MAP READING: THE OBJECT IS TO FORM A TRUE MENTAL PICTURE OF THE GROUND by GORDON E. SMITH B . E d . , The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1967 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL THE REQUIREMENTS FULFILMENT OF FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN EDUCATION in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department of S o c i a l and Educational Studies) We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the r e q u i r e d standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA November 1982 © Gordon E. Smith, 1982 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the requirements f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make it f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r reference and study. I further agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the head o f my department o r by h i s o r her r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . It i s understood t h a t copying o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my permission. Department o f Social Studies The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 DE-6 (3/81) written ii ABSTRACT The purpose of t h i s study was to determine i f c r e a t e a : t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l mental student map users image of the landscape d e p i c t e d by a t o p o g r a p h i c map. A review of p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h c l e a r l y that human beings can and do form t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l mental S i n c e a t o p o g r a p h i c map is a form of c a r t o g r a p h i c the same symbol landscape, this To t e s t To be system and, f u r t h e r , that the is a b l e to make the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n from map to t h r e e image. is h y p o t h e s i z e d that both of these requirements can be met. these hypotheses a quasi-experimenta1 r e s e a r c h design anexperimental chosen. landscape. into c a r t o g r a p h i c communication r e q u i r e s that both c a r t o g r a p h e r dimens:iona.l mental It that a map user who shares image of the o r i g i n a l and map-user share a common symbol map-user system attempts system should be a b l e to transform the symbols a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l mental successful it follows images. communication in which the c a r t o g r a p h e r using an a p p r o p r i a t e symbol to represent a real indicates and a c o n t r o l group and a p r e t e s t - p o s t t e s t using format was Two groups o f Grade 10 and two groups o f Grade 12 students : participated in the study with one group from each grade in the experimental group and the o t h e r a c t i n g as a c o n t r o l group. To i ii e v a l u a t e the mental image formed students were asked to draw a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a mental image and a l s o to w r i t e a d e s c r i p t i o n of one. The r e s u l t s o f the r e s e a r c h c l e a r l y support that c a r t o g r a p h e r the hypothesis and map user can share a common symbol While the attempt to draw a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a mental largely unsuccessful, hypothesis images of also the w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n s that map users landscapes dimensional, mental image was c l e a r l y support can and do form t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l d e p i c t e d by t o p o g r a p h i c maps. suggest a p o s s i b i l i t y system. that the a b i l i t y The the mental results to form complex t h r e e - images may in part be a f u n c t i o n of maturation. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page # ABSTRACT ii LIST OF TABLES vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 9 Part 1: Part 2: The Map as a Communication System Map S k i l l s . . . . Research 9 13 CHAPTER THREE: THE EXPERIMENTAL Part The Research Design 19 Part 2: The Sample 20 Part 3: The Instruments 21 Part k: Scoring 25 Part 5: The I n t e r v e n t i o n 27 1: DESIGN . . . . 18 CHAPTER FOUR: THE RESULTS 29 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 36 Part 1: 37 BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C vi LIST OF TABLES Page # TABLE 1 ( a ) : MEAN SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR GRADE 10 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 1-5 30 MEAN SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR GRADE 12 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 1-5 30 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR GRADE 10 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 1-5 31 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR GRADE 12 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 1-5 31 MEAN SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR GRADE 10 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 6-10 33 MEAN SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR GRADE 12 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 6-10 33 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR GRADE 10 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 6-10 3k ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR GRADE 12 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 6-10 3^ TABLE 5: GROUP MEANS AS A % OF TOTAL POSSIBLE SCORE kk TABLE 6: RAW SCORES FOR GRADE 10 CONTROL GROUP 7k TABLE 1 ( b ) : TABLE 2 ( a ) : TABLE ,2(b): TABLE 3(a): TABLE 3 ( b ) : TABLE M a ) : TABLE 4 ( b ) : . . vi i Page # TABLE 7: RAW SCORES FOR GRADE 10 EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 75 TABLE 8: RAW SCORES FOR GRADE 12 CONTROL GROUP . . . 76 TABLE 9: RAW SCORES FOR GRADE 12 EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 77 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The w r i t e r for his is g r e a t l y encouragement, indebted to h i s a d v i s o r , help and guidance; Dr. Dennis M i l b u r n and Dr. N e i l to h i s the p r o j e c t and to the students School whose p a r t i c i p a t i o n made t h i s Last, and h i s but not and d e v e l o p - and teachers o f Alpha study in the devel opment,, eva 1 uat i on and grading Mrs. Wright, assistance; in the design Secondary possible. A p p r e c i a t i o n is a l s o expressed to the teachers who and to my t y p i s t Ian committee members, Sutherland, for t h e i r to Dr. N e v i l l e V. S c a r f e f o r h i s a s s i s t a n c e ment o f Dr. of the t e s t assisted instruments, Lynda M i l l e r . least, the w r i t e r is indebted to h i s w i f e , H e l e n , sons f o r their encouragement and p a t i e n c e . CHAPTER ONE I n t r o d u c t ion The January, Examination 1981 B r i t i s h Columbia Geography i n c l u d e d a s e r i e s of map s k i l l s . The e l e v a t i o n of Adams H i l l quadrant of the map is 1. 2. 3. k. 5. more more more more more than than than than than in the northeast 950 metres, l e s s than 1000 metres, l e s s than 1100 metres, l e s s than 1150 metres, l e s s than 1250 metres, l e s s than 1000 metres. 1050 metres. 1150 metres. 1200 metres. 1300 metres. The approximate d i s t a n c e along the creek which d r a i n s Skmana Lake to i t s c o n f l u e n c e with the Adams R i v e r is 1. 2. 3. h. 5- 19. on as: I 18. ten m u l t i p l e c h o i c e q u e s t i o n s Students were presented with a map and were r e q u i r e d to answer such q u e s t i o n s 17. 12 S c h o l a r s h i p 3.3 k i l o m e t r e s . 6.2 k i l o m e t r e s . 8.5 k i l o m e t r e s . 12.0 k i l o m e t r e s . 15.9 k i l o m e t r e s . A c c o r d i n g to the data shown on the map, Chase K 2. 3. k. 5. a a a a a has s c h o o l , a r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n and park. sawmill and marina. survey c o n t r o l p o i n t and benchmark. h o s p i t a l , p o s t - o f f i c e and customs o f f i c e . p o s t - o f f i c e and a s c h o o l . 2 21. The p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e l o c a t e d at c o - o r d i n a t e 023044 may be best d e s c r i b e d as 1. 2. 3. k. 5. 22. 2. 3. k. 5. 23. the c o r r e c t statement below. Agnes Creek (southwest quadrant) d r a i n s a lake l o c a t e d at a lower e l e v a t i o n than the lake which is d r a i n e d by nearby Chee Creek. Both lakes on the two creeks are at the same e l e v a t i o n . Both creeks d r a i n i n t o N i s k o n l i t h Lake. Both creeks are i n t e r m i t t e n t . Both lakes are i n d e f i n i t e . The l i n e a r nature of the s e t t l e m e n t at the north end of L i t t l e Shuswap Lake suggests a human response to the f a c t that 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Following a c i r q u e - l a k e or t a r n . a permanent lake with marsh. an oxbow lake r e s u l t i n g from recent stream channel adjustment. a lake c r e a t e d by seasonal f l o o d i n g . a small i n t e r m i t t e n t lake with an e a r t h - f i l l dam. Identify 1. point the area is o n l y a c c e s s i b l e by water. the housing is water r e c r e a t i o n o r i e n t e d . the area is i m p o s s i b l e f o r road b u i l d i n g . the h i l l s i d e s are extremely u n s t a b l e and s u b j e c t to si i d e s . the housing is l o c a t e d on an e l e v a t e d t e r r a c e , well above the lake l e v e l . immediately a f t e r these was t h i s question: Va 1 ue 5 A. The paragraph below d e s c r i b e s an imaginary l o c a t i o n which could occur in B r i t i s h Columbia. Use the i n f o r m a t i o n given to draw a t o p o g r a p h i c map showing the f o l l o w i n g : (a) contour l i n e s a p p r o p r i a t e l y l a b e l l e d . (b) p h y s i c a l and c u l t u r a l f e a t u r e s d e s c r i b e d and/ or i m p l i e d in the d e s c r i p t i o n . The small town of F i s h e r b r o o k e is l o c a t e d a t the c o n f l u e n c e of two r i v e r s . The l a r g e r of the two d r a i n s a l a r g e area to the n o r t h , w h i l e the s m a l l e r r i v e r flows from the east c u t t i n g i t s way through the stepped t e r r a c e which f l a n k s the l a r g e r i v e r on both s i d e s . The lower t e r r a c e e l e v a t e d about e i g h t y metres above the r i v e r , c a r r i e s the r a i l w a y which passes below 3 Fisherbrooke. The upper t e r r a c e , l o c a t e d twenty metres h i g h e r , accommodates the town and the main highway which turns east at t h i s p o i n t a f t e r f o l l o w i n g the main r i v e r f o r some d i s t a n c e . The highway is hard a g a i n s t the steep h i l l s which r i s e behind the town and form i t s e a s t e r n boundary. F i s h e r b r o o k e is a small s a w - m i l l i n g c e n t r e served by the r a i l r o a d and its siding. Employment in the sawmill and in s e r v i c e o r i e n t e d highway f a c i l i t i e s , p r o v i d e s jobs f o r i t s p o p u l a t i o n of about one hundred and f i f t y p e o p l e . The town and i t s houses huddle around the p o s t - o f f i c e , church and general s t o r e . F i s h e r b r o o k e is hot and dry with the o n l y green v i s i b l e being in the lawns of the w e l l - k e p t cemetery and the small park beside the church. Not much happens in F i s h e r b r o o k e , e s p e c i a l l y on a hot day. Draw your map in the space An a n a l y s i s d i s c l o s e s -that".the f i r s t respondents a knowledge of symbol system, (i.e. that (l) £ questions (2) and so o n ) , into actual distances are e s s e n t i a l l y r e q u i r e from the the c o n v e n t i o n a l t o p o g r a p h i c map r e p r e s e n t s a s c h o o l , a blue l i n e a r i v e r , and p a r t i c u l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s valleys below. of contour l i n e s represents represent how to use map s c a l e to t r a n s l a t e map d i s t a n c e s and (3) compass d i r e c t i o n . r e c a l 1 or mechanical skills. The map c o n s t r u c t i o n requires that, b a s i c map symbols, s c a l e and d i r e c t i o n , students must possess some will mental that a l l or are possessed the v e r b a l d e s c r i p t i o n skills The author of which that mental the q u e s t i o n has of the r e q u i r e d knowledge and s k i l l s of into a three image of a landscape and then t r a n s l a t e image i n t o a t o p o g r a p h i c map. assumed to the knowledge i n t e r p r e t a t i v e and c a r t o g r a p h i c enable them to t r a n s l a t e dimensional in a d d i t i o n These e x e r c i s e s q u e s t i o n , however, rather s o p h i s t i c a t e d hills, presumably have been taught by the students who wrote the e x a m i n a t i o n . When I presented t h i s last q u e s t i o n to my Geography I too assumed they would have l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y with 12 c l a s s , it. Although we had not spent much time on drawing t o p g r a p h i c maps, the students had done e x t e n s i v e work with t o p o g r a p h i c map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I was s u r p r i s e d by the f a c t students c o u l d not progress that over h a l f the c l a s s of '.twenty-f i ve beyond drawing a r i v e r , a road and a railway. E i g h t of the students gave up a f t e r two or three f r u i t l e s s All of the students attempts. spent more than the f i v e or s i x minutes the q u e s t i o n should have r e q u i r e d and none produced a " g o o d " map. T h i s phenomenon o c c u r r e d d e s p i t e the emphasis c u r r i c u l a on the study of geography, (I960, 145) p. points in S o c i a l maps and map s k i l l s . Studies As McLendon out: Maps serve as b a s i c t o o l s of geographers and are i n d i s p e n s a b l e a l s o in l e a r n i n g geography. They p r o v i d e the most f e a s i b l e means yet developed f o r d e p i c t i n g in l i m i t e d space great amounts o f i n f o r m a t i o n about the p h y s i c a l environment. In S o c i a l Studies, to more or transmit It less many kinds of maps are used, from simple complex thematic and t o p o g r a p h i c maps, knowledge about geography and g e o g r a p h i c a l is not s u r p r i s i n g prominent p l a c e then, in S o c i a l outlines in o r d e r to relationships. that the t e a c h i n g o f map s k i l l s occupies a Studies c u r r i c u l a . However, being a b l e to i n t e r p r e t t o p g r a p h i c map symbols not mean that a student can v i s u a l i z e mental image o f ) p. 286) p o i n t s (i.e. does form a t h r e e dimensional the landscape d e p i c t e d on a map. As E l i o t (1970, out: A c r i t i c a l weakness o f most map s k i l l s programs is the p r e s u p p o s i t i o n that knowlege of symbolic conventions 5 n e c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l s the a b i l i t y to v i s u a l i z e arrangement of the o b j e c t s r e p r e s e n t e d . Addressing spatial the same problem from the p o i n t o f view of map c o n s t r u c t i o n B l u e s t e i n and A c r e d o l o (1977) a s s e r t A l l too o f t e n . . . any f a i l u r e s in the inadequacies in the r e a l i t y the problem representation. . . Once the students top, classroom, have drawn the r e q u i s i t e s i m p l i f i e d maps of school and s c h o o l y a r d they can v i s u a l i z e an a c t u a l visualization process which However, most of that: the a b i l i t y to map is assumed and r e s u l t i n g map are a t t r i b u t e d to u n d e r l y i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , when in may be in the t r a n s l a t i o n of that . and have used a p p r o p r i a t e s c a l e s that the desk in the e a r l y elementary grades and symbols, spatial it is then assumed arrangement. It is this is at the heart of map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . the a l l o t t e d "map s k i l l s " time is spent on inter- p r e t a t i o n e x e r c i s e s which are usua11y nothing more than symbol recognition exercises similar examination on page one. in, nor e v a l u a t i o n of to the examples from the These e x e r c i s e s p r o v i d e n e i t h e r p r a c t i c e the s t u d e n t s ' ability to r e - c r e a t e a t h r e e dimensional r e a l i t y from a map. possible borne out by a pamphlet from the Surveys Branch of (1975) is scholarship The assumption the Department o f Energy, that re-creation and Mines and Resources, is Mapping Canada entitled: everyone should be a b l e to use a map THE OBJECT IS TO FORM A TRUE MENTAL PICTURE OF THE GROUND Yet, i f everyone should be a b l e to form a t r u e mental ground, why d i d a Geography p i c t u r e of 12 c l a s s have so much d i f f i c u l t y ? the This 6 q u e s t i o n was phrased somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y by Jenks (1970, p. 180) when he asked: Does he [the average map reader] m e n t a l l y t r a n s f o r m i t [a map] i n t o a 3-D shape or does he j u s t see a l o t of w i g g l y 1ines? In answering h i s q u e s t i o n , Jenks goes on to say: Experience w i t h many u n t r a i n e d map users i n d i c a t e s the l a t t e r and, as a r e s u l t , I suggest that 3-D r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s be i n c l u d e d with many types of maps. . . . Jenks 1 assertion that representations w i l l repeated exposure to three dimensional aid in the mental image formation e s s e n t i a l t o p o g r a p h i c map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is borne out of Gould and White (1971). All ( 1 9 7 4 ) , Hannay mental dependent upon p r i o r sensory in part by the work ( 1 9 7 1 ) , Horowitz (1970) and Segal images and that these images are information. Much of the c u r r e n t research in both psychology and has s t u d i e d map use and map c o n s t r u c t i o n as an aspect o f in h i s Of p a r t i c u l a r concern has been the map u s e r ' s perception of the c a r t o g r a p h i c communication. communication t h e o r i s t s the use o f a c o n v e n t i o n a l of the same symbol ful, system, landscape symbol the map u s e r ' s communication mental landscape. mental The map u s e r , then t r a n s l a t e s If mental the his map by possessed the two dimensional image which is map similar the communication has been image w i l l processes Briefly, i n t o a two dimensional system. i n t o a three dimensional to the map maker's cartography suggest that the map maker c o n v e r t s view o f a t h r e e . d i m e n s i o n a l information to of these r e s e a r c h e r s conclude that most human beings form t h r e e dimensional theory. r success- conform very c l o s e l y to the 7 original landscape. As B l u e s t e i n and A c r e d o l o (1977) p l a c e s where t h i s (p. 5) p o i n t out t h e r e are t h r e e key communication system can m a l f u n c t i o n . map maker and map user must share a common symbol system. the map user must be a b l e to p e r c e i v e that the symbols three dimensional o b j e c t s which he r e c o g n i z e s . First, both Second, represent T h i r d , and perhaps most c r i t i c a l l y , the map user must be a b l e to t r a n s f o r m the two dimensional t o p o g r a p h i c map i n t o a t h r e e dimensional mental image. These t h r e e f a c t o r s generated the hypotheses which were t e s t e d by this study. Hypothesis #1 Mean p o s t - t e s t scores o f students in the experimental groups w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher (p = .05) than mean p o s t - t e s t scores of the c o n t r o l groups on t e s t s o f map symbol r e c o g n i t i o n . Hypothesis #2 Mean p o s t - t e s t scores o f students in the experimental groups w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher (p = .05) than mean p o s t - t e s t scores of the c o n t r o l groups on t e s t s measuring a b i l i t y to v i s u a l i z e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l landscapes from t o p o g r a p h i c maps. To t e s t these hypotheses, a quasi-experimenta1 using a c o n t r o l group and a p r e t e s t - p o s t t e s t r e s e a r c h design format was chosen. Two groups o f Grade 10 students and two groups of Grade 12 students were given tests. the p r e t e s t which was composed of ten s e p a r a t e map skills' One group o f Grade 10 and one group of Grade 12 students were then given s i x weeks of d a i l y instruction in a v a r i e t y of map skills r e l a t e d to the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t o p o g r a p h i c maps and the v i s u a l i z a t i o n of topographic space. During this time the o t h e r two groups received no map s k i l l s period a l l items as instruction. At the end o f the teaching-1 e a r n i n g f o u r groups wrote a p o s t t e s t which comprised the same the p r e t e s t . 