EZRA POUND'S EARLY EXPERIMENTS WITH MAJOR FORMS, 1904-1925: DIRECTIO VOLUNTATIS by THOMAS WILSON MCKEOWN M. A., The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1970 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department of E n g l i s h ) We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA May 1983 © Thomas Wilson McKeown, 198 3 Previously unpublished material (c)1983 The Trustees of the Ezra Pound Literary Property Trust. In presenting t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. I t i s understood that copying or publication of t h i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my written permission. Department of E n g l i s h The University of B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date F e b r u a r y 14, 1983 ABSTRACT T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n argues t h a t the coherent v i s i o n and s i n g l e impulse which l e d to the major form of the Cantos a l s o u n d e r l a y E z r a Pound's seemingly d i s p a r i t e e a r l y experiments. In o r d e r to demonstrate t h a t Pound's p r e - o c c u p a t i o n w i t h major form p r o v i d e d a common denominator between h i s e a r l i e s t , middle, and mature poe t r y , I have d i v i d e d t h i s study i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s , which c o r r e s p o n d t o the th r e e main stages o f Pound's development. P a r t One: I n s t i g a t i o n (1904-1911), demonstrates the two t h e o r i e s of p e r f e c t form t h a t f i r s t a t t r a c t e d the young Pound, and documents h i s d r i v e toward e v e r - s u b t l e r a r c h i t e c t o n i c s t r u c t u r e s i n h i s i n i t i a l phase of development. P a r t Two: Experiment (1912-1919), r e - d e f i n e s the t h r e e q u a l i t i e s o f rhythm, tone, t e x t u r e , as they apply t o Pound's experiments w i t h major form. P a r t Three: Accomplishment (1920-1925), d e s c r i b e s what s t i m u l a t e d Pound's t h e o r e t i c a l breakthrough i n 1922, and t r a c e s the e x p r e s s i o n o f t h i s t heory through XVI Cantos, to show t h a t t h i s f i r s t i n s t a l l m e n t o f Pound's major poem fused h i s theory and p r a c t i c e o f p o e t r y . T h i s achievement can o n l y be p r o p e r l y a p p r e c i a t e d p r o p e r l y , however, i n the cont e x t o f h i s e a r l i e r twenty-year experiment w i t h o t h e r major forms. The C o n c l u s i o n p o i n t s out t h a t the c r i t i c a l moment i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f P o u n d ' s e x p l o r a t i o n o f m a j o r f o r m s o c c u r r e d when he d r o p p e d h i s a s p i r a t i o n t o w r i t e a p u r e l y p e r s o n a l d o c u m e n t f e a t u r i n g " p e r f e c t " f o r m , a n d became c o n t e n t t o w r i t e a b r o a d e r s o c i a l " t e s t a m e n t . " U n d e r n e a t h t h e f o r m a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s o f h i s a t t e m p t s a t m a j o r f o r m , P o u n d ' s h o l i s t i c v i s i o n p r o v i d e d t h e b a s e , o r " u n w o b b l i n g p i v o t " , f o r h i s a t t e m p t t o "show men t h e way t o t r y " t o g a i n a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p a t t e r n e d i n t e g r i t i e s o f t h e " v i t a l u n i v e r s e " : s t o n e , t r e e , a n d m i n d — a l i v e . TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT i i INTRODUCTION 1 PART ONE: INSTIGATION (1904-1911) 9 I The S t a r t i n g P o i n t : P r a c t i c e and Theory 10 A. The E a r l y Poems 12 B. The C i r c l e 30 I I A r c h i t e c t o n i c s 44 A. The C y c l e o f Noh P l a y s 46 B. A Lume Spento 52 C. E x u l t a t i o n s and Canzoni 55 PART TWO: EXPERIMENT (1912-1919) 85 I I I A b s o l u t e Rhythm 8 6 A. Rhythmic V i t a l i t y 87 B. Image and Epigram 101 C. The S e q u e n t i a l Poem 119 IV Tone 125 A. War Poems . . 125 B. Poignancy 130 1. The L i t a n y 130 2. The L a t i n Sequences 134 3. P a t t e r n U n i t s • - 1 4 0 C. R e t i c e n c e 146 1. N a t u r a l Speech 146 2. Compressed N a r r a t i v e 151 3. Scenery 160 V Texture 167 A. Language and Imagery i n the Ur-cantos 167 B. The Homage as N a r r a t i v e 180 C. Mauberley: Texture as S t r u c t u r e 195 i v PART THREE: ACCOMPLISHMENT (1920-1925) 216 VI A D r a f t o f XVI Cantos: Some Formative I n f l u e n c e s 217 A. U l y s s e s 222 B. The Waste Land 227 C. B r a n c u s i and P i c a b i a : S t a s i s v e r s u s K i n e s i s 234 D. Economic Democracy 243 VII XVI Cantos: K i n e s i s 250 A. H o r i z o n t a l Chords 252 B. H o r i z o n t a l Designs 258 C. R h e t o r i c v e r s u s Aphorisms 266 D. The P r o c e s s i o n 271 E. The Compression of N a r r a t i v e ...279 F. D i r e c t Speech 284 G. Sigismundo M a l a t e s t a 291 CONCLUSION 300 NOTES AND REFERENCES 310 BIBLIOGRAPHY 328 APPENDIX 3^52 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The most unexpected reward I have discovered i n the course of my work on Ezra Pound has been the personal generosity of other Poundians. Such people have made the work a pleasure. In p a r t i c u l a r , Peter Quartermain, Keith A l l d r i t t , and John Rathmell, have counted more than I can say. As w e l l , I owe a great deal to Donald Gallup, Peter Dzwonkoski, Michael King, and other workers i n the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library for t h e i r f r i e n d l y and accomplished support during the course of my research. I would also l i k e to thank Princess Mary de Rachewiltz for her kind i n v i t a t i o n to begin my work at Brunnenberg, and for her patience i n making rare editions of Pound's early works avail a b l e to me, and for her encouragement. I wish to thank Olga Rudge, P a t r i z i a de Rachewiltz and Omar Pound, as well, for making me aware i n d i f f e r e n t ways and places of the truth that, even i n Pound's case, the poem i s always less i n t e r e s t i n g than the person who writes i t . In conclusion, I thank the Canada Council for supporting t h i s work, in i t s early stages of development, with a Doctoral Fellowship Award. v i ABBEVIATIONS ALS, 1908 A Lume Spento. Venice A n t o n i n i . ALS A Lume Spento and Other E a r l y Poems. London: Faber, 1965. C Canzoni. London: E l k i n Mathews, 1911. CEP C o l l e c t e d E a r l y Poems, ed. by M i c h a e l King. N.Y.: New D i r e c t i o n s , 1976. CNTJ The C l a s s i c Noh Theatre of Japan. New D i r e c t i o n s , 1959. CSP C o l l e c t e d S h o r t e r Poems. London: Faber, 1968. GB Gaudier-Brzeska: A Memoir. H e s s l e , East Y o r k s h i r e : M a r v e l l Press, 1960. GK Guide to Kulchur. London: Peter Owen, 1952. LE L i t e r a r y Essays of E z r a Pound, ed. T.S. E l i o t . N.Y.: New D i r e c t i o n s , 1968. MIN Make i t New. London: Faber, 1934. P, 1909 Personae. London: E l k i n Mathews, 1909. P Personae. N.Y.: Boni and L i v e r i g h t , 1926.-P/J . The L e t t e r s of E z r a Pound to James Joyce, ed. by F o r r e s t Read. N.Y.: New D i r e c t i o n s , 1967. PM P a t r i a Mia and the T r e a t i s e on Harmony. London: Peter Owen, 1962. SFL Pound's L e t t e r s to Dennis Goacher h e l d a t Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y . SL S e l e c t e d L e t t e r s , ed. by D.D. Paige. N.Y.: New D i r e c t i o n s , 1971. SP S e l e c t e d Prose, ed. by W. Cookson. London: Faber, 1973. SR The S p i r i t of Romance. N.Y. : New D i r e c t i o n s , 1968. YC Yale C o l l e c t i o n , American L i t e r a t u r e . U n c o l l e c t e d and unpublished m a t e r i a l h e l d i n the Beinecke L i b r a r y . The 1979 New D i r e c t i o n s e d i t i o n of The Cantos i s used throughout t h i s work. References are given i n the t e x t as (CXVI, 796) to designate Canto CXVI, page 796. v i i to Peter "God i s t h a t one man helps another — E z r a Pound 0 INTRODUCTION Pound c r i t i c s have o c c u p i e d two main camps: those who d e a l mainly w i t h the e a r l y p o e t r y , up to 1920, and those who d e a l p r i m a r i l y w i t h the p o e t r y a f t e r 1920—which i s to say the Cantos. Among the former group, N. C h r i s t o p h e de Nagy has s a i d of h i s study o f the p r e - I m a g i s t stage: " I t would o b v i o u s l y be tempting and rewarding, w i t h 116 cantos and s e v e r a l books about them i n p r i n t , to examine the e a r l y p o e t r y o n l y i n so f a r as i t i s a stage towards Imagism, and e s p e c i a l l y the Cantos. But t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y what i s going to be avoided."''" Other c r i t i c s o f the e a r l y p e r i o d , such as Hugh Witemeyer, Thomas H. Jackson, J . J . Espey, J.P. S u l l i v a n , S t u a r t McDougal, and E r i c Homberger, have f o l l o w e d s i m i l a r g u i d e l i n e s , f o c u s s i n g a t t e n t i o n on s i n g l e works or p e r i o d s of Pound's e a r l y development, w i t h l i t t l e 2 or no r e f e r e n c e to the Cantos• Among the l a t t e r group, we f i n d those who focus a t t e n t i o n on the Cantos, w h i l e making l i t t l e or no r e f e r e n c e to Pound's e a r l i e r work c o n s i d e r e d as a whole. T h i s group, which i n c l u d e s c r i t i c s l i k e C l a r k Emery, George Dekker, D a n i e l Pearlman, C h r i s t i n e Brooke-Rose, Ronald Bush, M i c h a e l B e r n s t e i n , and Donald Davie, has g e n e r a l l y down-played the r e l e v a n c e of Pound's e a r l i e r work to the 1 C a n t o s , f o l l o w i n g H u g h K e n n e r ' s l e a d , who s t a t e d i n h i s e a r l y v o l u m e o n P o u n d : " T h e e a r l y poems a r e d e f i c i e n t i n f i n a l i t y ; t h e y s u p p l e m e n t a n d c o r r e c t o n e a n o t h e r ; t h e y s t a n d u p i n d i v i d u a l l y a s r e n d e r i n g s o f m o o d s , b u t n o t a s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f m a t u r e s e l f - k n o w l e d g e ; t h e y t r y o u t p o s e s . T h e y a r e l e a d i n g t h e a u t h o r s o m e w h e r e ; t h e r e a d e r 4 may b e e x c u s e d i f h i s i n t e r e s t s a r e n o t w h o l l y e n g a g e d . " U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n e i t h e r g r o u p h a s t a k e n t h e b r o a d p e r s p e c t i v e o n P o u n d ' s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t . T h e p r o b l e m h a s b e e n t h a t t h e t w o g r o u p s o f poems a r e s o d i f f e r e n t . T h e e a r l y p e r i o d i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y c o n s t a n t c h a n g e a n d e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h v a r i o u s p o e t i c m a s k s ; t h e l a t e r p e r i o d i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y c o n s i s t e n c y , a n d a s t y l e t h a t s eems t o t a l l y r e m o v e d f r o m t h a t o f t h e e a r l i e r p o e m s . A v a s t g u l f s e p a r a t e s t h e m . S u r p r i s i n g l y , no o n e h a s a t t e m p t e d t o e x p l o r e i n d e t a i l t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s m o s t c u r i o u s a s p e c t o f P o u n d ' s w o r k , f i r s t n o t i c e d b y P e t e r R u s s e l l : w h e r e a s " t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n s t y l e b e t w e e n a poem w r i t t e n b y P o u n d i n 1907 a n d o n e w r i t t e n i n 1917 i s t h e e a s i e s t t h i n g i n t h e w o r l d t o s p o t . . . i f o n e c o m p a r e s a c a n t o w r i t t e n i n 1920 w i t h o n e w r i t t e n i n 1 9 4 5 , a g a p o f 25 y e a r s , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o o b s e r v e a n y c h a n g e i n s t y l e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , c r i t i c s h a v e t e n d e d t o s p e c i a l i z e i n o n e o f t h e s e a r e a s , w i t h t h e u n h a p p y r e s u l t o f s p l i t t i n g o u r v i s i o n o f P o u n d ' s ' o v e r a l l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t . 2 Even where c r i t i c s have attempted to do j u s t i c e to both the e a r l y poems and the Cantos, they have been extremely s e l e c t i v e , examining o n l y a few elements of Pound's e a r l y work, such as the Image and the ideogrammic method. T h i s tendency i s understandable, because the sheer s i z e and complexity of the Cantos demands a l a r g e r amount of space than the e a r l y poems. Yet t h i s n e c e s s i t y has encouraged the b e l i e f t h a t Pound was s p l a s h i n g around b e f o r e 1920, and o n l y found h i s f e e t i n the Cantos. T h i s d i m i n i s h e s the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the Cantos, making them appear to be a l a s t r e s o r t f o r a t i r e d t e c h n i c i a n ; i t a l s o d i m i n i s h e s the importance of the e a r l i e r poems, which appear to be s i m p l i f i e d masks, c a s t o f f on the journey toward the mature p o e t i c persona of the Cantos. N e i t h e r of these views does j u s t i c e to Pound's accomplishment. My c o n t e n t i o n i s t h a t t h i s accomplishment can o n l y be p r o p e r l y a p p r e c i a t e d when' we understand the c o n n e c t i o n between the e a r l y poems and the Cantos. E s s e n t i a l l y , I h o l d t h a t the e x p l o r a t i o n of major forms was the c o n s t a n t element, or c o n s t a n t denominator, i n Pound's p o e t i c development from the b e g i n n i n g , and t h a t t h i s focus stemmed from a deep and unchanging d e s i r e t o express h i s h o l i s t i c v i s i o n of the fundamental cohesiveness of the u n i v e r s e . ^ From the b e g i n n i n g , Pound's urge toward major form stemmed 3 from a deeply f e l t p h i l o s o p h i c i n t e n t — w h i c h remained unchanged throughout h i s l i f e . Seen i n t h i s l i g h t , h i s po e t r y i s seen t o have been motiv a t e d by a l a r g e l y u n a p p r e c i a t e d c o n s i s t e n c y o f purpose t h a t c o u l d l e a d to a r e v a l u a t i o n of h i s importance. Why has i t not p r e v i o u s l y been noted t h a t Pound worked a t major form long b e f o r e 1915? For one t h i n g , c r i t i c s have c o n c e n t r a t e d on the seen, r a t h e r than on the unseen. To use contemporary l e a r n i n g terminology, Pound seems to me to have been an extreme example of a " r i g h t - b r a i n " p e r s o n a l i t y : s t r o n g l y i n t u i t i v e , m u s i c a l , v i s u a l , g i v e n t o in s t a n t a n e o u s i n s i g h t s and e x p e r i e n c e s o f c e r t i t u d e , and r e s o l u t e l y n o n - s e q u e n t i a l ; t h e r e f o r e , he was more i n c l i n e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e on m a n i p u l a t i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h i n g s than the t h i n g s themselves, and to pay as much a t t e n t i o n t o the space between h i s poems i n a volume as to the matter of the poems themselves. We can see t h i s from the f a c t t h a t he arranged each volume of p o e t r y w i t h extreme c a r e , s t r i v i n g f o r a concept o f major f o r m — a n e f f o r t which culm i n a t e d i n the Cantos. Consequently, i f a c r i t i c l ooks o n l y a t the poems i n a volume l i k e Canzoni he may see o n l y poor p o e t r y ; i f he a l s o looks a t the rhythms and "negative spaces" between the poems, he may see a f a s c i n a t i n g e a r l y attempt a t a major composition. 4 Another reason why Pound's experiments w i t h major form may have escaped some c r i t i c s i s t h a t the Pound A r c h i v e s a t Y a l e have o n l y been a c c e s s i b l e s i n c e 1976. T h i s c o l l e c t i o n c o n t a i n s a number o f e a r l y u n p u b l i s h e d long poems o f up to 100 l i n e s , p l u s e a r l y u n p u b l i s h e d l e t t e r s t o h i s p a r e n t s and f r i e n d s , which c o n c l u s i v e l y document Pound's c o n c e n t r a t i o n on major form. Some of these m a t e r i a l s appear i n t h i s t h e s i s . A f u r t h e r reason f o r Pound's e f f o r t s a t major form remaining hidden l i e s i n the untrustworthy nature of Pound's t e x t s . Most c r i t i c s have tended to use the C o l l e c t e d S h o r t e r Poems, which i s based on the 1926 Personae. They c o u l d not t e l l from e i t h e r t e x t t h a t "Alba" and "Tame Cat", which t h e r e appear as i n d i v i d u a l poems, were o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d as elements i n a l o n g e r sequence, "Ze n i a . " As a r e s u l t of t h i s k i n d of problem, we f i n d even one of Pound's best c r i t i c s , p a s s i n g on too q u i c k l y to a d i s c u s s i o n o f the Cantos, t e l l i n g us wrongly t h a t the e a r l y poem "Au Salon" f i r s t appeared i n Personae (1909), along w i t h "Cino", "Na A u d i a r t " , "Mesmerism", and " V i l l o n a u d f o r T h i s Y u l e . " 7 Having p o i n t e d these t h i n g s out, I would l i k e to add t h a t I owe an enormous debt to Pound's c r i t i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y Hugh Kenner, K.K. Ruthven, Hugh Witemeyer, and Donald G a l l u p . More g e n e r a l l y , my understanding of the u n i t y of Pound's p o e t r y owes a g r e a t d e a l to the s t u d i e s of numerous 5 o t h e r c r i t i c s , e s p e c i a l l y to those by Donald Davie, D a n i e l Pearlman, and C h r i s t i n e Brooke-Rose. While I have noted p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s of the h e l p they have p r o v i d e d i n my t e x t , i t i s a p l e a s u r e t o acknowledge here my g e n e r a l indebtedness t o t h e i r works. T h i s t h e s i s demonstrates t h a t the coherent v i s i o n and s i n g l e impulse which l e d to the form of the Cantos a l s o u n d e r l a y a l l Pound's seemingly d i s p a r i t e e a r l y g experiments. In o r d e r t o demonstrate the u b i q u i t y of t h i s i n t e n t i o n , I have d i v i d e d t h i s study i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the t h r e e main stages of Pound's e a r l y development. P a r t One: I n s t i g a t i o n (1904-1911), demonstrates the two t h e o r i e s of p e r f e c t form t h a t f i r s t a t t r a c t e d Pound, and documents h i s d r i v e toward e v e r - s u b t l e r a r c h i t e c t o n i c s t r u c t u r e s i n t h i s i n i t i a l phase. P a r t Two: Experiment (1912-1919), r e - d e f i n e s the t h r e e q u a l i t i e s o f rhythm, tone, t e x t u r e , as they apply to Pound's experiments w i t h major form. P a r t Three: Accomplishment (1920-1925), d e s c r i b e s Pound's t h e o r e t i c a l breakthrough i n 1922, both i n terms of what provoked i t and what i t shared w i t h h i s e a r l i e s t f o r m u l a t i o n s ; a l s o , i t t r a c e s the e x p r e s s i o n of t h i s theory through XVI Cantos, d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between what has been c a r r i e d forward from the e a r l i e r experiments and what has been added, to show 6 t h a t though i t marked the f u s i o n of Pound's theory and p r a c t i c e o f p o e t r y , i t can o n l y be p r o p e r l y a p p r e c i a t e d i n the c o n t e x t o f a twenty-year experiment w i t h major form. In the C o n c l u s i o n , I p o i n t out t h a t the key moment i n the h i s t o r y o f Pound's e x p l o r a t i o n of major forms o c c u r r e d when h i s a s p i r a t i o n changed from wanting t o w r i t e a p u r e l y p e r s o n a l document t o attempting t o w r i t e a broader s o c i a l "testament." Underneath the f o r m a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e of h i s attempts a t major form, Pound's h o l i s t i c v i s i o n p r o v i d e d the base f o r h i s attempt t o "show men the way to t r y " to g a i n a more comprehensive understanding of the p a t t e r n e d i n t e g r i t i e s of the " v i t a l u n i v e r s e " : stone, t r e e , and m i n d — a l i v e . T h i s study makes no c l a i m to have t r e a t e d a l l r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s of Pound's development of major form. The o r g a n i z a t i o n of such volumes as L u s t r a , Umbra, Quia Pauper Amavi, and e s p e c i a l l y I n s t i g a t i o n s — o f which Pound s a i d i n 1934: "Years ago I made the mistake of p u b l i s h i n g a volume ( I n s t i g a t i o n s ) without b l a t a n t l y t e l l i n g the reader t h a t the book had a d e s i g n " (LE, 7 5 ) — c o u l d u s e f u l l y have been c o n s i d e r e d . However, t o have done so i n s a t i s f a c t o r y d e t a i l would have been t o e n l a r g e t h i s study w e l l beyond the imposed l i m i t s . S i m i l a r l y , my d i s c u s s i o n of XVI Cantos had t o be l i m i t e d t o a few of the ways i n which i t r e l a t e s to 7 themes and t e c h n i q u e s f i r s t e x p l o r e d i n e a r l i e r poems. I d e a l l y , the study would have i n c l u d e d a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the complete t e x t of Pound's Cantos, but t h i s would have taken the emphasis o f f the e x p l o r a t i o n of major form i n the e a r l y poems. The most t h a t can be c l a i m e d f o r t h i s study i s t h a t i t p r o v i d e s a new way of l o o k i n g a t the c o n t e x t o f Pound's e a r l y p o e t r y , draws a t t e n t i o n to h i s e a r l i e s t experiments w i t h major form, h i g h l i g h t s the i n t e g r i t y of h i s i n t e n t i o n d u r i n g the 1904-1925 p e r i o d , and documents h i s concern w i t h major form from the b e g i n n i n g o f h i s c a r e e r — a f a c t which, though o f t e n suspected or a s s e r t e d , has never b e f o r e been proved. 0 8 PART ONE: INSTIGATIONS: THE EARLY YEARS "A t r u e i d e a ( f o r we have a t r u e idea) i s something d i f f e r e n t from i t s i d e a l (ideatum). For a c i r c l e i s one t h i n g , and the i d e a o f one another. — B a r u c h Spinoza, "On the C o r r e c t i o n of the Understanding" "Most apt indeed t h a t I should choose t o study the 'F o o l ' s c i e n t i f i c a l l y " — E z r a Pound, 1905 9 I THE STARTING POINT: PRACTICE AND THEORY For the young Pound, the u l t i m a t e purpose of a r t was to draw the mind toward c o n t e m p l a t i o n of God."'' Duri n g the 1904-1911 p e r i o d he sought to c r e a t e through a r t what he termed an "equation of e t e r n i t y " which would l i f t him out of everyday e x p e r i e n c e i n t o a realm of e t e r n a l t r u t h , beauty, and j o y . H i s e a r l y p o e m s — p a r t i c u l a r l y the u n p u b l i s h e d o n e s — c o n t i n u a l l y r e f e r t o t h i s d e s i r e , but e x e m p l i f y the d i f f i c u l t y o f r e a l i z i n g i t . The fundamental problem i s t h a t he c o n c e i v e d the coherence of the u n i v e r s e not i n terms of an e a s i l y d i s c e r n i b l e o r d e r , as M i l t o n d i d , but r a t h e r as an e l u s i v e , s u b t l e , l i n k i n g f o r c e behind seemingly d i s p a r a t e r e a l i t i e s . Consequently, when he t r i e d to r e f l e c t t h i s k i n d of i n t a n g i b l e coherence i n the s t r u c t u r e o f h i s poems, he sometimes f a i l e d t o a chieve s u f f i c i e n t f o r mal u n i t y . Dante A l i g h i e r i , Pound's mentor a t t h i s time, c o u l d o f f e r no h e l p here. Pound's own profound b e l i e f i n a cosmos which i s e s s e n t i a l l y o r d e r e d and u n i f i e d c o n f l i c t e d w i t h h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f a s o c i a l o r human world which i s fragmented and c o n t r a d i c t o r y . He sought a form which would r e c o n c i l e h i s i n t u i t i v e c e r t i t u d e w i t h h i s immediate p e r c e p t i o n s , without b e i n g f a l s e t o e i t h e r . 10 A t t h i s v e r y e a r l y stage, Pound's p o e t r y v a c i l l a t e d between two g o a l s : " p e r f e c t " form and " o r g a n i c " form. We can see i n t h i s nascent stage a s t r o n g t e n s i o n between a p o e t i c form t h a t would i n i t s p e r f e c t i o n r e f l e c t the u l t i m a t e coherence of the u n i v e r s e , and a form t h a t would r e f l e c t not the a c h i e v e d coherence but the urge toward o r d e r of the c r e a t i v e human mind. Pound was a t t r a c t e d to both Dante and Browning. T h i s t e n s i o n between the q u a l i t i e s of s t a t i s and k i n e s i s became the s i n g l e most important s t r u g g l e i n the h i s t o r y of Pound's movement toward major form. I t was not u n t i l 1922 t h a t the s t r u g g l e was d e c i d e d — w i t h g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y but w i t h e q u a l l y d e c i s i v e f i n a l i t y — i n f a v o u r of k i n e s i s . Though t h i s s t r u c t u r a l d e c i s i o n gave the Cantos t h e i r mature shape, however, the b e l i e f i n d i v i n e o rder t h a t we see most c l e a r l y i n the e a r l i e s t poems c o n t r i b u t e s to the r e a d i n g of the Cantos i n a p e r v a s i v e and o f t e n unrecognized way. In t h i s c h apter we w i l l f i r s t i s o l a t e themes and techniques of Pound's e a r l i e s t p o e t r y t h a t are submerged, or hidden, i n h i s l a t e r work; next, we w i l l examine how the e v o l u t i o n of the metaphor of the c i r c l e i l l u s t r a t e s the d i r e c t i o n and pace o f Pound's g r a d u a l abandonment of the theory of p e r f e c t i o n as a b a s i s f o r the s t r u c t u r e of h i s own work. These two e a r l y glimpses of Pound's d e v e l o p i n g 11 mind and a r t p r o v i d e an important i n s i g h t to h i s l a t e r work. A The E a r l y Poems The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Pound's e a r l y quest t o g e t beyond c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y form i s t h a t they d i d not correspond, even from the b e g i n n i n g , to h i s i d e a of cosmogony. D e s p i t e the s u g g e s t i o n s of some c r i t i c a l c a r i c a t u r e s , however, Pound d i d not s t a r t out a f u l l - f l e d g e d l i t e r a r y r a d i c a l . He r e p u t e d l y wrote a sonnet a day f o r a y e a r . What he d i d w i t h the sonnet a f t e r t h a t i l l u s t r a t e s h i s temperament p e r f e c t l y . Becoming i m p a t i e n t w i t h the form's r e s t r i c t i o n s , he went on t o experiment w i t h the sonnet sequence. As R o s s e t t i had done i n the House o f L i f e , Pound sought to balance the demand of formal p e r f e c t i o n of the s i n g l e sonnet w i t h the emotional scope a f f o r d e d by a sequence of sonnets. Those who have p l a c e d Pound's experiments w i t h l o n g e r forms i n the 1915-20 p e r i o d have not taken these e a r l y experiments s u f f i c i e n t l y i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , p r o b a b l y because the sequences were broken up and p r e s e n t e d as s i n g l e sonnets by Pound i n c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s of h i s p o e t r y . 12 A t any r a t e , Pound's experiments d i d not stop w i t h the sonnet sequence. As e a r l y as 1911, he gave up w r i t i n g the sonnet a l t o g e t h e r , i n fa v o u r o f the canzone, which binds thought p a t t e r n s i n t o more s u b t l e , p o l y p h o n i c rhymes than the more c o n v e n t i o n a l and r e s t r i c t e d sonnet forms. T h i s e a r l y movement from w r i t i n g sonnets, t o sonnet sequences, and then t o the canzone, i l l u s t r a t e s t h r e e o f h i s b a s i c m o t i v a t i o n s : f i r s t , h i s urge toward p o e t i c i n c l u s i v e n e s s ; second, h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n o f l o s t p a t t e r n s of c r e a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n , as a t r i b u t e t o and a statement of a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h p a s t c r e a t i v e minds; t h i r d , h i s se a r c h f o r p o e t i c forms unusual enough t o express n e a r l y i n t a n g i b l e p e r c e p t i o n s — beyond the ear ' s normal range. These t e n d e n c i e s can be d e t e c t e d i n Pound's e a r l i e s t poems. "To La Contessa B i a n z a f i o r , " f o r i n s t a n c e , i s a sequence of f o u r sonnets meant f o r i n c l u s i o n i n Pound's second volume of p o e t r y , A Quinzaine For T h i s Yule ( 1 9 0 9 ) . T h i s sequence proves t h a t Pound c o u l d f o l l o w c o n v e n t i o n s . However, he d i d n ' t f o l l o w c o n v e n t i o n l o n g : i t i s the onl y one among dozens of h i s s e q u e n t i a l poems to m a i n t a i n a co n s t a n t number of l i n e s i n each s e c t i o n . Hugh Selwyn Mauberley, Homage to Sextus P r o p e r t i u s , the Cantos, and ot h e r s h o r t e r and l e s s w e l l known s e q u e n t i a l poems d i f f e r from "To La Contessa", a l l being c h a r a c t e r i z e d by 13 g r e a t v a r i e t y i n the l e n g t h of t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i o n s . But although Pound f a i t h f u l l y f o l l o w e d a r i g i d scheme i n "To La Contessa B i a n z a f i o r , " i t i s amusing to n o t i c e t h a t even here he c o u l d n ' t r e s i s t g i v i n g the l i n e s some v a r i e t y . Hence, alt h o u g h the octave i n a l l f o u r sonnets f o l l o w s an i n d e n t i c a l rhyme (abbaabba), and s e c t i o n s I and IV have i d e n t i c a l rhymes i n the s e s t e t (cdeedc), the s e s t e t s i n s e c t i o n s I I and I I I v a r y from t h i s p a t t e r n ( i . e., cddccd; c d c e d e ) . S i m i l a r l y , Pound v a r i e s the l i n e a t i o n of the sonnets t o d i s g u i s e t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y , so t h a t whereas s e c t i o n I I I f o l l o w s the t r a d i t i o n a l arrangement of d i v i s i o n a f t e r the octave, s e c t i o n I d i v i d e s the l a s t l i n e i n t o two ("And l o l / A thousand s o u l s t o t h i n e are b r o u g h t " ) . S e c t i o n IV expands the f i r s t two l i n e s of the o ctave t o f o u r , as w e l l as i s o l a t i n g the l a s t l i n e of the octave between the two s e c t i o n s of the sonnet ("Ye mock the l i n e s . Pardon a poor f o o l ' s whim"). S e c t i o n I I then d i v i d e s i n t o two f o u r - l i n e stanzas and two more of t h r e e l i n e s each. By a l t e r i n g the u s u a l v i s u a l appearance of the sonnet i n these ways, Pound foreshadowed h i s l i f e - l o n g rendency to c a r e f u l l y d i s g u i s e h i s s t r u c t u r a l d e v i c e s , and to adapt c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y methods to h i s own purposes. The c r i t i c a l treatment of h i s e a r l y poems as u n r e l a t e d fragments t e s t i f i e s t o the success of h i s d i s g u i s e s . 14 Another sonnet sequence we have access t o i s " L e v i o r a " , a sequence o f f o u r s o n n e t s — l i k e "To La Contessa B i a n z a f i o r " — t h r e e o f which Pound c u t from Canzoni a t the pro o f s t a g e s . In t h i s s e r i e s , l i k e the l a s t one, Pound f o l l o w s the abbaabba p a t t e r n i n each octave and v a r i e s the rhyme p a t t e r n i n the s e s t e t s . U n l i k e the sequence w r i t t e n t h r e e y ears e a r l i e r , however, " L e v i o r a " d i s c u s s e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the s t r i c t requirements o f the sonnet form and the poet's need t o express h i m s e l f i n an o r i g i n a l f a s h i o n . The f i r s t s e c t i o n , " A g a i n s t Form", laments the need t o speak through the sonnet form. To do so would be to abandon t r u t h f o r p r o p r i e t y : Whether my Lady w i l l t o hear o f me The unrhymed speech wherein the h e a r t i s heard, Or whether she p r e f e r the pefumed word And powdered cheek of masking i r o n y ? Decorous dance steps ape s i m p l i c i t y , The well-groomed sonnet i s t o t r u t h p r e f e r r e d ; L e t us be a l l t h i n g s so we're not absurd, Dabble w i t h forms and damn the v e r i t y . • • • And then t o have your fame f o r g e d doubly sure2 L e t t a s t e r u l e a l l and b i d the h e a r t be dumb. As soon as he wrote i t , Pound probably n o t i c e d t h a t t h i s sonnet s a c r i f i c e d " v e r i t y " t o form. At any r a t e , i n "Hie J a c e t " , the second sonnet, he d i s p a r a g e d h i m s e l f f o r having "Jammed our words w i t h i n the sonnet's rim." His 15 d i s c o m f o r t , w h i l e obvious, a t l e a s t shows t h a t he obeyed conv e n t i o n s b e f o r e he d i s c a r d e d them. In " L ' A r t , " however, the t h i r d sonnet o f the sequence and the o n l y one p u b l i s h e d i n Canzoni, Pound conceded t h a t master poets have been a b l e to t r e a t the same s u b j e c t i n w h o l l y o r i g i n a l ways. Horace, Shakespeare, S h e l l e y , and Keats have been a b l e to take a s i n g l e s u b j e c t and make i t new i n t u r n . Pound's c o n c l u s i o n from t h i s , " ' T i s A r t to hide our t h e f t e x q u i s i t e l y , " (C, 38) i m p l i e s t h a t genius can r e v i v i f y any f o r m — a c o n c l u s i o n which tempers h i s e a r l i e r c r i t i c i s m s . The f a c t t h a t the t h r e e o t h e r s e c t i o n s were d e l e t e d from Canzoni, however, abandoning the form, i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n h i s own experiments he was t u r n i n g away from the sonnet and toward the g r e a t e r scope of the canzone, as e a r l y as 1911. The sonnet was not the o n l y form of r e s t r i c t i o n from which Pound sought to break f r e e i n h i s a r t i n order to a c h i e v e t r u t h f u l n e s s . In the e a r l y poem o f some l e n g t h "Capilupus Sends G r e e t i n g s to Grotus," f o r i n s t a n c e , he gave p e r s o n a l g o a l s p r i o r i t y over c o n v e n t i o n a l rhymes and metres: I care no more f o r the tumble of an i c t u s 16 Or the t i n k l e of a rime' Than thou d o s t f o r the c o l o r Of the paper my b r i e f words Be p r i n t e d on, So to God's g l o r y they be s t r o n g , With a l l a man's good f e e l i n g And contempt of sneers. And know ye I w i l l not bend To rime yoke nor t o time yoke, Nor w i l l I bow to B a a l Nor weak c o n v e n t i o n That the c r a w l e r s t h i n k i s law. Know you t h a t I would Make my poem, as I would make myself From a l l the b e s t t h i n g s , o f a l l good men And g r e a t men t h a t go b e f o r e me. Yet above a l l be myself.(CEP,266) Pound's comparison of the c o n v e n t i o n a l use of metre and rhyme to bowing to a f a l s e god, shows t h a t h i s concept of v e r i t y i n a r t i n v o l v e d an u n c o n v e n t i o n a l stance toward and s e l e c t i o n from " a l l the b e s t t h i n g s , " " a l l the good men," i n o r d e r t o d e f i n e one's t r u e s e l f . H i s t e c h n i c a l i d i o s y n c r a c y i n l a t e r y e ars f i n d s i t s r o o t s here, i n the e q u a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i o n w i t h t r u t h f u l n e s s . Another of Pound's e a r l y u n p u b l i s h e d poems, "Alba," s i m i l a r l y defends f r e e e x p r e s s i o n . The t e n s i o n between the p r e d i c t a b i l i t y of the c o u p l e t s and the v a r i e t y of l i n e a t i o n supports Yeats' o b s e r v a t i o n about the young Pound: " i f he 17 w r i t e s rhyme l i k e an amateur he w r i t e s rhythm l i k e a 3 master." Oh why should I c h a i n them Free words and g l a d Into metre, i n t o rime Why make t h e i r joyous f e e t keep time To warden's c a l l And f e t t e r e d b a l l In l o c k - s t e p measure? What care you f o r p l o d d i n g f e e t Of d u l l hexametre, My Sweet? Why c o n f i n e your f l o w i n g h a i r In a sonnet's snood, My F a i r ? L e t winds make p l a y And r a i n k i s s s t r a y On your brow For I trow There i s enough of bondage now So t h a t we need not b i n d you, L i t t l e S i s t e r of the sun of dreams. The expanded f i n a l l i n e s u r p r i s i n g l y d e f i e s the r e s t r i c t i o n s on l e n g t h and the e x p e c t a t i o n s s e t up i n the r e s t o f the poem. I t s i n c l u s i v e n e s s e x e m p l i f i e s freedom from a l l forms of bondage. T h i s technique appears i n "Anima S o l a " as w e l l , where the f i n a l s tanza r e j e c t s the a l t e r n a t i o n o f th r e e and f o u r s t r e s s l i n e s s e t up e a r l i e r i n the poem: And l o ! I r e f u s e your b i d d i n g . I w i l l not bow to the e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t ye have. Lo! I am gone as a r e d flame i n t o the m i s t , 18 My chord i s u n r e s o l v e d by your counter-harmonies. In both poems the i n c l u s i v e metre of the f i n a l l i n e serves to subsume a l l p r e c e d i n g i n d i v i d u a l a s p e c t s i n t o an o v e r a l l r e a l i t y , t o absorb d e t a i l s i n t o a s y n c r e t i c v i s i o n . T h i s i d e a of a f i n a l " r e s o l u t i o n " demonstrates Pound's p h i l o s o p h i c h o l i s m . The e p i g r a p h to "Anima S o l a " f u r t h e r expresses Pound's b i a s toward a concept of a g u i d i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e of the u n i v e r s e : "In the f i r m v e s s e l of harmony i s f i x e d God, a sphere, round, r e j o i c i n g i n complete s o l i t u d e " (ALS, 31) . Thus, a l t h o u g h the supreme i n t e l l i g e n c e appears as a sphere, symbolic of p e r f e c t i o n , i t s p e r f e c t harmonies are cosmic r a t h e r than human. Indeed, they may seem to human ears e i t h e r disharmonious, o or so s u b t l e as t o be n o n - e x i s t e n t : "My music i s your disharmony / I n t a n g i b l e , most mad." The p e r f e c t work o f a r t , s i m i l a r l y , may s u f f e r from the c r i t i c i s m t h a t i t i s e i t h e r disharmonious or so i n t e r n a l l y s t r u c t u r e d as to appear to conform to no r u l e s or o r g a n i z a t i o n . As we have seen, Pound was a l r e a d y w e l l on h i s way to r e j e c t i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l forms of o r g a n i z a t i o n i n favour of l e s s t a n g i b l e s t r u c t u r i n g d e v i c e s , because these more n e a r l y approached h i s concept of the o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e of the u n i v e r s e . The s t r u c t u r e of a r t was to m i r r o r the s t r u c t u r e 19 of r e a l i t y . "Pageantry," another e a r l y u n p u b l i s h e d poem of some l e n g t h , e l a b o r a t e d Pound's b e l i e f t h a t not o n l y must the a s p i r i n g poet f r e e h i m s e l f from c o n v e n t i o n a l modes, but a l s o express a l o v e f o r the d i v i n e element i n humanity. He must use p o e t r y to express h i s f a i t h i n the d i v i n e coherence of the u n i v e r s e , i n i t s e s s e n t i a l r i g h t n e s s : Spenser i n b r o i d e r e d v a i r Where i s thy s p i r i t , where Is the naked t r u t h That s t a n d e t h i n Browning's l i n e 'Thout ruth? Dante, amid the spheres Where i n the flow of years Thy f o l l o w i n g Who from the "olde French booke" Can take, as Chaucer took L i v e f o l k i n t r u e romance Where are the songs f o r dance Of P r o v e n c a l troubador? What f e l l o w here can . . . maketh moan For the measured song That the Greek c h o r i c throng R a i s e d unto marble d e i t i e s Neath the E l y s i a n t r e e s With robes of Cos and Chian wine T i l l man's s e l f grew d i v i n e A - p r a i s i n g Dion of the groves? 20 Where, men and b r o t h e r s , where Is t h e r e a wight w i t h w i t so r a r e That w i l l take l i f e ' s j o y t o the f u l l That w i l l make a song of h i s l i v i n g S p i t e the p r e f a c e o f prose That w i l l be t o God a joyous son , And t e a r the t h o r n from h i s r o s e . There i s no t r a c e here o f the " c u l t o f u g l i n e s s " which e n t e r s Pound's p o e t r y i n "Und Drang" (Canzoni) as he begins to d e a l w i t h modern s o c i e t y i n h i s work. Here the job of a r t i s simply t o c u l l the p a r a d i s a l garden, t o " t e a r the th o r n " from God's rose ( i . e . , man). T h i s a n t i - P r e s b y t e r i a n emphasis on man's e s s e n t i a l goodness does not emerge unchanged from Pound's desperate attempt t o make a l i v i n g by s e l l i n g h i s p o e t r y from 1911 onwards, but i t does remind us t h a t h o l i s m l i e s a t the core o f Pound's p o e t i c s . E s s e n t i a l l y , he saw the human s p i r i t as n u r t u r e d and p r o t e c t e d by the supreme i n t e l l i g e n c e o f the u n i v e r s e , a s p i r i n g as i n e v i t a b l y upwards to t h i s i n t e l l i g e n c e as a moth t o l i g h t , o r a flame t o the sky. Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , Pound f e l t l i t t l e a f f i n i t y w i t h h i s contemporaries i n t h i s r e g a r d , nor w i t h h i s immediate l i t e r a r y p r e d e c e s s o r s , whose "poetry o f nerves" he 21 d i s m i s s e d i n " R e v o l t , A g a i n s t the C r e p u s c u l a r S p i r i t i n Modern Po e t r y " (Personae). He was more a t t r a c t e d to the Renaissance L a t i n i s t s , i n whose p o e t r y he admired not o n l y the f e e l i n g f o r n a t u r e , but a l s o the innocence and l a c k o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n found t h e r e . In the v e r y e a r l y essay, "M. Antonius F l a m i n i u s and JohnKeats," 5 he t r a n s l a t e d a passage from F l a m i n i u s which i s "not dead c l a s s i c i s m ; i t i s p a s t o r a l u n s p o i l e d by any sham beauty. He i s a l i v e t o the r e a l people as w e l l as t o the s p i r i t s o f the p o o l s and t r e e s " : Thus may the mother o f l o v e s be tender and g i v e thee youth f o r e v e r , Keeping the bloom of thy cheek unfurrowed. And a f t e r the day's l a s t meal, w i t h thy mother and sweet L y c i n n a , may'st thou v i s i t my mother, Pholoe b e l o v e d , And t o g e t h e r we w i l l watch by the g r e a t f i r e And t h a t n i g h t w i l l be more s h i n i n g than the f a i r n e s s o f the day, As the o l d wives r e t e l l t h e i r t a l e s we w i l l s i n g joyous songs, w h i l e l i t t l e L y c i n n a r o a s t s her c h e s t n u t s . Thus we w i l l b e g u i l e the n i g h t w i t h mellow m i r t h T i l l o v e r - c o v e r i n g s l e e p weight down our eye-l i d s . While l i t t l e L y c i n n a r o a s t i n g her c h e s t n u t s r e p r e s e n t s a d e f i n i t e accomplishment i n the p o r t r a y a l o f a r e a l person, and Pound's a d m i r a t i o n f o r her c o n v i n c e s , an urge to 2 2 s o p h i s t i c a t i o n a l s o appears i n the e a r l y Pound. His i n c r e a s i n g use of i r o n y and s a t i r e d u r i n g the l a t e 1910's t e s t i f i e d t o t h i s attempt t o a t t a i n s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the Homage and Mauberley, but i t never e n t i r e l y d i s p l a c e d h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n of innocence. Pound ends h i s essay on F l a m i n i u s w i t h a t r i b u t e t o the a b i l i t y o f the innoce n t h e a r t t o r e v e a l u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s : To Rome of golden L a t i n i t y the myths were s t a l e , a matter o f course, a b e l i e f b e g i n n i n g t o d i e . To the Renaissance they were a world of e l u s i v e beauty, new found (as i n C e l t i c myths i n our own day) and t h e i r wonder was dew-fresh upon them,.even as i t always i s to whoso t r u l y c a r e s t o f i n d i t . For M e t a s t a s i o was q u i t e r i g h t when he sang t h a t the Golden Age i s not a dead t h i n g , but s t i l l l i v i n g i n the h e a r t s o f the innoce n t . Pound quoted M e t a s t a s i o ' s c e l e b r a t i o n o f innocence, i n c r u c i a l l y important c o n t e x t s , over the next t h i r t y y e a r s . In "Prolegomena" (1912) , f o r i n s t a n c e , he l e d o f f one of h i s most extended d i s c u s s i o n s of the purpose of poetry w i t h t h i s comment: " M e t a s t a s i o , and he should know i f anyone," ass u r e s us t h a t t h i s age e n d u r e s — e v e n though the modern poet i s expected t o h a l l o a h i s v e r s e down a speaking tube to e d i t o r s of cheap m a g a z i n e s — . . . even though these t h i n g s be, the age of g o l d p e r t a i n s . Imperceivably, i f you l i k e , but p e r t a i n s . " As the e t e r n a l music i n "Anima S o l a " 23 seems i n t a n g i b l e , so the age of g o l d p e r t a i n s i m p e r c e i v a b l y ; p o e t r y p r e s e r v e s t h i s m a g i c a l v i s i o n o f d i v i n e grace and u l t i m a t e coherence. The f i r s t Ur-canto ( 1 9 1 7 ) p o i n t s to the e x i s t e n c e of gods, u s i n g Sirmione, as F l a m i n i u s had done, to exemplify not merely a p l a c e , but a s t a t e o f mind: Our o l i v e S i r m i o L i e s i n i t s b u r n i s h e d m i r r o r , and the Mounts Balde and R i v a Are a l i v e w i t h song, and a l l the l e a v e s are f u l l o f v o i c e s . "Non e f u g g i t o . " " I t i s not gone." M e t a s t a s i o Is r i g h t — w e have t h a t w o r l d about us, And the c l o u d s bow above the l a k e , and t h e r e are f o l k upon them . . . q How s h a l l we s t a r t hence, how b e g i n the p r o g r e s s ? H e r e — b e g i n n i n g h i s long-planned " l o n g poem"—Pound d e s c r i b e s Sirmione as the g o a l of "the p r o g r e s s . " From the b e g i n n i n g , the Cantos were c o n c e i v e d as a " p r o g r e s s " t h a t would l e a d man back to the p a r a d i s a l garden, the magic c i r c l e o f c e r t i t u d e and coherence. S i m i l a r l y , Pound chose to b e g i n XVI Cantos ( 1 9 2 5 ) w i t h a t r a n s l a t i o n from the o l d e s t p a r t of Homer's poem, the Nekuia: he began by r e t u r n i n g t o the l i t e r a r y source. A l s o , i n canto two he evoked a m y t h i c a l world: a r e t u r n t o the i m a g i n a t i v e 24 source. T h i s r e t r o s p e c t i v e b i a s was p a r t of Pound's attempt t o r e c a p t u r e f o r h i s poem the s y n c r e t i c world v i s i o n o f the Renaissance and i t s f a i t h i n the coherence of the world. Hence, Pound agai n used M e t a s t a s i o ( i n Guide t o Kulchur) to oppose the s k e p t i c i s m i n Johnson's "On the' V a n i t y of Human Wishes": "Taking i t by and l a r g e the poem i s buncombe. Human wishes are not v a i n i n the l e a s t . The t o t a l statement i s buncombe. The d e t a i l s acute and sagaciou s . M e t a s t a s i o knew more."