INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN TIME NEEDED TO LEARN: TEACHER COPING STRATEGIES by JANET B. WEBSTER B.Ed., U n i v e r s i t y Of B r i t i s h Columbia 1974 M.A., U n i v e r s i t y Of B r i t i s h Columbia 1978 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y And S p e c i a l E d u c a t i o n We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as co n f o r m i n g t o the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA J u l y 1982 © J a n e t B. Webster, 1982 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C olumbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head of my Department or by h i s or her r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g or p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department of E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y And S p e c i a l E d u c a t i o n The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia 2075 Wesbrook P l a c e Vancouver, Canada V6T 1W5 Date: 12 J u l y 1982 A b s t r a c t T h i s s t u d y was conducted t o i n v e s t i g a t e how t e a c h e r s cope w i t h the d i f f e r e n t i a l time needs of s t u d e n t s . Time was c o n s i d e r e d w i t h i n an economic framework and was c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as a l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e . The t a s k of t e a c h i n g was c o n s i d e r e d as the o p t i m i z a t i o n of l e a r n i n g w i t h i n the c o n s t r a i n t s imposed by the c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e of the c l a s s r o o m . Two major c o n s t r a i n t s c o n s i d e r e d were the l i m i t e d time a v a i l a b l e f o r s c h o o l i n g , and the v a r i a b i l i t y i n s t u d e n t time needs. I t was assumed t h a t the c l a s s r o o m makes t h r e e g o a l - l i k e demands on the t e a c h e r : coverage of c u r r i c u l u m m a t e r i a l , the engendering' of mastery by s t u d e n t s of t h a t m a t e r i a l , and the s e c u r i n g of s t u d e n t a t t e n t i o n or c o o p e r a t i o n . As none of t h e s e g o a l s may be r e a l i z e d w i t h o u t compromising s u c c e s s a t a c h i e v i n g the o t h e r s , the problem was c o n s i d e r e d as i n v o l v i n g t r a d e o f f s of c o v e r a g e , mastery and c o o p e r a t i o n . O b s e r v a t i o n s were conducted i n f i v e grade 3 c l a s s r o o m s i n a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n the lower m a i n l a n d of B r i t i s h C olumbia. The i n v e s t i g a t o r v i s i t e d each c l a s s r o o m f o r one day each week d u r i n g the F a l l term. The methodology was n a t u r a l i s t i c . N a r r a t i v e specimen r e c o r d s were w r i t t e n d u r i n g each v i s i t , the o n - t a s k r a t e s of each s t u d e n t f o r academic and non academic a c t i v i t i e s were r e c o r d e d e v e r y f i v e minutes and i n f o r m a l i n t e r v i e w s w i t h the t e a c h e r s were conducted. The s t r a t e g i e s used by the t e a c h e r s t o cope w i t h v a r i a b i l i t y i n time needs a r e d e s c r i b e d , and i n t e r p r e t e d from a u t i l i t a r i a n p e r s p e c t i v e . The s t r a t e g i e s appeared t o f u n c t i o n t o keep a c l a s s o p e r a t i n g as i f i t were a s i n g l e organism; k e e p i n g the c l a s s t o g e t h e r may a v o i d the m a n a g e r i a l and i n s t r u c t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n t e a c h i n g c l a s s e s of s t u d e n t s w i t h d i v e r s e time needs. The t e a c h e r i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as a u t i l i t a r i a n p r a g m a t i s t who o p t i m i z e s the l e a r n i n g of the c l a s s , r a t h e r than the l e a r n i n g of i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s . I t i s suggested t h a t the enhancement of t e a c h e r u t i l i t i e s i s a c h i e v e d through the c r e a t i o n and maintenance of an e q u i l i b r i u m between the time needs of the i n d i v i d u a l and the time needs of the c l a s s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t i s argued t h a t c l a s s r o o m p r o c e s s e s may be i n t e r p r e t e d as f u n c t i o n i n g t o e f f e c t a b a l a n c e between c o v e r a g e , mastery, and c o o p e r a t i o n . U n d e r l y i n g t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t e a c h i n g i s a model of the c l a s s r o o m as a h o m e o s t a t i c system. i v TABLE OF CONTENTS A b s t r a c t i i L i s t of T a b l e s v i i i L i s t of F i g u r e s x Acknowledgement x i Chapter 1 1 I n d i v i d u a l D i f f e r e n c e s And The C o l l e c t i v e N a ture Of S c h o o l i n g 1 I n d i v i d u a l D i f f e r e n c e s And Speed Of L e a r n i n g 5 T r a d i t i o n a l Methods 6 Time Needed To Learn 11 The Advantage Of Time As A M e t r i c 12 Time As An E d u c a t i o n a l Resource: An Economic Analogy . 13 The Nature Of The Study 15 The Development Of The Problem 15 G e n e r a l P e r s p e c t i v e s 18 Method Of P r e s e n t a t i o n 21 O r g a n i z a t i o n Of The Study 23 Chapter 2 26 The P r o c e s s Of I n v e s t i g a t i o n 26 Two Paradigms 26 I s s u e s Of Design In N a t u r a l i s t i c S t u d i e s 31 The Design Of The Study 37 Data C o l l e c t i o n 39 The Problem Of B i a s 43 V R e a c t i v i t y And O b s e r v a t i o n a l Measures 44 G e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y 50 Chapter 3 53 O r g a n i z a t i o n For I n s t r u c t i o n : L e v e l i n g And S h a r p e n i n g .... 53 S e l e c t i o n Of C h i l d r e n For I n s t r u c t i o n 55 I n t r a c l a s s G r o u p i n g 56 Myths About Grouping 58 Grouping D e c i s i o n s 62 W i t h i n C l a s s V a r i a t i o n In A b i l i t y 65 O r g a n i z a t i o n For I n s t r u c t i o n 67 F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g O r g a n i z a t i o n 72 To Group Or Not To Group 87 L e v e l i n g And S harpening 92 Chapter 4 96 V a r i a t i o n In Performance R a t e s : F a s t And Slow F i n i s h e r s . 96 I n d i v i d u a l D i f f e r e n c e s In Time Needed To L e a r n 97 Percentage Of Time In Which F i n i s h i n g Occured 100 Rate R a t i o s Of F a s t And Slow Workers .104 S t r a t e g i e s For Coping With F a s t F i n i s h e r s 113 S t r a t e g i e s For D e a l i n g With U n f i n i s h e d Work 118 D i s c u s s i o n 123 Chapter 5 130 O p p o r t u n i t y To L e a r n : Pace Of I n s t r u c t i o n 130 Pace Of I n s t r u c t i o n And Achievement 132 The S t e e r i n g Group H y p o t h e s i s 134 Measurement Of Pace 136 Teacher C o n t r o l Of Pace 147 Chapter 6 180 v i Time As An E d u c a t i o n a l Resource 180 Time As A V a l u a b l e Commodity 183 The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between Time And Achievement 185 The P r o d u c t i o n F u n c t i o n Model 186 Time A l l o c a t i o n As D e c i s i o n Making 190 Time A l l o c a t i o n W i t h i n An Economic Framework 196 A l l o c a t i o n Of Time To C u r r i c u l a r / n o n C u r r i c u l a r 201 A l l o c a t i o n Of Time To I n s t r u c t i o n 203 A l l o c a t i o n Of Time To I n s t r u c t i o n a l U n i t s 207 Chapter 7 218 Time-on-task 218 The Use Of Time By S t u d e n t s 221 Assessment Of Time-on-task 230 R e l i a b i l i t y Of The On-task Data 233 T a s k - r e l a t e d B e h a v i o r 235 W a i t i n g To F i n i s h S t r a t e g y 243 The L e v e l i n g H y p o t h e s i s 244 Chapter 8 .-> 246 A c t i v i t i e s : The B u s i n e s s Of S c h o o l 246 L e a r n i n g Or C o o p e r a t i o n .246 C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s Of C l a s s r o o m A c t i v i t i e s 250 Implementation Of A c t i v i t i e s 255 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Of A c t i v i t i e s 257 A c t i v i t i e s As F u n c t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l Responses 261 Rewards And C o s t s Of A c t i v i t i e s 264 B l o t t i n g Paper A c t i v i t i e s 273 Chapter 9 281 C o n c l u d i n g D i s c u s s i o n 281 v i i L i m i t a t i o n s Of The Study 281 The Mastery-Coverage Dilemma 284 Time Management 285 O p p o r t u n i t y To Learn 286 O p t i m i z a t i o n Of L e a r n i n g 288 Classroom Management And C o o p e r a t i o n 290 The Teacher As A U t i l i t a r i a n P r a g m a t i s t 291 A Metaphor For Classroom P r o c e s s e s : Homeostasis 293 V a l u e s And O p p o r t u n i t i e s 294 I m p l i c a t i o n s Of The Study 296 A C r i t i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e 302 B i b l i o g r a p h y 304 Appendix 1 - A DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE 319 Appendix 2 - NARRATIVE SPECIMEN RECORD 328 Appendix 3 - SUMMARY 333 Appendix 4 - QUESTIONS 336 Appendix 5 - CURRICULAR MATERIALS FOR GRADE 3 CLASSES ...339 Appendix 6 - EXERCISE ON BASIC FACTS 340 Appendix 7 - EXERCISE ON REGROUPING 341 Appendix 8 - TEACHER PREFERENCE SIMULATION 342 v i i i LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Gates M a c G i n i t i e Reading T e s t 65 T a b l e 2 Ginn I n i t i a l Placement T e s t 67 Table 3 Group Membership And Achievement - Gates M a c G i n i t i e Reading Test 74 T a b l e 4 Group Membership And Achievement - I n i t i a l Placement Test 76 Table 5 P e r c e n t a g e Of Time In Which F i n i s h i n g O c c u r r e d ..100 T a b l e 6 P e r c e n t a g e Of Time In Which The F a s t e s t 25% Were F i n i s h e d 102 Table 7 C o r r e c t Response Rate R a t i o 108 T a b l e 8 Pace In Reading 140 T a b l e 9 Pace In A r i t h m e t i c 143 Table 10 Pace In S p e l l i n g 144 T a b l e 11 P e r c e n t a g e Of V a r i a n c e Accounted For By M a s t e r y , Time, And Group 156 T a b l e 12 P e r c e n t a g e Of V a r i a n c e Accounted For By Coverage, Time, And Group 157 T a b l e 13 P e r c e n t a g e Of Time Spent On N o n - c u r r i c u l a r A c t i v i t i e s * 201 Table 14 P e r c e n t a g e Of Time In C l a s s r o o m Spent In I n s t r u c t i o n 204 T a b l e 15 P e r c e n t a g e Of Time Sch e d u l e d For C u r r i c u l a r A c t i v i t i e s Spent In I n s t r u c t i o n 205 T a b l e 16 P e r c e n t a g e Of I n s t r u c t i o n a l Time A l l o t t e d To Reading Groups 211 i x T a b l e 17 C l a s s Average P e r c e n t On-task B e h a v i o r 235 T a b l e 18 Percentage On-task By Group By V i s i t 236 T a b l e 19 P e r c e n t a g e Academic And Non Academic On-task B e h a v i o r 238 T a b l e 20 D i s c r e p a n c i e s In On-task B e h a v i o r 240 T a b l e 21 Time P e r i o d s W i t h Number Of A c t i v i t i e s In P r o g r e s s 256 Table 22 - P e r c e n t a g e Of Time On A c t i v i t i e s 260 Table 23 P e r c e n t a g e Of Time Spent In D i f f e r e n t Formats ..261 T a b l e A Teacher T r a i n i n g And E x p e r i e n c e 320 X LIST OF FIGURES F i g u r e 1 A H y p o t h e t i c a l I n d i f f e r e n c e Map x i Acknowledgement I t i s w i t h g r e a t p l e a s u r e t h a t I acknowledge the h e l p and guidance of the committee members who d i r e c t e d t h i s p r o j e c t ; t h e i r c r i t i c a l comments d i d much t o s t i m u l a t e my t h i n k i n g . I a l s o w i s h t o e x p r e s s my thanks t o the f i v e t e a c h e r s who so o b l i g i n g l y p e r m i t t e d me t o spend time i n t h e i r c l a s s r o o m s . The view of t e a c h i n g p r e s e n t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g pages i s not i n t e n d e d t o r e f l e c t an u n c h a r i t a b l e p i c t u r e of t e a c h e r s , but t o i d e n t i f y some of the c o n s t r a i n t s which e x i s t i n c l a s s r o o m s . I owe a p a r t i c u l a r debt of g r a t i t u d e t o my r e s e a r c h s u p e r v i s o r , Dr. M a r s h a l l A r l i n whose support gave me the c o n f i d e n c e t o pursue my i n t e r e s t s . For time g i v e n g r a c i o u s l y , f o r the s h a r i n g of i d e a s , and f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l comradeship i n g e n e r a l , my g r a t i t u d e knows no bounds. 1 CHAPTER 1 I n d i v i d u a l D i f f e r e n c e s and the C o l l e c t i v e Nature of S c h o o l i n g S o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e f r a u g h t w i t h an i n h e r e n t dilemma: a n e c e s s a r y t e n s i o n e x i s t s between meeting the p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c needs of the i n d i v i d u a l and the u n i v e r s a l needs of the group. Classrooms may be re g a r d e d as s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n which a s i m i l a r antagonism between the needs of the i n d i v i d u a l and the needs of the group e x i s t s . One a r e a where the needs of the i n d i v i d u a l and the needs of the c l a s s a r e i n c o n f l i c t i s i n the amount of time r e q u i r e d t o l e a r n . The p r e s e n t study was an e x p l o r a t i o n of the s t r a t e g i e s d e v e l o p e d by some grade t h r e e t e a c h e r s t o d e a l w i t h i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n time needed t o l e a r n . I t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of a t t e m p t s t o r e s o l v e t h i s fundamental c o n f l i c t might i l l u m i n a t e b a s i c c l a s s r o o m p r o c e s s e s . B a r r and Dreeben (1977) suggested t h a t c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g a r e dominated by a t u t o r i a l model, y e t the c l a s s r o o m i s a c o l l e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , the c e n t r a l o b l i g a t i o n of t e a c h i n g has been t o p r o v i d e l e a r n e r s w i t h e x p e r i e n c e s which w i l l l e a d u l t i m a t e l y t o growth i n s o c i e t a l l y approved s k i l l s . A n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r the f u l f i l l m e n t of t h i s o b l i g a t i o n i s t h a t t e a c h e r s p r e s e n t the m a t e r i a l t o be l e a r n e d and t h a t s t u d e n t s spend time s t u d y i n g i t . In a t u t o r i a l s i t u a t i o n the time needed t o l e a r n i s not i n h e r e n t l y p r o b l e m a t i c : the r a t e a t which the t e a c h e r p r e s e n t s the new m a t e r i a l can be a d j u s t e d t o 2 the time needs of the i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n e r . D i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e when e d u c a t i o n must be p r o v i d e d f o r groups of l e a r n e r s . I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n time needed t o l e a r n p r e s e n t the t e a c h e r w i t h a dilemma: t h e r e w i l l be some c h i l d r e n who r e q u i r e more time and some l e s s time than she has a l l o c a t e d . A p r i m a r y purpose of t h i s study i s t o document how some grade t h r e e t e a c h e r s d e a l w i t h v a r i a t i o n i n r a t e of l e a r n i n g i n t h e i r c l a s s e s . V a r i a t i o n i n time needed t o l e a r n which p r e c l u d e s t h a t s t u d e n t s w i l l a c q u i r e knowledge and s k i l l s i n u n i s o n p r e s e n t s something of a c h a l l e n g e t o t e a c h e r s . However, d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n i n g r a t e are n o t , i p s o f a c t o , p r o b l e m a t i c . A c e n t r a l t h e s i s of t h i s study i s t h a t i t i s the p e c u l i a r c o n s t r a i n t s of o r g a n i z e d s c h o o l i n g which e x a c e r b a t e the d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r t e a c h e r s . T y p i c a l l y , s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a a r e d e s i g n e d so t h a t p r e s c r i b e d amounts of s u b j e c t m a t t e r c o n t e n t a r e a s s i g n e d t o be c o v e r e d a t p a r t i c u l a r grade l e v e l s . Yet t e a c h e r s a r e r e q u i r e d t o i n s t r u c t c l a s s e s of c h i l d r e n who d i f f e r i n the amount of time they need t o l e a r n . I t i s t h i s d u a l requirement of coverage of a c e r t a i n amount of m a t e r i a l i n a s t a n d a r d amount of time which makes the problem of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n i n g r a t e p a r t i c u l a r l y t r e n c h a n t . S e v e r a l s o l u t i o n s t o t h i s problem of d i f f e r e n t i a l time needs p r e s e n t themselves f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Perhaps a r e d u c t i o n i n the c h a l l e n g e f a c i n g t e a c h e r s c o u l d be a c c o m p l i s h e d by the g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e of wide v a r i a t i o n i n s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g w i t h i n a grade l e v e l . To what e x t e n t 3 t e a c h e r s can manage programs which a l l o w f o r wide v a r i a t i o n i n s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g i s a moot p o i n t . A l t e r n a t e l y , time might be a l l o w e d t o v a r y so t h a t those who l e a r n e d i n l e s s than the a l l o c a t e d time might be p e r m i t t e d t o engage i n o t h e r p u r s u i t s , w h i l e those who l e a r n e d more s l o w l y would be r e q u i r e d t o spend more time i n s c h o o l . Cronbach (1967) r e j e c t e d t h i s l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e on the grounds t h a t i t "would e x t e n d the e d u c a t i o n of some y o u n g s t e r s u n t i l they were o l d s t e r s " (p. 2 5 ) . Fundamental d i f f e r e n c e s amongst c h i l d r e n i n the same grade i n terms of time needed t o l e a r n , c o u p l e d w i t h the c o n s t r a i n t s of a common c u r r i c u l u m and a l i m i t e d amount of time i n s c h o o l , l i k e l y p r e s e n t p r a c t i c a l problems which do not admit of s i m p l e s o l u t i o n s . The s t r a t e g i e s d e v e l o p e d by t e a c h e r s t o meet t h i s c h a l l e n g e were the f o c u s of the p r e s e n t s t u d y . The problem f a c e d by the t e a c h e r i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as the o p t i m i z a t i o n of s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g w i t h i n the c o n s t r a i n t s imposed by the c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e of the c l a s s r o o m . Two major c o n s t r a i n t s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s s tudy were the l i m i t e d time a v a i l a b l e f o r s c h o o l i n g and v a r i a b i l i t y i n s t u d e n t time needs. I t was assumed t h a t the c l a s s r o o m makes t h r e e g o a l - l i k e demands on the t e a c h e r , none of which can be a c h i e v e d w i t h o u t compromising s u c c e s s a t a c h i e v i n g the o t h e r s . These g o a l s a r e the coverage of a body of c u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l , the e n g e n d e r i n g of mastery by s t u d e n t s of t h a t m a t e r i a l , and the s e c u r i n g of s t u d e n t c o o p e r a t i o n or a t t e n t i o n i n the i n t e r e s t s of e f f e c t i v e c l a s s management ( c f . Abrahamson, 1974; Westbury, 1980). The c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e of the e d u c a t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e means t h a t a l l 4 g o a l s cannot be a c c o m p l i s h e d i n the l i m i t e d time p e r m i t t e d f o r s c h o o l i n g . In s i t u a t i o n s where o b j e c t i v e s are i n c o n f l i c t , or no a c c e p t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e e x i s t s , the predicament f a c i n g the d e c i s i o n maker has been c h a r a c t e r i z e d as i n v o l v i n g v a l u e t r a d e o f f s (Keeney and R a i f f a , 1976). In essence the d e c i s i o n maker i s r e q u i r e d t o weigh, a l b e i t i n t u i t i v e l y , the v a l u e of a c h i e v i n g one o b j e c t i v e compared t o a n o t h e r . A c c o r d i n g l y , the dilemma f a c i n g t e a c h e r s of meeting the needs of the c l a s s and the needs of the i n d i v i d u a l was c o n s i d e r e d as a problem i n v o l v i n g t r a d e o f f s between c o v e r a g e , mastery and c o o p e r a t i o n . I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h i s j u n c t u r e t o i n d i c a t e the sense i n which the words c o v e r a g e , mastery, and c o o p e r a t i o n a r e used i n t h i s s t u d y . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o mastery because of i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the mastery l e a r n i n g t r a d i t i o n (Bloom, 1968). W i t h i n the mastery l e a r n i n g t r a d i t i o n , mastery r e f e r s t o a p a r t i c u l a r c r i t e r i o n l e v e l of achievement ( t y p i c a l l y 8 0 % ) . In t h i s s t u d y , mastery i s c o n c e i v e d as a continuum which i n d i c a t e s the degree or depth of s k i l l s , knowledge or l e a r n i n g a c q u i r e d by s t u d e n t s . No f i x e d c r i t e r i o n l e v e l i s i m p l i e d , and mastery i s used i n a r e l a t i v e r a t h e r than an a b s o l u t e sense. In c o n t r a s t t o mastery or depth of l e a r n i n g , coverage i s used t o r e f e r t o the b r e a d t h or amount of c u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l t o which s t u d e n t s a r e exposed. C o o p e r a t i o n i s used t o r e f e r t o s t u d e n t a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r as measured by on-task r a t e s . I n d i v i d u a l D i f f e r e n c e s and Speed of L e a r n i n g 5 As a p r e f a c e t o the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t e a c h e r s t r a t e g i e s , how i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s and the r e l a t i o n s h i p t o l e a r n i n g have been r e g a r d e d i n the e d u c a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i s c o n s i d e r e d . I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n i n g i s a w e l l documented phenomenon which has been a c c e p t e d by many e d u c a t o r s and p s y c h o l o g i s t s ( A n a s t a s i , 1967; E l l i s , 1932; T y l e r , 1965). T y l e r (1965) d i s c u s s e d v a r i a b i l i t y i n s c h o o l accomplishment as the r u l e r a t h e r than the e x c e p t i o n . R e f e r r i n g t o a study by Learned and Wood (1938) she p o i n t e d out t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n a grade a r e f a r g r e a t e r than the average d i f f e r e n c e between grades. Thomas and Thomas (1965) concerned w i t h how t e a c h e r s d e a l w i t h i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n the c l a s s r o o m argued t h a t v a r i a b i l i t y i n human l e a r n i n g may be e x p r e s s e d as v a r i a b l i t y i n speed of l e a r n i n g . I t i s the v a r i a b i l i t y i n the speed of l e a r n i n g which they c o n s i d e r e d t o be p r o b l e m a t i c f o r t e a c h e r s . One of the d i f f i c u l t i e s they mentioned i s the problem of c o n d u c t i n g a h e t e r o g e n e o u s l y grouped c l a s s a t an average speed which they b e l i e v e l e a d s t o the f a s t e r s t u d e n t s b e i n g h e l d back and the slowe r s t u d e n t s b e i n g overwhelmed. E l l i s (1932) a l s o d i s c u s s e d speed of l e a r n i n g and the p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n v o l v e d i n e d u c a t i n g f a s t e r and s l o w e r " t h i n k e r s " i n the same room. The t e a c h e r a p p a r e n t l y has t o choose between the S c y l l a of f r u s t r a t i o n and the C h a r y b d i s of boredom. He argued t h a t i f the t e a c h e r adapts the work t o the b r i g h t e r s t u d e n t s "he t a l k s over the heads of the m a j o r i t y of the c l a s s and he t r a v e l s t o o f a s t f o r them" (p. 449). 6 C o n v e r s e l y , he argued t h a t a d a p t a t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n t o the slower members of the c l a s s r a i s e s the s p e c t r e of boredom f o r the b e t t e r s t u d e n t s by " d w e l l i n g too l o n g on s i m p l e t h i n g s " (p. 449). E l l i s ' s o l u t i o n t o the problem was t o d e l a y e n t r y i n t o s c h o o l u n t i l c h i l d r e n had a t t a i n e d the a p p r o p r i a t e mental age and then t o c l a s s i f y the c h i l d r e n p r o p e r l y . These d i s c u s s i o n s of speed of l e a r n i n g appear t o have been m o t i v a t e d by the e f f o r t s of d i f f e r e n t i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s t o c l a s s i f y and q u a n t i f y v a r i a t i o n i n mental a b i l i t y . In o t h e r words, speed of l e a r n i n g was t r e a t e d as an a d j u n c t of an a b i l i t i e s view of l e a r n i n g r a t h e r than as a c l a s s r o o m problem i n i t s own r i g h t . Common sense d i c t a t e s t h a t the e x i s t e n c e of f a s t e r and slowe r l e a r n e r s w i l l appear as a problem whenever the r e q u i r e m e n t of coverage of the c u r r i c u l u m i n a l i m i t e d time e x i s t s i n a group s e t t i n g . A review of some of the l i t e r a t u r e of the l a s t hundred y e a r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t the problem of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s was apprehended, but was not p l a c e d i n the c o n t e x t of d i f f e r e n t i a l time needs i n l e a r n i n g . T r a d i t i o n a l Methods f o r D e a l i n g w i t h F a s t and Slow L e a r n e r s An h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e v a l i d a t e s the common sense n o t i o n t h a t the e x i s t e n c e of f a s t e r and slowe r l e a r n e r s w i t h i n the same c l a s s r o o m i s p r o b l e m a t i c i n terms of coverage of the c u r r i c u l u m . The d i f f i c u l t y of c o v e r i n g the r e q u i r e d m a t e r i a l i n the a l l o t e d time i s i m p l i c i t i n many of the d i s c u s s i o n s of e a r l y t e a c h e r t r a i n e r s ( B a g l e y , 1907; B a g l e y , 1917; B e n n e t t , 1917; D u t t o n , 1903; S e a r s , 1918; S e e l e y , 1903; Whit e , 1893); 7 p r e s e r v i c e and i n s e r v i c e t e a c h e r s were e x h o r t e d t o make eve r y minute i n s c h o o l c o u n t . A l t h o u g h the d i f f i c u l t y of c u r r i c u l u m coverage w i t h f a s t e r and sl o w e r l e a r n e r s was not ad d r e s s e d e x p l i c i t l y , f o u r s t r a t e g i e s which appear t o be at t e m p t s t o a l l e v i a t e the problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n time needed t o l e a r n were i d e n t i f i e d ; they a r e i g n o r i n g , a d a p t i n g , g r a d i n g , and g r o u p i n g . I g n o r i n g . The w r i t e r s of the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t e x t b o o k s ( B a g l e y , 1907; B a g l e y , 1917; Be n n e t t , 1917; D u t t o n , 1903; S e a r s , 1918; S e e l e y , 1903; Whit e , 1893) r a r e l y d i r e c t l y a d d r e s s e d the problem of f a s t e r and slower l e a r n e r s . The p i c t u r e g e n e r a t e d by thes e e a r l y t e x t b o o k w r i t e r s i s t h a t of c l a s s e s p r o c e d i n g t h r o u g h a common c u r r i c u l u m a t a u n i f o r m r a t e . However t h a t the problem of d i f f e r e n t i a l l e a r n i n g r a t e s e x i s t e d , and was d i m l y p e r c e i v e d , i s r e f l e c t e d i n the e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n s of promotion p r a c t i c e s . I t seems t h a t a n n u a l l y , or s e m i a n n u a l l y , s t u d e n t p r o g r e s s was re v i e w e d . Those who had c o v e r e d the m a t e r i a l , and had made the grade, were promoted w h i l e those who f a i l e d t o keep pace were r e q u i r e d t o r e p e a t the y e a r ' s work. Such was the g e n e r a l c o n c e s s i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . Once the r i t u a l was over f o r the year presumably the i g n o r e s t r a t e g y c o u l d be r e t u r n e d t o i t s p o s i t i o n of preeminence. A d a p t i n g . A l t h o u g h the tendency t o i g n o r e i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n time needed t o l e a r n appears t o have been wi d e s p r e a d t h e r e were some e x p e r i m e n t a l programs which a t t e m p t e d t o a d j u s t the pace of i n s t r u c t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l s . 