9 CHAPTER TWO Review of the L i t e r a t u r e Part I: The Map as a Communication System The process of t o p o g r a p h i c map c o n s t r u c t i o n and is one form o f c a r t o g r a p h i c communication. interpretation Cartographic has been both a s u b j e c t of, and a model for, communicat ion and a review of the research l i t e r a t u r e w i l l i n t o the s p e c i f i c problems Human communication being as it relates is involves research p r o v i d e some insights in Chapter One. the i n t e n t i o n a l a c t o f a human to the sending or r e c e i v i n g of a s t i m u l u s to produce u n d e r s t a n d i n g , communication raised communication s o c i a l i z a t i o n or a c t i o n . intended Cartographic then a s p e c i a l i z e d form of human communication wherein the map maker, drawing i n f o r m a t i o n from the " r e a l c l e a r l y d e f i n e d symbol system, produces a g r a p h i c communication or r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of decodes t h i s original the r e a l i t y he p e r c e i v e s . g r a p h i c communication reality. (a map) w o r l d " and using a The map user then thereby r e c r e a t i n g F i g u r e 1 is a model of t h i s cartographic the communication. Before embarking on a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n o f the model, t h e r e are several general comments which should be made. First, specific FIGURE I A CARTOGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION MODEL THE MAPfA ' KER "REALITY" "R" Noise -THE SENSES"N" Noise THE "REAL" ENVIRONMENT •7< PERCEIVED REALITY 'N" Noise "ITUDES BELIEFSp S Y C H 0 L 0 G I C A L V "P" Noise BRAIN - i ENCODER {Editing and Selection _ Process) The •Car tographi c Cosnmun i ca t i on A Topographic *Hap — The Topog raph i c Map as Perce t ved "N" Noise PERCEIVED REALITY Noise —THE SENGES"R" Noise Oecoder Delai I seicct i Symbo1s and Referonts Pre-ext st i ng Men taI Maps re-ex i st i ng Mental Images p 11 'REAL I TY" URPOSE- THE SENSES "N" Noise PERCEIVED REALITY 'N" Not se IT ITUDES BELIEF S— "P" Noise -BRA I N- - rre-ex\ s ting Mental Maps - Symbols and Re f e rant s THE MAP-USER "REAL ITY" "R" Noise THE "REAL" ENVIRONMENT Three D i nensiona1 Mental Image of Landscape "P" Noise -PURPOSE "N" Noi se PERCEIVED REAL m "N" Noise •THE SENSES "R" Noi 5 0 11 r e f e r e n c e to the problems omitted. involved in a c t u a l l y The technology of p r i n t i n g , the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of papers and i n k s , together with the t e c h n i c a l p r i n t i n g process by which the v a r i o u s to the map w i l l process. obviously p r i n t i n g a map problems The nature and e x t e n t of t h i s Muehrcke the (1969), (1970), various Gertsen Petchenik boundaries (1970), (1974) in the are added i n t e r f e r e n c e in the communication i n t e r f e r e n c e has been amply (1973), demonstrated by the r e s e a r c h of Bartholomew and Kinniburgh Carmichael various inherent colour separations be a source of is Hodgkiss (1981), and S o r r e l (1970), Merriam 1 (1974). in the model are presented as Second, although rectangles, it would be more a c c u r a t e to v i s u a l i z e them as s i m i l a r to the membrane which surrounds These will and g i v e s d e f i n i t i o n to an amoeba. be c o n s t a n t l y Finally changing shape as v a r i o u s stimuli boundaries are p e r c e i v e d . i t should be remembered that map maker and map user w i l l not n e c e s s a r i l y share the same "Real Environment" e i t h e r in space o r i n t i me. Although Kolacny the model is similar in many r e s p e c t s to those of (1976) (1969) and Robi nson and Petchenik conceptualization. As a s t a r t i n g point it of some a b s o l u t e " r e a l environment" which is is From t h i s environment come a wide v a r i e t y of from which, by means o f the senses, These impulses and s t i m u l i and t h i s senses is useful the author's to t h i n k the same f o r a l l impulses each i n d i v i d u a l and in terms individuals. stimuli perceives "reality." both augment and i n t e r f e r e with each o t h e r i n t e r a c t i o n produces what is c a l l e d The map maker's it (perceptual filters) in the model "R" s e l e c t from t h i s noise. background 12 certain stimuli which are passed along environment." "reality." For the map maker t h i s The s e l e c t i o n process o n l y c e r t a i n wave lengths a c t i v a t e the e a r . to c r e a t e h i s " p e r c e i v e d p e r c e i v e d environment results in p a r t from the f a c t noise) selects The elements which make up the p e r c e i v e d environment which in turn p r o v i d e s from these elements. psychological purpose the w o r l d , a t t i t u d e s interactions the map maker time, however, the f i l t e r and in c o n s t r u c t i n g is g r e a t l y the map. toward map making and map users i n t e r f e r e n c e ("P" from the sense o r g a n s , along ference, This i n t e r f e r e n c e as r a t h e r than p h y s i o l o g i c a l by the map maker's additional that a c t i v a t e the eye and c e r t a i n sound f r e q u e n c i e s impinge on the sense organs to p r o v i d e a v a r i e t y of ("N" represents to the b r a i n . noise) is influenced Beliefs about p r o v i d e some to the t r a n s m i s s i o n of perceptions the n e r v e s , which a l s o c o n t r i b u t e At t h i s p o i n t the map maker's inter- perceptions are added to and i n f l u e n c e d by any p r e - e x i s t i n g mental maps he may have and t r a n s m i t t e d to the encoder s e c t i o n s of the b r a i n . maker s e l e c t s from h i s the " b e s t " way of s t o r e of map symbols and c a r t o g r a p h i c representing his perceptions. These The map techniques selections are then t r a n s m i t t e d from the b r a i n back to the sense organs where they are several form. i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the map. times as Assuming communication is The map is environment. It the map maker e d i t s the p r i n t i n g process T h i s process w i l l be repeated h i s communication into its final produces a t r u e copy, the map now ready f o r the map u s e r . p e r c e i v e d by the map user as p a r t of h i s is processed through h i s p e r c e p t u a l and "real" psychological 13 filters the to h i s b r a i n . Assuming that map maker and map user a s c r i b e same meanings to the symbols and c a r t o g r a p h i c techniques used by the map maker, the map u s e r ' s the it symbols will i n t o a mental image. If produce, in the map u s e r ' s image of a landscape. If three dimensional mental original the decoding apparatus w i l l landscape. the communication translate is successful, b r a i n , a t h r e e dimensional mental the process works w e l l , the map u s e r ' s image w i l l be a reasonable f a c s i m i l e o f In o r d e r to c r e a t e t h i s mental the image, however, map user must understand the c a r t o g r a p h i c conventions of symbol, s c a l e and d i r e c t i o n . Part II: Map S k i l l s Research Most of the r e s e a r c h which has been done on map symbols has with ways o f Researchers Petchenik DeLuccia improving the q u a l i t y o r v i s i b i l i t y o f map symbols. (1975), Gertsen (1970), Robinson Flannery (1971), Merriam (1970), Monmonier Arnheim (1976), Wood such as Olson (1973), Crawford (197*0, (1972), Phillips, (1968), McCleary DeLuccia and S k e l t o n and Bartholomew and Kinniburgh the dealt (1973) (1975), (1970), (1977), (1970), Stringer have s t u d i e d such t o p i c s (.1973) as optimum s i z e and d i s t r i b u t i o n of d o t , c i r c l e and square symbols on d i s t r i b u t i o n maps; the optimum width o f problems with f i g u r e - g r o u n d f o r ease o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s and p e r c e p t i o n s ; and s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n of symbol relief; lines design; the best method of visibility; improvement portraying the s i z e , s t y l e and q u a l i t y of type and the best c o l o u r s use on maps. While t h i s r e s e a r c h has great potential for to improving 14 the c a r t o g r a p h i c q u a l i t y of maps, many o f these r e s e a r c h e r s out that much depends on the map u s e r ' s more r e s e a r c h heeds to be done in t h i s Sorrel skills 1 (1974, p. 84) outlines abilities point and knowledge and area. an e s s e n t i a l development f o r the map user when he problem in map states: The r o l e o f the map as a communication medium is f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l output by g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i n t o the form of symbols. No matter how p e r f e c t l y designed great the symbol system is it s t i l l causes d i f f i c u l t y f o r the map reader because the symbols are not r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f the t h i n g s s y m b o l i z e d . The problem of was addressed by Gardner, Howard and P e r k i n s a distinction (1974, p. between icons which resemble the t h i n g s symbolization 29) they (e.g. p i c t u r e s , statues) and symbols which are c o n v e n t i o n a l (e.g. words, n u m e r a l s ) . They a l s o agree t h a t the symbol i t s own set of problems. map symbols S o r r e l 1 For the map user attempting (p. 84) suggests to who make represent representations system c r e a t e s interpret that: Even a f t e r the necessary i n s t r u c t i o n s in d e c o d i n g , the reader is l e f t w i t h the bare bones o f the message, which then r e q u i r e s the i n t e r p o l a t i o n of d e t a i l d e r i v e d from the r e a d e r ' s own f i e l d of knowledge to r e c o n s t r u c t the o r i g i n a l p e r c e p t u a l s t i m u l u s which the map maker is t r y i n g to communicate. The great difficulty involved in l e a r n i n g these symbol codes was f u r t h e r demonstrated by the r e s e a r c h of Pearson, Wiedel and Castner (1974). subjects They c a r r i e d out a maze experiment using o f whom t h i r t e e n were c a r t o g r a p h e r s , non-geographers. sixty-one t h i r t y - s e v e n geographers and e l e v e n Subjects were b l i n d f o l d e d a f t e r having an o p p o r t u n i t y 15 to l e a r n the symbols used on maps f o r the b l i n d and asked to use a map t o work t h e i r way through a maze. of the group s u c c e s s f u l l y Only t h i r t y - e i g h t per cent completed the maze. f o r g e t t i n g o r m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g map symbols, were s i m i l a r and misjudgement authors o f the study p o i n t Common problems involved c o n f u s i o n where two of s c a l e and a c t u a l d i s t a n c e s . symbols As the out: These problems were unexpected, s i n c e a l l o f the symbols employed had been easy f o r b l i n d s u b j e c t s to i d e n t i f y . . . . The process of l e a r n i n g the symbolic code and a c q u i r i n g competence in i t has been the s u b j e c t of some study. o f symbolc competence Gross In d i s c u s s i n g (197^, p. 57) s t a t e s the a c q u i s i t i o n that T h i n k i n g is an act i v i ty embracing the p e r c e p t i o n and ;; the c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n g , s t o r a g e , and r e t r i e v a l of structured information. S t r u c t u r e d and meaningful i n f o r m a t i o n can be r e c e i v e d , s t o r e d , transformed and communicated through a v a r i e t y of symbolic modes. . . . These modes . . . a r e b a s i c a l l y learned o n l y through a c t i o n s a p p r o p r i a t e to the p a r t i c u l a r mode. A c c o r d i n g to B a l c h i n (1976, pp. 33 f f ) r e l a t e d to what he c a l l s human beings have. 1. 