(GK,180). The b r i e f n e s s of t h i s r e f e r e n c e has hidden i t s importance from Pound's c r i t i c s . I t c o n t a i n s a g r e a t d e a l o f u n - F a s c i s t i c t o l e r a n c e . The Ghero Anthology i n which Pound d i s c o v e r e d F l a m i n i u s i s c e l e b r a t e d i n another of Pound's e a r l y u n p u b l i s h e d poems, "On the F i n d i n g o f the C o l l e c t i o n of Ghero: Nigh an Hundred L o s t Poets of O l d Time T h e r e i n . " Here, as i n the essay, the L a t i n c l a s s i c i s t s o f the Renaissance are seen t o be i n p o s s e s s s i o n of a t r a d i t i o n o f e t e r n a l t r u t h s : C a p i l u p u s too was of you, was s i l e n t , T i l l h i s own s o u l found him, crowned him, bound him With new l a u r e l s p r o c l a i m e d him Master o f song, and named him "The poet of l o s t y e a r s . " Bowed 'neath times 25 o v e r - f l o o d B u r i e d i n tome-tomb o l d T i l l one who "understood" Flamed through the parchment's f o l d LO I AM THE RENAISSANCE. (YC) As "Pageantry" c e l e b r a t e d Dante, Spenser, Browning, Chaucer, and the tro u b a d o r s f o r t h e i r p o s i t i v e q u a l i t i e s , "Ghero" admired not o n l y the f a i t h o f the L a t i n w r i t e r s o f the Renaissance, but a l s o Ghero's accomplishment i n p r e s e r v i n g t h e i r w r i t i n g i n h i s anthology. Pound l a t e r admired C o n f u c i u s and the c o l l e c t o r o f the Noh p l a y s f o r the same reason, and compiled h i s own anthology, C o n f u c i u s to Cummings. While l i b e r a t i n g h i m s e l f from t e c h n i c a l c o n v e n t i o n s , Pound worked t o re-examine c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y i n se a r c h o f examples o f b u r i e d beauty. Respect f o r p a s t accomplishments i s another t r a i t f o r which Pound, as an i c o n o c l a s t , has not r e c e i v e d s u f f i c i e n t c r e d i t . The type of h i s t o r i c a l c h a r a c t e r Pound a p p r e c i a t e d can be seen i n another e a r l y poem of some l e n g t h , "Jacques C h a r d i n a l — o f the A l b i g e n s e s , " which p r e s e n t s the c u l t u r e o f the A l b i g e n s i a n s as a luminous d e t a i l , a peak of European c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y . Here the doomed l e a d e r o f the A l b i g e n s i a n s defends the a b i l i t y o f A r t to s u r v i v e , to continue t o p r o t e c t t r u t h and beauty from the c o n s t a n t a s s a u l t s of a v i n d i c t i v e world: 26 the a r t s f a i l not w h i l e y e t our b l o o d s h a l l b i d the A r t s w i t h s t a y Hate and the c o l d and wrath wherewith the world would s l a y Beauty, t h a t b e i n g T r u t h doth a l l the world Accuse of a l l world's shame and w o r l d l y l i t t l e n e s s . So Triumph, t i l l the sun w i t h us S h a l l d i e f o r one l a s t time entombed i n g o l d . (CEP,245) M e t a s t a s i o ' s world, the magic c i r c l e , i s w i t h i n the reach o f those w i t h s u f f i c i e n t w i l l t o v i s i o n . The a r t i s t p r e s e r v e s T r u t h and Beauty by i n c o r p o r a t i n g them i n h i s song, p r o t e c t e d from the wrath o f "the world." T h i s concept o f o p p o s i t i o n between the a r t i s t and s o c i e t y , which l a t e r developed i n t o a s t a p l e of Pound's v e r s e , i s thus prepared f o r here. In the e a r l y u n p u b l i s h e d n a r r a t i v e poem "Old Chests: With Thanks t o L e i g h Hunt," the attempt to b u r s t the bands of technique and to p e n e t r a t e i n t o the e s s e n t i a l core o f t r u t h was subsumed under the attempt to r e v e a l the s o u l o f man: Nay t o be b r i e f and end i t a l l , . T h i s my mad s t r i v i n g t o b u r s t the bands of technique And p i e r c e t h ' e x p r e s s i o n t o the very t r u t h I'd show the h e a r t and b l o o d and not the c l o t h e s The k i n g and not h i s crown 27 The man's s o u l not h i s w a i s t c o a t . And i f I may not, a t l e a s t show Men the way to t r y . . . (YC) Such a p u r s u i t enobled p o e t r y f o r Pound, s i n c e i t concerned i t s e l f — a s d i d the supreme i n t e l l i g e n c e of the u n i v e r s e — w i t h e t e r n a l v a l u e s . T h i s b e l i e f g uided Pound's attempt t o w r i t e h i s long poem f o r the next s i x t e e n y e a r s . The e s s e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t y which the young Pound encountered i n h i s attempt t o " a t l e a s t show/Men the way to t r y " t o p e n e t r a t e the t r u t h o f the cosmos, was t h a t as he grew he found h i s concept of the u n i v e r s e e n l a r g i n g . T h i s continuous d i s c o v e r y o f new i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s made i t d i f f i c u l t f o r him to summarize h i s v i s i o n i n t o a s i n g l e coherent statement. H i s p e r c e p t i o n of t h i s d i f f i c u l t y was put most v i v i d l y i n the e a r l y , u n p u b l i s h e d , "To R.B." Though the " c r u s t o f dead E n g l i s h " s t i l l plagued h i s s t y l e , Pound s t a t e d h i s d i s c o v e r y i n Robert Browning of a shared v i s i o n of u n i v e r s a l coherence: Begin w i t h a d i f f e r e n t or a new i d e a and as we grow, f o l l o w i n g t h a t i d e a i n a l l i t s byways and branches, so we grow to comprehend i t but a p a r t o f some g r e a t e r thought t r e e , seen b e f o r e i n some o t h e r p a r t and not known by us to be the same. So my C a v a l c a n t i growing, j o i n s S o r d e l l o , S o r d e l l o whom my f a i n t u n d erstanding f a i l e d t o comprehend t i l l Guido stood ready f o r the 28 a c t i n g . Then l o o k i n g on the f r u i t s o f both these men For f r u i t i s the t r e e ' s token, Lo thou one branch, and I A s m a l l e r stem have broken, Both of one t r e e and i n q u a l i t y the same, thou show'st th'incomprehension's s e l f Being g r e a t e r and poet. . . . [40 l i n e s omitted] But I ramble as ever, Thought h a l f - c u t from next t h o u g h t — Two r a d i i i l l seen are b l u r r e d to one. And i n o'er g r e a t c o n f u s i o n The p r i e s t and l e v i t e p a s s i n g , See no r a d i i , as such, a t a l l ; Nor even guess the c i r c l e and i t s laws Or know a c e n t r e and t h a t l i v e s l e a d t h i t h e r . Or l i v i n g mid mixed l i n e s , Have no chance to hear The harmonies of thought God-leading. (YC) But Pound found h i s attempt to c r e a t e harmonies "of thought God-leading," to c r e a t e a magic c i r c l e i n h i s a r t , f r u s t r a t e d by h i s growth of understanding: "Two r a d i i i l l seen are b l u r r e d t o one." H i s d i f f i c u l t y r e v e a l e d i t s e l f through the two metaphors he chose to express coherence. On the one hand t h e r e i s the c i r c l e , p e r f e c t l y c e n t r e d by God, which r e f l e c t s i t s e l f i n the p e r f e c t work of a r t ; on the o t h e r , t h e r e i s the t r e e , which e x p l o r e d " i n a l l i t s • byways and branches" r e v e a l s i t s e l f but a p a r t "of some g r e a t e r thought t r e e , " and cannot f i n d i t s proper 29 e x p r e s s i o n i n a completed work of a r t . Pound d i d not y e t h o l d the b e l i e f t h a t s i n c e f o l l o w i n g the t r e e ' s byways and branches mimicks the mind's movement, a r t i s t i c k i n e s i s p r o v i d e s the b e s t way t o t r a c e the path of man's d i v i n e spark. B The C i r c l e I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t the metaphor of the c i r c l e c h a r a c t e r i z e d Pound's comments about a r t d u r i n g the 1908-1915 p e r i o d . Dante's Commedia was the model Pound wanted to emulate i n h i s own long poem, and he compared i t s formal p e r f e c t i o n t o t h a t of the c i r c l e i n The S p i r i t of Romance (1910). What i s more s u p r i s i n g i s the d e t a i l e d way i n which he compared i t s g e o m e t r i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s t o those of a mathematical e q u a t i o n . Pound cl a i m e d t h a t the f o u r l e v e l s o f meaning i n the poem ( i . e . , the l i t e r a l , the a l l e g o r i c a l , the a n a g o g i c a l , the e t h i c a l ) c o u l d be compared to the formula a 2 + b 2 = c 2 , which expresses: 1 s t . A s e r i e s of a b s t r a c t numbers i n a c e r t a i n 30 r e l a t i o n to each o t h e r . 2nd. A r e l a t i o n between c e r t a i n a b s t r a c t numbers. 3rd. The r e l a t i v e dimensions of a f i g u r e ; i n t h i s case a t r i a n g l e . 4th. The i d e a or i d e a l of a c i r c l e . Thus the Commedia i s , i n the l i t e r a l sense, a d e s c r i p t i o n of Dante's v i s i o n of a journey through the realms i n h a b i t e d by the s p i r i t s o f men a f t e r death; i n a f u r t h e r sense, i t i s the journey of Dante's i n t e l l i g e n c e through the s t a t e s of mind wherein d w e l l a l l s o r t s and c o n d i t i o n s of men b e f o r e death; beyond t h i s , Dante or Dante's i n t e l l i g e n c e may come to mean "Everyman" or "Mankind," whereas h i s journey becomes a symbol o f mankind's s t r u g g l e upward out of ignorance i n t o the c l e a r l i g h t o f p h i l o s o p h y . . . In a f o u r t h sense, the Commedia i s an e x p r e s s i o n of the laws o f e t e r n a l j u s t i c e ; " i l c o n t r a p a s s o , " the counterpass, as B e r t r a n c a l l s i t or the law of Karma, i f we are to use an O r i e n t a l term. Every g r e a t work of a r t owes i t s g r e a t n e s s to some such c o m p l e x i t y . (SR, 127-28). A r t becomes as e x p l i c a b l e as a mathematical formula f o r the c i r c l e . S i m i l a r l y , two years l a t e r , i n "The Wisdom o f Poetry"(1912), Pound made an extended comparison between what "the a n a l y t i c a l geometer does f o r space and time" and what "the poet does f o r the s t a t e s of c o n s c i o u s n e s s " : By ( a - r ) 2 + ( b - r ) 2 = ( c - r ) 2 , I imply the c i r c l e and i t s mode of b i r t h . I am l e d from the c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the p a r t i c u l a r c i r c l e s formed by my i n k - w e l l and my t a b l e - r i m , to the contemplation of the c i r c l e a b s o l u t e , i t s law; the c i r c l e f r e e i n a l l space, unbounded, l o o s e d from the a c c i d e n t s of time and p l a c e . I s the formula n o t h i n g , or i s i t c a b a l a and the s i g n of u n i n t e l l i g i b l e magic? The engineer, understanding and t r a n s l a t i n g t o the many, b u i l d s f o r the u n i n i t i a t e d b r i d g e s and d e v i c e s . He speaks t h e i r language. For the i n i t i a t e d the s i g n s are a door i n t o e t e r n i t y and 31 the boundless e t h e r . As the a b s t r a c t mathematician i s to s c i e n c e so i s the poet to the world's consciousness. N e i t h e r has d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h the many, n e i t h e r of them i s superhuman or a r r i v e s a t h i s u t i l i t y through o c c u l t and i n e x p l i c a b l e ways. Both are s c i e n t i f i c a l l y demonstrable. (SP,332). The poet seeks to c r e a t e a b s o l u t e equations i n h i s a r t , t o c r e a t e a "magic c i r c l e , " but he does so i n s c i e n t i f i c a l l y demonstrable ways, and h i s work may have p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s , l i k e a road or a b r i d g e ; hence, Pound went on to compare the poet's f u n c t i o n to t h a t of two mathematicians whose a b s t r a c t computations, undertaken " f o r no cause other than t h e i r p l e a s u r e i n the work" l e d to the w i r e l e s s t e l e g r a p h . And two years l a t e r , Pound p u b l i s h e d " V o r t i c i s m " i n the F o r t n i g h t l y Review (September 1914), u s i n g the formula f o r the c i r c l e developed e a r l i e r t o e x p l a i n the k i n d of dynamism i m p l i e d by " v o r t i c i s m . " Using the idiom of a n a l y t i c a l geometry, Pound says, "one i s a b l e a c t u a l l y to c r e a t e " : The equation ( x - a ) 2 + ( y - b ) 2 = r 2 governs the c i r c l e . I t i s the c i r c l e . I t i s not a p a r t i c u l a r c i r c l e , i t i s any c i r c l e and a l l c i r c l e s . I t i s nothing t h a t i s not a c i r c l e . I t i s the c i r c l e f r e e of space and time l i m i t s . I t i s the u n i v e r s a l , e x i s t i n g 32 i n p e r f e c t i o n , i n freedom from space and time . . . . I t i s i n t h i s way t h a t a r t handles l i f e . The d i f f e r e n c e between a r t and a n a l y t i c a l geometry i s the d i f f e r e n c e o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o n l y . A r t i s more i n t e r e s t i n g i n p r o p o r t i o n as l i f e and the human co n s c i o u s n e s s are more complex and i n t e r e s t i n g than form and numbers . . . . Great works of a r t c o n t a i n t h i s . . . s o r t of e q u a t i o n . They cause form t o come i n t o b e i n g . By the "image" I mean such an eq u a t i o n ; not an eq u a t i o n o f mathematics, not something about a, b, and c, having something to do w i t h form, but about sea, c l i f f s , n i g h t , having something t o do w i t h mood. The image i s not an i d e a . I t i s a r a d i a n t node, or c l u s t e r ; i t i s what I can, and must p e r f o r c e , c a l l a VORTEX, from which, and through which, and i n t o which, i d e a s are c o n s t a n t l y r u s h i n g . That i s , the formula f o r the c i r c l e p r o v i d e s an analogy f o r a dynamic complexity i n a r t , a v i t a l i t y s p r i n g i n g out of the a r t i s t ' s a b i l i t y t o condense l i f e and "the human co n s c i o u s n e s s " i n t o an a r t i s t i c v o r t e x . Even from t h i s b r i e f s k e t c h of Pound's use of the e q u a t i o n f o r the c i r c l e , we can see h i s thoughts about i t e v o l v i n g . That i s , Pound's concept of a r t i s t i c p e r f e c t i o n changed d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d ; i t became an important duty of a r t to r e p r e s e n t the v i t a l i t y of " l i f e and the human co n s c i o u s n e s s " r a t h e r than to r e f l e c t the p e r f e c t formal u n i t y o f the cosmos. Not o n l y Pound's concept o f a r t , but h i s concept o f the u n i v e r s e had begun t o s h i f t i n emphasis 33 from s t a s i s to k i n e s i s . But p r i o r to 1914, Pound was l e s s a t t r a c t e d to Browning's view of s h i f t i n g r e a l i t i e s o f the u n i v e r s e i n S o r d e l l o than t o Dante's v i s i o n of i t s f o r m a l p e r f e c t i o n i n the Commedia. In h i s e a r l i e s t p r o j e c t i o n s o f the shape of h i s long poem, composed around 1904, he planned to develop i t i n t h r e e s e c t i o n s , each w i t h i t s own metre and i t s own mood: the f i r s t i n t e r z i n e , having to do w i t h emotion, . . the second i n pentameters, having t o do w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n ; the t h i r d i n hexameters, having to do w i t h contemplation.^''" He g r a d u a l l y dropped such r i g i d g u i d e l i n e s , and such a formal c o r r e l a t i o n between technique and manner o f treatment, but the f a c t t h a t he should have even s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d i t i s a s t o n i s h i n g when one l o o k s a t the unprogrammatic form of the Cantos. However, as l a t e as 1911 we can f i n d o t h e r evidence of h i s i n t e r e s t i n h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d works i n " R e d o n d i l l a s , or Something of That S o r t , " where he c i t e s the E t h i c s of Baruch Spinoza. He mentions Spinoza o n l y i n p a s s i n g w i t h i n the t e x t of the poem, but i n c l u d e s t h r e e q u o t a t i o n s from h i s work i n the appended notes, which p r o v i d e an i n s i g h t to Pound's thought a t t h i s time: 34 "The more p e r f e c t i o n a t h i n g possesses the more i t a c t s , and the l e s s i t s u f f e r s , and c o n v e r s e l y the more i t a c t s , the more p e r f e c t i t i s . " "When the mind contemplates i t s e l f and i t s power o f a c t i n g , i t r e j o i c e s , and i t r e j o i c e s i n p r o p o r t i o n to the d i s t i n c t n e s s w i t h which i t imagines i t s e l f and i t s power of a c t i o n . " And another passage . . . where he d e f i n e s "The i n t e l l e c t u a l l o v e " o f a n y t h i n g as "The u n derstanding of i t s p e r f e c t i o n s . " O b v i o u s l y , Pound had read the E t h i c s w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t . . The f i r s t q u o t a t i o n equates p e r f e c t i o n w i t h c r e a t i v e energy, the second equates joy w i t h the d i s t i n c t n e s s of mental v i s i o n (foreshadowing Imagisme), the t h i r d equates l o v e w i t h c r e a t i v e a n a l y s i s . I t i s not necessary to l a b o u r ' the p o i n t of how p r e c i s e l y these s e l e c t i o n s r e f l e c t e d Pound's a t t i t u d e to a r t , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d to the n e c e s s i t y to add d e t a i l e d knowledge to i n s p i r a t i o n . He never v a l u e d a r t i s t i c s e r e n d i p i t y : e.g., "Here e r r o r i s a l l i n the not d o n e , / a l l i n the d i f f i d e n c e t h a t f a l t e r e d " (canto 81). Though h i s own mind jumped a b o u t — s e l e c t i v e l y — h e g r e a t l y admired works of the o p p o s i t e k i n d : cogent, s e q u e n t i a l , c a r e f u l l y reasoned. The occurrence of these c i t a t i o n s i n " R e d o n d i l l a s " does seem completely out of p l a c e , however, s i n c e i t 35 rambles from one thought to the next, whereas Spinoza's E t h i c s obeys r i g i d s t r u c t u r a l g u i d e l i n e s s e t out w i t h mathematical p r e c i s i o n , so t h a t i n i t i a l axioms are f o l l o w e d by p o s t u l a t e s , p r o o f s , e t c . Pound's a t t r a c t i o n to the book can be e x p l a i n e d by the f a c t t h a t Spinoza, l i k e Dante, attempted a " s y n t h e s i s of the whole of r e a l i t y " i n h i s work, p r e c e i v e d the cosmos as Pure A c t , and man as moving through t h i s u n i f y i n g p a t t e r n guided toward harmony by the e n l i g h t e n i n g power of d i v i n e reason. As T.S. Gregory puts i t , Spinoza c o n c e i v e d of God as a verb, r a t h e r than a noun: Whereas i n common speech, the word God ranks as a noun so t h a t t h e o l o g i a n s w i l l make Him the s u b j e c t or o b j e c t of q u i t e o r d i n a r y p r e d i c a t e s w i t h a s t o n i s h i n g f a c i l i t y , S pinoza t h i n k s of God r a t h e r as a verb and of a l l e x i s t e n t t h i n g s a modes of t h i s a c t i v i t y . The world i s not a c o l l e c t i o n of t h i n g s , but a c o n f l a g r a t i o n of A c t whose innumberable flames are but one f i r e . Pound shared t h i s s y n c r e t i c v i s i o n of the cosmos as i n t e r a c t i n g f o r c e s , as shown i n h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r F e n o l l o s a ' s The Chinese W r i t t e n C h a r a c t e r as a Medium f o r Poetry, which c e l e b r a t e s a c t i v e verbs as the key to u n d erstanding n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s . S i n c e f o r Pound, too, the u n i v e r s e c o n s i s t e d of i n t e r r e l a t e d a c t i v i e s r a t h e r than " t h i n g s , " h i s concept of stone a l i v e , t r e e a l i v e , mind a l i v e , harmonized w i t h the thought of both F e n o l l o s a and 36 Spinoza. T h i s b r i e f review of some correspondence of thought between Pound and Spinoza makes i t e a s i e r t o understand why he o f f e r e d the p h i l o s o p h e r as a"world p r e s c r i p t i o n " f o r the 1910's i n " R e d o n d i l l a s " : I f you ask me to w r i t e world p r e s c r i p t i o n s I w r i t e so t h a t any may read i t : A l i t t l e l e s s P a ul V e r l a i n e , A good sound stave of Spinoza, A l i t t l e l e s s of our nerves A l i t t l e more w i l l toward v i s i o n (CEP,218-19) Pound's r e f e r e n c e t o a good sound " s t a v e " emphasized the music, the harmony, he heard through the mathematical s t r u c t u r e o f the E t h i c s . But more than t h i s , he chose to recommend Spinoza r a t h e r than D e s c a r t e s , f o r example, because he p r o v i d e d an example of 'a mind capable o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a s y n t h e s i s o f r e a l i t y — r a t h e r than an a n a l y s i s . As we have seen i n "To R.B.," Pound a s p i r e d t o a c h i e v e a s i m i l a r s y n t h e s i s i n h i s long poem, while a d m i t t i n g h i s c u r r e n t i n a b i l i t y to do so: "I ramble as ever,/thought h a l f - c u t from next thought—/Two r a d i i i l l seen are b l u r r e d to one." By 1912 Pound had i s o l a t e d a f u r t h e r aspect of 37 Spinoza's thought, t h a t of the n e c e s s i t y t o f r e e the i n t e l l e c t from s e t i d e a s and c o n v e n t i o n s . Pound r e l a t e d t h i s concept t o a r t ' s f u n c t i o n : P o e t r y , as regards i t s f u n c t i o n o r purpose, has the common purpose of the a r t s , which purpose Dante most c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s i n the l i n e where he speaks o f : "That melody which most doth draw The s o u l unto i t s e l f . " Borrowing a terminology from Spinoza, we might say: The f u n c t i o n o f an a r t i s t o f r e e the i n t e l l e c t from the tyranny o f the a f f e c t s . . . to st r e n g t h e n the p e r c e p t i v e f a c u l t i e s and f r e e them from i d e a s , c o n v e n t i o n s ; from the r e s u l t s o f ex p e r i e n c e which i s common but unnecessary, e x p e r i e n c e induced by the s t u p i d i t y o f the e x p e r i e n c e r and not by the i n e v i t a b l e laws o f nature . . . Poe t r y i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h the o t h e r a r t s i n t h i s main purpose, t h a t i s , o f l i b e r a t i o n ; i t d i f f e r s from them i n i t s media. (SP,330) S i g n i f i c a n t l y , Pound t i t l e d t h i s essay "The Wisdom of Poetry," t o emphasize the bond i n h i s mind between a r t and i d e a t a . " A work of a r t need not c o n t a i n any statement o f . p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n v i c t i o n , " he says i n P a t r i a Mia 14 (1913), "but i t n e a r l y always i m p l i e s one." A poem n e c e s s a r i l y appeals t o both i n t e l l e c t and emotions. Thus, having d e f i n e d words as the poet's " e s s e n t i a l s to thought," he goes on to say t h a t the A r t of Poetry c o n s i s t s i n combining these 38 " e s s e n t i a l s t o thought" . . . w i t h t h a t melody of words which s h a l l most draw the emotions of the hearer toward a c c o r d w i t h t h e i r import, and w i t h t h a t "form" which s h a l l most d e l i g h t the i n t e l l e c t . By "melody" I mean v a r i a t i o n of sound q u a l i t y , m i n g l i n g w i t h a v a r i a t i o n of s t r e s s . By "form" I mean the arrangement of the v e r s e , s i c i n t o b a l l a d e s , c a n z o n i , and the l i k e symmetrical forms, or i n t o blank v e r s e or i n t o f r e e v e r s e , where presumably, the nature of the t h i n g expressed or of the person supposed to be e x p r e s s i n g i t , i s a n t a g o n i s t i c t o e x t e r n a l symmetry. Form may d e l i g h t by i t s symmetry or by i t s aptness. (SP,330) When the poet a c h i e v e s an emotional c o r r e l a t i o n between the melody of h i s p o e t r y and i t s s u b j e c t , and an i n t e l l e c t u a l c o r r e l a t i o n between the form of h i s poem and i t s s u b j e c t , h i s a r t mimics the u n i v e r s a l harmony and possesses an i n t e r i o r harmony which r e f l e c t s man's i n n a t e p e r c e p t i o n of d i v i n e o r d e r w i t h i n the cosmos. The key element i n t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n i s Pound's comment t h a t form may d e l i g h t by i t s symmetry or by i t s "aptness". . H i s p r e v i o u s comments on form had s t r e s s e d the need f o r symmetry i n a r t ; indeed, Canzoni c o n t a i n s experiments i n dozens of symmetrical forms emphasizing h i s w i l l i n g n e s s to put h i s t h e o r i e s i n t o p r a c t i c e . However, he had a l s o experimented i n e a r l y volumes wi t h form which d e l i g h t s by i t s aptness, as i n "La F r a i s n e " where i t would be hard to argue t h a t these d i s r u p t e d l i n e s f a i l to express M i r a u l t ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e a c c u r a t e l y : 3 9 Once t h e r e was a woman . . . . . . but I f o r g e t . . she was . . . . . . I hope she w i l l not come a g a i n . (ALS, 16) C l e a r l y , the use of a symmetrical form i n these l i n e s would be a n t a g o n i s t i c t o the nature of M i r a u l t ' s keen sense of l o s s . "La F r a i s n e " shapes f o r c e s i n t o i n t e l l i g i b l e p a t t e r n s which, though d i f f e r e n t from those of a canzone, are e q u a l l y e f f e c t i v e . The p a t t e r n s resemble those of the human mind s e t f r e e from c o n v e n t i o n r a t h e r than the symmetry and o r d e r of the cosmos. The most s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d i n Pound's p o e t r y from 1904 to 1912 i s h i s abandonment of symmetrical forms which r e f l e c t h i s e a r l i e s t n o t i o n s o f the o r d e r of the cosmos, i n favour of a s s y m e t r i c a l forms which attempt t o r e f l e c t a l e s s s t y l i z e d n o t i o n o f cosmic harmony. He moves away from Dante's Commedia and toward Browning's S o r d e l l o as a model. A t the same time, he can be seen moving away from a n o t i o n of a r t as a magic c i r c l e or sphere which o r b i t s i n s p l e n d i d i s o l a t i o n from the human world, and toward the concept of the u n i v e r s e as the g r e a t t r e e Y g g d r a s i l , which can never be known i n i t s e n t i r e t y , and so must be r e f l e c t e d i n an a r t t h a t f o l l o w s the human mind as i t searches t o extend i t s u nderstanding of u n i v e r s a l coherence. While t h i s movement away from a s t y l i z e d view of the u n i v e r s e and of 40 a r t was not completed u n t i l 1921, i t was w e l l underway by 1912. Hence i n " R e d o n d i l l a s " he complained of the deadly boredom i n s t i l l e d by p r e d i c t a b l e , c o n v e n t i o n a l metre i n a lo n g poem: "0 V i r g i l , from your green e l y s i u m / see how t h a t d a c t y l stubs h i s weary t o e s " . (CEP,220) The u l t i m a t e purpose o f a r t remained c o n s t a n t f o r Pound throughout t h i s development, however: To draw the human mind i n t o harmony w i t h God, o r as he l a t e r termed i t , the supreme i n t e l l i g e n c e o f the u n i v e r s e . Thus, i n Guide to K u l c h u r (1938) he says t h a t "the worship o f the supreme i n t e l l i g e n c e of the u n i v e r s e i s n e i t h e r an inhuman nor b i g o t e d a c t i o n " , and goes on to d i s c u s s the r e l a t i o n o f a r t to t h i s a b s o l u t e : A r t i s , r e l i g i o u s l y , an emphasis, a s e g r e g a t i o n o f some component of t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r the sake of making i t more p e r c e p t i b l e . The work of a r t ( r e l i g i o u s l y ) i s a door or a l i f t p e r m i t t i n g a man to e n t e r , or h o i s t i n g him m e n t a l l y i n t o , a zone of a c t i v i t y , and out of fugg and i n e r t i a . • (GK,189-90) Here, u n l i k e h i s e a r l i e s t statements, Pound c o n s i d e r s a r t to d e a l w i t h some component of the supreme i n t e l l i g e n c e of the u n i v e r s e , not w i t h i t s e n t i r e t y . A r t s e l e c t s , segregates, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h i s governing, 41 o r g a n i c i n t e l l i g e n c e t o make i t more p e r c e p t i b l e . When the a r t i s t succeeds, he i s l i f t e d i n t o a zone of a c t i v i t y - not i n t o a s t a t i c p a r a d i s e , but i n t o a s t a t e of boundless energy. T h i s dynamic s t a t e of mind " i s p a r a d i s i c a l and a reward i n i t s e l f . . . perhaps because a f e e l i n g o f c e r t i t u d e i n h e r e s i n the s t a t e of f e e l i n g i t s e l f . The g l o r y of l i f e e x i s t s w i thout f u r t h e r p r o o f " . (GK, 223-24). In t h i s c h apter we have examined Pound's th e o r y of a r t , i n terms of the themes and t e c h n i q u e s of h i s e a r l y p o e t r y and c r i t i c i s m and have found t h a t he v a c i l l a t e d between the examples of Dante and Browning i n h i s search f o r a form f o r h i s long poem, between k i n e s i s and s t a s i s . In G audier-Brzeska, he s a i d t h a t h i s bust by Gaudier was most s t r i k i n g two weeks b e f o r e i t was f i n i s h e d : " I t was perhaps a k i n e s i s , whereas i t i s now a s t a s i s " ; i t had a t i t a n i c energy: "I do not mean t h a t he was wrong to go on w i t h i t . Great a r t i s perhaps a s t a s i s . The u n f i n i s h e d stone caught the eye. Maybe i t would have wearied i t " . (GB,104). Pound had a r e l i g i o u s a d m i r a t i o n f o r both kinds of g r e a t a r t , which he never e n t i r e l y r e l i n q u i s h e d , but although he was s u f f u s e d w i t h a d m i r a t i o n f o r Dante's achievement, he came to r e a l i z e t h a t h i s own genius was fundamentally k i n e t i c . Hence the w i s t f u l n e s s w i t h which he looked back on h i s e a r l y theory of a b s o l u t e rhythm i n 1921, 42 when about t o abandon h i s a l l e g i a n c e t o h i s c h e r i s h e d m e t a p h y s i c a l a b s o l u t e s , as demonstrated i n h i s e a r l i e s t p o e t r y and c r i t i c i s m : Perhaps every a r t i s t a t one time or another b e l i e v e s i n a s o r t o f e l i x i r o r p h i l o s o p h e r ' s tone produced by the sheer p e r f e c t i o n of h i s a r t ; by the a l c h e m i c a l s u b l i m a t i o n of h i s medium; the e l i m i n a t i o n o f a c c i d e n t a l s and i m p e r f e c t i o n s . (LE,442) 43 I I ARCHITECTONICS Pound's t e c h n i c a l c h o i c e s r e f l e c t e d h i s n o t i o n of the moral f u n c t i o n of the poet. T h i s c hapter s e t s f o r t h those a r c h i t e c t o n i c p r i n c i p l e s i n Pound's e a r l y work which i l l u s t r a t e the p h i l o s o p h y u n d e r l y i n g h i s c o n s t a n t attempt t o w r i t e a l o n g poem and which p o i n t toward the method of XVI Cantos. Pound s e t out to w r i t e a long poem from 1904, and to model h i s e f f o r t on the most sublime of p h i l o s o p h i c e p i c s : "The f i r s t t h i n g was t h i s : You had s i x c e n t u r i e s t h a t hadn't been packaged. I t was a q u e s t i o n of d e a l i n g w i t h m a t e r i a l t h a t wasn't i n the D i v i n i a Commedia".^ Between 1902 and 1911 he wrote dozens of u n p u b l i s h e d poems, among them many of up to one hundred l i n e s - some of which have been quoted from i n Chapter One. Unpublished l e t t e r s w r i t t e n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d show t h a t he thought of h i s volumes of p o e t r y as i l l u s t r a t i o n s of a s y n c r e t i c v i s i o n , u n i f i e d by a coherent a e s t h e t i c p h i l o s o p h y . Both l o n g poems and l e t t e r s a t t e s t to h i s e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n major form. H i s a r t r e f l e c t e d , t h e r e f o r e , from i t s i n c e p t i o n , a 44 concern to p r o v i d e an o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e f o r i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i o n s . As s t r e s s e d i n the f i r s t c h a p t e r , t h i s a e s t h e t i c b i a s stemmed from a h o l i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y t h a t viewed i n c l u s i v e n e s s as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the c r e a t i v e mind i n s e arch of knowlege, beauty, wisdom. Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e r e f o r e , Pound most admired those poets who have g i v e n to the v a r i e t y of human experi e n c e a s i m i l a r coherence. In h i s essay "On V i r t u e " (1911) , he l i s t e d f o u r poets " i n e s p e c i a l v i r t u o u s " , who " r e p r e s e n t f o u r d i s t i n c t phases of c o n s c i o u s n e s s " : Homer of the Odyssey, a man c o n s c i o u s of the world o u t s i d e him . . . Dante, i n the D i v i n i a Commedia, man c o n s c i o u s of the world w i t h i n him; Chaucer, man c o n s c i o u s of the v a r i e t y of persons about him, not so much of t h e i r a c t s and the o u t l i n e s o f t h e i r a c t s as of t h e i r c h a r a c t e r , t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s . . . Shakespeare, man c o n s c i o u s of h i m s e l f i n the world about him . . . (CP, 29-30) The c o n n e c t i o n Pound makes between v i r t u e and these major attempts to p r e s e n t human consciousness prepares us to d i s c e r n a r e l i g i o u s m o t i v a t i o n behind h i s l a s t i n g attempt to w r i t e a long poem. R e c o g n i t i o n of t h i s r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e toward the w r i t i n g of a long poem c o n t r i b u t e s g r e a t l y to an a p p r e c i a t i o n of the Cantos. 45 A The C y c l e of Noh P l a y s To i l l u s t r a t e the nature and importance of t h i s r e l i g i o u s element to Pound we can u s e f u l l y c o n s i d e r the b a s i s of a formal c o n n e c t i o n Pound sees between t h r e e works: The Commedia, a c y c l e of mystery p l a y s , and a c y c l e of Noh p l a y s . A h o l i s t i c v i s i o n based on a r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e t o l i f e u n i f i e s each of these e n t i t i e s . The f i r s t h i n t of the importance of t h i s element i n major works of a r t comes as a throw-away d u r i n g Pound's summation of the importance of the Commedia i n The S p i r i t o f Romance (1910). The D i v i n i a Commedia must not be c o n s i d e r e d as an e p i c ; to compare i t w i t h e p i c poems i s u s u a l l y u n p r o f i t a b l e . I t i s i n a sense l y r i c , the tremendous l y r i c o f the s u b j e c t i v e Dante . . . The Commedia i s , i n f a c t , a g r e a t mystery p l a y , or b e t t e r , a c y c l e of mystery p l a y s . (SR, 153-54) Pound p i c k e d up on the c e n t r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of the r e l i g i o u s element i n these mystery p l a y s f o r major works of a r t w h i l e e d i t i n g Japanese Noh p l a y s f i v e years l a t e r , i n 1915, when he p o i n t e d out t h a t the p l a y s of the Greek d r a m a t i s t s , Shakespeare, and the w r i t e r s of Noh drama, each had "an independent growth from m i r a c l e p l a y s — t h e f i r s t 46 from the p l a y s o f the worship of Bacchus, the second from the p l a y s o f the worship of C h r i s t , the t h i r d from the 2 p l a y s o f the worship of S h i n t o d e i t i e s and of Buddha". Here, Pound p o i n t s t o a r e l i g i o u s component i n each c u l t u r e which p r o v i d e d a common b a s i s f o r works otherwise and t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be s e p a r a t e . The o v e r a l l coherence which he noted i n the major works of Homer, Dante, Chaucer, and Shakespeare, i n 1911, are by 1915 found to be p r e s e n t as w e l l i n the i n d i v i d u a l works of the Greek d r a m a t i s t s and the w r i t e r s o f Noh. Pound's c r i t i c a l eye was h a b i t u a l l y s y n c r e t i c : h i s c r e a t i v e eye l i k e w i s e . His d e t a i l e d comments on the undetected p r i n c i p l e o f u n i t y which binds t o g e t h e r the c y c l e o f Noh p l a y s a l e r t us to the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s i m i l a r element i n h i s own e a r l y work. Even s c h o l a r s of the Noh t h e a t r e , Pound s a i d , have been b l i n d t o a r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e which u n i f i e s and binds t o g e t h e r i n d i v i d u a l Noh p l a y s . They have not understood the f u n c t i o n o f the i n d i v i d u a l p l a y s i n the performance and have thought them fragmentary, or have complained of t h e i r i m p e r f e c t s t r u c t u r e . The Noh p l a y s are o f t e n q u i t e complete i n themselves; c e r t a i n p l a y s are detachable u n i t s , comprehensible as s i n g l e performances, and without a n n o t a t i o n o r comment. Yet even these can be used as p a r t o f the Ban-gumi, the f u l l Noh programme. C e r t a i n o t h e r p l a y s are o n l y "formed and i n t e l l i g i b l e when c o n s i d e r e d as p a r t o f such a s e r i e s o f p l a y s . Again, the t e x t s or l i b r e t t i o f c e r t a i n o t h e r p l a y s , r e a l l y 47 complete i n themselves, seem to us u n f i n i s h e d , because t h e i r f i n a l scene depends more upon the dance than on the words. (CNPJ, 6) Perhaps Pound's comments on the f i n a l scene depending on a dance f o r completion connect w i t h the sheet of paper he handed Hugh Kenner on the lawn of S t . E l i z a b e t h ' s , " b e a r i n g 3 s i x t e e n idograms, ' f o r the l a s t canto". At any r a t e , Pound's i n t e r e s t here i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t i c u n i t s and major form i s c l e a r l y r e l e v a n t t o the s t r u c t u r e of the Cantos. Most important t o our d i s c u s s i o n of Pound's development of major form, however, i s the u n i f y i n g p r i n c i p l e behind the Noh c y c l e of p l a y s , or "Ban-gumi". Speaking of the p r i n c i p l e , Pound notes t h a t t r a d i t i o n d i c t a t e s t h a t s p e c i f i c k inds of p l a y s be arranged i n a s e t o r d e r , t o achieve a d e f i n i t e response from the audience. Remembering t h a t the Noh " t r a d i t i o n " a r i s e s from the "plays of the worship of the S h i n t o d e i t i e s and of Buddha", we w i l l d i s c e r n a s t r o n g r e l i g i o u s element i n t h i s arrangement, which Pound s e t s f o r t h by q u o t i n g from the " s e c r e t book of Noh".. A "Shugan" must come f i r s t . And Shugen, or 48 c o n t r a t u l a t o r y p i e c e s , are l i m i t e d to Noh of the Gods (that i s , t o p i e c e s connected w i t h some r e l i g i o u s r i t e ) , because t h i s c ountry of the r i s i n g sun i s the country of the gods . . . In p r a i s e of them we perform f i r s t t h i s Kami-No. The Shura, or b a t t l e - p i e c e , comes second . . . to .defeat and put out the d e v i l s we perform the Shura. (That i s to say i t i s sympathetic magic). Kazura, or Onna-mono . . . come t h i r d . Many t h i n k t h a t any Kazura w i l l do, ' but i t must be a "female Kazura", f o r a f t e r b a t t l e comes peace, or Yu-gen, mysterious calm, and i n time of peace the cases of love come to pass. Moreover, the b a t t l e - p i e c e s are l i m i t e d to men; so we now have the female p i e c e i n c o n t r a s t l i k e i n s i c and yo . . . The f o u r t h p i e c e i s Oni-No, or the Noh of s p i r i t s . A f t e r b a t t l e comes peace and g l o r y , but they soon d e p a r t i n t h e i r t u r n . The g l o r i e s and p l e a s u r e s of man are not r e l i a b l e a t a l l . . . Here are shown the s t r u g g l e s and the s i n s of m o r t a l s , and the audience, even w h i l e they s i t f o r p l e a s u r e , w i l l b e gin to t h i n k about Buddha and the coming world . . . F i f t h comes a p i e c e which has some b e a r i n g upon the moral d u t i e s of man . . . T h i s f i f t h p i e c e teaches the d u t i e s of man here i n t h i s world as the f o u r t h p i e c e r e p r e s e n t s the r e s u l t s of c a r e l e s s n e s s i n such d u t i e s . S i x t h comes another Shugen or c o n g r a t u l a t o r y p i e c e , as c o n c l u s i o n to the whole performance, to c o n g r a t u l a t e and c a l l down b l e s s i n g on the l o r d s p r e s e n t , the a c t o r s themselves, and the p l a c e . To show t h a t though the s p r i n g may pass, s t i l l t h e r e i s a time of i t s r e t u r n , t h i s Shugan i s put in^ a g a i n j u s t as a t the b e g i n n i n g . (CNPJ, 9-11) Such a c y c l i c a l s t r u c t u r e r e f l e c t s a coherent v i s i o n of l i f e . The "Ban-gumi" begins and ends w i t h a p l a y i n p r a i s e of the gods, the "Shugen", i n order to c a l l down b l e s s i n g 49 both on those p r e s e n t "and the P l a c e " . XVI Cantos possesses a s i m i l a r c y c l i c a l s t r u c t u r e , b e g i n n i n g w i t h Odysseus r e t u r n i n g from one war and ending w i t h the commencement of another. I t would be dangerous to pr e s s p a r a l l e l s too f a r , but p r a i s e of the gods (canto two) , b a t t l e - p i e c e s ( M a l a t e s t a versus Pope P i u s I I ) , peace a f t e r b a t t l e (Aphrodite's emergence a t the end of canto one), the t r a n s i e n c e of l i f e (canto f i v e ) , and emphasis on the moral d u t i e s o f man (Confucius i n canto t h i r t e e n ) , are a l l elements common to XVI Cantos and those l i s t e d i n "the s e c r e t book of Noh". Pound's elements are not ord e r e d as simply as those of the "Ban-gumi", but i t c o u l d be argued t h a t t h e i r r h y t h m i c a l arrangement has the m e r i t of c a t c h i n g the f l u x o f l i f e i n a l e s s " l i t e r a r y " f a s h i o n . As demonstrated i n Chapter S i x , the attempt to a v o i d a l l c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y a r t i f i c e p r o v i d e d the major breakthrough whereby Pound a r r i v e d a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y k i n e t i c s t r u c t u r e o f XVI Cantos, i n 1921. The f a c t t h a t a l l the elements of the "Ban-gumi" are s e t i n t o rhythm w i t h i n XVI Cantos i m p l i e s t h a t Pound may a l s o have taken over the concept o f u n i f y i n g h i s long poem w i t h a coherent p h i l o s o p h y . We know t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d the p o s s i b i l i t y of f o l l o w i n g the use of a s i n g l e image to p r o v i d e u n i t y i n a Noh p l a y i n h i s long poem; why should he not a l s o have c o n s i d e r e d t h i s k i n d of s t r u c t u r e ? 50 Pound's comparison of the Japanese to the Western t r a d i t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e treatment of l i f e p r o v i d e s a f u r t h e r c l u e to the i n f l u e n t i a l nature of the Japanese Noh. His p r a i s e of the Noh t h e a t r e ' s a b i l i t y to p r e s e n t a p r o p o r t i o n e d p r e s e n t a t i o n of l i f e s t r e s s e s a g a i n t h a t i t s p a r t i c u l a r power comes from b e i n g c l o s e r i n touch w i t h the r e l i g i o u s antecedents of a r t than the Western t r a d i t i o n . In the Noh t h e a t r e we do not f i n d a s e p a r a t i o n between a e s t h e t i c s and a coherent p h i l o s o p h y of l i f e . "The Noh", he says, holds up a m i r r o r to nature i n a manner v e r y d i f f e r e n t from the Western c o n v e n t i o n of p l o t . I mean the Noh performance of the f i v e or s i x p l a y s i n order p r e s e n t s a complete s e r v i c e o f l i f e . We do not f i n d , as we f i n d i n Hamlet, a c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n or problem s e t out and a n a l y z e d . The Noh s e r v i c e p r e s e n t s , or symbolizes, a complete diagram of l i f e and r e c u r r e n c e . . . As the t r a d i t i o n of Noh i s unbroken, we f i n d i n the complete performance numerous elements which have dis a p p e a r e d from our Western s t a t e ; t h a t i s , m o r a l i t y p l a y s , r e l i g i o u s m y s t e r i e s , and even dances - l i k e those of the mass - which have l o s t what we might c a l l t h e i r dramatic s i g n i f i c a n c e . (GNPJ, 11-12, my emphasis) Again, Pound s t r e s s e s the p o t e n t i a l v i a b i l i t y of a r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e t o p r o v i d e coherence to major l i t e r a r y form. In 1914 he p r a i s e d Joyce f o r not s t u f f i n g l i f e i n t o "neat l i t t l e diagrams". Here, a year l a t e r , he p r a i s e d "the complete diagram of l i f e and r e c u r r e n c e " i n the Noh. 51 To p r e s e n t a "complete s e r v i c e of l i f e " - note the r e l i g i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n - i s t o a v o i d fragmenting l i t e r a t u r e and one's p h i l o s o p h y o f l i f e . Worship f o r the c o h e s i v e powers of the l i f e - f o r c e c l e a r l y u n d e r l a y Pound's a p p r e c i a t i o n of the c y c l e o f Noh p l a y s . As we have seen, Pound d i s c e r n e d such r e l i g i o u s c e l e b r a t i o n o f the l i f e f o r c e i n s p i r i t i n g the D i v i n i a Commedia, the Greek p l a y s , Shakespeare's p l a y s , and the Japanese Noh t h e a t r e , p r o v i d i n g an o v e r a l l emotional u n i t y t o extended treatments of the human c o n d i t i o n . Pound's' unshaken c o n f i d e n c e i n t h i s f o r c e can be gauged by p r e c i s e l y those l i n e s i n D r a f t s and Fragments which have been too o f t e n o n l y understood i n the n e g a t i v e sense: i . e . i t coheres a l l r i g h t even i f my notes do not cohere. (canto CXVI) B A Lume Spento The attempt to p r e s e n t such a "complete s e r v i c e of l i f e " l i e s behind Pound's e a r l i e s t experiments w i t h major 52 form, i n c l u d i n g h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n of volumes of p o e t r y . For i n s t a n c e , having had A Lume Spento p r i v a t e l y p r i n t e d i n Venice i n 1908, Pound sent a copy t o W i l l i a m C a r l o s W i l l i a m s . In answer t o a number of c r i t i c i s m s i n W i l l i a m s ' r e p l y , Pound a t one p o i n t showed t h a t he thought h i s book, f a r from b e i n g too gloomy, was too sunshiny: I f you mean to say t h a t A.L.S. i s a r a t h e r gloomy and d i s a g r e e a b l e book, I agree w i t h you. I thought t h a t i n Ve n i c e . Kept out of i t one tremendously gloomy s e r i e s of t en sonnets - a l a Thompson . . . which are p o e t i c a l l y r a t h e r f i n e i n s p o t s . Wrote or attempted t o w r i t e a b i t of sunshine, some of which - too much f o r my c r i t i c a l sense, - got p r i n t e d . (SL, 5) Pound a l r e a d y shows an awareness of the need to balance opposing elements w i t h i n the book. Hence he p o i n t s t o spots o f sunshine w i t h i n the book, and defends the i n c l u s i o n o f "The Decadence": "'Vana.' "Chasteus. 1 'Decadence'— w r i t i n p l u r a l ; even i f not i t i s answered and c o n t r a d i c t e d on the o p p o s i t e page". That i s , the gloom o f "The Decadence" ("We see A r t v i v e n t , and e x u l t to die") does not express Pound's p e r s o n a l gloom - i t i s w r i t t e n i n the p l u r a l — and i s c o n t r a d i c t e d by the "sunshine" of "R e d i v i v u s " , " L i B e l Chasteus", and "Vana" ( " A n d ' l i t t l e r e d e l f words c r y i n g 'A Song'"). Pound c r e a t e d opposing moods and s e t them i n t o j u x t a p o s i t i o n w i t h i n h i s f i r s t volume; 53 t h i s i s one s l i g h t i n d i c a t i o n t h a t he was t h i n k i n g about a r c h i t e c t o n i c s from the b e g i n n i n g of h i s c a r e e r , and t h a t h i s f i r s t p r i n c i p l e was to e s t a b l i s h c o n t r a d i c t o r y moods and emotions w i t h i n an o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e . Ten years l a t e r , i n 1918, remembering h i s e a r l y d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h i s r e g a r d , he o f f e r e d the r e s u l t s o f h i s l a b o u r t o Marianne Moore: For what i t i s worth, my ten or more years of p r a c t i c e , f a i l u r e , s u c cess, e t c . i n a r r a n g i n g t a b l e s of c o n t e n t s , i s a v o t r e s e r v i c e . Or a t any r a t e u n l e s s you have a d e f i n i t e scheme f o r a sequence, I would warn you of the v e r y g r e a t importance of the a c t u a l o r d e r of poems i n a b o o k l e t . (I have gone r i g h t and gone wrong i n t h i s a t one time or another and know the results.