8 The B a t a v i a p l a n ( B e n n e t t , 1917) i n s t i t u t e d i n New York c i t y , u t i l i z e d the s e r v i c e s of an e x t r a t e a c h e r i n the c l a s s r o o m t o p r o v i d e t u t o r i a l h e l p so t h a t p u p i l s c o u l d be promoted more r a p i d l y . The Pueblo p l a n ( B e n n e t t , 1917) was s i m i l a r t o l a t t e r day mastery l e a r n i n g i n t h a t i t p e r m i t t e d time t o v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o the needs of i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s . The Cambridge d o u b l e - t r a c k p l a n ( S e a r s , 1918) acknowledged the n e c e s s i t y of d i f f e r e n t paces of i n s t r u c t i o n by d i v i d i n g c u r r i c u l a r c o n t e n t i n t o two s e c t i o n s t o accommodate f a s t and slow l e a r n e r s . None of t h e s e i n n o v a t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s t o whole c l a s s t e a c h i n g , ' which i n v o l v e d the a d a p t a t i o n of the r a t e of c u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l s t o the time needs of c h i l d r e n , appears t o have been w i d e l y u t i l i z e d . A r e a s o n a b l e c o n c l u s i o n i s the s t r a t e g y of i g n o r i n g i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s was f u n c t i o n a l i n t h a t i t e n a b l e d t e a c h e r s , l a c k i n g i n s o p h i s t i c a t e d t r a i n i n g , t o d e a l w i t h the problem of b r i n g i n g v a s t numbers of c h i l d r e n t o m i n i m a l l e v e l s of competency i n b a s i c s u b j e c t s . G r a d i n g . The r i s e of the t e s t i n g movement a f t e r World War One not o n l y s e n s i t i z e d e d u c a t o r s t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t y , but p r o v i d e d a means whereby th e s e c o u l d be q u a n t i f i e d . A c c o r d i n g l y , t e s t s were used t o s e g r e g a t e c h i l d r e n i n t o c l a s s e s on the b a s i s of a b i l i t y . Breed (1933) made i t a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r t h a t the impetus t o "grade", or t o s o r t , was p r o v i d e d , not by the p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n v i c t i o n of the need t o accommodate i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , but by the more p r a g m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the problem of pace. C l a s s e s composed of c h i l d r e n w i t h heterogeneous 9 l e a r n i n g r a t e s posed the problem of a p p r o p r i a t e p a c i n g . The s o l u t i o n was t o group t o g e t h e r c h i l d r e n h i g h i n a b i l i t y who l e a r n e d q u i c k l y . so t h a t they c o u l d cover the m a t e r i a l a t a f a s t e r r a t e . C h i l d r e n low i n a b i l i t y who l e a r n e d more s l o w l y were a l s o grouped t o g e t h e r so t h a t they c o u l d c o v e r the work-at a s l o w e r r a t e . The assumption seems t o have been t h a t the placement of c h i l d r e n who were homogeneous i n a b i l i t y i n the same grade would make homogeneous p a c i n g more e f f i c i e n t . A fundamental f l a w i n the r a t i o n a l e of the g r a d i n g approach was the assumption t h a t homogeneity of a b i l i t y or achievement was u n i f o r m a c r o s s s e v e r a l s c h o o l s u b j e c t s . In o t h e r words, i t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t i f a c l a s s was homogeneous on one d i m e n s i o n , f o r example r e a d i n g , they would a l s o be homogeneous on o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s . I t was demonstrated t h a t a r e d u c t i o n of the w i t h i n c l a s s v a r i a n c e on one dimension was not n e c e s s a r i l y accompanied by a r e d u c t i o n of w i t h i n c l a s s v a r i a n c e on o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s (Goodlad and Anderson, 1959). ( T h i s assumption i s d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n c h a p t e r t h r e e i n the s e c t i o n e n t i t l e d " n a r r o w i n g the r a n g e " ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , g r a d i n g t u r n e d out not t o be the pedagogic panacea. G r o u p i n g . The f o r m a t i o n of c l a s s e s homogeneous i n a b i l i t y tends t o be eschewed by modern e d u c a t o r s as e l i t i s t i n n a t u r e : heterogeneous c l a s s e s a r e p r e f e r r e d on s o c i o l o g i c a l and academic grounds ( E s p o s i t o , 1973; Rosenbaum, 1980). T h i s s h i f t i n p h i l o s o p h y a g a i n c o n f r o n t s the t e a c h e r w i t h the problem of f a s t and slow l e a r n e r s and the d i f f i c u l t y of 10 c h o o s i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e pace. Many p r i m a r y t e a c h e r s choose a g r o u p i n g s t r a t e g y t o a m e l i o r a t e p a c i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s ( B a r r , 1975). Grouping r e f e r s t o the p r a c t i c e of s u b d i v i d i n g c h i l d r e n , w i t h i n the same c l a s s , i n t o groups f o r i n s t r u c t i o n . The g r o u p i n g of c h i l d r e n w i t h i n the same c l a s s may h e l p accommodate f a s t e r and slowe r l e a r n e r s , but l i k e l y p r e s e n t s the t e a c h e r w i t h time a l l o c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s . A c r i t i c a l problem of g r o u p i n g i s the q u e s t i o n of how much i n s t r u c t i o n a l time a t e a c h e r can p r o v i d e f o r each group, g i v e n t h a t the t o t a l time f o r t e a c h i n g remains c o n s t a n t . How f a r g r o u p i n g a m e l i o r a t e s p a c i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s a t the expense of e x a c e r b a t i n g time a l l o c a t i o n problems i s worth c o n s i d e r i n g . Four ways of c o p i n g w i t h the problem of f a s t e r and slo w e r l e a r n e r s have been i d e n t i f i e d . A d a p t i n g the r a t e of i n s t r u c t i o n w i t h i n a c l a s s appears t o have been used i n a l i m i t e d way, and i n programs which were r e c o g n i z e d as i n n o v a t i v e . I g n o r i n g , g r a d i n g and g r o u p i n g were i d e n t i f i e d as major c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s p r e f e r r e d a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s d u r i n g the l a s t hundred y e a r s . The wid e s p r e a d use of the s t r a t e g i e s suggest t h a t they were responses of e d u c a t i o n systems, r a t h e r than of i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s , t o the problem of d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n i n g r a t e s . The problem f a c e d by e d u c a t i o n systems, how to accommodate s t u d e n t s w i t h d i f f e r i n g time needs, i s a l s o f a c e d by the i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r w i t h i n a c l a s s r o o m . In s p i t e of the apparent d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n d i f f e r e n t i a l l e a r n i n g r a t e s , the r e g u l a r i t y w i t h which c o u n t l e s s t e a c h e r s c o n f r o n t numerous c l a s s e s suggest t h a t c o p i n g mechanisms e v o l v e . G i v e n 11 the c o m p l e x i t y , m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l i t y and the s i m u l t a n e i t y of c l a s s r o o m s ( D o y l e , 1979; J a c k s o n , 1968) and the c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e of s c h o o l i n g (Dreeben, 1970), the emergence of s e v e r a l s t r a t e g i e s was a n t i c i p a t e d . The t y p e s of s t r a t e g i e s used by t e a c h e r s , and the p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n t hey s e r v e , were i n v e s t i g a t e d i n the p r e s e n t s t u d y . Time Needed t o Learn Human v a r i a t i o n i n a b i l i t i e s i s o f t e n e x p r e s s e d as v a r i a t i o n i n l e v e l of l e a r n i n g , or achievement, r a t h e r than as v a r i a t i o n i n time needed, or r a t e of l e a r n i n g . In the t r a d i t i o n a l view i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n achievement a r e p u r p o r t e d t o r e f l e c t ' ' d i f f e r e n c e s i n b a s i c a b i l i t i e s or a p t i t u d e s ( T y l e r , 1965). The assumption i s t h a t as an o r g a n i s m i c v a r i a b l e , a b i l i t y or a p t i t u d e i s a r e l a t i v e l y e n d u r i n g and s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the i n d i v i d u a l which i s not amenable t o l a r g e change t h r o u g h e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s . An a l t e r n a t i v e way of v i e w i n g i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s was proposed by C a r r o l l (1963); the concept of time was i n t r o d u c e d as a c e n t r a l v a r i a b l e i n s c h o o l l e a r n i n g . In the C a r r o l l model the u s u a l c o n c e p t i o n of a p t i t u d e s as p r e d i c t i n g the l e v e l of achievement, g i v e n c o n s t a n t i n s t r u c t i o n a l t i m e , i s transmuted t o a c o n c e p t i o n of a p t i t u d e s as p r e d i c t i n g the time n e c e s s a r y t o r e a c h a g i v e n l e v e l of performance, under c o n d i t i o n s of o p t i m a l i n s t r u c t i o n . In e f f e c t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n a p t i t u d e s a r e c o n c e p t u a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n i n g t i m e . I t 12 s h o u l d be noted t h a t t h i s c o n c e p t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n does not l o g i c a l l y e n t a i l a r e j e c t i o n of the premise of r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . The Advantages of Time as a M e t r i c The r e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t i e s as d i f f e r e n c e s i n time needed t o l e a r n does not merely s a t i s f y the d i c t a t e s of academic a e s t h e t i c s . Both C a r r o l l (1963) and Bloom (1974) applauded the advantages of time as a r a t i o s c a l e : i t has an a b s o l u t e z e r o p o i n t and e q u a l u n i t s of measurement. Bloom (1974) a l s o p o i n t e d t o the f a c t t h a t i t a l l o w s c l e a r and unambiguous comparisons of i n d i v i d u a l s . I t i s t h i s l a t t e r p o i n t of c o m p a r a b i l i t y amongst i n d i v i d u a l s which makes time an a t t r a c t i v e m e t r i c f o r those who seek t o u n d e r s t a n d the c o m p l e x i t i e s of the t e a c h e r ' s t a s k . From an a b i l i t i e s v i e w p o i n t , the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of c h i l d r e n r e q u i r e s e x t e n s i v e p s y c h o m e t r i c assessment which i s time consuming, and o f t e n not a v a i l a b l e t o e i t h e r a t e a c h e r or a r e s e a r c h e r . On the o t h e r hand, d i f f e r e n c e s between c h i l d r e n i n terms of the time r e q u i r e d t o f i n i s h a s s i g n m e n t s , l e a r n m u l t i p l i c a t i o n t a b l e s , and t o read s t o r i e s i s r e a d i l y and f r e q u e n t l y a v a i l a b l e t o an o b s e r v e r . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s proposed t h a t the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of v a r i a t i o n i n human l e a r n i n g i n terms of time i s a p r a g m a t i c way of i n v e s t i g a t i n g the d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s p r e s e n t t o the t e a c h e r . In the C a r r o l l model time t a k e n t o r e a c h a p a r t i c u l a r 13 l e v e l of achievement i s of s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h i s p e r m i t s the c a l c u l a t i o n of a v a r i a b l e , l e a r n i n g r a t e , which r e f l e c t s the amount l e a r n e d per u n i t of t i m e . On a day-to-day b a s i s i t seems u n r e a l i s t i c t o a n t i c i p a t e t h a t a concept as p r e c i s e as l e a r n i n g r a t e w i l l have u t i l i t a r i a n v a l u e f o r busy t e a c h e r s . I t i s proposed t h a t the work of the t e a c h e r i s perhaps more a p p r o p r i a t e l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the m o n i t o r i n g of assignments than by the p r e c i s e assessment of achievement. C o n s e q u e n t l y , speed of w o r k i n g , or r a t e of performance, r a t h e r than l e a r n i n g r a t e which i n v o l v e s the assessment of s t u d e n t achievement, i s l i k e l y of g r e a t e r p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t i s suggested t h a t time needed t o f i n i s h a s s i g n m e n t s , r a t h e r than time needed t o l e a r n ( i n the sense of measured a c h i e v e m e n t ) , i s of immediate i n t e r e s t t o t e a c h e r s . T h e r e f o r e , how t e a c h e r s cope w i t h i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n performance r a t e s , r a t h e r than l e a r n i n g r a t e s , was the c e n t r a l c o n c e r n of t h i s s t u d y . Time as an E d u c a t i o n a l Resource: An Economic Analogy The c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n terms of o b s e r v a b l e time elements has the a d d i t i o n a l advantage t h a t the e d u c a t i o n a l needs of c h i l d r e n may be e x p r e s s e d i n terms of the amount of i n s t r u c t i o n a l time needed. In o t h e r words, time may be t r e a t e d as i f i t were a r e s o u r c e and t h e r e f o r e c a p a b l e of b e i n g a l l o c a t e d t o s t u d e n t s i n much the same way as t e x t b o o k s and o t h e r r e s o u r c e s . Large s c a l e s t u d i e s of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between time and achievement (Bo r g , 1979; F r e d r i c k and Walberg, 1980; W i l e y and 1 4 H a r n i s c h f e g e r , 1974) s u p p o r t the i d e a t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y time i s an i m p o r t a n t r e s o u r c e f o r l e a r n i n g . The t r e a t m e n t of time as a r e s o u r c e and i t s i n f l u e n c e on achievement i s known as a p r o d u c t i o n f u n c t i o n view of s c h o o l i n g (Thomas, 1971). In the p r o d u c t i o n f u n c t i o n f o r m u l a t i o n time i s r e g a r d e d as an i n p u t and s t u d e n t achievement as an o u t p u t . B a r r and Dreeben (1977) argued t h a t i f a p r o d u c t i o n f u n c t i o n view of e d u c a t i o n , where i n p u t s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o o u t p u t s , i s a c c e p t e d , then i t becomes i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d the p r o c e s s e s which c o n t r o l the a l l o c a t i o n of r e s o u r c e s . A l t h o u g h t h e i r o r i g i n a l argument r e f e r r e d t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p r o c e s s e s which c o n t r o l r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n f o r an e d u c a t i o n a l system, i t seems e q u a l l y as a p p o s i t e a t the l e v e l of the c l a s s r o o m . A p r o d u c t i o n f u n c t i o n view of the c l a s s r o o m , where time i n p u t s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o achievement o u t p u t s , l e n d s urgency t o the n e c e s s i t y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p r o c e s s e s which c o n t r o l the a l l o c a t i o n of r e s o u r c e s a t t h i s l e v e l . A l t h o u g h the amount of time a v a i l a b l e f o r s c h o o l l e a r n i n g t y p i c a l l y has a f i x e d l e g a l l i m i t (which i n B r i t i s h Columbia i s 25 hours per week), e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r s have c o n s i d e r a b l e j u r i s d i c t i o n r e g a r d i n g how t h a t time w i l l be used. Given t h a t time i s a l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t t e a c h e r s w i l l be a b l e t o p r o v i d e o p t i m a l l y f o r a l l l e a r n e r s . How they attempt t o meet the time needs of s t u d e n t s , w i t h i n the c o n s t r a i n t s imposed by the c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e of s c h o o l i n g , was the concern of t h i s s t u d y . 1 5 The Nature of the Study The p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e of t h i s endeavour w a r r a n t s some p r e f a t o r y remarks. The i n t e n t i o n was t o " h o l d a m i r r o r up t o n a t u r e " i n o r d e r t o r e f l e c t l i f e i n c l a s s r o o m s as i t i s l i v e d . The methodology then was n a t u r a l i s t i c r a t h e r than e x p e r i m e n t a l ; the emphasis was on d e s c r i p t i o n r a t h e r than m a n i p u l a t i o n and c o n t r o l of v a r i a b l e s , on h y p o t h e s i s g e n e r a t i o n r a t h e r than h y p o t h e s i s t e s t i n g . One c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the n a t u r a l i s t i c approach i s t h a t the phenomena under i n v e s t i g a t i o n d i c t a t e the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of the r e s e a r c h problem. W i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c framework, the r e s e a r c h problem i s dynamic r a t h e r than s t a t i c , t y p i c a l l y u n d e r g o i n g development and m o d i f i c a t i o n . I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h i s j u n c t u r e t o i n d i c a t e the development of the problem i n the c u r r e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The Development of the Problem The c u r r e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n began w i t h the q u e s t i o n of how t e a c h e r s cope w i t h s t u d e n t s who d i f f e r i n time needs, when t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n c l u d e c o v e r i n g a p a r t i c u l a r c u r r i c u l u m i n a l i m i t e d amount of t i m e . Time was c o n s i d e r e d t o be a l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e which would be used by t e a c h e r s t o enhance s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g . I t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t s t u d e n t s would v a r y i n the amount of time they needed t o do work, but i t was assumed t h a t t e a c h e r s would accommodate t o s t u d e n t needs i n accordance w i t h the d i c t a t e s of m a x i m i z i n g s t u d e n t 16 l e a r n i n g . The accommodations made by t e a c h e r s were e x p e c t e d t o r e v e a l c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s . A fundamental assumption u n d e r l y i n g t h e s e e x p e c t a t i o n s , and a c c o r d i n g t o Doyle (1979), an u n d e r l y i n g premise of most r e s e a r c h on t e a c h i n g , i s t h a t t e a c h i n g i s a r a t i o n a l a c t which may be u n d e r s t o o d i n terms of means and ends; t e a c h i n g i s seen as the means t o r e a c h the o b j e c t i v e , s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g (Gage, 1978). C o n s e q u e n t l y , the o r i g i n a l assumption made, t h a t time i n s c h o o l would be u t i l i z e d by t e a c h e r s t o enhance s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g , i s an assumption shared by most r e s e a r c h e r s of t e a c h i n g . D u r i n g the c o u r s e of the p r e s e n t s t u d y , i t became apparent t h a t the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of the r o l e of the t e a c h e r as m a x i m i z i n g s t u d e n t achievement was inadequate t o account f o r the d a t a c o l l e c t e d . In some c a s e s , the d a t a suggested t h a t r a t h e r than enhance l e a r n i n g , the t e a c h e r a c t i v e l y m a n i p u l a t e d c o n d i t i o n s t o p r e v e n t l e a r n i n g from o c c u r r i n g . These o b s e r v a t i o n s which ran c o u n t e r both t o i n t u i t i o n , and t o e s t a b l i s h e d b e l i e f s about the f u n c t i o n of t e a c h i n g , demanded e x p l a n a t i o n . In o r d e r t o accommodate the c o u n t e r - i n t u i t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n s , a r e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of the r o l e of the t e a c h e r i s proposed. I t i s suggested i n the p r e s e n t study t h a t c l a s s r o o m p r o c e s s e s make b e t t e r sense, i f they a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as f u n c t i o n i n g t o enhance t e a c h e r u t i l i t i e s r a t h e r than t o maximize s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g . To s u p p o r t t h i s view the argument i s advanced t h a t the enhancement of t e a c h e r u t i l i t i e s i s a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h the c r e a t i o n and maintenance of an 1 7 e q u i l i b r i u m between the time needs of the i n d i v i d u a l and the time needs of the c l a s s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t i s argued t h a t c l a s s r o o m p r o c e s s e s may be i n t e r p r e t e d as f u n c t i o n i n g t o e f f e c t a b a l a n c e between c o v e r a g e , mastery, and c o o p e r a t i o n . U n d e r l y i n g t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t e a c h i n g i s a model of the c l a s s r o o m as a h o m e o s t a t i c system. The remainder of t h i s r e p o r t i s an attempt t o document how t e a c h e r s t r a t e g i e s f o r c o p i n g w i t h i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n time needed t o l e a r n may be i n t e r p r e t e d as an e f f o r t a f t e r e q u i l i b r i u m . The i d e a of e q u i l i b r i u m has p r o v i d e d the b a s i s f o r much t h e o r i z i n g i n p s y c h o l o g y . The common denominator of the v a r i o u s dynamic approaches i n p s y c h o l o g y i s the c o n c e p t i o n of l i v i n g t h i n g s as systems which t e n d t o m a i n t a i n a dynamic e q u i l i b r i u m i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r environment. The i n d i v i d u a l i s c o n c e i v e d as a system whose components m a i n t a i n a r e l a t i v e f l e x i b i l i t y of i n t e r r e l a t i o n s ; v a r i a t i o n i n one a s p e c t of the system may induce compensating changes i n o t h e r a s p e c t s , thus m a i n t a i n i n g the i n t e g r e t y of the system ( D e u t s c h , 1968, p. 421). The b i o l o g i c a l n o t i o n of a s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g system has been a p p l i e d t o the ps y c h o l o g y of i n d i v i d u a l s and t o the p s y c h o l o g y of groups. A model of the i n d i v i d u a l as a h o m e o s t a t i c system p r o v i d e s the c o n c e p t u a l u n d e r p i n n i n g s f o r the t h e o r i e s of F e s t i n g e r (1957), H u l l (1952), Lewin (1946) and P i a g e t (1975). S i m i l a r l y , a model of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n as h o m e o s t a t i c u n d e r l i e s the t h e o r i e s of H e i d e r (1958) and Newcomb (1956). In the p r e s e n t s t u d y , the i d e a i s devel o p e d t h a t time r e l a t e d a s p e c t s of t e a c h e r b e h a v i o r may be i n t e r p r e t e d as a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h and m a i n t a i n an e q u i l i b r i u m between competing demands i n the c l a s s r o o m . 18 G e n e r a l P e r s p e c t i v e s or Fundamental Assumptions I t has become f a s h i o n a b l e t o bemoan the f a c t t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r Weltanschauung can have a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e upon r e s e a r c h . The argument i s t h a t a problem f o r m u l a t e d from w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e can y i e l d no f u r t h e r i n s i g h t s than a r e a l l o w e d by the c o n s t r i c t i n g frame of i t s o r i g i n a l f o r m u l a t i o n . I t has been suggested t h a t such c o n d i t i o n s make " o b j e c t i v e " s c i e n c e i m p o s s i b l e (Kuhn, 1962). S i m i l a r l y , Cohen (1953) r e j e c t e d the n o t i o n of the s c i e n t i s t as det a c h e d o b s e r v e r . He argued p e r s u a s i v e l y t h a t : i f the term s c i e n t i f i c method i s used i n any s i g n i f i c a n t sense i t cannot be s a i d t o b e g i n w i t h a t a b u l a r a s a and pure s e n s e - i m p r e s s i o n s on i t (p. 7 8 ) . In Cohen's view, the n e c e s s i t y of c o l l e c t i n g the f a c t s which have some b e a r i n g on an i n q u i r y , depends upon whether our i d e a s as t o how t h a t which i s sought f o r can p o s s i b l y be r e l a t e d t o what we a c t u a l l y know. A c c o r d i n g l y , b a s i c assumptions about the w o r l d and about a c q u i s t i o n of knowledge ar e not " e r r o r s " t o be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e l i m i n a t e d but i m p o r t a n t c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r s i n the way i n which we view and s t a t e problems. T h i s v i e w p o i n t r e j e c t s the i d e a of extreme p o s i t i v i s m or " b l i n d " e m p i r i c i s m , u n t a r n i s h e d by i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . However, the acknowledgement t h a t s c i e n c e can never be t r u l y v a l u e f r e e , or c o m p l e t e l y s t r i p p e d of i n t e r p r e t i v e f a c t o r s , need not l i c e n c e s u b j e c t i v i t y . The r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t 19 fundamental assumptions or p e r s p e c t i v e s have the p o t e n t i a l t o i n f l u e n c e i n q u i r y c a r r i e s w i t h i t the o b l i g a t i o n t o e l u c i d a t e as f a r as i s p o s s i b l e the p r i n c i p l e s g u i d i n g the r e s e a r c h . Two s c h o o l s of thought have i n f l u e n c e d the conduct of the p r e s e n t s t u d y ; the e c o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n i n p s y c h o l o g y and the f u n c t i o n a l i s t approach i n s o c i o l o g y . A fundamental assumption of an e c o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n i s t h a t b e h a v i o r a r i s e s as a response t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s t r a i n t s . W i l l e m s (1965) argued t h a t an e c o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n has two f a c e t s , m e t h o d o l o g i c a l and c o n c e p t u a l . C o n c e p t u a l l y , the environment i s r e g a r d e d as a s e t of f a c t o r s which a c t i v a t e b e h a v i o r . The methodology of an e c o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n f o l l o w s as a l o g i c a l consequence of t h i s p r i n c i p l e ; e c o l o g i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s c o l l e c t d a t a i n s i t u because the d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n a c o n t r o l l e d e x periment may not r e f l e c t b e h a v i o r i n the n a t u r a l environment. Whereas the e c o l o g i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t may be s a t i s f i e d w i t h d e l i n e a t i n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s e t t i n g s which e l i c i t p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v i o r s , the s o c i o l o g i s t of a f u n c t i o n a l i s t p e r s u a s i o n would be i n c l i n e d t o d e l v e f u r t h e r . F u n c t i o n a l i s m adopts the p o s t u r e t h a t phenomena i n a s o c i a l s e t t i n g s e r v e a f u n c t i o n . The p a r t i c u l a r s t a n c e adopted i n the p r e s e n t work r e f l e c t s the r e l a t i v e f u n c t i o n a l i s m of Robert Merton (1967). A c c o r d i n g l y s e v e r a l f u r t h e r a s s u m p t i o n s , emanating from Merton's c r i t i q u e of a b s o l u t e f u n c t i o n a l i s m , r e q u i r e a t t e n t i o n . I t i s assumed t h a t b e h a v i o r i s not n e c e s s a r i l y u n i f o r m l y f u n c t i o n a l f o r a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a s o c i a l group, 20 and n e i t h e r must a l l s o c i a l elements f u l f i l a f u n c t i o n . F u r t h e r , i t i s assumed t h a t f u n c t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s or s u b s t i t u t e s may e x i s t . The f u n c t i o n a l approach adopted i n the c u r r e n t s t u d y assumes t h a t " f u n c t i o n s are those observed consequences which make f o r the a d a p t a t i o n or adjustment of a g i v e n system" (Merton, 1967, p. 105). C o n v e r s e l y , i t i s assumed t h a t b e h a v i o r may a l s o be d y s f u n c t i o n a l or l e s s e n the a d a p t a t i o n or adjustment of the system. F i n a l l y , i t i s assumed t h a t some f u n c t i o n s may be r e c o g n i z e d and i n t e n d e d by the i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d , c a l l e d m a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n s by Merton, and t h a t o t h e r f u n c t i o n s a r e the u n i n t e n d e d and u n r e c o g n i z e d consequences of the b e h a v i o r (named l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s ) . The d i s a d v a n t a g e of a d o p t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e has been ackowledged; the argument t h a t paradigms have a s t r u c t u r i n g or c o n t r o l l i n g i n f l u e n c e i s conceded. However, the e x i s t e n c e of fundamental assumptions which g u i d e i n q u i r y need not n e c e s s a r i l y be d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s ; p e r s p e c t i v e s need not be judged as " r i g h t " or "wrong", but merely more or l e s s u s e f u l . T h i s suggests t h a t the v a l u e of an e c o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n and a f u n c t i o n a l approach i n the c u r r e n t work i s the e x t e n t t o which they l e n d coherence t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how t e a c h e r s cope w i t h the problem of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n time needs. 