2. 3. *4. the f o u r b a s i c these symbolic modes are types of a b i l i t y which a l l These a r e : 1 i t e r a c y - - t h e a b i l i t y to use w r i t t e n communication a r t i c u l a c y — V e r b a l s k i l l s , the a b i l i t y to make " s o c i a l noi s e s . " numeracy—the f a c u l t y f o r d e a l i n g with numerical symbolism and graph i c a c y - - s p a t i a l a b i l i t y — t h e educated c o u n t e r p a r t o f the v i s u a l - s p a t i a l a s p e c t o f human i n t e l l i g e n c e and communication. He goes on to a s s e r t that: In a b r a i n as h i g h l y evolved as that of a human being the p o t e n t i a l f o r a l l f o u r types of a b i l i t y is i n b o r n , but none of them can come to f u l l f r u i t i o n without education. Drawing on the work of P i a g e t , Myer (1973), Downs and Stea ability researchers (1977), Rushdoony (1977) and Muehrcke B l u e s t e i n and A c r e d o l o spatial a number of develops g r a d u a l l y including (1969), S o r r e l 1 (1978) argue that (197*0. the through a number of stages as s t u d i e d map reading s k i l l s of c h i l d r e n grow o l d e r . B l u e s t e i n and A c r e d o l o three-, (1977) f o u r - , and f i v e - y e a r - o l d c h i l d r e n in an attempt at what age c h i l d r e n develop what are c a l l e d the " t h r e e to f i n d out distinct c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s " which enable them to i n f e r i n f o r m a t i o n t h e i r environment from a map. The t h r e e processes are about (p. 5 ) : . . . the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of two dimensional c a r t o g r a p h i c or p i c t o g r a p h i c symbols and the understanding they they r e f e r to real t h r e e dimensional c o u n t e r p a r t s . The second . . . i n v o l v e s the formation of a mental r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the map . . . to serve as the a s s o c i a t i v e l i n k between map and space, p a r t i c u l a r l y when the map and the space a r e not viewed t o g e t h e r . The t h i r d process . . . is the p r o j e c t i o n or s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n of the mental r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the map on the environment i t s e l f . . . . The study demonstrated t h a t were capable of It t h r e e - , f o u r - and f i v e - y e a r - o l d c h i l d r e n l e a r n i n g and interpreting cartographic a l s o showed that n e a r l y h a l f f o u r - and f i v e - y e a r - o l d s the t h r e e - y e a r - o l d s and most of c o u l d form a mental mentally r e - o r i e n t or was not c o r r e c t l y l i n e d up to Milburn (1980) Only the f i v e - y e a r - o l d s r o t a t e the map to f i t the image of the map and, provided the map was c o r r e c t l y o r i e n t e d with the space, the map on the environment. symbols. superimpose however, the environment if could it start. in a study of elementary school mapping concludes 17 that elementary school c h i l d r e n , p r o v i d e d they are given a p p p r o p r i a t e to t h e i r l e v e l , can l e a r n a v a r i e t y o f map Beginning in the primary grades a v a r i e t y of mapping skills. c h i l d r e n can s u c c e s s f u l l y tasks although the r e s u l t s the c h i l d r e n ' s developmental complete must be assessed in light of finds that most c h i l d r e n have developed concepts of s c a l e , d i r e c t i o n , and s y m b o l i z a t i o n , stage. training can p r o j e c t a " p i l o t ' s By age e l e v e n M i l b u r n e y e " view of a space and are ready to begin working with t o p o g r a p h i c maps. e a r l i e r experiment d e s c r i b e d Report (1941) patterns. and a l s o of in the T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e Group Committee shows, many c h i l d r e n are capable of Some 40,000 B r i t i s h a picture school to match a map with a p i c t u r e . half eighty recognizing contour c h i l d r e n were asked to match ( a l i n e drawing o f a landscape) the students As a much with an a p p r o p r i a t e map By age twelve f i f t y percent c o u l d do both e x e r c i s e s and by age f i f t e e n and a percent of the students could s u c c e s s f u l l y complete the exerc i s e s . A summary of symbol systems, the research s t u d i e s that students match them to i s o l a t e d suggests that students can r e c o g n i z e contour p a t t e r n s physical and and The r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e however whether or not a student can look at a t o p o g r a p h i c map and form a t h r e e dimensional scape. learn f e a t u r e s , a n d that they can form mental images of simple maps and r e l a t e them to an environment. does not can It is mental image of a l a n d - t h i s q u e s t i o n which led to the r e s e a r c h hypotheses. questions 18 CHAPTER THREE The Experimental The c e n t r a l map users Since purpose of the present study was to f i n d out can and do " f o r m a t r u e mental p i c t u r e of i n f o r m a t i o n about the ground of a v a r i e t y of symbol systems, is it of this systems. is full the g r o u n d . " Once the map user knowledge however, another problem a r i s e s . and thereby b u i l d up an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of literature of student that map users must given enough time, can " r e a d " a map by v e r b a l l y symbol if p o r t r a y e d on maps by the use is obvious possess a knowledge of those symbol possessed Design r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s is Map i n t e r p r e t i n g each the map. The aspect of map p e r c e p t i o n which is analogous to the process by which the l e a r n i n g of takes place. have learned to read the l i t e r a l Only a f t e r students vocabulary meaning of words can they begin to a p p r e c i a t e the r i c h n e s s of symbolism. As the work of Petchenik (1976) demonstrates, c o r r e s p o n d i n g mental t h i s mental image. (197*0 and Robinson visual image of the ground. literary and Petchenik however, e f f e c t i v e map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n between the t o t a l users, involves d i s p l a y o f the map and a The problem is to e v a l u a t e There appear to be o n l y two methods f o r evaluating 19 the mental This image. involves graphic) One is to ask t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the image symbol system. The o t h e r v e r b a l l y d e s c r i b e the image. i n t o a d i f f e r e n t symbol 1. The Research design for Control This is into a d i f f e r e n t to have the similarly considerations study. provides i n t a c t school involves (i.e. possessor transformation in mind, i t was decided to pretest-postest and S t a n l e y (1970, p. the most e f f e c t i v e r e s e a r c h design classes. experimental The design was based on the Nonequiva1ent Group Design d e s c r i b e d by Campbell T h i s design image image. system. group - experimental group, this to draw the Pesign With the f o r e g o i n g use a c o n t r o l the image possessor As Campbell and S t a n l e y hi). involving (pp. ^7-8) point out: The more s i m i l a r the experimental and the c o n t r o l groups are in t h e i r r e c r u i t m e n t , and the more t h i s s i m i l a r i t y is confirmed by the s c o r e s on the p r e t e s t , the more e f f e c t i v e t h i s c o n t r o l becomes. Assuming that these d e s i d e r a t a are approximated f o r purposes of i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y , we can regard the design as c o n t r o l l i n g the main e f f e c t s of h i s t o r y , m a t u r a t i o n , t e s t i n g and i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , in that the d i f f e r e n c e f o r the experimental group between p r e t e s t and p o s t t e s t ( i f g r e a t e r .than that f o r the c o n t r o l group) cannot be e x p l a i n e d by main e f f e c t s of these v a r i a b l e s such as would be found a f f e c t i n g both the experimental and the c o n t r o l group. All students were given The c o n t r o l groups maps. the same p r e t e s t at the same time. r e c e i v e d no f u r t h e r instructional contact The experimental group on the o t h e r hand,. r e c e i v e d and p r a c t i c e in the v a r i e t y of map s k i l l s with instruction deemed by the r e s e a r c h 20 to be necessary f o r map users to be e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s c a r t o g r a p h i c communication p r o c e s s . period a l l all students in the At the c o n c l u s i o n o f the treatment rewrote the p r e t e s t as a p o s t t e s t . Scores for p a r t i c i p a n t s were recorded and are i n c l u d e d in Appendix C. 2. The Sample Alpha Secondary School is located Burnaby, a suburb of