r c u l a t i o n by 1784, i n s p i r i n g w i d e s p r e a d n a t i o n a l and commercial i n t e r e s t i n the r e g i o n . E s p e c i a l l y i n t r i g u i n g t o Cook's r e a d e r s was the f a c t t h a t sea o t t e r b l a n k e t s , o b t a i n e d i n the Northwest 28 t o keep crew members warm, s o l d f o r e x t r e m e l y h i g h p r i c e s t o l u x u r y c o n s c i o u s C h i n e s e . M e a n w h i l e t h e R u s s i a n s were c o n t i n u i n g t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n of sea o t t e r f u r s i n the A l a s k a a r e a . In 1783 Gregor S h e l i k h o v e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t permanent s e t t l e m e n t i n the n o r t h w e s t , a commercial t r a d i n g p o s t on K o d i a k I s l a n d . A f o u r t h o f f i c i a l R u s s i a n e x p l o r a t i o n was c a r r i e d out by B i l l i n g s t o f u r t h e r expand knowledge of the A l a s k a n c o a s t and i n t e r i o r . I n 1785 the B r i t i s h t r a d i n g r u s h t o the r e g i o n began w i t h the a r r i v a l o f t h e b r i g Sea O t t e r c a p t a i n e d by James Hanna. A f t e r r e t u r n i n g t o h i s p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e , C h i n a , w i t h a cargo of 560 sea o t t e r f u r s Hanna r e c e i v e d the p r i n c e l y sum of 20,400. S p a n i s h d o l l a r s from Cantonese merchants ( P e t h i c k : 1980, 79-80). I n s p i r e d by t h i s commercial s u c c e s s Hanna r e t u r n e d to the Northwest i n 1786, o n l y t o f i n d h i s once p r i v a t e t r a d i n g grounds o c c u p i e d by no l e s s than f o u r competing B r i t i s h v e s s e l s . Hanna's second j o u r n e y n e t t e d him a p a u l t r y 8,000 S p a n i s h d o l l a r s . The s u c c e s s of competing v e s s e l s was g r e a t e r . George D i x o n , C a p t a i n of the Queen C h a r l o t t e , bought 1821 p e l t s , many of which were o b t a i n e d o f f the i s l a n d s he named a f t e r h i s s h i p on August 3, 1787. As the s e a r c h f o r more s o u r c e s of sea o t t e r p e l t s was q u i c k l y expanded the Queen C h a r l o t t e s and the Haida became t h e " c e n t e r of the t r a d e " (Howay: 1932, 44-45). T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n was a d u b i o u s h o n o u r , f o r w h i l e g r e a t r i c h e s were r a i n e d on t h e H a i d a , a h o r r i b l e p r i c e i n l i v e s and d e g r a d a t i o n would a l s o soon be e x a c t e d . 29 A l t h o u g h B r i t i s h e n t r e p r e n e u r s were i n t e r e s t e d i n t r a d i n g i n t h e n o r t h w e s t they were r e s t r i c t e d by monopolies g r a n t e d t o the E a s t I n d i a and South Sea C o m p a n i e s . The s e a o t t e r t r a d e s u f f e r e d b e c a u s e any e n t e r p r i s e engaged i n t h e i r procurement had t o both be l i c e n c e d by, and s e l l t h e i r goods i n Ch i n a t h r o u g h , monopoly r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . The c o s t of t h i s c o o p e r a t i o n was h i g h , e s p e c i a l l y when p r o f i t n e t t e d the t r a d e r s $20 f o r an o t t e r p e l t t h a t had a v a l u e of as much as $80 ( P e t h i c k : 1980, 18). The r e s u l t o f t h i s i n e f f i c i e n c y was f o r some B r i t i s h t r a d e r s t o make t h e i r voyages under the P o r t u g e s e f l a g , which t e c h n i c a l l y f r e e d them t o s e l l t h e i r p e l t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T h i s o p t i o n was s e i z e d by on John Meares, and h i s a s s o c i a t e C a p t a i n s , who became the f i r s t of many o p p o r t u n i s t i c and u n p r i n c i p l e d t r a d e r s i n the a r e a . I n c r e a s e d B r i t i s h and R u s s i a n t r a d i n g on t h e c o a s t once a g a i n s p u r r e d t o S p a n i s h i n t o a c t i o n . In 1788 two Sp a n i s h s h i p s were s e n t n o r t h f r o m M e x i c o t o r e e s t a b l i s h s o v e r e i g n t y . T h i s t a s k was completed as f a r n o r t h as U n a l a s k a , w e l l i n t o both the A l e u t i a n I s l a n d s and the R u s s i a n sphere of c o n t r o l . The f o l l o w i n g y e a r the same two s h i p s , the P r i n c e s a and San C a r l o s , were sen t n o r t h a g a i n , t h i s t i m e t o t a k e c o n t r o l o f Nootka Sound. Upon a r r i v a l Commander M a r t i r e z found a busy harbour o c c u p i e d d u r i n g h i s s t a y by s i x v e s s e l s of B r i t i s h and American r e g i s t r y . He s e i z e d s e v e r a l of the s h i p s , admonished the o t h e r s t o l e a v e , and on June 24, 1789 f o r m a l l y c l a i m e d the a r e a f o r S p a i n . S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r he r e c e i v e d o r d e r s t o abandon the f o r t i f i c a t i o n which S p a i n c o u l d no l o n g e r a f f o r d t o defend. He r e t u r n e d t o Mexico w i t h 30 c a p t i v e s and t h r e e f o r e i g n v e s s e l s as p r i z e s . The r e s u l t of t h i s b o l d S p a n i s h a c t i o n was p r e c i p i t a t i o n of a major i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n c i d e n t t h a t b r o u g h t S p a i n and E n g l a n d c l o s e t o war. A f t e r l e n g t h y n e g o t i a t i o n s an i n t i m i d a t e d S p a i n s i g n e d the f i r s t Nootka C o n v e n t i o n on Oct. 28, 1790. The t r e a t y gave England the r i g h t t o s e t t l e any p l a c e not a l r e a d y o c c u p i e d by the.Span'sh, and t o t r a d e f r e e l y a l o n g the northwest c o a s t . S p a i n ' s c o l o n i a l e r a e n t e r e d a d e c l i n e and d e s p i t e c o n t i n u e d o c c u p a t i o n of Nootka, and s e v e r a l f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n s , never a g a i n p l a y e d a major r o l e i n t h e r e g i o n . By t h e s i g n i n g of the t h i r d Nootka C o n v e n t i o n on J a n . 