21 Method of P r e s e n t a t i o n I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h i s p o i n t t o make a few remarks c o n c e r n i n g the c h a r a c t e r of the p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h i s s t u d y . The reader i s i n v i t e d t o accompany the a u t h o r on an i n t e l l e c t u a l e x p l o r a t i o n of the s t r a t e g i e s f o r c o p i n g w i t h i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . I n t e l l e c t u a l e x p l o r a t i o n s , l i k e g e o g r a p h i c a l ones, have s t a r t i n g p o i n t s , but o n l y g r a d u a l l y r e v e a l t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n . P r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h i s n a t u r e n e c e s s a r i l y t a k e on the c h a r a c t e r of a s l o w l y u n f o l d i n g s t o r y . T h i s s t y l e of p r e s e n t a t i o n d e p a r t s from the c o n v e n t i o n of a p p r i s i n g the reader of the argument a t the o u t s e t . The absence of a w e l l - r e a s o n e d r a t i o n a l e a t the b e g i n n i n g of such n a r r a t i v e s demands p a t i e n c e and c o o p e r a t i o n from the r e a d e r , f o r he must w a i t u n t i l the end t o d i s c o v e r the w r i t e r ' s c o n c l u s i o n s . The advantage of t h i s s t y l e of p r e s e n t a t i o n i s t h a t i t p e r m i t s the r e a d e r t o f o l l o w more c l o s e l y the development of the w r i t e r ' s t h i n k i n g . S e v e r a l a r e a s of c l a s s r o o m l i f e appeared p o t e n t i a l l y f r u i t f u l t o i n v e s t i g a t e . G r o u p i n g f o r i n s t r u c t i o n , pace of i n s t r u c t i o n , time a l l o c a t i o n , s t u d e n t t i m e - o n - t a s k , and t y p e s of a c t i v i t i e s were i d e n t i f i e d as a r e a s l i k e l y t o p r o v i d e d a t a which might i l l u m i n a t e the problem of d i f f e r e n t i a l time needs. A l t h o u g h p o t e n t i a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between th e s e a r e a s i s r e c o g n i z e d ( f o r example g r o u p i n g f o r i n s t r u c t i o n may i n f l u e n c e time a l l o c a t i o n , and type of a c t i v i t y i s l i k e l y r e l a t e d t o s t u d e n t t i m e - o n - t a s k ) , f o r a n a l y t i c purposes each a r e a i s the f o c u s of a s e p a r a t e c h a p t e r . A l t h o u g h the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of 22 each a r e a was conducted s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , i n o r d e r t o enhance coherenc e , a l i n e a r o r g a n i z a t i o n has been adopted. T y p i c a l l y , each c h a p t e r opens w i t h a review of the l i t e r a t u r e p e r t i n e n t t o the a r e a under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w i s i n t e n d e d t o demonstrate the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the t o p i c , and t o p r o v i d e a c o n t e x t f o r the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the d a t a . Data p r e s e n t a t i o n i s f o l l o w e d by a d i s c u s s i o n and, i n s e v e r a l c a s e s , by the p r e s e n t a t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l d a t a c o l l e c t e d by a l t e r n a t e means. The a d d i t i o n a l d a t a a r e i n c l u d e d t o c o r r o b o r a t e , or i l l u m i n a t e f u r t h e r , a s p e c t s r a i s e d i n the d i s c u s s i o n . G e n e r a l l y each c h a p t e r i s c o n c l u d e d w i t h a summary of the major f i n d i n g s and some remarks which a r e i n t e n d e d t o i n t e g r a t e the v a r i o u s themes which emerged i n the c o u r s e of the s t u d y . One of the outcomes of t h i s s tudy was the development of a p a r t i c u l a r view of c l a s s r o o m p r o c e s s e s . The view of c l a s s r o o m s g e n e r a t e d from the d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s s tudy i s p r e s e n t e d t o the r e a d e r t h r o u g h the use of a n a l o g i e s . T h i s s t y l e of t h i n k i n g which r e c u r s throughout t h i s s tudy r e q u i r e s a c a u t i o n a r y n o t e . One of the dangers of u t i l i z i n g a n a l o g i e s which must be guarded a g a i n s t i s the tendency t o r e i f i c a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g l y , the reader i s c a u t i o n e d t h a t i n the manner d e s c r i b e d by Kaplan (1964), the a n a l o g i e s and metaphors used throughout t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n are i n t e n d e d o n l y t o d i r e c t a t t e n t i o n t o c e r t a i n resemblances between the t h e o r e t i c a l e n t i t i e s and the r e a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r . 23 O r g a n i z a t i o n . of the Study The o r g a n i z a t i o n of the remainder of the s t u d y i s as f o l l o w s . Chapter two opens w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n of n a t u r a l i s t i c and e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h and c o n t a i n s d e t a i l s of the d e s i g n of the study w i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c paradigm. Chapter t h r e e d e s c r i b e s how the c l a s s e s were o r g a n i z e d f o r i n s t r u c t i o n and proposes t h a t the p r o c e s s e s of " l e v e l i n g and s h a r p e n i n g " ( d i s r e g a r d i n g and r e s p o n d i n g t o the s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s amongst s t u d e n t s ) i n f l u e n c e t e a c h e r g r o u p i n g d e c i s i o n s . The t a s k of the t e a c h e r i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as a t t e m p t i n g t o e s t a b l i s h an e q u i l i b r i u m between the demands of l e a r n e r s who d i f f e r i n a b i l i t y or a p t i t u d e and a c u r r i c u l u m which must be c o v e r e d i n a l i m i t e d amount of t i m e . The o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i s i n t e r p r e t e d as a s t r a t e g y t o e f f e c t t h i s e q u i l i b r i u m . In c h a p t e r f o u r v a r i a t i o n i n time needed t o l e a r n i s i n v e s t i g a t e d more c l o s e l y . In s p i t e of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a t t e m p t s t o accommodate d i f f e r e n t i a l performance r a t e s , t e a c h e r s were s t i l l f a c e d w i t h the problem of what t o do w i t h f a s t and slow w o r k e r s . T h i s c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s d e s c r i p t i o n s of the s t r a t e g i e s d e v e l o p e d by t e a c h e r s t o e f f e c t an e q u i l i b r i u m between f a s t and slow f i n i s h e r s . In c h a p t e r f i v e , pace of i n s t r u c t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n . I t i s s u g g ested t h a t b a s i c o r i e n t a t i o n s of t e a c h e r s towards depth of l e a r n i n g ( m a s t e r y ) , or b r e a d t h of l e a r n i n g ( c o v e r a g e ) , i n f l u e n c e the pace of i n s t r u c t i o n . I t i s argued t h a t pace i s m a n i p u l a t e d by 24 t e a c h e r s t o b a l a n c e c u r r i c u l a r coverage w i t h meeting the time needs of i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s . I t i s f u r t h e r s u g g ested t h a t p a c i n g a c c o r d i n g t o the time needs of s l o w e r l e a r n i n g c h i l d r e n (a mastery o r i e n t a t i o n ) l i k e l y r e s u l t s i n reduced o p p o r t u n i t y to l e a r n f o r f a s t e r l e a r n e r s . In c h a p t e r s i x , how t e a c h e r s a l l o c a t e time t o the c l a s s , and t o the groups w i t h i n the c l a s s , i s i n v e s t i g a t e d . The t e a c h e r i s c o n s i d e r e d as a u t i l i t a r i a n p r a g m a t i s t and time a l l o c a t i o n d e c i s i o n s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as f u n c t i o n i n g t o reduce p o s s i b l e management problems. I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t g r e a t e r a l l o c a t i o n of time t o s l o w e r workers l i k e l y r e f l e c t s a d e s i r e t o have the m a j o r i t y of s t u d e n t s master a l i m i t e d number of o b j e c t i v e s r a t h e r than t o c o v e r the c u r r i c u l u m a t the expense of s u p e r f i c i a l l e a r n i n g f o r most .of the c l a s s . Time used f o r mastery r a t h e r than coverage i s i n t e r p r e t e d as m a i n t a i n i n g an e q u i l i b r i u m between f a s t and slow w o r k e r s . In c h a p t e r seven the d i s t i c t i o n between a l l o c a t e d time and t i m e - o n - t a s k i s p u r s u e d . I t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the a l l o c a t i o n of time t o s t u d e n t s does not guarantee i t s wise use. Time on academic t a s k s and time on non-academic t a s k s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d . The r e s u l t s suggest t h a t a l t h o u g h f a s t e r l e a r n e r s have h i g h e r t o t a l o n-task r a t e s than s l o w e r l e a r n e r s , time on academic t a s k s i s s i m i l a r f o r b o t h groups. I t i s argued t h a t time on academic t a s k s l i k e l y has g r e a t e r m a r g i n a l u t i l i t y f o r slower l e a r n e r s . I t i s suggested t h a t s i m i l a r i t y between f a s t e r and s l o w e r s t u d e n t s , i n o n - t a s k r a t e s f o r academic t a s k s , may f u n c t i o n t o m a i n t a i n an e q u i l i b r i u m . 25 In c h a p t e r e i g h t , the t y p e s of a c t i v i t i e s and assignments g i v e n t o s t u d e n t s a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d . The t h e s i s i s advanced t h a t c l a s s r o o m a c t i v i t i e s and assignments appear t o f u n c t i o n t o engage the c o o p e r a t i o n of the m a j o r i t y of s t u d e n t s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y a r e c r i t i c a l t o the maintenance of e q u i l i b r i u m . In the f i n a l c h a p t e r i t i s proposed t h a t the t e a c h e r ' s p r i m a r y s t r a t e g y i s t o keep the c l a s s t o g e t h e r . T h i s appears t o be a c c o m p l i s h e d by time management w i t h a mastery r a t h e r than a coverage o r i e n t a t i o n . A mastery o r i e n t a t i o n i s seen as l i k e l y t o reduce the management and i n s t r u c t i o n a l problems i n h e r e n t i n i n c r e a s e d coverage v a r i a n c e . I t i s argued t h a t k eeping the c l a s s t o g e t h e r n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l i e s the i g n o r i n g or l e v e l i n g of i n d i v i d u a l time needs amongst s t u d e n t s . F u r t h e r , how t h i s may c o n t r i b u t e t o a l e v e l i n g or d e c r e a s e i n v a r i a n c e of s t u d e n t achievement i s d i s c u s s e d . 26 CHAPTER 2 The P r o c e s s of I n v e s t i g a t i o n The purpose of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o i d e n t i f y and d e s c r i b e the methods and pr o c e d u r e s which were adopted f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . F i r s t , a d i s t i n c t i o n between two b a s i c modes of i n q u i r y , the e x p e r i m e n t a l and the n a t u r a l i s t i c , i s made. C r i t e r i a f o r the s e l e c t i o n of a mode of i n q u i r y a r e suggested and reasons f o r the c h o i c e of the n a t u r a l i s t i c paradigm a r e g i v e n . T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by a s e c t i o n i n which the d e s i g n of the study w i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c r e s e a r c h framework i s e l a b o r a t e d . F i n a l l y , the problems of r e a c t i v i t y and b i a s , f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n a t u r a l i s t i c s t u d i e s , a r e ad d r e s s e d . Two Paradigms A d i s t i n c t i o n may be made between two t y p e s of r e s e a r c h i n e d u c a t i o n , e x p e r i m e n t a l and n a t u r a l i s t i c . E x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s a r e concerned w i t h the m a n i p u l a t i o n and c o n t r o l of v a r i a b l e s : The e x p e r i m e n t a l method i s the one where s c i e n t i s t s change c o n d i t i o n s i n o r d e r t o observe the consequences of those changes (Shulman, 1981, p. 9 ) . The aim i s the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of nomothetic l a w s . On the o t h e r hand, n a t u r a l i s t i c s t u d i e s have as a b a s i c purpose, the o b s e r v a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n of r e l a t i o n s h i p s between v a r i a b l e s as they o c c u r s p o n t a n e o u s l y . S c i e n t i s t s i n t h i s mode: 27 see n a t u r e p r e s e n t i n g i t s e l f f o r i n s p e c t i o n and the r o l e of the s c i e n t i s t t h a t of i d e n t i f y i n g which of the v a r i a t i o n s t h a t n a t u r e p r e s e n t s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the o t h e r p r o c e s s e s or outcomes (Shulman, 1981, p. 9 ) . The aim i s t o d e s c r i b e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , the two modes of s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y have been s e p a r a t e d and have pursued independent c o u r s e s of development (Cronbach, 1957). R i s t (1977) c h a r a c t e r i z e d the two t y p e s of r e s e a r c h as two paradigms f u n d a m e n t a l l y a t v a r i a n c e w i t h one a n o t h e r . Paradigms are used i n the Kuhnian sense (1962) of " b e l i e f s , v a l u e s , t e c h n i q u e s , and so on shared by the members of a g i v e n community" (p. 175). As such a paradigm i s more than a methodology but " p r e d i s p o s e s one t o view the w o r l d , and the e v e n t s w i t h i n i t , i n p r o f o u n d l y d i f f e r e n t ways" ( R i s t , 1977, p. 4 3 ) . Paradigms are seen as h a v i n g the power t o i n f l u e n c e how r e a l i t y i s p e r c e i v e d and t o d i c t a t e how i t w i l l be s t r u c t u r e d . The g e n e r a l e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l v i e w p o i n t s i n h e r e n t i n an e x p e r i m e n t a l or a n a t u r a l i s t i c approach t o phenomena a r e r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t . P o s s i b l y a major d i s t i n c t i o n i s the way i n which the n a t u r e of r e a l i t y i s viewed. The e x p e r i m e n t a l i s t , a l s o known as the t r a d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c i s t ( Bruyn, 1966), h o l d s as an a r t i c l e of f a i t h t h a t r e a l i t y i s o b j e c t i v e and can be a p p r o p r i a t e l y a n a l y z e d and measured. P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , t h i s approach i s u l t i m a t e l y r e d u c t i o n i s t i c and d e t e r m i n i s t i c . The view of r e a l i t y h e l d by the n a t u r a l i s t i c i n v e s t i g a t o r i n c l u d e s the b e l i e f t h a t the knower 28 cannot be d i v o r c e d from the known. R e a l i t y i s i n h e r e n t l y s u b j e c t i v e and i s apprehended through a p r o c e s s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . These two views of r e a l i t y g i v e r i s e t o d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s of problems and s o l u t i o n s , t o d i f f e r e n t p r o c e d u r e s by which r e a l i t y i s i n v e s t i g a t e d , and t o d i f f e r e n t c l a i m s t o knowledge. M e t a p h y s i c a l assumptions about the n a t u r e of r e a l i t y produce r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t modes of i n q u i r y . Shulman (1981) argued: I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n method ar e not merely a l t e r n a t i v e ways of r e a c h i n g the same end or answering the same q u e s t i o n s (p. 6 ) . He showed how methods are d i s t i n g u i s h e d by the "very t y p e s of q u e s t i o n s t h a t they t e n d t o r a i s e " (p. 6 ) . Q u e s t i o n s w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c i s t mode are s t a t e d i n the form of l o g i c a l l y deduced hypotheses c a p a b l e i n p r i n c i p l e of r e f u t a t i o n by e m p i r i c a l means. A p p r o p r i a t e canons of m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r i g o r i n v o l v e the r e d u c t i o n of phenomena t o v a r i a b l e s which can be p r e c i s e l y and r e l i a b l y q u a n t i f i e d . In c o n t r a s t q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d w i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c paradigm are s t a t e d i n the form of i n d u c t i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . A p p r o p r i a t e canons of m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r i g o r i n v o l v e the p l a u s i b i l i t y of the d e s c r i p t i o n s i n the l i g h t of our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of human b e h a v i o r , and the i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y of the arguments. I t seems c l e a r t h a t paradigms a r e more than m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o c e d u r e s and i n v o l v e "an i n t e r r e l a t e d s e t of a s s umptions about the s o c i a l w o r l d which a r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l , i d e o l o g i c a l and e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l " ( R i s t , 1977, p. 4 3 ) . 29 Paradigms p r e d i s p o s e a d h e r e n t s t o view the w o r l d t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l s p e c t a c l e s . The a d o p t i o n of a paradigm e n t a i l s p a r t i c u l a r assumptions about the n a t u r e of r e a l i t y and about what c o n s t i t u t e s a p p r o p r i a t e problems and s o l u t i o n s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , the two paradigms s p e c i f y d i f f e r e n t r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e s . The e x p e r i m e n t a l paradigm i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t t e m p t s t o q u a n t i f y o b s e r v a t i o n s i n a p r e c i s e and r e l i a b l e way. Adherents of the n a t u r a l i s t i c paradigm seek t o e x p r e s s f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e i t h e r n u m e r i c a l l y , v i a c o r r e l a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , or by a d o p t i n g what has come t o be known as a q u a l i t a t i v e methodology. Q u a l i t a t i v e methodology r e f e r s t o those r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g i e s , such as p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n , i n -depth i n t e r v i e w i n g , t o t a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the a c t i v i t y b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d , f i e l d work e t c . , which a l l o w the r e s e a r c h e r t o o b t a i n f i r s t - h a n d knowledge about the e m p i r i c a l s o c i a l w o r l d i n q u e s t i o n . Q u a l i t a t i v e methodology a l l o w s the r e s e a r c h e r t o "get c l o s e t o the d a t a " t h e r e b y d e v e l o p i n g the a n a l y t i c a l , c o n c e p t u a l and c a t e g o r i c a l components of e x p l a n a t i o n from the d a t a i t s e l f - r a t h e r than from the p r e c o n c e i v e d , r i g i d l y s t r u c t u r e d , and h i g h l y q u a n t i f i e d t e c h n i q u e s t h a t p i g e o n h o l e the e m p i r i c a l s o c i a l w o r l d i n t o the o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s t h a t the r e s e a r c h e r has c o n s t r u c t e d ( F i l s t e a d , 1970, p. 6 ) . The two approaches are o f t e n p o r t r a y e d as a n t a g o n i s t i c ( R i s t , 1977) i n s t e a d of e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t and v a l i d approaches t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g r e a l i t y ( F i l s t e a d , 1970). An A r i s t o t e l i a n p e r s p e c t i v e d i c t a t e s t h a t i n the f a c e of no s i n g l e method of i n q u i r y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e the p r o c e s s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n which i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o the t o p i c . The domain of the p r e s e n t i n q u i r y , c l a s s r o o m s , and the p a r t i c u l a r f o c u s , t e a c h e r c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s , i n d i c a t e d the 30 s e l e c t i o n of the n a t u r a l i s t i c as opposed t o the e x p e r i m e n t a l paradigm. D u r i n g the l a t e n i n e t e e n f i f t i e s and the e a r l y n i n e t e e n s i x t i e s , r e s e a r c h on t e a c h i n g was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a growing sense of d e s p a i r t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l methods were i n c a p a b l e of a d v a n c i n g knowledge i n t h a t f i e l d ( B e l l a c k and Huebner, 1960). The growing sense of u n e a s i n e s s i n r e s e a r c h on t e a c h i n g may be seen as a r e f l e c t i o n of a g e n e r a l m a l a i s e s u r r o u n d i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l methodology. D i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l methodology c o n t i n u e d i n t o the s e v e n t i e s ( C a m p b e l l , 1974; Cronbach, 1975; G l a s s , 1972; Snow, 1974; S t a k e , 1978). Cronbach (1975) argued t h a t the s e a r c h f o r nomothetic t h e o r y was perhaps m i s g u i d e d : the presence of h i g h e r - o r d e r i n t e r a c t i o n s l i m i t s the g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y of the r e s u l t s of s t u d i e s . I n s t e a d he suggested t h a t "open-eyed, i n t e n s i v e , l o c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s " (p. 5) w i l l e n a b le the g e n e r a t i o n of e x p l a n a t o r y c o n c e p t s which w i l l a l l o w s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s t o p r e s e n t a contemporary view of man i n s o c i e t y . In -short, Cronbach was s u g g e s t i n g t h a t an i n t e g r a l p a r t of r e s e a r c h must be the c o l l e c t i o n of q u a l i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n a l o n g w i t h the more u s u a l q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a . Q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h i n t o c l a s s r o o m p r o c e s s e s has a c o n s i d e r a b l e t r a d i t i o n . S t e v e n s ' (1912) o b s e r v a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s of c l a s s r o o m q u e s t i o n i n g s t i m u l a t e d a s e r i e s of d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d i e s t h r o u g h the 1920's and 1930's (Hoetker and A h l b r a n d , 1969). T h i s t r e n d t o q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h was e v e n t u a l l y s u r p l a n t e d by more q u a n t i t a t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o 31 t e a c h e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s (Dunkin and B i d d l e , 1974). D u r i n g the l a t e n i n e t e e n s i x t i e s , t h e r e was a resu r g e n c e of a q u a l i t a t i v e approach t o i n q u i r y i n t o e d u c a t i o n a l phenomena ( J a c k s o n , 1968; Smith and G e o f f r e y , 1968). T h i s t r e n d t o q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s c o n t i n u e d i n t o the n i n e t e e n s e v e n t i e s ( B o s s e r t , 1979; L o r t i e , 1975) , and has been l a b e l l e d e t h n o g r a p h i c or n a t u r a l i s t i c r e s e a r c h . A major c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s r e s e a r c h i s the a d o p t i o n of m e t h o d o l o g i e s from the f i e l d s of a n t h r o p o l o g y and s o c i o l o g y ( L u t z and Ramsay, 1974; O v e r h a l t and S t a l l i n g s , 1976) . Emphasis i s p l a c e d upon d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n , and the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of p a r t i c i p a n t s v i a i n t e r v i e w . R e search on t e a c h i n g has been c h a r a c t e r i z e d as i n i t s i n f a n c y (Brophy, 1979; Dunkin and B i d d l e , 1974). I t has been suggested t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n of phenomena a r e p r e r e q u i s i t e s t o the development of hypotheses which may be t e s t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y ( K a p l a n , 1964). I n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g c l a s s r o o m p r o c e s s e s i s l i m i t e d . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s proposed t o i n v e s t i g a t e the s t r a t e g i e s d e v e l o p e d t o accommodate v a r i a t i o n i n performance or wo r k i n g r a t e s w i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c framework. I s s u e s of Design i n N a t u r a l i s t i c S t u d i e s W i t h i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l paradigm t o t a l k of the " d e s i g n " of the study u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o the e l a b o r a t e p l a n n i n g t h a t t a k e s p l a c e p r i o r t o the conduct of an e x p e r i m e n t . U s u a l l y " d e s i g n " r e f e r s t o the s e l e c t i o n or g e n e r a t i o n of d a t a g a t h e r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s t o sec u r e i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t t o the 32 hypotheses under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , as w e l l as t o the means by which the d a t a w i l l be g a t h e r e d and s u b s e q u e n t l y a n a l y z e d . The emphasis w i t h i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l paradigm on the t e s t i n g of h y p o t h e s e s , p e r m i t s the d e s i g n of the study t o be s p e c i f i e d a p r i o r i . In c o n t r a s t t o the e x p e r i m e n t a l approach, w i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c paradigm, d e s i g n i s used i n a l e s s r e s t r i c t i v e way t o connote "those elements of o r d e r , system and c o n s i s t e n c y " ( B e c k e r , Geer, Hughes and S t r a u s s , 1961, p. 17) e x h i b i t e d by a s t u d y . The emphasis w i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c paradigm on the d e s c r i p t i o n of phenomena, and on the development of hypotheses from a d a t a base, p r e c l u d e s the complete s p e c i f i c a t i o n of the d e s i g n p r i o r t o the f i e l d w o r k . Research w i t h i n the h y p o t h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e model s e t s out t o t e s t s p e c i f i c p r e d i c t i o n s from e x t a n t t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s . The g e n e s i s of such r e s e a r c h i s t y p i c a l l y a review of the r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e . R e search w i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c paradigm s e t s out t o e x p l o r e n a t u r a l l y o c c u r i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and t o g e n e r a t e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s from the data c o l l e c t e d . The g e n e s i s of such r e s e a r c h may be a p r a c t i c a l problem such as the con c e r n over the q u a l i t y and performance of those who a p p l y and a r e a d m i t t e d t o c o l l e g e s and the p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o l s (Becker e t a l . , 1961); the l a c k of i n v e s t i g a t i o n of an a r e a as e x e m p l i f i e d by B o s s e r t ' s (1979) study of the i n f l u e n c e of the s t r u c t u r e of a c t i v i t i e s on the b e h a v i o r of s t u d e n t s and t e a c h e r s ; or a c r i t i c a l i n c i d e n t such as e x p e r i e n c e d by J a c k s o n (1968) when he obser v e d the amount of w a i t i n g i n e l e m e n t a r y c l a s s r o o m s . The g e n e s i s of the 33 c u r r e n t study was the o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t c h i l d r e n d i f f e r e d i n the amount of time they needed t o complete a s s i g n m e n t s . R e f l e c t i o n on the p r a c t i c a l problems o c c a s i o n e d f o r the t e a c h e r by the e x i s t e n c e of f a s t and slow workers w i t h i n c l a s s r o o m s l e d t o s p e c u l a t i o n s about how the time needs of s t u d e n t s might be r e l a t e d t o the d i s t r i b u t i o n of time f o r l e a r n i n g w i t h i n c l a s s r o o m s . The i n a b i l i t y t o s p e c i f y the complete d e s i g n of a study conducted w i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c framework p r i o r t o the s t a r t of f i e l d w o r k s h o u l d not imply t h a t such i n v e s t i g a t i o n s p r o ceed i n an ad hoc f a s h i o n . S h a v e l s o n (1981) s t a t e d t h a t : f i e l d w o r k methods ( e . g . , p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n , f o c u s e d i n t e r v i e w i n g ) and a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e s ( e . g . , development of c o n c e p t u a l and c a t e g o r i c a l systems from the d a t a themselves) have been d e v e l o p e d by q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h e r s and have t h e i r canons of m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r i g o r j u s t as q u a n t i t a t i v e methods do (p. 459). N e i t h e r does i t imply t h a t the r e s e a r c h e r w i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c paradigm approaches the i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i t h a " t a b u l a r a s a " . G l a s e r and S t r a u s s (1967) suggested t h a t the r e s e a r c h e r may b e g i n w i t h : a p a r t i a l framework of " l o c a l " c o n c e p t s , d e s i g n a t i n g a few p r i n c i p l e s or g r o s s f e a t u r e s of the s t r u c t u r e and p r o c e s s e s i n the s i t u a t i o n s t h a t he w i l l study (p. 4 5 ) . C i c o u r e l (1964) p o i n t e d out the dynamic n a t u r e of n a t u r a l i s t i c s t u d i e s : 34 Rather than e n t e r i n g the r e s e a r c h s e t t i n g w i t h an e x p l i c i t t h e o r e t i c a l scheme and d e s i g n , the f i e l d r e s e a r c h e r f r e q u e n t l y d e v e l o p s h i s " t h e o r y " d u r i n g the s t u d y or a f t e r the d a t a have been c o l l e c t e d and w h i l e w r i t i n g up the f i n d i n g s (p. 7 1 ) . T h i s form of r e s e a r c h has been d e s c r i b e d a s : i n t e n t i o n a l l y u n s t r u c t u r e d i n i t s r e s e a r c h d e s i g n so as t o maximize d i s c o v e r y and d e s c r i p t i o n r a t h e r than s y s t e m a t i c t h e o r y t e s t i n g ( M c C a l l and Simmons, 1969, p r e f a c e ) . Becker e t a l . , (1961) suggested t h a t the r e s e a r c h e r has an o r i g i n a l view of the problem (which may not be the view a t the end of the r e s e a r c h ) as w e l l as t h e o r e t i c a l and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l commitments. They suggested t h a t t h e s e form the framework of the study and as such s h o u l d be e l a b o r a t e d as a s p e c t s of the " d e s i g n " . The o r i g i n a l view of the problem was t h a t time i n s c h o o l was a l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e but t h a t c h i l d r e n d i f f e r e d i n the amount of time they r e q u i r e d f o r l e a r n i n g . I t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t h i s f a c t of c l a s s r o o m l i f e would e l i c i t v a r y i n g r e s p o n s e s from t e a c h e r s and t h a t t h e s e responses might best be i n t e r p r e t e d as c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s . The purpose of the r e s e a r c h was t o i d e n t i f y and d e s c r i b e p o s s i b l e c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s . D u r i n g the c o u r s e of the study the i d e a of e q u i l i b r i u m as an e x p l a n a t i o n of c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s was d e v e l o p e d . The c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of the t e a c h e r as r a t i o n a l l y a t t e m p t i n g t o o p t i m i z e s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g was r e j e c t e d as inadequate t o e x p l a i n the d a t a c o l l e c t e d . R ather the i d e a of the t e a c h e r as a u t i l i t a r i a n p r a g m a t i s t was adopted as a more adequate e x p l a n a t i o n of c l a s s r o o m p r o c e s s e s . The emphasis on time r e l a t e d i s s u e s suggested the b a s i c 35 t h e o r e t i c a l framework. The i d e a of time as a r e s o u r c e