-) (SL, 143) And when Pound sent a packet of poems t o V i o l e t Baxter Jordan on October 24, 1907, which were to appear i n A Lume Spento, he e x p l a i n e d why he was sending more than o r i g i n a l l y i n t e d e d : "One can h a r d l y get a system of P h i l o s o p h y i n t o one l e t t e r ; ergo you w i l l have, i f you want i t , t o take the hodge podge as i t comes." In the same l e t t e r he r e v e a l s t h a t he i s o n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n a r t and e c s t a s y , " e c s t a s y , which I would d e f i n e as the s e n s a t i o n o f the s o u l i n ascent, a r t as the e x p r e s s i o n and s o l e means of transmuting, of p a s s i n g on t h a t e c s t a s y to o t h e r s " (p. 109). That i s , f o r the young Pound a r t expressed a system of p h i l o s o p h y which d i d not d e a l w i t h s o c i a l concerns such 54 as economics. Pound's s t r e s s on t h i s " a c t u a l order of poems i n a b o o k l e t " m e r i t s f u r t h e r study, f i r s t i n E x u l t a t i o n s , the Canzoni. C E x u l t a t i o n s and Canzoni Pound wrote an u n p u b l i s h e d l e t t e r t o V i o l e t S c o t t Jordan Baxter i n September 1911, two years a f t e r the p u b l i c a t i o n of E x u l t a t i o n s (Oct. 1909). T h i s l e t t e r p r o v i d e s us w i t h s o l i d evidence t h a t Pound c a r e f u l l y arranged a group of poems i n t h a t volume to a c h i e v e an o v e r a l l e f f e c t , and t h a t the volume was an e a r l y attempt to p r e s e n t "a complete s e r v i c e of l i f e " . The l e t t e r i s i n defense of the poet's r i g h t to p r e s e n t s e x u a l p a s s i o n . U n l i k e l y as i t seems today, the poem i n q u e s t i o n i s " P i e r r e Vid'al Old" : And conquered1 Ah God! conquered! S i l e n t my mate came as the n i g h t was s t i l l . Speech? Words? Faugh! Who t a l k s of words and l o v e ? ! Hot i s such l o v e and s i l e n t , S i l e n t as f a t e i s , and as s t r o n g u n t i l I t f a i n t s i n t a k i n g and i n g i v i n g a l l 55 Pound's defence i s s t a r t l i n g : "The p o s i t i o n of the poem i s " s i c , - in?) a s e r i e s of e x u l t a t i o n s should be noted." He e l a b o r a t e s : Thus. N i g h t L i t a n y - Awe i n the presence of beauty. Sandalphon - The joy of submission t o an uncomprehended supreme power & wisdom. A l t a f o r t e - S t r i f e & Love of s t r i f e f o r s t r i f e ' s sake. & i f you w i l l l o v e of Blood. V i d a l - s e x u a l p a s s i o n . The Goodly Fere - l o v e of s t r e n g t h . What I mean by i t s p o s i t i o n i n the s e r i e s incomplete t h o 1 the s e r i e s s t i l l i s - i s t h a t the c o l l e c t i o n as a whole should g i v e a more or l e s s p r o p o r t i o n e d p r e s e n t a t i o n of l i f e . Each poem i s i n some ex t e n t the a n a l y s i s of some element of l i f e , s e t a p a r t from the r e s t , examined by i t s e l f . The o n l y q u e s t i o n to answer i s "Do I p r e s e n t these t h i n g s h o n e s t l y ? or do I t r y to persuade the reader to accept a f a l s e s e t of v a l u e s . " The r o t t e n e s t m o r a l i t y t h a t an a r t i s t can have i s t h a t s n i v e l l i n g " i d e a l i s m " which t r i e s t o p r e t e n d t h a t l i f e i s something more p r u d i s h than gord made i t . ( Y C ) T h i s v a l u a b l e l e t t e r p r o v i d e s undeniable evidence t h a t h i s o v e r a l l attempt was to g i v e "a more or l e s s p r o p o r t i o n e d p r e s e n t a t i o n of l i f e " i n the c o l l e c t i o n as a whole, l o n g b e f o r e he began a s i m i l a r attempt i n the Cantos. Pound's apology f o r the f a c t t h a t t h i s s e r i e s l a c k s completeness marks E x u l t a t i o n s as an e a r l y stage of h i s development. L a t e r , the open-ended format of the Cantos r e f l e c t e d Pound's mature b e l i e f t h a t any attempt to p r e s e n t l i f e i s n e c e s s a r i l y incomplete; one can never f i t l i f e i n t o "neat 56 l i t t l e diagrams". Pound's d e f i n i t i o n of a r t i s t i c m o r a l i t y makes p l a i n t h a t s e x u a l p a s s i o n must be p a r t of any attempt to g i v e a p r o p o r t i o n e d p r e s e n t a t i o n of l i f e . R e a l i z i n g t h i s h e l p s us to a p p r e c i a t e the moral b i a s behind the v i t r i o l of l a t e r poems such as "To a F r i e n d W r i t i n g On Cabaret Dancers" ( " U n t i l the l a s t s l u t ' s hanged and the l a s t p i g disembowelled"), which was an a t t a c k on the d i s h o n e s t p r e s e n t a t i o n of sex i n sugar-coated terms: "The r o t t e n e s t m o r a l i t y t h a t an a r t i s t can have." That Pound d e l i b e r a t e l y f o l l o w e d a master-plan to p r e s e n t a p r o p o r t i o n e d p r e s e n t a t i o n of l i f e i n h i s w r i t i n g even p r i o r t o 1911 i s f u r t h e r demonstrated by h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the s e r i e s "I Gather the Limbs of O s i r i s " i n The New Age (December 7, 1911). Both h i s c r i t i c a l prose and p o e t r y up t o Canzoni, he s a i d , were p a r t of h i s attempt to s e t f o r t h a s y n c r e t i c v i s i o n of l i f e . I am more i n t e r e s t e d i n l i f e than i n any p a r t of i t . . . One more word of the p l a n I have f o l l o w e d i n (my prose w r i t i n g ) . I have, i f you w i l l , hung my g a l l e r y , a g a l l e r y of photographs, of perhaps not very good photographs, but the b e s t I can l a y h o l d o f . In The S p i r i t of Romance I attempted to p r e s e n t c e r t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t data . . . o f c e r t a i n poets . . . to make a s o r t of chemical spectrum of t h e i r a c t . I have s i n c e allowed i t to impinge on my p o e t r y i n Canzoni, which i s a g r e a t f a u l t i n the eyes of those c r i t i c s who t h i n k I should be more i n t e r e s t e d i n the p o e t r y which I w r i t e myself than i n " f i n e p o e t r y as a whole". P e r s o n a l l y , I t h i n k the corpus poetarum of more importance than any c e l l o r phalange, and s h a l l c o n t i n u e i n s i n . (CP, 23-24) 57 Here agai n we see the i n c l u s i v e tendency, the attempt to p r e s e n t a "chemical spectrum" o v e r r i d i n g the importance of the i n d i v i d u a l poem. Sin c e Pound s p e c i f i c a l l y mentions Canzoni, i t may be worthwhile examining the way Pound hung h i s " g a l l e r y of photographs" i n i t , i n o r d e r to g a i n a more d e t a i l e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h i s e d i t o r i a l p r i o r i t i e s . W r i t i n g to h i s mother from S i r m i o i n A p r i l 1910, Pound c o u l d s c a r c e l y c o n t a i n h i s p r i d e t h a t "the g r e a t e s t of l i v i n g poets" has p r a i s e d h i s work: News comes from London t h a t Yeats has been s a y i n g n i c e t h i n g s about me . . . to the e f f e c t t h a t "there i s no younger g e n e r a t i o n (of p o e t s ) . EP i s a s o l i t a r y v o l c a n o . " " I f he w r i t e s rhyme l i k e an amateur he w r i t e s rhythm l i k e a master." W e l l , he hasn't seen the l a t e r work where we b e g i n to c o n s i d e r whether w e ' l l rhyme or not. (YC) The " l a t e r work" r e f e r r e d to the t h r e e canzoni p r i n t e d i n The E n g l i s h Review of January 1910 ("Canzon: the Y e a r l y S l a i n " , "Canzon: The Spear", "Canzon (To be Sung Beneath a Window"). And the s t i m u l a t i o n f o r these experiments w i t h rhyme? The f u l l t i t l e o f the f i r s t canzone was "Canzon: the Y e a r l y S l a i n . W r i t t e n i n r e p l y to Manning's 'Kore'". T h i s t i t l e d i d not r e f e r to the o n l y poem which s t i m u l a t e d Pound's c o m p e t i t i v e s p i r i t . In F r e d e r i c k Manning's Poems 58 (1910) we f i n d : Canzone To Dorothy Shakespear Through the bare woods she came, and pools of l i g h t Were darkened at her coming; and a moan Broke from the shuddering boughs, and a l l the f l e e t Leaves whirled about her passage, with the throng Of her lamenting ghosts, who c r i e d regret, And passed as s o f t l y as the bats that f l i t Down s i l e n t ways, beneath the clouded skies. Wherefore, though i n the cold I wait my p l i g h t , And wander through the hoary woods, alone, Hunted, and smitten of the wind and s l e e t , Among these rooted souls, I would not wrong The intense white flame of beauty mine eyes met And married for a moment: i n t h i s p i t My blinded soul feeds on her memories. Go, thou my song! T e l l her, though weeping, yet Her face i s mine: such joy have I i n i t 7 I cannot shut the splendour from mine eyes. The f i f t e e n pounds paid to Pound by The English Review i n March 1910 for three canzoni paid his way to I t a l y , and Sirmione, where Dorothy and O l i v i a Shakespeare v i s i t e d him 59 i n A p r i l and May.° They brought him the news of Yeats' praise. Pound inscribed a copy of Provenca "Mistress Dorothy Shakespeare", and dedicated i t s f i n a l section ("Canzoniere: Studies i n Form") to O l i v i a and Dorothy 9 Shakespear. How natural i t i s that Canzoni (July 1911) should have begun with a canzone written i n reply to one by Manning, jousting p o e t i c a l l y for Dorothy's favour. "Canzon: the Yearly S l a i n " uses the form of Daniel's "Sols sui qui s a i lo sobrafan quern sortz" to puncture Frederick Manning's i d e a l i z e d p o r t r a i t of eternal love. I t claims i r o n i c a l l y — with reference to what Pound had learned at Sirmione of Manning's r e l a t i o n s h i p to Dorothy? — that love vanishes soon a f t e r the lady disappears from the lover's sight: 'Love also i s the Yearly S l a i n ' " (Canzoni, 3). And the volume ends with "Au Jardin", as Witemeyer and McDougal note a riposte to Yeats' "The Cap and B e l l s " . Pound's poem considers the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the poet and the lady he praises. Whereas the je s t e r i n Yeats' poem " f i r s t gives his heart and soul to the lady and, f a i l i n g to gain her attention, f i n a l l y presents her with his cap and b e l l s - a cle a r p h a l l i c image", Pound's poem states unequivocally that he desires a r e l a t i o n s h i p "that w i l l 60 t r a n s c e n d mere s e x u a l i t y " . Pound's p l a c i n g of these r e b u t t a l s o f h i s contemporaries, Manning and Yeats, a t the b e g i n n i n g and end of Canzoni, emphasizes h i s sense o f the d i f f e r e n c e between h i s attempt t o p r e s e n t "a p r o p o r t i o n e d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f l i f e " on the one hand, and Manning's i d e a l i s t i c s e n t i m e n t a l i t y and Yeats' p r u d i s h treatment o f s e x u a l i t y on the o t h e r . Moreover, Pound's two poems d i s p l a y h i s eagerness t o compete w i t h h i s contemporaries both i n t e c h n i c a l matters and i n the honest p r e s e n t a t i o n of l i f e — a l a s t i n g and profound element i n Pound's w r i t i n g . Pound's canzoni attempt t o surpass Manning's and to respond to Yeats' c r i t i c i s m o f h i s a b i l i t y t o rhyme. By answering the rhymes of "The Cap and B e l l s " : "I have cap and b e l l s , " he pondered, "I w i l l send them to her and d i e " ; And when the morning whitened He l e f t them were she went by. She l a i d them upon her bosom, Under a c l o u d of her h a i r , And her r e d l i p s sang them a love-song T i l l s t a r s grew out of the a i r w i t h the f r e e v e r s e of "Au J a r d i n " , however, Pound u n d e r l i n e d h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n to go beyond Yeats' mastery of 61 rhyme and to e x p l o r e new modes of p o e t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n . I l o v e d a l o v e once, And, may be, more times, But she dances l i k e a pink moth i n the shrubbery. Oh, I know you women from the "other f o l k , " And i t ' l l a l l come r i g h t , 0'Sundays. "The j e s t e r walked i n the garden." Did he so? ("Au J a r d i n " ) But f i n a l l y Pound's t e c h n i c a l c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s i s not the most important t h i n g . For the a r t of p o e t r y c a l l e d f o r a p r e e m i n e n t l y t r u t h f u l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f l i f e , not Manning's n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y romantic i d e a l i s m , nor the e a r l y Yeats' maudlin treatment of the lady w i t h her "red" l i p s , "bosom", and " c l o u d " of h a i r . While no one would c l a i m Canzoni marks Pound's achievement o f "a language to t h i n k i n " , i t does a t l e a s t i n d i c a t e a remarkable c l a r i t y o f purpose. The attempt: to arrange "a g a l l e r y of photographs", taken d i r e c t l y from l i f e , i n d i s t i n c t i o n t o p i c t u r e s l i k e Burne-Jones' Cophetua and the Beggar Maid, where E l i z a b e t h S i d d a l ' s eyes "teach / Cophetua to r a p h s o d i z e " (Mauberley). In 1917, Pound went on to experiment w i t h ways of a v o i d i n g rhapsody i n a r t , and p u b l i s h e d an essay t i t l e d "The Camera 62 i s F reed From R e a l i t y " i n Vortographs and P a i n t i n g s by A l v i n Langdon Coburn. By t h i s time he had gone even f u r t h e r than the attempt i n Canzoni to hang a g a l l e r y of r e a l i s t i c photographs. Canzoni, s t i m u l a t e d by Pound's lo v e f o r Dorothy Shakespear, sought to p r e s e n t t h i s p e r s o n a l p a s s i o n i n a g a l l e r y of photographs of the Lady from A p u l e i u s to Heine. The s u b j e c t was not the Lady, however, but Beauty. Pound had been aware f o r a year and a h a l f t h a t t h i s was among the t a c k i e s t c h a l l e n g e s a poet c o u l d f a c e . W r i t i n g W i l l i a m s i n October 1908, he had compiled a " l i s t o f f a c t s on which I and 9,000,000 o t h e r poets have s p i e l e d e n d l e s s l y " — a m o n g them, these two: 2. Young man's fancy. L i g h t l y , h e a v i l y , g a i l y , e t c . 3. Love, a delightsome t i c k l i n g . I n d e f i n a b l e e t c . e t c . A) By day, e t c . e t c . e t c . B) By n i g h t , e t c . e t c . e t c . (SL, 4) Now he was aware t h a t Canzoni might not have overcome the c h a l l e n g e to make t h i s s u b j e c t i n t e r e s t i n g . Hence, i n a note d e l e t e d a t the p r o o f stage he pleaded f o r t o l e r a n c e : I ask you to c o n s i d e r whether i t be, not a ( s i c ) more d i f f i c u l t t o serve t h a t l o v e of Beauty (or, even of some p a r t i c u l a r s o r t of Beauty) which belongs to the 63 permanent p a r t o f o n e s e l f , than to express some sudden emotion o r p e r c e p t i o n which b e i n g unusual, b e i n g keener than normal, i s by i t s very way of b e i n g , c l e a r l y d e f i n e d or a t l e a s t s e t a p a r ^ from those t h i n g s o f the mind among which i t appears. Pound was uneasy about Canzoni's attempt t o serve t h a t " p a r t i c u l a r s o r t of Beauty" which "belongs to the permanent p a r t o f o n e s e l f " . The k i n d o f beauty he had i n mind can be garnered from a gl a n c e a t a group of h i s e a r l i e r poems which he r e p r i n t e d i n Canzoni. Immediately f o l l o w i n g the c a n z o n i e r e sequence which l e a d s o f f the volume comes a group of f i v e poems s e l e c t e d from A Lume Spento: "Era Mea" — a t r a n s l a t i o n of the L a t i n e p i g r a p h t o " D o n z e l l a Beata", "Threnos", "The Tree", "De Aegypton" and " l i B e l Chasteus". Why d i d he choose t o i n c l u d e o n l y these poems, and to p l a c e them a l l together? The obvious answer i s t h a t they a l l c e l e b r a t e a v a r i e t y o f r a r e and d e l i c a t e p e r c e p t i o n s o f beauty, which f i t s i n w i t h the o v e r a l l tone of the volume, i . e . , I, even I, am he who knoweth the roads Of the sky, and the wind t h e r e o f i s my body (De Aegypto): • • • No more d e s i r e f l a y e t h me, 64 No more f o r us the t r e m b l i n g At the meeting of hands. Lo the f a i r dead! (Threnos); I have been a t r e e amid the wood And many a new t h i n g understood That was rank f o l l y t o my head b e f o r e . (The T r e e ) ; We c o u l d not see the g r e a t green waves Nor rocky shore by T i n t a g o e l From t h i s our h o l d , But came f a i n t murmuring as undersong, E'en as the burghers' hum arose And d i e d as f a i n t wind melody Beneath our gates. ( L i B e l Chasteus); M i s t r e s s mine, i n what f a r l a n d , Where the m y r t l e bloweth sweet S h a l l I weary w i t h my way-fare, Win to thee t h a t a r t as day f a i r , Lay my r o s e s a t thy f e e t ? (Era Mea) That i s , these poems were c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d by Pound to f i t i n w i t h the tone o f Canzoni, not merely because he happened to l i k e them. They do not r e p r e s e n t the t y p i c a l note i n A Lume Spento: t h i n k of "Mesmerism" ("But God! what a s i g h t you ha'got o' our i n n a r d s " ) , "La F r a i s n e " ("Aie-e! ' T i s t r u e t h a t I am gay"), "Cino" ("Bah! I have sung women i n t h r e e c i t i e s , But i t i s a l l the same"). Pound's s e l e c t i o n of the s o f t e r note f o r i n c l u s i o n i n 65 Canzoni i n d i c a t e s a c o n s c i o u s attempt t o e s t a b l i s h , as a t r a d i t i o n i n h i s own work, the attempt t o serve t h a t l o v e of a p a r t i c u l a r s o r t o f beauty "which belongs t o the permanent p a r t o f o n e s e l f " . The f a c t t h a t c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n p a i d to Pound's e a r l y poems g e n e r a l l y r i v e t s o n l y on the v i g o r o u s note o f poems l i k e " S e s t i n a : A l t a f o r t e " ("Damn i t a l l ! a l l t h i s our South s t i n k s peace!"), supports h i s p e r c e p t i o n t h a t i t i s e a s i e s t t o a p p r e c i a t e some emotion which, "being unusual, b e i n g keener than normal, i s by i t s v e r y way o f b e i n g , c l e a r l y d e f i n e d o r a t l e a s t s e t a p a r t from those t h i n g s o f the mind among which i t appears". In h i s note, Pound goes on to say t h a t the form of the canzone p r o v i d e s a means of e x p r e s s i n g the i n t e n s e l y s u b j e c t i v e l o v e of beauty i n a p u b l i c manner. "The canzone i s t o me r a t h e r a r i t u a l , the h i g h mass, i f you w i l l , o f p o e t r y , than i t s p r a y e r i n s e c r e t . " The r i t u a l i s t i c arrangement o f words, the s u b t l e b l e n d i n g o f p o l y p h o n i c rhymes, render, f o r Pound, the canzone a p u b l i c a l t a r a t which the poet can b e s t worship Beauty. And as we s h a l l see i n Chapter Four, the l i t u r g i c cadences of the se q u a i r e of Goddeschalk p r o v i d e d Pound w i t h another s e r v i c e o r r e l i g i o u s i n s p i r a t i o n f o r g i v i n g h i s p o e t r y a s u b t l e k i n d of u n i t y , f o u r years l a t e r . I f Canzoni f a i l s t o express 66 the most permanent p a r t of Pound i n t e n s e l y enough, perhaps the comparative homogeneity of the volume i s to blame. C e r t a i n l y Pound's attempt here i s not t h a t o f A Lume Spento, where gloomy poems are "answered and c o n t r a d i c t e d on the o p p o s i t e page by sunshiny ones". When a r r a n g i n g Cathay f o u r y ears l a t e r — another g a l l e r y of photographs, from the Chinese t h i s time — Pound i n s e r t e d "The S e a f a r e r " i n the middle t o a c t as a f u l c r u m and p o i n t o f c o n t r a s t . Canzoni i s the most homogenous o f Pound's volumes of p o e t r y , and t h e r e f o r e o u t s i d e the main t h r u s t o f h i s development of major form, which i s u s u a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by dramatic c o u n t e r p o i n t . We can, however, observe the b i r t h o f h i s l a t e r comparative method i n the s e q u e n t i a l poem which ends Canzoni, "Und Drang". T h i s p r o v i d e s the o n l y h arsh notes i n the volume. Whitemeyer has n o t i c e d the c r u c i a l importance of t h i s s e r i e s t o Pound's development of major form. Pound's s u b j e c t i s the c o n t r a s t between p a s t and pr e s e n t , between v i s i o n a r y c l a r i t y and e v i s c e r a t e d c o n f u s i o n , between c i v i l i z a t i o n and chaos. H i s formal s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s o f an a g g r e g a t i o n o f separate u n i t s , l o c a l l y u n r e l a t e d but c o n t r i b u t i n g i n each case some new dimension to the t o t a l meaning of the sequence. I t i s a d i a l e c t i c s t r u c t u r e which juxtaposes c o n f l i c t i n g v a l u e s between poems and w i t h i n poems, working toward c l e a r e r d e f i n i t i o n s without a r r i v i n g a t a d e f i n i t e 67 s y n t h e s i s . W i t h i n the s t r u c t u r e , we encounter a v a r i e t y of moods and v o i c e s , r a n g i n g from the l y r i c and e x a l t e d t o the i r o n i c and c a s u a l . In a l l of these r e s p e c t s , "Und Drang" a n t i c i p a t e s Pound's l a t e r and more famous sequence poems: P r o p e r t i u s , Mauberley, and The Cantos. I t i f - S Pound's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o n g poem i n embryonic form. The sequence c o n s i s t s of twelve poems, the f i r s t s i x o f which were dropped a f t e r r e p u b l i c a t i o n i n the American e d i t i o n of L u s t r a (1917). These s i x , as McDougal notes " d e p i c t the moral c o n f u s i o n of the pre-war world" w h i l e the l a s t s i x s t r e s s "the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of medieval v a l u e s to the contemporary world, as an a n t i d o t e t o the c o n d i t i o n s 14 c h r o n i c l e d i n the f i r s t s i x poems." As can be seen from these c r i t i c a l summaries, "Und Drang" juxtaposes c o n f l i c t i n g v a l u e s i n a way which i s d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed to the homogenous o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e of Canzoni as a whole. Although the twelve s e c t i o n s of"Und Drang" v a r y g r e a t l y i n l e n g t h ( " E l e g i a " having 26 l i n e s , "The A l t a r " 4 ) , tone ( b i t i n g i r o n y i n "Au S a l o n " , pure a d o r a t i o n i n "The House of S p l e n d o u r " ) , and s u b j e c t matter (the modern world i n the f i r s t s i x poems, the medieval world i n the l a s t s i x ) , they are u n i t e d by the f a c t t h a t most of them u t i l i z e a d e c a s y l l a b i c l i n e . The sequence i s balanced too. 68 In the f i r s t h a l f the poet "laments" — no o t h e r word w i l l do — the p a r t i a l v i s i o n of h i s contemporaries. How our modernity Nerve-wracked and broken, t u r n s A g a i n s t time's way and a l l the way of t h i n g s , C r y i n g w i t h weak and e g o i s t i c c r i e s ! A l l t h i n g s are g i v e n over, Only the r e s t l e s s w i l l Surges amid the s t a r s Seeking new moods of l i f e , New permutations. See, and the very sense o f what we know Dodges and hi d e s as i n a sombre c u r t a i n B r i g h t threads l e a p f o r t h , and h i d e , and leave no p a t t e r n . (V) The attempt of the Ae s t h e t e s t o seek "new moods of l i f e , / New permutations", t o " f i x the l a s t f i n e shade", i s to l o s e s i g h t o f the o v e r a l l p a t t e r n . I t l e a d s t o a "poetry of nerves" and egoism. The r e s u l t c f t h i s " t r a d i t i o n " i s t h a t the modern poet who has not l o s t s i g h t o f the o v e r a l l p a t t e r n i s "out of step w i t h h i s time". H i s c o n v i c t i o n o f the i n t e g r i t y and coherence o f the u n i v e r s e i s a t t a c k e d from every s i d e o f s o c i e t y . C o n f u s i o n , clamour, 'mid the many v o i c e s 69 Is t h e r e a meaning, a s i g n i f i c a n c e ? That l i f e a p a r t from a l l l i f e g i v e s and t a k e s , T h i s l i f e , a p a r t from a l l l i f e ' s b i t t e r and l i f e ' s sweet, Is good. (II) Again, awful p o e t r y r e s u l t s from Pound's deepest c o n v i c t i o n s . In t h i s h a l f o f the sequence Pound d e a l s w i t h s o c i e t y f o r the f i r s t time; the uneasiness w i t h which he does so here became e s t a b l i s h e d as a hallmark of h i s p o e t r y . The poem stands as a m i l e s t o n e on Pound's road to d e a l i n g e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h s o c i e t y . The second h a l f of the sequence p o i n t s to the r a d i a n t w o r l d o f Provence as an a n t i d o t e t o modern s k e p t i c i s m . Here Pound i s much more c o n f i d e n t . As Whitemeyer notes, ' the " b r i g h t t h r e a d s " which "leave no p a t t e r n " i n the f i f t h s e c t i o n are " r e s t o r e d i n t o a meaningful t a p e s t r y " ^ i n "The House of Splendour": T ' i s Evanoe's, A house not made w i t h hands, But out somewhere beyond the w o r l d l y ways Her g o l d i s spread, above, around inwoven; Strange ways and w a l l s are f a s h i o n e d out of i t . (VII) And i n s e c t i o n e i g h t ("The Flame") Pound a s s e r t s t h a t t h i s 70 coherent v i s i o n remains p o s s i b l e because the world does cohere i n meaningful f a s h i o n : There i s the s u b t l e r music, the c l e a r l i g h t Where time burns back about t h e - e t e r n a l embers. We are not shut from a l l the thousand heavens: Sapphire Benacus, i n thy m i s t s and thee Nature h e r s e l f s turned m e t a p h y s i c a l , Who can look on t h a t b l u e and not b e l i e v e ? (C, 48-49) Pound's i r r i t a t i o n w i t h the shallowness o f contemporary s o c i e t y i n t r u d e s a g a i n i n s e c t i o n IX ("Au S a l o n " ) , p r o v i d i n g a s t a r t l i n g c o n t r a s t t o "The Flame". T h i s poem's s a t i r e i s d i r e c t e d not so much a t modern t r i v i a l i t y as a t the poet who i s w i l l i n g t o accept t r i v i a l i t i e s as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f h i s l i f e : I suppose, when p o e t r y comes down to f a c t s , When our s o u l s are r e t u r n e d t o the gods and the spheres they belong i n , Here i n the every-day where our a c t s R i s e up and judge us; I suppose t h e r e are a few dozen v e r i t i e s That no s h i f t o f mood can shake f o r us; One p l a c e where we'd r a t h e r have t e a (Thus f a r hath modernity brought us) "Tea" (Damn you I) Have t e a , damn the Caesars, T a l k o f the l a t e s t success, g i v e wing t o some s c a n d a l , Garble a name we d e t e s t , and f o r p r e j u d i c e ? 71 Set l o o s e the whole consummate pack to bay l i k e S i r Roger de C o v e r l e y ' s T h i s our reward f o r our works, s i c c r e s c i t g l o r i mundi. (C, 50-51) F i n a l l y , o f course, "Und Drang" f a i l e d because the cozy tearooms of London c o u l d not adequately c o u n t e r - b a l a n c e the t r i u n e azures o f the Lago d i Garda i n Pound's own mind; one senses t h a t impatience w i t h t r i v i a l i t y was l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g t o Pound than l o v e of the b e a u t i f u l . The o p p o s i t i o n s e t up i s not dynamic enough, perhaps because Pound's p o e t r y seems w r i t t e n out of duty r a t h e r than p a s s i o n when i t "comes down t o f a c t s , " when he d e a l s w i t h s o c i e t y . The c o n t r a s t s w i t h i n "Und Drang" r e f l e c t the i n d e c i s i o n s o f Pound's own mind. The sequence p r e s e n t s the modern poet as t h r e a t e n e d by a l o s s o f s e l f i n i n d o l e n t languor, on the one hand, and by a l o s s o f d i r e c t i o n , purpose, amid the cacophony of modern s o c i e t y , on the o t h e r hand. Wishing t o pursue t r u t h and beauty, he f i n d s h i m s e l f i n und drang, .a s t a t e o f acute s t r e s s , caused by h i s p o s i t i o n amid the "many v o i c e s " of the u n d i r e c t e d mob. A l s o p a r a l y z i n g d i r e c t i o v o l u n t a t i s are the h y p n o t i c e f f e c t s o f l o v e , the e l u s i v e n e s s of c e r t a i n t y , and the ra n k i n g by s o c i e t y of deed b e f o r e thought, and thought b e f o r e v i s i o n , i n o r d e r of importance, e.g.: 72 The deed b l o t s out the thought And many thoughts, the v i s i o n ; And r i g h t ' s a compass w i t h as many p o l e s As t h e r e are p o i n t s i n her c i r c u m f e r e n c e , 'T i s v a i n t o seek to s t e e r a l l courses even, And a l l t h i n g s save sheer r i g h t are v a i n enough. (C, IV, 45) A g a i n s t t h i s , the sequence puts forward p o s i t i v e elements: the unsought v i s i o n , the ex p e r i e n c e o f t i m e l e s s n e s s , a sense o f profound s p i r i t u a l a f f i n i t y w i t h magic p l a c e s l i k e Lake Garda, t r a c e s o f beauty which remain i n the memory, an i n h e r e n t c e r t i t u d e o f the beauty o f l i f e . The poet t e e t e r s between s u b j e c t i v e and o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y i n the sequence. He f a c e s two dangers. He may f a l l i n t o acceptance of the s u p e r f i c i a l i t y which c h a r a c t e r i z e s the modern world, o r he may l a p s e i n t o a romantic dream-world t o t a l l y d i s c o n n e c t e d from present-day r e a l i t y . The sequence, and consequently Canzoni i t s e l f , ends w i t h Pound m a i n t a i n i n g a shaky balance. T h i s f a l s e " r e s o l u t i o n " i s t y p i c a l o f Pound's s e q u e n t i a l poems from "Und Drang" r i g h t down to the Cantos, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of the Homage. But the form o f "Und Drang" p r o v i d e d Pound f o r the f i r s t time w i t h a f i t t i n g e x p r e s s i o n f o r the q u i c k movement of h i s mind. As we have seen, i t balances the modern world a g a i n s t the medieval, beauty a g a i n s t u g l i n e s s , t r i v i a l i t y 73 a g a i n s t substance. And though the burden of the sequence as a whole i s t o express the l o v e o f beauty which p r o v i d e s the theme of Canzoni, i t does so by c o n t r a s t , not by the accumulation o f homogenous examples. The s t r u c t u r e of Canzoni i s roughly c h r o n o l o g i c a l , moving from 11th ce n t u r y Provence t o 20th century England. I t opens w i t h a group of canzoni and sonnets r e p r i n t e d from Provenca (1910), which are modelled on s p e c i f i c poems by Dante, Arnaut D a n i e l , J a u f r e Rudel and o t h e r troubadour poets, and which c e l e b r a t e Beauty i n p r e - R a p h a e l i t e d i c t i o n , as i n t h i s s tanza from "Canzon: The Spear," modelled on the form of stanza used by Rudel i n "D'un amor de lonh."15 My lov e i s l o v e l i e r than the sprays Of e g l a n t i n e above c l e a r waters, Of w h i t e s t l i l i e s t h a t u p r a i s e T h e i r heads i n midst o f moated waters. No poppy i n the May-glad mead Would match her q u i v e r i n g l i p s ' r e d I f ' g a i n s t her l i p s i t should be l a i d . (C, 4) The group of poems r e p r i n t e d from A Lume Spento mentioned e a r l i e r f o l l o w the c a n z o n i e r e sequence, d e a l i n g w i t h moments out of time. F o l l o w i n g t h i s group are a 74 number of e x c e l l e n t o r i g i n a l poems, i n c l u d i n g "Prayer f o r h i s Lady's L i f e , " B l a n d u l a , T e n u l l a , Vagula," "Maestro d i Tocar," " A r i a , " and the very b e a u t i f u l "Speech f o r Psyche i n the Golden Book of A p u l e i u s " : A l l n i g h t , and as the wind l i e t h among The c y p r e s s t r e e s , he l a y , Nor h e l d me save as a i r t h a t brusheth by one C l o s e , and as the p e t a l s of f l o w e r s i n f a l l i n g Waver and seem not drawn to e a r t h , so he Seemed over me to hover l i g h t as l e a v e s And c l o s e r me than a i r , And music f l o w i n g through me seemed to open Mine eyes upon new c o l o u r s . 0 winds, what wind can match the weight of him! (C, 22) Here Pound i s v e r y c l o s e to the o r g a n i c rhythm of "The Return," as he manages to convey E r o s ' t a c t i l e a e t h e r i a l i t y , a b e i n g both l i k e and u n l i k e a god and a man. S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h i s poem i s w r i t t e n i n f r e e v e r s e , as are most of the b e s t poems i n Canzoni, and not i n the s t r i c t format of the canzone. W i t h i n t h i s group of o r i g i n a l poems Pound i n t e r s p e r s e d a number of t r a n s l a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g "La N u v o l e t t a , " "The Golden S e s t i n a : From the I t a l i a n of P i c o d e l l a M i r a n d o l a , " "Rome: From the French of Joachim du B e l l a y , " and "Her Monument, the Image Cut Thereon: From the I t a l i a n of 75 L e o p a r d i . " ' These poems, l i k e the " V i c t o r i a n Eclogues" which f o l l o w them, take f o r t h e i r s u b j e c t the p a s s i n g of beauty. "Her Monument, the Image Cut Thereon," f o r i n s t a n c e , b e g i n s : Such wast thou, Who a r t now But dust and r u s t e d s k e l e t o n . Above the bones and mire, M o t i o n l e s s , p l a c e d i n v a i n , Mute m i r r o r of the f l i g h t o f speeding y e a r s , Sole guard of g r i e f S ole guard of memory Standeth t h i s image of the beauty sped. (C, 28) Again, Pound focuses on remembered beauty r a t h e r than p r e s e n t d e s o l a t i o n ; the poems are e l e g i a c , but not d e s p a i r i n g . As mentioned, o r i g i n a l poems f o l l o w these t r a n s l a t i o n s , which are i n t u r n f o l l o w e d by the parody "Song i n the Manner of Houseman" and " T r a n s l a t i o n s From Heine." "Und Drang" ends the volume. "Song i n the Manner of Houseman" does add a welcome new note to the volume: 0 WOE, woe, People are born and d i e , We a l s o s h a l l be dead p r e t t y soon T h e r e f o r e l e t us a c t as i f we were dead a l r e a d y . 76 The b i r d s i t s on the hawthorne t r e e But he d i e s a l s o , p r e s e n t l y . Some l a d s get hung, and some get shot. Woeful i s t h i s human l o t . Woe I woe, e t c e t e r a . . . (C, 38) Pound's parody of the pessimism which sees no beauty or joy i n l i f e , p r o v i d e s a welcome new note but t h i s o ccurs r a t h e r l a t e i n the volume. The " T r a n s l a t i o n s From Heine" show Pound i n complete command of sound and a l i g h t - h e a r t e d i r o n y which he does not e x p l o r e a g a i n u n t i l the Homage, a f t e r which, i n Mauberley, i t becomes b i t t e r . In s e c t i o n f i v e , the d e l i c a t e t r i l l s of c h o i r boys s h a r p l y accentuate the t h i c k n e s s of the n a r r a t o r ' s v o i c e , and the syrupy female emotions: The m u t i l a t e d c h o i r boys When I b e g i n to s i n g Complain about the awful n o i s e And c a l l my v o i c e too t h i c k a t h i n g . When l i g h t t h e i r v o i c e s l i f t them up, B r i g h t notes a g a i n s t the ear, Through t r i l l s and runs l i k e c r y s t a l , Ring d e l i c a t e and c l e a r . They s i n g of Love t h a t ' s grown d e s i r o u s , Of Love, and j o y t h a t i s Love's inmost p a r t , And a l l the l a d i e s swim through t e a r s Toward such a work of a r t . (C, 40) 77 The humour, i r o n y , and c l a r i t y o f t h i s poem and of the sequence as a whole, m a s t e r f u l l y l i g h t e n s the tone of Canzoni. The long v e r s e n a r r a t i v e , " R e d o n d i l l a s , or Something of That S o r t , " was removed by Pound from the volume at the p r o o f stage. L i k e "Und Drang," i t shows Pound's t e c h n i c a l problems w i t h w r i t i n g a long poem to be r e l a t e d t o h i s i n a b i l i t y to d i s c o v e r a s u i t a b l e way of h a n d l i n g contemporary s o c i e t y . And, as i n "Und Drang," he s e t s up the l a c k of a coherent p h i l o s o p h y as the g r e a t e s t flaw i n the modern age, and the g r a v e s t o b s t a c l e to the poet w i s h i n g t o w r i t e a long poem: We ever l i v e i n the now i t i s b e t t e r to l i v e i n than s i n g o f . Yet I s i n g of the d i v e r s e moods of e f f e t e modern c i v i l i z a t i o n . I f you ask me to w r i t e world p r e s c r i p t i o n s I w r i t e so t h a t any can read i t : A l i t t l e l e s s P a u l V e r l a i n e , A good sound stave of Spinoza, A l i t t l e l e s s of our nerves A l i t t l e more w i l l toward v i s i o n . 1 6 Spinoza's c e r t i t u d e , d e t e r m i n a t i o n , and optimism seemed n a t u r a l a n t i d o t e s to the p o e t r y of "nerves" of the Aesthetes and Decadents, of whom Pound had w r i t t e n i n 1909: 78 Great God, i f these thy sons are grown such t h i n ephemera, I b i d thee g r a p p l e chaos and beget Some new t i t a n i c spawn to p i l e the h i l l s and s t i r T h i s e a r t h again.17 No doubt Pound's p e r c e p t i o n of t h i s need f o r a more potent b e l i e f t o be o f f e r e d the modern worl d m o t i v a t e d h i s p l a n t o w r i t e a book i n 1911 a n a l y s i n g the h i s t o r y of p h i l o s o p h y from R i c h a r d S t . V i c t o r t o P i c o d e l l a M i r a n d o l a . (YC) The c o n f l i c t between h i s l o v e of Beauty and h i s h a t r e d of modern s o c i e t y , which l a t e r became a permanent element i n Pound's p o e t r y , appeared i n the opening l i n e s of " R e d o n d i l l a s " : I s i n g the gaudy to-day and cosmopolite c i v i l i z a t i o n Of my h a t r e d of c r u d i t i e s , of my weariness of b a n a l i t i e s , I s i n g of the ways t h a t I l o v e , of Beauty and d e l i c a t e savours. In t h i s " s u r f e i t e d age" the poet needs "keen weapons f o r speaking," but the poem r e v e a l s Pound's nervous awareness t h a t n e i t h e r mind nor technique are y e t ready: Behold how I dabble i n cosmos. Behold how I copy my age, D i s m i s s i n g the g r e a t men w i t h a q u i b b l e . I know not much save myself, I know myself p r e t t y completely. 79 I p r e f e r most white wine to r e d, Bar o n l y some l o r d l y Burgundy. A poem which recommends Spinoza i n one b r e a t h , and white wine i n the next, does not d i s p l a y the t e x t u r e necessary t o a major poem. Pound i s aware of something wrong w i t h h i s technique as w e l l : I don't l i k e t h i s hobbledy metre but f i n d i t easy t o w r i t e i n , I would s i n g t o the tune of "Mi P l a t z " were i t not f o r the t r o u b l e o f rhyming. and T h i s hobbledy-hoy i s not my own p r i v a t e i n v e n t i o n , We are the h e i r s o f the p a s t , I t i s a s i n i n e not to admit i t . 0 V i r g i l , from your green e l y s i u m see how t h a t d a c t y l stubs h i s weary t o e s . The poem's p e r p e t u a l j o g - t r o t rhythm d i s t o r t s the s e n s i b i l i t y — e x t r e m e l y d e l i c a t e , concerned w i t h nuances of p e r c e p t i o n and i n d i v i d u a l p h i l o s o p h y — P o u n d was attempting to convey. I t i s a l s o out of keeping w i t h h i s quick changes of thought, which demand e q u i v a l e n t changes o f 80 metre. Pound should have known h i m s e l f b e t t e r than to attempt t o use such a c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n . W r i t i n g to h i s mother i n February 1910 about h i s r e l i e f a t having f i n i s h e d The S p i r i t of Romance, he had s a i d : My mind, such as I have, works by a s o r t of f u s i o n , and sudden c r y s t a l i z a t i o n , and the e f f o r t t o t i e t h a t k i n d of a c t i o n to the dray work of prose i s very e x h a u s t i n g . One should have a v e g e t a b l e s o r t o f mind f o r prose. I mean the thought f o r m a t i o n should go on c o n s e c u t i v e l y and g r a d u a l l y , w i t h o r d e r r a t h e r than epigrams. (YL, 23/2/10) Pound's mind c o r u s c a t e d , never plodded d u t i f u l l y a l o n g . I t demanded a more f l e x i b l e metre than t h a t of " R e d o n d i l l a s . " H i s metaphor f o r po e t r y i n "The S e r i o u s A r t i s t " (1912) r e f l e c t s t h i s c a p a c i t y f o r qui c k movement: "Poetry i s a centau r . The t h i n k i n g , word-arranging, c l a r i f y i n g f a c u l t y must move and le a p w i t h the e n e r g i z i n g , s e n t i e n t , m u s i c a l f a c u l t i e s . " ( L E , 5 2 ) . The problem w i t h " R e d o n d i l l a s " i s t h a t i t p l o d s l i k e H u d i b r a s 1 nag, doesn't leap l i k e Pound's centaur. The b e s t moments i n the poem come when Pound r e g i s t e r s s u b j e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n s of Beauty, and disa p p e a r whenever he speaks about contemporary s o c i e t y : 81 They t e l l me t o " M i r r o r my age," God p i t y the age i f I do i t , Perhaps I myself would p r e f e r To s i n g o f the dead and the b u r i e d . " R e d o n d i l l a s " i s a "statement of b e i n g " which r e g i s t e r e d Pound's awareness t h a t h i s p h i l o s o p h i c d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h h i s age, as much as h i s t e c h n i a l l i m i t a t i o n s , prevented him from i n t e r p r e t i n g i t i n a long poem. Pound f i n d s n o t h i n g i n s o c i e t y , n e g a t i v e or p o s i t i v e , s t r o n g enough to balance h i s s u b j e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n o f beauty. T h i s remained the crux o f h i s d i f f i c u l t y i n w r i t i n g a long poem u n t i l he d i s c o v e r e d the theme of usury, which p r o v i d e s heavy c o u n t e r p o i n t i n the Cantos. To r e c a p i t u l a t e , we have seen how the attempt to pr e s e n t "a complete s e r v i c e o f l i f e " m otivated a l l Pound's experiments w i t h major form t o 1911, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d t o the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f A Lume Spento and E x u l t a t i o n s . We have a l s o seen t h a t when he attempted to l e s s e n the emphasis on dramatic c o u n t e r - p o i n t o f o p p o s i t e s , as he d i d i n C a n z o n i — a p a r t from "Und D r a n g " — v i t a l i t y d i m i n i s h e d . Although Pound h a b i t u a l l y made r e t r o s p e c t i v e c r i t i c i s m s o f e a r l i e r works, he p i c k e d out Canzoni f o r more c r i t i c i s m than any oth e r volume. 8 2 His doubts about the volume were f i r s t r e g i s t e r e d as e a r l y as the note i n which he pleaded f o r t o l e r a n c e i n h i s attempt to p r e s e n t " t h a t l o v e of Beauty" which belongs to "the permanent p a r t of o n e s e l f . " And by the autumn of 1921, as he was about to make the most s i g n i f i c a n t breakthrough of h i s c a r e e r , Pound had come to t h i n k of Canzoni as completely dead: "A work of a r t made to p l e a s e the a r t i s t my be comic . . . but i t w i l l not be dead. I t w i l l not have the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g l y moribund c h a r a c t e r of a review i n the "Times," or of the poems i n my volume Canzoni."19 Perhaps the reason Pound cu t " R e d o n d i l l a s " from Canzoni was because he f e l t t h a t he had not managed t o t r e a t s o c i e t y as w e l l as h i s s u b j e c t i v e a p p r e c i a t i o n of beauty. But i n t h a t case, why d i d he not drop those e q u a l l y weak s e c t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h s o c i e t y i n "Und Drang," e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e he d i d drop them a f t e r 1917? Perhaps because i n "Und Drang" they were needed to balance the s e c t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h the r a d i a n t medieval world, which are g e n e r a l l y good poems, and Pound f e l t Canzoni needed some such c o u n t e r p o i n t of o p p o s i t e s . A f t e r 1917 they were no l o n g e r needed, f o r he had begun i n t e n s i v e work on the Cantos. 83 Canzoni marks an important t u r n i n g p o i n t i n Pound's development, away from t h i s p u r e l y p e r s o n a l , s u b j e c t i v e note and toward an attempt to d e a l w i t h s o c i e t y . The b i r t h pangs of t h i s e f f o r t are r e g i s t e r e d i n "Und Drang" and " R e d o n d i l l a s , " both of which r e p r e s e n t i n i t i a l f a i l u r e s to counterpount the worlds of s u b j e c t i v e beauty and e x t e r n a l u g l i n e s s s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h i n a long poem. But the s e q u e n t i a l form of "Und Drang" p r o v i d e d a more f i t t i n g e x p r e s s i o n f o r Pound's mind than the n a r r a t i v e c o n t i n u i t y of " R e d o n d i l l a s , " and p o i n t e d toward the method o f o r g a n i z a t i o n i n XVI Cantos. T h i s poem t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t s the most important advance of a l l Pound's experiments w i t h a r c h i t e c t o n i c s d u r i n g the 1908-11 p e r i o d . 84 PART TWO: EXPERIMENT (1912-1919) T i c k i s a humble g e n e s i s , tock a f e e b l e apocalypse; and t i c k - t o c k i s i n any case not much of a p l o t . We need much l a r g e r ones and much more complicated ones i f we p e r s i s t i n f i n d i n g out "what w i l l s u f f i c e . " — F r a n k Kermode, The Sense of an Ending 85 ABSOLUTE RHYTHM While Pound's Imagist stage has been e x t e n s i v e l y d i s c u s s e d , h i s experiments w i t h v i s u a l rhythms have gone unnoticed."'* T h i s i s odd, because we would expect t h a t someone e x p e r i m e n t a l enough to l e a v e the sonnet f o r the canzone might a l s o be e x p e r i m e n t a l enough to l e a v e the p u r e l y a u r a l f i e l d o f rhythm f o r r e l a t e d v i s u a l experiments. In P a r t One we examined Pound's e a r l y attempts to p r e s e n t a "complete s e r v i c e of l i f e " i n h i s e a r l y l o n g poems and c a r e f u l l y arranged volumes of p o e t r y to demonstrate the u b i q u i t o u s n e s s of h i s attempts a t major form. In t h i s chapter we w i l l f o l l o w Pound's attempts to achieve t h i s g o a l of i n c l u s i v e n e s s through the Imagist stage. Lawrence Binyon's The F l i g h t o f the Dragon: An essay on the theory and p r a c t i c e of a r t i n China and Japan: 2 (1911) p r o v i d e s the e s s e n t i a l c l u e to Pound's i m a g i s t experiments. The f a c t t h a t Pound i n s i s t e d on the enormous importance of t h i s work when he r e p r i n t e d s e c t i o n s from i t i n B l a s t No. 2 and Gaudier-Brzeska shows t h a t he was 86 c o n s c i o u s of i t s i n f l u e n c e h i m s e l f . C r i t i c s have not touched on i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e t o Pound's development. A Rhythmic V i t a l i t y In h i s essay, Binyon quotes the S i x Canons l a i d down by Hsieh Ho i n the s i x t h c e n t u r y as the c r i t i c a l t e s t s of p a i n t i n g . The f i r s t o f these i s most r e l e v a n t to Pound: 1. Rhythmic V i t a l i t y , or S p i r i t u a l Rhythm expressed i n the movement o f l i f e . 2. The a r t of r e n d e r i n g the bones of anatomical s t r u c t u r e by means of the brush. 3. The drawing of forms which answer to n a t u r a l forms. 4. A p p r o p r i a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n of the c o l o u r . 5. Composition and s u b o r d i n a t i o n , or grouping a c c o r d i n g t o the h i e r a r c h y of t h i n g s . 6. The t r a n s m i s s i o n of c l a s s i c models. The f i r s t o f these canons i s the a l l - i m p o r t a n t one; f o r the o t h e r s are concerned r a t h e r w i t h the means to a t t a i n the end which the f i r s t c o n t a i n s . U n c e r t a i n whether the f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e of the f i r s t canon comes through i n these words, Binyon o f f e r s a l t e r n a t i v e s : 87 Mr. Okakura renders i t , "The Life-movement of the S p i r i t through the Rhythm of t h i n g s " : o r , a g a i n , one might t r a n s l a t e i t , "The f u s i o n of the rhythm of the s p i r i t w i t h the movement of l i v i n g t h i n g s . " At any r a t e , what i s c e r t a i n l y meant i s t h a t the a r t i s t must p i e r c e beneath the mere asp e c t of the world to s e i z e and h i m s e l f to be possessed by t h a t g r e a t cosmic rhythm of the s p i r i t which s e t s the c u r r e n t s of l i f e i n motion. We should say i n Europe t h a t he must s e i z e the u n i v e r s a l i n the p a r t i c u l a r ; but the d i f f e r e n c e i n e x p r e s s i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . (Binyon, p. 14) To " s e i z e the u n i v e r s a l i n the p a r t i c u l a r , " as Binyon puts i t , i s e x a c t l y what Pound attempted i n h i s i m a g i s t poems. Binyon's essay l i k e l y p r o v i d e d the t h e o r e t i c a l spark f o r Imagism. The f a c t t h a t the S i x Canons apply to the v i s u a l a r t s seems to f i t p e r f e c t l y w i t h t h i s t h e o r y . The important t h i n g to note here i s the breadth and scope o f the t h e o r y t h a t h e l p e d g i v e b i r t h t o Imagism: i m a g i s t poems were never c o n c e i v e d as t i n y fragments. Rather, they aimed to express "the f u s i o n of the rhythm of the s p i r i t w i t h the movement of l i v i n g t h i n g s . " Pound's statment i n 1918 of the t h r e e p r i n c i p l e s of Imagism owes much to the S i x Canons: 1. D i r e c t treatment of the " t h i n g " whether s u b j e c t i v e or o b j e c t i v e . 2. To use a b s o l u t e l y no word t h a t does not c o n t r i b u t e to the p r e s e n t a t i o n . 