11, 1794 S p a i n agreed t o q u i t the northwest c o a s t f o r good. S h o r t l y b e f o r e the Nootka c o n t r o v e r s y a f o u r t h major n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t a r r i v e d i n t h e r e g i o n . In 1786, an o f f i c i a l F r e n c h e x p e d i t i o n l e a d by La Perouse spent two y e a r s e x p l o r i n g , m o n i t e r i n g f o r e i g n a c t i v i t y , and t r a d i n g . La Perouse was the f i r s t n a v i g a t o r t o v i e w t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e s as an a r c h i p e l a g o s e p a r a t e from the m a i n l a n d . B e c a u s e of t h e r e v o l u t i o n i n F r a n c e no o t h e r o f f i c i a l e x p e d i t i o n s were mounted u n t i l 1817. The o n l y o t h e r documented French p resence was t h a t o f a p r i v a t e t r a d e r named E t i e n n e Marchand, C a p t a i n of the La S o l i d e , who p r o v i d e d a d e t a i l e d e x p l o r a t i o n of Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s c u l t u r e i n 1791 ( S m i t h : 1969, 44) . U n l i k e the F r e n c h , the f i r s t 'Boston Man' t r a d e r s from the U n i t e d S t a t e s t r a v e l l e d the c o a s t i n 1788, and w i t h i n a d ecade became the dominant commercial i n t e r e s t i n the sea o t t e r t r a d e . With no monopoly r e s t r i c t i o n s t o hamper p r o f i t a b i l i t y , o r d r a i n i n g 31 r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of f i g h t i n g the widespread European wars of t h i s p e r i o d , the Yankees proved t o be the most p r a c t i c a l i n i d e n t i f y i n g money-making r e f i n e m e n t s t o the t r a d e . Americans went from s i n g l e s e a s o n t r a d i n g , t o o v e r - w i n t e r i n g on the c o a s t , t o m u l t i - y e a r t r a d i n g t r i p s , t o a s o p h i s t i c a t e d i t i n e r a r y which would empty and f i l l t h e i r s h i p s w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e l y more v a l u a b l e c a r g o . A f t e r l e a r n i n g the t r a d e v e r y w e l l indeed a c a r g o o f t r i n k e t s w o u l d l e a v e Boston v a l u e d a t $4-20,000. These goods would be used t o o b t a i n o t t e r f u r s worth a r o u g h a v e r a g e o f $50,000 i n C h i n a . T h i s money would be i n v e s t e d i n o r i e n t a l t r a d e items d e s t i n e d f o r Boston which c o u l d p r o v i d e a f i n a l net p r o f i t i n t h e $200,000 range (Howay:1931, 117-149). A m e r i c a n p r e s e n c e on t h e c o a s t s i g n a l e d the b e g i n n i n g of a h a r d e r edged t r a d e , e s p e c i a l l y on the Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s . The f i r s t American s h i p i n the a r e a t r a d e d 200 c h i s e l s f o r 200 prime, p e l t s a t Langara I s l a n d , and l a t e r l anded the f i r s t n o n - I n d i a n s on Haida l a n d on June 11, 1789 ( D a l z e l l : 1968, 2 6 ) . T h i s b e g i n n i n g of good r e l a t i o n s was s h a t t e r e d when an o t h e r v e s s e l , the Columbia, C a p t a i n e d by John K e n d r i c k , v i s i t e d N i n s t i n t s l a t e r t h a t season. In a d i s p u t e o ver s t o l e n l a u n d r y K e n d r i c k u n c e r e m o n i o u s l y had two v i l l a g e c h i e f s , Koyah and S k u l k i n a n c e l a s h e d t o the s h i p ' s cannons. When most of the m i s s i n g items were r e t u r n e d , and p e l t s s u r r e n d e r e d which had been h e l d back from t r a d i n g , the C h i e f s were r e l e a s e d . T h i s i n c i d e n t was not t o be f o r g o t t e n by the m o r t a l l y i n s u l t e d H aida who, u n t i l they were k i l l e d i n 1795, l e d or i n s p i r e d s e v e r a l a t t a c k s on American s h i p s . In 1791 t h r e e crewmen were k i l l e d 32 from the American s h i p Lady Washington a f t e r t h r e e H a i d a were s i m i l a r l y o r d e r e d murdered f o r a p e t t y o f f e n s e by Cpt. C r o w e l l of the Hancock. In 1791, 40 t o 60 Haida were massacred a f t e r Koyah's u n s u c c e s s f u l attempt t o ta k e over the Lady Washington, now C a p t a i n e d by h i s n e m i s i s the i l l - t e m p e r e d K e n d r i c k . In J u l y 1794, v i o l e n c e f l a r e d a g a i n when 10 of the 11 man crew of the schooner R e s o l u t i o n were k i l l e d near Cumshewa I n l e t . A l s o i n 1794 Koyah f i n a l l y r e c e i v e d h i s revenge when a l l but one of the crew of the s h i p E l e n o r a were k i l l e d a t N i n s t i n t s . The f i n a l major b a t t l e of the Queen C h a r l o t t e s o c c u r r e d i n June 1895 when C h i e f Koyah was k i l l e d a l o n g w i t h f o r t y of h i s f o l l o w e r s d u r i n g an u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t a c k on John B o i t ' s s h i p , the Union. In a f i n a l t w i s t of f a t e , Koyah's o r i g i n a l A m e r i c a n enemy, Jo h n K e n d r i c k , d i e d s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e H a i d a C h i e f o f f H a w a i i , when a s a l u t e f i r e d by a s i s t e r s h i p was a c c i d e n t a l l y aimed, f u l l y l o a d e d , a t K e n d r i c k ' s s h i p b o a r d q u a r t e r s ( P e t h i c k : 1980, 205-6). With the S p a n i s h s l o w l y moving out of the p i c t u r e and t h e Americans happy w i t h an average of 6 s h i p s per season t r a d i n g on the c o a s t i t was l e f t t o t h e B r i t i s h and R u s s i a n s t o b u i l d e m p i r e s . The B r i t i s h were s t i f l e d i n t r a d e by f a r e a s t monopolies but n o n e t h e l e s s managed t o have 35 s h i p s on the northwest c o a s t b etween 1785 and 1794 (Howay: 1932, 4 3 ) . There were a l s o two main developments which gave n o t i c e o f B r i t i s h d e s i g n s on t h e r e g i o n . The f i r s t was C a p t a i n V a n c o u v e r ' s o f f i c i a l mapping e x p e d i t i o n w h i c h c h a r t e d n e a r l y t h e e n t i r e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a c o a s t l i n e between 1792 and 1795. T h i s e x p l o r a t i o n missed l o c a t i n g 33 major r i v e r s of the Northwest ( t h e Skeena, Nass and S t i k i n e ) but managed t o g i v e many names t o p o i n t s i n the r e g i o n d u r i n g the summer of 1793. By f a r the g r e a t e r achievement was marked by an i n s c r i p t i o n l e f t on a r o c k a t the head of Dean Channel: A l e x a n d e r M a c k e n z i e , from Canada, by l a n d , t h e 22nd J u l y One Thousand Seven H u n d r e d and N i n e t y - T h r e e W i t h t h e s e words a march s t a r t i n g w i t h i n c o r p o r a t i o n of the Hudson's Bay Co. (H.B.Co.) on May 2, 1670 was r e a c h i n g one o f i t s major d e s t i n a t i o n s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r the H.B.Co., A l e x a n d e r M ackenzie's s u c c e s s f u l c r o s s c o n t i n e n t e x p e d i t i o n was s p o n s o r e d by i t s b i t t e r r i v a l , the Northwest Company. Another Northwest Co. t r a d e r was Simon F r a s e r , who f i r s t i n i t i a t e d l a n d b a s e d e x p l o r a t i o n towards the Northwest. F r a s e r e s t a b l i s h e d the f i r s t p e rmanent E u r o p e a n s e t t l e m e n t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a t McLeod Lake, j u s t n o r t h of P r i n c e George, i n 1805. The next year F o r t S t . James and F o r t F r a s e r were e s t a b l i s h e d , j u s t e a s t o f