has a l o n g t r a d i t i o n i n e d u c a t i o n (see c h a p t e r s i x f o r an h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w ) , but i t i s o n l y r e c e n t l y t h a t the r a m i f i c a t i o n s of such a view have been s y s t e m a t i c a l l y examined u s i n g models from economics. The use of an analogy from economics i s amply su p p o r t e d by the e x t e n t t o which p a s t and p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e on time i n s c h o o l s employs, i m p l i c i t l y or e x p l i c i t l y , economic models. A d d i t i o n a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n of the t h e o r e t i c a l framework was c o n s i d e r e d t o be p r o v i d e d by the p r a c t i c a l advantage of c o n s i d e r i n g time as a r e s o u r c e ( d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r one). T h e o r e t i c a l commitments a r e not always detached from m e t h o d o l o g i c a l commitments. W i t n e s s as e v i d e n c e the tendency of r e s e a r c h e r s u s i n g an economic model t o adopt r e g r e s s i o n p r o c e d u r e s (Shulman and E p s t e i n , 1975). In the c u r r e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n the a d o p t i o n of a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n l e d t o the u t i l i z a t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . An i n i t i a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n was t o t r e a t the c l a s s r o o m as a s o c i a l o rganism. The a d o p t i o n of a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l approach e n t a i l e d a b e l i e f t h a t a l l b e h a v i o r s e r v e s some f u n c t i o n . T h i s " s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l " approach l e d t o the development of the i d e a t h a t the m a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n of t e a c h i n g was enhancement of l e a r n i n g , but t h a t the l a t e n t f u n c t i o n was s t u d e n t c o o p e r a t i o n t o enhance t e a c h e r u t i l i t i e s . The d e c i s i o n t o t r e a t time as a r e s o u r c e , and t o adopt a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l approach t o c l a s s r o o m e v e n t s , p r o v i d e d an i n i t i a l framework f o r the s t u d y , d e l i n e a t e d a r e a s of 36 p o s s i b l y f r u i t f u l i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and suggested a p o o l of co n c e p t s and p r i n c i p l e s which might be used. Areas s e l e c t e d f o r s t udy were s e l e c t e d because the l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e d t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e ( t i m e - o n - t a s k and p a c e ) , because of some p u z z l i n g f e a t u r e which was thought might be r e l a t e d t o the problem ( d i s c r e p a n c i e s among c l a s s r o o m s i n a l l o c a t e d t i m e ) , or because they seemed l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d i n some way ( a c t i v i t i e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n ) . I t i s im p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s t h a t i n t he i n i t i a l s t a g e s the g e n e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l a s sumptions and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n g u i d e d , but d i d not d i c t a t e , the o b j e c t s of s t u d y . In o t h e r words, w h i l e i t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t h e r e might be some i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the a r e a s s e l e c t e d f o r s t u d y , the p r e c i s e n a t u r e was not h y p o t h e s i z e d p r i o r t o the f i e l d w o r k . The view of the c l a s s r o o m as a s o c i a l system a l s o suggested a p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e of a n a l y s i s . A l t h o u g h f a c e t s of c l a s s r o o m l i f e were s e p a r a t e d a n a l y t i c a l l y f o r s t u d y , the view of the c l a s s r o o m as a s o c i a l system i n d i c a t e s an i n t e r e s t i n d i s c o v e r i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s between many k i n d s of phenomena and eve n t s c o n s i d e r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . The a n a l y s i s was aimed a t i n t e r p r e t i n g c l a s s r o o m e v e n t s w i t h the e x p r e s s purpose of d e v e l o p i n g t e n t a t i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s which c o u l d s e r v e as e x p l a n a t o r y frameworks. A c c o r d i n g l y , the a n a l y s i s c o n c e n t r a t e d on a b s t r a c t i n g r e c u r r i n g elements or p a t t e r n s from the c o n c r e t e d e t a i l s of e v e n t s . The attempt t o ge n e r a t e e x p l a n a t o r y frameworks from a dat a base l e d t o the a d o p t i o n of p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n as 37 the major method of i n v e s t i g a t i o n . P a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n has been d e s c r i b e d a s : not a s i n g l e method but r a t h e r a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y l e of r e s e a r c h which makes use of a number of methods and t e c h n i q u e s — o b s e r v a t i o n , i n f o r m a n t i n t e r v i e w i n g , document a n a l y s i s , respondent i n t e r v i e w i n g and p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i t h s e l f - a n a l y s i s ( M c C a l l and Simmons, 1969. P r e f a c e ) . P a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n i n v o l v e s the r e s e a r c h e r p a r t i c i p a t i n g : i n the d a i l y l i f e of the p e o p l e under study e i t h e r o p e n l y , i n the r o l e of r e s e a r c h e r , or c o v e r t l y , i n some d i s g u i s e d r o l e , o b s e r v i n g t h i n g s t h a t happen, l i s t e n i n g t o what i s s a i d and q u e s t i o n i n g p e o p l e over some l e n g t h of time (Becker et a l . , 1961, p. 23) . In t h i s s t u d y the i n v e s t i g a t o r p a r t i c i p a t e d o p e n l y as a r e s e a r c h e r . Because of the n a t u r e of the o r g a n i z a t i o n under i n v e s t i g a t i o n , c l a s s r o o m s f o r young c h i l d r e n , the r e s e a r c h e r was p a s s i v e d u r i n g c l a s s r o o m o b s e r v a t i o n but assumed a more a c t i v e r o l e , i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t e a c h e r s o n l y d u r i n g non c l a s s t i m e s ( r e c e s s , noon hour, b e f o r e and a f t e r s c h o o l ) . The D e s ign of the Study A d e c i s i o n was made t o study a s m a l l number of c l a s s r o o m s . T h i s d e c i s i o n t o c o n c e n t r a t e energy on a s m a l l number of c l a s s r o o m s was governed by both c o n c e p t u a l and p r a g m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . Brophy (1979) c a l l e d f o r a moratorium on l a r g e s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e o b s e r v a t i o n i n numerous c l a s s r o o m s . I n s t e a d , he s u g g e s t e d t h a t i t might be more p r o f i t a b l e t o spend a g r e a t e r amount of time o b s e r v i n g i n fewer c l a s s r o o m s . F i v e c l a s s r o o m s were c o n s i d e r e d so t h a t each might be v i s i t e d on a weekly b a s i s . 38 T h i s e n a b l e d a s i n g l e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o spend a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of the day v i s i t i n g the s c h o o l s , but s t i l l p r o v i d e d some time a t the end of each o b s e r v a t i o n p e r i o d t o r e f l e c t on the notes t a k e n , and t o b e g i n the p r o c e s s of a n a l y s i s and s y n t h e s i s . The f i v e grade t h r e e c l a s s r o o m s were v i s i t e d once a week d u r i n g a t h r e e month p e r i o d i n the f a l l of 1980. The s c h o o l s were s i t u a t e d i n the lower m a i n l a n d of B r i t i s h Columbia i n a p r e d o m i n a n t l y urban a r e a . The s e l e c t i o n of s c h o o l s was made by s c h o o l d i s t r i c t p e r s o n n e l u s i n g g u i d e l i n e s suggested by the a u t h o r . The study was p l a n n e d as f i v e case s t u d i e s . Homogeneity amongst the c a s e s was sought t o c o n t r o l e x t r a n e o u s f a c t o r s and t h e r e b y reduce the p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n f o u n d i n g . A c c o r d i n g l y , the c o o p e r a t i o n of f i v e female t e a c h e r s who had a minimum of f i v e y e a r s of e x p e r i e n c e was sought. Females were chosen because t r a d i t i o n a l l y the p r i m a r y grades have been dominated by women. Teachers who had had a minimum of f i v e y e a r s e x p e r i e n c e were sought so t h a t b a s i c c l a s s r o o m management s k i l l s would be w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . Because of the d u r a t i o n of the st u d y , o n l y t e a c h e r s who i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e t o c o o p e r a t e were sought. S c h o o l d i s t r i c t p e r s o n n e l s e l e c t e d the s c h o o l s f o r t h e i r demonstrated w i l l i n g n e s s t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h u n i v e r s i t y r e s e a r c h e r s . P r i n c i p a l s had t o g i v e t h e i r c onsent b e f o r e the t e a c h e r s c o u l d be approached. A l l of the p r i n c i p a l s e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t i n the p r o j e c t , but l e f t the d e c i s i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e t o the i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s . The grade t h r e e t e a c h e r s i n the 39 chosen s c h o o l s gave t h e i r consent t o b e i n g i n v o l v e d . Random sampling of t e a c h e r s was not f e a s i b l e f o r the p r e s e n t s t u d y . In the e x p e r i m e n t a l t r a d i t i o n random sa m p l i n g i s c o n s i d e r e d d e s i r a b l e i n o r d e r t o g e n e r a l i z e r e s u l t s . The f a i l u r e of e d u c a t i o n a l s t u d i e s t o meet the assumption of random s a m p l i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r s t a t i s t i c a l i n f e r e n c e has been d i s c u s s e d e x t e n s i v e l y ( B r a c h t and G l a s s , 1968; C o r n f i e l d and Tukey, 1956; Cronbach, 1975). Snow (1974) s u g g e s t e d t h a t the key t o g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s t o d e s c r i b e the sample p o p u l a t i o n i n d e t a i l . A c c o r d i n g l y , the f i v e s c h o o l s , c h i l d r e n , t e a c h e r s and c l a s s r o o m s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n Appendix 1. Data C o l l e c t i o n W i t h i n the n a t u r a l i s t i c framework: Data c o l l e c t i o n i s not a d i s t i n c t phase i n the r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s but r a t h e r i s one a n a l y t i c a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e a s p e c t of a m u l t i p l e x p r o c e s s . D e s i g n , a n a l y s i s and w r i t e - u p s are a l s o b e i n g c a r r i e d out s i m u l t a n e o u l s l y w i t h d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and a l l f o u r a s p e c t s c o n t i n u a l l y i n f l u e n c e and impinge upon one another ( M c C a l l and Simmons, 1969, p. 61). A c c o r d i n g l y , i t s h o u l d be borne i n mind t h a t the subheadings used f o r t h i s s e c t i o n , and f o r the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n , a r e used f o r a n a l y t i c p urposes, and a r e not i n t e n d e d t o convey the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t d i s t i n c t phases were f o l l o w e d d u r i n g the e x e c u t i o n of the s t u d y . The d a t a c o l l e c t e d f e l l n a t u r a l l y i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s , s t r u c t u r e d and u n s t r u c t u r e d . Some of the d a t a c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g the study were s t r u c t u r e d , i n the sense t h a t the i n v e s t i g a t o r knew what da t a t o c o l l e c t , and how t o c o l l e c t i t , p r i o r t o c o l l e c t i o n . Such s t r u c t u r e d data ( o n - t a s k r a t e s and 40 s t u d e n t performance on an a r i t h m e t i c t a s k ) were c o l l e c t e d i n accordance w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a . ( I n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n c o n t i n u i t y and coherence p r e c i s e d e t a i l s of the c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s of q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a w i l l be g i v e n i n c o n t e x t ) . Other d a t a were u n s t r u c t u r e d , i n the sense t h a t the i n v e s t i g a t o r d i d not know p r i o r t o c o l l e c t i o n , t he p r e c i s e n a t u r e or form of the da t a nor how they were r e l a t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o the problem under i n v e s t i g a t i o n . U n s t r u c t u r e d d a t a were c o l l e c t e d by means of n a r r a t i v e specimen r e c o r d s of the o b s e r v a t i o n of c l a s s r o o m e v e n t s and i n f o r m a l t a l k s w i t h t e a c h e r s . The use of the term " u n s t r u c t u r e d " s h o u l d not be c o n s t r u e d as i m p l y i n g the d a t a so c o l l e c t e d a r e l a c k i n g i n m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r i g o r . As p o i n t e d out by S h a v e l s o n and S t e r n (1981), Shulman (1981), and W i l s o n (1977), q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h i s much l i k e q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h , i n t h a t i t has a l o n g t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n which i n v e s t i g a t o r s a r e wo r k i n g c o n t i n u a l l y t o r e f i n e and d e v e l o p e f f e c t i v e and a p p r o p r i a t e r e s e a r c h methods. N a r r a t i v e specimen r e c o r d s . The n a r r a t i v e specimen r e c o r d ( B a r k e r and W r i g h t , 1955; Gump, 1969; W r i g h t , Gump, N a i l , and Schoggen, 1955) i s a n a t u r a l i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n of a stream of ev e n t s (see Appendix 2 f o r an example). As Becker et a l . , (1961) have commented, i t i s n e i t h e r p o s s i b l e nor p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l t o r e c o r d e v e r y e v e n t . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s impo r t a n t t o s i g n i f y what was i n c l u d e d and what was o m i t t e d i n the d e s c r i p t i o n s . In the p r e s e n t study a r e c o r d of the s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s of c l a s s r o o m l i f e which might be a s s o c i a t e d 41 w i t h time use was r e q u i r e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the b e g i n n i n g s and ends of l e s s o n s , the s u b j e c t matter s t u d i e d , the assignments g i v e n t o s t u d e n t s , and whether i n s t r u c t i o n was t o the c l a s s or a group, were r e c o r d e d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t e a c h e r comments t o s t u d e n t s about work, how l o n g they had, and d i r e c t i o n s about what t o do when f i n i s h e d , were noted. Other a s p e c t s of c l a s s r o o m l i f e were n e g l e c t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r a c t i o n s among s t u d e n t s , because they were not c o n s i d e r e d of s i g n i f i c a n c e t o the problem s t u d i e d . I n f o r m a l i n t e r v i e w s . I n f o r m a l i n t e r v i e w i n g of the t e a c h e r s took p l a c e on an on-going b a s i s . In one sense, the use of the word " i n t e r v i e w " may be a misnomer, f o r the i n t e r a c t i o n s were i n the form of c o n v e r s a t i o n s . I n f o r m a t i o n an a v a r i e t y of t o p i c s was g a t h e r e d d u r i n g the c o u r s e of c o n v e r s i n g w i t h the t e a c h e r s a t r e c e s s e s and l u n c h h o u r s . A l t h o u g h u n s t r u c t u r e d , and f o l l o w i n g the c o n v e n t i o n s of d i a l o g u e , the c o n v e r s a t i o n s were not haphazard. T y p i c a l l y , the i n v e s t i g a t o r took advantage of a c l a s s r o o m event t o open a c o n v e r s a t i o n on a t o p i c of r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t . The t o p i c s c o v e r e d d u r i n g a p a r t i c u l a r c o n v e r s a t i o n were d i c t a t e d by the c i r c u m s t a n c e s of the moment and the i n t e r e s t s of the i n v e s t i g a t o r . The f l e x i b i l t y of the c o n v e r s a t i o n a l mode p e r m i t t e d f o l l o w - u p of the spontaneous remarks of the t e a c h e r s . R e p l i e s t o q u e r i e s o f t e n prompted a d d i t i o n a l q u e s t i o n s . Q u e s t i o n s which e l i c i t e d f r u i t f u l r e s ponses from one t e a c h e r were s u b s e q u e n t l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h the o t h e r t e a c h e r s . 42 D u r i n g the c o u r s e of the r e s e a r c h a l i s t of the q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o the problem was g e n e r a t e d (see Appendix 3 ) . Not a l l of these q u e s t i o n s were asked of a l l of the t e a c h e r s as some q u e s t i o n s o b v i o u s l y d i d not a p p l y i n some of the c l a s s r o o m s , or the answer was apparent from o b s e r v a t i o n . N e i t h e r were a l l asked i n the same manner, or i n the same sequence. The advantages of the c o n v e r s a t i o n a l mode, s p o n t a n e i t y and n a t u r a l n e s s , were judged t o outweigh the d i s a d v a n t a g e of l a c k of s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n i n the q u e s t i o n - a s k i n g p r o c e d u r e s . To m a i n t a i n the c o n v e r s a t i o n a l mode no notes were taken d u r i n g the d i a l o g u e . A review of the main t o p i c s was r e c o r d e d as soon as was c o n v e n i e n t a t the end of each c o n v e r s a t i o n . The major d i s a d v a n t a g e of t h i s approach i s , of c o u r s e , the r e l i a n c e on memory. However, the l a c k of i n h i b i t i o n , t y p i c a l of spontaneous comments d u r i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n , was deemed t o be adequate compensation f o r the l a c k of p r e c i s i o n . Data r e d u c t i o n The method of p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n g e n e r a t e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of d a t a . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a major p r a c t i c a l problem becomes one of d a t a r e d u c t i o n . D u r i n g the c o u r s e of t h i s s t u d y , and f o l l o w i n g Smith and G e o f f r e y (1968), the f i e l d n otes were read a t the end of each day and a w r i t t e n r e c o r d of i m p r e s s i o n s and i d e a s was made (see Appendix. 4 ) . T h i s r e c o r d c o n s t i t u t e d a summary of the o b s e r v a t i o n s made t h a t day and a l s o c o n t a i n e d t e n t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h i s phase of the r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s might be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as r e f l e c t i o n on the 43 o b s e r v a t i o n s of the day w i t h a view t o making sense out of them. R e f l e c t i o n was c a r r i e d out i n a d e l i b e r a t e way, u s i n g the method of c o n s t a n t comparison ( G l a s e r and S t r a u s s , 1967). I n c i d e n t s and e v e n t s of the day were compared i n a s e a r c h f o r s i m i l a r i t i e s . E v e nts which were s i m i l a r were c o n s i d e r e d t o be l o n g t o a p a r t i c u l a r c a t e g o r y . S u b s e q u e n t l y , o t h e r i n c i d e n t s and e v e n t s , which were c o n s i d e r e d c a n d i d a t e s f o r membership i n the c a t e g o r y , were compared w i t h e v e n t s a l r e a d y i n the c a t e g o r y . As the r e s e a r c h p r o g r e s s e d , c o m m o n a l i t i e s w i t h i n c l a s s e s and a c r o s s c l a s s e s began t o emerge; t h e s e p a t t e r n s were i d e n t i f i e d and l a b e l e d . At the end of the f i e l d w o r k , t h e s e summaries of the d a i l y o b s e r v a t i o n s p r o v i d e d the major c o n c e p t s and themes which were used t o d e v e l o p the i d e a of e q u i l i b r i u m as the b a s i c c o p i n g s t r a t e g y . A major d i f f i c u l t y w i t h q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s of t h i s s o r t i s t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o r d the amount of d a t a n e c e s s a r y t o j u s t i f y c o n c l u s i o n s i n a b r i e f , c o n v e n i e n t way. T y p i c a l l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n s of c o n c e p t s or p r i n c i p l e s a r e r e p o r t e d ( G l a s e r and S t r a u s s , 1967). The Problem of B i a s There appears t o be g e n e r a l agreement t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n poses problems c o n c e r n i n g the r e l i a b i l i t y and the v a l i d i t y of the d a t a c o l l e c t e d (Becker e t a l . , 1961; Bruyn, 1966; C i c o u r e l , 1964; K e r l i n g e r , 1964; Schwartz and Schwartz,1969; V i d i t c h , 1966; Z e l d i t c h , 1969). M c C a l l (1969) suggested t h a t the p r i n c i p a l c o n c e r n s r e g a r d i n g o b s e r v a t i o n a l d a t a were: 1) 44 the r e a c t i v e e f f e c t s of the presence or the b e h a v i o r of the o b s e r v e r on the phenomenon under i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; 2) the d i s t o r t i n g e f f e c t s of s e l e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n on the p a r t of the o b s e r v e r and; 3) the l i m i t a t i o n s on the o b s e r v e r ' s a b i l i t y t o w i t n e s s a l l r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s of the phenomena i n q u e s t i o n . In M c C a l l ' s paper (1969) the c o n c e r n r e g a r d i n g l i m i t a t i o n s on the a b i l i t y of the o b s e r v e r t o w i t n e s s a l l r e l e v e n t a s p e c t s stemmed from the o b s e r v e r ' s p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n and what a c c e s s t o i n f o r m a t i o n t h i s might have d e n i e d him. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s on i n f o r m a t i o n were not a f e a t u r e of the p r e s e n t s t u d y . In t h i s s t u d y , the l i m i t a t i o n s were o c c a s i o n e d by the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of a c c u r a t e l y w i t n e s s i n g a l l c l a s s r o o m e v e n t s because some of them o c c u r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . F u n d a m e n t a l l y a problem of p e r c e p t i o n , t h i s i s d i s c u s s e d under the concern f o r d i s t o r t i n g e f f e c t s . R e a c t i v e e f f e c t s a r e d i s c u s s e d f i r s t , f o l l o w e d by a d i s c u s s i o n of the d i s t o r t i n g e f f e c t s of s e l e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . R e a c t i v i t y and O b s e r v a t i o n a l Measures There seems t o be g e n e r a l agreement t h a t o b s e r v e r s do a f f e c t b e h a v i o r ( B a r k e r and W r i g h t , 1955; Campbell and S t a n l e y , 1963; Cook and R e i c h a r d t , 1979; Webb, Campbell, Schwartz, and S e c h r e s t , 1956). However, Weick (1968) argued t h a t the r e a l i s s u e s a r e how e x t e n s i v e the impact i s , which s e t t i n g s and p r o c e s s e s a r e most v u l n e r a b l e t o i t s e f f e c t s , and whether i n t e r f e r e n c e can be d e t e c t e d . He suggested t h a t o b s e r v e r e f f e c t s may be l o c a l i z e d and t h a t they s h o u l d be 45 documented. An extreme p o s i t i o n t h a t even l o s s of i n i t i a l awareness i s no guarantee of uncontaminated b e h a v i o r , has been taken by s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s (Orne, 1962; R o s e n t h a l , 1964; S h e r i f and S h e r i f , 1964). R e s e a r c h e r s who t a k e a more moderate p o s i t i o n argue t h a t a p e r i o d of a d a p t a t i o n or h a b i t u a t i o n t o the o b s e r v a t i o n p r o c e d u r e i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e a l w i t h the problem of r e a c t i v i t y ( P u r c e l l and Brady, 1966; S o s k i n and John, 1963). P u r c e l l and Brady (1966) and S o s k i n and John (1963) suggested t h a t s u b j e c t s r e a d i l y become accustomed t o i n v a s i o n of t h e i r p r i v a c y . S o s k i n and John (1963) s t u d i e d the v e r b a l i n t e r a c t i o n of two s e t s of m a r r i e d c o u p l e s v i a r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r s which were worn d a i l y f o r a p e r i o d of two weeks. The s u b j e c t s r e p o r t e d d i m i n i s h e d awareness of the a p p a r a t u s d u r i n g p e r i o d s of i n t e n s e i n v o l v e m e n t . P u r c e l l and Brady (1966) s i m i l a r l y s t u d i e d the b e h a v i o r of a d o l e s c e n t s who wore " l i v e " and "dummy" t r a n s m i t t e r s f o r one hour each e v e n i n g . The p e r c e n t a g e of remarks r e g a r d i n g the stu d y dropped c o n s i d e r a b l y a f t e r t he f i r s t two s e s s i o n s . Independent o b s e r v e r s who were f a m i l i a r t o the a d o l e s c e n t s , but who were n a i v e as t o which a d o l e s c e n t s wore the l i v e or the dummy t r a n s m i t t e r s , f a i l e d t o r e p o r t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between b e h a v i o r under the two c o n d i t i o n s . I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o suggest t h a t the use of t r a n s m i t t e r s i s p o t e n t i a l l y as t h r e a t e n i n g as a l i v e o b s e r v e r ; r e c o r d i n g s of the most i n t i m a t e v e r b a l i n t e r a c t i o n s can be made and w i t h g r e a t e r f i d e l i t y than by a l i v e o b s e r v e r . Yet even i n th e s e s t u d i e s 46 b e h a v i o r , e i t h e r r a t e d o b j e c t i v e l y or s u b j e c t i v e l y , d i d not appear t o be i n f l u e n c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . Doyle (1979) argued t h a t t e a c h e r b e h a v i o r i n the c l a s s r o o m i s a f u n c t i o n a l response t o t h a t p a r t i c u l a r environment. I f t h i s i s so, then changes i n an h a b i t u a l p a t t e r n of b e h a v i o r a r e l i k e l y brought about o n l y by a major d i s r u p t i v e e v e n t . I t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t knowledge of b e i n g observed c o u l d have enough impact t o c o n s t i t u t e a f o r c e d i s r u p t i v e enough t o r a d i c a l l y a l t e r b e h a v i o r . C l a s s r o o m performances of both t e a c h e r s and s t u d e n t s a r e p u b l i c e v e n t s . Teachers and s t u d e n t s , by reason of t h e i r exposure t o each o t h e r , have e x p e c t a t i o n s of what b e h a v i o r s w i l l o c c u r . C o n s e q u e n t l y , one would expect t h a t pronounced r e a c t i v i t y e f f e c t s would l e a d t o a m o d i f i c a t i o n of the u s u a l i n t e r a c t i o n s between t e a c h e r s and s t u d e n t s . I t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t b e h a v i o r which d e v i a t e d from the u s u a l would be the cause of e x p r e s s i o n of c o n c e r n by e i t h e r p a r t y . For example, a c l a s s which i s u s u a l l y q u i e t but suddenly becomes n o i s y , w i l l l i k e l y draw f o r t h t e a c h e r r e m o n s t r a t i o n s . S i m i l a r l y , u n u s u a l t e a c h e r d i r e c t i o n s a r e l i k e l y t o be met by s t u d e n t puzzlement, e v i d e n c e d by i n c r e a s e d q u e s t i o n a s k i n g . The r e s e a r c h r e v i e w e d s u g g e s t e d t h a t r e a c t i v e e f f e c t s d i m i n i s h over t i m e . D u r i n g the f i r s t o b s e r v a t i o n i n each room the c h i l d r e n were t o l d t h a t the " v i s i t o r " was i n t e r e s t e d i n l e a r n i n g about grade t h r e e c l a s s e s . At the r e c e s s break one or two c h i l d r e n e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t i n the "numbers" the o b s e r v e r was r e c o r d i n g on the c o d i n g s h e e t . D u r i n g subsequent 47 v i s i t s c h i l d r e n r a r e l y approached the o b s e r v e r and o n l y once d u r i n g c l a s s time d i d a t e a c h e r r e f e r p u b l i c a l l y t o the f a c t t h a t the c l a s s was b e i n g o b s e r v e d . At the b e g i n n i n g of the s t u d y , a l l of the t e a c h e r s thought t h a t an o b s e r v e r i n the room would not d i s r u p t the c l a s s as the c h i l d r e n were used t o v i s i t o r s b e i n g i n the room. Towards the end of the s t u d y , one t e a c h e r s p o n t a n e o u s l y commented on the way her c l a s s had i g n o r e d the o b s e r v e r : I t ' s as i f you're p a r t of the woodwork. Even B. (the c h i l d i n the desk d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t of the o b s e r v e r ) hasn't been s q u i r m i n g around t o b o t h e r you. C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t i s c o n c l u d e d t h a t r e a c t i v e e f f e c t s were p r o b a b l y m i n i m a l . S e l e c t i v e P e r c e p t i o n and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n A second p r i n c i p l e c oncern e x p r e s s e d about o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d i e s i s t h a t the o b s e r v a t i o n s may be d i s t o r t e d by the s e l e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the o b s e r v e r . I m p l i c i t i n the concept of d i s t o r t i o n i s the assumption t h a t " o b j e c t i v e " r e a l i t y e x i s t s and can be a s s e s s e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y of an o b s e r v e r . The n o t i o n i s t h a t p e r c e p t i o n must be s t r i p p e d of a l l c o n c e p t u a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n o r d e r f o r the o b s e r v a t i o n t o r e f l e c t " r e a l i t y " . Only under th