Vancouver. to twelve. The school which c o n t a i n s class It population is A p p r o x i m a t e l y twenty percent o f than E n g l i s h at home. and c o m p o s i t i o n in grades levels ranging Italy, the students The students display speak: a normal the range of students reading skills. the s c h o o l . in t h i s The l a r g e s t (ages 1 5 l 6 ) . _ study were drawn from two group was from Grade 10 S o c i a l At the Grade 10 level in B r i t i s h i s compulsory and Alpha Secondary School Social Studies 10 c l a s s e s . Assignment of students is done by a computerwhich is equitably according The computer program Because of to to the number of c l a s s e s is designed enrols Columbia, five particular programmed to d i s t r i b u t e the available. to produce a reasonable balance of sexes w i t h i n c l a s s e s as w e l l as a balance o f t o t a l classes. from working a language o t h e r Studies students area I n d i a , Hong Kong or Korea. Social classes of eight drawn from the surrounding in. The students who p a r t i c i p a t e d classes students Approximately ten percent of were born o u t s i d e Canada, mainly Studies enrols a v a r i e t y of s o c i o - e c o n o m i c to upper middle c l a s s . grades w i t h i n in the north western p a r t numbers between the l a r g e number of compulsory s u b j e c t s and 21 l i m i t e d number of o p t i o n s at the Grade 10 l e v e l , in S o c i a l Studies group C l a s s e s are assigned The two c l a s s e s (n = 4l) were taught to t e a c h e r s by the r e s e a r c h e r . The experimental group in the a u t h o r ' s in an e q u a l l y The two c l a s s e s Geography from Grade (n = 26) c o n s i s t e d o f 12 c l a s s w h i l e an E n g l i s h (n = 28) which met at the same time served as a c o n t r o l . English 12 is compulsory, However, Geography students choose f o r a v a r i e t y of at the beginning of the course of the students reasons. the 12 c l a s s Because the c o n t r o l group was reasonably of the Grade 12 p o p u l a t i o n . (n = to a c o o p e r a t i v e c o l l e a g u e . The second and s m a l l e r group c o n s i s t e d of students students in p a r t i c i p a t i n g as the experimental 37) chosen as the c o n t r o l were both a s s i g n e d 12 (ages 17—18). distributions are as c l o s e to a random s e l e c t i o n as p o s s i b l e an e s t a b l i s h e d s c h o o l . random f a s h i o n . the c l a s s representative 12 is an o p t i o n which An informal survey i n d i c a t e d that some s i x t y taken percent took the course because they w e r e : i n t e r e s t e d in the s u b j e c t m a t t e r , twenty percent because o f the f i e l d t r i p s , w h i l e the remainder wanted a s c h o l a r s h i p examinable c o u r s e , o r needed a Grade 12 l e v e l timetable. 3. c r e d i t c o u r s e , or c o u l d n ' t f i t As the two samples differed, anything e l s e results into t h e i r are analyzed s e p a r a t e l y . The Instruments Working from the a u t h o r ' s on the January 1981, r e s e a r c h of Myer Geography analysis o f the topographic map q u e s t i o n s 12 S c h o l a r s h i p Examination and the (1973) and Monk and Alexander (1973), a l i s t of t o p o g r a p h i c map s k i l l s was drawn up which would be p r e r e q u i s i t e to 22 the development of t o p g r a p h i c map. the a b i l i t y to v i s u a l i z e a landscape from a The map s k i l l s are: 1. a b i l i t y to use d i r e c t i o n - - b o t h on the map and on the ground, and the a b i l i t y to c o r r e c t l y o r i e n t a map. 2. an understanding of map s c a l e and an a b i l i t y map d i s t a n c e to a c t u a l d i s t a n c e . 3. an understanding o f map symbols and an a b i l i t y r e c o g n i z e common symbols from memory. k. an understanding of contour l i n e s and an a b i l i t y r e c o g n i z e contour l i n e p a t t e r n s . 5. an a b i l i t y to i n t e r p r e t contour l i n e p a t t e r n s in o r d e r to develop a g e n e r a l i z e d image of a landscape. 6. an a b i l i t y to form a t h r e e dimensional mental a landscape symbolized on a topographic map. The t e s t was d i v i d e d instrument c o n s i s t e d of ten s u b - t e s t s into three parts) specific skill with each t e s t or combination of s k i l l s . to c o n v e r t from map d i s t a n c e to a c t u a l specifically. using instructions 1: to to image of to measure a to use d i r e c t i o n and d i s t a n c e were not tested and t e s t q u e s t i o n s were formed d i r e c t i o n and s c a l e f a c t o r s wherever a p p r o p r i a t e . sequence was as Test Rather, relate (one of which desgined Ability to The t e s t follows. Students were asked to l o c a t e ten common symbols on a relatively uncomplicated t o p o g r a p h i c map. (i.e. no v e g e t a t i o n and few contours) Test 2: Students were asked to l o c a t e ten d i f f e r e n t but common symbols on a more complex t o p o g r a p h i c map. T e s t 3: Students were asked to l o c a t e , on a map, contour line p a t t e r n s which valleys indicated three h i l l s (3a), two 23 (3b) T e s t k: and the s t e e p e s t s l o p e in the landscape (3c). Students were asked to determine r e l a t i v e h e i g h t s of a number o f p o i n t s marked on a t o p o g r a p h i c map. Test 5- Students were asked to match a sample t o p o g r a p h i c map to one of four p o s s i b l e landscape sketches and to match a landscape sketch to one of f o u r t o p o g r a p h i c T e s t 6: Students were asked to imagine themselves maps. in the landscape and to draw v e r t i c a l e l e v a t i o n s of t h r e e b u i l d i n g s symbolized on a t o p o g r a p h i c map. T e s t 7- Students were asked to imagine themselves in the landscape at a s p e c i f i c p o i n t on a s i m p l i f i e d t o p o g r a p h i c map and determine whether they would be a b l e to see v a r i o u s points marked on the map. T e s t 8: The same as t e s t 6 except that a normal topographic map was used. T e s t 9: Students were asked to l o c a t e themselves at a s p e c i f i c spot on a t o p o g r a p h i c map and draw what they would see they were in the Test 10: if landscape. Students were asked to imagine themselves walking along a road shown on a map and to d e s c r i b e what they would see. Copies of the t e s t instruments are a t t a c h e d as Appendix A. s i m p l i f i e d t o p o g r a p h i c map used in T e s t 3c and T e s t 7 was taken from a t o p o g r a p h i c map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n k i t Co. (1964). The • produced by Hubbard S c i e n t i f i c The map used in T e s t 8 and T e s t 9 was taken from Gunn (1968, p. 6). A l l o t h e r maps were from C h e v r i e r and A i t k e n s (1970, 2k p. 132, p. 116, p. 9 2 ) . The ten s u b - t e s t s tests break i n t o two groups. The f i r s t 1 to 5 were designed to a s s e s s the s t u d e n t s ' map symbol The second group, the s t u d e n t s ' ability t o p o g r a p h i c maps. the from c a r t o g r a p h i c (1975) T e s t s tests Surveys and Mapping 6 to 10, were designed to a s s e s s to v i s u a l i z e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l All T e s t 6 were a d a p t a t i o n s landscapes of t e s t s researchers or map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e x e r c i s e s [e.g. Phillips, 1, 2, 3, A, 7 and 8; DeLucia DeLucia and (1972) T e s t s that students might without producing a mental image of it. Skelton 1 and 2] development (1981), Graham (1968) T e s t s 3, 7, 8, 9 and 10]. based on the assumption from of the t e s t s with the e x c e p t i o n of T e s t 5 and or from books used in t o p o g r a p h i c map s k i l l s Kemball knowledge o f system used on t o p o g r a p h i c maps produced by the Canadian Department o f Energy, Mines and Resources, Branch. group, [e.g. T e s t 6 was be a b l e to "name" a symbol Students were i n s t r u c t e d to draw r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the r e f e r e n t s of s p e c i f i c symbols being t o l d what the symbols Test 5 was used by S c a r f e who a d m i n i s t e r e d the t e s t represented. in B r i t a i n C o l l e g e Group Committee (19**l)]t e s t s were v a l i d and r e l i a b l e . It in 1938/39 [Report by the T r a i n i n g is t h e r e f o r e assumed that As an a d d i t i o n a l teachers who found them to be v a l i d f o r the purposes 1, 2 and 3 were laminated so that students c o u l d r e c o r d t h e i r responses using overhead p r o j e c t o r pens. the check the t e s t s were submitted to a group of t h r e e e x p e r i e n c e d high school The maps used in T e s t s without geography intended. in plastic d i r e c t l y on the maps A time l i m i t was used f o r each e x e r c i s e 25 in an attempt to c o n t r o l test administration r a t h e r than v e r b a l f o r sources of v a r i a n c e , and to t r y to f o r c e the students analysis of the maps. the Grade 12 students 3(b) to r e l y on v i s u a l 6, 7» took f o r f i f t y percent to complete the e x e r c i s e s . Test 3(a), and each p a r t of Test 5 were a l l o t t e d one and o n e - h a l f and Test 3(c) k. standardize 1, 2, k, In T e s t s 8, 9 and 10 the time allowed was the time i t of to minutes was a l l o t t e d one minute. Scor i ng Tests either 1 - 5 were e s s e n t i a l l y right or wrong. o b j e c t i v e t e s t s where answers One mark was awarded f o r each c o r r e c t For Test 6 students were awarded one mark e l e v a t i o n of the b u i l d i n g , one mark i f c o r r e c t s i d e and one mark i f clearly that the f i r s t the t h i r d a s c h o o l . if were response. they drew a v e r t i c a l the e l e v a t i o n was of they added d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the details indicating b u i l d i n g was a house, the second a barn and Tests 7 and 8 were s i m i l a r to T e s t s 1 - 5 in that answers were e i t h e r r i g h t or wrong and again one mark was awarded f o r each c o r r e c t response. the students . . . ?), (i.e. "If the answers by t h r e e high school The s c o r i n g was assumed 7 and 8 r e q u i r e d to i n t e r p r e t the maps and draw c o n c l u s i o n s mapped landscape see Because T e s t s that you were standing about the at p o