t h e Skeena b a s i n ' s most e a s t e r l y b o r d e r . In 1907 F o r t George completed the network of i n t e r i o r t r a d i n g p o s t s . In o r d e r t o e x p l o r e the o u t l y i n g a r e a s u r r o u n d i n g t h e s e f o r t s D.W. Harmon and James McDougall h i k e d t o Babine Lake i n January 1812, the f i r s t n o n -Indians who can be p o s i t i v e l y c r e d i t e d as e n t e r i n g the Northwest from the e a s t ( L a r g e : 1981, 11). No o t h e r f o r t s were c o n s t r u c t e d u n t i l the Hudson's Bay Co. merged w i t h i t s r i v a l , thus g a i n i n g c o n t r o l of the Northwest Company's F r a s e r b a s i n p o s t s on M a rch 26, 1821. With no o t h e r B r i t i s h c o m p e t i t i o n the Hudson's Bay Co. was g i v e n 34 monopoly t r a d i n g r i g h t s t o the P a c i f i c s l o p e by R o y a l L i c e n s e on Dec. 5, 1821. S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r , two a d d i t i o n a l p o s t s were con-s t r u c t e d a t Babine L a k e ( F t . K i l m a u r s ) i n 1822 and B e a r L a k e ( F t . C o n n o l l y ) i n 1826. These f i r s t n o n - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t s on t r i b u t a r y systems of the Skeena were i r o n i c a l l y not e s t a b l i s h e d f o r the f u r s i n the a r e a , but t o s u p p l y salmon t o the more i n l a n d f o r t s . From f i r s t c o l o n i z a t i o n , and c o n t i n u i n g the t r e n d s t a r t e d by t h e s e a o t t e r t r a d e , t h e N o r t h w e s t was an e x p o r t e r of i t s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . Other d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e r e g i o n i n c l u d e d H.B.Co.. f i r s t e x p l o r a t i o n s of the upper S t i k i n e watershed i n 1824 and 1833, the lower Skeena i n 1832, and the lower S t i k i n e i n 1833. D u r i n g t h e t i m e e x p l o r a t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e s e a o t t e r t r a d e was o c c u r r i n g on, and s o u t h o f , the Queen C h a r l o t t e s , the R u s s i a n s were e q u a l l y i n d u s t r i o u s i n the A l a s k a a r e a . Gregor S k e l i k h o v , f o u n d e r of t h e f i r s t p ermanent n o r t h w e s t c o a s t a l s e t t l e m e n t a t Kodiak i n 1783, emerged as the most p o w e r f u l R u s s i a n t r a d e r i n t h e r e g i o n . W i t h a g r a n d d e s i g n f o r e x p a n s i o n he l o b b i e d f o r a s e r i e s o f U k a s e s , o r I m p e r i a l E d i c t s , from S t . P e t e r s b e r g . On Sept. 28, 1788, Empress C a t h e r i n e g r a n t e d S k e l i k h o v e x c l u s i v e t r a d i n g r i g h t s i n the immediate a r e a of h i s o u t p o s t s . In 1799 a n o t h e r Ukase g r a n t e d the newly formed R u s s i a n American Company a t o t a l t r a d i n g monopoly n o r t h of the Queen C h a r l o t t e s (55° n o r t h l a t i t u d e ) . T h i s mandate a l l o w e d f o r the s e t t l e m e n t of S i t k a i n 1799. Not d e t e r r e d by the massacre of n e a r l y the e n t i r e S i t k a n g a r r i s o n i n June of 1802, the p o s t was soon r e e s t a b l i s h e d and f l o u r i s h e d as a major depot c e n t r e . A f i n a l Ukase on Sept. 16, 35 1821, extended e x c l u s i v e R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y f a r t h e r south to the n o r t h e r n t i p o f V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d (51° n o r t h l a t i t u d e ) . T h i s e x t e n s i o n was a c h a l l e n g e t o the B r i t i s h who had e s t a b l i s h e d a p o s t at F t . A s t o r i a on the Columbia R i v e r i n 1824. A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h B r i t i a n , R u s s i a s i g n e d t h e A n g l o - R u s s i a n T r e a t y o f 1825 w h i c h d i v i d e d E n g l i s h and R u s s i a n spheres of i n f l u e n c e r o u g h l y a l o n g l i n e s drawn between Canada and the U n i t e d S t a t e s today. F r e e t o move t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s northward, the Hudson's Bay Co. e s t a b l i s h e d F t . L a n g l e y i n 1827, F o r t Nass on the Nass R i v e r e s t u a r y on August 30, 1830, and F o r t M c L o u g h l i n a t B e l l a C o o l a i n 1833. A f t e r s e v e r a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n s f u r t h e r n o r t h w i t h the R u s s i a n s , n o t a b l y on June 18, 1834, a t the mouth of the S t i k i n e , the H.B.Co. r e t r e a t e d t o the o r i g i n a l t r e a t y d e m a r c a t i o n l i n e (54° 40') by moving F o r t Nass t o a more a c c e s s i b l e l o c a t i o n a t the t i p of the T s i m s h i a n P e n i n s u l a . With the f o u n d i n g of F o r t Simpson on August 30, 1834 the B r i t i s h had made t h e i r northernmost permanent o c c u p a t i o n on t h e c o a s t and e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s e c o n d m a j o r c e n t e r ( a f t e r S i t k a ) of European a c t i v i t y i n the r e g i o n . C o i n c i d e n t l y , 1834 marked the v i r t u a l e x t i n c t i o n of sea o t t e r p o p u l a t i o n s and n e a r l y the l a s t of 230 s e a s o n a l ' v i s i t s ' from over 100 d i f f e r e n t f o r e i g n s h i p s t o the a r e a . The o v e r a l l r e s u l t of t h i s f i r s t p e r i o d of c o n t a c t between Europeans and the Northwest's o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s was d r a m a t i c . T r a d e became i n c r e a s i n g l y more s o p h i s t i c a t e d . I n i t i a l i n t e r e s t i n i r o n , copper and t r i n k e t s was r e p l a c e d by a s t e a d y demand f o r b l a n k e t s , m u s k e t s , powder, s h o t , c l o t h , m o l a s s e s , r i c e , 36 bread and b i s c u i t s . S e c o n d a r y t r a d e i t e m s i n c l u d e d t o b a c c o , b e a d s , b u t t o n s , b r a s s w i r e , c h i s e l s , n e e d l e s , t h r e a d , k n i v e s , s c i s s o r s , s t o c k i n g s , and a p p l e s . The s p r e a d of t r a d e m u s k e t s , c o m p l e t e on t h e c o a s t by 1794, b r o u g h t e s c a l a t i o n i n t r i b a l w a r f a r e which began t h e d e c l i n e i n n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n . T r a d e i n a l c o h o l a l s o f l o u r i s h e d w i t h e q u a l l y n e g a t i v e r e s u l t s ( D u f f : 1964, 5 7 ) . The l a r g e number of s h i p s t r a d i n g f o r sea o t t e r p e l t s drove t h e i r p r i c e ever h i g h e r , f l o o d i n g what was b a s i c a l l y a s t a t i c a b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e w i t h r i c h e s and t e c h n o l o g y beyond comprehension. One can o n l y imagine the d i s r u p t