e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s are d a t a c o n s i d e r e d t o be " o b j e c t i v e " and hence " s c i e n t i f i c " . An e q u a l l y t e n a b l e p o s i t i o n i s t h a t s c i e n c e i s a s o c i a l l y embedded a c t i v i t y c a r r i e d out by human b e i n g s who a r e 48 h e i r s t o some i n t e l l e c t u a l p r e f e r e n c e s and v i e w p o i n t s . W i t h i n t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n a l l o b s e r v a t i o n s , whether q u a n t i t a t i v e or q u a l i t a t i v e , a r e the product of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n because they have been f i l t e r e d t h r ough the mind of the o b s e r v e r . A c c o r d i n g t o Claude Bernard (1865), quoted by B l a c k (1954): pure o b s e r v a t i o n i s a myth. What s h a l l count as a f a c t i n any w e l l - d e v e l o p e d s c i e n c e i s a l r e a d y l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e d by t h e o r y embodied i n the d i s p o s i t i o n of s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s , the s e l e c t i o n of "competent" s c i e n t i s t s , and the p o s t u r e of " c o r r e c t " o b s e r v a t i o n (p. 19). P h i l o s o p h e r s of s c i e n c e have argued t h a t s c i e n c e i s not, and cannot be, v a l u e f r e e ( B l a c k , .1954; K a p l a n , 1964; Kuhn, 1962; S c r i v e n , 1972; Tou l m i n , 1961). T y p i c a l l y , o b s e r v a t i o n s which l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o q u a n t i f i c a t i o n have enjoyed g r e a t e r r e s p e c t a b i l i t y as " o b j e c t i v e " and have been c o n s i d e r e d t o be f r e e of d i s t o r t i n g e f f e c t s . Gould (1981) demonstrated t h a t q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of o b s e r v a t i o n i s open t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In h i s r e a n a l y s i s of what were c o n s i d e r e d t o be impeccable d a t a s e t s , he showed how a p r i o r i a s s umptions i n f l u e n c e d , a t an un c o n s c i o u s l e v e l , the da t a c o l l e c t e d by s c i e n t i s t s who were c o n s i d e r e d t o be amongst the most eminent and o b j e c t i v e of t h e i r t i m e . Gould (1981) demonstrated t h a t q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of o b s e r v a t i o n s i s no guarantee of o b j e c t i v i t y . H i s r e a n a l y s i s i s a cogent d e m o n s t r a t i o n of an i n t e r e s t i n g d i s t i n c t i o n between o b j e c t i v i t y and s u b j e c t i v i t y made by S c r i v e n (1972). S c r i v e n argued t h a t o b j e c t i v i t y and s u b j e c t i v i t y a r e h e l d t o be c o n t r a s t i n g but t h a t they a r e w i d e l y used t o r e f e r t o two 49 d i f f e r e n t c o n t r a s t s : In the f i r s t of t h e s e c o n t r a s t s " s u b j e c t i v i t y " r e f e r s t o what c o n c e r n s or o c c u r s t o the i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t and h i s e x p e r i e n c e s , q u a l i t i e s and d i s p o s i t i o n s w h i l e " o b j e c t i v e " r e f e r s t o what a number of s u b j e c t s or judges e x p e r i e n c e — i n s h o r t , t o phenomena i n the p u b l i c domain (p. 9 5 ) . He suggested t h a t as the d i f f e r e n c e i s i n the number of p e o p l e t o whom r e f e r e n c e i s made t h i s c o n t r a s t i s q u a n t i t a t i v e . S c r i v e n c o n t i n u e d : In the second of the two uses, t h e r e i s r e f e r e n c e t o the q u a l i t y of the t e s t i m o n y or the r e p o r t or the ( p u t a t i v e ) e v i d e n c e , and so I c a l l t h i s the " q u a l i t a t i v e " sense. Here " s u b j e c t i v e " means u n r e l i a b l e , b i a s e d or p r o b a b l y b i a s e d , a m a t t e r of o p i n i o n , and " o b j e c t i v e " means r e l i a b l e , f a c t u a l , c o n f i r m a b l e or c o n f i r m e d and so f o r t h (p. 9 5 ) . He m a i n t a i n e d t h a t a fundamental c o n f u s i o n i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h i s t o f u s e the two meanings such t h a t r e p o r t s by a number of p e o p l e become o b j e c t i v e , and r e p o r t s by one p e r s o n , s u b j e c t i v e . S c r i v e n argued t h a t r e p o r t s by one person need not be n e c e s s a r i l y s u b j e c t i v e i n the q u a l i t a t i v e sense. He s uggested t h a t the a c i d t e s t i s the t e s t of the c r e d i b l e w i t n e s s : I f we can t e s t someone's c l a i m s on a v e r y l a r g e number of o c c a s i o n s and f i n d them e x t r e m e l y r e l i a b l e , we have good reason t o b e l i e v e him on o t h e r o c c a s i o n s when he t e s t i f i e s about e v e n t s of a k i n d t h a t we know t o e x i s t even though we cannot check them d i r e c t l y o u r s e l v e s (p. 96) T y p i c a l l y , r e p o r t s of r e s e a r c h i n c l u d e a r e v i e w of the p e r t i n e n t l i t e r a t u r e , as w e l l as a p r e s e n t a t i o n of d a t a , r e s u l t s , and c o n c l u s i o n s . In the c a s e of s t u d i e s c o n ducted by a p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r , where the c r e d i b i l i t y of the f i e l d w o r k cannot be a s s e s s e d d i r e c t l y , S c r i v e n ' s argument would s u g g e s t s 50 t h a t c r e d i b i l i t y may be e s t i m a t e d based upon c l a i m s made about the l i t e r a t u r e which i s a c c e s s i b l e t o a l l . In a d d i t i o n d a t a r e p o r t e d by a p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r , which a r e c o r r o b o r a t e d by o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s i n the a r e a , have a h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y of b e i n g f r e e from d i s t o r t i n g e f f e c t s . F i n a l l y , i n d i s c u s s i n g the adequacy of n a t u r a l i s t i c r e s e a r c h , i t seems a p p r o p r i a t e t o p o i n t out t h a t the end p r o d u c t of any s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s not a c c e p t a n c e or r e j e c t i o n of p r o p o s i t i o n s , but the degree of c o n f i d e n c e t h a t one can p l a c e i n the p r o p o s i t i o n s (Rozeboom, i 9 6 0 ) . U l t i m a t e l y c o n f i d e n c e i n a s e t of p r o p o s i t i o n s i s a p r o d u c t of judgement. M c C a l l (1969) a d v i s e d t h a t judgement of a n a t u r a l i s t i c study s h o u l d i n c l u d e an e v a l u a t i o n of whether the account i s p l a u s i b l e i n commonsense terms. Bruyn (1966), Cronbach and Suppes (1969) and Shulman (1981) a d v i s e d t h a t c o n f i d e n c e i n a r e p o r t s h o u l d be based on an e v a l u a t i o n of the coherence and i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y of the arguments p r e s e n t e d . G e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y S c i e n c e i s more con c e r n e d w i t h the u n i v e r s a l than the p a r t i c u l a r . T h i s p r e f e r e n c e r e v e a l s i t s e l f i n the concept of g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y . The q u e s t i o n asked i s t o what degree the f i n d i n g s from one c o n t e x t may be assumed t o a p p l y i n o t h e r s e t t i n g s or under o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s . A t t e n t i o n i s t y p i c a l l y a d d r e s s e d t o g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y from the p a r t i c u l a r sample of s u b j e c t s t o some l a r g e r u n i v e r s e of s u b j e c t s of which they a r e s a i d t o be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y , one might ask how f a r the c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from the f i v e 51 c l a s s r o o m s i n v e s t i g a t e d a p p l y t o o t h e r c l a s s r o o m s . Because of the s m a l l number of c l a s s e s i n v o l v e d , and the l a c k of random s a m p l i n g , no unwarranted c l a i m s t o g e n e r a l i z a b i l t y a r e made; but n e i t h e r a r e the r e s u l t s i n t e n d e d t o r e f l e c t the i d i o s y n c r a s i e s of i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s . W i l l i a m B l a k e wrote of "worlds i n a g r a i n of sand". In so much t h a t the w o r l d of one c l a s s r o o m s h a r e s a s i m i l a r i t y w i t h the w o r l d of o t h e r c l a s s r o o m s , i t might r e a s o n a b l y be a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t the s t u d y of a few c l a s s r o o m s might shed l i g h t on some p r o c e s s e s which are common t o a l l . How common ar e the p r o c e s s e s t h a t were r e v e a l e d i n the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s a judgement t h a t may be made by the r e a d e r . In o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s judgement, the c l a s s r o o m s are d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n Appendix 1. A l t h o u g h the u n i v e r s a l i t y of s p e c i f i c c o n c l u s i o n s i s an i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n , perhaps a more i m p o r t a n t i s s u e i s the q u e s t i o n of the g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y of the c o n c e p t s and p r i n c i p l e s g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g the c o u r s e of a n a t u r a l i s t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Kaplan (1964) argued t h a t the most b a s i c of a l l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , by which he means "the making of e n d u r i n g or r e c u r r e n t c o n s t i t u e n t s i n the f l o w of e x p e r i e n c e " (p. 8 5 ) . T y p i c a l l y , t h e s e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s become the c o n c e p t s used t o d e s c r i b e r e a l i t y . G l a s e r and S t r a u s s (1967) suggested t h a t n a t u r a l i s t i c r e s e a r c h i n v o l v e s the g e n e r a t i o n of c o n c e p t u a l c a t e g o r i e s from d a t a . Once ge n e r a t e d the c o n c e p t u a l c a t e g o r i e s have a l i f e of t h e i r own. F u r t h e r , they m a i n t a i n e d t h a t the a c c u r a c y of the e v i d e n c e used t o g e n e r a t e the concept i s not f u n d a m e n t a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c , 52 because "the concept i t s e l f w i l l not change, w h i l e even the most a c c u r a t e f a c t s change" (p. 2 3 ) . T h e r e f o r e , one might argue t h a t the most a p p r o p r i a t e q u e s t i o n t o be a d d r e s s e d by n a t u r a l i s t i c s t u d i e s i s the g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y of the c o n c e p t s and p r i n c i p l e s g e n e r a t e d . T h i s c h a p t e r was concerned w i t h the d e s c r i p t i o n of the methods and p r o c e d u r e s adopted d u r i n g the p r e s e n t s t u d y . Because the i n v e s t i g a t i o n was conducted w i t h i n the framework of the n a t u r a l i s t i c paradigm, an e f f o r t was made t o emphasize the dynamic n a t u r e of the d e s i g n of the s t u d y : h y p o t h e s i s g e n e r a t i o n as opposed t o h y p o t h e s i s t e s t i n g r e s u l t s i n a p r o c e s s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n r a t h e r than a r e s e a r c h d e s i g n s p e c i f i e d a p r i o r i . The o b s e r v a t i o n a l n a t u r e of the r e s e a r c h r e q u i r e d t h a t two major a s p e c t s of the problem of b i a s , r e a c t i v i t y and d i s t o r t i n g e f f e c t s , be a d d r e s s e d . F i n a l l y , the q u e s t i o n of the g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y of the r e s u l t s of n a t u r a l i s t i c r e s e a r c h was d i s c u s s e d . 53 CHAPTER 3 O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r I n s t r u c t i o n : L e v e l i n g and Sh a r p e n i n g A fundamental d i f f i c u l t y f a c e d by many o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s the n e c e s s i t y of d e a l i n g w i t h the d i v e r s e needs of c l i e n t s . O f t e n o r g a n i z a t i o n s respond t o d i v e r s i t y by c r e a t i n g subgroups (Rosenbaum, 1980). The magnitude of the e d u c a t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e d i c t a t e s t h a t l e a r n e r s must be o r g a n i z e d i n t o groups of a c o n v e n i e n t s i z e . W h i l e the n e c e s s i t y f o r some system f o r o r g a n i z i n g l a r g e numbers of l e a r n e r s i n t o groups i s apparent the means by which t h i s may best be a c c o m p l i s h e d has l o n g been the s u b j e c t of debate; Shane ( i 9 6 0 ) documents t h i r t y two methods f o r g r o u p i n g which have been t r i e d . The problem of s e l e c t i n g the most a p p r o p r i a t e method of o r g a n i z a t i o n has been c o m p l i c a t e d f u r t h e r by the e x i s t e n c e of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s amongst l e a r n e r s . Even a c u r s o r y g l a n c e a t the p r o f u s e l i t e r a t u r e on the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s t o the problem of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s p r o v i d e s ample j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the d i c t u m : No scheme of s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n however e l a b o r a t e l y worked o u t , p r o v i d e s f o r the ty p e s and ranges of l e a r n e r v a r i a b i l i t y encompassed by the s c h o o l (Goodlad, 1962, p. 210). Shane (1962) noted f o u r b a s i c t r e n d s i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l responses t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . He argued t h a t grade l e v e l s were i n t r o d u c e d i n the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o reduce the i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s found i n the nongraded s c h o o l s . He p o i n t e d out t h a t i n an attempt t o make 54 the graded approach l e s s a r b i t r a r y " m u l t i p l e t r a c k " p l a n s were i n t r o d u c e d p e r m i t t i n g s t u d e n t s t o p r o g r e s s a t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s (see d i s c u s s i o n i n c h a p t e r one). He i d e n t i f i e d the movement towards homogeneous g r o u p i n g as an attempt t o o r g a n i z e p u p i l s by a b i l i t y . F i n a l l y , he noted the t r e n d towards ungraded g r o u p i n g i n the e a r l y e l e m e n t a r y y e a r s . I t i s perhaps not an u n f a i r comment t h a t the impetus t o change the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e of the s c h o o l s has r e c e i v e d i t s f o r c e from a b e l i e f not o n l y t h a t change was d e s i r a b l e on p h i l o s o p h i c a l or s o c i a l grounds, but a l s o t h a t an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n c o u l d be found t o the problem of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . T h i s view seems unduly o p t i m i s t i c i n the l i g h t of Shane's r e v i e w (1960) of the number of d i f f e r e n t methods of o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o q u e s t i o n i f a c o m p l e t e l y d e s i r a b l e s o l u t i o n e x i s t s . In c h a p t e r one, i t was argued t h a t t e a c h e r s f a c e a fundamental dilemma: they have t o ensure t h a t groups of l e a r n e r s who d i f f e r i n time needs co v e r a common c u r r i c u l u m i n a l i m i t e d amount of t i m e . I f t e a c h e r s o r g a n i z e c l a s s e s so t h a t the needs of i n d i v i d u a l s a r e met, i t seems l i k e l y t h a t t h e r e w i l l not be enough time t o cover the c u r r i c u l u m . C o n v e r s e l y , i f they o r g a n i z e f o r i n s t r u c t i o n t o ensure t h a t the c l a s s c o v e r s the c u r r i c u l u m , they l i k e l y run the r i s k of not a l l o w i n g enough time f o r i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s t o complete the work. The purpose of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o e x p l o r e t o what e x t e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n the f i v e c l a s s r o o m s r e p r e s e n t s a r e s o l u t i o n of t h i s fundamental dilemma of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n time needs. , 55 The e x p l o r a t i o n b e g i n s w i t h an e x a m i n a t i o n of a major form of o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n , g r o u p i n g . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the c h a p t e r opens w i t h a r e view of the l i t e r a t u r e on t h i s t o p i c . T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by a d e s c r i p t i o n of how the f i v e c l a s s e s were o r g a n i z e d . On the b a s i s of these o b s e r v a t i o n s , i t i s argued t h a t the accommodation of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l which i s a t v a r i a n c e w i t h the c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e of c l a s s r o o n l i f e : t e a c h e r s may be p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i n c l i n e d t o i n d i v i d u a l i s m , but the r e a l i t y of t h e i r d a i l y work commits them t o d e a l w i t h l e a r n e r s en masse. T h i s a n a l y s i s prompts the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n may s e r v e a purpose o t h e r than m a x i m i z i n g the achievement of i n d i v i d u a l s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the f i n a l p a r t of the c h a p t e r o f f e r s an a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the f u n c t i o n of o r g a n i z a t i o n i n c l a s s r o o m s . I t i s argued t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n f u n c t i o n s t o e f f e c t a compromise between the demands of s t u d e n t s w i t h d i f f e r i n g time needs and the n e c e s s i t y of c o v e r i n g a common c u r r i c u l u m i n a l i m i t e d amount of t i m e . S e l e c t i o n of C h i l d r e n f o r I n s t r u c t i o n I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o b e g i n w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n of how c h i l d r e n a r e s e l e c t e d f o r i n s t r u c t i o n . Both T h e l e n (1959) and Y a t e s (1966) have noted t h a t s e l e c t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d by s e v e r a l f a c t o r s : t h e s e might be l a b e l e d s o c i o l o g i c a l , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and i n s t r u c t i o n a l . The i n i t i a l s e l e c t i o n of who w i l l be educated i s a f u n c t i o n of s o c i e t y . 56 T h e l e n (1959) noted t h a t i n i t i a l l y age, and l a t e r s o c i o -economic f a c t o r s , d e l i n e a t e the p o o l of l e a r n e r s . A second p o i n t of s e l e c t i o n , s t i l l s o c i o l o g i c a l i n n a t u r e , i s the s c h o o l s which the s t u d e n t s w i l l a t t e n d . The t h i r d l e v e l of s e l e c t i o n i n v o l v e s an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n about assignment of l e a r n e r s t o c l a s s e s w i t h i n the s c h o o l . And f i n a l l y , the f o u r t h l e v e l of s e l e c t i o n i n v o l v e s d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g the w i t h i n c l a s s subgroups t o which s t u d e n t s w i l l b e l o n g f o r the purpose of i n s t r u c t i o n . I t i s t h i s f o u r t h l e v e l of s e l e c t i o n , i n t r a c l a s s g r o u p i n g , p o t e n t i a l l y under the c o n t r o l of the t e a c h e r , which i s the c o n c e r n of the p r e s e n t c h a p t e r . I n t r a c l a s s G r o u p i n g In r e v i e w i n g the l i t e r a t u r e on the o r g a n i z a t i o n of l e a r n e r s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n , i t r e a d i l y becomes apparent t h a t some of the p o i n t s of s e l e c t i o n have g e n e r a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c u s s i o n , w h i l e the o t h e r s appear t o have commanded l i t t l e i n t e r e s t . The age. of e n t r y i n t o s c h o o l f l u c t u a t e s between d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s but w i t h i n each s o c i e t y t h e r e appears t o be some consensus about what c o n s t i t u t e s the a p p r o p r i t e p o p u l a t i o n of l e a r n e r s . In the U n i t e d S t a t e s the i s s u e of d e s e g r e g a t i o n and b u s i n g have h i g h l i g h t e d a c o n t r o v e r s y over the second p o i n t of s e l e c t i o n . In both N o r t h America and Europe the t h i r d p o i n t of s e l e c t i o n , assignment t o c l a s s e s , has g e n e r a t e d a p r o l o n g e d and sometimes heated debate between the proponents of homogeneous and heterogeneous a b i l i t y g r o u p i n g . In c o n t r a s t t o d e c i s i o n s about which s c h o o l s and 57 c l a s s e s c h i l d r e n w i l l a t t e n d , w i t h i n c l a s s o r g a n i z a t i o n has been s u b j e c t e d t o l i t t l e s c r u t i n y . H e athers (1969) i n a r e v i e w a r t i c l e on g r o u p i n g comments: The mere h a n d f u l of s t u d i e s on i n t r a c l a s s p r o v i s i o n s f o r meeting d i f f e r e n c e s among l e a r n e r s c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y w i t h the l a r g e volume of r e s e a r c h on i n t e r c l a s s g r o u p i n g (p. 567). The i n t e r s c h o o l and i n t e r c l a s s d e g r o u p i n g debates have emphasized the s o c i a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l impact of group membership on i n d i v i d u a l s : hence the l a c k of a t t e n t i o n t o w i t h i n c l a s s g r o u p i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c u r i o u s . H e a ther's (1969) comment r e g a r d i n g the c o n t r a s t between the l a r g e volume of r e s e a r c h on i n t e r c l a s s g r o u p i n g and the d e a r t h of i n f o r m a t i o n on i n t r a c l a s s g r o u p i n g s h o u l d not l e a d one t o assume t h a t the e d u c a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i s s i l e n t on t h i s t o p i c . On the c o n t r a r y , a body of l i t e r a t u r e on i n t r a c l a s s g r o u p i n g does e x i s t , but i t i s h o r t a t o r y r a t h e r than e m p i r i c a l i n n a t u r e . The assumption t h a t g r o u p i n g i s a good t h i n g i s a p e r v a s i v e theme u n d e r l y i n g much of t h i s work, but t h e r e has been l i t t l e attempt t o document e i t h e r the p o s i t i v e or the n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s of t h i s p r a c t i c e . The p a u c i t y of a t t e m p t s t o v a l i d a t e t h i s commonly h e l d n o t i o n i s f u r t h e r s u r p r i s i n g i n view of the w i d e s p r e a d n a t u r e of g r o u p i n g . Heathers (1969) r e f e r s t o a N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n Report of 1962 i n which e l e m e n t a r y p r i n c i p a l s r e p o r t e d the e x i s t e n c e of subgroups i n f o u r f i f t h s of t h e i r c l a s s e s f o r r e a d i n g and two t h i r d s of t h e i r c l a s s e s i n a r i t h m e t i c . The u b i q u i t y of the p r a c t i c e would seem t o p r o v i d e adequate reason t o attempt t o s u b s t a n t i a t e the 58 p r e v a i l i n g myths about g r o u p i n g . Myths About G r o u p i n g The Webster's New C o l l e g i a t e D i c t i o n a r y (1979) d e f i n e s myth i n f o u r ways: 1: a usu. t r a d i t i o n a l s t o r y of o s t e n s i b l y h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s t h a t s e r v e s t o u n f o l d p a r t of the w o r l d view of a p e o p l e or e x p l a i n a p r a c t i c e , b e l i e f or n a t u r a l phenomenon 2: p a r a b l e , a l l e g o r y 3 a : a person or t h i n g h a v i n g o n l y an i m a g i n a r y or u n v e r i f i a b l e e x i s t e n c e b: an i l l - f o u n d e d b e l i e f h e l d u n c r i t i c a l l y esp. by an i n t e r e s t e d group 4: the whole body of myths. Myth, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h i n t r a c l a s s g r o u p i n g , i s used i n the sense of 3b and i s i n t e n d e d t o convey the n o t i o n t h a t much of the w r i t i n g on the s u b j e c t r e f l e c t s b e l i e f s which have not been s u b j e c t e d t o e m p i r i c a l s c r u t i n y . There appear t o be f o u r dominant myths s u r r o u n d i n g the n o t i o n of i n t r a c l a s s g r o u p i n g . Two of the myths r e l a t e t o the advantages a c c r u i n g t o l e a r n e r s ; the myth of p r o v i d i n g f o r d i f f e r e n c e s and the myth of i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n . The r e m a i n i n g myths c o n c e n t r a t e on the advantages f o r t e a c h e r s ; the myth of e a s i n g the problem of i n s t r u c t i o n and the myth of n a r r o w i n g the range. Myth One: P r o v i d i n g f o r D i f f e r e n c e s Hook (1960) a r t i c u l a t e d the reason f o r g r o u p i n g a t the c l a s s l e v e l : "we group i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e f o r the v a s t d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t e x i s t amongst any a g g r e g a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s " (p. 421). How g r o u p i n g p r o v i d e s f o r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i s not c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e d . One would a n t i c i p a t e t h a t i n o r d e r t o 59 p r o v i d e f o r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s t h e r e would be q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n the k i n d s of i n s t r u c t i o n f o r each group. Rosenbaum (1980) noted t h a t the a b i l i t y g r o u p i n g l i t e r a t u r e commonly assumes t h a t t e a c h e r s d i f f e r e n t i a t e i n s t r u c t i o n , and commented on the l a c k of e x p l i c i t d i s c u s s i o n r e g a r d i n g the t e a c h i n g methods t h a t a r e most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . Myth Two: I n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n I m p l i c i t i n myth one i s the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s between i n d i v i d u a l s e x i s t and t h a t the t e a c h e r has an o b l i g a t i o n t o p r o v i d e f o r them: myth two s p e c i f i e s how t h i s may be a c c o m p l i s h e d . Anderson (1962) assumed t h a t t e a c h e r s have subgroups " f o r the purposes of f o s t e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l i z e d l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s " (p. 251). Anderson suggested t h a t the g e n e s i s of the d e s i r e f o r i n d i v i d u a l i z e d l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s i s the c u l t u r a l e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t each c h i l d w i l l r e c e i v e i n d i v i d u a l a t t e n t i o n . Presumably the d e s i r e f o r i n d i v i d u a l a t t e n t i o n r e s u l t s from a b e l i e f t h a t t h i s w i l l enhance l e a r n i n g . The q u e s t i o n n a t u r a l l y a r i s e s as t o how f a r g r o u p i n g l e a d s t o the enhancement of l e a r n i n g . Y a t e s (1966) summarized a l a r g e body of r e s e a r c h and suggested t h a t g r o u p i n g by a b i l i t y i n t o homogeneous and heterogeneous c l a s s e s does not enhance achievement. Yet i n a r e c e n t r e view Rosenbaum (1980) argued t h a t the r e s u l t s a r e c o n t r a d i c t o r y . He adopted an a c c o u n t i n g p r o c e d u r e t o show the c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e of the r e s u l t s of the f i f t y b est c o n t r o l l e d s t u d i e s p u b l i s h e d between 1960 and 1968. 60 The r e v i e w s by Y a t e s (1966) and Rosenbaum (1980) a r e l a r g e l y concerned w i t h i n t r a s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n of c h i l d r e n i n t o c l a s s e s by a b i l i t y . W a l l e n and Vowles ( i 9 6 0 ) i n a s t u d y c o n t r a s t i n g g r o u p i n g and no g r o u p i n g w i t h i n the same c l a s s e s found no e f f e c t of g r o u p i n g on achievement. In s p i t e of the c o n t r a d i c t o r y e v i d e n c e on i n t e r c l a s s g r o u p i n g , and the l i m i t e d e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g the e f f e c t s of i n t r a c l a s s g r o u p i n g , the d i v i s i o n of c h i l d r e n i n t o subgroups appears t o be a dominant o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n . Y a t e s ' (1966) comment t h a t w i t h i n the e d u c a t i o n a l community t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n s e r v a t i s m r e g a r d i n g changes i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e seems j u s t i f i e d . Myth Three: E a s i n g the Problem of I n s t r u c t i o n Myth t h r e e p r o v i d e s a r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of g r o u p i n g which emphasizes the advantages t o the t e a c h e r . W i l h e l m s and Westby-Gibson (1960) suggested "Teachers have tended t o see g r o u p i n g as somewhat e a s i n g t h e i r problem of i n s t r u c t i o n " ; they add, r a t h e r c r y p t i c a l l y i n view of t h e i r l a c k of e l a b o r a t i o n , "-a p e r c e p t i o n not t o be taken l i g h t l y " (p. 411). The n o t i o n of g r o u p i n g as an i n s t r u c t i o n a l s t r a t e g y i s i m p l i c i t i n t h e i r w r i t i n g , but i s not dev e l o p e d . Q u e s t i o n s of when i t i s used, and w i t h what e f f e c t i v e n e s s , do not appear t o have been a d d r e s s e d . N e i t h e r do Wilhelms and Westby-Gibson s p e c i f y how g r o u p i n g "eases" the problem of i n s t r u c t i o n . Myth Four: Narrowing the Range In the l a r g e r debate c o n c e r n i n g the assignment of c h i l d r e n t o c l a s s e s , the argument used f o r homogeneous 61 g r o u p i n g was t h a t i t narrowed the range of a b i l i t y w i t h which t e a c h e r s had t o d e a l ( H e a t h e r s , 1969). W i l h e l m s and Westby-Gibson (1960) commented t h a t t e a c h e r s d e s i r e d the n a r r o w i n g of range presumably because the r e d u c t i o n of the range was seen as f a c i l i t a t i n g t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g . I f i n t e r c l a s s g r o u p i n g reduces the range then a l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n of the argument would p r e d i c t even g r e a t e r homogeneity w i t h i n t r a c l a s s g r o u p i n g . The assumption of homogeneity has been q u e s t i o n e d ( C l a r k e , 1958; Eash, 1961; Goodlad and Anderson, 1959; T y l e r , 1965; W i l h e l m s and Westby-Gibson, 1960). G r o u p i n g c h i l d r e n appears not t o reduce the v a r i a b i l i t y a p p r e c i a b l y . P e t t y (1953) r e p o r t e d a wide range i n b o t h a b i l i t y and achievement i n i n t r a c l a s s groups. C l a r k e (1958) found t h a t r e g r o u p i n g c h i l d r e n on the b a s i s of IQ s c o r e s reduced v a r i a b i l i t y i n the C a l i f o r n i a Reading t e s t s c o r e s by 9% and i n a r i t h m e t i c and language by 2%. S t u d e n t s may become more s i m i l a r on the chosen f a c t o r but remain q u i t e heterogeneous on o t h e r f a c t o r s . Even when g r o u p i n g i s c a r r i e d out s p e c i f i c a l l y i n a s u b j e c t a r e a , the r e d u c t i o n i n v a r i a t i o n i s l i k e l y not t o be g r e a t . In the C l a r k e study (1958) g r o u p i n g by r e a d i n g s c o r e s reduced the v a r i a b i l i t y by 20%. Goodlad and Anderson (1959) commented: The more we d i v i d e g e n e r a l development i n t o s p e c i f i c t r a i t s , the e a s i e r i t i s t o group p u p i l s homogeneously on a s i n g l e t r a i t but the h a r d e r i t becomes t o group them homogeneously on a l l t r a i t s (p. 18). 