i n t x c o u l d you to both t e s t s were checked and v e r i f i e d geography teachers. f o r Test 9 presented some d i f f i c u l t i e s in that t h e r e would be some d i f f e r e n c e s drawings which would be the r e s u l t of a r t i s t i c talent in the it r a t h e r than map v i s u a l i z a t i o n 26 abilities. In o r d e r to make the s c o r i n g as o b j e c t i v e and c o n s i s t e n t as p o s s i b l e the f o l l o w i n g procedure was used. The landscape to be i n t e r p r e t e d was a n a l y z e d and was found to c o n s i s t of the f o l l o w i n g . The c e n t r a l f e a t u r e is a t y p i c a l U-shaped g l a c i a l v a l l e y with a stream f l o w i n g down the c e n t r e . A road runs beside the stream and crosses i t s h o r t l y a f t e r the stream leaves a swampy area near the f o r e g r o u n d . There is a high mountain peak on the east at the entrance to the v a l l e y with two g l a c i e r s it. separated by an a r e t e immediately to the south of The western s i d e of the v a l l e y is not as steep and has two s e p a r a t e peaks which would have been v i s i b l e . part way up both s i d e s of the v a l l e y . a v a l l e y with s t e e p l y s l o p i n g is reached. s l o p e than the e a s t , mark if sides. side, t h r e e marks i f i f v e g e t a t i o n was the two marks the west s i d e of the v a l l e y o f the v a l l e y was c o r r e c t , one mark each i f were shown, one mark indicates It was decided to i f peaks were i n d i c a t e d on the east f o r peaks on the west, one mark i f a more gradual The c o n t o u r : p a t t e r n s i d e s which become l e s s steep as r e l a t i v e l y wide, f l a t v a l l e y f l o o r award two marks F o r e s t cover grows the general indicated shape the road and the r i v e r i n d i c a t e d and one a d d i t i o n a l the v e g e t a t i o n d i d not go more than halfway up the v a l l e y The t o t a l Test possible s c o r e was t h e r e f o r e twelve. 10 c a l l e d f o r a w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n of the landscape the student would pass through w h i l e t r a v e l l i n g along were given f o r i n d i c a t i o n s o f changes type and number of b u i l d i n g s , the road. in s l o p e and d i r e c t i o n , l o c a t i o n , road s u r f a c e , d e s c r i p t i o n s of stream beside the road ( i n d i c a t i o n s Marks the of d i r e c t i o n of f l o w , v e l o c i t y , 27 etc.), along vegetation, i n d i c a t i o n s o f the comparative width of the v a l l e y the route and i n d i c a t i o n s o f the e x t e n t o f the area which would be in view at any one time. operative colleagues answers The t e s t was submitted to four c o - who wrote it. Comparison and a n a l y s i s o f their i n d i c a t e d that w h i l e the t e s t was somewhat " o p e n - e n d e d " t w e n t y - f i v e marks would be a reasonable p o s s i b l e maximum s c o r e . a d d i t i o n c o p i e s were made o f a random sample o f student both T e s t s 9 and 10 and these same c o l l e a g u e s , marked them. working responses d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e i r s c o r i n g and that of the a u t h o r . attempt to ensure c o n s i s t e n c y p r e - and responses f o r Test all to independently, When the r e s u l t s were compared t h e r e were no in s c o r i n g , In substantial In an post-test 10 were marked at the same time. . The t e s t answers were then reviewed one week l a t e r and no i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s were found. 5. The Intervent ion The p r e t e s t s were f o l l o w e d by s i x weeks of t o p o g r a p h i c map s k i l l s i n t e n s i v e work with f o r the experimental groups. taught and e x e r c i s e s used are included in Appendix B. Samples of Students worked through a s e r i e s of e x e r c i s e s which were designed them with common t o p o g r a p h i c map symbols as well standing of to both c o n s t r u c t and a l s o worked with s c a l e , There were many i n t e r p r e t contour maps. d i r e c t i o n and e l e v a t i o n e x c e r c i s e s the drawing of p r o f i l e s and the c a l c u l a t i o n of g r a d i e n t s . possible, students to f a m i l i a r i z e as gain an under- the f u n c t i o n s and use o f contour l i n e s . opportunities were given lessons the o p p o r t u n i t y to compare Students including Where photographs 28 of an area with maps of the same a r e a . by DeLeeuw and Carswell (1981, p. 8) c o n s i d e r a b l e time was spent by the s t u d e n t s comparing a e r i a l maps. F o l l o w i n g a s u g g e s t i o n made s t e r e o photographs w i t h F i n a l l y students were taken on two f i e l d t r i p s t o p o g r a p h i c maps were used. During these t r i p s was paid to matching contour p a t t e r n s topographic in which particular attention to the e x i s t i n g landscape and, when c l i m b i n g , to d e t e r m i n i n g when v a r i o u s c o n t o u r s were c r o s s e d . The o v e r a l l design o f the i n s t r u c t i o n a l assumption maps. all that students Instruction the students 12 s t u d e n t s . program was based on the knew v i r t u a l l y nothing about topographic and p r a c t i c e e x e r c i s e s were designed to the l e v e l o f competence expected o f to b r i n g Geography 29 CHAPTER FOUR Results The o v e r a l l Table 1(a) lists experimental (Tests results (raw scores) the means and standard d e v i a t i o n s f o r the Grade 10 and c o n t r o l groups 1-5). T a b l e 1(b) Grade 12 groups. are presented in Appendix C. f o r the t e s t s of map symbol lists T a b l e s 2(a) recognition the data f o r the same t e s t s and 2(b) are a n a l y s i s of variance 1 - 5 f o r the Grade 10 and Grade 12 groups summary t a b l e s for Tests respectively. In T a b l e 2(a) and 2(b) Source A compares the o v e r a l l t e s t mean of the c o n t r o l group with that of the experimental f o r each grade and determines the differences. statistical Source AC is a c o v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s which compares the means with the d i f f e r e n c e s between the experimental group p r e - and means Source AC t h e r e f o r e measures the a n a l y s i s In s e v e r a l the e f f e c t , instances e.g. of v a r i a n c e r e s u l t s posttest i f any, of the Grade 10 T e s t 2, 3 and 5 show an apparent s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r Source A r e s u l t s . group s i g n i f i c a n c e of any d i f f e r e n c e between the c o n t r o l group p r e - and p o s t t e s t intervention. f o r the lack of The cause of t h i s statistical anomaly is discussed in the a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n o f Chapter 5 in r e f e r e n c e to each t e s t f o r which it occurs. 30 TABLE 1(a) MEAN SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR GRADE 10 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 1-5 Test # Max Score Group Pretest Standard Deviation '1 10 Exp. Cont. 4.805 5.189 1.631 2.158 2 10 Exp. Cont. 4.829 6.081 2.519 1.991 Standard Deviation N 8.732 5.757 1 .597 2.204 41 37 7.341 6.027 1.755 1.979 41 37 Posttest 3 6 Exp. Cont. 2.976 3.243 2.139 2.408 4.610 3.243 1.745 2.350 41 37 4 7 Exp. Corit. 3.488 3.514 1.645 1.456 5.317 3.568 1.474 1.591 41 37 5 2 Exp. Cont. 0.805 0.973 0.782 1.195 0.973 0.601 0.763 41 37 TABLE 0.763 Kb) MEAN SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR GRADE"12 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 1-5 "• 10 Exp. Cont. 6.654 6.250 1.875 2.137 9.346 7.071 0.745 2.054 26 2 10 Exp. Cont. 7.269 5-750 1.951 2.030 8.308 5.857 2.475 1.087 26 3 6 Exp. Cont. 3.923 3.357 2.513 2.345 5.308 3-357 1.289 2.329 26 28 7 Exp. Cont. 3.731 3.036 2.342 2.063 5.692 3.000 1.517 1.981 26 2 Exp. Cont. 1.308 0.893 0.679 0.737 1 .500 0.821 0.648 0.723 26 1 5 • ! 28 28 28 28 31 TABLE 2(a) ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR GRADE 10 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 1-5 Test # Source Sum of Squares 1 A AC 65.264 109.736 2 A AC 3 Degrees o f Freedom Mean Squares F Ratio 1 1 65.264 109.736 10.354 115.945 .0.002 0.001 0.038 64.041 1 1 0.038 64.041 0.005 63.152 0.944 0.001 A AC 11.743 25.968 1 1 11.743 25.968 1 .351 38.132 0.249 0.001 4 A AC 28.896 30.645 1 1 28.896 30.645 6.467 97.660 0.013 0.001 5 A AC 0.028 1.481 1 1 0.028 1.481 0.029 19-148 0.866 0.001 TABLE Probability 2(b) ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR GRADE 12 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 1-5 1 A AC 48.363 23.594 1 1 48.363 23.594 8.980 20.857 0.004 2 A AC 106.228 5.847 1 1 106.228 5.847 14.710 11.775 0.001 0.001 3 A AC 42.687 12.923 1 1 42.687 12.923 5.009 13.156 0.030 0.001 4 A AC 77.345 26.889 1 1 77.345 26.889 10.511 42.418 0.002 0.001 5 A AC 8.059 0.469 1 1 8.059 0.469 9.135 4.928 0.004 0.001 0.031 32 Hypothesis 1 stated that Mean p o s t - t e s t scores f o r students in the experimental groups w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher (p - .05) than mean p o s t - t e s t scores of the c o n t r o l groups on the t e s t s of map symbols r e c o g n i t i o n . It can be seen from the data to p o s t - t e s t significant Hypothesis differences T a b l e 3(a) (Tests lists 6 - are the means and standard d e v i a t i o n s 10). T a b l e 3(b) v a r i a n c e summary t a b l e s in the same way as lists T a b l e s 4(a) statistically f o r the f o r the v i s u a l i z a t i o n the data from the same and 4(b) are a n a l y s i s tests of for Tests 6 - 1 0 f o r the Grade 10 and Grade The s t a t i s t i c s f o r these t a b l e s are d e r i v e d respectively. Hypothesis f i v e tests pre- therefore supported. f o r the Grade 12 groups. 12 groups that a l l except Grade 12 T e s t 5 where p = .031) Grade 10 experimental and c o n t r o l groups tests and 2(b) (Source AC) on a l l (p = .001 on a l l 1 is in T a b l e 2(a) those f o r T a b l e 2(a) 2 stated and (b). that Mean.