i o n caused by the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of so much time and energy spent h u n t i n g the sea o t t e r t o e x t i n c -t i o n . Even the c o s m o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of h u n t i n g a n i m a l s not f o r food or l o c a l use must have been s t a g g e r i n g f o r p e o p l e s whose e n t i r e c u l t u r e was based on s t r i c t human/animal r e l a t i o n s h i p s and c o n s e r v a t i o n e t h i c . C o n v e r s e l y the new w e a l t h was a l s o a d e q u a t e l y c h a n n e l l e d t h rough e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n v e s t i n g g r e a t e r power i n 'names' and i n s p i r i n g a r emarkable a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n . One g e t s the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t i f i t were not f o r the f i n a l d e v a s t a t i o n caused by i n t r o d u c t i o n of d i s e a s e , which the t r i b e s had no a b i l i t y t o a s s i m i l a t e , t h a t h i s t o r y beyond the e x p l o r a t i o n p e r i o d would have h a p p i l y been q u i t e a n o t h e r s t o r y . The w orst r e s u l t of the e x p l o r a t i o n p e r i o d was the e x p l o i t a t i o n of the sea o t t e r and the s e t t i n g of a n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e e x p l o r a t i o n t r e n d which s t i l l c o n t r o l s the r e g i o n 200 y e a r s l a t e r . As i s s t i l l t y p i c a l o f s u c h e x p l o i t a t i o n the sea o t t e r r e s o u r c e was 37 o v e r h a r v e s t e d by p a y i n g l o c a l r e s i d e n t s a f e e which was a f r a c t i o n of the r e s o u r c e ' s v a l u e . The h a r v e s t was c o n t r o l l e d from o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n ( B o s t o n , S t . P e t e r s b e r g , L ondon) and r i c h e s o f t h e t r a d e bestowed upon men who never s e t f o o t i n the a r e a . I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t R u s s i a n sea o t t e r c a t c h e s a l o n e t o t a l l e d n e a r l y 200,000 p e l t s w i t h a v a l u e o f $ 50,000,000. The same s o u r c e s t a t e s t h a t upwards of 750,000 p e l t s were taken by a l l n a t i o n a l i t i e s on t h e c o a s t (McKraken: 1957, 280). From the b e g i n n i n g of i t s ' d i s c o v e r y ' by Europeans the Northwest was a s u p p l y r e g i o n f r e e t o be e x p l o i t e d a t w i l l . 3.3 1835 - 1890: Colonization. The next p e r i o d i n Northwest h i s t o r y i s o n l y a l i t t l e l e s s busy w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t r i g u e and i n t r o d u c e s , f o r good m e a s u r e , t h e a d d i t i o n a l elements of g e n o c i d e , C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s , and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f m i n e r a l , wood and salmon r e s o u r c e s . I t i s a time when the p o p u l a t i o n of n a t i v e p e o p l e i s c u t t o a f r a c t i o n o f o r i g i n a l numbers and p i o n e e r s of the commonwealth seek and f i n d o p p o r t u n i t y . A h i s t o r y e v o l v e s which i s much more d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , b u t l e n d s i t s e l f more t o a c t i v i t i e s of o v e r l a p p i n g i n t e r e s t groups such as the H.B.Co., m i s s i o n a r i e s , n a t i v e s , e n t r e p r e n e u r s , and the E n g l i s h government. F o r t S i m p s o n was an a r e a 240 f e e t square surrounded by a l o g s t o c k a d e 22 f e e t h i g h . C o r n e r b l o c k h o u s e s p r o t e c t e d s i x and n i n e pound c a n n o n s . B u i l d i n g s w i t h i n t h e w a l l s i n c l u d e d h o u s i n g f o r s e n i o r and w o r k i n g e m p l o y e e s , a s t o r e , w a r e h o u s e , 38 b l a c k s m i t h shop and garden. The f o r t was the c e n t e r of B r i t i s h a c t i v i t y on the n o r t h e r n c o a s t , w i t h n a t i v e s and t r a d i n g s h i p s f u n n e l l i n g f u r s t o t h e d e p o t . An e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t was f o r n i n e v i l l a g e s of the T s i m s h i a n t o r e l o c a t e t h e i r permanent s e t t l e -ments t o an a r e a i m m e d i a t e l y n e x t t o t h e s t o c k a d e . The head C h i e f of t h i s unique a g g l o m e r a t i o n was named L e g a i c . The power h i s name w i e l d e d was s u b s t a n t i a l , i n c l u d i n g as i t d i d e x c l u s i v e b r o k e r r i g h t s t o a l l f u r s f r o m t h e u p p e r S k e ena G i t k s a n and C a r r i e r t r i b e s ( M i l l e r : 1984, 30-31). Communication w i t h w e s t e r n h e a d q u a r t e r s of the H.B.Co. was by r e g u l a r s h i p t r a f f i c . Once a s o l i d base of o p e r a t i o n s was e s t a b l i s h e d , the H.B.Co. c o n t i n u e d t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i r t r a d e i n the r e g i o n . In 1838 a f o r t was e s t a b l i s h e d at Dease Lake (58° 40') a f t e r an e x p l o r a t i o n of the r e g i o n by Robert Campbell. In 1839 a l e a s e was s i g n e d w i t h t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Co. f o r use of the A l a s k a panhandle. T h i s agreement a l l o w e d the opening of F o r t Durham on the Taku R i v e r (58° 40') and F o r t S t i k i n e a t t h e mouth of the S t i k i n e R i v e r (56° 4 0 ' ) . The l e a s e w i t h the R u s s i a n s a l s o s t i p u l a t e d S i t k a was t o be s u p p l i e d w i t h H.B.Co. goods a t moderate r a t e s . T h i s d i v e r s i f i e d t r a d e and h e l p e d t o make up l o s s e s which were mounting i n the f u r t r a d e . A m e r i c a n t r a d e r s were s t i l l a c t i v e on t h e c o a s t , and h a v i n g lower overheads, b a d l y u ndercut the Bay's c o s t s . The p r i c e of f u r s was i n c r e a s i n g l y a l c o h o l , which prompted r e g u l a r r e q u e s t s f o r B r i t i s h navy a c t i o n . The c u l p r i t s were e l u s i v e and l e f t the d e g r a d a t i o n caused by t h e i r greed t o be handled by the H.B.Co.. 39 The f u r s brought t o F o r t Simpson became m a i n l y those o b t a i n e d from i n l a n d l o c a t i o n s i n a c c e s s i b l e t o American v e s s e l s . A r c h i v e s of the Hudson's Bay Co. show a p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h l i n k i n g t h e 'New C a l e d o n i a ' f o r t s i n the upper F r a s e r a r e a w i t h t h e i r c o a s t a l s u p p l y network. Emphasis was thus taken o f f o t h e r c o a s t a l f o r t s w i t h the c l o s i n g of F t . M c L o u g h l i n , F o r t Durham and F t . S t i k i n e i n 1843. The steam v e s s e l O t t e r