88 3. As r e g a r d i n g rhythm: to compose i n the sequence of the m u s i c a l phrase, not i n sequence of metronome. (LE, 3) The second t e n e t of Imagism advocates compression, p a r t i c u l a r i t y , as d i d Binyon when he recommended t h a t the a r t i s t s e i z e the u n i v e r s a l i n the p a r t i c u l a r . The t h i r d t e n e t : "to compose i n the sequence of the m u s i c a l phrase" a l s o shares common ground w i t h Binyon's e x p l a n a t i o n of the concept of "Rhythmic V i t a l i t y . " The most important i n s i g h t f o r Pound i n the S i x Canons was t h a t rhythm p r o v i d e s the " s e c r e t " v e h i c l e f o r the a r t i s t t o put h i s audience i n touch w i t h l i f e : A r t i s not an a d j u n c t to e x i s t e n c e , a r e d u p l i c a t i o n of the a c t u a l ; i t i s a h i n t and a promise of t h a t p e r f e c t rhythm, o f t h a t i d e a l l i f e . Whatever rhythm i s , i t i s something i n t i m a t e l y connected w i t h l i f e , perhaps the s e c r e t of l i f e and i t s most p e r f e c t e x p r e s s i o n . . . Not t i l l the poet d i s c o v e r s h i s rhythm i s he a b l e to express h i s meaning.. (Binyon, p. 19) Pound's "Credo" (1912) p i c k e d up and echoed t h i s b e l i e f i n the transcendent q u a l i t i e s and f u n c t i o n s of rhythm: Rhythm—I b e l i e v e i n an " a b s o l u t e rhythm,"a rhythm, 89 t h a t i s , i n po e t r y which corresponds e x a c t l y t o the emotion o r shade of emotion to be expressed. A man's rhythm must be i n t e r p r e t a t i v e , i t w i l l be, t h e r e f o r e , i n the end, h i s own, u n c o u n t e r f e i t i n g , u n c o u n t e r f e i t a b l e . When Pound t a l k e d of rhythm from t h i s p o i n t on, he was not t h i n k i n g of i t as the product of a s e n s i b i l i t y l i m i t e d t o c o u n t i n g and comparing the number o f beats per l i n e of v e r s e . He was t h i n k i n g of i t as an a b s o l u t e : "the a r t i s t must p i e r c e beneath the mere asp e c t of the world to s e i z e and h i m s e l f t o be possessed by t h a t g r e a t cosmic rhythm of the s p i r i t which s e t s the c u r r e n t s o f l i f e i n motion." To be put i n touch w i t h the rhythmic v i t a l i t y o f the l i f e f o r c e was to u n i t e e n e r g e t i c a l l y w i t h the d i v i n e . In March 1913 Pound spoke of t h i s e x p e r i e n c e as the hallmark of imagism: An "Image" i s t h a t which p r e s e n t s an i n t e l l e c t u a l and emotional complex i n an i n s t a n t of time . . . I t i s the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f such a "complex" i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y which g i v e s t h a t sense o f freedom from time l i m i t s and space l i m i t s ; t h a t sudden growth, which we experi e n c e i n the presence of the g r e a t e s t works of a r t . (LE, 4) The image does not p r e s e n t a s t a t i c emotion: i t unlocks 90 q u i c k movements of the mind and emotions. The importance of rhythm as w e l l as imagery to the i m a g i s t poem can be seen i n "In a S t a t i o n o f the Metro," f o r i n s t a n c e : The a p p a r a t i o n of these f a c e s i n the crowd : P e t a l s on a wet, b l a c k bough _ (Poetry, A p r i l 1913) where the sp a c i n g provokes a rhythm mimetic of Pound's v i s u a l l y i n t e r r u p t e d s i g h t o f the f a c e s a t La Concorde. Here, meaning i n h a b i t s the gaps, or "neg a t i v e space", betweeen the words. We e x p l o r e the spaces between the image c l u s t e r s — e a c h reader i n h i s own way. Of h i s attempt i n such poems Pound s a i d i n 1914: "One i s t r y i n g t o r e c o r d the p r e c i s e i n s t a n t when a t h i n g outward and o b j e c t i v e . . d a r t s i n t o a t h i n g inward and s u b j e c t i v e . " (GJ3,89). W r i t i n g w i t h "rhythmic v i t a l i t y " i n t h i s way f r e e s one from the r e s t r a i n t s of time, c r e a t i n g a t r a n c e - l i k e union w i t h the d i v i n e s p i r i t . The care i s i n the rhythm w i t h which the v i s u a l images are ordered and p r e s e n t e d . Pound's i m a g i s t poems attempt t o r e f l e c t a rhythmic p r o c e s s of s u b j e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t i s i n harmony w i t h the d i v i n e rhythms of the o b j e c t i v e u n i v e r s e . And t h i s s u b j e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n i s i n d i v i d u a l f o r every reader, even 91 though the poems d e a l w i t h the matter of e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y , because each man's p e r c e p t i o n of r e a l i t y i s unique and s u b j e c t i v e : "A man's rhythm must be i n t e r p r e t a t i v e , i t w i l l be, t h e r e f o r e , i n the end, h i s own, u n c o u n t e r f e i t i n g , u n c o u n t e r f e i t a b l e . " Twenty-five years l a t e r than "In a S t a t i o n of the Metro," Pound e l a b o r a t e d on the technique, p a r t i c u l a r l y the way images juxtaposed i n c o r r e c t cadence can e n e r g i z e the r e a d e r s mind: I f l e s t y l e c ' e s t l'homme, the w r i t e r ' s b l o o d t e s t i s h i s s w i f t c o n t r a p o s i t i o n of o b j e c t s . Most hokkus are b i l a t e r a l . The f o o t - s t e p s of the c a t upon The snow: Plum-blossoms. May seem to the c a r e l e s s p e r u s e r to be o n l y b i l a t e r a l two v i s u a l images; but they are so p l a c e d as to c o n t a i n wide space and a s t r e t c h of c o l o u r between them. The t h i r d element i s t h e r e , i t s dimension from the f r u i t t o the shadow i n the f o o t - p r i n t s . No moral but a mood caught i n i t s p i n c e r s . The waves r i s e And the waves f a l l but you ( t h i s i s a hero's monument i n Nippon) Are l i k e the moonlight: always t h e r e . Another dimension. From dead t h e s i s , metaphor i s d i s t i n c t . Any t h e s i s i s dead i n i t s e l f . L i f e comes from metaphor and metaphor s t a r t s TOWARD ideogram. (SP, 422-23) 92 C l e a r l y , Pound had co n t i n u e d to b u i l d on h i s 1913 d i s c o v e r y f o r 25 y e a r s . The plum-blossoms hokku s e t s s p r i n g and w i n t e r i n t o dynamic, r e f l e c t i v e i n t e r p l a y . The round shape of a c a t ' s snowy pawprints suggests plum blossoms; the p u r p l e c o l o u r o f the mature summer f r u i t echoes the dark shadows c a s t by the i n d e n t a t i o n s i n the snow. The absence o f the l i v i n g c a t p r o v i d e s a plangent analogy f o r s p r i n g ' s disappearance, through the v i s u a l image of a dim t r a i l of paw p r i n t s d i s a p p e a r i n g i n the d i s t a n c e . The second hokku c o r r e l a t e s masculine heroism and feminine v e n e r a t i o n . The image o f a young widow l o o k i n g a t the moon i s not pr e s e n t , but may appear i n your mind when contemplating the poem. I f t h i s happens, you may suddenly see a v i s u a l analogy between the woman l o o k i n g a t the moon, and the same woman l o n g i n g f o r the dead hero. Pound termed t h i s complex and dynamic type of f u s i o n imagisme. The moon's permanence, i t s i n v i o l a t e , immortal beauty, c o n t r a s t s w i t h the f l u x o f waves, and of the human emotion under t i d a l i n f l u e n c e — t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n s t i m u l a t i n g the experien c e o f human l o s s . Both the mimetic rhythm o f the 93 v e r s e , and the mental rhythms t h a t a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of numerous p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s between the images s t i r i n one, p o i n t to Pound's c o n s c i o u s a r t i s t i c use o f the awareness t h a t rhythm " i s something i n t i m a t e l y connected w i t h l i f e , perhaps the s e c r e t of l i f e and i t s most p e r f e c t e x p r e s s i o n , " found i n Binyon's essay. By A p r i l 1912 Pound extended h i s concept of rhythm to e x p r e s s l y i n c l u d e languages of the mind t h a t use no words. " I t i s nonsense," he says i n "The Wisdom of P o e t r y , " to c o n s i d e r words as the o n l y " e s s e n t i a l s to thought"; some people t h i n k i n terms of o b j e c t s themselves, some i n p i c t u r e s , diagrams, o r i n m u s i c a l sounds, and p e r c e p t i o n by symbolic v i s i o n i s s w i f t e r and more complex than t h a t by r a t i o c i n a t i o n . ( S P , 329) C l e a r l y , " p i c t u r e s " or images i n themselves d i d not command the major p o r t i o n of Pound's a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g the i m a g i s t p e r i o d . Rhythm d i d . For the a r t of p o e t r y c o n s i s t s of f i n d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e rhythms and shapes f o r a g i v e n e x p e r i e n c e : The A r t of Poetry c o n s i s t s i n combing these " e s s e n t i a l s t o thought," these dynamic p a r t i c l e s . . . w i t h t h a t melody of words which s h a l l most draw the emotions of the hearer toward acco r d w i t h t h e i r import, and w i t h t h a t "form" which s h a l l most d e l i g h t the 94 i n t e l l e c t . By "melody" I mean v a r i a t i o n o f sound q u a l i t y , m i n g l i n g w i t h a v a r i a t i o n o f s t r e s s . By "form" I mean the arrangement of the v e r s e , s i c i n t o b a l l a d e s , c a n z o n i , and the l i k e symmetrical forms, or i n t o blank v e r s e o r i n t o f r e e v e r s e , where presumably, the nature of the t h i n g expressed or of the person supposed t o be e x p r e s s i n g i t , i s a n t a g o n i s t i c to e x t e r n a l symmetry. (SP,330) Thus from the o u t s e t of the i m a g i s t p e r i o d Pound c o n s i d e r e d form t o be the a c c u r a t e e x t e r n a l t r a c i n g o f an i n t e r n a l flow o f energy: not a s h e l l imposed from without but a rhythmic p a t t e r n a r i s i n g from w i t h i n . To succeed i n t h i s was t o c r e a t e a p e r f e c t p a t t e r n , t o make an "equation o f e t e r n i t y . " A l l a r t i s t s , he s a i d i n Gaudier-Brzeska, are i n d i s s o l u b l y u n i t e d by " t h i s unending adventure towards ' arrangement 1 ,: t h i s s e a rch f o r the equations of e t e r n i t y . " (GB,122). The i m a g i s t poet e x p l o r e s one k i n d of "arrangement," searches i n one of many p o s s i b l e ways f o r such equations of e t e r n i t y . T h i s was h a r d l y a t r i v i a l attempt, and the i m a g i s t poem, as Pound c o n c e i v e d i t , was h a r d l y a t r i v i a l form. I t worked d y n a m i c a l l y , "composed i n the sequence of the m u s i c a l phrase"; i t was not s t a t i c . Rhythm i s fundamental; Binyon c a l l e d the f i r s t o f the S i x Canons "the a l l - i m p o r t a n t one; f o r the o t h e r s are concerned r a t h e r w i t h 9 5 the means to a t t a i n the end which the f i r s t c o n t a i n s " (Binyon, p. 13). I t was fundamental as w e l l t o Pound's experiments w i t h major form d u r i n g the Imagist p e r i o d , as we s h a l l see i n the second p a r t of t h i s c h a p ter. Pound's i n t e r e s t i n o r g a n i c rhythm, k i n e t i c form, g r a d u a l l y drew him away from h i s e a r l y a t t r a c t i o n t o the q u a l i t y of s t a s i s i n a r t . The search i n a r t f o r "equations of e t e r n i t y " was p a r t of Pound's attempt to d i s c o v e r cosmic rhythms of p e r c e p t i o n beyond the world of mass p r o d u c t i o n and c o n f o r m i t y . The i m a g i s t poem r e f i n e s our s e n s i b i l i t i e s . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , i t awakens us t o the coherence of the v i t a l u n i v e r s e , t o our k i n s h i p "to the t r e e and the l i v i n g rock" (SR, 92) . Thus i n 1912 Pound compared the f u n c t i o n of the poet to t h a t of the a n a l y t i c g e o m e t r i c i a n , both of whom d e a l w i t h a b s o l u t e laws "unbounded, l o o s e d from the a c c i d e n t s of time and space," and found t h a t both p r o v i d e , f o r the i n i t i a t e d , "a door i n t o e t e r n i t y and the boundless e t h e r . " (CSP,332). Pound's p h r a s i n g here echoes t h a t of h i s d o c t r i n e of the Image, which he says "g i v e s t h a t sense of sudden l i b e r a t i o n ; t h a t sense of freedom from time l i m i t s and space l i m i t s ; t h a t sudden growth, which we experience i n the presence of the g r e a t e s t works o f a r t " ( L E , 4) . C l e a r l y t h e r e was a l i n k between the l i m i t e d purposes of p o e t r y g e n e r a l l y , the 96 attempt t o put man i n t o touch w i t h the d i v i n e — i n Binyon's words, "to s e i z e and h i m s e l f t o be possessed by t h a t g r e a t cosmic rhythm of the s p i r i t which s e t s the c u r r e n t s o f l i f e i n motion" (Binyon, p. 14). Hence Pound's a s s e r t i o n i n October, 1914: "The o n l y t r u e r e l i g i o n i s the r e v e l a t i o n 4 made i n the a r t s . " Such a r e v e l a t i o n would be induced p r i m a r i l y through the poet's h a n d l i n g o f rhythm. Pound's f a v o r i t e image f o r the c o n n e c t i o n between the rhythmic v i t a l i t y o f the u n i v e r s e and t h a t o f a poem was the rose i n the s t e e l dust. The p a t t e r n s p r e - e x i s t , are o r g a n i c , and known by t h e i r beauty; the job of the a r t i s t was t o b r i n g them i n t o cognizance. Hence Pound's c o n s t a n t experiments; why copy the form of sonnet or canzone once i t s p a t t e r n s have been f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e d ? Most i m p o r t a n t l y , Pound enthused l e s s over f i n a l p a t t e r n s than the p r o c e s s whereby they come i n t o b e i n g , the rhythmic movement from i m p e r c e p t i b i l i t y toward the t a n g i b l e . Hence the s t r o n g s t r e s s on metamorphosis running through a l l h i s p o e t r y — " T h e Tree" stands f i r s t i n h i s C o l l e c t e d S h o r t e r Poems. T h i s k i n d of rhythmic movement (chaos s t i r r i n g toward o r d e r ) , i s manifested i n "The Return", p r a i s e d by Yeats as "the most b e a u t i f u l poem t h a t has been w r i t t e n i n f r e e 97 form, one of the few i n which I f i n d r e a l o r g a n i c rhythm." 5 See, they r e t u r n ; ah, see the t e n t a t i v e Movements, and the slow f e e t , The t r o u b l e i n the pace and the u n c e r t a i n Wavering! See, they r e t u r n , one, and by one, With f e a r , as half-awakened; As i f the snow should h e s i t a t e And murmur i n the wind, and h a l f t u r n back; These were the "Wing 1d-with'Awe," I n v i o l a b l e . Gods of the winged shoe! With them the s i l v e r hounds, s n i f f i n g the t r a c e of a i r ! Haie! Haie! These were the s w i f t to ha r r y ; These the keen-scented; These were the s o u l s of b l o o d . Slow on the l e a s h , p a l l i d the leash-men! Ruthven m a i n t a i n s t h a t the poem i s about "the pagan gods who, v i g o r o u s i n a n t i q u i t y , have managed t o s u r v i v e o n l y as shadows of t h e i r former s e l v e s , b u t the poem cannot be t i e d t o one meaning. I t f o c u s s e s on the aftermath of a c o n f l i c t between g o d l i k e v i g o u r , c o n f i d e n c e , and some much g r e a t e r f o r c e . Those who r e t u r n are t o t a l l y b a f f l e d , t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o make sense of t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e r e f l e c t e d by 98 the rhythm; p r e o c c u p i e d , t h e i r wandering minds guide wandering f o o t s t e p s : "See, they r e t u r n , one, and by one, / With f e a r , as half-awakened." Organic rhythm i s a very d i f f e r e n t t h i n g , as Binyon had p o i n t e d out i n 1911, from "a mere mechanical s u c c e s s i o n o f beats and i n t e r v a l s " (Binyon, p. 15) . The r e v e l a t i o n which a r t aims a t cannot be a c h i e v e d u s i n g the most f l a g r a n t l y p r e d i c t a b l e rhythms. Organic rhythm i s not l i m i t e d to "The Return" among Pound's i m a g i s t poems; i t animates them a l l , even "Fan-Piece, f o r her i m p e r i a l l o r d , " perhaps the l e a s t l i k e l y - l o o k i n g c a n d i d a t e ; 0 fan of white s i l k , c l e a r as f r o s t on the g r a s s - b l a d e , You a l s o are l a i d a s i d e . (CSP, 118) In Binyon's essay Pound had read: " J u s t as a man's language i s an u n e r r i n g index o f h i s nature, so the a c t u a l s t r o k e s of h i s brush i n w r i t i n g or p a i n t i n g b e t r a y him and announce e i t h e r the freedom and n o b i l i t y o f h i s s o u l or i t s meanness and l i m i t a t i o n . P e r s o n a l i t y , i n the Chinese view of a r t , counts enormously" (Binyon, p.14). The c o u r t e s a n ' s r e t i c e n t , u n e f f u s i v e language r e f l e c t s her noble p e r s o n a l i t y . Her c o n t r a s t between the fan of s i l k 99 ( c a s u a l l y handled, a l t h o u g h d e l i c a t e ) and the green g r a s s - b l a d e covered by f r o s t , i n v i t e s a comparision between the indoor warmth of acceptance and c h i l l y e x c l u s i o n . L i k e her p r e c i s e o b s e r v a t i o n of d e t a i l s , the s c r u p u l o u s l y d e l i c a t e rhythm i n d i c a t e s n o b i l i t y of c h a r a c t e r . Even the l i n e - b r e a k s u n d e r l i n e the care w i t h which n o b i l i t y e xpresses p e r s o n a l emotion, each l i n e s e t out w i t h a rhythmic p r e c i s i o n o f e x p r e s s i o n too i n n a t e f o r a g o n i z i n g l o s s t o d i s r u p t . From these examples, then, we can see t h a t the i m a g i s t poem arranged a c l u s t e r o f rhythmic p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t s e t o f f echoing rhythms w i t h i n the mind. I t pre s e n t e d an equa t i o n o f e t e r n i t y through u n i v e r s a l rhythms composed i n "the sequence of the m u s i c a l phrase." Such phrases may be b r i e f ; t h e i r v a l i d i t y depends o n l y on the accuracy w i t h which they s t i m u l a t e the mind's movement. P e r f e c t form, as Pound now c o n s i d e r e d i t , r e s u l t e d when the unmechanical rhythms of language c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the s u b t l e rhythms of the p r o c e s s e s o f nature; then the a r t i s t had achieved "the f u s i o n of the rhythm of the s p i r i t w i t h the movement of l i v i n g t h i n g s . " 1 0 0 B Image and Epigram While the i m a g i s t poem a s p i r e d to "Rhythmic V i t a l i t y , " i t s primary r e l e v a n c e to Pound's development of major form l i e s i n h i s attempt t o combine i t w i t h the epigram. Consequently, the s e q u e n t i a l poems of the i m a g i s t p e r i o d which c o u n t e r p o i n t image and epigram, or the c u l t of beauty and the c u l t of u g l i n e s s , p o i n t more d i r e c t l y toward the o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f the Cantos. Two f a c t o r s l i e behind the importance of these s e q u e n t i a l poems. F i r s t , as we saw i n Chapter I I , Pound r e a c t e d w i t h i r r i t a t i o n and d i s g u s t t o s o c i e t y , but more p o s i t i v e l y t o "beauty;" the s e q u e n t i a l poem allowed him t o segregate these two moods w i t h i n a s i n g l e poem, and i n t h i s way to b u i l d up a complexity of t e x t u r e i m p o s s i b l e u s i n g the i m a g i s t poem alone. In t h i s sense, these s e q u e n t i a l poems b u i l t on the p r i n c i p l e o f c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g o p p o s i t e s f i r s t e x p l o r e d i n A Lume Spento. Second, i f the rhythms of the i m a g i s t poem r e f l e c t e d Pound's n o t i o n of a harmonious r e l a t i o n s h i p between man and the cosmos, the epigram r e f l e c t e d the im p a t i e n t , disharmonious rhythms of Pound's a t t i t u d e to the t r i v i a l i t i e s o f modern s o c i e t y . By attempting t o yoke these rhythms i n t o a s i n g l e poem, Pound showed t h a t he f e l t 101 a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n p o s s i b l e i n a r t between h i s p e r c e p t i o n of the o r g a n i c o r d e r s of the cosmos, and h i s p e r c e p t i o n of a i m l e s s o r d e r s of s o c i e t y , "und drang." Although he f a i l e d a t t h i s time i n the attempt to c r e a t e a major form out of these m a t e r i a l s , the s e q u e n t i a l poems p o i n t toward the u l t i m a t e success of XVI Cantos i n y o k i n g the " c u l t s o f beauty and u g l i n e s s . " In h i s 1913 essay "The S e r i o u s A r t i s t , " (LE,41-57) Pound d e f i n e d the c u l t of beauty as the a r t of cure: " i t i s the hygiene, i t i s sun, a i r and the sea and the r a i n and the l a k e b a t h i n g . " The c u l t of u g l i n e s s , on the o t h e r hand, " i s the a r t of d i a g n o s i s . " During the 1912-14 p e r i o d , Pound expressed these c u l t s i n the i m a g i s t poem and the epigram, r e s p e c t i v e l y , but i n s i s t e d t h a t the two k i n d s of w r i t i n g have something i n common: "The c u l t of beauty and the d e l i n e a t i o n of u g l i n e s s are not i n mutual o p p o s i t i o n " (LE, 45). The c u l t of beauty i s a c o n s t a n t i n Pound's po e t r y from the b e g i n n i n g , w h i l e the c u l t of u g l i n e s s e n t e r s h i s p o e t r y o n l y once he began to d e a l e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h contemporary s o c i e t y , i n "Und Drang" and " R e d o n d i l l a s " (1911) . The nature of the o r i g i n and developement of the c u l t of u g l i n e s s i n the i m a g i s t p e r i o d t h e r e f o r e h e l p s us 102 understand Pound's e v e n t u a l c h o i c e of a major form. In October 1912, Pound sent H a r r i e t Monroe a batch of seemingly harmless poems t i t l e d "Contemporania." These i n c l u d e d "The G a r r e t , "The Garden," "Dance F i g u r e , " "Commission," "A Pact," and "In a S t a t i o n of the Metro." "I don't know t h a t America i s ready to be d i v e r t e d by the ultra-modern, u l t r a - e f f e t e t e n u i t y of Contemporania," he t o l d her. (SL,11). In December he sent her a d d i t i o n a l poems f o r the s e r i e s , "which ought to appear almost i n t a c t or not a t a l l , " and attempted to s e t t l e her f e a r s about t h e i r r e c e p t i o n by s a y i n g "we're i n such a b e a u t i f u l p o s i t i o n t o save the p u b l i c ' s s o u l by punching i t s f a c e t h a t i t seems a crime not to do so. (SL, 13). America was not ready to accept such treatment. "Contemporania" appeared i n the A p r i l 1913 e d i t i o n of Poetry. Perusers of t h i s i s s u e d i d not f i n d t h e r e i n the k i n d of p o e t r y they expected, such as the f o l l o w i n g gem of 7 Georgian b a n a l i t y o f f e r e d by A l d i n g t o n as t y p i c a l : A l i t t l e seed b e s t f i t s a l i t t l e s o i l , A l i t t l e t r a d e b e s t f i t s a l i t t l e t o i l : As my s m a l l j a r b e s t f i t s my l i t t l e o i l . 103 I n s t e a d , they were punched s e n s e l e s s : Round one: 0 g e n e r a t i o n of the t h o r o u g h l y smug and t h o r o u g h l y uncomfortable, I have seen fishermen p i c k n i c k i n g i n the sun, I have seen them w i t h u n t i d y f a m i l i e s , I have seen t h e i r s m i l e s f u l l o f t e e t h and heard u n g a i n l y l a u g h t e r . And I am h a p p i e r than you a r e , And they were hap p i e r than I am; And the f i s h swim i n the l a k e and do not even own c l o t h i n g . ( S a l u t a t i o n ) Round two: Go, my songs, t o the l o n e l y and the u n s a t i s f i e d , Go a l s o t o the nerve-wracked, go to the e n s l a v e d - b y - c o n v e n t i o n , Bear t o them my contempt f o r t h e i r o p p r e s s o r s . Go as a g r e a t wave of c o o l water, Bear my contempt of o p p r e s s o r s . (Commission) Round t h r e e : Here they stand without q u a i n t d e v i c e s , Here they are w i t h n o t h i n g a r c h a i c about them. Observe the i r r i t a t i o n i n g e n e r a l : "Is t h i s " , they say, "the nonsense t h a t we expect of poets?" "Where i s the P i c t u r e s q u e ? " ( S a l u t a t i o n the Second) To Pound's s u r p r i s e d d e l i g h t , h i s poems r a i s e d dust among the c r i t i c s . W i l l i a m Rose Benet r u f f l e d h i s f e a t h e r s : Mr. Pound's f i n a l jape has been too much f o r most of h i s admirers of the t h r e e r e a l l y good poems which he once wrote. He now seems to d e l i g h t i n p l a c i n g h i m s e l f i n the cheapest of c a t e g o r i e s . . . Is t h e r e no way gof p r e v e n t i n g youth from hanging i t s e l f i n i t s own ego? 104 And Wallace R i c e , a l s o w r i t i n g f o r The D i a l , exclaimed a g a i n s t t h i s h e r e t i c who t h r e a t e n e d p o e t r y i t s e l f by g " d e s t r o y i n g the conventions of rhyme and rhythm." A few c r i t i c s championed "Contemporania," n o t a b l y F l o y d D e l l of the Chicago Evening Post L i t e r a r y Review, whose e d i t o r i a l o f A p r i l 4, 1913 began: E z r a Pound, we s a l u t e you! You are the most enchanting poet a l i v e . Your poems i n the A p r i l P o e t r y are so mockingly, so d e l i c a t e l y , so u n b l u s h i n g l y b e a u t i f u l t h a t you seem to have brought back i n t o the world a grace which (probabaly) never e x i s t e d , but which we discoYgr by an i m a g i n a t i v e p r o c e s s i n H o r a t i u s and C a t u l l u s . " D e l l i s v e r y c o n s o l i n g . I t ' s c l e v e r of him t o d e t e c t the L a t i n tone" Pound wrote Monroe on A p r i l 22, from Sirmione (SL, 19) . Pound r e a c t e d to the c r i t i c a l f u r o r immediately, p r o b i n g w i t h t y p i c a l a g g r e s s i v e n e s s f u r t h e r i n t o the exposed nerves. By October, he had w r i t t e n a new s e r i e s of poems, which he sent to A l i c e Coburn Henderson: I wonder i f Poetry r e a l l y dares to devote a number to my new work. T h e r e ' l l be a howl. They won't l i k e i t . I t ' s a b s o l u t e l y the l a s t obsequies of the 105 V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d . I won't permit any s e l e c t i o n or e d i t i n g . I t stands now a s e r i e s of 24 poems, most of them v e r y s h o r t . . . T h e r e ' l l p r o b a b l y be 4 0 by the time I hear from you. I t ' s not f u t u r i s m and i t ' s not p o s t - i m p r e s s i o n i s m , but i t ' s work contemporary w i t h those s c h o o l s and to my mind the most s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t I have y e t brought o f f . I guarantee you one t h i n g . The reader w i l l not be bored. He w i l l say ahg, ahg, ahh, ahh, but-bu-bu-but t h i s i s n ' t P oetry. (SL, 23-24) Poetry d i d n ' t dare. F i f t e e n of Pound's s o f t e r poems were p i c k e d from t h i s bunch f o r i n c l u s i o n i n the November number: "Ancora," " S u r g i t fama," "The Choice," "Gentildonna," and the two s e q u e n t i a l poems " L u s t r a " and "Xenia." Pound r e s i g n e d as F o r e i g n e d i t o r i n November, p a r t l y because of Monroe's r e s i s t a n c e to p r i n t i n g H u e f f e r and p a r t l y , no doubt, because she r e f u s e d to p r i n t h i s more p r o v o c a t i v e poems. On December 8, he withdrew h i s r e s i g n a t i o n pending the g e n e r a l improvement of the magazine. On May 23, 1914, he gave Monroe p e r m i s s i o n t o omit poems l i k e l y to have the magazine suppressed, but i n s i s t e d t h a t she not make them " i n t o a f l a b b y l i t t l e Sunday s c h o o l l o t l i k e the bunch i n the November number." Pound's p o e t r y d i d not appear aga i n i n Poetry f o r nine months, u n t i l August 1914. The k i n d of poem Monroe r e s i s t e d d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d 106 can be imagined by those appearing i n the December 1913 i s s u e o f Smart Set. At any r a t e , they seem t o be the k i n d of poem which would cause the reader t o say, "ahh, but-bu-bu-but t h i s i s n ' t P o e t r y . " She had a pig-shaped f a c e , w i t h b e a u t i f u l c o l o u r i n g , She wore a b r i g h t , dark-blue c l o a k , Her h a i r was a b r i l l i a n t deep orange c o l o r So the e f f e c t was charming ,. As long as her head was a v e r t e d . Why does the h o r s e - f a c e d l a d y of j u s t the unmentionable age Walk down Longacre r e c i t i n g Swinburne t o h e r s e l f , i n a u d i b l y ? Why does the r e a l l y handsome p r o s t i t u t e approach me i n S a c k v i l l e S t r e e t , -Undeterred by the m a n i f e s t age of my t r a p p i n g s ? Having got a r e a c t i o n by punching the p u b l i c ' s face once, Pound punched a g a i n , harder. I n e v i t a b l y , the e s c a l a t i o n o f c o n f l i c t l e d to h i s e x c l u s i o n from "the world of l e t t e r s . " The climax o f t h i s c o n f l i c t came w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n of two numbers of B l a s t i n June 1914 and J u l y 1915. In 1914 Pound c o n t r i b u t e d t h i s epigram: The New Cake of Soap Lo, how i t gleams and g l i s t e n s i n the sun L i k e the cheek of a C h e s t e r t o n . (CSP, 108) 107 And i n 1915 he c o n t r i b u t e d a s a t i r e on Rupert Brooke's " n i n e t y P e t r a r c h a n sonnets" i n the " s t y l e V i c t o r i e n de l a 'Georgian Anthology'": Our Contemporaries When the T a h i t i a n p r i n c e s s Heard t h a t he had d e c i d e d , She rushed out i n t o the s u n l i g h t and swarmed up a cocoanut palm t r e e , But he r e t u r n e d to t h i s i s l a n d ^ And wrote n i n e t y P e t r a r c h a n sonnets. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s poem, though w r i t t e n b e f o r e Brooke's death i n the D a r d e n e l l e s , d i d not appear t i l l a f t e r i t . Brooke's E n g l i s h f r i e n d s and e d i t o r s , who i d o l i z e d him, were not amused. H a r o l d Monro, e d i t o r of the Georgian A n t h o l o g i e s , was p a r t i c u l a r l y upset. "The f i r s t y ear o f the war knocked my i n t a k e g a l l y - h e l l y , " Pound w r i t e s h i s f a t h e r i n 1918: "the second year I got back to 50% of pre-war gate r e c e i p t s " (YC). In h i s own mind, the s o c i a l d i s a p p r o v a l of h i s s a t i r e s and t h i s f a l l i n h i s income were c a u s a l l y connected. H i s r e a c t i o n to t h i s p r e s s u r e toward c o n f o r m i t y appears i n a poem from B l a s t No. 2: "Et Faim S a l l i r Les Loups Des Boys": I w i l l c l i n g t o the spar, 108 Washed w i t h the c o l d s a l t i c e I w i l l c l i n g t o the s p a r — I n s i d i o u s modern waves, c i v i l i z a t i o n , c i v i l i z e d hidden snares. Cowardly e d i t o r s t h r e a t e n : " I f I dare" Say t h i s or t h a t , or speak my open mind, Say t h a t I hate my hates, Say t h a t I l o v e my f r i e n d s , Say t h a t I b e l i e v e i n Lewis, s p i t out the l a t e r Rodin, Say t h a t E p i s t e i n can carve i n stone, That Brzeska can use the c h i s e l , Or Wadsworth p a i n t ; Then they w i l l have my guts; They w i l l c u t down my wage, f o r c e me to s i n g t h e i r cant, Uphold the p r e s s , and be b e f o r e a l l a model of l i t e r a r y decorum. Merde1 Cowardly e d i t o r s t h r e a t e n , F r i e n d s f a l l o f f a t the p i n c h , the l o v e l i e s t d i e . That i s the path of l i f e , t h i s i s my f o r e s t . ( J u l y 1915, p.22) By t h i s time Pound was not o n l y u s i n g s a t i r e t o a t t a c k prudery i n modern s o c i e t y , but t o defend h i m s e l f a g a i n s t economic b l a c k l i s t i n g . The c u l t of u g l i n e s s had now become i n p a r t a defense mechanism, a way of r e a c t i n g to s o c i a l d i s a p p r o v a l . " I t i s c l e v e r of D e l l t o d e t e c t the L a t i n tone" he t o l d Monroe, c o n f i r m i n g the Roman s a t i r i s t s ' i n f l u e n c e . T h i s p l e a s e d a t t i t u d e d i f f e r s from the long d i a t r i b e he wrote a g a i n s t M a r t i a l i n 1904, which ended: 109 Yet l e t me cease my r e a d i n g ere the stench grow s t r o n g e r 0 M a r t i a l p r i n c e of f r a u d s . (YC) As l a t e as January 1907 he t o l d F e l i x E. S c h e l l i n g t h a t " s i n c e the study of M a r t i a l t h e r e i s n o t h i n g I approach w i t h such nausea and d i s q u s t as Roman l i f e (Das P r i v a t l e b e n ) " (SL, 3). Between 1904-07 and 1913, s a t i r e became Pound's normal r e a c t i o n to contemporary Georgian s o c i e t y . Why? The theme of the i n f l u e n c e of economics on the a r t i s t e s c a l a t e s a l o n g w i t h Pound's use of s a t i r e . By the time he f e l t the p i n c h of economic b l a c k l i s t i n g i n the f i r s t year of the war, Pound was ready to change h i s e a r l i e r views of the i r r e v e l a n c e of economics to the a r t i s t . That i s , a concern w i t h economics predates Pound's meeting w i t h Major Douglas i n 1919, and even h i s l o s s of income through b l a c k l i s t i n g i n 1915. In The S p i r i t of Romance (1910) he mused on how f a r a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n depends on f i n a n c i a l p r o s p e r i t y : I f one were seeking to prove t h a t a l l t h a t p a r t of a r t which i s not the i n e v i t a b l e e x p r e s s i o n of genius i s a by-product of trade or a s e c r e t i o n of commercial p r o s p e r i t y , the f o l l o w i n g f a c t s would seem s i g n i f i c a n t . S h o r t l y b e f o r e the d e c l i n e of Portugese p r e s t i g e , Houtman, l y i n g i n j a i l f o r debt at L i s b o n , planned the 110 Dutch E a s t I n d i a Company. When P o r t u g a l f e l l , H o l l a n d s e i z e d the O r i e n t a l t r a d e , and soon a f t e r Roemer V i s s c h e r was h o l d i n g a s a l o n , w i t h which are connected the names of Rembrant, B r o t i u s , Spinoza, Vondel (born 1587) "the one a r t i c u l a t e v o i c e of H o l l a n d , " Erasmus, and Thomas-a-Kempis. (SR,221) And i n 1911 he e l a b o r a t e d on t h i s c o n n e c t i o n between a r t and t r a d e i n "I Gather the Limbs of O s i r i s " : When i n Burkhardt we come upon a passage: "In t h i s year the V e n e t i a n s r e f u s e d t o make war upon the Milanese because they h e l d t h a t any war between buyer and s e l l e r must prove p r o f i t a b l e t o n e i t h e r , " we come upon a p o r t e n t , the o l d o r d e r changes, one c o n c e p t i o n of war and of the S t a t e begins to d e c l i n e . The Middle Ages i m p e r c e p t i b l y g i v e ground to the Renaissance. A r u l e r owning a S t a t e and w i s h i n g to e n l a r g e h i s p o s s e s s i o n s , c o u l d under one regime, i n a matter opposed to sound economy, make war; but commercial sense i s sapping t h i s regime. (SP, 22) At t h i s stage, "commercial sense" and "sound economy" p r o v i d e d a luminous d e t a i l by which a s t a t e of c i v i l i z a t i o n such as t h a t of the Renaissance c o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d . Peace and a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i v i t y were seen by Pound to flow i n e v i t a b l y from a h e a l t h y , c a p i t a l i s t , economy. By October 1914, however, Pound trembled on the verge of h i s l a t e r b e l i e f t h a t the economy of Georgian England 111 had become d i s e a s e d . T h i s now seemed a c r i t i c a l flaw to the a r t i s t who saw t h a t he must be f r e e from economic w o r r i e s t o c r e a t e " u n t e n a b l e beauty": Nothing but a lo v e o f p e r f e c t i o n , or of "God," or of "the u n t e n a b l e beauty," or something o f t h a t s o r t , w i l l make a human b e i n g i n t o the s o r t o f person one wishes to meet. And n o t h i n g but such l o v e , p l u s some reasonable chance of seeking t h a t p e r f e c t i o n , or t h a t "God" or t h a t " u n t e n a b l e beauty," w i l l keep s a i d human bei n g a b e a r a b l e companion. The " l o v e " i s , I suppose, " i n n a t e , " or an " a c c i d e n t , " or a " p r e d e s t i n a t i o n , " or whatever one l i k e s t o c a l l i t ; the "chance of seeking" i s , I suppose, the concern of man's economic and l e g i s l a t i v e f a c u l t i e s . One gets bored w i t h "economists" and a l l t h e i r g a l l e r y , because they keep h a r p i n g on the "chance" and b e c a u s e they want to p r e s c r i b e what one s h a l l do w i t h i t . Pound's boredom w i t h economics began t o d i s a p p e a r a f t e r he f e l t the economic p i n c h h i m s e l f i n 1914-15, and n o t i c e d how i t impinged on h i s c r e a t i v e e f f o r t s . The c l u e to how he would attempt t o i n c o r p o r a t e economics i n t o h i s p o e t r y , however, was a l r e a d y t h e r e . Although Kenner says Mauberley (1919) i s "Pound's f i r s t work t o c o n t a i n the word ' u s u r y ' " ^ , "Octave" was p r i n t e d i n Canzoni (1911): F i n e songs, f a i r songs, these golden u s u r i e s Her beauty earns as but j u s t increment, And they do speak w i t h a most i l l i n t e n t Who say they g i v e when they pay debtor's f e e s . 112 I c a l l him bankrupt i n the c o u r t s of song Who hath her g o l d t o eye and pays her not, D e f a u l t e r do I c a l l the knave who hath got Her s i l v e r i n h i s h e a r t , and doth her wrong. (C, 15) T h i s e a r l y song p o i n t s t o how Pound was l a t e r a b l e t o r e c o n c i l e the c u l t o f beauty and economics. Kenner has noted, i n t h i s r e g a r d , t h a t the f i r s t s i x t e e n cantos "march s t r a i g h t from Homer's time, and A p h r o d i t e bedecked i n g o l d , to the World War which came about because g o l d was misapprehended" (PE, 408). Both the v o c a b u l a r y and the a s s o c i a t i o n between g o l d and beauty were e s t a b l i s h e d as a t r a d i t i o n i n Pound's work b e f o r e 1919, when he began to t u r n h i s a t t e n t i o n f u l l y t o the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t and s o c i a l economics. He a l r e a d y knew t h a t i t was p o s s i b l e t o g r a f t h i s new concern w i t h economics onto the c u l t o f beauty. Pound took a w h i l e , however, to f u l l y r e a l i z e t h a t the "commercial sense" of the Renaissance was no l o n g e r o p e r a t i v e i As l a t e as August 1912, he wrote h i s f a t h e r t o ask: "What's the matter w i t h Wilson? Of course I don't mind T.R. i f he r e a l l y means to smash the t r u s t s , t a r r i f f , express c o s t s , e c t . " (YC) . I t was not u n t i l f o u r years l a t e r t h a t he began to r a i l a g a i n s t Wilson, as i n 113 "L"Homme Moyen Sensuel," f o r i n s t a n c e : An a r t ! You a l l r e s p e c t the a r t s , from t h a t i n f a n t t i c k Who's now the e d i t o r o f The A t l a n t i c , From Comstock's s e l f , down to the meanest r e s i d e n t , T i l l up ag a i n , r i g h t up, we reach the p r e s i d e n t , Who shows h i s t a s t e i n h i s ambassadors: A n o v e l i s t , a p u b l i s h e r , to pay o l d s c o r e s , A n o v e l i s t , a p u b l i s h e r and a preacher, That's sent t o H o l l a n d , a most p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e , Henry Van Dyke, who t h i n k s t o charm the Muse you pack her i n A s o r t of s t i n k i n g d e l i q u e s c e n t s a c c h a r i n e . (CSP, 256) America i s "an i n t e l l e c t u a l and a r t i s t i c d e s e r t , " Pound wrote h i s f a t h e r i n October 1916. "AND no one has y e t shot Woodrow Wilson" (YC). A f u r t h e r s t i m u l u s t o study economics came when E l k i n Mathews' p r i n t e r r e f u s e d t o s e t up a number of poems i n L u s t r a . Lawrence's The Rainbow had been suppressed i n 1915, and he was unable t o get Women i n Love p r i n t e d . "You know I f i n i s h e d a n o v e l , Women i n Love, which I know i s a masterpiece," Lawrence wrote Edward Marsh on January 5th, 1917, but i t seems i t w i l l not f i n d a p u b l i s h e r . I t i s no good, I cannot get a s i n g l e t h i n g I w r i t e p u b l i s h e d i n England. There i s no s a l e of the books t h a t are p u b l i s h e d . So I am di s h e d . I know i t i s no good w r i t i n g f o r England any more. England wants s o o t h i n g pap, and not h i n g e l s e , f o r i t s 114 l i t e r a t u r e ; sweet inno c e n t babe of a B r i t a n n i a ! T h e r e f o r e I have got to get out some way or o t h e r . Do you t h i n k they would l e t -jrae go to New York? I know I c o u l d make a l i v i n g t h e r e . With these s i g n s around him, Pound saw an age of r e p r e s s i o n c o n t r a r y t o a l l he had been working f o r loom over the h o r i z o n . He saw the law of c e n s o r s h i p , passed i n the i n t e r e s t s of n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y , b e i n g m i s a p p l i e d i n support of prudery. R e a c t i n g w i t h t y p i c a l energy, and w i t h John Quinn's h e l p , he arranged f o r an uncensored v e r s i o n of L u s t r a (1917) to be p r i v a t e l y p r i n t e d i n America. He began t o t h i n k t h a t i t might w e l l behoove the poet to t u r n h i s a t t e n t i o n t o the r o l e of economics, to ensure t h a t such a c o n s t r i c t i o n of the poet's a b i l i t y to communicate h i s thought would not a r i s e a g a i n . But a t t h i s time h i s thoughts on economics d i d not express themselves through h i s p o e t r y . And b e f o r e economics? How c o u l d Pound t u r n h i s n e g a t i v e emotions about s o c i a l prudery and r e p r e s s i o n i n t o p o e t r y , whose e x p r e s s i o n of "a p o s i t i v e " d i s t i n g u i s h e d i t from prose? T h i s i s the weakness of h i s epigrams and s a t i r e s , the c u l t of u g l i n e s s , i n the 1912-14 p e r i o d . He d e s p i s e d above a l l the t r i v i a l i t y of the p e r i o d . But what 115 can one u s e f u l l y s e l e c t t o symbolize t h i s ? In "Und Drang" he had t r i e d a t t a c k i n g " t e a rooms." In "A m i t i e s " he c a s t i g a t e d f r e q u e n t e r s of moderate "chop-houses." He found both a dead end: The mind a c h i n g f o r something t h a t i t can honour under the name of " c i v i l i z a t i o n , " the mind, s e e i n g t h a t s t a t e a f a r o f f but c l e a r l y , can o n l y f l a p about p e t t i s h l y s t r i k i n g a t the host o f t r i v i a l s u b s t i t u t e s p r e s e n t e d to i t . And y e t h i s anger a t the contemporary s t a t e o f l e t t e r s i n England was very r e a l . " P o s s i b l y a h y p e r - a e s t h e s i a , " he wrote Edgar Jepson i n May 1917, but I f i n d no o t h e r word but ". . . "; the s e n s a t i o n of bei n g t h r u s t head downward up to the c h i n i n t o the mire of an open p r i v v y which comes upon me a t the mention of the house o f Murray, the Bookman, Seccombe, C h e s t e r t o n , the whole o r d e r o f these t h i n g s . New Statesman conveys a d r y e r , a more dusty f e e l i n g . C e r t a i n people have f e l t t h i s s o r t o f t h i n g about " l i f e , " I f e e l i t about contemporary " l i t t e r c h u r e , 1 1 g e n s d e l e t t r e s , e t c . Poetry gets out of reach of the stench . . . . (SL, 112) His response was to a t t a c k t a r g e t s which r e p r e s e n t t h i s " l i t t e r c h u r e , " such as The Times. In h i s a r t i c l e "Wyndham Lewis" (The E g o i s t , June 15, 1914), he h e l d up f o r 116 r i d i c u l e a s e l e c t i o n from The Times "Poets, l i k e P i e r r o t s , indeed, i n the days of t h e i r youth should t h i n k no l o n g e r than a minute a t a time, a t any r a t e w h i l e w i t h pen i n hand." "The r e a l l y v i g o r o u s mind," Pound s a i d , might be able to e r e c t t h i s k i n d of b a n a l i t y i n t o a symbol of the s t a t e o f mind which The Times r e p r e s e n t e d , "which i s a loathsome s t a t e of mind, a malebolge of obtuseness" (SL, 234). A mere f i v e days l a t e r he answered h i s own c h a l l e n g e w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n of " S a l u t a t i o n the T h i r d " i n B l a s t No. 1: L e t us d e r i d e the smugness of "The Times": GUFFAW! So much f o r the gagged r e v i e w e r s , I t w i l l pay them when the worms are w r i g g l i n g i n t h e i r v i t a l s HERE i s the t a s t e of my BOOT,,„ CARESS i t , l i c k o f f the BLACKING. Pound was not e n t i r e l y s u c c e s s f u l : here; h i s d e l i n e a t i o n o f u g l i n e s s was too u g l y , unleavened by w i t . Though t h i s was c e r t a i n l y not the " P i c t u r e s q u e " t h a t we "expect o f poets , " n e i t h e r d i d i t possess the Olympian a u t h o r i t y o f The Dunciad. "I am not a t a l l sure," E l i o t wrote of Pound i n The Athenaeum (1919), " t h a t , even w i t h M a r t i a l behind i t , the 117 modern s a t i r i c a l v e i n i s of permanent importance." P u t t i n g h i s f i n g e r — f o r o n c e — d i r e c t l y on Pound's p u l s e , he observed t h a t h i s s a t i r e s o f t e n " i r r i t a t e i n a way i n which good poems should not i r r i t a t e ; they make you c o n s c i o u s o f having been w r i t t e n by somebody; they habve not w r i t t e r 19 themselves." Perhaps the e x t r e m i t y o f Pound's r e a c t i o n to contemporary t r i v i a i s , f i n a l l y , the most b a f f l i n g a s p e c t of h i s work. At any r a t e , Pound was s t i l l p repared t o defend h i s anger seven years l a t e r , i n 1922, when w r i t i n g to F e l i x S c h e l l i n g : H o n e s t l y , I t h i n k L u s t r a has done a work of p u r g a t i o n of minds, m e r i t o r i o u s as the p h y s i c a l p r o d u c t s o f Beecham. Being intemperate, a t moments, I shd. p r e f e r dynamite but i n measured moments I know t h a t a l l v i o l e n c e i s u s e l e s s (even the v i o l e n c e o f language . . . ) However, one must know an i n f i n i t e amount b e f o r e one can deci d e on the p o s i t i o n of the border l i n e between s t r o n g language and v i o l e n t language. (SL, 181-82). For Pound, a t l e a s t , the c u l t o f u g l i n e s s was a necessary p a r t of the attempt to purge s o c i e t y o f t r i v i a l i t y . We have t r a c e d Pound's a t t i t u d e to s o c i e t y from 1912 to 1916, and seen i t move from r e l a t i v e l y good-humoured 118 s a t i r e toward d i a t r i b e . We have a l s o seen Pound's a t t e n t i o n t u r n i n c r e a s i n g l y toward the r e l a t i o n between economics and the a r t i s t , under the p r e s s u r e of f i n d i n g h i m s e l f e c o n o m i c a l l y b l a c k l i s t e d f o l l o w i n g the p u b l i c a t i o n of B l a s t No. 1. I t seems l i k e l y t h a t t h i s f i r s t - h a n d e x p e r i e n c e u n d e r l i e s Pound's subsequent examination of the r e l a t i o n between i n v i d i o u s economic p o l i c i e s and war. The o p p o s i t i o n between s u b j e c t i v e beauty and s o c i a l u g l i n e s s , which developed i n t o a s t a p l e of Pound's p o e t r y , a c h i e v e d i t s f i r s t f u l l f o r m u l a t i o n d u r i n g the i m a g i s t p e r i o d . I t i s not s u p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , to f i n d t h a t Pound's experiments w i t h major form d u r i n g t h i s time attempted to i n c o r p o r a t e these two a t t i t u d e s — t h e c u l t s of beauty and u g l i n e s s — w i t h i n s i n g l e s e q u e n t i a l poems. C The S e q u e n t i a l Poem Pound p u b l i s h e d s i x s e q u e n t i a l poems i n 1913 and 1914: " L u s t r a " and "Xenia" i n Poetry (Nov. 1913); "Zenia" i n Smart Set (Dec. 1913); " S a l v a t i o n i s t s , " " A m i t i e s , " and " L a d i e s " i n Poetry (Aug. 1914). Of these, "Zenia" b e s t 119 i l l u s t r a t e s the nature o f Pound's attempt to overcome the l i m i t a t i o n s of imagism, i t s homogeneity, by c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g i t w i t h the epigram. "Zenia" b u i l d s a dynamic by c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g the c u l t of beauty w i t h the c u l t of u g l i n e s s throughout the e l e v e n 20 s e c t i o n s . Thus the s a r c a s t i c " E p i t a p h " f o l l o w s the g e n t l e "Alba": I I As c o o l as the p a l e wet l e a v e s of l i l y - o f - t h e - v a l l e y She l a y b e s i d e me i n the dawn. I l l (Epitaph) L e u c i s , who intended a Grand P a s s i o n , Ends w i t h a w i l l i n g n e s s - t o - o b l i g e • By j u x t a p o s i n g i m a g i s t poems and epigrams w i t h i n the framework o f a s e q u e n t i a l poem i n t h i s way, Pound kept the reader a l e r t . While the f i r s t poem d e a l t w i t h the economic l i m i t a t i o n s o f the a r t i s t ' s l i f e , the l a s t p r e s e n t e d one of i t s (non-economic) advantages: I Who am I to condemn you, 0 Div e s , I who am as much emb i t t e r e d With p o v e r t y 120 As you are w i t h u s e l e s s r i c h e s ? IX " I t r e s t s me t o be among b e a u t i f u l women. Why should one always l i e about such matters? I r e p e a t : I t r e s t s me t o converse w i t h b e a u t i f u l women Even though we t a l k n o t h i n g but nonsense. The p u r r i n g o f the i n v i s i b l e antennae I f i n d both s t i m u l a t i n g and d e l i g h t f u l . " I f the i m a g i s t poem and epigram are thought o f as c o n t r a s t i n g c o l o u r s , "Zenia" can be c o n s i d e r e d an attempt to p r e s e n t a broad range of hues w i t h i n a s i n g l e c omposition. How does t h i s r e l a t e t o Pound's attempt a t major form? In 1922, he wrote S c h e l l i n g : "The f i r s t 11 cantos are p r e p a r a t i o n o f the p a l e t t e . I have t o get down a l l the c o l o u r s or elements I want f o r the poem" (SL, 180). And as e a r l y as May 1914, Pound had w r i t t e n t o ask h i s mother t o send him the names of "a c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d s c a l e " o f seven c o l o u r s he had a c q u i r e d e a r l i e r from Whiteside (YC). "Zenia"'s c o u n t e r p o i n t aimed a t v a r i e t y and range r a t h e r than homogenous u n i t y . F o r r e s t Read has d i s c r i m i n a t i n g l y noted Pound's " b e l i e f t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y c o u l d g i v e a s o r t o f u n i t y t o ap p a r e n t l y d i f f e r e n t poems, or t h a t a c o l l e c t i o n of 121 d i f f e r e n t elements c o u l d be h e l d t o g e t h e r by the f o r c e of the c r e a t i v e mind, one formal p r i n c i p l e o f The Cantos. In t h i s r e s p e c t , Read noted t h a t Pound r e f e r r e d to L u s t r a not by t i t l e , but by a monogram f o r h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , i . e . , 21 "£". And as we saw i n the f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s c h a p t e r , f o r Pound, rhythm pre-eminently expressed p e r s o n a l i t y , as he had l e a r n e d from h i s study o f Binyon's The F l i g h t o f the Dragon. Thus the c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g o f image and epigram i n the s e q u e n t i a l poem suggests t h a t here Pound e x p l o r e d a new k i n d o f rhythmic c o u n t e r p o i n t between the c u l t s o f beauty and u g l i n e s s , which l a t e r became an important p a r t o f the method of the Cantos. The s t r u c t u r e o f another of Pound's s e q u e n t i a l poems of the i m a g i s t p e r i o d , "Xenia," r e i n f o r c e s t h i s t h e o r y . I t o r i g i n a l l y appeared i n seven s e c t i o n s (The s t r e e t i n Soho The c o o l f i n g e r s o f s c i e n c e d e l i g h t me, A Song of the De g r e e s / I I I - V , I t e , Dum Cap i t o l u m ) , but was broken up when r e p r i n t e d i n the C o l l e c t e d S h o r t e r Poems. I t begins w i t h an unusual poem which i s p a r t image, p a r t s a t i r e : Out of the overhanging gray m i s t There came an ug l y l i t t l e man C a r r y i n g b e a u t i f u l f l o w e r s . 