-post-test scores of s t u d e n t s . i n the experimental groups w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher (p = .05) than mean p o s t - t e s t scores of the c o n t r o l groups on t e s t s measuring a b i l i t y to v i s u a l i z e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l l a n d scapes from topographic maps. It test can be seen from the data to p o s t - t e s t differences Grade 10 are s t a t i s t i c a l l y are found f o r T a b l e 4(b) the p r e - t e s t to p o s t - t e s t (p = .090) it f a l l s in T a b l e 4(a) that a l l (Source AC) on a l l significant (p < the p r e - f i v e tests .024). Similar for results with the e x c e p t i o n of T e s t 9 where although difference is c l o s e to s t a t i s t i c a l o u t s i d e the o r i g i n a l l y set significance significance test 33 TABLE 3(a) MEAN SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR GRADE. 10 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 6-10 Test # Max Score Group Pretest Standard P,eviat ion Posttest Standard Deviation N 6 9 Exp. Cont. 2.659 1.595 2.698 1.518 4.780 1.757 3.094 1 .690 41 37 7 10 Exp. Cont. 6.561 6.189 2.248 1 .912 7.171 6.162 1.716 1.893 41 37 8 6 Exp. Cont. 4.024 4.595 1 .405 1 .166 4.463 4.541 1.185 1.192 41 37 9 12 Exp. Cont. 1 .024 1.162 1.151 1 .302 1.268 1.135 1.323 1.134 41 37 10 25 Exp. Cont. 5.634 6.243 4.128 3.467 10.902 6.054 5.580 3.472 41 37 2.366 2.332 26 28 TABLE 3(b) MEAN SCORES AND. STANDARD DEVJAT0NS FOR GRADE ]2 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 6-10 6 9 Exp. Cont. 4.846 3.536 2.949 7.000 2.472 3.429 7 10 Exp. Cont. 6.357 7.077 1.547 2.297 7.500 6.321 1.556 2.480 26 28 8 6 Exp. Cont. 4.346 3.786 1 .294 1 .371 4.808 3.750 0.749 26 1 .430 28 Exp. Cont. 1.654 1 .231 1.213 2.000 1.286 1.265 26 28 Exp. Cont.. 5.036 4.618 3.646 14.731 5.214 9 12 10 25 7.731 1.357 1.283 3.573 3.843 26 28 34 TABLE 4(a) ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR GRADE 10 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 6-10 Source Sum of Squares Degrees o f Freedom 6 A AC 162.485 37.350 1 1 7 A AC 18.529 3.943 1 1 18.529 3.943 2.555 10.207 0.114 0.002 8 A AC 4.075 2.365 1 1 4.075 2.365 1 .452 8.171 0.232 0.005 9 A AC 0.000 0.714 1 1 0.000 0.714 0.000 5.284 0.994 0.024 10 A AC 1 74.7.62 289.631 1 174.762 5.609 51.688 0.020 0.001 3St # Mean Squares F Ratio Probabi1 162.485 15.626 37-350 40.720 1 289.631 0.001 0.001 TABLE 4(b) ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR GRADE 12 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR TESTS 6- 10 6 A AC 160.650 34.459 1 1 7 A AC 24.292 1 .419 1 1.419 24.292 3.013 7.642 0.008 8 A AC 17.650 1.667 1 1 17.650 1.667 6.071 8.090 0.017 0.006 9 A AC 6.890 6.509 1 1 6.890 0.509 2.339 2.982 0.132 0.090 .10 A AC 1005.193 1 1005.193 38.551 0.001 0.001 313.655 1 1 160.650 13.152 34.459 52.653 313.655 64.199 0.001 0.001 0.089 35 (p = . 0 5 ) . discussed The f a c t o r s which combined to produce t h i s in Chapter 5- p r o v i d e s overwhelming Examination of T a b l e 4(a) support f o r the c o n c l u s i o n e x c e p t i o n noted above, Hypothesis 2 is supported. result and 4(b) t h a t , with are however the 36 CHAPTER FIVE Discussion The purpose of t h i s and Conclusions study was to determine i f c r e a t e a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l mental by a t o p o g r a p h i c map. student map users image of the landscape d e p i c t e d The r e s e a r c h of Hannay (1971) and o t h e r s r e f e r r e d to in Chapter 1 i n d i c a t e s c l e a r l y that most human can and do form t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l mental and A c r e d o l o (1977) d e s c r i b e two p r i o r e s s e n t i a l s v i s u a l i z a t i o n process. 1. 2. If images. Further, Bluestein f o r the landscape These a r e : that both map maker and map user share a common symbol system. that the map user understands that the symbols represent r e c o g n i z a b l e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l o b j e c t s . both these e s s e n t i a l s are met i t should be p o s s i b l e map user to t r a n s f o r m the two dimensional three-dimensional mental image. f o r the t o p o g r a p h i c map i n t o a Both the t e s t instruments and the i n t e r v e n t i o n were designed to ensure that these e s s e n t i a l s met. beings As a r e s u l t the d i s c u s s i o n of the f i n d i n g s into three p a r t s . divides were logically 37 Part 1 The f i r s t students' there s e r i e s of tests knowledge of the common map symbols. is a marked i n c r e a s e groups (1 - 5) were designed in the p o s t - t e s t to e v a l u a t e As T a b l e I indicates, means f o r both experimental as well as a r e d u c t i o n in the standard d e v i a t i o n f o r each o f the p o s t - t e s t reduction means as compared with those of i n d i c a t e s an o v e r a l l should a l s o This in the performance of experimental group. the students completed the p r e t e s t s w i t h i n a l l o t t e d time l i m i t s all It improvement the p r e t e s t . the experimental group students within the time s p e c i f i e d . not o n l y more knowledgeable The r e s u l t s experimental of of T e s t s and c o n t r o l the c o n v e n t i o n a l symbols. Indeed line it is be noted that o n l y h a l f of well Students in the treatment groups were but a l s o faster. 1 and 2 i n d i c a t e that students groups a l r e a d y possessed (rivers, roads) and p o i n t some in both knowledge (schools, the c o m p a r a t i v e l y good performance o f churches) the the lack of s i g n i f i c a n c e (p = 0.944) when group means are compared. However the a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e s t a t i s t i c s gain Tests means c l e a r l y (p = 0.001) indicate a s t a t i s t i c a l l y recognition The map used f o r Test in p r e - significant in Grade 10. p r i m a r i l y with map symbol used were somewhat d i f f e r e n t . an area comparing changes f o r the experimental group 1 and 2 deal while completed the p o s t - t e s t s Grade 10 c o n t r o l group on T e s t 2 (mean = 6.081) which produces test-post-test the Although the maps 1 was a map of in the Canadian p r a i r i e s which c o n t a i n e d o n l y t h r e e contour l i n e s and v i r t u a l l y no v e g e t a t i o n c o l o u r . The map used f o r Test 2 38 on the o t h e r hand c o n t a i n e d numerous contour c o l o u r e d with the green v e g e t a t i o n the mean scores support f o r the two t e s t s the c o n c l u s i o n s and Wood (1972) symbol. l i n e s and was extensively The d i f f e r e n c e between f o r both groups would seem to reached by Merriam (1970), (1972) DeLucia that ease and accuracy of n o n - r e l i e f symbol are enhanced when v e g e t a t i o n shading and contour l i n e recognition densities are reduced. Tests of 3, 4 and 5 were designed the contour l i n e symbol o f p a t t e r n s o f contour to e v a l u a t e s t u d e n t s ' system. lines knowledge Test 3 e v a l u a t e d s t u d e n t s ' indicating specific relief perceptions features, Test k e v a l u a t e d p e r c e p t i o n o f d i r e c t i o n of s l o p e and Test 5 assessed students' ability illustrations. for to match contour p a t t e r n s with Both Test 3 and T e s t 5 a n a l y s i s the Grade 10 groups reasons. In a l l statistically where p = of v a r i a n c e results f o l l o w the p a t t e r n of Test 2 f o r the same three t e s t s , significant however,.experimental group gains were (p = 0.001 f o r a l l but Grade 12 Test 5 0.031). Although the r e s u l t s f o r Test 3 show a s t a t i s t i c a l l y gain f o r the experimental groups, of e x e r c i s e and a weakness a source of d i f f i c u l t y significant in t h i s the i n t e r v e n t i o n . procedure in the i n t r o d u c t o r y lessons Following on contour contour maps of "one h i l l " of v a r i o u s islands. geometric f i g u r e s the symbols, students were given an o p p o r t u n i t y to draw contour diagrams h e i g h t s , .contour diagrams type in most t o p o g r a p h i c map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n became apparent d u r i n g normal three-dimensional from spot and simple On a subsequent q u i z a l l students 39 in the experimental groups were a b l e to diagrams etc.). r e p r e s e n t i n g common r e l i e f i d e n t i f y f i v e separate features (a h i l l , valley, contour cliff, However, when these same students were asked to f i n d contour patterns r e p r e s e n t i n g the same f i v e relief map, they had c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t y . f e a t u r e s on a topographic When these contour line patterns became p a r t o f a more complex contour system t h e r e appeared to be a tendency f o r the students wiggly lines." As to see what Jenks (197P) c a l l s "a lot in the r e s e a r c h of Pearson, Wiedel and Castner (1974) working with b l i n d f o l d e d s u b j e c t s using symbols designed use on maps f o r the b l i n d , knowledge of the separate symbols n e c e s s a r i l y mean that map users w i l l those symbols be a b l e to c o r r e c t l y when they are combined together on a map. present study a l s o , the contour p a t t e r n s C l e a r l y Pawling's (1973) assumption maps is skills" are taught In the symbols f o r a r i d g e and a v a l l e y . that a f t e r " o n l y a few b a s i c subjects w i l l be a b l e to interpret Pearson, Castner. The r e s u l t s of Test k support DeLucia and S k e l t o n (1975) e s t i m a t i o n of the s u g g e s t i o n of Phillips, that where there were enough contour to make the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of problem. not interpret not supported e i t h e r by the present study or by that of Wiedel and for does map users e x p e r i e n c e d c o n f u s i o n where two were s i m i l a r e . g . map-reading of the d i r e c t i o n of s l o p e the r e l a t i v e h e i g h t s of v a r i o u s relatively p o i n t s was not a The map used f o r Test k had f i v e contour lines easy, serious l i n e s and a small stream in the area where the p o i n t s were marked which p r o v i d e d easy ko c l u e s to the d i r e c t i o n of s l o p e . possible f o r students As a r e s u l t i t would have been to determine the d i r e c t i o n of s l o p e relatively e a s i l y without attempting to v i s u a l i z e the landscape, provided that they understood the nature and f u n c t i o n of contour l i n e symbols. The r e s u l t s f o r both experimental groups showed a s u b s t a n t i a l mean scores between p r e - and p o s t - t e s t s demonstrating that