became a f u r c o l l e c t o r i n these a r e a s u s i n g now ' P o r t ' Simpson and V i c t o r i a , e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1843, as major d e p o t s . As more Europeans and Americans came t o the r e g i o n of B r i t i s h C o lumbia, England and the H.B.Co. became i n t e r e s t e d i n cementing t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y w i t h p r o t e c t i v e C o l o n i a l s t a t u s f o r the a r e a . C o n s e q u e n t l y , Vancouver I s l a n d was made a c o l o n i a l t r u s t of the H.B.Co. on Jan 13,1849. The Queen C h a r l o t t e s were added t o t h i s a r e a on J u l y 29, 1852 t o f o r e s t a l l Yankee g o l d s e e k e r s f r o m ann e x i n g the a r c h i p e l a g o . By 1858 t h e B r i t i s h had d e c i d e d t o t r a n s f e r c o n t r o l o f the c o l o n y t o a governor independent of the H.B.Co. O r i g i n a l l y the c o l o n y was t o i n c l u d e o n l y Vancouver I s l a n d and the C h a r l o t t e s , but the C a r i b o o g o l d r u s h h u r r i d l y e xpanded t h e a r e a as f a r n o r t h as the mainstem Skeena R i v e r . On November 19, 1858 Governor Douglas, ex of H.B.Co. s e n i o r management, p r o c l a i m e d the "Act f o r the Government of B r i t i s h Columbia" t o be i n f o r c e . The c o l o n y expanded i t s b o u n d a r i e s y e t a g a i n on J u l y 19, 1862, when a s m a l l g o l d r u s h of 650 miners on the S t i k i n e R i v e r p r o v i d e d an excuse t o b r i n g the ' S t i k e e n ' T e r r i t o r y , e s t a b l i s h e d n o r t h of the mainstem 40 Skeena, under i t s c o n t r o l . T h i s a n n e x a t i o n brought the Northwest, as d e f i n e d i n t h i s s t u d y , under the B r i t i s h f l a g . On November 16, 1866 the ' S t i k e e n ' T e r r i t o r y was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a ' s b o u n d a r y and t h e p r o v i n c e as we know i t today was c o n s t i t u t e d ( I r e l a n d : 1939, 2 6 3 - 2 8 2 ) . These moves were a l l c o m p l e t e d w i t h no c o n s u l t a t i o n of p i o n e e r s or n a t i v e groups i n the N o r t h w e s t , and were c l e a r l y d e s i g n e d t o grab economic c o n t r o l o f t h e a r e a f o r B r i t a i n . American s t r e n g t h t o the South, and t h e i r e v e n t u a l 'purchase' of A l a s k a on March 30, 1867, had sandwiched B r i t i s h e x p a n s i o n . A s t r a t e g y of c o n s o l i d a t i n g the Hudson's Bay Co. sphere of i n f l u e n c e was c a r r i e d out under t h r e a t of f u r t h e r U n i t e d S t a t e s encroachment. These e v e n t s s l o w l y f r e e d the Bay from o p e r a t i o n o f a c i v i l g o v e rnment i n t h e r e g i o n and t h e g r e a t t r a d i n g empire was a b l e t o pursue p u r e l y economic g o a l s . In 1871 B r i t i s h Columbia j o i n e d the Dominion of Canada and the Northwest was f i n a l l y s p l i t between B r i t i s h and American f l a g s . The dream of j o i n i n g the c o a s t a l and i n t e r i o r o p e r a t i o n s of the H.B.Co. was c h a l l e n g e d by rough topography and the w i l d n a t u r e of the f o u r major r i v e r s which t r a n s e c t e d the Coast M o u n t a i n s . Of t h e s e s t r e a m s t h e Skeena was t h e most n a v i g a b l e . A l t h o u g h I n d i a n c o n t r o l l e d canoe f r e i g h t i n g had been t h e r u l e on t h e S k e e n a , t h e f e e c h a r g e d f o r t r a n s h i p m e n t o f goods e v e n t u a l l y r o s e t o $60 per t o n . The Bay c o u l d not s u f f e r such a c o s t and d e c i d e d t o t e s t a r i v e r b o a t on the Skeena i n 1864. The Union f a i l e d t o n a v i g a t e the Skeena, as d i d s i m i l a r e f f o r t s mounted by the C o l l i n ' s O v e r l a n d T e l e g r a p h Company which e x p l o r e d the r e g i o n 41 i n 1865-6. T h e i r p l a n t o s t r e t c h a t e l e g r a p h l i n e a c r o s s North America and A s i a , t o Europe, f a i l e d w i t h the l a y i n g of the f i r s t t r a n s a t l a n t i c c a b l e . The v e n t u r e d i d b r i n g t h e f i r s t l a r g e number of no n - I n d i a n s i n t o the upper Skeena a r e a , many of whom remained t o p r o s p e c t ( F i t z g e r a l d : 1982, 23-63). R i v e r t r a f f i c , f o r the time b e i n g , remained l a r g e l y i n c o n t r o l of I n d i a n p a d d l e r s . A g o l d r u s h i n the Omenica r e g i o n of the upper F r a s e r watershed i n 1871 spa r k e d c o n t i n u i n g i n c r e a s e s i n t r a f f i c , and by 1872 had brought 2000 miners through the r e g i o n . The demand f o r m i n i n g s u p p l i e s exposed a major weakness i n the H.B.Co.'s method of o p e r a t i o n . O r g a n i z e d by a s t r i c t l y c e n t r a -l i z e d s t r u c t u r e the company h i e r a r c h y c o u l d not respond q u i c k l y t o new o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Because~of t h i s i n a b i l i t y , a t r e n d developed where H.B.Co. employees i n the Northwest would l e a r n the ar e a by wo r k i n g s e v e r a l f r u s t r a t i n g y e a r s a t P o r t Simpson and then q u i t t o s t r i k e o u t on t h e i r own. The two men who proved t o be t h e most r e s o u r c e f u l i n t h i s r e g a r d were Robert Cunningham and Thomas Hank i n . In 1870 thes e two p i o n e e r s l e f t the H.B.Co. t o s t a r t a s t o r e and f r e i g h t s e r v i c e t a i l o r e d t o the needs of Omenica g o l d s e e k e r s . In 1871 they founded the town of P o r t E s s i n g t o n on the e s t u a r y of the Skeena and a s i s t e r depot s e t t l e m e n t a t H a z e l t o n , the headwaters of canoe t r a f f i c . Such a good b u s i n e s s developed t h a t the H.O.Co. opened a s t o r e a t P o r t E s s i n g t o n w h i c h t r i e d u n t i l 1877 t o compete w i t h Cunningham's p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e e f f o r t . A s i m i l a r H.B.Co. o p e r a t i o n was opened a t H a z e l t o n i n 1880, a post which i s s t i l l open 105 y e a r s l a t e r . Thus a new e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l 42 e l e m e n t became e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e r e g i o n , p e r m a n e n t l y b a s e d merchants i n whose i n t e r e s t i t was t o d e v e l o p a r e g i o n a l economy and q u a l i t y of l i f e . Through p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e and encouragement of the C o l o n i a l government d i f f e r e n t economic development p r o j e c t s were attempted i n t h i s p e r i o d . The C owgitz c o a l mine o p e r a t e d b r i e f l y on the C h a r l o t t e s between 1870 