122 And which ends w i t h these l i n e s : Know then t h a t I l o v e d you from a f o r e - t i m e , C l e a r speakers, naked i n the sun, untrammeled. As Ruthven p o i n t s out, i t s o r i g i n a l arrangement p r o g r e s s e d from "the 'gray m i s t ' of the c a n c e l l e d f i r s t s e c t i o n t o the s u n l i g h t o f 'Dum C a p i t o l i u m Scandet', from an a r t of shadowy e v o c a t i o n ('the c r e p u s c u l a r s p i r i t 1 ) t o an a r t of 22 c l e a r l y d e f i n e d c o n t o u r s . " And a l s o , i t might be added, from a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f contemporary u g l i n e s s and m u t a b i l i t y (Soho, flowers) t o the e t e r n a l c l a r i t y o f a r t . While t h i s o r d e r l y p r o g r e s s i o n c o n t r a s t s w i t h the dynamic c o u n t e r p o i n t i n "Zeni a , " both poems add the tone of the epigram t o t h a t o f the image. Why Pound d e l e t e d the f i r s t two s e c t i o n s of the poem and h i d t h i s p r i n c i p l e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n we don't know; we do know t h a t he was making such formal experiments w i t h extended form i n the i m a g i s t p e r i o d . At the very b a s i s of the o r d e r i n g p r i n c i p l e o f Pound's s e q u e n t i a l poems of the 1912-14 p e r i o d , then, l a y the rhythmic t e n s i o n between image and epigram, the a r t i s t and s o c i e t y , the c u l t s o f beauty and u g l i n e s s . T h i s dramatic 123 c o u n t e r p o i n t r e p r e s e n t e d Pound's major advance, d u r i n g the i m a g i s t p e r i o d , toward major form. As we saw a t the b e g i n n i n g of t h i s c h a p t e r , the i m a g i s t poems expressed cosmic rhythms, and i n t h i s sense j o i n e d w i t h Pound's e a r l y poems, which sought t o r e f l e c t the e s s e n t i a l coherence of the cosmos. The epigram d i f f e r s from t h i s attempt, r e f l e c t s the harsher rhythms of Pound's p e r s o n a l impatience w i t h s o c i e t y . From 1916 onward, t e n s i o n between the c u l t s of beauty and u g l i n e s s l a y behind every one of Pound's experiments w i t h major form. 124 IV TONE A War Poems Pound wrote o n l y t h r e e poems d e a l i n g w i t h the war, perhaps because, l i k e many o t h e r s , he wanted t o i g n o r e i t . The f i r s t , "1915: February," was a p p a r e n t l y extremely p a s s i o n a t e : "I t h i n k i t has some guts, but am perhaps s t i l l b l i n d e d by the f u r y i n which I wrote i t , and s t i l l confuse the cause w i t h the r e s u l t , " he wrote Mencken (SL, 51) . But Mencken too wanted t o ign o r e i t , and a a matter of p r i n c i p l e r e f u s e d t o p r i n t a s i n g l e word about the war i n Smart Set, i n c l u d i n g Pound's poem. Indeed, i f the o n l y r e c o r d l e f t o f the 1914-19 p e r i o d were the f i l e s o f the Smart Set we would not have a s i n g l e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e had been a war a t a l l . " ' " The second poem, "The Coming of War: Actaeon", viewed the war i n d i r e c t l y , from a s u b j e c t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e : 125 An image of Lethe, and the f i e l d s F u l l o f f a i n t l i g h t but golden, Gray c l i f f s , and beneath them A sea Harsher than g r a n i t e , u n s t i l l , never c e a s i n g . . . (CSP, 117) While t h i s poem d e s c r i b e d the mood of a non-combatant, Pound's t h i r d poem on the war, "Poem: A b b r e v i a t e d from the c o n v e r s a t i o n o f Mr. T.E.H.," d e a l t w i t h the c o n f l i c t d i r e c t l y . I t was compiled from Hulme's t a l k "when he came home w i t h h i s f i r s t wound i n 1915," and f i r s t appeared i n C a t h o l i c Anthology, l a t e r b e i n g r e p r i n t e d i n Umbra. Here the war becomes, f o r an i n s t a n t , v e r y r e a l : Over the f l a t s l o p e of S t . E l o i A wide w a l l o f sandbags. Night, In the s i l e n c e d e s u l t o r y men P o t t e r i n g over s m a l l f i r e s , c l e a n i n g t h e i r m e s s - t i n s : To and f r o , from the l i n e s , Men walk as on P i c c a d i l l y , Making paths i n the dark, Through s c a t t e r e d dead horses, Over a dead B e l g i a n ' s b e l l y . The Germans have r o c k e t s . The E n g l i s h have no r o c k e t s . Behind the l i n e , cannon, hidden, l y i n g back m i l e s . Before the l i n e , chaos: My mind i s a c o r r i d o r . The minds about me are c o r r i d o r s . Nothing suggests i t s e l f . There i s n o t h i n g to do but keep on. 126 The most obvious reason f o r the development of t h i s new, non-dramatic poignancy was the death of Pound's c l o s e s t f r i e n d , Gaudier-Brzeska, a t N e u v i l l e S t . Vaast, on June 5, 1915. Hume's death i n September, 1917, was an added blow. And o f the death o f Remy de Gourmont i n l a t e r 1915 Pound s a i d simply, "the world's l i g h t i s darkened. . . . He i s as much 'dead of the war' as i f he had d i e d i n the t r e n c h e s " (SP, 390). The deaths of these f r i e n d s seemed more than a p e r s o n a l l o s s to Pound, i t seemed a l o s s t o c i v i l i z a t i o n . And, not s u r p r i s i n g l y , i n one who made such v a s t c l a i m s f o r a r t , Pound b e l i e v e d even d u r i n g the f i r s t year of war t h a t "the a r t s are the o n l y t h i n g s worth keeping up." As the war co n t i n u e d i n t o the second year, however, Pound began t o blame the h o l o c a u s t — n o t on economic c o n s p i r a t o r s , as he was l a t e r t o d o — b u t on i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t s . They had not opened i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i n e s of communication between people, and had thus c o n t r i b u t e d t o mutual s u s p i c i o n and d i s l i k e . American a r t i s t s , Pound s a i d , had been p a r t i c u l a r l y n e g l i g e n t : U l t i m a t e l y , the imp r e s s i o n o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r or n a t i o n a l honesty i s a l i t e r a r y i m p r e s s i o n . I f we f i n d a body of w r i t e r s i n any country s e t t i n g down t h e i r b e l i e f s and impressions i n c l e a r words t h a t conform t o f a c t as we know i t or f i n d i t , we b e g i n , without f u s s or e b u l l i t i o n , t o have a q u i e t amity or r e s p e c t f o r t h a t n a t i o n . 127 Whenever I meet an i n t e r e s t i n g man i n e i t h e r England or America he i n v a r i a b l y t e l l s me t h i n g s which he " i s not allowed to p r i n t . " ( T h i s i s not a matter o f war c e n s o r s h i p ; I am aiming no s h a f t a t t h a t v e r y necessary board.) . . . And the r e s u l t of i t ? . . . That p r i v a t e l e t t e r s from America are i n t e r e s t i n g and t h a t p r i n t e d w r i t i n g i s not . . .. U n t i l t h e r e i s an e xact correspondence between what the man says to h i s f r i e n d i n p r i v a t e and what he w r i t e s i n h i s book or h i s paper t h e r e i s not l i t e r a t u r e , and t h e r ^ i s no f i r m b a s i s f o r a l i e n f r i e n d s h i p and acquaintance. That i s , Pound d i d not see i t as the a r t i s t ' s duty t o take s i d e s i n h i s w r i t i n g i n the p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t . T h i s would be i n a p p r o p r i a t e , not o n l y because " t h i s war i s p o s s i b l y a c o n f l i c t betwen two f o r c e s almost e q u a l l y d e t e s t a b l e . Atavism and the loathsome s p i r i t o f m e d i o c r i t y c l o a k e d i n g r a f t " (SL, 46), but because the a r t i s t no l o n g e r shared concerns w i t h any o t h e r c l a s s : " I I admettait t r o i s a r i s t o c r a c i e s , l a n o b l e s s e , l e c l e r g d e t l a l i t t e r a t u r e , " wrote Renan of a c e r t a i n suave c l e r i c . . . . We no l o n g e r r e s p e c t the c l a s s , we r e s p e c t the i n d i v i d u a l of i t . The time when one might have looked on any s o r t of c l e r g y as an " a r i s t o c r a c y " i s so l ong gone t h a t one can o n l y look upon the i d e a as a q u a i n t s o r t of b r i c - a - b r a c . There remains an a r i s t o c r a c y o f the,, c r e a t i v e a r t s and an a r i s t o c r a c y of i n v e n t i v e s c i e n c e . And the f u n c t i o n of t h i s i s o l a t e d a r i s t o c r a c y of the c r e a t i v e a r t s was, Pound wrote i n Gaudier-Brzeska, to "keep 128 a l i v e the c r e a t i v e , the i n t e l l e c t u a l l y - i n v e n t i v e - c r e a t i v e s p i r i t and a b i l i t y i n man" (GB, 1 0 9 ) — e s p e c i a l l y i n a time of mass p r o d u c t i o n , mass propoganda, mass s l a u g h t e r . Consequently, Pound's w r i t i n g d u r i n g the war took the form of keeping the " i n t e l l e c t u a l l y - i n v e n t i v e - c r e a t i v e s p i r i t and a b i l i t y i n man" a l i v e . In 1915, p a r t i c u l a r l y , he threw h i m s e l f i n t o c r e a t i v e e f f o r t , not o n l y w r i t i n g " P r o v i n c i a D e s e r t a , " "Near P e r i g o r d , " " V i l l a n e l l e : The P s y c h o l o g i c a l Hour," and Cathay, but a l s o b e g i n n i n g the Ur-cantos. A l l these works were l i n k e d by Pound's attempt to c e l e b r a t e the human p e r s o n a l i t y as i t r e a c t e d to v a r i o u s kinds of s t r e s s — a n obvious s i d e - e f f e c t of w a r — o r as i t attempted to c r e a t e a l i t e r a r y paideuma t h a t would p r o v i d e an a l t e r n a t i v e to the l e s s p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s of contemporary " c i v i l i z a t i o n . " Though the content of these experiments had n o t h i n g to do w i t h World War I, t h e i r t o n a l i t y was e x a c t l y a p p r o p r i a t e to the war y e a r s . Pound's growth i n the a r e a o f e x p r e s s i n g poignancy and r e t i c e n c e d u r i n g t h i s time was to show i t s s t r e n g t h l a t e r , i n the Cantos. 129 B Poignancy 1. The L i t a n y Seeking a model f o r the c e l e b r a t i o n of p e r s o n a l i t y i n the p a s t , Pound turned to the L a t i n poets of the t e n t h , e l e v e n t h , and t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s , such as Goddeschalk, whose s e g u a i r e , Pound had noted i n "Psychology and Troubadours" (1912), marked the f i r s t c e l e b r a t i o n of the d i v i n i t y o f the human p e r s o n a l i t y . In t h i s s e g u a i r e , Pound says, "we see a new refinement, an enrichment, I t h i n k , o f paganism. The god has a t l a s t succeeded i n becoming human, and i t i s not the beauty of the god but the p e r s o n a l i t y which i s the g o a l of l o v e and the i n v o c a t i o n " (SR, 98). In 1915, Pound s a i d Remy de Gourmont's d i s t i n c t i v e s t y l e had been i n f l u e n c e d by h i s study of Goddeschalk: In p o e t r y as i n prose de Gourmont has b u i l t up h i s own p a r t i c u l a r form . . . . His own mode began, I t h i n k , w i t h the t r a n s l a t i o n of the very b e a u t i f u l " s e q u a i r e " 130 of Goddeschalk i n Le L a t i n Mystique. T h i s he made, very p o s s i b l y , the b a s i s o f h i s " L i v r e de L i t a n i e s " , a t l e a s t t h i s c u r i o u s e v o c a t i o n a l form, the c u r i o u s r e p e t i t i o n s , the p e r s o n a l sweeping rhythm, a re made wh o l l y hiw own, and he used them l a t e r i n the "Les S a i n t s de P a r a d i s " , and l a s t o f a l l i n the prose sonnets. (SP,388) To Pound, the " e f f e c t i v e i n d i r e c t n e s s " of the "incomparable" rhythm i n a poem l i k e the " L i t a n i e s de l a Rose" must come to l i f e " i n a u d i t i o n , o r i n the f i n e r a u d i t i o n which one may have i n imaging sound. One must 'hear' i t , i n one way or another, and out o f t h a t i n t o x i c a t i o n comes beauty." Pound d i f f e r e n t i a t e d the mental rhythms which the poems causes to a r i s e i n the mind from de Gourmont's prose sonnets, which " r i s e out of n a t u r a l speech, out o f c o n v e r s a t i o n " (MIN, 188),. The rhythms o f the " L i t a n i e s de l a Rose" have a l i t u r g i c a l aroma: Rose h y a l i n e , c o u l e u r des sources c l a i r e s j a i l l i e s d'entre l e s herbes, rose h y a l i n e , Hylas e s t mort d'avour aime- t e s yeux, f l e u r h y p o c r i t e , f l e u r du s i l e n c e . Rose o p a l e , 6 s u l t a n e endormie dans l'odeur du harem, rose o p a l e , langueur des constantes c a r e s s e s , ton coeur c o n n a i t l a p a i x profonde des v i c e s s a t i s f a i t s , f l e u r h y y p o c r i t e , f l e u r du s i l e n c e . Rose amethyste, e t o i l e m a t i n a l e , tendresse e p i s c o p a l e , rose amethyste, t u dors sur des p o i t r i n e s devotes e t d o u i l l e t t e s , gemme o f f e r t e a Marie, 6 gemme 131 s a c r i s t i n e , f l e u r h y p o c r i t e , f l e u r du s i l e n c e . Rose c a r d i n a l e , rose c o u l e u r du sang de l ' E g l i s e Romaine, rose c a r d i n a l e , t u f a i s r e v e r l e s grand yeux des mignons e t p l u s d'un t ' e p i n g l a au noeud de sa j a r r e t i e r e , f l e u r h y p o c r i t e , f l e u r du s i l e n c e . Rose papale, rose a r r o s e e des mains q u i b e n i s s e n t l e monde, rose papale, ton coeur d'or e s t en c u i v r e , e t l e s larmes q u i p e r l e n t sur t a v a i n e c o r o l l e , ce sont l e s p l e u r s du C h r i s t , f l e u r h y p o c r i t e , f l e u r du s i l e n c e . F l e u r h y p o c r i t e , F l e u r du s i l e n c e . (MIN, 192) The unexpected s p a c i n g of the r e p e t i t i o n s ("Fleur h y p o c r i t e , / F l e u r du s i l e n c e " ) i n t o x i c a t e one when read a l o u d , as does the Mass. But the o b j e c t of v e n e r a t i o n i s not God; i t i s a more sensuous and o p u l e n t source of beauty. Pound's 1912 t r a n s l a t i o n of the s e q u a i r e of Goddeschalk p o i n t s out t h a t i t i s not the p l a s t i c beauty o f the god but "the p e r s o n a l i t y which i s the g o a l of the l o v e and the i n v o c a t i o n " . (my emphasis) Thus the l o v e occurs between two " p e r s o n " - a l i t i e s - though one of the i s " d i v i n e " , the o t h e r human. De Gourmont a p p r o p r i a t e s the l i t u r g i c a l rhythm to c e l e b r a t e human l o v e . In Goddeschalk's s e q u a i r e the l i t u r g i c a l rhythm conveys the f e e l i n g of v e n e r a t i o n d i s c u s s e d by Pound: The P h a r i s e e murmurs when the woman weeps, cons c i o u s o f g u i l t . S i n n e r , he d e s p i s e s a f e l l o w - i n - s i n . Thou, unacquainted w i t h s i n , hast r e g a r d f o r the p e n i t e n t , c l e a n s e s t the s o i l e d one, 132 l o v e d her to make her most f a i r . She embraces the f e e t of the master, washes them w i t h t e a r s , d r i e s them w i t h her h a i r ; washing and d r y i n g them she a n o i n t e d them w i t h unguent, covered them w i t h k i s s e s . These are the f e a s t s which p l e a s e thee, 0 Wisdom of the F a t h e r ! Born of the V i r g i n , who d i s d a i n e d not the touch of a s i n n e r . Chaste v i r g i n s , they immaculately o f f e r unto the Lord the s a c r i f i c e of t h e i r pure b o d i e s , c h o o s i n g C h r i s t f o r t h e i r d e a t h l e s s bridegroom. 0 happy b r i d a l s , whereto t h e r e are no s t r a i n s , no heavy d o l o r s of c h i l d b i r t h , no r i v a l m i s t r e s s t o be f e a r e d , no nurse m o l e s t f u l ! T h e i r couches, kept f o r C h r i s t a lone, are w a l l e d about by angels of the guard, who, w i t h drawn sword, ward o f f the unclean l e s t any paramour d e f i l e them. T h e r e i n C h r i s t s l e e p e t h w i t h them: happy i s t h i s s l e e p sweet the r e s t t h e r e , wherein t r u e maid i s f o n d l e d i n the embraces of her heavenly spouse. Adorned are they w i t h f i n e l i n e n , and w i t h a robe of p u r p l e ; these f l o w e r s are h i s chosen food. He l e a p e t h , and boundeth and gamboleth among them. (SR, 98-99) C l e a r l y , de Gourmont's " L i t a n i e s " p i c k up Goddeschalk 1s s e n s u a l i t y as w e l l as h i s i n c a n t o r y rhythms. Pound's o r i g i n a l work d u r i n g 1915, p a r t i c u l a r l y the Ur-cantos, b u i l t on the concept of u s i n g t h i s k i n d of e v o c a t i o n a l l i t u r g i c a l rhythm to c e l e b r a t e p e r s o n a l i t y . And s i n c e the c o n n e c t i o n between t h i s sweeping p e r s o n a l rhythm and the e x p r e s s i o n of p e r s o n a l i t y bears d i r e c t l y on Pound's development of the long poem, i t w i l l be worthwhile to i n q u i r e i n t o de Gourmont's concept of the nature and o r i g i n o f the s e q u e n t i a l poem. 133 2 . The L a t i n Sequences In Le L a t i n Mystique du Moyen Age, de Gourmont speaks o f the L a t i n sequences o r i g i n a t e d by Notker Balbus and developed by Goddeschalk i n the e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y , and f u r t h e r developed by S t . H i l d e g a r d and Thomas A Kempis, as p o s s e s s i n g a m a g i c a l or m y s t i c a l q u a l i t y . I I s ' a g i t du'une forme de l a p o e s i e l a t i n s p e c i a l e aux dixieme e t onzieme s i e c l e s ; prolongee jusgu'au douzieme par s a i n t e H i l d e g a r d e e t d ' a u t r e s , r e p r e i s e t o u t a l a f i n du moyen age par Thomas a Kempis, l e q u e l en f i t l e p r i n c i p e o c c u l t e q u i r£git l e s t y l e de son I m i t a t i o n e t de ses a u t r e s t r a i t e s mystiques. C'est un psaume de d i x a t r e n t e v e r s e t s , l e p l u s souvent, auquel des a l l i t e r a t i o n s , des recherches de mots, des rimes e t des assonances f i n a l e s ou i n t e r i e r e s donnent s e u l e s un a i r de poeme. The strange m u s i c a l i t y of these sequences s u p p l i e d t h e i r m ystic q u a l i t y , a f a c t a t t r i b u t a b l e t o the f a c t t h a t the monks who composed them were musicians as w e l l as p r i e s t : "Notker e t a i t m u s i c i e n , composait ensemble l e s phrases v e r b a l e s e t l e s phrases v o c a l e s a i n s i , sans n u l doute, Wipo e t presque tous l e s s e q u e n t a i r e s . ^ The development of the form i n the Abbey of S t . - G a l l , where the d a i l y masses were i n t o n e d , l e d to a s e n s i t i v i t y t o the proper j u n c t u r e s between word and music; the term " s e q u e n t i a " i m p l i e s t h i s 134 m u s i c a l and r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e : C'est l a sans doute qu'a ces o c c a s i o n a l l e s compositions f u t donne l e nom de sequences. Pourquoi? L ' o n t - e l l e s emprunte a l a r u b r i q u e q u i s u i t imme'diatement l e g r a d u e l , Sequentia s a n c t i e v a n g e l i i , ou sequala, c ' e s t - a - d i r e s u i t e , s u i t e de notes on ne s a i t a c e t t e heure ce sont des pro s e s , e t d e j a , anciennement, on l e s denommait prosa our p r o s c u l a . P l u s gdneralement e t en s c i e n c e de l i t u r g i e , on l e s cons i d e r e comme des i n t e r p o l a t i o n s au t e x t e de l a messe, comme des t r o p e s (Trope, t h r o p h i ) ; l e s r e c u e i l s speciaux de sequences, quelques g f u r e n t conservees, s ' a p p e l a i e n t t r o p a i r e s , t r o p h a i r e s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h i s k i n d o f experiment w i t h sound v a l u e s and contemporary troubadour experiments w i t h motz e son s t r u c k Pound f o r c i b l y . In "Psychology and Troubadours" he s p e c u l a t e d on the l i k e l i h o o d t h a t the reverence f o r p e r s o n a l i t y i n the se q u a i r e may have been f u r t h e r developed by the troubadours t o p r a i s e , not the human q u a l i t i e s o f God, as i n Goddeschalk' s sequence,, but the d i v i n e a t t r i b u t e s o f the human p e r s o n a l i t y . Troubadours such as Arnaut D a n i e l were educated, l i k e Goddeschalk, i n abbeys where they might have p i c k e d up the reverence f o r p e r s o n a l i t y from the i n c a n t o r y rhythms and tone o f the s e q u a i r e . A t the dawning o f t h i s new impulse toward r e s p e c t f o r the i n d i v i d u a l human p e r s o n a l i t y , Pound reasoned, the 135 troubadours adapted t h i s form t o c e l e b r a t e the Lady. Hence, a r e l i g i o u s form and impulse attended the b i r t h o f Romantic l o v e - which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i t s treatment o f women as d i s t i n c t p e r s o n a l i t i e s r a t h e r than as c h a t t e l s : " C o u r t l y Love i s . . . r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the ' d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n ' of r e l a t i o n s between men and women, inasmuch as not s o c i a l p o s i t i o n but i n t r i n s i c worth determined the mutual a c c e p t a b i l i t y of the p a r t n e r s a c c o r d i n g t o the c o u r t l y 9 code". And t h i s c o n j u n c t i o n of form and co n t e n t , Pound thought, might p r o v i d e a model of how to express t h i s sense of the v a l u e of i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s i n the modern age, when a l l i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e s were endangered: With such language i n the c l o i s t e r s , would i t be s u r p r i s i n g t h a t the r e b e l s from i t , the c l e r k s who d i d not take o r d e r s , should have t r a n s f e r r e d something o f the manner, and something of the s p i r i t , t o the beauty of l i f e as they found i t , t h a t s o u l s who belonged, not i n heaven but, by reason of t h e i r refinement, somewhat above the m o r t a l t u r m o i l , should have chosen some middle way, something s h o r t o f g r a s p i n g a t the union w i t h the a b s o l u t e , nor y e t t h a t t h e i r c u l t s h ould have been e x t r a - m a r i t a l ? Arnaut was taught i n c l o i s t e r , Dante p r a i s e s c e r t a i n " p r i s e de romanzi" and no one can say p r e c i s e l y whether or no they were such prose f o r music as the L a t i n sequence I have j u s t quote. Yet one would be ra s h t o a f f i r m t h a t the "passada f o l o r " which he laments a t almost the summit of the p u r i f y i n g h i l l , and j u s t below the e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e , was a n y t h i n g more than d e f l e c t i o n . (SR, 99-100) That i s , the troubadours had chosen t o s i n g o f human 136 p e r s o n a l i t y r a t h e r than, l i k e Dante and the c l e r k s who took o r d e r s , man's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the godhead. For Pound, t h i s c h o i c e ranked the troubadour, i n Dante's terms, " j u s t below the e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e " . As we have seen i n the p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s , Pound had been moving i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n : towards the c r e a t i o n and c e l e b r a t i o n of a p a r a d i s o t e r r e s t r e . Hence, s i n c e the s e q u e n t i a l poem marks the b e g i n n i n g of the concept of the p e r s o n a l i t y as d i v i n e , i t seems l i k e l y t h a t Pound would have looked very c l o s e l y a t i t s form. He had read i n de Gourmont t h a t these sequences r e p r e s e n t e d a new c y c l e , independent of the L a t i n ode: I n a u g u r a t i o n d'un c y c l e nouveau, absoluement inddpendant de l'ode l a t i n e , l e s sequences de Notker ont, en elles-memes, l a v a l e u r de poemes presque t o u j o u r s o r i g i n a u x , mais compact e t n o i r s , f r o i d s , rarement l y r i q u e s , s i ce n'est aux c o u r t e s phrases i n t e r j e c t i o n e l l e s q u ' i l l ance p a r f o i s en debutant, t e l l e s que de l o u r d e s notes de p s a l t e r i o n . (Gourmont, p. 110). In 1913 Pound noted " i n the b e s t v e r s e a s o r t of r e s i d u e of sound which remains i n the ear of the hearer and a c t s more or l e s s as an organ-base" (LE, 6-7) . I t seems he may be t h i n k i n g of the e f f e c t o f "de l o u r d e s notes de p s a l t e r i o n " . S i m i l a r l y , the i n t e r j e c t i o n o f l y r i c a l passages i n the 137 Cantos seems t o owe something t o the i n t e r j e c t i o n o f s h o r t l y r i c a l phrases w i t h i n the s e q u e n t i a l poems of the e a r l y Renaissance. And i n an 1914 e s s a y — s i g n i f i c a n t l y e n t i t l e d "The Prose T r a d i t i o n i n V e r s e " — P o u n d showed t h a t he was much p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h i m p o r t i n g t h i s new k i n d o f m u s i c a l i t y i n t o p o e t r y : S i n c e Dante's day - and indeed h i s day and C a s e l l a ' s saw a r e - b e g i n n i n g o f i t - "music" and "poetry" have d r i f t e d a p a r t , and we have a t h i r d t h i n g which i s c a l l e d "word music". I mean we have poems which are read o r even, i n a f a s h i o n , i n t o n e d , and are "m u s i c a l " i n some s o r t o f complete or i n c l u s i v e sense t h a t makes i t i m p o s s i b l e o r i n a d v i s a b l e t o " s e t them t o music". (LE, 376) The r e f e r e n c e t o poems which are "i n t o n e d " c a l l s Goddeschalk to mind once more. I t seems probable t h a t , s e e k i n g t o w r i t e a long poem, Pound would be a t t r a c t e d t o the p o s s i b i l i t y of u s i n g the L a t i n sequences as a model t o a t t a i n a m u s i c a l element of "some s o r t o f complete or i n c l u s i v e sense", i n order t o p r o v i d e h i s poem w i t h an emotional, i f not s t r u c t u r a l , u n i t y . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , he wrote Amy L o w e l l i n Oct. 1913: "When you branch o f f i n t o n a r r a t i v e e t c . e t c My u n i t y i s an emotional u n i t y , but I don't want to p r e - and p r o - s c r i b e " (YC). 138 We can see, then, t h a t Pound's a d m i r a t i o n f o r de Gourmont's l i t a n i e s stemmed from t h e i r a b i l i t y t o express reverence f o r p e r s o n a l i t y i n a new k i n d of rhythm, modelled on the " c u r i o u s e v o c a t i o n a l form, the c u r i o u s r e p e t i t i o n s , the p e r s o n a l sweeping rhythm, of the L a t i n sequences. Submerged i n the f l u x of war, Pound saw the r o l e o f a r t as i t s a b i l i t y t o l i f t man's s p i r i t "out of the realm of annoyance i n t o the calm realm of t r u t h , i n t o the world unchanging, the world of f i n e animal l i f e , the world of pure form" (BG, 127) . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , he was a t t r a c t e d t o Goddeschalk, whom de Gourmont d e s c r i b e s as " p l u t o t un i m a g i n a t i f , un i n v e t d r e v i s i o n n a r i e q u i conte apres l e g r a d u e l l e s reves d i v i n s q u i ont v i s i t e ses m e d i t a t i o n s " . (Gourmont, p. 122).. The worship of p e r s o n a l i t y which Pound saw as the m o t i v a t i o n behind the form and as c a r r i e d by the rhythm, of the L a t i n sequences, p r o v i d e d him w i t h a model f o r h i s attempt to c e l e b r a t e i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e s i n wartime. The tone, the e v o c a t i o n a l a s p e c t , the p e r s o n a l sweeping rhythm, the sense of p e r s o n a l i t y of the s e q u e n t i a l poem, and of de Gourmont's " L i t a n i e s " , seemed to him to suggest a way of r e c a p t u r i n g t h i s d e v o t i o n a l a t t i t u d e to the human p e r s o n a l i t y , and w i t h i t a way of e x p r e s s i n g w i t h f u l l poignancy the s p e c t r e of men a t war. 139 3 P a t t e r n U n i t s Under these rhythmic i n f l u e n c e s Pound wrote a f l u r r y of l ong poems i n 1915: " P r o v i n c i a D e s e r t a " , " E x i l e ' s L e t t e r " , "Near P e r i g o r d " , " V i l a n e l l e " The P s y c h o l o g i c a l Hour", the Ur-cantos. L i n k i n g a l l these experiments w i t h l o n g poems was the attempt to s u b s t i t u t e a s u b t l e , l a r g e - s c a l e rhythm f o r mechanical u n i f y i n g d e v i c e s . T h i s attempt e n l a r g e d on Pound's experiments i n h i s i m a g i s t poems to "compose i n the sequence of the m u s i c a l phrase", d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I I I . Hence, i n January 1915 he defended v e r s l i b r e as the o n l y p o s s i b l e e x p r e s s i o n of c e r t a i n emotions or e n e r g i e s : One " d i s c a r d s rhyme", not because one i s i n c a p a b l e of rhyming neat, f l e e t , sweet, meet, t r e a t , e a t , f e e t , but because t h e r e are c e r t a i n emotions or e n e r g i e s which are not to be r e p r e s e n t e d by the o v e r - f a m i l i a r d e v i c e s or p a t t e r n s ; j u s t as t h e r e are c e r t a i n "arrangements of form" t h a t cannot be worked i n t o dados.(SP, 345). He was working toward the n o t i o n of l a r g e r form h e l d t o g e t h e r by a method oth e r than the mechanical r e p e t i t i o n of a rhyme or image a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s . Speaking of imagism 140 3 P a t t e r n U n i t s Under these rhythmic i n f l u e n c e s Pound wrote a f l u r r y of long poems i n 1915: " P r o v i n c i a D e s e r t a " , " E x i l e ' s L e t t e r " , "Near P e r i g o r d " , " V i l a n e l l e " The P s y c h o l o g i c a l Hour", the Ur-cantos. L i n k i n g a l l these experiments w i t h long poems was the attempt to s u b s t i t u t e a s u b t l e , l a r g e - s c a l e rhythm f o r mechanical u n i f y i n g d e v i c e s . T h i s attempt e n l a r g e d on Pound's experiments i n h i s i m a g i s t poems t o "compose i n the sequence o f the m u s i c a l phrase", d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I I I . Hence, i n January 1915 he defended v e r s l i b r e as the o n l y p o s s i b l e e x p r e s s i o n of c e r t a i n emotions or e n e r g i e s : One " d i s c a r d s rhyme", not because one i s i n c a p a b l e of rhyming neat, f l e e t , sweet, meet, t r e a t , e a t , f e e t , but because t h e r e are c e r t a i n emotions or e n e r g i e s which are not to be r e p r e s e n t e d by the o v e r - f a m i l i a r d e v i c e s or p a t t e r n s ; j u s t as t h e r e are c e r t a i n "arrangements of form" t h a t cannot be worked i n t o dados.(SP, 345). He was working toward the n o t i o n of l a r g e r form h e l d t o g e t h e r by a method oth e r than the mechanical r e p e t i t i o n of a rhyme or image a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s . Speaking of imagism 140 i n p o e t r y , he says t h a t i t "may be r e i n f o r c e d by a s u i t a b l e or cognate rhythm-form and by timbre-form", but i s c a r e f u l to p o i n t out t h a t he i s not r e f e r r i n g t o a mechanical p a t t e r n , but r a t h e r to l a r g e - s c a l e s u b t l e ones: "By rhythm-form and timbre-form I do not mean something which must of n e c e s s i t y have a 'repeat' i n i t . I t i s c e r t a i n t h a t a too obvious 'repeat' may be d e t r i m e n t a l " . (SP,347) S u r e l y he had i n mind here de Gourmont's u n p r e d i c t a b l e spaced r e p e t i t i o n s i n the " L i t a n i e s de l a Rose" ( " f l e u r h y p o c r i t e , f l e u r du s i l e n c e " ) . U sing a metaphor drawn from the v i s u a l a r t s , he d i s t i n g u i s h e d between a " p a t t e r n - u n i t " and a p i c t u r e i n terms of t h e i r use of the repe a t . The moment the p a t t e r n - u n i t becomes p r e d i c t a b l e i t cannot be repeated without l o s i n g i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . I t i s "so simple t h a t one can bear having i t repeated s e v e r a l o r many times. When i t becomes so complex t h a t r e p e t i t i o n would be u s e l e s s , then i t i s a p i c t u r e , an 'arrangement of forms'". (SP,344) The p a t t e r n u n i t i s not the same as the r e p e t i t i o n of a s i n g l e geometric form. In t h i s k i n d of p a t t e r n , "the i n v e n t i o n was merely the f i r s t c u r l e y c u e , or p a i r o f them. The r e s t i s r e p e t i t i o n , i s copying". (SP,344) S o c i e t y was yokin g i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s i n t o b a t t a l i o n s ; Pound wished to r e j e c t t h i s s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n i n h i s a r t . 141 To copy i s not to keep a l i v e the c r e a t i v e - i n v e n t i v e s p i r i t of man. In January 1915 Pound t o l d H a r r i e t Monroe: "My propaganda f o r what some may c o n s i d e r ' n o v e l t y i n e x c e s s 1 i s a n e c e s s i t y " (SL, 48). And i n March he added: "You c o n s t a n t l y t h i n k I undervalue e l a n and enthusiasm. I see a whole country r o t t e d w i t h i t , and no one to i n s i s t t h a t 'form' and i n n o v a t i o n are compatible" (SL, 55-56). Throughout 1915, he experimented w i t h forms which are u n i f i e d by something l e s s p r e d i c t a b l e than the r e g u l a r r e p e t i t i o n o f p a t t e r n u n i t s , whether of sound or image. T h i s can be seen i n a s e v e n t y - s i x l i n e poem sent to H a r r i e t Monroe f o r Poetry, which she chose not to p r i n t . "From Chebar" eschews rhyme and r e g u l a r stanzas i n p r e s e n t i n g Pound's v i s i o n of a r t . And y e t r e p e t i t i o n of phrases, t h a t v a r y throughout i n a manner r e m i n i s c e n t of de Gourmont's " L i t a n i e s de l a Rose", and of " P r o v i n c i a D e s e r t a " , p r o v i d e u n i t y of tone: Before you were, America! I d i d not begin w i t h you, I do not end w i t h you, America. You are the p r e s e n t veneer. I f my b l o o d has flowed through you, Are you not wrought from my people! 142 I d i d not b e g i n aboard "The L i o n , " I was not born a t the l a n d i n g . There i s no use your q u o t i n g Whitman a g a i n s t me, His time i s not our time, h i s day and hour were d i f f e r e n t . The o r d e r does not end i n the a r t s , The o r d e r s h a l l come and pass through them. The s t a t e i s too i d l e , the d e c r e p i t church i s too i d l e , The a r t s alone can t r a n s m i t t h i s . They alone c l i n g f a s t t o ghe gods, Even the s c i e n c e s are a l i t t l e below them. They are "Those who demand the p e r f e c t , " They are "Not a f r a i d of the dark," They are a f t e r you and b e f o r e you. They have not need of smooth speeches, There are enough who are ready to p l e a s e you. I t i s I, who demand our p a s t , And they who demand i t . I t i s I, who demand tomorrow, And they who demand i t . I t i s we, who do not accede, ^ We do not p l e a s e you w i t h easy speeches. The u n p r e d i c a b t l y spaced r e p e t i t i o n s of phrases and words i n t h i s poem ( i . e . , They a r e . . . They a r e . . . They a r e . . . They have... There are; I t i s I . . . And they... I t i s I . . . And they... I t i s we... We do n o t ) , a v o i d "a too obvious 'repeat'." And when Pound says: "The o r d e r does not end i n the a r t s , / The o r d e r s h a l l come and pass through them", we can d e t e c t h i s movement away from e x p r e s s i n g t h i s o r d e r , 143 t h i s u n i v e r s a l coherence, i n p r e c i s e l y symmetrical terms. He has a c h i e v e d a way of r e f l e c t i n g the cosmic o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e i n a long poem. However, the formal r e s o l u t i o n of the poem d i f f e r e n t i a t e s i t from XVI Cantos i n an i n t e r e s t i n g manner. The l a s t t h r e e stanzas move from the c o u n t e r p o i n t of " I " and "they" ( i . e . , " I t i s I, who demand tomorrow, / And they who demand i t " ) t o a grammatical r e s o l u t i o n ( i . e . , " I t i s we, who do not accede, / We do not p l e a s e you w i t h easy speeches") which a t once l i n k s Pound w i t h "the a r t s " , and s eparates t h e i r common purpose from t h a t of s o c i e t y . The rhythm i n these s t a n z a s , too, yokes the w r i t e r w i t h a r t s , r e s i s t i n g t o g e t h e r the w i l l o f s o c i e t y . No s i m i l a r r e s o l u t i o n o ccurs i n XVI Cantos. - an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t by 19 24 Pound had moved even f u r t h e r away from d e s i r i n g t o r e f l e c t coherence i n an e a s i l y d e s c e r n i b l e manner. How do these comments on form connect w i t h our d i s c u s s i o n of l a r g e - s c a l e rhythmic e f f e c t s ? Pound twice quoted from Binyon's The F l i g h t o f the Dragon i n 1915: Our thoughts about d e c o r a t i o n are too much dominated, I t h i n k by the c o n c e p t i o n of p a t t e r n as a s o r t of mosaic, each element i n the p a t t e r n b e i n g repeated, a form without l i f e of i t s own, something i n e r t and bounded by i t s e l f . We get a mechanical s u c c e s s i o n which,aims a t rhythm, but does not a t t a i n rhythmic v i t a l i t y . 144 As Pound's f i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n to both B l a s t No. 2 and the f i r s t e d i t i o n of Gaudier-Brzeska, Binyon's i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e r e may be o r g a n i c rhythm of image and p a t t e r n as w e l l as of sound, r e f l e c t the s t r e n g t h of Pound's d e s i r e to break the r e s t r i c t i o n of "mechanical s u c c e s s i o n " d u r i n g 1915. He had a l r e a d y experimented w i t h an i n c a n t o r y rhythm t h a t owed a g r e a t d e a l to de Gourmont's " L i t a n i e s de l a Rose", of course, i n the 1912 poem "The A l c h e m i s t " : By the b r i g h t flame of the f i s h i n g t o r c h Remember t h i s f i r e . Midonz, w i t h the g o l d of the sun, the l e a f of the p o p l a r , by the l i g h t of t h i s amber, Midonz, daughter of the sum, s h a f t of the t r e e , s i l v e r o f the l e a f , l i g h t of the y e l l o w of the amber, Midonz, g i f t o f the God, g i f t of the l i g h t , g i f t of the amber of the sun, Give l i g h t t o the metal. (CSP, 86) J u s t as "From Chebar" av o i d s mechanical s u c c e s s i o n of sound, "The A l c h e m i s t " avoided such p r e d i c t a b l e r e p e t i t i o n both of image and of sound. M o d e l l i n g h i s c r e a t i v e work on the theory of the Chinese w r i t e r s and a r t i s t s p o i n t e d to by Binyon i n 1911, and on t h a t p e r c e i v e d by de Gourmont i n the s e g u a i r e of Goddeschalk, Pound s t r o v e to prove t h a t "'form' and 145 i n n o v a t i o n were compatible". Binyon's warning about the danger of mechanical r e p e t i t i o n o f p a t t e r n - u n i t s , combined w i t h de Gourmont's experiments w i t h the i n c a n t o r y rhythms of the " L i t a n i e s " , p r o v i d e d Pound w i t h g u i d e l i n e s which he used i n h i s own attempts a t major form, and the e x p r e s s i o n of a c r e a t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y . I t was the experi e n c e of l o s s , s e p a r a t i o n , o r u n f u l f i l l e d d e s i r e f o r such p e r s o n a l i t i e s t h a t Pound's poems o f these years e x p l o r e d ; t h e r e f o r e , the tone of poignancy predominated. C Ret i c e n c e 1 N a t u r a l Speech Yet de Gourmont's i n f l u e n c e on Pound d i d not stop w i t h awakening him to the a b i l i t y of i n c a n t o r y rhythm to produce a sense of the d i v i n i t y o f p e r s o n a l i t y i n the l i s t e n e r . Speaking of de Gourmont i n Make i t New, Pound p r a i s e d t h i s q u a l i t y , but went on to add: "The Sonnets i n prose are d i f f e r e n t ; they r i s e out of n a t u r a l speech, out of 146 c o n v e r s a t i o n " (MIN, 188). And i n Pound's memorial essay of 1915, "Remy de Gourmont", he p r a i s e d these prose sonnets as "among the few s u c c e s s f u l endeavours to w r i t e p o e t r y of our own time". (SP, 388.) In them, Pound s a i d , de Gourmont has " s o l v e d the two t h o r n i e s t q u e s t i o n s " . The f i r s t d i f f i c u l t y i n a modern poem i s to g i v e a f e e l i n g of the r e a l i t y o f the speaker, the second, g i v e n the r e a l i t y of the speaker, to g a i n any degree of poignancy i n one's u t t e r a n c e . That i s to say, you must b e g i n i n a normal, n a t u r a l tone of v o i c e , and you must, somewhere, express or cause a deep f e e l i n g . (SP, 388) That i s , de Gourmont, here r e c e i v e d p r a i s e not f o r h i s e v o c a t i o n of the d i v i n i t y o f p e r s o n a l i t y through sweeping m u s i c a l rhythms, as i n the " L i t a n i e s " , but f o r h i s e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a r e a l i s t i c speaker through n a t u r a l speech rhythms i n the prose sonnets. Pound admired the f a c t t h a t de Gourmont "has not been d r i v e n even to an e x o t i c speaker. H i s sonnets b e g i n i n the m e t r o p o l i s . The speaker i s p a s t middle age" (SP, 389). Pound went on to g i v e s e l e c t i o n s from the sonnets to demonstrate how one i s l e d from the " n a t u r a l tone of the w r i t i n g , the s c i e n t i f i c dryness", 147 "C'est une b e l l e chose qu'une t e t e de femme, l i b r e m e n t i n s c r i t e dans l e c e r c l e e s t h e t i q u e . . . ~ "Je s c u l p t e une hypothese dans l e marbre de l a l o g i q u e e t e r n e l l e . . . " Les epaules sont des sources d'ou descent l a f l u i d i t e des b r a s . . . " i n t o sudden d i r e c t statement of f e e l i n g , "the poignancy". That i s , j u s t as one i s i n t e n t "and w h o l l y o f f guard, comes, out of t h i s 'unpoetic', unemotional c o n s t a t i o n " , t h i s passage: "Les yeux se f o n t des d i s c o u r s e n t r e eux. Pres.de se t e r n i r . . . l e s miens te p a r l e r o n t encore, i l s n 1emporteront pas b i e n l o i n t a reponse, Car on n'emporte r i e n , on meurt. L a i s s e - m o i done re g a r d e r l e s yeux que j 1 a i d e c o u r v e r t s , Les yeux q u i me s u r v i v r o n t . " (SP, 389) De Gourmont's prose sonnets, Pound s a i d , are "the triumph of s k i l l and r e a l i t y " (SP, 390) . They convey the sense of b e i n g spoken by a r e a l person. " E x i l e ' s L e t t e r " demonstrated Pound's attempt to d u p l i c a t e de Gourmont's success i n h i s prose sonnets. I t too begins i n a n a t u r a l tone of v o i c e : 148 Now I remember t h a t you b u i l t me a s p e c i a l t a v e r n By the south s i d e of the b r i d g e of Ten-Shin. I n t e l l i g e n t men came d r i f t i n g i n from the sea and from the west border, And w i t h them, and w i t h you e s p e c i a l l y There was n o t h i n g a t c r o s s purpose, And they made n o t h i n g of s e a - c r o s s i n g or of mountain-c r o s s i n g , I f o n l y they c o u l d be of t h a t f e l l o w s h i p , And we a l l spoke out our h e a r t s and minds, and without r e g r e t . And when I was sent o f f to South Wei, smothered i n l a u r e l groves, And you to the n o r t h of Raku-hoku, T i l l we had n o t h i n g but thoughts and memories i n common. (CSP, 144) And i t ends w i t h the e x p r e s s i o n of "deep f e e l i n g " : And i f you ask how I r e g r e t t h a t p a r t i n g ; I t i s l i k e the f l o w e r s f a l l i n g a t S p r i n g ' s end Confused, w h i r l e d i n a t a n g l e . What i s the use of t a l k i n g , and t h e r e i s no end of t a l k i n g , There i s no end of t h i n g s i n the h e a r t . I c a l l i n the boy, Have him s i t on h i s knees here To s e a l t h i s , And send i t a thousand m i l e s , t h i n k i n g . (CSP, 146) In October 1915 Pound p i c k e d " E x i l e ' s L e t t e r " , a l o n g w i t h " P r u f r o c k " , as a " p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t a b l e " p i e c e of work f o r the year (SL, 64). Although i t s n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e s i t from de Gourmont's prose sonnets, i t s 149 rhythms resemble those of the " L i t a n i e s " , and i t s n a t u r a l tone o f v o i c e l e a d i n g to the e x p r e s s i o n of deep f e e l i n g r e v e a l s the i n f l u e n c e o f the sonnets. Inddeed, the e x p r e s s i o n of poignancy through a n a t u r a l tone o f v o i c e , and c o n v e r s a t i o n a l cadences, i s t y p i c a l not o n l y o f " E x i l e ' s L e t t e r " , but of Cathay as a whole. Pound's a p p r e c i a t i o n of the prose sonnets as "the triumph o f s k i l l and r e a l i t y " has i t s p a r a l l e l i n h i s a t t i t u d e t o Joyce's P o r t r a i t o f the A r t i s t as a Young Man, which he p r i z e d f o r the r e a l i s t i c way i t p r e s e n t s l i f e . Pound had read i t by January 1914, and f o l l o w i n g i t s p u b l i c a t i o n by Grant R i c h a r d s on June 15, he reviewed i t f o r The E g o i s t (15 J u l y , 1914). He c h i e f l y admired the way Joyce a v o i d s formal conventions when d e s c r i b i n g s l i c e s of l i f e . L i k e de Gourmont, Joyce i s "a r e a l i s t " , p r e s e n t s b e l i e v a b l e people and r e a l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n s : He does not b e l i e v e " l i f e " would be a l l r i g h t i f we stopped v i c i s e c t i o n o r i f we i n s t i t u t e d a new s o r t of "economics". He g i v e s the t h i n g as i t i s . He i s not bound by tiresome c o n v e n t i o n t h a t any p a r t of l i f e , to be i n t e r e s t i n g , must be shaped i n t o the c o n v e n t i o n a l form o f a " s t o r y " . Since de Maupassant we have had so many people t r y i n g t o w r i t e " s t o r i e s " and so few people p r e s e n t i n g l i f e . L i f e f o r the most p a r t does not happen i n neat l i t t l e diagrams and no t h i n g i s more tiresome than the c o n t i n u a l p retense t h a t i t does. Mr. Joyce's "Araby", f o r i n s t a n c e , i s much b e t t e r than a " s t o r y " , i t i s a v i v i d w a i t i n g . (LE, 400) 150 Pound's long poems of 1915, p a r t i c u l a r l y the Ur-cantos - as we s h a l l see i n Chapter V — a t t e m p t e d to meet t h i s c h a l l e n g e of Joyce's prose r e a l i s m : to a v o i d "neat l i t t l e diagrams" i n the p r e s e n t a t i o n of l i f e , and to p r e s e n t r e a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r s . 2 Compressed N a r r a t i v e Pound's d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the l o o s e c o n s t r u c t i o n of h i s l o n g e r n a r r a t i v e poems, such as " R e d o n d i l l a s " , l e d to h i s experiments w i t h more condensed forms d u r i n g the Imagist p e r i o d . Now Pound became aware t h a t he shared t h i s urge toward the condensation of n a r r a t i v e not o n l y w i t h Joyce, but a l s o w i t h contemporary w r i t e r s o f n a r r a t i v e v e r s e : F r a n c i s Jammes, C h a r l e s V i l d r a c and D.H. Lawrence have w r i t t e n s h o r t n a r r a t i v e s i n v e r s e , t r y i n g , i t would seem to p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n s as c l e a r l y as prose w r i t e r s have done, y e t more b r i e f l y . Mr. Joyce i s engaged i n a s i m i l a r c ondensation. He has kept to prose, not needing the p r i v i l e g e supposedly accorded to v e r s e to j u s t i f y h i s method. . . . M r . Joyce's more r i g o r o u s s e l e c t i o n of the presented d e t a i l marks him, I t h i n k , as b e l o n g i n g to my own g e n e r a t i o n , t h a t i s , to the " n i n e t e e n - t e n s " , not to the decade between "the n i n e t i e s " and to-day. (LE, 401-02) 151 Pound was p a r t i c u l a r l y enabled t o a p p r e c i a t e t h i s accomplishment i n prose, having junked two novel s and what was presumably a s h o r t s t o r y and based on de Maupassant, t i t l e d "Necklace" (YC, #88). St i m u l a t e d by the c h a l l e n g e o f Joyce's achievement i n 1915, Pound wrote " V i l l a n e l l e : The P s y c h o l o g i c a l Hour", which i s an attempt t o condense V i l d r a c ' s treatment o f a s i t u a t i o n i n h i s v e r s e n a r r a t i v e , " V i s i t e " . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s attempt i s brought home when Pound p r a i s e s " V i s i t e " f o r u s i n g "one f i f t h of the words t h a t a good w r i t e r of s h o r t s t o r i e s would have needed f o r the n a r r a t i v e " (SP, 338) . By h i s own standards o f computation, " V i l l a n e l l e " used l e s s than one t e n t h o f the words t h a t a good w r i t e r o f s h o r t s t o r i e s , such as de Maupassant, would have needed. Pound p r o v i d e d a prose t r a n s l a t i o n o f " V i s i t e " i n h i s review o f V i l d r a c i n "the Approach t o P a r i s " , ( S P , 336 f f ) which b e g i n s : He was seated b e f o r e h i s t a b l e , His dreams i n d o l e n t l y marked out W i t h i n the domain of h i s lamp And he heard a g a i n s t h i s window The f r a g i l e a t t a c k s of the snow. And suddenly he thought Of a man whom he knew And whom he had not seen f o r a long time. And he f e l t an o p p r e s s i o n i n h i s t h r o a t , P a r t sadness and p a r t c h a g r i n . 