62 They r e j e c t e d homogeneous g r o u p i n g as a " w i l l o'the w i s p " , and c o n c l u d e d t h a t i t d i d not a d e q u a t e l y a d d r e s s the problem of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n i n g . G r o u p ing D e c i s i o n s In s p i t e of the f a c t t h a t the presumed advantages f o r both t e a c h e r s and p u p i l s have not been c o n s i s t e n t l y d emonstrated, t h e r e e x i s t s a s u b s t a n t i a l l i t e r a t u r e which e x h o r t s t e a c h e r s t o group; A l e x a n d e r (1979) and Smith and Johnson (1976) p r o v i d e t y p i c a l examples. Much p r e s c r i p t i v e a d v i c e on how t o group p r e v a i l s but l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been p a i d t o d e s c r i b i n g how t e a c h e r s make g r o u p i n g d e c i s i o n s . S e v e r a l w r i t e r s have suggested f a c t o r s which may i n f l u e n c e g r o u p i n g . Y a t e s (1966) suggested t h a t groups may be formed on the b a s i s of such c r i t e r i a as i n t e l l i g e n c e , a p t i t u d e , achievement, s p e c i a l needs, i n t e r e s t and m o t i v a t i o n . A l t e r n a t e l y , Anderson (1962) suggested t h a t g r o u p i n g d e c i s i o n s a r e governed by e s s e n t i a l l y p r a g m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ; the n a t u r e and the amount of p h y s i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e . He appeared to i n t e r p r e t r e s o u r c e s i n m a t e r i a l terms, p o r t a b l e f u r n i t u r e , t e x t b o o k s , m a t e r i a l s and space w i t h i n the s c h o o l b u i l d i n g . On the o t h e r hand B a r r (1975) and He a t h e r s (1969) see p s y c h o l o g i c a l r a t h e r than p h y s i c a l f a c t o r s as paramount. Heathers suggested t h a t i n t r a c l a s s g r o u p i n g i s more l i k e l y t o oc c u r i n heterogeneous c l a s s e s than i n a b i l i t y grouped c l a s s e s s i n c e he b e l i e v e d t h a t t e a c h e r s employ g r o u p i n g t o a c c o m p l i s h w i t h i n c l a s s a b i l i t y or achievement l e v e l g r o u p i n g . B a r r 63 (1975) i s more s p e c i f i c . She r e p o r t e d t h a t grade one t e a c h e r s grouped when they found t h a t some p u p i l s d i f f e r e d s u f f i c i e n t l y from o t h e r s i n t h e i r a b i l i t y or a t t e n t i o n , so t h a t managing t o t a l - c l a s s i n s t r u c t i o n w i t h the same m a t e r i a l s became d i f f i c u l t . F u r t h e r , she suggested t h a t g r o u p i n g o c c u r e d i n response t o two ty p e s of l e a r n e r s who were p e r c e i v e d by the t e a c h e r s t o be a t y p i c a l ; c h i l d r e n who had d i f f i c u l t y a t t e n d i n g t o i n s t r u c t i o n , and e x t r e m e l y good l e a r n e r s who were eager t o move ahead and became r e s t l e s s i f they d i d n o t . A l t h o u g h the l i t e r a t u r e on i n t r a c l a s s g r o u p i n g i s meager i t c o n t a i n s some i n t e r e s t i n g s p e c u l a t i o n s . I t has been suggested t h a t t e a c h e r s group i n response t o p u p i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , m a i n l y a b i l i t y and a t t e n t i o n , and t h a t the range of v a r i a b i l i t y w i t h i n a c l a s s w i l l i n f l u e n c e t e a c h e r g r o u p i n g d e c i s i o n s . A p a r t from Anderson's (1962) s u g g e s t i o n t h a t g r o u p i n g i s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by the a v a i l a b i l i t y of r e s o u r c e s , the p o s s i b i l i t y of o t h e r c o n s t r a i n t s on g r o u p i n g appear not t o have been g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d . One p o s s i b l e c o n s t r a i n t t h a t s p r i n g s t o mind i s the p r a g m a t i c one of c l a s s r o o m mangagement. Grouping f o r i n s t r u c t i o n reduces the time the t e a c h e r spends w i t h the whole c l a s s and n e c e s s a r i l y i n c r e a s e s the time t h a t s t u d e n t s must work i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T h i s p a t t e r n of o r g a n i z a t i o n i n v o l v e s d e c i s i o n s about how time s h o u l d be a p p o r t i o n e d t o groups, and how c h i l d r e n w o r k i ng i n d e p e n d e n t l y a re t o be managed. How time elements and t e a c h e r management s k i l l s may i n f l u e n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s appear not t o have been i n v e s t i g a t e d . 64 One i n t e r e s t i n g f a c e t of g r o u p i n g f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i s the e x t e n t t o which t h i s u b i q u i t o u s p r a c t i c e c o n t i n u e s i n the f a c e of e v i d e n c e which q u e s t i o n s i t e f f e c t i v e n e s s . T h i s tendency t o adhere t o o l d forms of o r g a n i z a t i o n has been d e s c r i b e d as c o n s e r v a t i v e ( Y a t e s , 1966); however, an a l t e r n a t i v e view i s t h a t the p r a c t i c e of i n t r a c l a s s g r o u p i n g may s e r v e some purpose. I t seems a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h i s p o i n t , t o r e i n t r o d u c e a d i s t i n c t i o n between the r e c o g n i z e d and i n t e n d e d consequences of b e h a v i o r and the u n r e c o g n i z e d and u n i n t e n d e d consequences. In the s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e the former a r e c a l l e d m a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n s and the l a t t e r l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s (Merton, 1967). I t has t y p i c a l l y been supposed t h a t t e a c h e r s group t o accommodate i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h a view t o m a x i m i z i n g s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g ; t h i s may be d e s c r i b e d as the m a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n of g r o u p i n g . T h e r e f o r e , an i n i t i a l q u e s t i o n i s t o what e x t e n t does g r o u p i n g f a c i l i t a t e the accommodation of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . W i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s of t h i s study the q u e s t i o n i s r e p h r a s e d t o ask t o what e x t e n t does g r o u p i n g a l l e v i a t e s the problem of d i f f e r e n t i a l t i me needs? A d d i t i o n a l l y , i n the f a c e of e v i d e n c e which s u g g e s t s t h a t the m a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n of g r o u p i n g , the accommodation of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , i s q u e s t i o n a b l e , i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o i n v e s t i g a t e i f a l a t e n t f u n c t i o n e x i s t s . 65 W i t h i n C l a s s V a r i a t i o n i n A b i l i t y I t has been suggested t h a t w i t h i n c l a s s h e t e r o g e n e i t y may be a c a t a l y s t f o r g r o u p i n g ( B a r r , 1975; H e a t h e r s , 1969). A c c o r d i n g l y , i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the v a r i a b i l i t y i n the c l a s s e s s e l e c t e d f o r study i s p r e s e n t e d , p r i o r t o a d e s c r i p t i o n of how they were o r g a n i z e d f o r i n s t r u c t i o n . In k e e p i n g w i t h the n a t u r a l i s t i c emphasis of the s t u d y , i t was d e c i d e d t o c a p i t a l i z e on the i n f o r m a t i o n a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e . A l l of the t e a c h e r s had a c c e s s t o achievement t e s t r e s u l t s : some of the r e s u l t s were from the p r e v i o u s y e a r , but f o u r of the t e a c h e r s a d m i n i s t e r e d t e s t s d u r i n g September as an a i d t o g r o u p i n g . . Teacher 4 and Teacher 5 gave the Gates M a c G i n i t i e r e a d i n g t e s t , P r i m a r y C, form 1 (T a b l e 1) and an I n i t i a l Placement t e s t , G i n n , 1976 (Table 2 ) . Teacher 3 gave o n l y the Gates w h i l e Teacher 1 gave o n l y the G i n n . The r e s u l t s of the Gates M a c G i n i t i e ( P r i m a r y B, form 1) a d m i n i s t e r e d a t the end of grade two were a l s o a v a i l a b l e f o r Teacher 1's c l a s s . As t h i s t e a c h e r gave no t e s t s i n September the r e s u l t s of the Gates g i v e n a t the b e g i n n i n g of grade two w i l l be r e p o r t e d as an i n d i c a t i o n of the range of r e a d i n g achievement i n her c l a s s . None of the t e a c h e r s r e p o r t e d g i v i n g any t e s t s i n a r i t h m e t i c . 66 Ta b l e 1 Gates M a c G i n i t i e Reading Test C l a s s % i l e 1 2 3 4 5 0 - 2 4 - 3* 3 1 4 25 - 49 - 3 1 2 4 3 50 - 74 4 2 5 7 8 75 - 100 1 5 8 7 1 0 6 a b c 1 62 - 98 1 7 12 - 90 3 0 14 - 99 5 x 2 24 - 99 3 5 0 - 9 9 0 Note * i n d i c a t e s the number of s t u d e n t s w i t h i n each % i l e range a # of s t u d e n t s f o r whom no t e s t r e s u l t s were a v a i l a b l e b Range of comprehension s c o r e s i n p e r c e n t i l e s c # of s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g L e a r n i n g A s s i s t a n c e C e n t r e s The r e s u l t s of the r e a d i n g t e s t seem t o i n d i c a t e t h a t f o u r of the c l a s s e s c o n t a i n e d a wide range of achievement l e v e l s . The h e t e r o g e n e i t y of r e a d i n g achievement i n f o u r of the c l a s s e s c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y w i t h the homogeneity i n C l a s s 1. Teacher 1's c l a s s appeared t o be l a r g e l y composed of c h i l d r e n who were above the 75th p e r c e n t i l e i n r e a d i n g achievement. I f t e a c h e r s group l a r g e l y on the b a s i s of achievement, as the l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t s , then we might a n t i c i p a t e t h a t Teacher 1 would t e a c h the c l a s s as a whole i n r e a d i n g w h i l e the o t h e r s may p r e f e r t o group. Only t h r e e of the t e a c h e r s gave an I n i t i a l Placement t e s t ( G i n n , 1976) t o determine the l e v e l of the r e a d e r t o be used ( T a b l e 2 ) . In two of the c l a s s e s (1 and 5) the c h i l d r e n 67 ranged from l e v e l 6 ( r e a d e r recommended f o r grade 1 or grade 2) t o l e v e l 9 ( r e a d e r recommended f o r grade 3 or grade 4) . In C l a s s 4 the c h i l d r e n s c o r e d a t e i t h e r l e v e l 7 or l e v e l 8. Table 2 Ginn I n i t i a l Placement Test C l a s s L e v e l 1 4 5 6 1* - 3 7 9 9 2 8 6 1 3 5 9 4 - 12 Note * i n d i c a t e s the number of s t u d e n t s a t each l e v e l O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r I n s t r u c t i o n At the b e g i n n i n g of the c u r r e n t s t u d y , the end of the f i r s t month i n school,) a l l of the t e a c h e r s had p r o g r e s s e d beyond an i n f o r m a l 'stage i n the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e i r s t u d e n t s . In some rooms and f o r some s u b j e c t s , the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s t u d e n t s f o r the purpose of i n s t r u c t i o n was p u b l i c l y r e c o g n i z e d i n the f o r m a t i o n of groups. Some t e a c h e r s were more s u b t l e i n t h e i r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , p r e f e r r i n g t o a s s i g n d i f f e r e n t c u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l s (see Appendix 5 f o r a l i s t of c u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l i n use i n B. C. s c h o o l s ) . These two approaches a r e not m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e ; o f t e n the f o r m a t i o n of groups i s accompanied by d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n the type of 68 m a t e r i a l which i s used. Even when o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n was not o v e r t , the p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n of c h i l d r e n s e l e c t e d t o engage i n c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s s uggested t h a t a c o v e r t form of g r o u p i n g was i n use. I t may perhaps c l a r i f y m a t t e r s t o f i r s t of a l l d e s c r i b e the o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n which emerged i n each room, b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g t o to a d i s c u s s i o n of the f a c t o r s which appeared t o govern g r o u p i n g d e c i s i o n s . O r g a n i z a t i o n i n C l a s s 1 Teacher 1 had t h r e e r e a d i n g groups. The groups were l a b e l e d w i t h the name of one of the members of the group. The to p group, c o n s i s t i n g of seven c h i l d r e n were r e a d i n g How i t i s Nowadays ( G i n n , l e v e l 8 ) . The midd l e group, c o n s i s t i n g of t e n c h i l d r e n were r e a d i n g Golden T r a i l s which i s the second reader of grade two of the Language P a t t e r n s s e r i e s ( H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W i n s t o n ) . The bottom group, c o n s i s t i n g of t h r e e c h i l d r e n , were r e a d i n g The Dog Next Door ( G i n n , l e v e l 7 ) . Two weeks b e f o r e the C h r i s t m a s v a c a t i o n a n other c h i l d r e t u r n e d from a r e a d i n g d i a g n o s t i c u n i t and became a f o u r t h group. Teacher 1 taught the c l a s s as a whole f o r s p e l l i n g and a r i t h m e t i c . O r g a n i z a t i o n i n C l a s s 2 Teacher 2 had two groups f o r r e a d i n g . Seventeen c h i l d r e n were u s i n g B e t t e r than G o l d ( M a c m i l l a n Reading S e r i e s ) , recommended f o r the f i r s t p a r t of grade t h r e e , as t h e i r c l a s s r e a d e r . T h i s group a l s o used the second grade two reader i n the s e r i e s ( M a c m i l l a n ) f o r r e a d i n g and an s w e r i n g 69 comprehension q u e s t i o n s i n d e p e n d e n t l y . The second group had s i x members. These c h i l d r e n had had r e m e d i a l h e l p d u r i n g the p r e v i o u s year and were a s s i g n e d Enchanted Gates ( M a c m i l l a n ) p r e s c r i b e d f o r the f i r s t p a r t of grade two. They were not a s s i g n e d a second reader f o r independent work because Teacher 2 f e l t t h a t i n i t i a l l y they needed t o work under c l o s e t e a c h e r s u p e r v i s i o n . Both of the r e a d i n g groups had names. The c h i l d r e n were not grouped f o r e i t h e r s p e l l i n g or a r i t h m e t i c ; i n t h e s e s u b j e c t s the c l a s s worked as a whole. O r g a n i z a t i o n i n C l a s s 4 Teacher 4 had two r e a d i n g groups: t h i r t e e n c h i l d r e n were r e a d i n g How i t i s Nowadays ( G i n n , l e v e l 8) and t e n were r e a d i n g The Dog Next Door ( G i n n , l e v e l 7 ) . However r e a d i n g groups i n a c t i o n were o n l y o b s e r v e d on two o c a s s i o n s ; Teacher 4 o f t e n a s s i g n e d work t o the c l a s s as a whole. In a r i t h m e t i c t h e r e were two groups. N i n e t e e n c h i l d r e n were u s i n g I n v e s t i g a t i n g S c h o o l Mathematics (the p r e s c r i b e d t e x t book) w h i l e a s m a l l group of f o u r c h i l d r e n were u s i n g Mathematics f o r I n d i v i d u a l Achievement. However the c l a s s was f r e q u e n t l y g i v e n the same a r i t h m e t i c a s s i g n m e n t . S p e l l i n g was taught t o the c l a s s as a whole. O r g a n i z a t i o n i n C l a s s 5 Teacher'5 d e s c r i b e d her program as i n d i v i d u a l i z e d and c l a i m e d t h a t she d i d n ' t have groups. On the second o b s e r v a t i o n (the f i r s t week i n October) a l l of the c h i l d r e n were u s i n g the same r e a d e r , I n s i d e Out ( G i n n , l e v e l 9 ) . 70 However by the second week i n October the c l a s s had been s p l i t i n t o f o u r groups. T h i r t e e n c h i l d r e n were s t i l l r e a d i n g the l e v e l 9 book, f i v e c h i l d r e n were r e a d i n g How i t i s Nowadays ( l e v e l 8 ) , t h r e e c h i l d r e n were r e a d i n g The Dog Next Door ( l e v e l 7 ) , and t h r e e were r e a d i n g One t o Grow On ( l e v e l 6 ) . By the l a s t week i n October the groups had been f o r m a l l y l a b e l e d and work was p l a c e d on the c h a l k b o a r d under the group names. A l l of the c h i l d r e n were w o r k i n g on the same u n i t i n s p e l l i n g but the amount of work r e q u i r e d was reduced f o r the members of the t h i r d and f o u r t h groups. In a r i t h m e t i c the t e a c h e r had two groups. The t o p group i n a r i t h m e t i c c o n s i s t e d of c h i l d r e n i n the f i r s t and second r e a d i n g groups; the bottom group c o n s i s t e d of c h i l d r e n i n the t h i r d and f o u r t h r e a d i n g groups. As w i t h s p e l l i n g , the same u n i t was a s s i g n e d but the amount of work r e q u i r e d was reduced f o r the second group. O r g a n i z a t i o n i n C l a s s 3 Teacher 3 had the most complex system of o r g a n i z a t i o n . She d e s c r i b e d her program as i n d i v i d u a l i z e d , and indeed t h e r e were no groups f o r m a l l y i d e n t i f i e d by name. C h i l d r e n r o t a t e d t h r o u g h c e n t e r s , but work of d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of d i f f i c u l t y was p l a c e d i n the c e n t e r s , and some c h i l d r e n were s p e c i f i c a l l y d i r e c t e d t o do c e r t a i n a s s i g n m e n t s . In s p i t e of the c l a i m t o no groups, a p r o g r e s s i v e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of c h i l d r e n i n t o " h i d d e n " groups emerged. At the end of September a l l the c h i l d r e n were r e a d i n g How i t i s Nowadays ( l e v e l 8 ) , but they were c a l l e d up t o the r e a d i n g c i r c l e i n groups; the names were read from a l i s t of the r e s u l t s of the Gates M a c G i n i t e r e a d i n g 71 t e s t . Work a s s i g n e d t o the c h i l d r e n was a l s o d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n terms of d i f f i c u l t y . For example, one group of c h i l d r e n who were sent t o the l i b r a r y were r e q u i r e d t o l i s t the names of a u t h o r s of books w h i l e another group had t o l i s t the a u t h o r s of s t o r i e s . The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s assignment was t h a t the f i r s t group of c h i l d r e n were ready t o be encouraged t o r e ad books w h i l e the second group c o u l d s t i l l o n l y manage s t o r i e s . The c h i l d r e n who r e g u l a r l y went t o the L e a r n i n g A s s i s t a n c e C e n t e r ( LAC ) were not r e q u i r e d t o do e i t h e r a c t i v i t y . A l t h o u g h t h e r e were no f o r m a l l y l a b e l e d groups, and group membership c o u l d be f l e x i b l e r a t h e r than f i x e d , i t c e r t a i n l y appeared t h a t the t e a c h e r had a b i l i t y s t r a t a i n her head which she used t o det e r m i n e the i n s t r u c t i o n a l groups: none of the LAC c h i l d r e n was ever i n c l u d e d i n the t o p group. By the mi d d l e of December the absence of f o r m a l group names l e d t o the p r a c t i c e of a s k i n g f o r " a l l the c h i l d r e n who d i d n ' t r e a d y e s t e r d a y " , o r a l t e r n a t e l y naming a c h i l d and a s k i n g f o r the members of the same group t o come f o r w a r d . A l t h o u g h a t the b e g i n n i n g of the year a l l c h i l d r e n began r e a d i n g i n the same book ( l e v e l 8 ) , by the f i r s t week i n December f o u r of the c h i l d r e n were b e i n g g i v e n a s s i g n m e n t s from The Dog Next Door ( l e v e l 7 ) . S i m i l a r l y , p r o g r e s s i v e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n s p e l l i n g was no t e d . I n i t i a l l y , a l l c h i l d r e n were a s s i g n e d the same s p e l l i n g work c a r d s . In the second week of October f o u r c h i l d r e n were s e l e c t e d t o s t a r t the p r e s c r i b e d s p e l l i n g 72 program because they had done w e l l on the Gates r e a d i n g t e s t . By the m i d d l e of November a n o t h e r group was s t a r t e d on the s p e l l i n g program. The r e m a i n i n g seven c h i l d r e n , f o u r of whom were a t t e n d i n g the LAC were s t i l l w o r k i n g on the s p e l l i n g c a r d s which had been a s s i g n e d i n September. The t e a c h e r d i d not s t a r t them on the s p e l l i n g program because " i t i s too much f o r them t o h a n d l e " . By the end of November some movement of group membership had oc c u r e d but i t appeared t h a t t h e r e were t h r e e d i s t i n c t groups f o r s p e l l i n g . Group one now had t w e l v e c h i l d r e n , and group two had t e n c h i l d r e n . B oth groups were working on d i f f e r e n t u n i t s and t h e r e f o r e had t o be t e s t e d s e p a r a t e l y . The t h i r d group c o n s i s t e d of f i v e c h i l d r e n who s t i l l had not s t a r t e d a s p e l l i n g program. In a r i t h m e t i c , the c h i l d r e n were a l l a s s i g n e d the same workcards and a c t i v i t i e s . However, when a new concept was i n t r o d u c e d , i t was i n t r o d u c e d s e p a r a t e l y t o two groups of c h i l d r e n , and the l e v e l of the work was d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . For example, the i n t r o d u c t i o n of p l a c e v a l u e was done w i t h one group of f o u r t e e n c h i l d r e n , and c o u n t i n g by hundreds t o one thousand was s t r e s s e d . A second group of n i n e c h i l d r e n were c a l l e d up by name: t h r e e of t h e s e c h i l d r e n were LAC c h i l d r e n . P l a c e v a l u e was a l s o i n t r o d u c e d , but c o u n t i n g by t e n s t o one hundred was s t r e s s e d . F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g O r g a n i z a t i o n The seeming d i v e r s i t y i n o r g a n i z a t i o n i n the f i v e c l a s s r o o m s may obscure some u n d e r l y i n g g e n e r a l 73 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I t i s perhaps the g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s which have g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e than the d e t a i l s . In t h i s s e c t i o n s e v e r a l c o m m o n a l i t i e s which c r y s t a l l i z e d from the o b s e r v a t i o n a l d a t a w i l l be d i s c u s s e d . T h i s s e c t i o n b e g i n s w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n of the f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n . In p a r t i c u l a r the t r a d i t i o n a l i d e a t h a t achievement i s r e l a t e d t o g r o u p i n g d e c i s i o n s i s examined. I t i s s u g g ested t h a t a l t h o u g h t e a c h e r s c o n s i d e r s t u d e n t achievement l e v e l s , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o r e f l e c t s the c o n s t r a i n t s of t i m e . S e c o n d l y , the g e n e r a l s t a b i l i t y of group membership i s d i s c u s s e d , and the p r o p o s i t i o n advanced t h a t t h i s r e f l e c t s a f u n c t i o n a l response t o the demands of the c l a s s r o o m environment. F i n a l l y , the d i f f e r e n c e between o r g a n i z a t i o n i n r e a d i n g , where t e a c h e r s g e n e r a l l y grouped, and i n a r i t h m e t i c , where they g e n e r a l l y taught the c l a s s as a whole, i s examined. I t i s c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e s e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c l a s s r o o m o r g a n i z a t i o n r a i s e q u e s t i o n s about the v a l i d i t y of the t r a d i t i o n a l view t h a t the t a s k of the t e a c h e r i s t o meet the i n d i v i d u a l needs of s t u d e n t s . Achievement L e v e l s and G r o u ping The t e a c h e r s used t h r e e d i s t i n c t k i n d s of i n f o r m a t i o n i n o r d e r t o group p u p i l s : a n e c d o t a l r e p o r t s , e i t h e r o r a l or w r i t t e n , from th e c h i l d ' s p r e v i o u s t e a c h e r , r e s u l t s of achievement t e s t s and the r e s u l t s of t h e i r own o b s e r v a t i o n s . U s u a l l y , the i n f o r m a t i o n from s e v e r a l s o u r c e s was combined. Only one of the t e a c h e r s , Teacher 2, appeared t o group s o l e l y on the b a s i s of i n f o r m a t i o n from the p r e v i o u s t e a c h e r . In 74 a d d i t i o n , she commented t h a t the LAC c h i l d r e n formed a " n a t u r a l " group. Teacher 1 grouped a c c o r d i n g t o i n f o r m a t i o n from the p r e v i o u s t e a c h e r , but changed her groups on the b a s i s of the a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n from the r e s u l t s of the placement t e s t . The o t h e r t h r e e t e a c h e r s appear t o have used o n l y t e s t i n f o r m a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r own judgement. The l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t s t h a t achievement i n f l u e n c e s g r o u p i n g d e c i s i o n s . However, a comparison of the achievement l e v e l s i n comprehension on the Gates t e s t w i t h the groups w i t h i n each c l a s s r o o m s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e was no one-to-one correspondence between achievement l e v e l and groups (see T a b l e 3 ) . Teachers seemed t o have p l a c e d c h i l d r e n of the same achievement l e v e l i n t o d i f f e r e n t groups, and c o n v e r s e l y , c h i l d r e n a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of achievement i n t o the same group. Rosenbaum (1980) comments on t h i s " o v e r l a p p i n g " phenomenon as a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f i n d i n g of s t u d i e s where the f o c u s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n was the homogeneity of groups composed on the b a s i s of a b i l i t y . 75 T a b l e 3 Group Membership and Achievement L e v e l s Gates M a c G i n i t i e s Reading Test % i l e range Group 0 - 2 4 25 - 49 50 - 74 75 - 100 C l a s s 1 1 2 3 - 3 1 7 7 1 C l a s s 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 8 C l a s s 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 5 3 2 4 2 C l a s s 4 1 2 1 4 4 4 9 C l a s s 5 1 2 3 4 1 3 3 1 6 2 6 An i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the achievement l e v e l s of the members of each group, as measured by the Gates t e s t , seems t o suggest t h a t achievement had g r e a t e r s a l i e n c y f o r some t e a c h e r s than f o r o t h e r s . I t might be argued t h a t as a s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t the Gates t e s t measures g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r e a d i n g achievement; c o n s e q u e n t l y , i t s pra g m a t i c v a l u e may be l i m i t e d . 