and 1872. The f i r s t o f many salmon c a n n e r i e s was opened on the Skeena i n 1877. By 1890, 7 c a n n e r i e s o p e r a t e d on the Skeena and 2 on the Nass, w i t h a combined pack of 111,845 c a s e s o f s a l m o n . Cunningham and Hankin c o n s t r u c t e d a t o l l t r a i l between H a z e l t o n and B a b i n e L a k e u n d e r government c o n t r a c t i n 1872. A d o g f i s h o i l e r y was w o r k i ng a t S k i d e g a t e on the Queen C h a r l o t t e s i n 1876. Many o t h e r merchant v e n t u r e s were attempted and the g e n e r a l mood was one of government encouragement t o reap whatever p r o f i t a b l e r e s o u r c e s c o u l d be found and e x p o r t e d . A n o t h e r new g r o u p w h i c h g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d l i f e i n t h e r e g i o n , then and now, were C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s . With g r e a t f e r v o r t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s a t t e m p t e d t o f i l l a v o i d i n N a t i v e cosmology w i t h a V i c t o r i a n model of God, m o r a l i t y and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . The f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l m o n o t h e i s t t o e n t e r the r e g i o n was F a t h e r N o b i l i who preached a t F o r t B a b i n e i n 1846. He s t a y e d o n l y two weeks but e s t a b l i s h e d e x c l u s i v e c l a i m of h i s s e c t t o the s h e p a r d i n g of the C a r r i e r and Wetsuweten. F a t h e r L a j a c q c o n t i n u e d t h i s m i n i s t r y by p e r i o d i c a l l y v i s i t i n g the C a r r i e r (Wetsuweten) as f a r west as H a g w i l g e t from 1869 t o 1880. In 1885 the most famous C a t h o l i c i n Northwest h i s t o r y , F a t h e r M o r i c e , e n t e r e d the r e g i o n 43 f o r a 19 year r e i g n t h a t saw o l d N a t i v e s p i r i t u a l ways n o m i n a l l y b a n i s h e d . As a s i g n of f i d e l i t y the n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n of H a g w i l g e t c e r e m o n i a l l y burned a l l t h e i r shamanic p a r a p h a r e l i a t o h o n o r a v i s i t by F a t h e r M o r i c e . On a b r i g h t e r note the O b l a t e P r i e s t was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the f i r s t a c c u r a t e map of the i n t e r i o r Northwest, the f i r s t C a r r i e r a l p h a b e t , and a remarkable h i s t o r y of i n t e r i o r 'New C a l e d o n i a ' . The A n g l i c a n Church M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y was f i r s t r e p r e s e n t e d by W i l l i a m Duncan, who a r r i v e d a t F o r t Simpson on Oct. 1, 1857. A f t e r l e a r n i n g the T s i m s h i a n language, Duncan s l o w l y won a f o l l o w i n g , and on May 27, 1862 moved f i f t y of h i s c o n v e r t s t o M e t l a k a t l a , 12 m i l e s s o u t h of the p o s t . I s o l a t e d from t e m p t a t i o n , Duncan e x e r c i s e d an i r o n w i l l as he undertook t o b u i l d a V i c t o r i a n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of u t o p i a . That the t a s k i n c l u d e d complete s e v e r i n g of thousands of y e a r s of c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n was o n l y a minor h u r d l e compared w i t h Duncan's problems w i t h h i s own Church. As M e t l a k a t l a grew t o over 1000 r e s i d e n t s a B i s h o p was a s s i g n e d t o o v e r s e e t h e q u e s t i o n a b l e r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e Duncan used t o c o n t r o l such a l a r g e f l o c k . Duncan and B i s h o p R i d l e y , who a r r i v e d 1879, had a n a s t y c l a s h of p e r s o n a l i t y which l e d t o e v e n t u a l v i o l e n c e between t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e N a t i v e f a c t i o n s . The r e s u l t was a major embarrass-ment w i t h i n the A n g l i c a n Church and Duncan's excommunication from the Church M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y . Duncan responded by t a k i n g over 500 o f h i s f o l l o w e r s t o New M e t l a k a t l a , j u s t i n s i d e A l a s k a n t e r r i t o r y , t o b u i l d anew h i s v e r y p e r s o n a l v i s i o n of i n d u s t r i o u s and p a t e r n a l n a t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y (Usher: 1974, 119-135) . Duncan 44 d i e d i n 1918, but New M e t l a k a t l a e x i s t s as a American community t o t h i s day. In the t r a d i t i o n began by Duncan, o t h e r A n g l i c a n m i s s i o n a r i e s s t a r t e d t h e i r own s e l f - s t y l e d U t o p i a s . Rev. R o b e r t T o m l i n s o n w o rked among the N i s h g a f o r 12 y e a r s , e s t a b l i s h i n g the m i s s i o n community of K i n c o l i t h . He l a t e r s t a r t e d a m i s s i o n near K i s p i o x V i l l a g e c a l l e d A n k i t l a s b u t a l s o r a n i n t o d i s p u t e s w i t h the i n d o m i n a b l e B i s h o p R i d l e y . Tomlinson f o l l o w e d i n Duncan's p a t h and a f t e r b r e a k i n g w i t h the Church founded a n o n s e c t a r i a n model community on the mid-Skeena at M i n s k i n i s h t i n 1888. Other A n g l i c a n p i o n e e r s i n c l u d e d Rev. R.A. Doolan who e s t a -b l i s h e d the f i r s t Nass a r e a m i s s i o n 1864. The Rev. J o h n F i e l d w o r k e d t h e H a z e l t o n a r e a f o r 30 y e a r s s t a r t i n g i n 1866. In November of 1876 Reverend and Mrs. C o l l i s o n s t a r t e d a m i s s i o n on the Queen C h a r l o t t e s . A f t e r 6 y e a r s a t M a s s e t t the C o l l i s o n ' s moved t o the Nass a r e a t o p r e a c h and r e m a i n e d t h e r e t h e r e s t of t h e i r l i v e s . The l a s t d e n o m i n a t i o n t o a r r i v e on the c o a s t were M e t h o d i s t s who o p e r a t e d a t P o r t S i m p s o n , K i t i m a t and t h e u pper S k e e n a . Thomas Crosby a r r i v e d a t P o r t Simpson i n 1873 and was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s t a r t i n g a f l o a t i n g m i s s i o n on t h e E v a n g e l i n e i n 1881. Rev. W.H. P i e r c e , o f p a r t T s i m s h i a n a n c e s t r y , was o r d a i n e d i n 1887 and spent 15 y e a r s m i n i s t e r i n g a t K i s p o i x . The f l o a t i n g m e t h o d i s t m i s s i o n , now named the Thomas Crosby, s t i l l o p e r a t e s on the C o a s t . 