152 He knew t h a t t h i s man was without p r i d e E i t h e r i n h e a r t or i n word And t h a t he was without charm L i v i n g l i k e the t r e e s I s o l a t e d , on a ba r r e n p l a i n ; He knew t h a t f o r months He had been p r o m i s i n g t h i s man To v i s i t him, And t h a t the other Had thanked him g e n t l y f o r each one of these promises And had pretended to b e l i e v e i t . When V i l d r a c ' s n a r r a t o r f i n a l l y pays h i s v i s i t he f i n d s the man and h i s companion s u s p i c i o u s o f h i s motives f o r coming, e x p e c t i n g an u l t e r i o r purpose, and t h i s k i l l s any p o s s i b i l i t y o f communication. Unable t o break the s p e l l , he gets up t o go. Suddently understanding h i s ge s t u r e o f f r i e n d s h i p , the man and women s t r i v e t o keep him, but i n v a i n : They stood up be f o r e him B e t r a y i n g a c h i l d i s h need Of s k i p p i n g and c l a p p i n g t h e i r hands... He promised to come a g a i n . But b e f o r e r e a c h i n g the door He s e t c l e a r l y i n h i s memory The p l a c e t h a t bordered t h e i r l i v e s , He looked c a r e f u l l y a t each o b j e c t Then a t the man and woman a l s o , Such f e a r d i d he have a t the bottom o f h i s h e a r t That he would never come back. A f t e r h i s t r a n s l a t i o n Pound p o i n t s t o what he f i n d s 153 e x c e l l e n t i n V i l d r a c ' s poem. His comments make p l a i n t h a t he f i n d s i t c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h the b e s t modern prose (he i s not y e t f u l l y aware of D u b l i n e r s • ) Even more i m p o r t a n t l y , they show t h a t Pound i s a l r e a d y s p e c u l a t i n g on how to improve upon V i l d r a c ' s achievement, t h a t i s , on n a r r a t i v e v e r s e : I have been t o l d t h a t t h i s i s sentiment and t h e r e f o r e damned. I am not concerned w i t h t h a t argument. I dare say the poem makes a poor showing i n t h i s rough and h u r r i e d t r a n s l a t i o n ; t h a t p o i n t i s t h a t M. V i l d r a c has t o l d a s h o r t s t o r y i n v e r s e w i t h about one f i f t h o f the words t h a t a good w r i t e r of s h o r t s t o r i e s would have needed f o r the n a r r a t i v e . He has conveyed h i s atmosphere, and h i s people, and the event. He has brought n a r r a t i v e v e r s e i n t o c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h n a r r a t i v e prose without g i v i n g us long stanzas of bombast. You may make whatever o b j e c t i o n you l i k e t o genre p a i n t i n g . My o n l y q u e s t i o n i s : would i t be p o s s i b l e t o improve on M. V i l d r a c ' s treatment of a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n ? (SP, 368, my emphasis.) " V i l l a n e l l e : The P s y c h o l o g i c a l Hour" was Pound's immediate r e p l y to t h i s 1913 c h a l l e n g e "to improve on M. V i l d r a c ' s treatment of a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n . " I t i s roughly h a l f as long as " V i s i t e , " t r e a t i n g V i l d r a c ' s "given s i t u a t i o n " i n the condensed manner t y p i c a l of Pound's mature s t y l e . Pound's main a l t e r a t i o n of V i l d r a c ' s s i t u a t i o n was to r e p l a c e the v i s i t o r w i t h a man w a i t i n g f o r f r i e n d s to f u l f i l t h e i r promise to v i s i t him. He p r e s e r v e d V i l d r a c ' s 154 c h a r a c t e r s : two men and a woman., the emphasis on a promise to v i s i t ("twice they promised to come," "But they promised a g a i n : 'Tomorrow at t e a - t i m e ' " ) , and the bad weather as a background to the emotion: So much b a r r e n r e g r e t So many hours wasted! And now I watch, from the window, the r a i n , the wandering buses. (CSP, 177) And he i m p l i e d a p l o t which does more than b r i n g n a r r a t i v e v e r s e i n t o c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h n a r r a t i v e prose; i t shows Pound d e v e l o p i n g a condensed s t y l e which r e - e s t a b l i s h e d what he f e e l t was the undoubted s u p e r i o r i t y of p o e t r y : i t s a b i l i t y t o evoke condensed emotions unexpectedly: In the v e r s e something has come upon the i n t e l l i g e n c e . In the prose the i n t e l l i g e n c e has found a s u b j e c t f o r i t s o b s e r v a t i o n s . The p o e t i c f a c t p r e - e x i s t s . In a d i f f e r e n t way, of course, the s u b j e c t of the prose p r e - e x i s t s . . . . Yet I t h i n k t h i s o r d e r l i n e s s i n the g r e a t e s t p o e t i c passages, t h i s q u i e t statement t h a t p a r t a k e s of the nature of prose and i s y e t f l o a t e d and t o s s e d i n the emotional surges, i s perhaps as t r u e a t e s t as t h a t mentioned by the Greek t h e o r e t i c i a n . (LE, 53-54, my emphasis.) 155 The aim i n p o e t r y i s to t o s s deep emotions up out of q u i e t statement. The n a r r a t o r i n " V i l l a n e l l e , " as i n de Gourmont's "Prose Sonnets," causes a deep emotion t o a r i s e out o f a n a t u r a l tone of v o i c e . Thus " V i l l a n e l l e " ends: Now the t h i r d day i s h e r e — no word from e i t h e r ; No word from her nor him, Only another man's note: "Dear Pound, I am l e a v i n g England." (CSP, 178) Pound was not sure whether he had accomplished s u f f i c i e n t poignancy i n " V i l l a n e l l e . " "I t h i n k I have missed f i r e " he t o l d h i s f a t h e r i n a l e t t e r w r i t t e n j u s t b e f o r e Christmas i n 1915. "I wanted t o convey the 'sense - the f e e l ' t h a t something c r i t i c a l i s happening t o someone e l s e a t a d i s t a n c e . I t i s a p e r f e c t l y d e f i n i t e emotion. I have however o n l y succeeded i n g i v i n g the imp r e s s i o n t h a t I was d i s a p p o i n t e d by t h e i r absence" (YC). He w o r r i e d t h a t the poem's emotion i s too p e r s o n a l and does not achieve a more u n i v e r s a l v a l i d i t y . S i n c e the poem was q u i t e o b v i o u s l y w r i t t e n out of concern f o r f r i e n d s i n the f r o n t - l i n e t r e n c h e s , t h i s flaw was a c r u c i a l one i n Pound's eyes. In the same l e t t e r , he d i s c u s s e d h i s attempt t o achieve a s u b t l e k i n d o f repeat through r e c u r r e n c e of theme—a 156 s t a p l e i n the Cantos. He a l s o i n s e r t e d t h r e e l i n e s which do not appear i n the o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n of the poem p u b l i s h e d i n Poetry (December 1915). The reason he g i v e s f o r i n s e r t i n g these l i n e s i s to prepare the reader f o r the end of the poem; we can see from t h i s how c a r e f u l l y he balanced the need f o r c l a r i t y w i t h the d e s i r e f o r compression: V i l l a n e l l e i s the name of an o l d v e r s e w i t h rhymes & a r e f r a i n . I wanted the e f f e c t of a r e c u r r e n c e of theme and meant " V i l a n e l l e " t o mean g e n e r a l l y the f e e l f o the v i l a n e l l e form i n a modern s u b j e c t . I t h i n k I have missed f i r e . I wanted to convey the " s e n s e — t h e f e e l " t h a t something c r i t i c a l i s happen-i n g t o someone e l s e a t a d i s t a n c e . I t i s a p e r f e c t l y d e f i n i t e emotion. I have however o n l y succeeded i n g i v i n g the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t I was d i s a p p o i n t e d by t h e i r absence. I t ' s not good enough. The 2 opening l i n e s of second paragraph o f d i v i s i o n I, ought to be expanded and made t o dominate the r e s t . As i t i s they pass u n n o t i c e d & the end i s n ' t s u f f i c i e n t l y prepared for.. We must have another t r y a t i t . . . . Perhaps you c o u l d j a c k up the v i l l a n e l l e i f you i n s e r t a f t e r the words " D i v e r s e f o r c e s " the l i n e s "How do I know? Oh, I know w e l l enough For t h e r e i s something a f o o t . " As f o r me I had over-prepared, e t c . (YL, i b i d . Pound's emphasis) Pound's comments show t h a t " V i l l a n e l l e , " l i k e Cathay, draws on the p a s t to c a s t l i g h t upon the p r e s e n t , and to put s u f f e r i n g i n t o a h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . He was t r y i n g to 157 g r a f t the o l d French form onto a modern s u b j e c t (psychology); thus the t i t l e " V i l l a n e l l e : The P s y c h o l o g i c a l Hour." A t the same time, he w r e s t l e d w i t h h i s u l t i m a t e c h a l l e n g e : how to master the t r i c k of the u n n o t i c e d r e p e a t . How to a t t a i n rhythmic v i t a l i t y . H is r e f r a i n i s c r a f t e d : "Beauty i s so r a r e a t h i n g / So few d r i n k of my f o u n t a i n , " repeated once o n l y to e s t a b l i s h i t s harmonies i n the mind. Then the s u b t l e r e p e a t : compacted, the phrase means something d i f f e r e n t : "Beauty would d r i n k of my mind." "Organic rhythm," Yeats had s a i d o f "The Return." Here i t i s ag a i n , w i t h a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f meaning; no mechanical s u c c e s s i o n . R i n g i n g the changes, Pound s l i p s i n another s t r u c t u r a l d e v i c e : I had over-prepared the event . . . I had l a i d out j u s t the r i g h t books, I had almost turn e d down the pages . . . I had over prepared the event . . . As he would l a t e r say of such d e v i c e s , some minds take p l e a s u r e i n c o u n t e r p o i n t p l e a s u r e i n c o u n t e r p o i n t (canto LXXIX) 158 T h i s way l a y mastery. L i k e Joyce's "Araby," " V i l l a n e l l e " i s "much b e t t e r than a ' s t o r y ' , i t i s a v i v i d w a i t i n g . " Here Pound avoided the "neat l i t t l e diagrams" of n a r r a t i v e . As w e l l , " V i l l a n e l l e " answered the c h a l l e n g e of de Gourmont's prose sonnets. "The f i r s t d i f f i c u l t y i n a modern poem," Pound s a i d i n p r a i s i n g t h e i r success, " i s to g i v e a f e e l i n g o f the r e a l i t y of the speaker, the second, g i v e n the r e a l i t y of the speaker, to g a i n any degree of poignancy i n one's u t t e r a n c e " (SP, 388). T h i s comment was p u b l i s h e d i n the F o r t n i g h t l y Review on December 1, 1915. " V i l l a n e l l e " was p u b l i s h e d i n Poetry the same month. Pound was responding to the c h a l l e n g e , both of V i l d r a c ' s V i s i t e " and de Gourmont's prose sonnets, w i t h the s h o r t s t o r i e s of Joyce, de Maupasant, and the s e g u a i r e of Goddeschalk i n the background! To keep the c r e a t i v e - i n v e n t i v e s p i r i t o f man a l i v e . Where e l s e can one f i n d a comparable reverence f o r t r a d i t i o n , s c h o l a r s h i p , c r e a t i v i t y , energy, concern f o r humanity, d u r i n g World War I? "Near P e r i g o r d " was p u b l i s h e d along w i t h " V i l l a n e l l e " i n Poetry (December 1915). I t was Pound's f i r s t major attempt a t the s e q u e n t i a l poem. Behind i t l a y "Zenia," "Zenia," "Und Drang." I t showed a way out of the impasse 159 of n a r r a t i v e . M echanical s u c c e s s i o n s of metre, rhyme, image, d i s a p p e a r . No l o n g e r was the long poem to be plagued by the e a r l y problem: "I don't l i k e t h i s hobbledy metre / but f i n d i t easy to w r i t e i n " ( " R e d o n d i l l a s " ) . 13 Indeed, Pound c o n s i d e r e d i t the u l t i m a t e i n f r e e v e r s e . And w i t h t h i s success another: the d i s c o v e r y of how to use scenery to h i g h l i g h t p e r s o n a l i t y . Scenery On the f i r s t o f December, 1915, Pound wrote t o H a r r i e t Monroe warning her about the k i n d of nature p o e t r y she was p r i n t i n g : Remember t h a t p o e t r y i s more important than v e r s e f r e e or o therwise. Be g l a d you have a r e c k l e s s competitor i n N.Y. (Others) to keep you from b e l i e v i n g t h a t scenery alone and unsupported i s more i n t e r e s t i n g than humanity. R e a l l y geography IS not the source of i n s p i r a t i o n . O l d Yeats pere has sent over such a f i n e l e t t e r on t h a t s u b j e c t . I hope to p r i n t i t sometime, or see i t p r i n t e d . (SL, 67) And by May, 1917, he r e p r i n t e d i t i n h i s e d i t i o n of Jack Yeats' L e t t e r s : 160 The t a s t e f o r scenery has t h i s advantage over the t a s t e f o r human nature; the h e a r t i s not b r u i s e d . Yet s i n c e scenery i s never absurd as are poor m o r t a l s , n e i t h e r i s th e r e l a u g h t e r nor g e n i a l p i t y . We lo v e scenery p r i n c i p a l l y because the f e e l i n g s i t c r e a t e s are t r a n q u i l and e a s i l y c o n t r o l l e d , so t h a t we can enjoy our f u l l measure of s e l f - c o n t e n t ; d e a l i n g w i t h human nature the poet cannc-£ be the s u p e r i o r person nor can he be proud. Both " P r o v i n c i a D e s e r t a " ( Po e t r y , March 1 9 1 5 ) and "Near P e r i g o r d " humanize geography i n Yeats S r . ' s sense. L i k e " V i l l a n e l l e , " they show Pound responding t o the successes and c h a l l e n g e s o f oth e r a r t i s t s . In any case, geography, although i t comes to be of major importance t o Pound's long poems f o r the f i r s t time i n 1 9 1 5 , i s f i r m l y p l a c e d as a background to human emotions. Pound had been aware of t h i s a s p e c t as i t e x i s t s i n troubadour p o e t r y — s c e n i c d e s c r i p t i o n p r o v i d i n g the i n t r o d u c t i o n and backdrop t o the p o e m — f o r a few y e a r s . I t was n a t u r a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t he f o l l o w t h i s l e a d i n a poem on; the troubadour Bertan De Born. L i k e a l l of Pound's important poems i n 1 9 1 5 , "Near P e r i g o r d " h i g h l i g h t e d the importance of i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t i v i t y and p e r s o n a l i t y . De Born i s the s u b j e c t of two 1 6 1 s e c t i o n s ; Maent j o i n s him i n the t h i r d . The poem p r e s e n t s a q u e s t i o n : What was the m o t i v a t i o n behind de B o r n 1 s l o v e song t o Maent? The poem e x p l o r e s t h i s problem, but does not attempt t o s t u f f l i f e i n ; t o "neat l i t t l e diagrams." In a note o r i g i n a l l y p r i n t e d w i t h the poem Pound r a i s e d the co n n e c t i o n between geography on the one hand, and romance and p o l i t i c s on the one hand, and romance and p o l i t i c s on the o t h e r : As t o the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e behind the apparent l o v e poem we have no evidence save t h a t o f f e r e d by my own o b s e r v a t i o n ; o f the geography of P e r i g o r d and Limoges. I must leav e the p r o f e s s i o n a l t a c t i c i a n s t o dec i d e whether B e r t r a n ' s p r o c l i v i t i e s f o r s t i r r i n g up the barons were due to h i s l i v e r o r t o " m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y . " When he d i d not keep them busy f i g h t i n g each o t h e r they mcjst c e r t a i n l y d i d close, i n upon h i m — a t l e a s t once. T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s e x p l o r e d i n s e c t i o n one: How would you l i v e , w i t h neighbours s e t about y o u — P o i c t i e r s and B r i v e , untaken Rochecouart, Spread l i k e the f i n g e r - t i p s o f one f r a i l hand; And you on; t h a t g r e a t mountain of a p a l m — Not a neat ledge, not F o i x between i t s streams, But one huge back h a l f - c o v e r e d up wit h p i n e , Worked f o r and snatched from the s t r i n g - p u r s e of Born-The f o u r round towers, f o u r b r o t h e r s — m o s t l y f o o l s : What c o u l d he do but p l a y the desperate chess, And s t i r up o l d grudges? (CSP, 172) 162 The g e o g r a p h i c a l p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n ("one huge back h a l f - c o v e r e d up w i t h pine") expresses de Born's c h a r a c t e r , the s t r e n g t h and s o l i d i t y of the palm c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the " f i n g e r - t i p s of one f r a i l hand" b e l o n g i n g to " f o u r b r o t h e r s — m o s t l y f o o l s . " De Borns c h a r c t e r i n f u s e s the c o u n t r y s i d e near Perigeux. The second s e c t i o n , f i c t i o n a l r e c r e a t i o n , s e t s the composition of h i s poem h i g h i n H a u t e f o r t ' s tower; beneath, "the r i b b o n - l i k e road l i e s , i n r e d c r o s s - l i g h t , / Southward toward Montaignac": And the green c a t ' s - e y e l i f t s toward Montaignac. "Ribbon" not f o r the road o n l y , but t o foreshadow Maent as w e l l ; "red c r o s s - l i g h t " and "green c a t ' s - e y e " f o r the opposing p a s s i o n and j e a l o u s c a l c u l a t i o n i n h i s c h a r a c t e r — a complex study i n psychology. The t a n g l e d roads symbolize communication problems between people as w e l l as p l a c e s . The t h i r d s e c t i o n p r e s e n t s another dimension of de Born's c h a r a c t e r . . As o r i g i n a l l y p r i n t e d , i t began: I l o v e d a woman. The s t a r s f e l l from heaven. And always our two natures were i n s t r i f e . 163 Pound immediately d e l e t e d these two l i n e s as unnecessary prose statement. "Glad you l i k e the P e r i g o r d poem," he w r i t e s h i s f a t h e r i n December, 1915, the month of the poem's p u b l i c a t i o n : You w i l l improve i t c o n s i d e r a b l y i f you b l o t out the f i r s t 2 l i n e s o f p a r t I I I (p. 118) . Begin t h a t s e c t i o n w i t h " B e w i l d e r i n g e t c . " . . . The l i n e s are unnecessary & d e t r a c t a good d e a l from the v i v i d n e s s of t h a t p a r t o f the poem. (YC #406) As Ruthven n o t i c e s , Pound's r e v i s i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t he was " i n the p r o c e s s o f abandoning c o n c a t e n a t i o n as a s t r u c t u r a l d e v i c e i n favour o f the b o l d e r j u x t a p o s i t i o n s o f the ideogrammic m e t h o d . T h e d e c a s y l l a b i c l i n e o f a l l t h r e e s e c t i o n s , the focus on de Born's p e r s o n a l i t y , the s w i t c h i n g from images of medieval Provence t o 1915 speech r h y t h s , c a r r y the o v e r a l l rhythm of the poem. In the t h i r d s e c t i o n de Born's p e r s o n a l i t y emerges as o n l y capable o f u n i t i n g w i t h Maent's a t i n t e n s e i n t e r v a l s . The nature o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p was f i n a l l y " b e w i l d e r i n g , " and geography r e i n f o r c e s t h i s : B e w i l d e r i n g s p r i n g , and by the Auvezere Poppies and day's eyes i n the green email Rose over us; and we knew a l l t h a t stream, 164 And our two horses had t r a c e d out the v a l l e y s ; Knew the low f l o o d e d lands squared out w i t h p o p l a r s , In the young days when the deep sky b e f r i e n d e d . From t h i s i d y l l t o s e p a r a t i o n . Maent's m i s t r u s t o f de Born's mind, juxtaposed w i t h her p a s s i o n a t e a t t r a t i o n ; to h i s s o u l , h i s hands: and then the c o u n t e r - t h r u s t : "Why do you l o v e me? W i l l you always l o v e me? But I am l i k e the g r a s s , I can not lov e you." Or, "Love, and I lov e and l o v e you, And hate your mind, not you, your s o u l , your hands." A complex n a r r a t i v e p l o t l i n e i m p l i e d i n f o u r l i n e s o f d i a l o g u e . Maent 1s c h a r a c t e r i s l i k e g r a s s : sensuous, u n t h i n k i n g : "She who had nor ears nor tongue save i n her hands." The u l t i m a t e i m p l i c a t i o n : a l a c k of t r u s t . Female i n t u i t i o n c o u n t e r p o i n t s male p l o t t i n g : "And always our two natures were i n s t r i f e . " And the geography? I t p e r s o n i f i e s de Born: the poem might be t i t l e d "Near B e r t r a n de Born" "Near P e r i g o r d " s e t s up an " o r g a n i c rhythm" between scenery and human p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t avoids neat l i t t l e sketches of human l i f e , and p l a c e s them i n dynamic i n t e r r e l a t i o n through a s c e n i c background t h a t p e r s o n i f i e s 165 them so s t r o n g l y t h a t i t seems to speak f o r them. And always, Pound emphasizes "human" na t u r e . Throughout 1915, Pound r e j e c t e d the n o t i o n of w r i t i n g war poems, and i n s t e a d experimented w i t h e x t e n d i n g the range of p o e t r y to the p o i n t where i t c o u l d d e a l w i t h human emotions as c r e a t i v e l y , s e l e c t i v e l y , and v i v i d l y as the prose of masters l i k e J oyce. " V i l l a n e l l e " and "Near P e r i g o r d " were p a r t of t h i s e f f o r t . H i s g r e a t e s t successes were to develop a new poignancy and r e t i c e n c e of tone, to develop the concept of a s u b t l e "repeat" as a method of u n i f y i n g a long poem, to b r i n g geography i n t o the poem as a r e i n f o r c e m e n t of human p e r s o n a l i t y , and to compress a n a r r a t i v e s t o r y l i n e i n t o a v i v i d s k e t c h of s i t u a t i o n a t one p o i n t i n time. The o v e r a l l attempt: to weave "luminous d e t a i l s " i n t o major form. 166 V Texture A Language and Imagery i n the Ur-Cantos Pound's language underwent a dramatic and permanent s h i f t with the pu b l i c a t i o n of canto four by the Ovid Press on October 4, 1917—just two months a f t e r the pu b l i c a t i o n of the t h i r d Un-canto i n Poetry. (August 1917) . E a r l i e r , Pound's personality provided the main unifying device i n long poems such as "Redondillas" (1911): I would sing . . . • • • I would sing . . . I sing . . . I would write . . . I would sing . . . I don't l i k e . . . I would sing . . . The dominance of the f i r s t person singular, together with the use of the future c o n d i t i o n a l , had r e f l e c t e d his 167 u n c e r t a i n t y about how to s t r u c t u r e h i s long poem. In " P r o v i n c i a D e s e r t a " (1995) , he had moved a step f u r t h e r , w r i t i n g from e x p e r i e n c e r a t h e r than f u t u r e e x p e c t a t i o n s , i n the p a s t tense: I have walked . . . I have c r e p t . . . I know . . . (CSP, 132) The f i r s t Ur-canto (June 1917), two years l a t e r , r e t a i n e d the focus on the author but r e v e r t e d t o the f u t u r e c o n d i t i o n a l , a g a i n e x p r e s s i n g Pound's u n c e r t a i n t y about the d i r e c t i o n o f h i s major work: But say I want t o , say I take . . . Let i n your q u i r k s and twjeks, and say the t h i n g ' s an a r t - f o r m . . .? Pound took the c r i t i c a l step between June and August, when the t h i r d Ur-canto appeared. Although he i n t r o d u c e d h i s t r a n s l a t i o n from Homer w i t h a p e r s o n a l r e f e r e n c e ("I've s t r a i n e d my ear f o r . . . And cracked my w i t on . . .") , once he got f u l l y i n t o i t the f i r s t - p e r s o n mask s l i p p e d o f f Pounds' face and onto Odysseus': 168 And then went down to the s h i p , Set k e e l to b r e a k e r s , f o r t h on the godly sea, and Then s a t we . . . Came we then . . . I dug . . . Then prayed I . . . . . . And I c r i e d i n h u r r i e d speech . . . . By the p u b l i c a t i o n of canto f o u r i n October, the a u t h o r i a l v o i c e no l o n g e r p r o v i d e d the s u b j e c t of the poem, but was r a t h e r almost s u b j e c t to what i t p e r c e i v e d . Things have a r e a l i t y independent of the n a r r a t o r : P a l a c e i n smoky l i g h t , Troy but a heap of smouldering boundary-stones, ANAXIFORMINGESI A u r u n c u l e i a ! Hear me. Cadmus of Golden Prows; The s i l v e r m i r r o r s c a t c h the b r i g h t stones and f l a r e , Dawn., to our waking, d r i f t s i n the green c o o l l i g h t ; Dew have b l u r r s , i n the g r a s s , p a l e ankles moving. Beat, beat, w h i r r , thud, i n the s o f t t u r f under the apple t r e e s , Choros nympharum, g o a t - f o o t w i t h p a l e f o o t a l t e r n a t e . Here Troy's d e s t r u c t i o n , and Cadmus' e x p e d i t i o n to found Thebes, juxtapose w i t h images of growth to show c u l t u r a l f e r t i l i t y a r i s e from d e s t r u c t i o n . The dream-like j u x t a p o s i t i o n s r e c e i v e no e x p l a n a t i o n . No commentary i n t r u d e s t o t a l k "about" the e x p e r i e n c e . 169 The d e c i s i o n to r e s e r v e the f i r s t person s i n g u l a r f o r personae such as Cadmus and Odysseus, r a t h e r than f o r h i m s e l f , marks the b i r t h of Pound's mature c a n t i c s t y l e . The author's persona no l o n g e r p r o v i d e s the u n i f y i n g focus f o r the long poem; i n s t e a d , ccoherence a r i s e s from the sense of a coherent a r t i s t i c i n t e l l i g e n c e behind . the s u r f a c e t e x t u r e s e l e c t i n g and a r r a n g i n g the s u b j e c t matter. The c o n s i s t e n c y o f the rhythm and movement of the language i t s e l f p e r s o n i f i e s the persona. Pound's reason f o r d i m i n i s h i n g the importance of the a u t h o r i a l v o i c e p r o v i d e d i n h i s 1963 t r a n s l a t i o n of the Marquise de B o u f f l e r s ' " a i r : S e n t i r Avec Ardeur", throws a s p o t l i g h t on t h i s r e j e c t i o n of the a u t h o r i a l f i r s t person i n a long poem: You need not always n a r r a t e ; c i t e ; date, But l i s t e n a w h i l e and not say: " I ! I" Want to know why? The ME i s t y r a n n i c a l ; academical. E a r l y , l a t e Boredom's cognate mate i n step a t h i s s i d e And I w i t h a ME, I f e a r , y e t again! Say what you w i l l i n two Words and get t h r u ! Long, f r i l l y P a l a v e r i s s i l l y . 170 The e v o l v i n g c o n t e x t of the l i n e "Gods f l o a t i n the azure a i r " through the 1915 p e r i o d demonstrates how Pound a c h i e v e d growing v i v i d n e s s by a p p l y i n g t h i s r u l e to h i m s e l f : In the f i r s t Ur-canto, the v i s i o n a r i s e s out of a w e l t e r o f a u t h o r i a l s p e c u l a t i o n s on Browning's concept o f major form and h i s method of composi t i o n : So you worked out new form, the m e d i t a t i v e , Semi-dramatic, semi-epic s t o r y , And we w i l l say: What's l e f t f o r me t o do? Whom s h a l l I conjure up, who's my S o r d e l l o , My pre-Daun Chaucer, p r e - B o c c a c c i o , As you have done pre-Dante? Whom s h a l l I hang my shimmering garment on; Who wear my f e a t h e r y mantle, hagoromo; Whom s e t t o d a z z l e the s e r i o u s f u t u r e ages? Not Arnaut, not de Born, not Uc S t . C i r c who has w r i t out the s t o r i e s . Or s h a l l I do your t r i c k , the showman's booth, Bob Browning, Turned a t my w i l l i n t o the Agora, Or i n t o the o l d t h e a t r e a t A r i e s , And s e t the l o t , my v i s i o n s , t o confounding The w i t s t h a t have s u r v i v e d your damn'd S o r d e l l o ? (Or s u l k and leave the word t o n o v e l i s t s ? ) What a hodge-podge you have made t h e r e ! — Zanze and swanzig, of a l l opprobrious rhymes! And you t u r n o f f whenever i t s u i t s your fancy, Now a t Verona, now w i t h the e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s , or now a- g a b b l i n g o f the "Tyrrhene whelk." "The l y r e should animate but not m i s l e a d the p e n — That's Wordsworth, Mr. Browning. (What a p h r a s e ? — That L y r e , t h a t pen, t h a t b l e a t i n g sheep, W i l l Wordsworth!) That should have taught you a v o i d speech f i g u r a t i v e And s e t out your matter As I do, i n s t r a i g h t simple phrases: Gods f l o a t i n the azure a i r . . . . (Poetry, June 1917, 117-18) 171 When r e v i s e d soon a f t e r f o r i t s appearance i n L u s t r a (1917), the twenty-eight l i n e s of i n t r o d u c t o r y matter were s l a s h e d t o f o u r : Worked our new form, m e d i t a t i v e , semi-dramatic, Semi-epic s t o r y ; and what's l e f t ? Pre-Daun Chaucer, P r e - B o c c a c c i o ? Not Arnaut Not Uc S t . C i r c . Gods f l o a t i n the azure a i r . Pound dropped the e x p l a n a t o r y n a r r a t i v e , as e x t r i n s i c t o h i s 4 r e a l matter. And by A D r a f t of XVI Cantos (1925) the v i s i o n was moved t o canto t h r e e , i n a d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t e n t i r e l y : And the l i t cross-beams, t h a t year, i n the M o r o s i n i , And peacocks i n Kore's house, or t h e r e may have been. F l o a t : Gods f l o a t i n the azure a i r (XVI Cantos, 11) F i n a l l y , f o r our r e c e i v e d t e x t of the passage, Pound dropped even the t r a n s i t i o n a l " F l o a t " : And peacocks i n Kore's house, or t h e r e may have been. Gods f l o a t i n the azure a i r . ( I l l , 11) 172 These a l t e r a t i o n s focus the r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n on the experie n c e of the immediate v i s i o n r a t h e r than a u t h o r i a l s p e c u l a t i o n s , so t h a t the f i n a l v e r s i o n of the l i n e i s l e s s immediately comprehensible, though more v i g o r o u s and muscular, and possesses a more assured tone. Pound f i n a l l y h i g h l i g h t e d the v i s i o n , not h i s own i d i o s y n c r a c i e s . T h i s growing focus on the v i s i o n d u r i n g s u c c e s i v e r e w r i t i n g s reminds us t h a t as e a r l y as September 1914, he had c o n s i d e r e d the p o s s i b i l i t y of u n i f y i n g h i s long poem around a c e n t r a l image: I am o f t e n asked whether th e r e can be a long i m a g i s t e o r v o r t i c i s t poem. The Japanese, who ev o l v e d the hokku, e v o l v e d a l s o the Noh p l a y s . In the b e s t "Noh" the whole p l a y may c o n s i s t o f one image. I mean i t i s gathered about one image. I t s u n i t y c o n s i s t s i n one image, e n f o r c e d by movement and music. I see no t h i n g a g a i n s t a l o n g v o r t i c i s t poem. As we saw i n Chapter I I , the s t r u c t u r e of the f u l l Noh program of f i v e o r s i x p l a y s t o p r e s e n t a "complete s e r v i c e of l i f e had e a r l i e r i n f l u e n c e d Pound's concept of major form; here he c o n s i d e r e d the usage of one image t o achieve u n i t y w i t h i n an i n d i v i d u a l p l a y . H is i n t e n t i o n a t one p o i n t was to p a t t e r n h i s long poem wit h images of growth (the ' p l o t ' was to be t h a t of Takasago, the Noh p l a y about sacre d 173 p i n e t r e e s ) . " But Pound found t h i s means of a c h i e v i n g u n i t y through "one image, e n f o r c e d by movement and music," i n c r e a s i n g l y unworkable. In March 1917 he wrote to Joyce t h a t he had "begun an e n d l e s s poem, of no known cat e g o r y . " T h i s was o n l y t h r e e months b e f o r e the appearance of canto one i n P o e t r y . He went on to say t h a t the v i s u a l element may have g o t t e n r a t h e r out of hand, d e s c r i b i n g h i s poem as phanopoeia or something or o t h e r , a l l about e v e r y t h i n g . . . . Probably too s p r a w l i n g and unmusical to f i n d favour i n your e a r s . W i l l t r y to get some melody i n t o i t f u r t h e r on. Though we have no ombra and ingombra to end our l i n e s w i t h , or p o l u p h l o i s b i o u s t h a l l a s s a s t o e n r i c h the middle f e e t . Pound's d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the s p r a w l i n g form of the Ur-cantos, and i t s l a c k of u n i t y , p o i n t s out h i s i n a b l i l i t y t o l o c a t e a s i n g l e u n i f y i n g image, or sequence of images. Pound does t a l k a good d e a l about the v i s u a l element i n the Ur-cantos, and p r e s e n t s a number of images, even i f none of them a c t s as a c a t a l y s t . In canto one, f o r example, he c a l l s S o r d e l l o Browning's attempt "to p a i n t . . . the h a l f or t h i r d of your i n t e n s e s t l i f e " — a s though v i s u a l a r t was 174 foremost i n h i s thought - and ends the canto w i t h an exclamation about the p o t e n t i a l of such a method: Ba r r e d l i g h t s , g r e a t f l a r e s , new form, P i c a s s o or Lewis. I f f o r a year man w r i t e to p a i n t , and not to music — 0 C a s e l l a ! (Poetry, June 1917, 121.) S i m i l a r l y i n canto two, Pound recounts coming upon a sudden sense of the r e a l i t y o f J o i o s 1 p e r s o n a l i t y i n a b l u e and g i l d e d manuscript Decked out w i t h C o u c i ' s r a b b i t s , And the p i c t u r e s twined w i t h the c a p i t a l s . (Poetry, J u l y , 180) As i f to s t r e s s t h i s element, canto one begins w i t h a d e c o r a t e d i n i t i a l l e t t e r , which a n t i c i p a t e s the g r e a t e r complexity of the i n i t i a l s i n XVI Cantos (by Henry S t r a t e r ) , Cantos 17-27 (by Gladys H i n e s ) , and XXX Cantos (by Dorothy Shakespeare Pound). The absence of these o f t e n b e a u t i f u l scenes "twined w i t h the c a p i t a l s " i n subsequent e d i t i o n s i n d i c a t e s Pound's d e c i s i o n t o c o n c e n t r a t e a t t e n t i o n on the l i n g u i s t i c element of h i s work a f t e r 1930. S i m i l a r l y , the second Ur-canto ends w i t h a s t o r y of an 175 a r t i s t from the mid-West sent by h i s f a t h e r t o P a r i s t o study. A f t e r "Ten years of J u l i a n ' s and the a t e l i e r s " and some success he r e t u r n s to Indiana and h i s f a m i l y , reduced to p a i n t i n g "the l o c a l drug-shop and soda-bars," or a f l e a - b i t t e n sheep to hang over the l o c a l d o c t o r ' s man t l e p i e c e , but e n r i c h e d by h i s e x p e r i e n c e , "dreaming h i s r e n a i s s a n c e . " Pound d e d i c a t e d h i s Ur-cantos to t h i s a r t i s t : "Take my S o r d e l l o ! " (Poetry, J u l y , 188). While v i s u a l imagery dominates i n canto one, and anecdotes f i l l two, canto t h r e e p r i m a r i l y concerns i t s e l f w i t h language. Having g i v e n h i s v e r s i o n of John Heydon's v i s i o n near the b e g i n n i n g of canto t h r e e , f o r example, Pound q u i c k l y moved away from t h i s v i s u a l emphesis to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of Heydon's use of language: "I have seen John Heydon." L e t us hear John Heydon! "Omniformis Omnis i n t e l l e c t u s e s t — thus he b e g i n s , by s p r o u t i n g h a l f of P s e l l u s . (Then comes a note, my assiduous commentator: Not P s e l l u s De Daemonibus, but Porphyry's Chances, In the t h i r t e e n t h c hapter, t h a t "every i n t e l l e c t i s omniform") (Poetry, August, 248-49) "Let us hear John Heydon." Quoting Heydon i n the o r i g i n a l L a t i n , Pound p r o v i d e s an i n f a l l i b l e index to Heydon's 176 c h a r a c t e r — f o r a man's rhythm i s " h i s own, u n c o u n t e r f e i t i n g , u n c o u n t e r f e i t a b l e " (LE, 9) . Here Pound employs d i r e c t quotes t o r e v e a l p e r s o n a l i t y . The spoken phrase, or t a g , becomes a d i r e c t l i n k , l i k e having someone on the telephone, between the man of the p a s t and the pre s e n t r e a d e r . S i m i l a r l y , l a t e r i n the canto, Pound d i f f e r e n t i a t e s Browning's emphasis on p e r s o n a l i t y i n h i s p o e t r y from V a l l a ' s emphasis on s o c i e t y , as expressed i n language: Ha! S i r B l a n c a t z , S o r d e l l o would have your h e a r t t o g i v e t o a l l the p r i n c e s ; V a l l a , the h e a r t o f Rome, S u s t a i n i n g speech, s e t out b e f o r e the people. "Nec bonus C h r i s t i a n u s ac bonus T u l l i a n u s . " V a l l a t r a n s l a t e s the h e a r t o f an e n t i r e t r a d i t i o n f o r the read e r , not the h e a r t of a s i n g l e person p r i n c e l y e l i t e . And a g a i n , as wit h Heydon, d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n conveys V a l l a ' s reverence f o r T u l l y ' s thought which i n t h i s way becomes p a r t o f the t r a d i t i o n . To emphasize t h a t E n g l i s h has taken over from L a t i n the r o l e o f a l i n g u a f r a n c a , Pound t r a n s l a t e s V a l l a ' s remarks on 177 Rome: "More than the Roman c i t y , the Roman speech" (Holds f a s t i t s p a r t among the e v e r - l i v i n g ) . "Not by the e a g l e s o n l y was Rome measured." "Wherever the Roman speech was, t h e r e was Rome," Wherever the speech c r e p t , t h e r e was mastery (Poetry, August, 250) A t r a n s l a t i o n from Homer f o l l o w s , as though t o emphasize Pound's d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o use h i s long poem to exceed the g l o r y o f L a t i n and Greek i n E n g l i s h . "I b e l i e v e language has improved," Pound wrote I r i s B a r r y i n August 1916, " t h a t L a t i n i s b e t t e r than Greek and French than L a t i n f o r e v e r y t h i n g save c e r t a i n melodic e f f e c t s . " (SL, 95) And, no doubt, E n g l i s h b e t t e r than French, and American b e t t e r than E n g l i s h . F i r s t , however, he pays t r i b u t e t o Andreus Divus' Rennaissance t r a n s l a t i o n , by p r o v i d i n g a l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n from the L a t i n : "Down to the s h i p s we went, s e t mast and s a i l , / B l a c k k e e l and beasts f o r bloody s a c r i f i c e . " T h i s homage completed, he makes h i s own r e - c r e a t i o n from the L a t i n : I've s t r a i n e d my ear f o r -ensa, -ombra, and -ensa And cracked my w i t on d e l i c a t e c a n z o n i 178 Here's but rough meaning: "And then went down to the s h i p , s e t k e e l to b r e a k e r s , F o r t h on the godly sea; We s e t up mast and s a i l on t h a t swart s h i p , Sheep bore we aboard her, and our bodies a l s o Heavy w i t h weeping. (Poetry, August, 251) Here, "rough meaning" r e c a l l s Pound's complaint i n h i s l e t t e r t o Joyce t h a t "we have no ombra and ingombra t o end our l i n e s w i t h , " t h a t E n g l i s h l a c k s m u s i c a l i t y . I t a l s o p o i n t s t o the p r i o r i t y he had de c i d e d to g i v e c l e a r speech i n h i s poem d e s p i t e Browning's example, i n S o r d e l l o , o f co n v o l u t e d syntax t h a t " f o l l o w s the b u i l d e r ' s whim." The f a c t t h a t Pound l a t e r chose to be g i n h i s major poem w i t h h i s own t r a n s l a t i o n from Divus i n rough "Anglo-Saxon" speech, shows not o n l y h i s d e s i r e t o m a i n t a i n and extend a t r a d i t i o n of g r a f t i n g the b e s t from e a r l i e r c u l t u r e s onto modern ones, but a l s o h i s d e s i r e t o s h i f t the focus on phanopoeia i n the Ur-cantos onto language i t s e l f , onto i t s d e n o t a t i v e component r a t h e r than i t s m u s i c a l q u a l i t i e s . H is long poem was e v e n t u a l l y t o c e n t r e not around a c e n t r a l image but around the p o t e n t i a l f o r the c l e a r e x p r e s s i o n o f meaning o f f e r e d by modern E n g l i s h . In 1915, however, the implementation of t h i s d e c i s i o n was s t i l l e i g h t y e ars i n the f u t u r e . 179 We have seen how the Ur-cantos p r o g r e s s e d from the use of the a u t h o r i a l " I " to i t s use by v a r i o u s personae, and from a focus on phanopoeia t o a focus on language, i n c l u d i n g the v o i c e s of many c h a r a c t e r s o t h e r than the author. These experiments allowed Pound t o t h i c k e n the t e x t u r e of h i s poe t r y by t a k i n g the burden of u n i f y i n g the poem o f f the p e r s o n a l i t y of the author and l e t t i n g v a r i o u s personae speak i n t h e i r own v o i c e s . B The Homage as N a r r a t i v e The c l e a r e s t p r o g r e s s i o n from the Homage to Sextus P r o p e r t i u s (1917) through Mauberley (1920) to XVI Cantos (1925) was the d i s p e n s i n g w i t h obvious s t r u c t u r a l frameworks. Pound moved from the use of a n a r r a t i v e framework (the Homage), to the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an i m p l i e d argument by example or i l l u s t r a t i o n (Mauberley), t o the use of r e c u r r e n t m o t i f s (XVI Can t o s ) , i n o r d e r t o u n i f y h i s long poem. T h i s movement toward a l e s s obvious framework f o r the long poem marked a movement away from c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y forms toward what Pound con c e i v e d of as more n a t u r a l , o r g a n i c modes of o r g a n i z a t i o n . I n c r e a s i n g l y , Pound 180 emphasized the t e x t u r e o f words on the page, and t h e i r u n p r e d i c t a b l y spaced r e p e t i t i o n , r a t h e r than l a r g e symmetrical p a t t e r n s o f development. He moved away from l i t e r a r y frameworks toward an emphasis on n a t u r a l p a t t e r n s of r e c u r r e n c e . T h i s p a t t e r n can be seen i n embryonic form i n the Homage. For w h i l e Pound used P r o p e r t i u s as a c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r "to hang my shimmering garment on," he suppressed n a r r a t i v e l i n k s between and w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i o n s of the poem, and i n t h i s way f o c u s s e d the rea d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n on the l i n g u i s t i c t e x t u r e o f the poem. We do not enjoy the Homage so much f o r i t s p l o t , as f o r what i t s language t e l l s us about P r o p e r t i u s ' c h a r a c t e r . Over the next s i x years Pound moved much f u r t h e r i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . As an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f the s t r u c t u r e o f the Homage i t . w i l l be u s e f u l t o quote from Pound's essay "Henry James," which appeared i n the L i t t l e Review of August, 1918. F o l l o w i n g James' death i n 1916, Pound read the e n t i r e canon over a two-year p e r i o d . The Homage was begun i n l a t e 1916 and completed the f o l l o w i n g year, so Pound was r e a d i n g James w h i l e composing h i s poem on P r o p e r t i u s . In h i s review Pound says t h a t "the supreme reward f o r the a r t i s t " who has spent y e a r s d e v e l o p i n g h i s 181 c r a f t comes when the momentum of h i s a r t , the sheer bulk of h i s p r o c e s s e s , the ( s i l i c e t ) s i z e of h i s f l y - w h e e l , should heave him out of h i m s e l f , out of h i s p e r s o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s , out of the t a n g l e s of p e r s o n a l h e r e d i t y and of environment, out of the b i a s of h i s e a r l y t r a i n i n g , of e a r l y p r e d i l i c t i o n s , whether of F l o r e n c e , A.D. 1300, or of Back Bay of 1872, and l e a v e him simply the g r e a t t r u e r e c o r d e r . (LE, 299-300). As we saw w i t h r e g a r d to canto f o u r , Pound too was i n v o l v e d i n r i d d i n g h i m s e l f of p e r s o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s , d i s p e n s i n g w i t h the p u r e l y p e r s o n a l " I " i n h i s w r i t i n g . Here he r e v e a l s h i s d e s i r e t o emulate James by overcoming h i s own p r e d i l i c t i o n f o r " F l o r e n c e , A.D. 1300" ( i . e . , Dante). He had spent years p e r f e c t i n g the s h o r t i m a g i s t poem and epigram, and begun to w r i t e l o n g e r poems l i k e "Near P e r i g o r d " i n 1915; i t i s l i k e l y t h a t he now f e l t h i s " f l y - w h e e l " had a c h i e v e d s u f f i c i e n t momentum to p r o p e l him through the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a l o n g e r poem. In t h i s r e s p e c t , i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t Pound went on i n h i s review to mark the way James develops away from the s h o r t sentence, away from the p l o t , toward an emphasis on t e x t u r e . As James matured, Pound notes, t h e r e ensued a growing 182 d i s c o n t e n t w i t h the s h o r t sentence, epigram, e t c . i n which he does not a t t h i s time a t t a i n d i s t i n c t i o n ; the c l a r i t y i s not s a t i s f a c t o r y t o the author, h i s donnee being r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of h i s contempories. The " s t o r y " not b e i n g r e a l l y what he i s a f t e r , he s t a r t s to b u i l d up h i s medium; a t h i c k e n i n g , a c h i a r o s c u r o i s needed, the long sentence; he wanders, seeks to add a needed o p a c i t y , he overdoes i t , produces the cobwebby n o v e l , emerges or j u s t i f i e s h i m s e l f i n M a i s i e and manages h i s long-sought form i n The Awkward Age. (LE, 304) T h i s d e s c r i b e s Pound's own development, away from the "epigram," away from "the s t o r y , " towards a b u i l d i n g up of h i s medium, the " l o n g sentence" or long poem, toward a t h i c k e n i n g of h i s a r t . There seems l i t t l e doubt the Pound's review of James development s t i m u l a t e d h i s d e s i r e t o break through i n t o major form, a d e s i r e r e g i s t e r e d by h i s composition o f the Homage, M a u b e r l e y l , and the Cantos. The major q u e s t i o n he f a c e d was what k i n d of form to use. I t seems n a t u r a l t h a t he should look to adapt the n a r r a t i v e methods of contemporary n o v e l i s t s l i k e Henry James. Indeed, he says as much to F e l i x S c h e l l i n g i n a 1922 l e t t e r , where he speaks of Mauberley as "a study i n form, an attempt to condense the James n o v e l " (SL, 180) . But the n a r r a t i v e elements of p l o t and c h a r a c t e r development are much more obvious, l e s s condensed, i n the Homage. These elements are worth g l a n c i n g a t . S e c t i o n I, the f i r s t of 183 twelve i n the sequence, introduces Propertius 1 reasons for pre f e r r i n g the l y r i c mode to that of the epic. Section II shows Propertius i n a comic l i g h t as he t r i e s unsuccessfully to i n t e r e s t himself i n writing about war. Section III introduces Cynthia as someone for whom Propertius r i s k s death, while Section IV shows him r e a l i z e but ignore her inconstancy. Section V combines the themes of the previous four sections, as Propertius mocks the bombastic component of epic, and compares i t s l i t e r a r y stimulus unfavorably with that of his own poetry: "Neither C a l l i o p e nor Appolo sung these things into my ear, / My genius is. no more than a g i r l . " Section VI warns Cynthia of the f i n a l i t y of death, which comes even to lovers. Section VII shows Propertius at the summit of his happiness, as he r e c o l l e c t s t h e i r nights of love-making. In Section VIII, Propertius pleads with Jove to spare Cynthia's l i f e , and Section IX ends with her recovery. In Section X, Propertius v i s i t s Cynthia a f t e r a night on the town, only to f i n d her sleeping alone, angred by his lack of attention. In Section XI, Propertius t e l l s Cynthia that her consequent attempt to avoid him i s f u t i l e , and that, despite her encounters, he w i l l forgive everything. Section XII recounts Propertius' discovery of Cynthia's a f f a i r with Lynceus, writer of bombastic epics, and asserts his willingness to make verse i n Cynceus' fashion, " i f she should command / i t . " Propertius 1 8 4 w i l l i n g n e s s to w r i t e even e p i c p o e t r y — a t C y n t h i a ' s command— t i e s the theme of e p i c p o e t r y t o g e t h e r w i t h h i s l o v e a f f a i r v e r y n e a t l y . Throughout the poem he has r e v e r s e d the t r a d i t i o n a l p r i o r i t i e s t o a s s e r t the pre-eminence of the l y r i c mode over the e p i c . I t i s c l e a r from even t h i s sketchy and s u p e r f i c i a l paraphrase t h a t the Homage possess a rudimentary p l o t l i n e as w e l l as c h a r a c t e r development. Such d e v i c e s to p r o v i d e a sense of u n i t y were g r a d u a l l y phased out by Pound i n Mauberley and XVI Cantos, as he moved f u r t h e r away from a r e l i a n c e on t r a d i t i o n a l methods of a c h i e v i n g n a r r a t i v e u n i t y . Although the Homage possesses these u n i f y i n g elements, i t experiments w i t h ways of condensing n a r r a t i v e . Pound's use of the " c u t " between i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i o n s of the poem i s perhaps the c l e a r e s t i n d i c a t i o n i f h i s attempt - a technique a l r e a d y used s i x y ears e a r l i e r i n "Und Drang", and developed f u r t h e r i n "Xenia", " Z e n i a " , and " V i l l a n e l l e : The P s y c h o l o g i c a l Hour". Hence, S e c t i o n I I ends w i t h " M i s t r e s s C a l l i o p e " (the muse of e p i c poetry) demanding t h a t P r o p e r t i e s w r i t e e p i c : Thus M i s t r e s s C a l l i o p e , 185 D a b b l i n g her hands i n the f o u n t , thus she S t i f f e n e d our f a c e w i t h the backwash of P h i l e t a s the Coan, wh i l e S e c t i o n I I jumps to a more welcome k i n d of message, from C y n t h i a : M i d n i g h t , and a l e t t e r comes to me from our m i s t r e s s : T e l l i n g me to come to T i b u r , At once!! S i m i l a r l y , S e c t i o n VI ends w i t h P r o p e r t i u s 1 reminder to C y n t h i a t h a t time i s s h o r t f o r both of them: In v a i n , you c a l l back the shade, In v a i n , C y n t h i a . V a i n c a l l t o unanswering shadow, Small t a l k comes from s m a l l bones, w h i l e S e c t i o n VII begins w i t h j o y f u l eagerness: Me happy, n i g h t , n i g h t f u l l of b r i g h t n e s s ; On couch made happy by my long d e l e c t a t i o n s . And w h i l e S e c t i o n XI ends w i t h a statement of e t e r n a l d e v o t i o n to C y n t h i a , d e s p i t e her f l a g r a n t s e l f - a d v e r t i s e m e n t 186 as a p r o s t i t u t e : "Though you walk i n the V i a Sac r a , w i t h a peacock's t a i l f o r / a f a n , " S e c t i o n XII leaps t o P r o p e r t i u s ' s u r p r i s e a t the news of her i n f i d e l i t y w i t h Lynceus: "Who, who w i l l be the next man to e n t r u s t h i s g i r l / t o a f r i e n d ? " As i n i m a g i s t poems l i k e "Fan-Piece", a whole range of ex p e r i e n c e - not e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d - i s i m p l i e d i n the i n t e r v a l . The u b i q u i t y o f t h i s k i n d o f c i n e m a t i c break between s e c t i o n s e l e v a t e s i t t o a method. And j u s t as abrupt breaks occur between s e c t i o n s , so w i t h i n them Pound d i s r u p t s . l o g i c a l p a t t e r n s o f syntax, i n t h i s case o f t e n t o c h a r a c t e r i z e P r o p e r t i u s by r e f l e c t i n g h i s h a b i t u a l l y d i s j o i n t e d t h o u g h t - p a t t e r n s . In S e c t i o n I I I , f o r example, C y n t h i a ' s demand t h a t P r o p e r t i u s come a t once i s not grammatically t i e d t o the image which f o l l o w s : M i d n i g h t , and a l e t t e r comes to me from our m i s t r e s s : T e l l i n g me t o come to T i b u r , At once!! " B r i g h t t i p s reach up from twin towers, Anienan s p r i n g water f a l l s i n t o f l a t - s p r e a d p o o l s . " What i s to be done about i t ? S h a l l I e n t r u s t myself t o ent a n g l e d shadows, Where b o l d hands may do v i o l e n c e t o my person? The method i s i n e x p l i c a b l e , i l l o g i c a l , but e f f e c t i v e . The images b u r s t out of the surrounding n a r r a t i v e , as welcome as 187 a moment of p a s s i o n t o a mind engaged i n bookkeeping. The method p r o v i d e s a t e r r i f i c a l l y economical and apt r e v e l a t i o n o f P r o p e r t i u s ' l e c h e r o u s but wimpish p e r s o n a l i t y , and marks a r e a l advance i n Pound's a b i l i t y t o dispense w i t h unneded as p e c t s o f n a r r a t i v e c o n t i n u i t y , t o s h i f t the re a d e r ' s focus o f a t t e n t i o n from l a r g e r s t r u c t u r e s onto the t e x t u r e o f the poem. In a s i m i l a r manner, Pound's t r i c k o f j u x t a p o s i n g E n g l i s h l a t i n a t e d i c t i o n w i t h L a t i n t a g s — e . g . , "And my v e n t r i c l e s do not p a l p i t a t e t o C a e s a r i a l ore rotundos" (V) — p r o v i d e s an economical and humorous means of exposing both P r o p e r t i u s ' modernity, and the s i m i l a r i t i e s between Augustan Rome and Georgian London, i n a very condensed way; Pound f i t s P r o p e r t i u s ' tongue v e r y n e a t l y i n t o h i s own cheek. Pound employes the r e s o u r c e s of l o g o p o e i a i n t h i s manner throughout the poem, to c r e a t e a sense of the i n t e r p e r m e a t i o n of p e r s o n a l and p u b l i c concerns. The l i n g u i s t i c t e x t u r e of the poem thus becomes of supreme importance, so t h a t u l t i m a t e l y , P r o p e r t i u s ' c h a r a c t e r i s conveyed t o us not so much by what he does as by what he says. And what he says i s not merely t h a t he has had an a f f a i r w i t h C y n t h i a , but t h a t the l y r i c i s b e t t e r than the 188 e p i c because i t a r i s e s out of c r e a t i v e d e s i r e , not out of the wish to p l e a s e a C a e s a r — o r even a Muse: N e i t h e r C a l l i o p e nor Apolloa 1 sung these t h i n g s i n t o my ear, my genius i s no more than a g i r l . (V) P r o p e r t i e s ' i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h C y n t h i a l e a d s n a t u r a l l y to h i s i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h l y r i c p o e t r y ; t h e r e f o r e , the t e x t u r e of the poem, i t s language, r e f l e c t s t h i s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p . P r o p e r t i u s ' s u b j e c t i v e concerns c o u n t e r p o i n t a defense o f the l y r i c mode. T h i s i s d i f f i c u l t , f o r While the p a r t i c u l a r element of P r o p e r t i e s ' p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t Pound wished to r e v e a l i s h i s humur, h i s l o v e of " t y i n g a b l u e r i b b o n i n the t a i l s o f V i r g i l and Horace" (SL, 178) , he a l s o wanted to make a p e r f e c t l y s e r i o u s case f o r the supremacy of the l y r i c mode. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o be humorous and s e r i o u s a t the same time. How Pound approaches t h i s problem can b e s t be seen by comparing two s e c t i o n s of the poem, which p r e s e n t these f a c e t s of P r o p e r t i u s ' c h a r a c t e r . In the f i r s t of these, a t the end of S e c t i o n I, P r o p e r t i u s makes a s e r i o u s defense of the "genius" of l y r i c i s m ; i n the second example, taken from the end of S e c t i o n X I I , Pound submerges a humorous se x u a l pun beneath the s e r i o u s s u r f a c e of the passage i n order to 189 prevent us from i g n o r i n g the s u b j e c t i v e b a s i s of P r o p e r t i u s 1 defense of the l y r i c mode. Tak i n g a c l o s e look a t the l i n g u i s t i c t e x t u r e of these two passages, we note f i r s t t h a t the ending to S e c t i o n I i s e l e g i a c i n tone, and t h a t P r o p e r t i u s speaks without a t r a c e of i r o n y : Happy who are mentioned i n my pamphlets, the songs s h a l l be a f i n e tomb-stone over t h e i r beauty. But a g a i n s t t h i s ? N e i t h e r expensive pyramids s c r a p i n g the s t a r s i n t h e i r r o u t e , Nor houses modelled upon t h a t of Jove i n E a s t E l i s , Nor the monumental e f f i g i e s o f Mausolus, are a complete e l u c i d a t i o n of death. Flame burns, r a i n s i n k s i n t o the cr a c k s And they a l l go t o rack r u i n beneath the thud o f the y e a r s . Stands genius a d e a t h l e s s adornment, a name not to be worn out w i t h the y e a r s . ( S u l l i v a n , P. 119) Looking more c l o s e l y , we n o t i c e the care w i t h which t h i s passage i s c o n s t r u c t e d . The f i r e which e r a d i c a t e s the p r e t e n t i o u s houses, pyramids, and e f f i g i e s , and the r a i n which s i n k s i n t o the c r a c k s i n the newly scorched e a r t h , f l a r e s and h i s s e s i n the " r " s and "s"s of the f i n a l f i v e l i n e s . The spondees on "Flame burns", " r a i n s i n k s " , and 190 "rack r u i n " , a c t l i k e a b a t t e r i n g - r a m , the r e c u r r e n t thump of which the " t h " sounds of "beneath the thud o f t h e / y e a r s " mimick. With complete a r t i s t r y , Pound r e v e r s e s these c o n n o t a t i o n s i n the f i n a l two l i n e s , so t h a t the opening spondee, "Stands g e n i u s " , r e p l a c e s the concept o f f a l l i n g w i t h t h a t o f s t a n d i n g , the d e s t r u c t i o n o f f i r e w i t h the c r e a t i v i t y o f genius. S i m i l a r l y , the " t h " sound i s a p p r o p r i a t e d f o r the p o s i t i v e concept " d e a t h l e s s " , w h i l e the a n a p e s t i c metre: "of t h e / y e a r s " , d i s r u p t e d by the l i n e - b r e a k , t ransforms i t s e l f i n the f i n a l l i n e t o flow w i t h p e r f e c t assurance: "a name not to be worn out w i t h the y e a r s " . L i k e a phoenix, " l y r i c " genius a r i s e s out of flame and ashes i n the f i n a l two l i n e s , triumphant and e t e r n a l . Pound's c a r e f u l use of language here emphasizes the s i n c e r i t y o f P r o p e r t i u s ' b e l i e f i n the importance o f the l y r i c mode. Pound thus e s t a b l i s h e s a concern w i t h broad s o c i a l i s s u e s as an important element i n h i s c h a r a c t e r . But the ending o f S e c t i o n XII p r e s e n t s us w i t h a c o u n t e r p o i n t t o t h i s , f o r although the cadences here too are e l e g i a c , Pound i n s e r t s a r e f e r e n c e to the element of schoolboy s e x u a l i t y i n P r o p e r t i u s ' c h a r a c t e r : Varro sang Jason's e x p e d i t i o n , Varo, o f h i s g r e a t p a s s i o n L e u c a d i a , There i s song i n the parchment; C a t u l l u s the h i g h l y 191 indecorous, Of L e s b i a , known above Helen; And i n the dyed pages of Cal v u s , Calvus mourning Q u i n t i l i a , And but now G a l l u s had sung of L y c o r i s . F a i r , f a i r e s t L y c o r i s — The waters of Styx poured over the wound; And now P r o p e r t i u s of C y n t h i a , t a k i n g h i s stand among these. ( S u l l i v a n , 171) At the v e r y moment o f P r o p e r t i u s ' a p o t h e o s i s as l y r i c poet i n the poem, Pound s l i p s i n a se x u a l pun ("taking h i s stand") - which rhymes w i t h t h a t i n the t i t l e o f the poem -i n o r d e r t o prevent the reader from n e g l e c t i n g the wh i m s i c a l , p l a y f u l , and p r o f e s s e d l y s e x u a l , mainsprings o f P r o p e r t i u s ' i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h the l y r i c mode. He h i d e s the pun beneath the s u r f a c e o f the poem, j u s t as t h i s element of P r o p e r t i u s 1 p o e t r y had been hidden from s c h o l a r l y eyes. We have seen t h a t p l o t and c h a r a c t e r development p r o v i d e an o v e r a l l framwork f o r the Homage, and gl a n c e d a t how Pound attempts t o c o u n t e r p o i n t the s e r i o u s and comic elements of P r o p e r t i u s ' c h a r a c t e r w i t h i n the t e x t u r e o f the poem. Other c r i t i c s have d e a l t w i t h how Pound adapted P r o p e r t i u s ' p o e t r y t o h i s own purposes i n s i m i l a r ways. J.P. S u l l i v a n , f o r i n s t a n c e , has b r i l l i a n t l y i l l u s t r a t e d the way i n which Pound h i g h l i g h t s the s i m i l a r i t i e s between P r o p e r t i u s ' a t t i t u d e to the Empire and h i s own ( S u l l i v a n , 192 pp. 5 8 f f . ) f w h i l e more r e c e n t l y , Mark Turner has shown i n d e t a i l how Pound changes P r o p e r t i u s ' main p r o p o s i t i o n , "The mental s t a t e of the l o v e poet; the poet as l o v e r " , i n t o a d i f f e r e n t main theme, "The c u l t u r e d poet v e r s u s the g Empire". But i t may be worthwhile to glance here a t a f u r t h e r technique used by Pound to achieve u n i t y of t e x t u r e , as w e l l as of theme, i n the poem. T h i s technique c o n s i s t s of u s i n g a d i s t i n c t i v e speech p a t t e r n to c h a r a c t e r i z e P r o p e r t i u s , one which uses, not mechanical r e p e t i t i o n , but r e p e t i t i o n w i t h v a r i a t i o n : e.g., B r i n g i n g the G r e c i a n o r g i e s i n t o I t a l y , and the dance i n t o I t a l y ( I ) ; A l b a , your k i n d , and the realm your f o l k have c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h such i n d u s t r y S h a l l be yawned out on my l y r e — w i t h such i n d u s t r y . (II) When, when, and whenever death c l o s e s our e y e l i d s , Moving naked over Acheron Upon the one r a f t , v i c t o r and conquered t o g e t h e r , Marious and Jugurtha t o g e t h e r , one t a n g l e of shados. • • • One r a f t on the v e i l e d f l o o d of Acheron, Marius and Jugurtha t o g e t h e r . (VI); Me happy, n i g h t , n i g h t f u l l o f b r i g h t n e s s ( V I I ) ; Persephone and D i s , D i s , have mercy upon her (IX); L i g h t , l i g h t of my eyes (X) Escape! There i s , 0 I d i o t , no escpe (XI); Who, who w i l l be the next man to e n t r u s t h i s g i r l ( X I I ) . 193 Through t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c speech p a t t e r n , Pound makes P r o p e r t i u s 1 v o i c e i n s t a n t l y r e c o g n i z a b l e , conveys a d i s t i n c t p e r s o n a l i t y . The cadences are l y r i c a l not n a r r a t i v e . They f u n c t i o n m u s i c a l l y r a t h e r than t o advance the p l o t , c o n t r i b u t e l e s s to pa r a p h r a s a b l e meaning than t o emotional u n i t y . D e s p i t e the symmetrical framwork of the Homage and i t s n a r r a t i v e p r o g r e s s i o n , Pound i s a l r e a d y deeply i n v o l v e d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g the o v e r r i d i n g importance of t e x t u r e as an a n c i l l a r y means of a c h i e v i n g u n i t y i n h i s lon g poem. One oth e r important l i n k between the Homage and Pound's l a t e r l o n g poems may be d i s c e r n e d i n the placement o f S e c t i o n V I I . I t p r e s e n t s the peak of P r o p e r t i u s ' happiness w i t h C y n t h i a ; the o t h e r s e c t i o n s l e a d towards and f a l l away from t h i s moment. I t a c t s as a minature of the poem as a whole; i t s language e v o l v e s from the e x p r e s s i o n through d i s r u p t e d rhythms of i n c i p i e n t nervousness about impending joy ("Me happy, n i g h t , n i g h t f u l l of b r i g h t n e s s " ) , t o a f f i r m a t i v e cadences i n d i c a t i v e o f a mature a f f a i r : Hers w i l l I be dead, I f she c o n f e r such n i g h t s upon me, long i s my l i f e , long i n y e a r s , I f she g i v e me many, God am I f o r the time. 194 H i g h l i g h t i n g the middle s e c t i o n of a long poem, u s i n g i t as a fulcrum, r e p r e s e n t s an imporant stage i n Pound's experiments w i t h p r o v i d i n g a s t r u c t u r a l framwork f o r the long poem. I t i s not found, f o r i n s t a n c e , i n " R e d o n d i l l a s " , or i n "Und Drang", where the f i r s t h a l f o f the poem i s balanced a g a i n s t the f i n a l s i x s e c t i o n s . Pound f i r s t uses the technique when he p l a c e s "The S e a f a r e r " i n the middle of Cathay. I t occ u r s a g a i n i n XVI Cantos, w i t h the i n s e r t i o n o f the f o u r M a l a t e s t a cantos, w h i l e the P i s a n cantos occupy a s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n i n the Cantos. And as the symmetry of the Homage suggests the c y c l i c a l nature o f p a s s i o n , so i n XVI Cantos Pound uses the same technique t o suggest the c y c l i c a l nature of war (canto one begins w i t h Odysseus r e t u r n i n g from one war, w h i l e canto s i x t e e n ends w i t h the commencement of a n o t h e r ) . But i n the l a t e r poems Pound dispenses w i t h even the v e s t i g e o f l i t e r a r y framework found i n the Homage, r e l y i n g on thematic r e c u r r e n c e and c o n s i s t e n c y o f t e x t u r e t o c a r r y the burden of u n i f y i n g the long poem. C Hugh Selwyn Mauberley: Texture as S t r u c t u r e While the Homage has a d e f i n i t e n a r r a t i v e framwork, 195 Pound's next attempt a t the long poem, Hugh Selwyn Mauberley (1920), i s much l e s s o b v i o u s l y s t r u c t u r e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , Pound o r g a n i z e d i t a c c o r d i n g t o p r i n c i p l e s of l o g i c a l argument, even i f these p r i n c i p l e s are not immediately apparent. The Ode which opens P a r t I p r e s e n t s the t h e s i s t h a t EP' s attempt t o " r e s u s c i t a t e the dead 9 a r t / O f p o e t r y " has f a i l e d w h i l e S e c t i o n s I I - X I I p r o v i d e s u p p o r t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n s of the s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s which make such a f a i l u r e understandable. As a counter-argument, o r a n t i t h e s i s t o t h i s , " E nvoi" stands a t the end of t h i s sequence t o show t h a t EP's powers cannot be so e a s i l y w r i t t e n o f f . P a r t I I develops a p a r a l l e l argument. In S e c t i o n I Mauberley i s pr e s e n t e d as " P i s a n e l l o l a c k i n g the s k i l l / T o f o r g e A c h a i a " , w h i l e S e c t i o n s I I - I V p r o v i d e i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f those c h a r a c t e r weaknesses which l e a d "To h i s f i n a l / E x c l u s i o n from the world of l e t t e r s " . As i n P a r t I, " M e d a l l i o n " stands a t the end of the sequence to show t h a t Mauberley* s powers too, wh i l e not equal t o EP's have been underestimated. Thus, by b a l a n c i n g the c r i t i c a l mode a g a i n s t the p o e t i c a l mode i n P a r t s I and I I , Pound advances the argument t h a t t h e r e i s more c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l i n the age than the c r i t i c s show the a b i l i t y to a p p r e c i a t e . 196 But t h e r e i s a f u r t h e r t w i s t to t h i s argument. L i k e the c r i t i c s , Pound i s c r i t i c a l of EP and Mauberley, but not because he i s b l i n d t o t h e i r accomplishments. By r e s t r i c t i n g themselves t o the s p e c i a l t i e s of melopoeia and phanopoeia r e s p e c t i v e l y , EP and Mauberley have made a f a t a l mistake: s h i f t e d p r i o r i t i e s away from meaning. Pound h i m s e l f makes no such mistake i n Mauberley, which p r e s e n t s a very meaningful argument i n e x p e r t l y handled language. T h i s r e a d i n g o f Pound's i n t e n t i o n e x p l a i n s h i s ambiguous use of "thou" i n " E n v o i " , which can r e f e r t o e i t h e r to the woman or the song; the l y r i c mode s a c r i f i c e s r e f e r e n t i a l c l a r i t y . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n harmonizes w i t h the e v o l v i n g emphasis on language apparent i n Pound's r e v i s i o n s of the Ur-cantos. Read i n t h i s way, Mauberley argues t h a t modern p o e t r y must move beyond the e x p r e s s i o n of p u r e l y l y r i c a l or v i s u a l s u b j e c t s toward more d i d a c t i c concerns. The f a c t t h a t the argument of the poem i s l e f t f o r the reader t o d i s c o v e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t Mauberley r e p r e s e n t s the second stage i n Pound's movement (begun i n the Homage) away from u s i n g obvious s t r u c t u r a l framworks f o r h i s long poem. Keeping t h i s o v e r a l l argumentative s t r u c t u r e i n mind, we can move to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the t e x t u r e o f the poem, i n o r d e r to see how not o n l y Pound's concept of s t r u c t u r a l framworks, but a l s o h i s a t t i t u d e t o s o c i e t y , has changed 197 s i n c e w r i t i n g the Homage. The d i r e c t i o n of t h i s change can be seen immediately by comparing the opening o f the Homage: Shades of C a l l i m a c h u s , Coan ghosts of P h i l e t a s , I t i s i n your grove I would walk, I who come f i r s t from the c l e a r f o n t B r i n g i n g the G r e c i a n o r g i e s i n t o I t a l y , and the dance i n t o I t a l y . w i t h the opening o f Mauberley: For t h r e e y e a r s , out of key w i t h h i s time, He s t r o v e t o r e s u s c i t a t e the dead a r t Of po e t r y ; t o m a i n t a i n "the sublime" In the o l d sense. Wrong from the s t a r t — B i t t e r i r o n y has supplanted l y r i c a l cadences, emphasizing Pound's growing sense o f the f u t i l i t y o f the attempt t o e s t a b l i s h a secure p l a c e f o r the l y r i c v o i c e w i t h i n the s u p e r f i c i a l i t y o f contemporary s o c i e t y . As i n e x o r a b l y as a death-march, Mauberley s e t s f o r t h i n sequence the i n t o l e r a b l e s o c i a l b i a s f a c i n g the a r t i s t : The t e a - r o s e , tea-gown e t c . Supplants the mousseline of Cos, The p i a n o l a " r e p l a c e s " Sapphos's b a r b i t o s . 198 C h r i s t f o l l o w s Dionysus, P h a l l i c and am b r o s i a l Made way f o r macerations; C a l i b a n c a s t s out A r i e l . Faun's f l e s h i s not to us, Nor the s a i n t ' s v i s i o n . We have the pre s s f o r wafer; F r a n c h i s e f o r c i r c u m c i s i o n . Rhymes punch the s t a c c a t o rhythms down, l i k e c o f f i n - n a i l s ; f r e e e x p r e s s i o n has no p l a c e i n the s o c i a l system. In p l a c e o f the swinging dance rhythms of the Homage, rhyme p r e c i s e l y c o n f i n e s each l i n e as t i g h t l y as s o c i e t y does the a r t i s t . Pound's s c a t h i n g i r o n y marks the end of h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o compromise; he sees n o t h i n g amusing i n the a r t i s t ' s p o s i t i o n . The element of p l a y i n the Homage d i s a p p e a r s completely i n Mauberley. Kenner's comment t h a t the e a r l i e r poem r e p r e s e n t s "Pound's triumph o f l o g o p o e i a , the f r u i t o f a c r e a t i v e e x a s p e r a t i o n he never r e g a i n e d ( h i s l a t e r e x a s p e r a t i o n s y i e l d e d i n v e c t i v e ) " , ( P E , 288) emphasizes the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s change i n a t t i t u d e . As one i n d i c a t i o n o f t h i s change, c o n s i d e r the smouldering, p a s s i o n a t e resentment which f l a r e s under 199 these l i n e s : Some q u i c k to arm some f o r adventure, some from f e a r of weakness, some from f e a r o f censure, Some f o r l o v e o f s l a u g h t e r , i n i m a g i n a t i o n , l e a r n i n g l a t e r . . . some i n f e a r , l e a r n i n g l o v e o f s l a u g h t e r ; Died some, pro p a t r i a , non " d u l c e " non "et decor" . . . The A l l i e d o f f e n s i v e o f the second b a t t l e o f the Somme began J u l y 1, 1916. On the f i r s t day t h e r e were 150,000 c a s u a l t i e s ; on the second, 110,000 - the scorn behind the two words "Died some" f l a r e s up i n the l i g h t o f these s t a t i s t i c s . As i n the Homage, the l o s s of p a s s i o n symbolizes the dehumanization of every aspect o f s o c i e t y : "Even the C h r i s t i a n beauty / D e f e c t s — a f t e r S a m o t h r a c e " — t h i s b e i n g a l o c a t i o n f o r the c e l e b r a t i o n o f p h a l l i c r i t e s of the C a b i r i d e i t i e s . The p e r v e r s i o n o f se x u a l p a s s i o n s l e a d i n g up t o the war, and beyond i t , p r o v i d e s a thematic l i n k between S e c t i o n s VI and X I I . In "Yeux Glauques" V i c t o r i a n a f f a i r s o f p a s s i o n are i n d i c t e d , i n "Siena me f e " warmed-over memories of the wanly l i c e n t i o u s N i n e t i e s are drawn out of M. Verog "Among the p i c k l e d f o e t u s e s and b o t t l e d bones" 200 where they have been s h e l v e d . "Brennbaum 'The Impeccable'" takes r e f u g e from l i f e i n s t i f f p r o p r i e t y , and "Mr. Nixon" i n t h i n k i n g of people as o b j e c t s : "The h a r d e s t nut I had to c r a c k / Was Mr. Dundas". S e c t i o n X sees p a s s i o n r e l e g a t e d t o a p i g farm i n the country, where Ford the s t y l i s t took s h e l t e r from s o c i a l d i s a p p r o v a l w i t h h i s "uneducated m i s t r e s s " . Meanwhile, here o p p o s i t e , the " C o n s e r v a t r i x o f M i l e s i a n " , l i v i n g i n the suburb of E a l i n g , succeeds because No i n s t i n c t has s u r v i v e d i n her Old e r than those her grandmother T o l d her would f i t her s t a t i o n . (XI) And t h i s V i c t o r i a n p r i s s i n e s s i s c a r e f u l l y p r e s e r v e d i n Georgian London, wehre the poet f i n d s h i s coat i n s u f f i c i e n t l y f a s h i o n a b l e t o s t i m u l a t e i n the Lady V a l e n t i n e "A durab l e p a s s i o n " ( X I I ) . The i r o n y behind t h i s s k etch becomes e v i d e n t when we r e a l i z e t h a t the Lady V a l e n t i n e i s modelled on Pound's memory of the Lady Diana, as d e s c r i b e d by Gordon C r a i g , son of E l l e n T e r r y , i n the E n g l i s h Review of August, 1911: The Lady Diana, who was a very grand person i n S o c i e t y , looked up the meaning of the word "choreography" and took a p a r t y t o the Russian b a l l e t . 201 " I t ' s something new", she s a i d , "Choreography they c a l l i t but p e r s o n a l l y I t h i n k t h i s C l e o p a t r a b a l l e t r a t h e r t i r e s o m e " . And her f r i e n d s mostly agreed. One person defended the work and p o i n t e d out t h a t the n e g l e c t of Augustus John's p o r t r a i t s f o r those of the academic p a i n t e r s emphasized a g e n e r a l d i s r e g a r d f o r the a r t s . "I don't understand". A n d ^ h e Lady Diana turn e d upon him her famous L u i n i s m i l e . Thus the " L u i n i s m i l e " i s a s s o c i a t e d f o r Pound w i t h s t y l e r a t h e r than substance, and w i t h "a g e n e r a l d i s r e g a r d f o r the a r t s " ; s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h i s Lady p r o v i d e s the i n s p i r a t i o n f o r Mauberley's " L u i n i i n p o r c e l a i n " i n " M e d a l l i o n " . Having s e t f o r t h the g e n e r a l ambience of t h i s p a s s i o n l e s s s o c i e t y , Pound p r o v i d e s a s p e c i f i c example of i t s e f f e c t on the a r t i s t i n the "Mauberley" sequence. Mauberley's escape from s o c i e t y ' s demands i s not to P r o p e r t i u s ' whorish C y n t h i a ; a r t i s h i s m i s t r e s s . H i s c a p a c i t y f o r p a s s i o n completely a n a e s t h e t i z e d , he sees the l a d y ' s c o l o u r "Tempered as i f / I t were through a p e r f e c t g l a z e " . I n t e r p r e t i n g l i f e through the terms of an emaciated a r t , he d r i f t s out of the p i c t u r e : And h i s d e s i r e f o r s u r v i v a l , F a i n t i n the most strenuous moods, Became an Olympian ap a t h e i n In the presence of s e l e c t e d p e r c e p t i o n s . 202 And not o n l y i s M a u b e r l e y 1 s p a s s i o n a n a e s t h e t i z e d , but h i s a b i l i t y to handle language as w e l l . Lack of p a s s i o n a t e d i r e c t i o n of the w i l l , o f d i r e c t i o v o l u n t a t i s , i s s i g n a l l e d i n Pound's work by language t h a t i s s i m i l a r l y u n d i r e c t e d , as i n the e a r l y poem "La F r a i s n e " : Once t h e r e was a women... ...but I f o r g e t . . . s h e was... ...I hope she w i l l not come a g i a n . . . . I do not remember... I t h i n k she h u r t me once but... That was v e r y long ago. (ALSO, 16) The d e s c r i p t i o n of the ae s t h e t e i n S e c t i o n I I of the "Mauberley" sequence shows a s i m i l a r l i n g u i s t i c d r i f t , conveying Mauberley's i n a b i l i t y t o r a i s e the energy r e q u i r e d to make sense of h i s s i t u a t i o n : D r i f t e d . . . d r i f t e d p r e c i p i t a t e , A s k i n g time to be r i d o f . . . Of h i s bewilderment; t o d e s i g n a t e H i s new found o r c h i d . . . To be c e r a t i n . . . c e r t a i n . . . (Amid a e r i a l flowers) ... time f o r a r r a n g e m e n t s — D r i f t e d on To the f i n a l estrangement 203 In o r d e r t o c o n t r a s t h i s own a b i l i t y to handle language w i t h Mauberley's d i f f i d e n c e , Pound passes judgment on the a e s t h e t e i n the t h i r d s e c t i o n i n cadences as waterproof and compacted as M a u b e r l e y 1 s own are lo o s e and d i r e c t i o n l e s s : Incapable of the l e a s t u t t e r a n c e or com-p o s i t i o n , Emendation, c o n s e r v a t i o n of the " b e t t e r t r a d i t i o n , " Refinement of medium, e l i m i n a t i o n o f s u p e r f l u i t i e s , August a t t r a c t i o n o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n . Nothing, i n b r i e f , but maudlin c o n f e s s i o n , I r r e s p o n s e to human a g g r e s s i o n , Amid the p r e c i p i t a t i o n , down-float Of i n s u b s t a n t i a l manna, L i f t i n g the f a i n t s u s u r r u s Of h i s s u b j e c t i v e hosannah. Each phrase i n v o l v e s a p a i r o f p a r a l l e l concepts, e.g., u t t e r a n c e - c o m p o s i t i o n , emendation-conservation, r e f i n e m e n t -e l i m i n a t i o n , a t t r a c t i o n - c o n c e n t r a t i o n , c o n f e s s i o n - i r r e s p o n s e , p r e c i p i t a t i o n - d o w n - f l o a t , i n s u b s t a n t i a l - s u b j e c t i v e . But the e f f e c t i s not one o f redundancy o r t a u t o l o g y , so c a r e f u l l y i s the language handled. The assurance of movement i n these l i n e s i s obvious, but i t should be noted t h a t t h e i r triumph comes i n the f a c t t h a t the music never obscures the meaning. U n l i k e both EP and Mauberley, Pound 204 uses the f u l l r e s o u r c e s of the language. The main c o n t r a s t i n the poem, between Pound's own a b i l i t y t o handle language on the one hand, and EP's l y r i c i s m and Mauberley's a e s t h e t i c u n c e r t a i n t y on the o t h e r , i s h i g h l i g h t e d i n "Envoi" and " M e d a l l i o n " , which end the f i r s t and second h a l v e s of the sequence. " M e d a l l i o n " i l l u s t r a t e s the s t r e n g t h s and the shortcomings of the a r t of the pure a e s t h e t e . L i k e the f i r s t two Ur-cantos, i t accentuates the t e c h n i q u e s of phanopoeia, r a t h e r than those of melopoeia. But s i n c e , as we have seen, Pound's p r o g r e s s between 1917 and 1920 was l a r g e l y away from v i s u a l toward m u s i c a l v a l u e s , and away from both of these towards an emphasis on meaning, " M e d a l l i o n " appears to r e p r e s e n t an approach t h a t Pound h i m s e l f had begun to grow away from t h r e e years p r e v i o u s l y . Moreover, " M e d a l l i o n " stands as the work of a minor a r t i s t i n c a p a b l e of r e n d e r i n g "the whole man" t h a t Browning had p o r t r a y e d i n S o r d e l l o : Not the f u l l s m i l e , His a r t , but an a r t In p r o f i l e . ( I , 128) 205 Mauberley's i n s p i r a t i o n i s one of s e r e n d i p i t y , of c a s u a l browsing " i n the opening / Pages of Reinach". The r e p e t i t i o n i n the l i n e , "His a r t , but an a r t " c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y w i t h the v a r i e t y of p a r a l l e l i s m s i n "The Age Demanded" ( i . e . , "Incapable of the l e a s t u t t e r a n c e or c o m p o s i t i o n " ) , i n d i c a t i n g Mauberley's l a c k of i n v e n t i v e n e s s when compared w i t h t h a t of E.P. And although " M e d a l l i o n " possesses a rhythm t h a t s u i t s the k i n d of r e s t r i c t e d a r t i t p r e s e n t s , the imagery of the poem r e s t r i c t s i t s e l f t o t r a c i n g the b o u n d i n g - l i n e s of the l a d y ' s f a c e : The s l e e k head emerges From the g o l d - y e l l o w f r o c k As Anadyomene i n the opening Pages of Reinach. Honey-red, c l o s i n g the f a c e - o v a l , A basket-work of b r a i d s which seem as i f they were Spun i n King Minos' h a l l From metal, or i n t r a c t a b l e amber; The f a c e - o v a l beneath the g l a z e , B r i g h t i n i t s suave b o u n d i n g - l i n e as, Beneath h a l f - w a t t r a y s , The eyes t u r n topaz. The f i r s t quoted stanza sketches i n the g o l d gown c u t t i n g a c r o s s the s i n g e r ' s neck; the second draws i n the g o l d 206 b r a i d s which frame the r e s t of her f a c e . The t h i r d s tanza opens w i t h renewed emphasis on the b o u n d i n g - l i n e o f her f a c e — a s y e t , we have no c l u e to her c h a r a c t e r or p e r s o n a l i t y . In the f i n a l l i n e we hear, r a t h e r than see, t h a t her eyes are t u r n i n g a t r a n s l u c e n t y e l l o w a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s i l i c a t e of aluminum— she i s undergoing metamorphosis i n t o a form of m i n e r a l l i f e , as opposed to the metamorphosis i n t o v e g e t a t i v e l i f e ( c f . "The Tree.") The f a c t t h a t we see both the l a d y ' s eyes i n the f i n a l l i n e i n d i c a t e s t h a t Mauberley has overcome h i s e a r l i e r l i m i t a t i o n s of c r e a t i n g "an a r t / In p r o f i l e " , but l i g h t does not emanate from w i t h i n ; i t i s c o n f e r r e d by dim " h a l f - w a t t r a y s " . In troubadour p o e t r y , McDougal t e l l s us, "the l i g h t t h a t emanates from the lady d e f i n e s her whole be i n g , and serves as a source of i l l u m i n a t i o n (both l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y ) f o r those who come i n t o her presence . . . Love emanates from her glance . . . and a l l men become powerless i n her presence" (McDougal, p. 76) . In " M e d a l l i o n " , however, the l a d y ' s p e r s o n a l i t y does not r a d i a t e outward; i t i s e n c l o s e d by a "basket-work" ( c f . casket) of m e t a l l i c b r a i d s t h a t smother e x p r e s s i o n . Moreover, u n l i k e the "magic amber" of "Envoi" i n which the l a d y ' s beauty i s p r e s e r v e d f o r f u t u r e ages, t h i s l a d y ' s charms are hardened beneath " i n t r a c t a b l e amber". 207 " M e d a l l i o n " , then, does not r e p r e s e n t a triumph of Mauberley's a r t so much as the n e c e s s a r i l y s t i l l - b o r n p r oduct o f out-dated a e s t h e t i c i s m . The alchemy of the l a s t l i n e i s not t h a t of a stone s t a t u e coming t o l i f e , but of a p e r s o n a l i t y t u r n i n g i n t o m e t a l — a n d though g o l d i s b e a u t i f u l , no one who knows Pound c o u l d b e l i e v e t h a t he would p l a c e the v a l u e o f any metal above t h a t of the i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y . I f " M e d a l l i o n " r e p r e s e n t s one b e a u t i f u l dead-end f o r the modern poet, "Envoi" too has i t s l i m i t a t i o n s . I f " M e d a l l i o n " gathers around a s i n g l e image, "Envoi" gathers around a s i n g l e rhythm. I t p r o v i d e s , as Kenner says, "A time t u n n e l c l e a r back t o Sappho's rose and Chaucer's 'Go l i t e l bok', a s e l f - i n t e r f e r i n g p a t t e r n 'from which, and through which, and i n t o which' rush W a l l e r ' s r o s e s , Lawe's music, Raymond C o l l i n g n o n ' s s i n g i n g , o t h e r times' d i c t i o n , and ours; an a r t of the Vortex, by and l a r g e hopeless here, where e n e r g i e s have f a i l e d . " ( P E , 288). But although i t r e p r e s e n t s the a s s i m i l a t i o n o f a l y r i c l t r a d i t i o n t h a t has been completely "understood", the f a c t t h a t i t i s i s o l a t e d at the end of a sequence of poems which i l l u s t r a t e the argument t h a t contemporary s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s are a n t i p a t h e t i c t o the c r e a t i o n o f a r t i s t i c m a s t e r p i e c e s , emphasizes Pound's r e l u c t a n t awareness t h a t the f u l l 208 e n e r g i e s o f modern a r t cannot be expressed w i t h i n the l y r i c mode. "Envoi" i l l u s t r a t e s the k i n d of l y r i c a l p o e t r y which might have w r i t t e n under i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s , had the s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s mentioned i n the poems which precede i t not p e r t a i n e d ; i n t h i s sense i t i s l e s s a l y r i c than an e l e g y . L i k e phanapoeia, l y r i c a l melopoeia i s an i n s u f f i c i e n t mode i n which t o express the modern s e n s i b i l i t y , Pound t h i n k s , because i t tends " to l u l l , o r t o d i s t r a c t the reader from the exact sense o f the language" (LE, 26). The l a d y i n "Envoi" o f f e r s no r e s i s t a n c e to the pro c e s s of c a p t u r i n g her beauty i n song, u t t e r s no "profane p r o t e s t " such as t h a t i n " M e d a l l i o n " . Hence Pound p r e s e n t s the a u r a l t r a d i t i o n as a time c a p s u l e i n which beauty may h i b e r n a t e through a c u l t u r a l w i n t e r . The cadences o f t h i s l y r i c c o n t r a s t w i t h the end-stopped, s t u l t i f y i n g v e r s e s o f "M e d a l l i o n " as though t o emphasize song's a b i l i t y t o keep the t r a d i t i o n a l i v e : T e l l her t h a t sheds Such t r e a s u r e i n the a i r , Recking naught e l s e but t h a t her graces g i v e L i f e t o the moment, I would b i d them l i v e As r o s e s might, i n magic amber l a i d , Red overwrought w i t h orange and a l l made One substance and one c o l o u r B r a v i n g time. 209 Red r o s e s overwrought w i t h orange amber stand as a metaphor f o r beauty's permanence. T h i s metaphor r e f l e c t s Pound's s y n c r e t i c v i s i o n , h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r the attempt to get " a l l forms i n t o one form", t h a t i s , to produce "an e l i x i r " through "the sheer p e r f e c t i o n of a r t " . The beauty of t h i s metaphor surpasses t h a t of Mauberley's poem and, combined w i t h an unmatchable melody, approaches as n e a r l y as p o s s i b l e p e r f e c t i o n o f f o r m — a n attempt l i m i t e d o n l y by the age's i n a b i l i t y to a p p r e c i a t e such beauty, to s u s t a i n i t , and to a l l o w i t t o grow. I t possesses the strange, f r o z e n beauty of a p e t r i f i e d f o r e s t . In o r d e r t o a p p r e c i a t e the f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e of "Envoi" t o Pound's development of major form d u r i n g the l a t e 1910's i t i s necessary t o put i t i n t o the c o n t e x t of h i s i n t e r e s t i n music d u r i n g t h i s time. On December 6, 1917, j u s t f o u r months a f t e r the appearance of the t h i r d Ur-canto i n Poetry, Pound p u b l i s h e d h i s f i r s t a r t i c l e on music i n the New Age, under the pseudonym W i l l i a m A t h e l i n g . T h i s s e r i e s c o n t i n u e d a t i n t e r v a l s u n t i l January 6, 1921."''"'" On January 1, 1918, he wrote t o H a r r i e t Monroe t h a t he was about to engage i n "some more work on sound", because "the v e r s l i b r e p u b l i c are probably by now as stone b l i n d to the v o c a l or o r a l p r o p e r t i e s of a poem as the 'sonnet' 210 p u b l i c f i v e or seven years ago to the a c t u a l language" (SL, 127). In the same month he wrote Margaret Anderson t h a t he d e s i r e d "to r e s u r r e c t the a r t of the l y r i c " , I mean words to be sung, f o r Yeats' o n l y w a i l and submit t o keening and c h a u n t i n g (with a u) and Swinburne's o n l y r h a p s o d i f y . And w i t h a few e x c e p t i o n s (a few i n Browning) th e r e i s s c a r c e l y a n y t h i n g e l s e s i n c e the time of W a l l e r and Campion. AND a mere i m i t a t i o n o f them won't do. (SL, 128) By 1920, however, Pound's d e f i n i t i o n o f melopoeia became more c l e a r l y d e f i n e d : "there are th r e e k i n d s of melopoeia, t h a t i s to say, poems made to speak, t o chant, and to s i n g " (LE, 167). Mauberley c o n t a i n s a l l th r e e k i n d s of melopoeia, c a r e f u l l y zoned, w i t h "Envoi" o b v i o u s l y b e i n g meant to be sung. The l i m i t a t i o n s of l y r i c i s m had become c l e a r t o Pound d u r i n g the w r i t i n g of Mauberley, as he r e a l i z e d t h a t the modern poet, u n l i k e the troubadours, c o u l d not a f f o r d t o s a c r i f i c e meaning f o r melody. In h i s 1920 essay on Arnaut D a n i e l he noted: The P r o v e n c a l s were not c o n s t r a i n e d by the modern l i t e r a r y sense. T h e i r r e s t r a i n t s were the tune and the rhyme-scheme, they were not c o n s t r a i n e d by a need f o r c e r t a i n q u a l i t i e s of w r i t i n g , without which no modern 211 poem i s complete or s a t i s f a c t o r y . They were not competing w i t h De Maupassant's prose. (LE, 115) And as e a r l y as March 1918, b e f o r e w r i t i n g Mauberley, Pound c r i t i c i s e d Swinburne f o r "having n e g l e c t e d the v a l u e of words" because he was c h i e f l y " i n t e n t on t h e i r v a l u e as sound" (LE, 292) . I t seems c l e a r from the above q u o t a t i o n s t h a t Pound used " E n v o i " i n Mauberley to a c t as a reminder t h a t the l y r i c impusle by i t s e l f was not enough to reanimate modern p o e t r y . Coming as i t does a f t e r the poems made to be spoken and chanted i n the f i r s ' t h a l f of the sequence, i t was meant t o i n d i c a t e t h a t the modern poet cannot r e s t r i c t h i m s e l f t o one mode of e x p r e s s i o n , and must concern h i m s e l f more w i t h meaning than w i t h sound. T h i s b e l i e f c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y w i t h h i s e a r l y n o t i o n of c e n t e r i n g poems around a b s o l u t e s , as expressed, f o r example, i n h i s p r e f a c e t o the t r a n s l a t i o n s from Guido C a v a l c a n t i i n 1910: "I b e l i e v e i n an a b s o l u t e symbol or metaphor." C l a s s i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have demonstrated the p o s s i b i l i t y of r e c o n s t r u c t i n g e n t i r e temples based on the mathematical p r i n c i p l e s of harmony e n u n c i a t e d by Pythagoras, from the 212 p r o p o r t i o n s of a few e x t a n t p i l l a r s ; i n much the same way, Pound b e l i e v e d i t p o s s i b l e "to show t h a t any g i v e n rhythm i m p l i e s about i t a complete m u s i c a l f o r m — f u g u e , sonata, I cannot say what form, but a form, p e r f e c t , complete. Ergo, the rhythm s e t i n a l i n e of p o e t r y connotes i t s symphony, which, had we a l i t t l e more s k i l l , we c o u l d score f o r o r c h e s t r a " . T h i s b e l i e f e x p l a i n s the r e l a t i o n s h i p i n Pound's mind between the s i n g l e image (e.g., " a b s o l u t e metaphor") or the s i n g l e p e r f e c t phrase (e.g., " a b s o l u t e rhythm"), and major form. While " M e d a l l i o n " forms around a s i n g l e image, and "Envoi" around a s i n g l e melody or rhythm, n e i t h e r poem i m p l i e s around i t s e l f the "major form" t h a t i s Mauberley. In o t h e r words, Pound has moved away from h i s e a r l i e r theory i n h i s p r a c t i c e of p o e t r y ; he no l o n g e r seeks u n i t y i n a s i n g l e metaphor or rhythm. The way i s open f o r a new experiment. Hence, by the autumn of 1921, Pound r e c a l l e d h i s e a r l i e r t heory i n terms which i n d i c a t e t h a t he no l o n g e r adhered to i t : In the p r e f a c e t o my Guido I have t r i e d to express the i d e a s o f an a b s o l u t e rhythm, or the p o s s i b i l i t y o f i t . Perhaps every a r t i s t a t one time or another b e l i e v e s i n a s o r t of e l i x i r or p h i l o s o p h e r ' s tone produced by the sheer p e r f e c t i o n of h i s a r t , by the a l c h e m i c a l s u b l i m a t i o n of h i s medium; the e l i m i n a t i o n o f a c c i d e n t a l s and i m p e r f e c t i o n s . (LE, 442) 213 From 1904 to 1921, the key to w r i t i n g a long poem had seemed to Pound to l i e i n the " e l i m i n a t i o n of a c c i d e n t a l s and i m p e r f e c t i o n s " , l e a d i n g to a p e r f e c t image, or an a b s o l u t e rhythm, capable of i m p l y i n g around i t , or c a u s i n g to grow up o r g a n i c a l l y , a " p e r f e c t form". T h i s theory of major form g e r m i n a t i n g out of a s i n g l e seed was r e p l a c e d i n e a r l y 1922 w i t h the theory t h a t major form must a r i s e out of the accumulation of v a s t numbers of " w i l d s h o t s " t h a t end by e x p r e s s i n g "a p e r s o n a l i t y " , as we s h a l l see i n the next c h a p t e r . The o r g a n i z a t i o n of Mauberley p r o v i d e d a s t e p p i n g - s t o n e i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . " ^ In t h i s c h apter we have seen how the Ur-cantos e x p l o r e d ways of u n i f y i n g the long poem through images, c h a r a c t e r , and language. We have a l s o seen how the Homage, whi l e p o s s e s s i n g a n a r r a t i v e framework, supplemented t h i s u n i f y i n g element w i t h the use of d i s t i n c t i v e cadences to c h a r a c t e r i z e P r o p e r t i u s , and w i t h the use of c o u n t e r p o i n t to h i g h l i g h t the s i m i l a r i t i e s between p r i v a t e and p u b l i c concerns. In Mauberley, we have seen Pound move f u r t h e r away from obvious frameworks i n h i s long poem, and towards a new emphasis on meaning, as he employed a s u b t l e s t r u c t u r e of argument to p o i n t out the absence of p o s i t i v e v a l u e s i n modern s o c i e t y , and the u n s u i t a b i l i t y of both phanapoeia or melopoeia i n themselves. N e i t h e r the 214 open-ended s t r u c t u r e o f the Ur-cantos, however, nor the symmetry o f the Homage, nor the d i d a c t i c element o f Mauberley, p r o v i d e d Pound w i t h a usable s t r u c t u r e f o r a r e a l l y l o n g poem. His major advance toward major form d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d l a y i n h i s development of an i n c r e a s i n g l y complex l i n g u i s t i c t e x t u r e t h a t was capable o f c a p t u r i n g the r e a d e r ' s i n t e r e s t w i thout r e l y i n g on a c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y framework. 215 PART THREE: ACCOMPLISHMENT (19 20 -1925) A l l e x c e l l e n t t h i n g s are as d i f f i c u l t as they are r a r e . --Spinoza, E t h i c s 216 VI A DRAFT OF XVI CANTOS: SOME FORMATIVE INFLUENCES Pound made the s i n g l e most important breakthrough of h i s c a r e e r i n e a r l y 1922: He s t r u c t u r e d h i s f i n a l " l o n g poem". He had been stuck on t h i s problem s i n c e 1919; as Myles S l a t i n notes, "The w r i t i n g of VII took t h r e e weeks; on December 13, 1919, Pound announced i t to h i s f a t h e r : 'done cantos 5, 6, 7, each more incomprehensible than the one p r e c e d i n g i t ' . . . Unexpectedly, here the poem stopped; no f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e to the composition of the Cantos seems to have been made u n t i l 1922: some t h r e e years later"." 