76 Three of the t e a c h e r s gave the Ginn Placement t e s t (see Table 4 ) . The p r a c t i c a l advantage of t h i s t e s t i s t h a t i t recommends a t which l e v e l of the r e a d i n g s e r i e s the s t u d e n t s s h o u l d be p l a c e d . The c o m p o s i t i o n of Teacher 4's groups and Teacher 5's groups (Table 4) su g g e s t s t h a t they grouped p r i m a r i l y as a r e s u l t of the Placement t e s t : t h e i r g r o u p i n g s do not r e f l e c t as c l o s e l y the r e s u l t s of the Gates t e s t ( T a b l e 3) . T a b l e 4 Group Membership and Achievement L e v e l s I n i t i a l Placement Test L e v e l s Group 6 7 8 9 N C l a s s 1 1 2 3 1 * 4 1 5 2 3 2 7 2 10 3 C l a s s 4 1 2 1 3 10 1 3 10 C l a s s 5 1 2 3 4 5 3 3 - -12 13 6 3 4 Note * N i n d i c a t e s the number of s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e s the number of s t u d e n t s a t each l e v e l i n each r e a d i n g group F a c t o r s o t h e r than achievement may i n f l u e n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s . The e x t e n t t o which s u b j e c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n i n f l u e n c e s the d e c i s i o n s made by t e a c h e r s i s p r o b a b l y , i d i o s y n c r a t i c , but i t seems l i k e l y t h a t a l l t e a c h e r s are i n f l u e n c e d t o some degree by the i m p r e s s i o n s they form as 77 a r e s u l t of d a i l y c o n t a c t w i t h the c h i l d r e n . In t h i s group of t e a c h e r s , c l a s s r o o m i n f o r m a t i o n p r o b a b l y was used. In p a r t i c u l a r Teacher 3 made a p o i n t of e x p l a i n i n g t h a t she l i k e s " t o see what they can do d u r i n g September". Teacher 4's s e a r c h f o r i n f o r m a t i o n was s l i g h t l y more f o r m a l i z e d i n t h a t she gave her own teacher-made t e s t s d u r i n g the second week of s c h o o l . I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t achievement as measured by t e s t s , by a n e c d o t a l r e p o r t s or by o b s e r v a t i o n s , f i g u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y i n the g r o u p i n g d e c i s i o n s made by the s e t e a c h e r s , but perhaps d i d not determine the placement of c h i l d r e n i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l groups i n a l l the c l a s s r o o m s . Time C o n s t r a i n t s and O r g a n i z a t i o n Teachers t y p i c a l l y t a l k of g r o u p i n g as a means t o b e t t e r s u i t i n s t r u c t i o n t o the a b i l i t i e s and a p t i t u d e s of i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s . • A c c o r d i n g l y , one would p r e d i c t t h a t achievement l e v e l would s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e g r o u p i n g d e c i s i o n s . Yet the d a t a shows the e x i s t e n c e of w i t h i n group v a r i a b i l i t y i n r e a d i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , i f t e a c h e r s group a c c o r d i n g t o the i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s of s t u d e n t s , one would a n t i c i p a t e t h a t c l a s s e s which were heterogeneous i n achievement would have more groups w h i l e t h o s e which were homogeneous would have l e s s groups. C l e a r l y , t h i s i s not su p p o r t e d based on the o b s e r v a t i o n s i n the s e f i v e c l a s s r o o m s . W h i l e t e a c h e r s d i d u t i l i z e achievement d a t a t o o r g a n i z e t h e i r c l a s s e s i n r e a d i n g , they d i d not f o r a r i t h m e t i c . A d d i t i o n a l l y , c h i l d r e n were moved from groups on the b a s i s of t h e i r c l a s s r o o m performance, r a t h e r than t h e i r achievement as 78 measured by t e s t s . T h i s seems t o suggest t h a t g r o u p i n g d e c i s i o n s may have been i n f l u e n c e d by c o n c e r n s o t h e r than m a x i m i z i n g the p o t e n t i a l of i n d i v i d u a l s . One p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t t e a c h e r t a l k may be i n f l u e n c e d by the t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of t e a c h i n g as meeting the i n d i v i d u a l needs of l e a r n e r s . On the o t h e r hand, t e a c h e r a c t i o n may be more c o n s t r a i n e d by the p r a c t i c a l n e c e s s i t y of d e a l i n g w i t h groups of l e a r n e r s . A l t h o u g h a l l the t e a c h e r s t a l k e d about the d i f f i c u l t y of not h a v i n g enough time t o get e v e r y t h i n g done, o n l y one t e a c h e r appeared t o p e r c e i v e the i n f l u e n c e of time on her o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n . Teacher 2 r e p o r t e d t h a t she grouped p r i m a r i l y on the b a s i s of i n f o r m a t i o n from the grade two t e a c h e r . She a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t she d i d not d i f f e r e n t i a t e f u r t h e r between her p u p i l s because of the c o n s t r a i n t s of t i m e . Teacher 2 remarked t h a t one of her r e a d i n g groups was l a r g e and t h a t she c o u l d s p l i t i t . She m a i n t a i n e d t h a t the advantage of kee p i n g the group i n t a c t was the o r g a n i z a t i o n of t i m e : "You have t o be r e a l l y o r g a n i z e d and watch your time w i t h t h r e e groups". She i n t e n d e d t o s p l i t the group a f t e r C h r i s t m a s when they would be ready t o move i n t o a an o t h e r s e r i e s of r e a d e r s (Language P a t t e r n s ) . She thought i t would be n e c e s s a r y t o s p l i t the group a t t h i s time because she f e l t t h a t the s e r i e s was h a r d e r and t h a t a few of the c h i l d r e n would be a b l e " t o move a t a f a s t e r pace and do the harder e x e r c i s e s " . T h i s t e a c h e r ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n i n s p e l l i n g was a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by the c o n s t r a i n t s of t i m e . She ta u g h t the c l a s s 79 as a whole because i t " t a k e s l e s s time t o t e a c h the c l a s s as a whole". She a l s o p r e f e r r e d not t o group i n a r i t h m e t i c because " t h e r e wasn't enough time t o work w i t h the groups p r o p e r l y and not enough time t o work w i t h i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d r e n " . She r e p o r t e d t h a t she had grouped the p r e v i o u s year because of the v a r i a t i o n i n achievement l e v e l s i n t h a t c l a s s . She d i d n ' t i n t e n d t o s p l i t the c l a s s f o r a r i t h m e t i c t h i s year as "the c h i l d r e n a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r i n achievement". A l t h o u g h t h i s t e a c h e r was the o n l y one who appeared t o a p p r e c i a t e , a t a c o n s c i o u s l e v e l , t h a t g r o u p i n g a f f e c t e d time use i n a c l a s s r o o m , a l l of the o t h e r t e a c h e r s who grouped seemed t o f a c e time a l l o c a t i o n problems. (Time a l l o c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r s i x ) . I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n r e a d i n g may have been i n f l u e n c e d by time f a c t o r s . Perhaps the aim of meeting i n d i v i d u a l needs w i t h i n a c o l l e c t i v e s e t t i n g i s i d e a l i s t i c but not p r a c t i c a l . Teachers do not have the l u x u r y of p e r m i t t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s u n l i m i t e d time as p a r t of t h e i r mandate i s t o have the c l a s s c o v e r the m a t e r i a l f o r the grade l e v e l . A l t h o u g h p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y t e a c h e r s may be wedded t o the n o t i o n of meeting i n d i v i d u a l needs, the p r a c t i c a l n e c e s s i t y of c o v e r i n g a c e r t a i n amount o f work d u r i n g the year may l e a d t o the development of a compromise. The d i v i s i o n of a c l a s s i n t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l groups may r e f l e c t an accommodation t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a t a g r o s s l e v e l of a n a l y s i s ; a l t h o u g h groups were no't homogeneous i n c o m p o s i t i o n the f a s t e r l e a r n e r s 80 g e n e r a l l y appeared t o be s e p a r a t e d from the s l o w e s t . However, once grouped, the c h i l d r e n i n an i n s t r u c t i o n a l group proceeded th r o u g h the c u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l s a t the same r a t e ( c f . B a r r , 1975, p. 492). C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t i s suggested t h a t c l a s s r o o m o r g a n i z a t i o n f u n c t i o n s t o e f f e c t a compromise between the time needs of i n d i v i d u a l s and the time needs of the c l a s s as a whole. S t a b i l i t y of Groups G e n e r a l l y , group membership was r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e but the g e n e r a l s t a b i l i t y i n group membership s h o u l d not imply t h a t changes were never made. Movement between groups d i d o c c u r but i t was not common and took p l a c e q u i t e e a r l y on i n the s c h o o l y e a r . Even i n the rooms which had c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d groups w i t h s t a b l e membership, t h e r e seemed t o be a s e t t l i n g i n p e r i o d , the f i r s t two t o t h r e e weeks of s c h o o l , where t e a c h e r s were a p p a r e n t l y a s s e s s i n g the f i t between i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s and the group t o which they were a s s i g n e d . In two of the rooms where changes o c c u r e d i n i n i t i a l group placement t e a c h e r s r e p o r t e d t h a t they moved s t u d e n t s on the b a s i s of achievement t e s t r e s u l t s . In C l a s s 4, one c h i l d was moved up t o the next r e a d i n g group because the t e a c h e r d e c i d e d he was " i n c o r r e c t l y p l a c e d " . In the o t h e r room, C l a s s 1, two c h i l d r e n moved up and two moved down. One c h i l d was moved from the bottom t o the m i d d l e group, and one from the m i d d l e t o the t o p : two of the t o p group c h i l d r e n were moved t o the m i d d l e group. 81 I t i s p r o b a b l y i n c o r r e c t t o assume t h a t t h e s e t e a c h e r s made the s e moves s t r i c t l y on the b a s i s of achievement t e s t r e s u l t s . In C l a s s 4, the c h i l d t o be moved up was a l s o o bserved t o be f i n i s h e d ahead of the group t o which he was o r i g i n a l l y a s s i g n e d . How f a r f i n i s h i n g q u i c k l y i n f l u e n c e d the t e a c h e r ' s d e c i s i o n i s hard t o e v a l u a t e , but she d i d move one c h i l d down i n mathematics, w i t h o u t the c o r r o b o r a t i o n of t e s t r e s u l t s , because he " c o u l d n ' t cope" and r a r e l y f i n i s h e d the a s s i g n e d work. The f o u r moves i n C l a s s 1 a r e i n t e r e s t i n g as o n l y one of them r e f l e c t s the r e s u l t s of achievement t e s t i n g ; a boy who s c o r e d a t the l o w e s t l e v e l ( l e v e l 7) on the placement t e s t was moved from the top t o the m i d d l e group. Two of the o t h e r c h i l d r e n who a l s o s c o r e d a t l e v e l 7 were moved up: one from the bottom t o the m i d d l e group and one from the m i d d l e t o the top group. The f o u r t h move, a boy who s c o r e d a t the h i g h e s t achievement l e v e l i n t h i s c l a s s ( l e v e l 9) was moved from the h i g h e s t group t o the m i d d l e group. The t e a c h e r commented t h a t he was a " b r i g h t boy" who was not w o r k i n g w e l l . L a t e r on i n the term she commented t h a t she was h a v i n g t o keep him i n a f t e r s c h o o l because he was not f i n i s h i n g h i s work. In c o n t r a s t t o t h i s poor worker, the two c h i l d r e n who were moved up were b o t h d e s c r i b e d by the t e a c h e r as b e i n g "good" w o r k e r s . The s u g g e s t i o n a r i s i n g from t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s i s t h a t some t e a c h e r s may i n i t i a l l y form groups on the b a s i s of achievement but then make a d j u s t m e n t s a c c o r d i n g t o whether p a r t i c u l a r c h i l d r e n can keep up w i t h the speed of the group. 82 In g e n e r a l g r o u p i n g , whether f o r m a l or " h i d d e n " , was more s t a b l e than f l e x i b l e and r a p i d i t y of g r o u p i n g appeared t o be l i n k e d t o s t a b i l i t y . Three of the c l a s s r o o m s were grouped by mid September ( 1 , 2 and 3 ) , and the f o u r t h f o r m a l l y o r g a n i z e d room (5) had l a b e l e d groups by e a r l y O c t o b e r . These groups remained s t a b l e a t l e a s t d u r i n g the p e r i o d of t h i s s t u d y . C l a s s 3, where "hidden" groups appeared t o be o p e r a t i n g , demonstrated a c e r t a i n f l e x i b i l i t y i n g r o u p i n g arrangments. There appeared t o be t h r e e c o r e groups f o r most of the term but membership d i d f l u c t a t e somewhat. In December when more s t a b l e groups ( s t i l l u n l a b e l e d ) appeared t o have emerged, most n o t i c e a b l y i n s p e l l i n g , a change was o b s e r v e d . C h i l d r e n were regrouped i n t o f i v e groups. The t e a c h e r i d e n t i f i e d t h i s as a " d e m o c r a t i c " g r o u p i n g p r o c e d u r e because the c h i l d r e n s e l e c t e d which of f i v e s e t s of s p e l l i n g work they wished t o do. A l s o a t t h i s t i m e , the r e a d i n g books were t e m p o r a r i l y abandoned i n o r d e r t o r e a d a s t o r y from another book which was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h some s o c i a l s t u d i e s work b e i n g done by the c l a s s . For t h i s s t o r y , the c l a s s was d i v i d e d i n t o two groups and the work d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o the achievement l e v e l of the members of the groups. One of the groups had read the complete s t o r y i n d e p e n d e n t l y on the p r e v i o u s day and took t u r n s r e a d i n g passages o r a l l y . The second group read one or two pages s i l e n t l y under the d i r e c t i o n of the t e a c h e r and then answered comprehension q u e s t i o n s o r a l l y . A l t h o u g h t h i s was a change i n g r o u p i n g , and t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t s a more f l e x i b l e approach, achievement 83 l e v e l s t i l l seemed t o be the dominant f o r c e . The c o n c l u s i o n was reached t h a t a p a r t from i n i t i a l changes g e n e r a l l y group membership was s t a t i c r a t h e r than dynamic. The f l e x i b l e g r o u p i n g advocated i n the r e a d i n g methodology l i t e r a t u r e ( A l e x a n d e r , 1979; Smith and Johnson, 1976), based on i n t e r e s t , f r i e n d s h i p , t o p i c s e t c . d i d not appear t o be u t i l i z e d by these t e a c h e r s . D i s c u s s i o n I t i s argued t h a t the groups emerged i n response t o the demands of the c l a s s r o o m environment. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the g e n e r a l s t a b i l i t y of group membership a f t e r the o r i g i n a l s e t t l i n g i n p e r i o d was i n t e r p r e t e d as r e f l e c t i n g a f u n c t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n . The c l a i m t h a t g r o u p i n g emerged as a response t o the demands of the c l a s s r o o m environment r e q u i r e s some e l a b o r a t i o n . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , the j o b of the t e a c h e r has been c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as meeting the needs of i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n e r s . I t i s perhaps i n s t r u c t i v e t o i n v e s t i g a t e the p r a c t i c a l r a m i f i c a t i o n s of a t t e m p t i n g t o meet the i n d i v i d u a l time needs of s t u d e n t s . In o r d e r t o meet i n d i v i d u a l time needs presumably t e a c h e r s would have t o p e r m i t i n d i v i d u a l s as much time as they r e q u i r e d t o complete the work. I n d u b i t a b l y some s t u d e n t s w i l l t a k e more time and o t h e r s l e s s t i m e ; c o n s e q u e n t l y d i f f e r e n c e s i n performance r a t e s may be a n t i c i p a t e d . D i f f e r e n c e s i n performance r a t e s l i k e l y have m a n a g e r i a l consequences; s t u d e n t s w i t h time on t h e i r hands a r e a p e r e n n i a l nightmare f o r t e a c h e r s . D i f f e r e n c e s i n 84 performance r a t e s l i k e l y a l s o have i n s t r u c t i o n a l consequences; c h i l d r e n who work q u i c k l y w i l l l i k e l y c o v e r more of the c u r r i c u l u m than c h i l d r e n who work s l o w l y . T h i s a n a l y s i s r a i s e s two q u e s t i o n s : t o what e x t e n t can t e a c h e r s manage c l a s s e s i n which t h e r e a r e s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n performance r a t e s , and s e c o n d l y , t o what e x t e n t can t e a c h e r s enable s t u d e n t s i n such c l a s s e s t o c o v e r the m a t e r i a l f o r the grade l e v e l . A t tempts t o meet the time needs of i n d i v i d u a l s may have consequences which a r e u n d e s i r a b l e both m a n a g e r i a l l y and i n s t r u c t i o n a l l y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t i s proposed t h a t t e a c h e r s attempt t o s t e e r a m i d d l e c o u r s e and o r g a n i z e t h e i r c l a s s e s so t h a t they a v o i d s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n performance r a t e s and s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o v e r a g e . Grouping appears t o have the p o t e n t i a l t o e f f e c t t h i s compromise. Teachers may a v o i d extremes i n performance r a t e s and extremes i n coverage by c o n d u c t i n g groups of l e a r n e r s , s i m i l a r i n time needs, through the c u r r i c u l u m a t the same t i m e . I t has been argued t h a t g r o u p i n g i s a compromise which p e r m i t s t e a c h e r c o n t r o l of c o v e r a g e , and y e t a m e l i o r a t e s , t o some e x t e n t , the problem of d i f f e r e n t i a l performance r a t e s . In e f f e c t , g r o u p i n g may be seen as r e d u c i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n performance r a t e s amongst s t u d e n t s . The i d e a t h a t g r o u p i n g may reduce performance r a t e s seems d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed t o the t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n t h a t g r o u p i n g f u n c t i o n s t o meet i n d i v i d u a l needs. T h i s apparent paradox may be r e s o l v e d by u t i l i z i n g the c o n c e p t s of m a n i f e s t and l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s 85 (Merton, 1967). The d i s t i n c t i o n between m a n i f e s t and l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s was i n t r o d u c e d by Merton (1967) t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between c o n s c i o u s m o t i v a t i o n f o r s o c i a l b e h a v i o r and i t s o b j e c t i v e consequences. M a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n s a r e those consequences which a r e both i n t e n d e d and r e c o g n i z e d ; l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s a r e those consequences which are u n i n t e n d e d and u n r e c o g n i z e d . A c c o r d i n g l y , one might argue t h a t the m a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n of g r o u p i n g i s t o b e t t e r meet i n d i v i d u a l needs. T h i s c e r t a i n l y seems t o be the i n t e n t i o n of t e a c h e r s when they group. Grouping p e r m i t s a more a p p r o p r i a t e matching of c u r r i c u l u m m a t e r i a l s t o s t u d e n t achievement l e v e l s . Presumably t h i s consequence of g r o u p i n g i s i n t e n d e d and r e c o g n i z e d by t e a c h e r s . However, the u n i n t e n d e d and u n r e c o g n i z e d consequence of g r o u p i n g i s t h a t s t u d e n t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t time needs a r e t r e a t e d as a s i n g l e u n i t and t h e r e f o r e c o v e r the c u r r i c u l u m a t the same t i m e . A c c o r d i n g l y , one might propose t h a t the l a t e n t f u n c t i o n of g r o u p i n g i s t o reduce d i f f e r e n c e s amongst s t u d e n t s . The d i s t i n c t i o n between m a n i f e s t and l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s p r o v i d e s a c o n c e p t u a l t o o l which i s u s e f u l i n s e p a r a t i n g i n t e n t i o n s from the consequences of b e h a v i o r . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the a n a l y s i s of g r o u p i n g i n terms of i t s l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s has the p o t e n t i a l t o r e s o l v e the apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n between the i n t e n t i o n s of t e a c h e r s and the consequences of t h e i r a c t i o n s . The argument t h a t s i t u a t i o n s or e v e n t s have u n i n t e n d e d and u n r e c o g n i z e d consequences does not i m p l y a one-to-one 8 6 c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between s i t u a t i o n s or e v e n t s and f u n c t i o n s . Merton (1967) e x p l i c i t l y r e j e c t e d the i d e a of the u n i v e r s a l i t y of f u n c t i o n s . He argued t h a t d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l forms may s e r v e the same f u n c t i o n and c o n v e r s e l y t h a t the same f u n c t i o n may be d i v e r s e l y f i l l e d by a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i a l forms. T h i s i d e a of f u n c t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s s t a n d s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o the concept of u n i v e r s a l i t y . A c c o r d i n g l y , one might q u e s t i o n i f any o t h e r form of o r g a n i z a t i o n , b e s i d e s g r o u p i n g , f u n c t i o n s t o reduce d i f f e r e n c e s amongst s t u d e n t s , or i f g r o u p i n g has d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s . I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h i s j u n c t u r e t o r e t u r n t o the main t h r e a d of the argument. I t w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t i t was argued t h a t the m a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n of g r o u p i n g , meeting i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , does not c o m p l e t e l y e x p l a i n the o b s e r v a t i o n a l d a t a of the f i v e c l a s s r o o m s . Yet i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o m a i n t a i n t h a t the e x i s t e n c e and s u r v i v a l of t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s u g g e s t s t h a t i t has an a d a p t i v e f u n c t i o n . I f t h i s i s so, then i t becomes e m i n e n t l y r e a s o n a b l e t o attempt t o account f o r the e x i s t e n c e of t h i s p a t t e r n i n terms of i t s l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s , or i t s u n r e c o g n i z e d and u n i n t e n d e d consequences. The purpose of the f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n w i l l be t o persuade the r e a d e r t h a t the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of g r o u p i n g from the p o i n t of view of i t s l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s p r o v i d e s g r e a t e r i n s i g h t s i n t o c l a s s r o o m p r o c e s s e s than the t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n which emphasizes the m a n i f e s t f u n c t i o n of g r o u p i n g . 87 To Group or Not To Group The most n o t i c e a b l e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n a r i s i n g from the o b s e r v a t i o n a l d a t a i s t h a t the t e a c h e r s tended t o group i n r e a d i n g but not i n a r i t h m e t i c or s p e l l i n g . One might c o n c l u d e t h a t the t e a c h e r s tended t o d i s c r i m i n a t e amongst p u p i l s f o r r e a d i n g but appeared t o i g n o r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a r i t h m e t i c and s p e l l i n g . A l t h o u g h two of the t e a c h e r s , Teacher 4 and Teacher 5, d i d have groups i n a r i t h m e t i c which i m p l i e s some d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , each c l a s s g e n e r a l l y o p e r a t e d as a whole. A n a l o g o u s l y i n r e a d i n g , a l t h o u g h Teacher 5 c l a i m e d not t o have groups which i m p l i e s l a c k of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of d i f f e r e n c e s , i n a c t u a l i t y she g e n e r a l l y s e l e c t e d p a r t i c u l a r s e t s of c h i l d r e n t o read a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . The p r e v a l e n c e of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n r e a d i n g and l a c k of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n a r i t h m e t i c and s p e l l i n g prompts a d i s c u s s i o n of some p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r the d i f f e r e n c e s i n o r g a n i z a t i o n between these s u b j e c t s . In the e n s u i n g s e c t i o n two p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e examined. F i r s t , d i f f e r e n c e s a r i s i n g from g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l p r e d i l e c t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d . S e c o n d l y , the i n f l u e n c e of time c o n s t r a i n t s on o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e c o n s i d e r e d . C l a s s r o o m time c o n s t r a i n t s a re seen as i n c r e a s i n g the p o s s i b i l i t y of management and i n s t r u c t i o n a l problems. O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i s i n t e r p r e t e d as f u n c t i o n i n g t o reduce such problems. I t i s suggested t h a t g r o u p i n g r e f l e c t s a t r a d e o f f of mastery f o r cove r a g e , and c o n v e r s e l y , no g r o u p i n g r e f l e c t s a t r a d e o f f of coverage f o r mastery. 88 F i r s t , the p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t s t u d e n t achievement may be r e f l e c t e d d i f f e r e n t i a l l y i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d . On the one hand, i t seems f e a s i b l e t o argue t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e a d i n g achievement are more marked than the d i f f e r e n c e s i n achievement i n a r i t h m e t i c and s p e l l i n g . S k i l l i n r e a d i n g appears t o be i n f l u e n c e d by e x p e r i e n t i a l f a c t o r s such t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a l exposure t o language use might be e x p e c t e d t o l e a d t o i n c r e a s e d v a r i a b i l i t y i n r e a d i n g achievement ( H a r r i s and S m ith, 1976; S m i t h , 1978). Grouping i n r e a d i n g may be an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l response to these d i f f e r e n c e s . However, t r a d i t i o n a l l y the t e a c h i n g of a r i t h m e t i c and s p e l l i n g have been the p r o v i n c e of the s c h o o l s ; i t i s l e s s l i k e l y t h a t many s t u d e n t s have had the exposure t o t h e s e s u b j e c t s t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e achievement. Hence, one might r e a s o n a b l y a n t i c i p a t e l e s s v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e s e s u b j e c t s than i n r e a d i n g . The tendency t o keep the c l a s s w o r k i ng t o g e t h e r i n a r i t h m e t i c and s p e l l i n g may r e f l e c t g r e a t e r homogeneity of achievement i n t h e s e s u b j e c t s . On the o t h e r hand, a c t u a l v a r i a b i l i t y may be comparable a c r o s s the d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t s and t e a c h e r s may choose t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e o n l y i n r e a d i n g f o r p a r t i c u l a r r e a s o n s . A c o n c o m i t a n t of g r o u p i n g f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i s the d i v i s i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n a l time amongst the groups. I n s t r u c t i n g the c l a s s as a whole has the advantage t h a t the m a t e r i a l may be p r e s e n t e d t o a l l the c h i l d r e n a t the same t i m e . I f time i s l i m i t e d , one might a n t i c i p a t e t h a t t e a c h e r s would be r e l u c t a n t 89 t o group, as i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o i n s t r u c t each group a d e q u a t e l y , and a l s o c o v e r the p r e s c r i b e d amount of m a t e r i a l : i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t Teacher 2 e x p l i c i t l y made t h i s argument f o r her l a c k of g r o u p i n g i n a r i t h m e t i c . T h i s appears t o be a p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n of the d i f f e r e n c e s i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s i n r e a d i n g and a r i t h m e t i c . In B.C. s c h o o l s the time a l l o t m e n t f o r the p r i m a r y grades i s 640 minutes f o r Language A r t s (45% of the t o t a l time) and 200 minutes f o r a r i t h m e t i c (14% of the t o t a l t i m e ) . E x t r a time f o r Language A r t s l i k e l y p e r m i t s t e a c h e r s t o make d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s amongst s t u d e n t s : t h e r e i s more time i n which t o d e a l w i t h two or t h r e e r e a d i n g groups. However, the l i m i t e d time i n a r i t h m e t i c l i k e l y hampers the i n s t r u c t i o n of groups, and t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the l a c k of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n t h i s s u b j e c t . In r e a d i n g the t e a c h e r s a s s i g n e d books of d i f f e r e n t r e a d i n g l e v e l s t o each group. I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o argue t h a t g i v i n g s t u d e n t s of d i s p a r a t e r e a d i n g l e v e l s the same r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l w i l l l i k e l y l e a d t o the f a s t e r s t u d e n t s f i n i s h i n g q u i c k l y , w h i l e the s l o w e r reader w i l l r e q u i r e more ti m e . D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of the l e v e l of the m a t e r i a l l i k e l y r e s u l t s i n the f a s t e r workers r e c e i v i n g h a r d e r a s s i g n m e n t s , which presumably take l o n g e r , and the slow e r workers r e c e i v i n g e a s i e r a s s i g n m e n t s , which presumably r e q u i r e l e s s t i m e . A c c o r d i n g l y , d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of the l e v e l of the work l i k e l y f u n c t i o n s t o reduce the performance r a t e s amongst s t u d e n t s . In e f f e c t , i t i s proposed t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of the l e v e l of 90 work may f u n c t i o n t o e q u a l i z e the performance r a t e s of the s t u d e n t s . Perhaps g r o u p i n g c h i l d r e n of s i m i l a r a b i l i t y , and e n s u r i n g t h a t each group has m a t e r i a l commensurate w i t h t h e i r r e a d i n g achievement, may b e t t e r be i n t e r p r e t e d as f u n c t i o n i n g t o a m e l i o r a t e the problem of d i f f e r e n t i a l performance r a t e s , than as an accommodation t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . In a r i t h m e t i c and s p e l l i n g s t u d e n t s were g e n e r a l l y a s s i g n e d the same work, sometimes w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n s . T e aching the c l a s s as a whole p e r m i t s the p r e s e n t a t i o n of c u r r i c u l u m m a t e r i a l t o a l l s t u d e n t s a t the same time thus a v o i d i n g the i n s t r u c t i o n a l problem of d i f f e r e n t i a l c o v e r a g e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t i s proposed t h a t no g r o u p i n g i n a r i t h m e t i c f u n c t i o n s t o e q u a l i z e c o n t e n t c o v e r a g e . T h e r e f o r e , i t might be argued t h a t both d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and l a c k of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n amongst s t u d e n t s , which have consequences i n terms of e q u a l i z i n g performance r a t e s or e q u a l i z i n g c u r r i c u l u m c o v e r a g e , a r e responses t o the time c o n s t r a i n t s of the c l a s s r o o m , and f u n c t i o n t o reduce management and i n s t r u c t i o n a l problems. A f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s of o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i s w a r r a n t e d . G rouping t y p i c a l l y p r o v i d e s f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l of i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l . As an example, c o n s i d e r the p r o v i s i o n of books of d i f f e r i n g l e v e l s of d i f f i c u l t y t o r e a d i n g groups. Exposure t o books of d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of d i f f i c u l t y l i k e l y l e a d s t o d i f f e r i n g l e v e l s of mastery (or depth of l e a r n i n g ) . I t i s suggested t h a t the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of r e a d e r s r e p r e s e n t s a compromise between the 91 i n c o m p a t i b l e g o a l s of coverage and mastery. To r e q u i r e a l l s t u d e n t s , i r r e s p e c t i v e of r e a d i n g a b i l i t y , t o read the grade t h r e e book would presumably r e q u i r e much t i m e . The l i k e l i h o o d e x i s t s t h a t a pace of i n s t r u c t i o n which would be s u i t a b l e f o r the p o o r e r r e a d e r s would slow p r o g r e s s t o the e x t e n t t h a t the c l a s s would not f i n i s h the p r e s c r i b e d t e x t . In e f f e c t , i t i s suggested t h a t by d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g the l e v e l of the r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l , t e a c h e r s a r e t r a d i n g - o f f mastery by some s t u d e n t s , f o r coverage of the grade t h r e e c u r r i c u l u m by o t h e r s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , the c h i l d r e n i n the lower groups would not l i k e l y r e a c h a grade t h r e e l e v e l of r e a d i n g achievement, but the c h i l d r e n i n the h i g h e r groups would be a b l e t o cover the c u r r i c u l u m . On the o t h e r hand, no g r o u p i n g (whole c l a s s t e a c h i n g ) t y p i c a l l y i n v o l v e s a l a c k of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . As an example, c o n s i d e r t h a t a r i t h m e t i c and s p e l l i n g were taught t o the whole c l a s s , u s i n g b a s i c a l l y the same i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l . In or d e r f o r the c l a s s t o p r o g r e s s i n u n i s o n , coverage i s l i k l e y t o be slow; i n t h i s case coverage of the c u r r i c u l u m i s t r a d e d - o f f f o r mastery. I t i s s uggested t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n or l a c k of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n among s t u d e n t s r e f l e c t s a compromise between c u r r i c u l u m coverage and c u r r i c u l u m mastery r a t h e r than an accommodation t o , or d i s r e g a r d o f , i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a t t e n t i o n i s next d i r e c t e d t o the p r o c e s s e s u n d e r l y i n g d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . 92 L e v e l i n g and Sharpening There i s some e v i d e n c e t h a t even a t the end of the f i r s t week w i t h a new c l a s s t e a c h e r s a r e c a p a b l e of making d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s amongst s t u d e n t s (Good and Brophy, 1978). In s p i t e of p r o g r e s s i v e d i c t a t o t r e a t s t u d e n t s as i n d i v i d u a l s t hese i n i t i a l i m p r e s s i o n s seem t o suggest t h a t t e a c h e r s tend t o c l a s s i f y s t u d e n t s . I t has been suggested t h a t t h i s tendency t o c l a s s i f y i s f u n c t i o n a l i n t h a t i t e n a b l e s the t e a c h e r t o reduce what o t h e r w i s e would be i n o r d i n a t e c o m p l e x i t y ( D o y l e , 1979; S h a v e l s o n and S t e r n , 1981). The comments of t e a c h e r s t o r e s e a r c h e r s or c o l l e a g u e s a t the end of the f i r s t week no doubt a r e i n f o r m a l , and how these i n f l u e n c e or a r e r e l a t e d t o l a t e r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s which are f o r m a l i z e d as i n s t r u c t i o n a l groups, i s a q u e s t i o n which might be answered e m p i r i c a l l y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , an e a r l y tendency of t e a c h e r s t o note s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s amongst s t u d e n t s has been e s t a b l i s h e d . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s t u d e n t s i n t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l groups i m p l i e s t h a t t e a c h e r s a r e r e s p o n d i n g t o s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s amongst t h e i r p u p i l s . G iven t h a t c l a s s e s a r e composed of unique i n d i v i d u a l s , g r o u p i n g would appear t o i n v o l v e the s u p p r e s s i o n of some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and the h i g h l i g h t i n g of o t h e r s . Presumably t e a c h e r s a t t e n d t o f e a t u r e s which are s a l i e n t f o r t h e i r purposes and suppress c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which a r e i r r e l e v a n t . The tendency t o d i s r e g a r d or o b l i t e r a t e d i f f e r e n c e s has been c a l l e d " l e v e l i n g " and the tendency t o respond e x c e s s i v e l y t o f i n e nuances or 93 s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s has been c a l l e d " s h a r p e n i n g " . K l e i n (1951) argues t h a t " l e v e l i n g " and " s h a r p e n i n g " a r e p r i n c i p l e s which shape p e r c e p t i o n and are ways of r e s o l v i n g d i s e q u i l i b r i u m when the t a s k i s t o cope w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s . I f we a c c e p t t h a t the t a s k of the t e a c h e r i s t o d e a l w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s p r e s e n t e d by a c l a s s of c h i l d r e n , the c o n s t r u c t s of " l e v e l i n g " and " s h a r p e n i n g " may prove t o be u s e f u l . Some t e a c h e r s may "sharpen" the d i f f e r e n c e s amongst p u p i l s and t h e r e f o r e perhaps move towards a more i n d i v i d u a l approach t o i n s t r u c t i o n , p r e f e r r i n g t o spend time w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s or s m a l l groups r a t h e r than spend time w i t h the whole c l a s s . Others may choose t o " l e v e l " or d i s r e g a r d the d i f f e r e n c e s , and tend t o d e a l w i t h the c l a s s as a whole. K l e i n (1951) suggests t h a t " l e v e l i n g " and " s h a r p e n i n g " a r e a d a p t a t i o n responses d e s i g n e d t o b r i n g about an e q u i l i b r i u m . I t i s proposed t h a t l e v e l i n g of d i f f e r e n c e s , i n the form of whole c l a s s t e a c h i n g , f u n c t i o n s t o e q u a l i z e c u r r i c u l u m c o v e r a g e . C o n v e r s e l y , s h a r p e n i n g of d i f f e r e n c e s , i n the form of g r o u p i n g , f u n c t i o n s t o e q u a l i z e performance r a t e s . I t was suggested t h a t t e a c h e r s group when time i s p l e n t i f u l and t e a c h the c l a s s as a whole when time i s l i m i t e d . In t h i s way o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n f u n c t i o n s t o m a i n t a i n an e q u i l i b r i u m between the time needs of s t u d e n t s and the d i c t a t e s of the c u r r i c u l u m . In e f f e c t , i t i s argued t h a t g r o u p i n g and whole c l a s s t e a c h i n g , a l t h o u g h governed by the d i f f e r e n t p e r c e p t u a l s t r a t e g i e s of l e v e l i n g and s h a r p e n i n g , a r e f u n c t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s because the u n i n t e n d e d and 94 u n r e c o g n i z e d consequence, the maintenance of an e q u i l i b r i u m between the time needs of i n d i v i d u a l s and coverage of the c u r r i c u l u m , i s the same. Advantages and D i s a d v a n t a g e s . The major advantage of l e v e l i n g or d i s r e g a r d i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i s t h a t c u r r i c u l a r m a t e r i a l may be p r e s e n t e d t o a l l s t u d e n t s a t the same t i m e . T h i s a v o i d s the problem of the a l l o c a t i o n of time t o groups. When time i s l i m i t e d , t h i s would appear t o be an e f f i c i e n t way t o attempt t o cover the m a t e r i a l . A major d i s a d v a n t a g e of a c l a s s f u n c t i o n i n g i n u n i s o n i s the tendency t o move a t the speed of the s l o w e s t members. To the e x t e n t t h a t t e a c h e r s w a i t u n t i l a l l the s t u d e n t s have completed a s s i g n m e n t s b e f o r e they move on t o the next t o p i c , they may not c o v e r a l l the u n i t s i n the c u r r i c u l u m . Under t h i s regimen the c l a s s may be exposed t o a l i m i t e d number of o b j e c t i v e s . T h i s may r e s u l t i n reduced o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n and boredom f o r some s t u d e n t s . S i m i l a r l y s h a r p e n i n g , or d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n amongst s t u d e n t s , has advantages and d i s a d v a n t a g e s . The f o r m a t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n a l groups p r o v i d e s the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s t u d e n t s t o p r o g r e s s a t d i f f e r e n t speeds. Presumably g r o u p i n g p e r m i t s t e a c h e r s t o attempt a b e t t e r match between the r a t e of p r e s e n t a t i o n of the m a t e r i a l and s t u d e n t time needs, a pr o c e d u r e which has the p o t e n t i a l t o a v o i d b o t h boredom f o r the f a s t e r and f r u s t r a t i o n f o r the s l o w e r . I t i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s s t r e n g t h of g r o u p i n g which i s a l s o i t s g r e a t e s t weakness. The presence of groups w i t h i n a c l a s s r o o m r e q u i r e s t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l time be d i v i d e d amongst the groups. The t e a c h e r 95 may f e e l h e r s e l f b e t t e r a b l e t o meet i n d i v i d u a l needs by g r o u p i n g , but may not have enough time t o spend w i t h each group. S h a r p e n i n g , or g r o u p i n g , may "ease" the problem of i n s t r u c t i o n t o some degree, but i n c r e a s e the d i f f i c u l t y of the a l l o c a t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n a l t i m e . Coupled w i t h time a l l o c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s , g r o u p i n g a l s o r e q u i r e s the management of independent seatwork a c t i v i t i e s c o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h the i n s t r u c t i o n of a group. T h i s form of o r g a n i z a t i o n l i k e l y makes demands on t e a c h e r management s k i l l s . A c c o r d i n g l y , i t i s proposed t h a t forms of o r g a n i z a t i o n which r e f l e c t s h a r p e n i n g and l e v e l i n g l i k e l y p r o v i d e o n l y p a r t i a l s o l u t i o n s t o the problem of d i f f e r e n t i a l time needs of s t u d e n t s . I t i s i n s t r u c t i v e a t t h i s time t o r e c a l l Goodlad's d i c t u m (1962) t h a t no system of o r g a n i z a t i o n can p r o v i d e f o r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . G r o u p i n g may b e t t e r accommodate i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , but a t the expense of time a l l o c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s and i n c r e a s e d c l a s s r o o m management problems. That g r o u p i n g i s at best a compromise w i l l be demonstrated i n c h a p t e r f o u r . In s p i t e of e l a b o r a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l arrangements t o accommodate i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n performance r a t e s a l l of the t e a c h e r s e x p e r i e n c e d the problem of f a s t and slow w o r k e r s . Chapter f o u r i s concerned w i t h i n v e s t i g a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n time needs as the s e were m a n i f e s t e d i n the f i v e c l a s s r o o m s . 96 CHAPTER 4 V a r i a t i o n i n Performance R a t e s : F a s t and Slow F i n i s h e r s In the w o r l d a t l a r g e v a r i a t i o n i n human performance i s an a c c e p t e d phenomenon. Nobel p r i z e s and Olympic g o l d medals i n d i c a t e not o n l y an awareness of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s but t h a t they a r e v a l u e d . In the w o r l d of the s c h o o l i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e not always so h i g h l y t r e a s u r e d . The e x i s t e n c e of c h i l d r e n who d i f f e r i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o l e a r n p r e s e n t s the t e a c h e r w i t h problems of a p r a c t i c a l n a t u r e : P r o b a b l y the s e v e r e s t h a n d i c a p t h a t c o n f r o n t s e d u c a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y when i t i s c o n t i n u e d t o the secondary and h i g h e r l e v e l s , i s the d i f f i c u l t y of p r o v i d i n g m a t e r i a l s of i n s t r u c t i o n and methods of t e a c h i n g t h a t w i l l meet the v a r i e d a b i l i t i e s and p r o c l i v i t i e s of l a r g e u n s e l e c t e d groups ( B a g l e y , 1934, p. 110). One way e d u c a t o r s have attempted t o s o l v e t h i s problem i s thr o u g h t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n . In the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r i t was argued t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n f u n c t i o n s , t o m a i n t a i n an e q u i l i b r i u m between the opp o s i n g demands of the time r e q u i r e m e n t s of i n d i v i d u a l s and of the c l a s s . In p a r t i c u l a r , i t was proposed t h a t the l a t e n t f u n c t i o n of g r o u p i n g was the e q u a l i z a t i o n of performance r a t e s . In t h i s c h a p t e r the e x t e n t of d i f f e r e n t i a l performance r a t e s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n f o c u s e d on the l e v e l of achievement, or amount of l e a r n i n g , d i s p l a y e d by s t u d e n t s . The emphasis on achievement s h o u l d not obscure the commonly h e l d n o t i o n t h a t amount of l e a r n i n g i s r e l a t e d t o 97 speed of l e a r n i n g . Thomas and Thomas (1965) i n d i s c u s s i n g the heterogeneous and homogeneous a b i l i t y g r o u p i n g debate s t a t e d what they b e l i e v e t o be a dominant v a l u e judgement i n N o r t h A m e r i c a : I t i s u n f a i r t o h o l d back the f a s t l e a r n e r s and a t the same time overwhelm the slow l e a r n e r s by c o n d u c t i n g h e t e r o g e n e o u s l y grouped c l a s s a t one average speed (p. 101). The tendency d u r i n g the f i r s t p a r t of t h i s c e n t u r y t o group t o g e t h e r c h i l d r e n of l i k e achievement l e v e l s r e f l e c t s t h i s p r e v a i l i n g b e l i e f t h a t h i g h a b i l i t y c h i l d r e n l e a r n q u i c k l y and low a b i l i t y c h i l d r e n l e a r n s l o w l y . The layman's i n t u i t i v e n o t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between l e v e l of achievement and speed of l e a r n i n g i s c o n c e p t u a l l y c l a r i f i e d i n C a r r o l l ' s (1963) model of s c h o o l l e a r n i n g . T r a d i t i o n a l d i f f e r e n t i a l p s y c h o l o g y p o s t u l a t e s s t a b l e a b i l i t i e s or a p t i t u d e s which a r e thought t o be r e l a t e d t o s c h o o l achievement. C a r r o l l p r e s e n t e d an a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w . I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as the time needed t o l e a r n t o a g i v e n c r i t e r i o n under c o n d i t i o n s of o p t i m a l i n s t r u c t i o n . Under c e t e r i s p a r i b u s c o n d i t i o n s , t h i s model p r e d i c t s t h a t s t u d e n t s h i g h i n a b i l i t y w i l l l e a r n i n l e s s t i m e , and c o n v e r s e l y , t h a t s t u d e n t s low i n a b i l i t y w i l l r e q u i r e more t i m e . I n d i v i d u a l D i f f e r e n c e s i n Time Needed t o L e a r n The c e n t r a l f e a t u r e of the C a r r o l l model i s t h a t s t u d e n t s have d i f f e r e n t i a l time needs. Most of the e v i d e n c e 98 c o n c e r n i n g v a r i a b i l i t y i n time needed t o l e a r n comes from s t u d i e s conducted w i t h i n the mastery l e a r n i n g t r a d i t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , most of the s t u d i e s were concerned w i t h the magnitude of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n the amount of time r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e a c r i t e r i o n l e v e l of performance ( A r l i n , 1973; B l o c k , 1970; C a r r o l l and S p e a r i t t , 1970). The range i n t i m e - t o - c r i t e r i o n has been r e p o r t e d as 1 t o 3.4 ( B l o c k , 1970), 1 t o 4 ( C a r r o l l and S p e a r i t t , 1970), and 1 t o 7 ( A r l i n , 1973). Anderson (1976) c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e s e s t u d i e s s u p p o r t C a r r o l l ' s (1970) e s t i m a t e t h a t the range i n t i m e - t o - c r i t e r i o n i n s c h o o l l e a r n i n g r e s e a r c h i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y one t o f i v e . C o n v e r s e l y , i f time i s h e l d c o n s t a n t , v a r i a t i o n i n amount l e a r n e d would be a n t i c i p a t e d . S t u d i e s i n computer a s s i s t e d i n s t r u c t i o n c o r r o b o r a t e e x t e n s i v e i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n amount l e a r n e d « when time i s h e l d c o n s t a n t . A t k i n s o n (1968) r e p o r t e d a d i f f e r e n c e s of over 4,000 problems between the f a s t e s t and the s l o w e s t s t u d e n t i n a grade one computer a s s i s t e d r e a d i n g program. A mastery approach t o l e a r n i n g emphasizes the s e t t i n g of f i x e d achievement g o a l s and a l l o w s l e a r n i n g time t o v a r y a c c o r d i n g l y . In more t r a d i t i o n a l programs of i n s t r u c t i o n s t u d e n t s a r e a l l o w e d a f i x e d amount of time t o l e a r n a p a r t i c u l a r u n i t or t a s k . In the absence of t e s t s t o d e t e r m i n e whether l e a r n i n g has ta k e n p l a c e , i t i s p r o b a b l y more a c c u r a t e t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t r a d i t i o n a l programs as the a l l o c a t i o n of time t o s t u d e n t s f o r p a r t i c u l a r t a s k s . In the day-to-day b u s i n e s s of r u n n i n g a c l a s s t e a c h e r s a l l o c a t e a c e r t a i n amount of time 99 (a l e s s o n or a p e r i o d ) i n which they would l i k e the s t u d e n t s t o complete an assignment. The l i k l i h o o d i s t h a t some c h i l d r e n w i l l f i n i s h more q u i c k l y than o t h e r s . A l t h o u g h d i f f e r e n c e s i n t i m e - t o - c r i t e r i o n may be of t h e o r e t i c a l importance i t i s the d i f f e r e n c e s between f a s t and slow f i n i s h e r s which i s of p r a c t i c a l c o n c e r n t o t e a c h e r s . The magnitude of t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n performance r a t e and the p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e on c l a s s r o o m p r o c e s s e s a r e a r e a s t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d . Chapter f o u r i s concerned w i t h the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the phenomenon of d i f f e r e n t i a l performance r a t e s i n the f i v e grade t h r e e c l a s s r o o m s . The i n i t i a l t a s k undertaken was t o determine the e x t e n t of the problem of c h i l d r e n who f i n i s h e d the a s s i g n e d work i n l e s s time than t h a t a l l o c a t e d by the t e a c h e r . Performance r a t e s were s t u d i e d by means of a s t a n d a r d t a s k and by n a t u r a l i s t i c o b s e r v a t i o n s . The c h a p t e r opens w i t h the p r e s e n t a t i o n of e v i d e n c e which s u p p o r t s the e x i s t e n c e of d i f f e r e n t i a l performance r a t e s i n the f i v e c l a s s r o o m s . The second q u e s t i o n a d d r e s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s the magnitude of the d i f f e r e n c e i n performance r a t e s between f a s t and slow f i n i s h e r s . Next, a t t e n t i o n i s d i r e c t e d t o the responses of the t e a c h e r s t o the problem of d i f f e r e n t i a l performance r a t e s . F i n a l l y , the r a m i f i c a t i o n s of the s t r a t e g i e s adopted by the t e a c h e r s t o accommodate f a s t and slow workers a r e d i s c u s s e d , and i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h i n the framework of m a n i f e s t and l a t e n t f u n c t i o n s . 100 Perc e n t a g e of Time i n which F i n i s h i n g Occured In o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h the e x i s t e n c e of d i f f e r e n c e s i n performance r a t e s w i t h i n the c l a s s e s , the f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e was adopted. At the end of e v e r y f i v e m inutes the number of s t u d e n t s who had f i n i s h e d the a s s i g n e d t a s k was r e c o r d e d . S t u d e n t s were c o n s i d e r e d t o be f i n i s h e d the a s s i g n e d t a s k i f they handed i n the work, c l o s e d t h e i r books, or began an o t h e r a c t i v i t y . Teachers can h a r d l y be e x p e c t e d t o o r c h e s t r a t e a c t i v i t i e s so t h a t a l l c h i l d r e n f i n i s h a t p r e c i s e l y the same t i m e . Given the c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e of c l a s s r o o m s i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o expect t h a t c h i l d r e n w i l l complete work a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . I t was reasoned t h a t many c h i l d r e n f i n i s h i n g i n c o n c e r t i s u n l i k e l y t o be as p r o b l e m a t i c as c h i l d r e n f i n i s h i n g a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . Many c h i l d r e n f i n i s h i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y can be accommodated by the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the next a c t i v i t y . I t i s the management of c h i l d r e n f i n i s h i n g a s s i gnments a t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s which seems a more d i f f i c u l t p roblem. The amount of time i n which f i n i s h i n g o c c u r r e d p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t s the e x t e n t of the problem t o a b e t t e r degree than the a c t u a l number of c h i l d r e n who had f i n i s h e d a t any one t i m e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the p e r c e n t a g e of time i n which any f i n i s h i n g o c c u r r e d i s r e p o r t e d . 101 Ta b l e 5 Per c e n t a g e of Time i n which F i n i s h i n g O c c u r r e d V i s i t C l a s s 1 2 3 4 5 2 B 30 0 0 0 33 A 60 0 0 0 60 3 B 0 24 18 0 0 A 8 1 1 0 0 44 4 B — 24 0 25 29 A 23 0 0 67 33 5 B 8 22 0 17 6 A 0 0 0 29 67 6 B 67 55 0 40 53 A 8 0 29 0 50 7 B 36 40 0 21 0 A - 0 0 17 0 8 B - 44 8 30 0 A - 0 1 7 — 1 4 9 B 80 29 8 0 0 A - 0 0 31 71 10 B - - 10 0 -A - - - -Note B i n d i c a t e s the percentage of time i n which f i n i s h i n g o c c u r r e d b e f o r e r e c e s s A i n d i c a t e s the per c e n t a g e of time i n which f i n i s h i n g o c c u r r e d a f t e r r e c e s s - i n d i c a t e s t h a t no o b s e r v a t i o n s were made Tab l e 5 i n d i c a t e s t h a t f i n i s h i n g o c c u r e d i n a l l of the c l a s s e s . The low amount of time i n which f i n i s h i n g o c c u r r e d i n C l a s s 3 i s somewhat m i s l e a d i n g ; t h e r e was no s e t number of assignments and the c h i l d r e n were "never f i n i s h e d " i n the eyes of the t e a c h e r . As soon as s t u d e n t s completed one p i e c e of work they began a n o t h e r , w i t h o u t w a i t i n g f o r the remainder of 1 02 the c l a s s . N e i t h e r a t e a c h e r - p a c e d whole c l a s s program ( C l a s s 4 ) , nor a s t u d e n t - p a c e d i n d i v i d u a l i z e d approach ( C l a s s 5 ) , a v o i d e d the problem of some c h i l d r e n f i n i s h i n g ahead of the o t h e r s . C l a s s 2 p e r m i t s an i n t e r e s t i n g c o m p a r i s o n . B e f o r e r e c e s s i n s t r u c t i o n was p r o v i d e d t o two r e a d i n g groups: w h i l e one group r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n the o t h e r c h i l d r e n d i d independent seatwork. A l t h o u g h b a s i c a l l y a t e a c h e r - p a c e d program, s t u d e n t p a c i n g of seatwork was e v i d e n t , and c h i l d r e n f i n i s h e d a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . A f t e r r e c e s s i n s t r u c t i o n was g i v e n t o the whole c l a s s . T h i s t e a c h e r u t i l i z e d s e v e r a l s t r a t e g i e s t o keep the c l a s s w o r k i n g a t the same speed ( t o be d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r f i v e ) , and t h i s i s r e f l e c t e d i n the p e r c e n t a g e of time i n which a l l were w o r k i n g . The d a t a i n T a b l e 5 s u p p o r t the c o n t e n t i o n t h a t f i n i s h i n g i s a fundamental f e a t u r e of c l a s s r o o m l i f e . The e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t e a c h e r s s h o u l d keep a l l s t u d e n t s f r u i t f u l l y o c c u p i e d seems u n r e a l i s t i c g i v e n the c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e of s c h o o l i n g . I f the d i f f i c u l t y of k e e p i n g a l l s t u d e n t s o c c u p i e d i s acknowledged, i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o ask t o what e x t e n t most s t u d e n t s are w o r k i n g . A f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s , e x c l u d i n g the f a s t e s t 2
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Individual differences in time needed to learn : teacher coping strategies Webster, Janet Barbara 1982
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| Title | Individual differences in time needed to learn : teacher coping strategies |
| Creator |
Webster, Janet Barbara |
| Publisher | University of British Columbia |
| Date Issued | 1982 |
| Description | This study was conducted to investigate how teachers cope with the differential time needs of students. Time was considered within an economic framework and was conceptualized as a limited resource. The task of teaching was considered as the optimization of learning within the constraints imposed by the collective nature of the classroom. Two major constraints considered were the limited time available for schooling, and the variability in student time needs. It was assumed that the classroom makes three goal-like demands on the teacher: coverage of curriculum material, the engendering' of mastery by students of that material, and the securing of student attention or cooperation. As none of these goals may be realized without compromising success at achieving the others, the problem was considered as involving tradeoffs of coverage, mastery and cooperation. Observations were conducted in five grade 3 classrooms in a school district in the lower mainland of British Columbia. The investigator visited each classroom for one day each week during the Fall term. The methodology was naturalistic. Narrative specimen records were written during each visit, the on-task rates of each student for academic and non academic activities were recorded every five minutes and informal interviews with the teachers were conducted. The strategies used by the teachers to cope with variability in time needs are described, and interpreted from a utilitarian perspective. The strategies appeared to function to keep a class operating as if it were a single organism; keeping the class together may avoid the managerial and instructional difficulties inherent in teaching classes of students with diverse time needs. The teacher is conceptualized as a utilitarian pragmatist who optimizes the learning of the class, rather than the learning of individual students. It is suggested that the enhancement of teacher utilities is achieved through the creation and maintenance of an equilibrium between the time needs of the individual and the time needs of the class. Specifically, it is argued that classroom processes may be interpreted as functioning to effect a balance between coverage, mastery, and cooperation. Underlying this interpretation of teaching is a model of the classroom as a homeostatic system. |
| Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
| Type |
Text |
| Language | eng |
| Date Available | 2010-04-19 |
| Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
| Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
| DOI | 10.14288/1.0095643 |
| URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/23863 |
| Degree |
Doctor of Education - EdD |
| Program |
Educational Psychology |
| Affiliation |
Education, Faculty of Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of |
| Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
| Campus |
UBCV |
| Scholarly Level | Graduate |
| AggregatedSourceRepository | DSpace |
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