45 The p e r i o d between 1835 and 1890 saw C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s o f v a r i o u s s e c t s a t t e m p t two v e r y d i f f e r e n t c o n v e r s i o n s t r a -t e g i e s . The A n g l i c a n U t o p i a n approach t r i e d t o i s o l a t e I n d i a n s i n a m o r a l V i c t o r i a n e n v i r o n m e n t , as c u t o f f as p o s s i b l e from c e n t u r i e s of t r a d i t i o n . T h i s approach c r e a t e d o a s i s s e t t l e m e n t s a t M e t l a k a t l a , M i n s k i n i s h t , K i n c o l i t h , G r e e n v i l l e and A i y a n s h which were s a n c t u a r i e s i n a N a t i v e w o r l d f l o o d e d by l i q u o r and w a r f a r e . The n e g a t i v e p a r t of t h i s s t r a t e g y was f o r a p a t e r n a l dependency t o d e v e l o p marked by the p e r s o n a l whim o f a s t r o n g n o n - I n d i a n l e a d e r . The w orst example of t h i s was a t M e t l a k a t l a , run by the v i s i o n of W i l l i a m Duncan. By f a i l i n g t o r e l i n g u i s h c o n t r o l of the community t o B i s h o p R i d l e y i n 1882, Duncan n e a r l y caused a major N a t i v e war. By f i n a l l y removing over 500 T s i m s h i a n from t h e i r home t e r r i t o r y i n 1887, he d i d perhaps a much g r e a t e r harm. By s p l i t t i n g the s t r o n g e s t Northwest I n d i a n t r i b e i n h a l f he l e s s e n e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l a r e g i o n t h a t would soon be a c e n t e r even g r e a t e r of European development p r e s s u r e s . The s e c o n d m i s s i o n a r y a p p r o a c h was more c o n v e n t i o n a l and i n v o l v e d l i v i n g i n , or near, e x i s t i n g I n d i a n c o m m u n i t i e s . The t e a c h i n g was more o r i e n t e d towards how t o l i v e and work i n the h a l f - N a t i v e , h a l f - E u r o p e a n , w o r l d which c h a r a c t e r i z e d the Northwest at the t i m e . T h i s s t r a t e g y was l e s s d i s r u p t i v e , but a l s o l a c k e d the s u c c e s s e s of i s o l a t i o n and Utopian v i s i o n . A f t e r 1834, the sea o t t e r t r a d e d e c l i n e d and t h e N a t i v e people of the r e g i o n were b u f f e t e d by one d i s a s t e r a f t e r a n o t h e r . The w i d e a v a i l a b i l i t y of a l c o h o l and muskets a f t e r 1800 had l e d t o 46 c o n s t a n t i n t e r n e c i n e b a t t l e and p e r s o n a l d e g r a d a t i o n . On Oct. 16, 1836 a h o r r i b l e s m a l l p o x epidemic reached P o r t Simpson; over the next t h r e e y e a r s f u l l y o n e - t h i r d of a l l Northwest I n d i a n s d i e d of t h i s desease. An e s p e c i a l l y o d i o u s f o o t n o t e t o t h i s f i r s t major e p i d e m i c i s t h a t i n n o c u l a t i o n s were a v a i l a b l e t o Hudson's Bay Company s t a f f and some N a t i v e C h i e f s , b u t were not o t h e r w i s e d i s t r i b u t e d (McDonald: 1984, 4 2 ) . By t h e 1850's p r o s t i t u t i o n amongst n a t i v e women was common, which w i d e l y s p r e a d v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e s . The s p r e a d of t u b e r c u l o s i s , measles and t h e a l r e a d y mentioned m a l a d i e s i n c r e a s e d i n 1858 when thousands of Northwest N a t i v e s began annual t r i p s t o V i c t o r i a . Fur p r i c e s were h i g h e r i n the c o l o n i a l c a p i t a l , and i t had a more i n t e r e s t i n g , European environment. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w i t h up t o h a l f the e n t i r e northwest N a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n on Vancouver I s l a n d , d i s e a s e and w a r f a r e became even more w i d e s p r e a d . In A p r i l , 1862 a s h i p from San F r a n s c i s c o b rought a n o t h e r s m a l l p o x e p i d e m i c . The European l e a d e r s of V i c t o r i a d i s p e r s e d the N a t i v e s c o n g r e g a t e d t h e r e by b u r n i n g t h e i r i n f e c t e d encampments. By June 5, 1962, 85 Haida d i e d w h i l e q u a r a n t i n e d a t Ogden P o i n t near V i c t o r i a . On August 11 of the same year the Queen C h a r l o t t e s were i n f e c t e d by a w h i t e p r o s p e c t o r . Another o n e - t h i r d of the a l r e a d y decimated c o a s t a l p o p u l a t i o n d i e d i n t h i s second major s m a l l p o x e p i d e m i c . On the p o l i t i c a l f r o n t N a t i v e p e o p l e s c o n t i n u o u s l y t r i e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y . I n 1851 a H.B.Co. s p o n s o r e d g o l d m i n i n g e x p e d i t i o n a t M i t c h e l l I n l e t on the Queen C h a r l o t t e s was n e a r l y m a s s a c r e d . The n e x t y e a r , on Sept. 26, 1852, the 47 H.B.Co. s h i p Susan S t u r g e s was a t t a c k e d by C h i e f Weah of Masset. The v e s s e l was l o o t e d and burned, and the crew was l a t e r ransomed f o r t r a d e i t e m s ( M e i l l e u r : 1980, 177). E s c a l a t i o n o f t h e l a n d t i t l e q u e s t i o n o c c u r r e d i n 1854 when t h e c o l o n i a l government d e n i e d the n e c e s s i t y t o e x t i n g u i s h n a t i v e ownership b e f o r e making l a n d g r a n t s . As European and American p r o s p e c t o r s c o n t i n u e d t o s c o u r the C h a r l o t t e s f o r g o l d a n o t h e r m i n i n g p a r t y was t h r e a t e n e d i n 1859. In 1865 c o n f r o n t a t i o n between a d e s t a b i l i z e d N a t i v e s o c i e t y and B r i t i s h backed a u t h o r i t y i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y . O s t e n s i b l y t o c u r t a i l t he l i q u o r t r a d e , but more r e a l i s t i c a l l y t o r e s t r i c t H.B.Co. c o m p e t i t i o n , B r i t i s h w a r s h i p s c r u i s e d t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t . On Sept. 30, 1866, the HMS C l i o f i r e d b l a n k s a l v o s over N i s h g a v i l l a g e s t o i n t i m i d a t e C h i e f s i n t o f o l l o w i n g B r i t i s h l a w s . In 1872 the HMS Scout was sent t o the Skeena t o mediate between t h e G i t k s a n and m i n e r s . A f t e r a y e a r o f s k i r m i s h e s , i n which a p r o s p e c t o r was k i l l e d and o t h e r s s h o t a t , u n e a s i n e s s between r a c e s had e s c a l a t e d t o the danger l e v e l . The people of K i t s e g u e c l a , on the upper Skeena, c l a i m e d t h a t c a r e l e s s n e s s on the p a r t of p a s s e n g e r s on a f r e i g h t canoe had caused t h e i r v i l l a g e t o burn down. Thomas Hankin had s e t t l e d the m a t t e r on h i s own, but o f f i c i a l s i n V i c t o r i a were l e s s s e c u r e . No l e s s than the L i e u t e n a n t G o v e r n o r and A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l a r r i v e d w i t h a gunboat, met w i t h the v i l l a g e r s , and admonished them not t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h w h i t e s . They a l s o magnanimously passed out $600 t o cov e r the