1" T h i s c hapter e x p l o r e s the i n f l u e n c e s which l e d t o Pound's breakthrough, u s i n g h i s c r i t i c a l essays i n the L i t t l e Review and the D i a l t o i l l u s t r a t e the way i n which he a r r i v e d a t h i s f i n a l d e c i s i o n . The importance w i t h which Pound h i m s e l f viewed the c r i t i c a l t h e o r i e s he e n u n c i a t e d d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d can be gauged from h i s l e t t e r t o R.P. Blackmur on March 26, 1 9 2 5 — a mere two months a f t e r the p u b l i c a t i o n of XVI Cantos: There i s the q u e s t i o n of whether the e i g h t D i a l 217 l e t t e r s , which I happen to have r e r e a d t h i s A.M. are more u s e f u l than P a u l i t o ' s r e c o l l e c t i o n of having s a t on Sarah's l a p . There i s a l s o the p o i n t t h a t has not been r a i s e d : i . e . , whether I haven't o u t l i n e d a new c r i t i c i s m or c r i t i c a l system. I don't propose to go back over my p r i n t e d s t u f f , volumes, e t c . and detach t h i s . But t h e r e i s m a t e r i a l f o r an essay, or a Ph.D. t h e s i s , or a volume. (SL, 198-199) Sin c e Pound viewed c r i t i c a l t heory as v a l u a b l e o n l y when i t l e d t o c r e a t i v e work, h i s enthusiasm f o r h i s c r i t i c a l system stemmed d i r e c t l y from the sense t h a t h i s t h e o r i e s had helped him to s t r u c t u r e XVI Cantos. We w i l l t h e r e f o r e e l u c i d a t e important a s p e c t s of h i s c r i t i c a l w r i t i n g s b e f o r e moving on to a d i s c u s s i o n of the p o e t r y of XVI Cantos i n Chapter V I I . A t the e a r l i e s t stage, Pound thought of emulating Dante's Commedia by d i v i d i n g h i s poem i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s : "the f i r s t i n t e r z i n e , having to do w i t h emotion . . . the second i n pentameters, having to do w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n ; the t h i r d i n hexameters, having to do w i t h contemplation." By the time Pound c o n s t r u c t e d E x u l t a t i o n s (1909), he had a l r e a d y adopted a l e s s s t y l i z i z e d mode of o r g a n i z a t i o n , a r r a n g i n g i n d i v i d u a l poems so as to g i v e "a more or l e s s p r o p o r t i o n e d p r e s e n t a t i o n of l i f e " . He had extended t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n d u r i n g the Imagist p e r i o d , by c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g image and epigram to o b t a i n a h i g h e r 218 v e l o c i t y i n the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f v a r i o u s moods and f a c e t s of l i f e . From 1915, he had experimented w i t h the use of l i t u r g i c a l rhythms, f o l l o w i n g de Gourmont and Goddeschalk, i n o r d e r t o a v o i d "mechanical s u c c e s s i o n which aims a t rhythm, but does not ac h i e v e rhythmic v i t a l i t y " i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l o n g e r poems. And i n the Ur-cantos, the Homage, and Mauberley, he had p r o g r e s s i v e l y r e f i n e d h i s use of language t o the p o i n t where the long poem no l o n g e r r e l i e d on c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y framework t o s u s t a i n i n t e r e s t ; the t e x t u r e of the poem r a t h e r than p l o t o r c h a r a c t e r development had come t o be of paramount importance. A l l these experiments p o i n t e d toward a long poem which would be s e l f - p r o p e l l i n g , s u l f - s u s t a i n i n g , and which would attempt t o keep the r e a d e r ' s i n t e r e s t a l i v e by a v o i d i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l modes of r e p e t i t i o n and symmetrical s t r u c t u r e . That Pound was c o n s c i o u s of the obvious dangers of t h i s approach can be seen i n h i s comment i n 1934 about the Commedia: "Dante, i n t a k i n g up n a r r a t i v e , chucked out a number of MINOR c r i t e r i a , as any w r i t e r o f a long poem must i n f avour of a main v i r t u e " (LE, 203) . In chucking out n a r r a t i v e as a framework f o r h i s own long poem, Pound remained t r u e to the wish he expressed t o John Quinn i n January, 1917, when j u s t b e g i n n i n g h i s " r e a l l y LONG, en d l e s s 219 l e v i a t h a n i c " poem: "I have always wanted to w r i t e 'poetry' t h a t a grown man c o u l d read without groans of ennui" (SL, 103) . Pound found p r e d i c t a b l e r e p e t i t i o n b o r i n g , j u s t as he was bored by p r e d i c t a b l e p l o t l i n e s , and f o r t h i s reason was w i l l i n g t o take the r i s k of o b s c u r i t y . Yet he found i t d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r a s u i t a b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r h i s long poem. He was tugged i n two d i r e c t i o n s . As l a t e as 1920 he was s t i l l drawn to the q u a l i t y of s t a s i s he admired i n Dante's Commedia, w h i l e a t the same time h i s own w r i t i n g s t y l e and p e r s o n a l i t y were l e a d i n g him i r r e v o c a b l y toward k i n e t i c form. H i s d e c i s i o n i n e a r l y 1922 to f o l l o w h i s own nature stands out as the most s i g n i f i c a n t of h i s c a r e e r . I t seems t h a t Pound's composition of XVI Cantos was s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by h i s r e c o g n i t i o n , as r e c o r d e d i n a r t i c l e s w r i t t e n d u r i n g 1921 and 1922, t h a t - he c o u l d o n l y express h i s i d e a s i n a k i n e t i c form. We can most e a s i l y t r a c e h i s v a c i l l a t i o n between the q u a l i t i e s of, s t a s i s and k i n e s i s i n two of these a r t i c l e s , where he a s s o c i a t e s the q u a l i t y of s t a s i s w i t h an a b s t r a c t s c u l p t u r e of C o n s t a n t i n B r a n c u s i , and the q u a l i t y o f k i n e s i s w i t h a s m a l l monograph by the a r t i s t F r a n c i s P i c a b i a , t i t l e d Pensees sans language; poeme. Pound read t h i s work a t a moment i n h i s 220 c a r e e r when he was ready to o r g a n i z e h i s poem i n an u n c o n v e n t i o n a l manner, and i t p r o v i d e d him w i t h one i n d i c a t i o n t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y frameworks might not be the p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r major form he had p r e v i o u s l y thought them to be. As w e l l as d e a l i n g w i t h Pound's a t t i t u d e t o B r a n c u s i and P i c a b i a , t h i s c h apter glances a t ways i n which Pound's n o t i o n of the proper tone and s u b j e c t matter f o r h i s long poem was i n f l u e n c e d by James Joyce, T.S. E l i o t , and Major Douglas. In t h i s way, and without any p r e t e n s e to the comprehensive treatment which Ronald Bush has p r o v i d e d , I mean t o suggest something of the complexity of the c l u s t e r of i n f l u e n c e s which u n d e r l i e s the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f XVI Cantos. The chapter begins w i t h a b r i e f c o n s i d e r a t i o n of ways i n which Joyce and E l i o t , by b r e a k i n g through i n t o major form i n 1921, i n U l y s s e s and the Waste Land r e s p e c t i v e l y , s t i m u l a t e d Pound to renew h i s attempts to c a s t h i s poem i n t o shape. Pound's comments on t h e i r work are then used to i l l u s t r a t e h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n to f o l l o w up t h e i r n e g a t i v e assessments of the e r a w i t h a more i n t e g r a t i v e , p o s i t i v e approach. F o l l o w i n g t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , I go on t o examine Pound's enthusiasm f o r the w h i m s i c a l arrangement of P i c a b i a ' s Pensdes sans langage; poeme i n terms of h i s growing d i s b e l i e f i n the a b i l i t y o f 221 c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e s to adequately r e f l e c t the h u r r y i n g i d e a t i o n of the modern a r t i s t . In the c o n c l u s i o n to the c h a p t e r , I go on to show how Pound's entusiasm f o r Major Douglas' economic theory r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y t o h i s r e j e c t i o n of the n o t i o n of a r t i s t i c p e r f e c t a b i l i t y and the e x i s t e n c e of a " p h i l o s o p h e r ' s stone". I f one no l o n g e r b e l i e v e s t h a t pure a r t can r e i f y s o c i e t y , then one i s f o r c e d t o adopt a d i f f e r e n t means of e x p r e s s i o n . S i n c e Pound a s s o c i a t e d p e r f e c t symmetry of form and the q u a l i t y of s t a s i s w i t h "pure a r t " , h i s d e c i s i o n to model XVI Cantos on P i c a b i a ' s method of o r g a n i z a t i o n r a t h e r than on t h a t of B r a n c u s i p r o v i d e s the formal r e f l e c t i o n of an important p h i l o s o p h i c a l c h o i c e . Pound abandoned the n o t i o n of a r t as a magic c i r l e because he became aware t h a t s o c i e t y was i n d e sperate need, and because he wished to c o n s t r u c t p o s i t i v e remedies. A U l y s s e s The p r e l i m i n a r y s t i m u l a t i o n f o r Pound's changing concept of how to s t r u c t u r e h i s long poem came from the c ompletion, i n 1921, of U l y s s e s and The Waste Land. In December 1917, t h r e e months a f t e r the t h i r d Ur-canto was 222 p u b l i s h e d i n Poetry, Pound r e c e i v e d the f i r s t c h a p t e r of U l y s s e s . Immediately, he sent i t on to the L i t t l e Review w i t h an e u l o g i s t i c note, which Margaret Anderson quoted from i n her January announcement t h a t U l y s s e s would be s e r i a l i z e d : I t i s , I b e l i e v e , even b e t t e r than the P o r t r a i t . So f a r i t has been read by o n l y one c r i t i c o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n . He says: " I t i s c e r t a i n l y worth running a magazine i f one can get s t u f f l i k e t h i s t o put i n i t . Compression, i n t e n s i t y . I t l o o k s to me r a t h e r b e t t e r than F l a u b e r t " . T h i s announcement means t h a t we are about to p u b l i s h a prose m a s t e r p i e c e . ( P / J , 129-130) As F o r r e s t Read says, Pound "was 'Ulysses e d i t o r 1 f o r more than t h r e e y e a r s " f o l l o w i n g the p u b l i c a t i o of i t s f i r s t c h a p ter i n . t h e L i t t l e Review of March 1918 (P/J, 130). He c o n t i n u e d t o r e c e i v e c h a p t e r s episode by episode u n t i l 1921, when the magazine was e n j o i n e d from p r i n t i n g f u r t h e r s e c t i o n s because o f the o b s c e n i t y i n "Nausikka". That i s , Pound knew the work i n t i m a t e l y . But h i s thoughts about the n o v e l d i d not come to head u n t i l he had a chance to read i t i n i t s e n t i r e t y f o l l o w i n g i t s completion on h i s b i r t h d a y , October 30, 1921. The importance which Pound a t t r i b u t e s to Joyce's accomplishment 223 can be gauged from the f a c t t h a t he concocted an e n t i r e l y -new c a l e n d a r which dates the end of an e r a from the completion of t h i s work: "The C h r i s t i a n e r a came d e f i n i t e l y t o an END a t midnight of the 29-30 of October (1921) o l d s t y l e . " 2 Pound's j u b i l a t i o n a t Joyce's accomplishment stemmed from h i s r e l i e f t h a t the s t a b l e s had been c l e a n e t a t l a s t , l e a v i n g him " f r e e t o get on w i t h my own p r e f e r r e d job" (P/J, 11) . He had attempted h i s own a n a l y s i s of contemporary s o c i e t y i n Mauberley; i n c r e a s i n g l y , he f e l t t h a t p o e t r y should abandon t h i s s a t i r i c a l , a n a l y t i c a l f u n c t i o n t o prose, and c o n c e n t r a t e on p o s i t i v e v a l u e s . As e a r l y as 1918, he had n o t i c e d i n Joyce's P o r t r a i t the p r e v a l e n c e of the c u l t o f u g l i n e s s : "On almost every page of Joyce, you w i l l f i n d . . . s w i f t a l t e r n a t i o n of s u b j e c t i v e beauty and e x t e r n a l shabbiness, s q u a l o r , and s o r d i d n e s s . I t i s the bass and t r e b l e of h i s method" (LE, 412) . And he had j u s t i f i e d J oyce's r e g i s t r a t i o n s of d i s g u s t : I have y e t to f i n d i n Joyce's p u b l i s h e d works a v i o l e n t or malodorous phrase which does not j u s t i f y i t s e l f not o n l y by i t s v e r i t y , but by i t s h e i g h t e n i n g of some o p p o s i t e e f f e c t , by the poignancy which i t imparts to some emotion or to some thwarted d e s i r e f o r beauty. D i s g u s t w i t h the s o r d i d i s but another e x p r e s s i o n of a s e n s i t i v e n e s s t o the f i n e r t h i n g . There i s no p e r c e p t i o n of beauty without a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i s g u s t . (LE, 415) 224 However, although Pound defended Joyce's method i n P o r t r a i t i n May, by August 1918, having read s e v e r a l of the e a r l y c h a p t e r s of U l y s s e s , he came to have second thoughts about the n e c e s s i t y f o r "malodorous" phrases. In a f o o t n o t e to h i s essay "Henry James", which he spent two years p r e p a r i n g t o w r i t e , he s t a t e s w i t h complete c o n v i c t i o n , t h a t whereas most good prose a r i s e s from "an i n s t i n c t of ne g a t i o n " , p o e t r y i s "the a s s e r t i o n o f a p o s i t i v e , i . e . , d e s i r e " . I f Pound c o u l d say t h i s about the prose o f Henry James, he was most c e r t a i n l y aware of i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o Joyce as w e l l : Most good prose a r i s e s , perhaps from an i n s t i n c t o f negatio n ; i s the d e t a i l e d , c o n v i n c i n g a n a l y s i s o f something d e t e s t a b l e ; o f something which one wants to e l i m i n a t e . Poetry i s the a s s e r t i o n o f a p o s i t i v e , i . e . of d e s i r e , and endures f o r a lo n g e r p e i o d . P o e t i c s a t i r e i s o n l y an a s s e r t i o n o f t h i s p o s i t i v e , i n v e r s e l y , i . e . as of an o p p o s i t e h a t r e d . T h i s i s a h i g h l y u n t e c h n i c a l , u n i m p r e s s i o n i s t , i n f a c t almost t h e o l o g i c a l matter of statement; but i s perhaps the r o o t d i f f e r e n c e between the two a r t s o f l i t e r a t u r e . Most good p o e t r y a s s e r t s something t o be worth w h i l e , or dams a c o n t r a r y ; a t any r a t e a s s e r t s emotional v a l u e s . . . Poetry=Emotional s y n t h e s i s , q u i t e as r e a l , q u i t e as r e a l i s t as any prose (or i n t e l l e c t u a l ) a n a l y s i s . (LE, 324) "Poetry=Emotional s y n t h e s i s " r e c a l l s Pound's comment to Amy Lo w e l l i n 1913: "My u n i t y i s an emotional u n i t y , but I 225 don't want to p r e - and p r o - s c r i b e " (YC). As we saw i n chapter one, Pound's v i s i o n i s e s s e n t i a l l y s y n c r e t i c ; by 1918 he had come to d i s t i n g u i s h t h i s emphasis on emotional s y n t h e s i s i n p o e t r y , from the i n t e l l e c t u a l a n a l y s i s of prose. T h i s h e l p s to e x p l a i n h i s growing impatience w i t h prose, w i t h what he comes to term Joyce's "excremental o b s e s s i o n " , as he c o n t i n u e d to r e c e i v e c h a p t e r s of U l y s s e s . His June 10th, 1919 l e t t e r t o Joyce c o n c e r n i n g " S i r e n s " makes t h i s c l e a r : Caro mio: Are you sending t h i s c h apter because you f e e l bound to send i n copy on time . . .? 1. you have got some new e f f e c t s 2. I t i s too long 3. One can f a h r t w i t h l e s s pomp & circumstance (3a. g a l l i c p r e f e r e n c e f o r P h a l l u s — p u r e l y p e r s o n a l — k n o w m i t t e l europa humour runs to o t h e r o r i f i c e . — B u t don't t h i n k you w i l l s t r e n g t h e n your impact by t h a t p a r t i c u l a r . . . . Abnormal keeness of i n s i g h t O.K. But o b s e s s i o n s a r s e o r e - i a l , c l o a c a l , d e i s t , a e s t h e t i c as opposed to a r s e t h e t i c , any o b s e s s i o n or t i c shd. be very c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d b e f o r e b e i n g turned l o o s e . (P/J, 158) Pound came more and more d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d to d i s t i n g u i s h hiw own p h a l l i c i m a g i n a t i o n from Joyce's concern w i t h the excremental, as Read has n o t i c e d (P/J, 146) . At the same 226 time, a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i v i s i o n between prose and p o e t r y , a l r e a d y formulated, became c l e a r e r . Pound's p r e f e r e n c e f o r p o e t r y as the e x p r e s s i o n of a d e s i r e , l e a d i n g to "emotional s y n t h e s i s " , and h i s " g a l l i c p r e f e r e n c e of P h a l l u s " , r e l f e c t h i s i n t e g r a t i v e c r e a t i v e , and h o l i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y . B The Waste Land L i k e Pound, T.S. E l i o t read the l a t t e r p a r t of U l y s s e s i n manuscript d u r i n g the s p r i n g of 1921, and found i t 3 " t r u l y m a g n i f i c e n t " . As w i t h Pound, i t s t i m u l a t e d h i s c r e a t i v e urge, and by May 9th h i s own " l o n g poem" was 4 p a r t l y on paper. The Waste Land, l i k e U l y s s e s , had an enormous i n f l u e n c e on Pound's development of XVI Cantos. Although Pound had seen p a r t s of E l i o t ' s poem by J u l y , 1921, the major p o r t i o n of i t was not completed u n t i l E l i o t v i s i t e d Lausanne f o r treatment of h i s nerves around November 21, 1921."* By the 24th of December, s c a r c e l y one month l a t e r , E l i o t r e c e i v e d t h i s l e t t e r of c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s : Complimenti, you b i t c h . I am wracked by the seven j e a l o u s i e s , and c o g i t a t i n g an excuse f o r always exuding my deformative s e c r e t i o n s i n my own s t u f f , and never 227 g e t t i n g an o u t l i n e . I go i n t o nacre and o b j e c t s d ' a r t . (SL, 169) Pound's s e l f - c r i t i c i s m c e n t e r s around h i s i n a b i l i t y t o get an o u t l i n e i n h i s p o e t r y and i t s "mother of p e a r l " t e x t u r e . He most l i k e l y has Mauberley i n mind here, f o r he termed the work " s h o r t poems" i n a l e t t e r t o h i s f a t h e r dated A p r i l 1920 (YC), i m p l y i n g t h a t he d i d not t h i n k of i t as an e x c e p t i o n a l l y w e l l - o r d e r e d work. But he was s u r e l y a l s o t h i n k i n g of the o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n s o f Cantos I-VII which were c u r r e n t l y a ppearing i n the D i a l — a l t h o u g h as we have seen, Pound had stopped composing them w i t h the completion of canto seven i n 1 9 1 9 — f o r these were completely r e - o r d e r e d w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n of XVI Cantos i n 1925. Pound was mainly impressed w i t h the r e a l i s m of E l i o t ' s poem, a f a c t which can be most c l e a r l y seen i n these r a t h e r s e l f - p i t y i n g , almost E l i o t i c , l i n e s from a poem e n c l o s e d w i t h h i s l e t t e r of c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s : E.P. hopeless and unhelped Enthroned i n the marmorian s k i e s His v e r s e omits r e a l i t i e s , . A n g e l i c hands w i t h mother of p e a r l Retouch the s t r a p p i n g s e r v a n t g i r l , 228 The barman i s to b l i n d e d him S i l e n u s b u b b l i n g a t the brim, The g l a s s e s t u r n to c h a l i c e s In h i s fumbling a n a l y s i s And h o l y h o s t s of h e l e n i s t s Have numbed and honied h i s c e g v i c c y s t s D e s p i t e h i s hebrew e u l o g i s t s . Pound laments h i s mythopoetic tendency to transmute r e a l i t y i n t o myth: the barman becomes S i l e n u s , the c o c k t a i l g l a s s e s become c h a l i c e s . The mundane becomes m a r v e l l o u s . Enthroned i n "marmorian s k i e s " , a s t a t e o f a e s t h e t i c i s m c u t o f f from r e a l i t y , he c o u l d o n l y admire E l i o t ' s achievement of r e a l i s m from a d i s t a n c e . Pound's burgeoning impatience w i t h h i s own l a c k of accomplishment came i n t o s t a r k focus i n h i s l e t t e r t o Agnes Bedford l a t e r i n the same month, December, but the energy of h i s language seems to h e r a l d the awakening of h i s c r e a t i v e powers: OhCHRRRIST, the whole morning gone, and n o t h i n g done toward i m m o r t a l i t y g i v e n a v a l e t , a s e c r e t a r y , an e r r a n d boy and a b u s i n e s s manager, I might be d e c e n t l y run, c a p i t a l i s e d , bonded, b o t t l e d , decanted, e t c . Have come to t h a t time of l i f e — a l s o a s t e n o d a c t y l l o . The f a i l i n g mind w i t h d i f f i c u l t y c o r r e l a t e s the waning muscular a c t i o n . (YC) 229 Pound's e n e r g i e s d i d not d i m i n i s h i n the f a c e of E l i o t ' s achievement; two months l a t e r he wrote t o Quinn: "About enough, E l i o t ' s poem, to make the r e s t o f us shut up shop. 7 . . I haven't done so." For by t h i s time Pound had, s u r p r i s i n g l y , begun t o w r i t e cantos a g a i n — c a n t o e i g h t was p u b l i s h e d i n the D i a l i n May 1922—and he d i d not stop u n t i l he had f i n i s h e d XVI Cantos i n 1924. And a f t e r t h i s almost a l l h i s c r e a t i v e e n e r g i e s went i n t o the composition o f h i s long-sought long poem. When i n c l u d e d i n XVI Cantos, the o r i g i n a l canto e i g h t was renumbered canto two; l i k e The Waste Land i t d e a l s w i t h myth, but the d i f f e r e n c e s between the two works are h e l p f u l i n our attempt t o understand the m o t i v a t i o n behind Pound's renewed b u r s t o f c r e a t i v i t y . In Pound's hands the mythic method d i d not d e a l w i t h E l i o t ' s images of s t e r i l i t y and waste, but r a t h e r c o n s t r u c t e d a world i n which the m y t h i c a l i m a g i n a t i o n — A c o e t e s ' a b i l i t y to r e c o g n i z e the god i n L y a e u s — p r o t e c t s those who possess i t from those who do not, l i k e the " e x - c o n v i c t out of I t a l y " . To r e c o g n i z e the potency o f t h i s v i s i o n a r y world i s t o r e c e i v e a s p e c i a l d i s p e n s a t i o n , i . e . , 230 And Lyaeus: "From now, Acoetes, my a l t a r s , F e a r i n g no bondage, f e a r i n g no c a t of the wood, Safe w i t h my l y n x e s , f e e d i n g grapes to my l e o p a r d s , Olibanum i s my i n c e n s e , g the v i n e s grow i n my homage." Not o n l y d i d Pound r e p l y t o E l i o t ' s poems by demonstrating the c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l of myth, he a l s o d e c i d e d to group h i s cantos around a s i n g l e c r e a t i v e , h i s t o r i c i n d i v i d u a l . He seems to have been i n l i t t l e doubt where to look f o r such a f i g u r e . In February 1922 he wrote: "our envy must be f o r the p e r i o d when the i n d i v i d u a l c i t y ( I t a l i a n mostly) t r i e d t o outdo i t s neighbours i n the degree and i n t e n s i t y of i t s c i v i l i z a t i o n , to be the v o r t e x f o r the most l i v i n g i n d i v i d u a l s . G l i uomini v i v o n i i n p o c h i . " A month l a t e r , on March 27, Pound and Dorothy l e f t P a r i s f o r a t h r e e month t r i p t o I t a l y ( " t r y i n g a new s l i c e , P e r u g i a & S i e n a , the middle b i t " (YC), d u r i n g which time he c o l l e c t e d a mass of m a t e r i a l f o r the • " M a l a t e s t a " cantos, which e v e n t u a l l y became the p i v o t a l p o i n t f o r XVI Cantos. These f o u r cantos honour the c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l i n man, as though to emphasize the f a c t t h a t a modern poem need not concern i t s e l f w i t h e n l a r g i n g on E l i o t ' s b l e a k , n e g a t i v e v i s i o n . 231 Pound's d e c i s i o n on how to s t r u c t u r e h i s long poem dates from t h i s t r i p t o I t a l y . G r a d u a l l y the I t a l i a n c i t y s t a t e s of R i m i n i and S i e n a supplanted P a r i s i n Pound's mind as p e r f e c t examples of the c r e a t i v e m e t r o p o l i s ; a t the same time, he began to e x p l o r e p a s t c u l t u r e s f o r o t h e r examples of a e s t h e t i c and economic freedom and c r e a t i v i t y . Hence, Pound i n s e r t e d a phrase echoing The Waste Land at the b e g i n n i n g of the f i r s t M a l a t e s t a canto, number e i g h t : "These fragments you have s h e l v e d (shored)," to emphasize t h a t h i s fragments of M a l a t e s t a ' s c h a r a c t e r are not s h e l v e d i n testimony to the bleakness of a modern waste l a n d , but r a t h e r shored up a g a i n s t the c u r r e n t of the time, j u s t as d e s p i t e the o p p o s i t i o n of h i s s o c i e t y , M a l a t e s t a had been a b l e to accomplish a c t s of c r e a t i v i t y l i k e the e r e c t i o n of the Tempio. I t seems c l e a r t h a t Pound's m o t i v a t i o n f o r w r i t i n g XVI Cantos was t o e r e c t a p o s i t i v e l i t e r a r y monument on the f o u n d a t i o n s b l a s t e d c l e a r by Joyce and E l i o t . Pound's d i s c o v e r y of M a l a t e s t a was the key to t h i s e f f o r t . I t seems l i k e l y t h a t Pound con c e i v e d him as an a n t i d o t e t o Joyce's Leopold Bloom, f o r having f i n i s h e d c e n t e r i n g XVI Cantos around M a l a t e s t a by l a t e 1924, Pound wrote h i s f a t h e r t h a t he was l o o k i n g f o r another such 232 "bhloomin h i s t o r i c c h a r a c t e r who can be used as i l l u s t r a t i o n of i n t e l l i g e n t c o n s t r u c t i v i t y " ( Y C ) . The q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h i s c h a r a c t e r be h i s t o r i c shows Pound responding to h i s e a r l i e r s e l f - c r i t i c i s m of h i s v e r s e f o r o m i t t i n g " r e a l i t i e s " . Sigismundo was to be, l i k e Bloom, "polumetis and a r e c e i v e r of a l l t h i n g s " (P/J, 195), but to be c r e a t i v e and c o n s t r u c t i v e as w e l l . For Bloom, Pound says i n " U l y s s e s " (May 1922), i s — u n l i k e S i g i s m u n d o — " t h e b a s i s of democracy; he i s the main i n the s t r e e t . . . n o t our p u b l i c but Mr. W e l l s ' p u b l i c . . . h e i s 1'homme moyen s e n s u a l ; he i s a l s o . . . the man who b e l i e v e s what he sees i n the papers, Everyman, and 'the g o a t 1 " (LE, 403). I f Mauberley i s Pound's e q u i v a l e n t of B l o o m — t h e s a c r i f i c i a l g o a t — M a l a t e s t a i s an attempt to c r e a t e a more c o n s t r u c t i v e c e n t r a l persona. Q u i t e c l e a r l y , then, w h i l e Pound a p p r e c i a t e d the accomplishments of Joyce and E l i o t , he wanted h i s long poem to have more p o s i t i v e t h r u s t then e i t h e r U l y s s e s or The Waste Land. And although h i s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d r e f e r e n c e to E l i o t ' s poem i n The New Age (March 30, 1922) d e s c r i b e d i s as "a v e r y important sequence of poems, one of the few t h i n g s i n contemporary l i t e r a t u r e to which one can a s c r i b e permanent v a l u e " , 1 0 i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t he was a l r e a d y f u l l y engaged i n the e f f o r t t o b u i l d above E l i o t ' s accomplishments. 233 For i n s p i r a t i o n Pound turned, as i n the f i r s t Ur-canto (1917), to the v i s u a l a r t s . In the f a l l of 1921 he contemplated p u b l i s h i n g a book, Four Modern A r t i s t s , which was to d e a l w i t h P i c a s s o , Lewis (both mentioned i n the e a r l i e s t v e r s i o n of canto one), B r a n c u s i , and P i c a b i a . T h i s book was never p u b l i s h e d , but from Pound's essays on B r a n c u s i and P i c a b i a i n The L i t t l e Review and The D i a l i n the autumn of 1921, we can t r a c e the sudden c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f h i s thoughts about the form h i s long poem should take. The two essays on B r a n c u s i and P i c a b i a weigh the v i r t u e s o f a l t e r n a t i v e concepts o f form which Pound was c o n s i d e r i n g f o r the s t r u c t u r e o f h i s l o n g poem. By r e j e c t i n g the use i n h i s own poem of the formal symmetry which was the hallmark of B r a n c u s i ' s work, i n favour o f the open-ended, a s s y m e t r i c a l s t y l e adopted by P i c a b i a , Pound made the most e x c i t i n g d e c i s i o n of h i s c a r e e r . Soon a f t e r , he began t o compose a t a f u r i o u s r a t e , and w i t h i n two years had shaped XVI Cantos. I t w i l l be worthwhile, then t o c o n s i d e r the opposing concepts i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l . C. B r a n c u s i and P i c a b i a : S t a s i s v e r s u s K i n e s i s Pound's essay on C o n s t a n t i n B r a n c u s i appeared i n the Autumn 1921 i s s u e of The L i t t l e Review. Although Pound 234 s a i d he had known of B r a n c u s i ' s s c u l p t u r e s f o r o n l y "a few weeks", he was g r e a t l y • e x c i t e d by a concept of form embodied i n B r a n c u s i ' s a b s t r a c t marble s c u l p t u r e of a g e o m e t r i c a l f o r m — t h e o v o i d . I t appeared t o Pound t o l i v e as f r e e from a l l t e r r e s t r i a l g r a v i t a t i o n , w i t h i n the laws of i t s b e i n g , as the form o f the a n a l y t i c geometers; indeed Pound thought the o v o i d seemed from some angles "ready t o l e v i t a t e " (LE, 444). B r a n c u s i had accomplished, i n Pound's eyes, the a p o t h e o s i s o f pure form, the p e r f e c t s t a s i s . Pound noted t h a t B r a n c u s i shared t h i s g o a l w i t h o t h e r a r t i s t s : Dante b e l i e v e d i n the "melody which most i n - c e n t r e s the s o u l " , he s a i d , w h i l e i n the p r e f a c e t o my Guido I have t r i e d t o express the i d e a o f an a b s o l u t e rhythm, or the p o s s i b i l i t y o f i t . Perhaps every a r t i s t a t one time or another b e l i e v e s i n a s o r t o f e l i x i r o r p h i l o s o p h e r ' s stone produced by the sheer p e r f e c t i o n o f t h i s a r t ; by the a l c h e m i c a l s u b l i m a t i o n of the medium; the e l i m i n a t i o n o f a c c i d e n t a l s and i m p e r f e c t i o n s . (LE, 442) In B r a n c u s i ' s case, t h i s search f o r p e r f e c t i o n c u l m i n a t e d w i t h the c r e a t i o n of the marble o v o i d , which p r o v i d e d the "master-key" t o as much as B r a n c u s i had found o f "the world of form": i t c o n t a i n s or i m p l i e s "the t r i a n g l e and the c i r c l e " . Pound's c i r c l e metaphor a l e r t s us to the 235 r e l a t i o n s h i p between B r a n c u s i ' s o v o i d and Dante's Commedia, the p e r f e c t i o n of which, as we saw i n Chapter I, Pound a l s o equated to t h a t of the c i r c l e ; B r a n c u s i , l i k e Dante, had a c h i e v e d the p e r f e c t a r t i s t i c s t a t i s . Even w h i l e Pound p r a i s e d B r a n c u s i , however, one can see him moving away from t h i s b e l i e f i n the v i a b i l i t y of a r t which must be d i s t i l l e d from l i f e , which d e a l s i n a b s o l u t e s . The problem Pound f a c e d i n i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h i s q u a l i t y w i t h i n h i s own poem was t h a t whereas 'Brancusi c o u l d cut h i m s e l f o f f from the world i n h i s s t u d i o , l e a v i n g him f r e e t o c r e a t e u n t r o u b l e d by the world, Pound's growing s o c i a l c o n s c i e n c e compelled him "to move about i n a w o r l d f u l l o f junk-shops" (LE, 444), where the sense of p e r f e c t form seemed out of p l a c e . That i s to say, by the time Pound read The Waste Land i n l a t e 1921 he was ready to a p p r e c i a t e i t s treatment of " r e a l i t y " ; B r a n c u s i ' s n o t i o n of p e r f e c t a r t r e q u i r e d p e r f e c t s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r i t s composition, and Pound no l o n g e r b e l i e v e d t h a t these p e r t a i n e d i n h i s case. Small wonder t h a t he f i n a l l y r e j e c t e d B r a n c u s i ' s n o t i o n of formal p e r f e c t i o n as a v i a b l e a r t i s t i c g o a l . Pound became aware t h a t f o r him, a t any r a t e , a r t c o u l d not be c u t o f f from l i f e ; c onsequently, he was ready to c a s t around f o r 236 a l t e r n a t i v e models. P i c a b i a ' s n o t i o n of u n c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y form p r o v i d e d him, a t p r e c i s e l y the r i g h t moment, w i t h one such model. Hence he f i n a l l y gave up h i s l o n g - h e l d n o t i o n of employing a symmetrical form i n h i s l o n g poem, such as t h a t used by Dante i n the Commedia, i n favour of a l e s s s t y l i z e d mode of o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h i s moment s i g n a l l e d a profound and l a s t i n g change i n Pound's sense of p r i o r i t i e s r e g a r d i n g the shape of h i s long poem. The g r e a t works of the European t r a d i t i o n t h a t had served as e a r l y models f o r h i s concept of form: the Odyssey, Commedia, and Aeneid, share a formal s t r u c t u r e , a s t a s i s , t h a t r e f l e c t s a p h i l o s o p h i c c e r t a i n t y w i t h which Pound c o u l d no l o n g e r i d e n t i f y , j u s t as he c o u l d a p p r e c i a t e , but not share, B r a n c u s i ' s n o t i o n of i d e a l form. 'Casting round f o r a new model of l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e a p p r o p r i a t e to the new e r a and b e t t e r s u i t e d to h i s growing sense of the i n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of symmetrical modes of o r g a n i z a t i o n , he l i g h t e d on F r a n c i s P i c a b i a ' s Pensees sans language; poeme (1919), the s t r u c t u r e of which i s e s s e n t i a l l y k i n e t i c . While t h i s 119-page monograph seems a t f i r s t s i g h t to be extremely c a p r i c i o u s i n terms of form and content, Pound m a r v e l l e d a t the i n t e r e s t i n s t r i k e s up i n the r e a d e r . His 237 a p p r e c i a t i v e review of t h i s "poeme" appears i n the D i a l a t a c r u c i a l moment of h i s development, October 1921. I n c l u d i n g a number of q u o t a t i o n s from P i c a b i a 1 s monograph, Pound's review began by s a y i n g t h a t i t s form i s v e ry annoying to people who want l i t e r a t u r e to bulk up, and who b e l i e v e t h a t every time one has an i d e a one should embody i t i n a p o l i t e essay. P i c a b i a has found a new way of l e a v i n g h i s c a r d . "Dieu e t a i t j u i f mais l e s c a t h o l i q u e s l ' o n t r o u l e . " "I dreamt t h a t my g r e a t g r e a t g r a n d f a t h e r d i s c o v e r e d America, but not b e i n g an I t a l i a n he s a i d n o t h i n g about i t to anyone." "Those who have g i v e n the dimension of the i n f i n i t e as one metre are i n e r r o r , the. dimension of the i n f i n i t e i s e x a c t l y two metres cinquante." The photo of an autograph l e t t e r of I n g r e s . N e i t h e r the squibs nor the photo can be " c o n s i d e r e d as l i t e r a t u r e " ; any more of course than c o u l d the X e n i a , the l i t t l e two l i n e tags which M a r t i a l made f o r s a t u r n a l i a p r e s e n t s , be " c o n s i d e r e d as l i t e r a t u r e " , not a t l e a s t , as l o n g as t h e r e are o n l y a few dozen, but an accumulation of such w i l d shots ends by e x p r e s s i n g a p e r s o n a l i t y , j u s t as the Maxims of Rouchefoucauld, or the L i v r e de Diane expressed the p e r s o n a l i t i e s of t h e i r a uthors. T h i s d i s p e n s i n g w i t h l i t e r a r y mechanisms i s perhaps the mark of extreme c i v i l i z a t i o n . T h i s t o t a l l a c k of c o n n e c t i o n between the q u o t a t i o n s from P i c a b i a seems to Pound a p o s i t i v e v i r t u e . Pound a p p r e c i a t e d the f a c t t h a t , l i k e Joyce i n D u b l i n e r s , P i c a b i a d i d not f a l s i f y l i f e by p r e s e n t i n g i t i n "neat l i t t l e diagrams". Pound's r e f e r e n c e to M a r t i a l ' s "Xenia" echoes the t i t l e s o f the s e q u e n t i a l poems he had w r i t t e n i n 1913, 238 "Xenia" and " Z e n i a " , where he f i r s t experimented w i t h the agglomeration of " s q u i b s " ( i m a g i s t poems and epigrams). Here he seems to t h e o r i z e t h a t the poet might expand t h i s technique to b u i l d a major poem. He a c c e p t s the v a l i d i t y o f a l i t e r a r y work which "ends by e x p r e s s i n g a p e r s o n a l i t y " . A l l c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y mechanisms can go by the board i f the poet succeeds i n h o l d i n g the r e a d e r ' s i n t e r e s t by e x p r e s s i n g h i s own p e r s o n a l i t y through the s e l e c t i o n and arrangement of m a t e r i a l . While we have seen i n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s t h a t Pound's e a r l i e r poems were o f t e n l i n k e d t o g e t h e r i n a seemingly random manner, i t was demonstrated t h a t an o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e governs t h e i r s e l e c t i o n and arrangement. In most cases t h i s o v e r a l l u n i t y can be f o r m a l l y demonstrated. "Und Drang", f o r example, balanced the modern and medieval worlds i n i t s two s e c t i o n s ; "Xenia" p r o g r e s s e d from darkness to l i g h t ; the Homage was s y m m e t r i c a l l y arranged around s e c t i o n V I I ; Mauberley c o u n t e r p o i n t e d "Envoi" w i t h " M e d a l l i o n " . T h i s p r o g r e s s i v e arrangement of s n i p p e t s was not q u i t e the same t h i n g as P i c a b i a ' s " w i l d s h o t s " , though i t l eaned i n the same d i r e c t i o n . Pensees sans langage; poeme showed Pound t h a t he needed to pay even l e s s a t t e n t i o n to c o n v e n t i o n a l forms than p r e v i o u s l y . His review shows him b r i n g i n g i n t o cognizance, f o r the f i r s t 239 time, the n o t i o n t h a t s e l e c t i o n and o r d e r i n g of m a t e r i a l need pay no a t t e n t i o n to c o n v e n t i a l l i t e r a y forms. E a r l i e r , Pound had e x p l o r e d r e c o n d i t e forms such as the canzone and the s e g u a i r e , which o f f e r e d means of i n c o r p o r a t i n g more d i v e r s e m a t e r i a l s and p e r c e p t i o n s i n t o p o e t r y than more po p u l a r methods; now he went beyond t h i s p o i n t i n h i s t h i n k i n g , t o accept the n o t i o n t h a t any k i n d of arrangement chosen by an author might be j u s t i f i e d i n l i t e r a r y terms, even i f i t obeyed no "law" of formal i n t e g r i t y o t h e r than t h a t a f f i r m e d by the f a c t o f i t s e x i s t e n c e . He had made a le a p of f a i t h , e s t h e t i c a l l y speaking, t h a t i m p l i e d complete c o n f i d e n c e i n a u t h o r i a l judgement. Perhaps t h i s i s why he l a t e r found i t d i f f i c u l t t o p r o v i d e a f u l l y c o n v i n c i n g account of h i s "method" i n the Cantos. P i c a b i a ' s work awakened Pound t o the e x i s t e n c e o f a compatible l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n i n which h i s p r o j e c t e d long poem c o u l d be p l a c e d , encompassing the works of M a r t i a l , La Rochefoucauld, Remy de Gourmont, and P i c a b i a , not to mention Mauberley and The Waste Land. T h i s t r a d i t i o n was l a t e r c a r r i e d f u r t h e r i n t o the t w e n t i e t h century by such works as Zukofsky's "A", Olson's Maximus poems, W i l l i a m ' s Paterson, Jones', Anethemata, Bunting's B r i g g f l a t s , and the Cantos. I t became, i n f a c t , the major e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h i s 240 century's poetic s e n s i b i l i t y . The method re j e c t s " l i t e r a r y mechanisms" of a t r a d i t i o n a l kind i n an attempt to express the f u l l o r i g i n a l i t y of the author's personality, not merely i n subjective terms, but also with regard to what the author considers important i n the worlds of economics, p o l i t i c s , and other contemporary issues. The rat i o n a l e behind t h i s method was that the purpose of a r t i s to r e f l e c t the nature of man's perceptions without reference to l i t e r a r y molds, and to reveal the incapacity of received notions of formal or s y n t a c t i c a l completeness to mirror l i f e t r u l y , Hence, i n his essay on Picabia he praised a novel of the American Natalie Barney, "who has published with complete mental laziness a book of unfinished sentences and broken paragraphs, which i s , on 12 the whole, readable". And sixteen years l a t e r , Pound looked back even on Lewis' writing i n Blast as cleaving too clo s e l y to the requirements of s y n t a c t i c a l completeness. "The durable malady or l i m i t a t i o n of the c r i t i c i s m i n Blast," Pound says, " i s not that i t i s broken and jabby; but that there s t i l l hangs about i t a 'morning-after'. Lewis had escaped from the p o l i t e paragraph but the old i n e r t i a of momentum s t i l l led him to f i n i s h his sentences, often when the complete revelation of idea had been made i n a single phrase" (SP, 426). These comments reveal a 241 c r i t i c a l s h i f t i n Pound's thoughts about major form, from s t a s i s to k i n e s i s . That i s to say, the s y n t a c t i c a l incompleteness of the Cantos was part of Pound's e f f o r t to eliminate s u p e r f l u i t i e s , such as the ending to a sentence, the "structuring" of a poem, and to mirror i n the movement of language the kaleidoscopic movement of the mind. Picabia had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the attempt c a r r i e d out by Pound and others, throughout the 1910's, to get out of the "nineteen hundred and eights (London) or the f i n du s i e c l e dixneuvieme (Paris) and leave a place free for Prufrock. I mean for a new decade to get started without cerements, without verbal l i g a t u r e s s t i l l binding i t to the world of my adolescence, of Lewis' adolescence" (SP, 429). I t i s therefore not s u r p r i s i n g that Pound should have been influenced by his work. Pound exchanged Brancusi for Picabia as a model much as one might leave the security of a c i t a d e l i n order to f i g h t more openly. The weapons he chose were the short, jabby phrase and jagged syntax of d i s t i l l e d perceptions. In Mauberley Pound had made his f i n e s t use of irony, which he termed the " l a s t c i t a d e l of the i n t e l l i g e n c e " ; i n XVI Cantos he abandoned t h i s covert, sophisticated means of 242 e x p r e s s i o n i n favour of compressed, d i r e c t statement. In the Homage he had w r i t t e n h i s most s u c c e s s f u l defense of the a e s t h e t i c t r a d i t i o n ; i n XVI Cantos he e n l a r g e d t h i s focus on e s t h e t i c s t o i n c l u d e the new dimension of d e t a i l e d s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s — h e was no l o g g e r content merely to d i s m i s s the modern world, but,attempted t o ana l y s e i t i n or d e r t o suggest remedies. "The s y m b o l i s t p o s i t i o n , a r t i s t i c a l o o f n e s s from world a f f a i r s i s no good now", he says. " I t may have a s s i s t e d s e v e r a l people t o w r i t e and work i n the 80's but i t i s not, i n 1921, opportune o r 13 a p p o s i t e . " That i s , Pound's p o e t r y would no lo n g e r "omit r e a l i t i e s " . D Major Douglas' Economic Democracy S i g n i f i c a n t l y , the above comment was p a r t of Pound's review of Major Douglas' Economic Democracy: i f the e s t h e t e i s to come down i n t o the arena t o f i g h t he must get h i s hands d i r t y , c o n f r o n t major s o c i a l i s s u e s l i k e economics. The shock, indeed the outrage, which Pound e x p e r i e n c e d a t t h i s s h i f t from a e t h e t i c i s m t o s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e ss i s conveyed by the v i o l e n t metaphor he used t o d e s c r i b e the book's 243 impact on him: "Don't imagine I f i n d economics i n t e r e s t i n g — n o t as B o t t i c e l l i or P i c a s s o i s i n t e r e s t i n g . But a t p r e s e n t they, as the r e a l i t y under p o l i t i c a l camouflage, are i n t e r e s t i n g as a gun muzzle aimed a t one's own head i s " i n t e r e s t i n g " when one can h a r d l y see the face of the gun h o l d e r and i s wh o l l y u n c e r t a i n as to h i s 1 4 temperament and i n t e n t i o n s . " From co n t e m p l a t i o n of pure form, Pound had turne d t o the contemplation of a mugger p o i n t i n g a gun to h i s temple. He had ample cause t o f e a r t h i s enemy, f o r as E l i o t wrote Quinn on the 25th of January 1920, "the f a c t i s t h a t t h e r e i s now no organ of any importance i n which he can express h i m s e l f , and he i s becoming f o r g o t t e n . I t i s not enough f o r him simply t o p u b l i s h a volume of v e r s e once a y e a r — o r no matter how o f t e n — f o r i t w i l l simply not be reviewed and w i l l be k i l l e d by s i l e n c e . " 1 5 Although Quinn responded by a r r a n g i n g f o r Pound's appointment as P a r i s correspondent of the D i a l , both the Athenaeum and the New Age dispensed w i t h h i s c r i t i c a l s e r v i c e s i n J u l y 1920 and January 1921 r e s p e c t i v e l y . And by March 1923 he was sacked by the D i a l as w e l l . C u r i o u s l y , j u s t as i t had i n the f i r s t y ear of the war, t h i s e r o s i o n o f Pound's f i a n c i a l s e c u r i t y spurred him to a g r e a t c r e a t i v e e f f o r t , and h i s p l a n f o r XVI Cantos began t o f a l l i n t o p l a c e . Now, 244 however, he had the p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e to make the study of economics r e l e v a n t t o h i s long poem, and a guide i n Major Douglas. Hence, i n h i s " P a r i s L e t t e r " of February 1922, Pound showed t h a t he had become aware of the l i m i t a t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n such l i t e r a r y s u b j e c t s as Henry James' p o r t r a y a l o f the "gentleman". He had once admired James 1 avoidance of the economic f a c t o r i n h i s n o v e l s by making h i s c h i e f c h a r a c t e r s f i n a n c i a l l y independent; now he wondered i f such a e s t h e t i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the s u b j e c t i v e r e a l i t i e s evaded important i s s u e s . Perhaps the new era demanded t h a t the a r t i s t attempt to b r i n g the r e a l l y complex i s s u e s of the modern world i n t o c l e a r f o c u s : The q u e s t i o n s come, w i t h the supposed i n c r e a s e i n the g e n e r a l psychology, whether we don't want something w i t h more wealth of motive, more l a r g e s s e , more i n t e l l i g e n c e . . . . whether we haven't to t u r n t o and b u i l d r a t h e r ^ than s c r a t c h round f o r remnants and b r i c - a - b r a c . That i s , t h e r e was l i t t l e p o i n t i n s c r a t c h i n g around f o r examples of the "gentleman" (as Pound had done i n "Moeures Contemporaines") when s o c i e t y was i n desperate need of p o s i t i v e remedies. 245 When c o n s i d e r i n g Pound's d e c i s i o n t o i n c l u d e the study of economics i n the poem, then, i t i s important to note i t s p o s i t i v e s t i m u l u s . What Pound noted as most important i n h i s review of Economic Democracy f o r the L i t t l e Review i n A p r i l 1920 was t h a t i t was w e l l d i r e c t e d "toward a more humane standard of l i f e ; d i r e c t e d t o the p r e v e n t i o n of new wards, wars blown up out of economic v i l l a i n i e s a t the whim and i n s t i g a t i o n s of s m a l l bodies of i r r e s p o n s i b l e 17 i n d i v i d u a l s " . As noted i n Chapter IV, Pound's dream of a new c i v i l i z a t i o n was s h a t t e r e d by the deaths of Gaudier, Hulme, and de Gourmont d u r i n g the war. H i s r e a c t i o n was to immediately redouble h i s c r e a t i v e e f f o r t , t o r e a f f i r m the v a l u e of i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t i v i t y amid the s o c i a l h o l o c a u s t . By 1920 he was ready to support the p o s i t i v e economic p r o p o s a l s s e t f o r t h by Douglas which he thought capable o f d e f u s i n g the economic bomb ready to blow up i n t o another war. Pound's " i n t e r e s t " i n economics was u n e q u i v o c a l l y clamped to h i s b e l i e f i n the v a l u e of a "more humane standard of l i f e " . He took up the study of economics not merely out of s e l f i n t e r e s t , but out of h i s concern f o r s o c i e t y a t l a r g e : " a r t i s t i c a l o o f n e s s from world a f f a i r s i s no good now." Hence, i n the February 1922 i s s u e of the D i a l Pound d i f f e r e n t i a t e d between B r a n c u s i ' s t r u s t i n the a b i l i t y o f 246 pure a r t to. r e i f y human nature and h i s own growing b e l i e f t h a t t o be e f f e c t i v e as an a r t i s t he must f i r s t promote those c o n d i t i o n s which make a r t p o s s i b l e , d e a l w i t h the economic f a c t o r : I can s t i l l hear the p l e a s a n t v o i c e o f a h a l e , h e a r t y chap, who was s e l l i n g torpedo-boats t o R u s s i a back i n 1912 or '13: "Peace? Nao, not w h i l e ye hav' two b i l l i o n s o f money i n v e s t e d i n the making of war machinery." That i s about the s i z e o f i t ; and th e r e i s a l s o the problem of usury, and mankind's i n c a p a c i t y t o grasp the simple e q u a t i o n 6-6=1. In the face o f which . B r a n c u s i dreams of a p e r f e c t form which s h a l l r e v e a l the i n f i n i t e beauty of the u n i v e r s e and b r i n g a saeculum novum of s u p e r - C h r i s t i a n b e n i g n i t y and k i n d l i n e s s ; and P a r i s perhaps remains the meeting p o i n t f o r those who have c a s t o f f the s a n c t i f i e d s t u p i d i t i e s and timidities and are i n d e f i a n c e o f t h i n g s as they a r e . Seen i n r e t r o s p e c t , the r e g r e t w i t h which Pound r e j e c t e d B r a n c u s i ' s i d e a l i s m i s extremely moving. He i n c o r p o r a t e d t h i s c o n n e c t i o n between usury and war i n t o h i s p o e t r y as e a r l y as canto e i g h t e e n : "Peace! P i e y c e ! ! s a i d Mr. G i d d i n g s , " U n i - v e r - s a l ? Not w h i l e yew got tew b i l l i o n s ov money," S a i d Mr. G i d d i n g s , " i n v e s t e d i n the man-u-facture "Of war machinery." ( X I I I , p81) Major Douglas' famous economic formula was thus g r a f t e d 247 onto B r a n c u s i ' s single-minded focus on a e s t h e t i c s , w i t h the common purpose of improving s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s . By e a r l y 1922 Pound had come to b e l i e v e t h a t the "saeculum novum of s u p e r - C h r i s t i a n b e n i g n i t y and k i n d l i n e s s " must be f i r s t p r e p ared f o r by c r e a t i n g an e n l i g h t e n e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of economics. However, although Pound r e j e c t e d B r a n c u s i ' s r e f i n e d a e s t h e t i c i s m , the concept of a r t as a magic c i r c l e which no contemporary s o c i a l concerns e n t e r e d , he accepted the c r e a t i v e s p i r i t behind B r a n c u s i ' s " d i f f i c u l t e x p l o r a t i o n toward g e t t i n g a l l the forms i n t o one form" (LE, 442) . The attempt might deserve p r a i s e , even i f i t f a i l e d t o reach a l l i t s c r e a t i v e o b j e c t i v e s : A r t very p o s s i b l y ought to be the supreme achievement, the "accomplished"; but t h e r e i s the o t h e r s a t i s f a c t o r y e f f e c t , t h a t of a man h u r l i n g h i m s e l f a t an i n d o m i t a b l e chaos, and yanking and h a u l i n g as much as p o s s i b l e i n t o some s o r t of o r d e r (or b e a u t y ) , aware of i t both as chaos and p o t e n t i a l . (LE, 396) I t i s important to note t h a t t h i s q u o t a t i o n comes from an essay w r i t t e n i n 1928, t h r e e years a f t e r the p u b l i c a t i o n of XVI Cantos and contemporaneous w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n of A D r a f t of Cantos: 17 to 27. With these experiments behind 248 him, Pound had not l o s t f a i t h i n the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of h i s attempt to h u r l h i m s e l f a t "an i n d o m i t a b l e chaos" i n o r d e r to yank i t i n t o some s o r t of o r d e r and beauty. Indeed, Pound went so f a r as to o f f e r the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t h a t " p l o t , major form, or o u t l i n e should be l e f t to authors who f e e l some i n n e r need f o r the same; even l e t us say a v e r y s t r o n g
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Ezra Pound’s early experiments with major forms, 1904-1925 : Directio Voluntatis McKeown, Thomas Wilson 1983
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Title | Ezra Pound’s early experiments with major forms, 1904-1925 : Directio Voluntatis |
Creator |
McKeown, Thomas Wilson |
Publisher | University of British Columbia |
Date Issued | 1983 |
Description | This dissertation argues that the coherent vision and single impulse which led to the major form of the Cantos also underlay Ezra Pound's seemingly disparite early experiments. In order to demonstrate that Pound's pre-occupation with major form provided a common denominator between his earliest, middle, and mature poetry, I have divided this study into three sections, which correspond to the three main stages of Pound's development. Part One: Instigation (1904-1911), demonstrates the two theories of perfect form that first attracted the young Pound, and documents his drive toward ever-subtler architectonic structures in his initial phase of development. Part Two: Experiment (1912-1919), re-defines the three qualities of rhythm, tone, texture, as they apply to Pound's experiments with major form. Part Three: Accomplishment (1920-1925), describes what stimulated Pound's theoretical breakthrough in 1922, and traces the expression of this theory through XVI Cantos, to show that this first installment of Pound's major poem fused his theory and practice of poetry. This achievement can only be properly appreciated properly, however, in the context of his earlier twenty-year experiment with other major forms. The Conclusion points out that the critical moment in the evolution of Pound's exploration of major forms occurred when he dropped his aspiration to write a purely personal document featuring "perfect" form, and became content to write a broader social "testament." Underneath the formal superstructures of his attempts at major form, Pound's holistic vision provided the base, or "unwobbling pivot", for his attempt to "show men the way to try" to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the patterned integrities of the "vital universe": stone, tree, and mind—alive. |
Subject |
Poetics |
Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
Type |
Text |
Language | eng |
Date Available | 2010-05-02 |
Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
DOI | 10.14288/1.0095872 |
URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/24318 |
Degree |
Doctor of Philosophy - PhD |
Program |
English |
Affiliation |
Arts, Faculty of English, Department of |
Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
Campus |
UBCV |
Scholarly Level | Graduate |
AggregatedSourceRepository | DSpace |
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