damage of 48 a d e s t r o y e d c o m munity. (Gough: 1984, 189-209; L a r g e : 1 9 8 1 , 31-32). At t h e same t i m e , f a r more d a n g e r o u s t h r e a t s t o I n d i a n s o v e r e i g n t y were o c c u r r i n g t o the s o u t h . The F e d e r a l government had a p p o i n t e d a C o m m i s s i o n e r o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s i n 1872. The d o l i n g out o f p r o t e c t e d t e r r i t o r i e s t o N a t i v e p e o p l e was p a r t of h i s mandate and r e s e r v e s were a l l o t e d t o the H a i d a , among o t h e r , i n 1882. A f u l l - t i m e I n d i a n Agent was a p p o i n t e d t o the r e g i o n i n 1883 but was not a c c e p t e d by t r i b a l l e a d e r s u n t i l 1888. In 1882 the N i s h g a began t h e i r s t i l l c o n t i n u i n g ' l a n d q u e s t i o n ' argument. The g e n e r a l mood o f t h e m a j o r i t y of r e g i o n N a t i v e p e o p l e s was t h a t no r e s e r v e s s h o u l d be a c c e p t e d , as a l l the l a n d was t h e i r s i n the f i r s t p l a c e . A f i n a l blow t o n a t i v e c o n t r o l and governance of the Northwest o c c u r r e d i n the t e r r i t o r y of the G i t k s a n . On F e b r u a r y 1, 1888 a man named K i t w a n c o o l J i m m u r d e r e d a shaman whom he f e l t was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s son's d e a t h . That the boy d i e d of a measle epidemic made no d i f f e r e n c e , J i m thought the K i t s e g u e c l a m e d i c i n e man was t r y i n g t o b l o c k the boys ascendancy t o a h i g h C h i e f ' s p o s i t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e some a c c o u n t s which say the shaman's death was s e t t l e d between v i l l a g e s , the i n c i d e n t was a l s o r e p o r t e d t o P r o v i n c i a l a u t h o r i t i e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , f i v e s p e c i a l c o n s t a b l e s and the r e g i o n I n d i a n Agent were s e n t u p r i v e r from M e t l a k a t l a t o a p p r e h e n d J i m . On June 19th, 1888, two o f the c o n s t a b l e s were l e d t o Jim's h i d i n g p l a c e , where he was k i l l e d by a shot i n the back. The f i r s t k i l l i n g of the G i t k s a n by a w h i t e s e t o f f a wave 49 of bad f e e l i n g amongst the G i t k s a n , and made the s e t t l e r s i n and around i s o l a t e d H a z e l t o n f e a r f o r t h e i r l i v e s and p r o p e r t y . The Hudson's Bay Co. p o s t a t H a z e l t o n was f o r t i f i e d and u r g e n t r e q u e s t s f o r m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e s e n t s o u t h t o V i c t o r i a . Such r e l i e f was s e n t i n the form of HMS C a r o l i n e , ten s p e c i a l c o n s t a b l e s , 72 men of the Canadian M i l i t i a , the A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l of B.C. and the S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of P r o v i n c i a l P o l i c e . Upon l a n d i n g j u s t u p r i v e r from P o r t E s s i n g t o n , S u p e r i n t e n d e n t R o y c r o f t and the c o n s t a b l e s proceeded u p r i v e r t o q u e l l the u p r i s i n g . The m i l i t i a was l e f t b e h i n d as a backup f o r c e . A r r i v i n g i n H a z e l t o n , R o y c r o f t found a q u i e t e r s i t u a t i o n than p a n i c k e d s e t t l e r s had communicated. N e v e r t h e l e s s a m e e t i n g was c a l l e d a t which the G i t k s a n C h i e f s were t o be a d d r e s s e d by R o y c r o f t . Maureen C a s s i d y , i n her s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n of the e n t i r e i n c i d e n t , summarizes the meeting which o c c u r r e d as f o l l o w s : F o r t h e G i t k s a n t h e a f f a i r r e p r e s e n t e d the end of a way o f l i f e . On A u g u s t 3, 1888, S t i p e n d a r y M a g i s t r a t e N. F i t z s t u b b s and. S u p e r i n t e n d e n t R o y c r o f t c a l l e d t o g e t h e r t h e C h i e f s o f t h e G i t k s a n p e o p l e . The t h i r t e e n C h i e f s who came were i n f o r m e d by F i t z s t u b b s o f " t h e t e r m s on w h i c h f o r the f u t u r e we a r e t o l i v e . " These t e r m s were t h a t t h e " t h e l a w i s t h e B r i t i s h l a w n o t the I n d i a n law." No l o n g e r would the C h i e f s be a r b i t r a t o r s : "You may not s e t t l e your own q u a r r e l s . " S u p e r i n t e n d e n t R o y c r o f t was even more e x p l i c i t : " I f you e v e r d e f y t h e Queen's a u t h o r i t y , a l t h o u g h y o u may k i l l a g r e a t number o f w h i t e s , the Queen's s o l d i e r s would pursue you everywhere and shoot you down l i k e r a b b i t s . " (7-8) 50 The i n c i d e n t ended s e v e r a l weeks l a t e r when t h e m i l i t i a were s e n t home. R o y c r o f t . wrote h i s s u p e r i o r s t h a t the G i t k s a n "seem now p e r f e c t l y t o u n d e r s t a n d our power." ( C a s s i d y : 1984, 8 ) . So i t was t h a t d i s e a s e , i n t e r t r i b a l war, a l c o h o l , growing dependence on n o n - l o c a l t r a d e i t e m s , C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s , d i s l o c a t i o n , g u n b o a t d i p l o m a c y and t i g h t e n i n g B r i t i s h c o n t r o l came t o t h e r e g i o n . P e o p l e s who had been c o l l e c t o r s o f t h e w h i t e man's w e a l t h d u r i n g t h e m a r i t i m e f u r t r a d e y e a r s found t h a t p r o s p e c t o r s , f a r m e r s and l a n d based merchants d i d not s i m i l a r l y need t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n . A dependency developed t h a t saw problems caused by European c o n t a c t used as the e x c u s e t o l i m i t t r i b a l s o v e r e i g n t y and t o r e s t r i c t c u l t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n . The H a i d a , who numbered over 9,000 b e f o r e c o n t a c t were reduced t o 800 by 1885. A l l the o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s of the r e g i o n , s i m i l a r l y decimated, had e n t e r e d a p e r i o d t h a t can o n l y be d e s c r i b e d as a l o n g and h o r r i b l e n i g h t m a r e . 3.4 1890 - 1920 'Boom' Years. By 1890 the Northwest was f i r m l y w i t h i n the c o n t r o l of the B r i t i s h and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a . The f o c u s of a c t i v i t y s h i f t e d away from v e n t u r e s based e x c l u s i v e l y on I n d i a n g a t h
Open Collections

UBC Theses and Dissertations

Bioregionalism : a territorial approach to governance and development of northwest British Columbia Aberley, Douglas Carroll 1985

Page Metadata

Item Metadata

Download

Full Text