gain in students were a b l e to e x t r a c t the r e q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n from the map. The r e s u l t s of Test 5 are somewhat at odds with the o b t a i n e d on the same t e s t (1941). results by the T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e Group Committee The Committee found t h a t more than f i f t y per cent of the t w e l v e - y e a r - o l d students t e s t e d c o u l d do both e x e r c i s e s c o r r e c t l y . In the present study o n l y twenty-one per cent of the Grade 10 (age 15) experimental twenty- group and the Grade 12 (age 17) c o n t r o l group, seven per cent of the Grade 10 c o n t r o l group and f o r t y - t w o per cent of the Grade 12 experimental group c o u l d s u c c e s s f u l l y complete both e x e r c i s e s on the p r e t e s t . While it is t r u e that n e a r l y s i x t y per cent of the t w e l v e - y e a r - o l d s had had some i n s t r u c t i o n on contour symbols, the Grade 10 and 12 experimental groups p o s t - t e s t were o n l y twenty-nine and f i f t y - e i g h t i n t e r e s t i n g t o note however t h a t at per cent r e s p e c t i v e l y . least sixty least l e a s t one of is students the n i n e t y per cent of the experimental groups achieved the same standard on the p o s t - t e s t . the authors of the o r i g i n a l It per cent of a l l in the present study c o u l d c o r r e c t l y complete at e x e r c i s e s on the p r e t e s t and at percentages study suggest (p. ]k0) In t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n , that students 41 . . . can i n t e r p r e t shape c o r r e c t l y from contour l i n e s and f u r t h e r that t h i s c a p a c i t y may e x i s t without any s p e c i f i c t e a c h i n g . This s u g g e s t i o n was based on the f a c t that in t h e i r study more than t h i r t y per cent of c h i l d r e n as young as e i g h t instruction in c o n t o u r s , and a h a l f , with no could c o r r e c t l y complete both e x e r c i s e s . In a d d i t i o n the percentage of c o r r e c t responses per cent f o r s i x t e e n - y e a r - o l d s . support this suggestion to produce r e s u l t s responses. increases on the order o f by the present t w e n t y - f i v e per cent c o r r e c t instruction are not impressive. in contour p a t t e r n to r e c o g n i z e shape from contours was During recognition supported study. One f u r t h e r comment on t h i s map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s k i l l made. not random guessing c o u l d be expected On that b a s i s the present r e s u l t s the a b i l i t y eighty The present study however, does in as much as The second c o n c l u s i o n that rose to over the course of should be the i n s t r u c t i o n on contour p a t t e r n s it became apparent that both experimental groups had e i t h e r had very little instruction in t o p o g r a p h i c map s k i l l s much of what they had been taught. or had not As part of the retained intervention students were given an o p p o r t u n i t y to p r a c t i c e matching a wide of contour diagrams with features. r e l a t i v e l y simple b l o c k diagrams of On a subsequent q u i z (see Appendix B) variety relief students were asked to compare t h i r t e e n contour p a t t e r n s with t h i r t e e n b l o c k diagrams. Two of the contour p a t t e r n s were f a i r l y s i m i l a r and a number of confused the two. or t h i r t e e n . students The scores on the q u i z however were e i t h e r e l e v e n The o n l y e r r o r s on the q u i z involved confusion between two s i m i l a r relatively patterns. poor r e s u l t s problems found The d i f f e r e n c e between these r e s u l t s and the f o r T e s t 5 appears in T e s t 3. to be analagous to the The more, complex the landscape represented (the t e s t diagrams c o n t a i n a combination of simple r e l i e f the g r e a t e r the d i f f i c u l t y students e x p e r i e n c e d . features), Obviously it cannot be assumed that knowledge of and p r a c t i c e with s i m p l i f i e d , d i s c r e t e patterns w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y produce f a c i l i t y in r e c o g n i z i n g and inter- p r e t i n g more complex p a t t e r n s . The o v e r a l l c o n c l u s i o n which can be drawn from the r e s u l t s Tests 1 - 5 is that it is p o s s i b l e map user share a common symbol (1977) Part first essential of to ensure that both map maker and system. B l u e s t e i n and A c r e d o l o ' s can be a c h i e v e d . 2 T e s t 6, 7 and 8 were designed to e v a l u a t e s t u d e n t s ' understanding that the map symbols represent r e c o g n i z a b l e , t h r e e dimensional T e s t 6 e v a l u a t e d students p e r c e p t i o n o f n o n - r e l i e f symbols and T e s t s 7 and 8 e v a l u a t e d s t u d e n t s ' of contour objects. p e r c e p t i o n of the t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l i t y symbols. T e s t 6 asked students to imagine themselves at a p a r t i c u l a r in the landscape and, l o o k i n g n o r t h , draw what they would see. spot The symbols they were asked to draw r e p r e s e n t e d a house, a barn and a school. On the p r e t e s t s i x t y - s i x per cent of the Grade 10 and t h i r t y - t h r e e per cent of the Grade 12 students symbols. As S o r r e l 1 (197*0 points out, simply reproduced the map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of map symbols 43 is a complex process which is made more d i f f i c u l t by the f a c t that most map symbols are not r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f the o b j e c t s symbolized but conventional d e v i c e s which must be t r a n s l a t e d As the r e s u l t s of T e s t translating the square, i n t o the v e r b a l clearly into other 1 and 2 i n d i c a t e , students forms. had l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y r e c t a n g l e and square with a f l a g map symbols symbols, house, barn and s c h o o l . i n d i c a t e however, a s i g n i f i c a n t As T e s t 6 r e s u l t s number of the students not or c o u l d not make the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n from map or verbal to an image of a house, barn or s c h o o l . symbol Even a f t e r working with e x e r c i s e s where the f a c t that c o n v e n t i o n a l r e c o g n i z a b l e and f a m i l i a r did symbols r e p r e s e n t real, t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l o b j e c t s , t h i r t y - o n e per cent of the Grade 10 and e l e v e n per cent of the Grade 12 experimental groups were s t i l l post-tests. unable to demonstrate t h i s Obviously understanding on the i f students are unable to r e c o g n i z e that common map symbols r e p r e s e n t real objects r a t h e r than v e r b a l symbols f o r those o b j e c t s , the attempt to c r e a t e a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l mapped landscape image of a is a f o r m i d a b l e t a s k . T e s t s 7 and 8 were e s s e n t i a l l y the same except :that Test 7 used a s i m p l i f i e d t o p o g r a p h i c map with r e l a t i v e l y simple and l i m i t e d non-relief symbols, fewer contour l i n e s and no v e g e t a t i o n c o l o u r symbol. The i n t e r v e n t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n f o r the experimental groups for this type of s y m b o l i z a t i o n emphasized the drawing o f diagrams and encouraged students cross-sectional diagram cross-sectional to attempt to produce a rough, mental by examining the c o n t o u r s . A great deal of emphasis was placed on t r a n s l a t i n g directly plains, to v i s u a l valleys, of the t o t a l interesting the contour p a t t e r n images without attempting etc. possible patterns If to l a b e l symbols them as hills, the group means are c a l c u l a t e d as a percentage scores f o r each o f the t h r e e t e s t s , some occur. TABLE 5 GROUP MEANS AS A % OF TOTAL POSSIBLE SCORE Test # Grade 10 Pretest Grade 10 Post-test Grade 12 Pretest Grade 12 Post-test 6 29.5% 53.1% 53.8% 77.7% 7 65.6% 71 70.7% 75.0% 8 51M 74.0% 72.0% 80.0% First, it is obvious .1% that s t u d e n t s ' c o n s i d e r a b l y poorer than on T e s t s the map symbol-to verbal earlier 7 or 8. a significant to v e r b a l factor. symbols problem raised The absence of any need to c o n v e r t inherent in T e s t s 7 and 8 could be Second, the s i m i l a r i t y of the percentages 7 and 8 appear to suggest that in t h i s In f a c t i t would appear that e a s i e r to i n t e r p r e t . t a b l e appears Third, to suggest that little the more complex map is the i n c r e a s e for type of map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e x e r c i s e the r e l a t i v e c o m p l e x i t y of the t o p o g r a p h i c map has effect. is T h i s may be a product of visualization in c o n n e c t i o n with Test 6. contour symbols Tests symbol-to performance on Test 6 in percentages t h e r e is a developmental marginally across the progression in h5 students' a b i l i t y to perform this type of exercise. the increase In each case in percentage between pre- and post-test scores for the Grade 10 and Grade 12 groups is so close that one is tempted to conclude that the pretest-post-test gain can be attributed to the effect of the intervention while the differences between Grade 10 and Grade 12 pretest scores is a product of maturation. However, tempting as such speculation may be, the fact that the two experimental groups were not equivalent in a l l aspects except age makes such a conclusion tenuous at best. The pattern i l l u s t r a t e d by Table V does, however, suggest a direction for further research. Part .3 . Tests 9 and 10 were designed to evaluate the students' a b i l i t y to form three-dimensional mental images of a landscape represented by a topographic map. As mentioned e a r l i e r , ways to evaluate a mental image. there are only two One way is to ask subjects to draw their mental image (Test 9) and the other is to ask for a verbal description (Test 10). In Test 9 students were asked to imagine themselves at a particular point in a landscape facing south and draw what they would see. If aligned correctly the students would be facing towards a mountain valley. The orientation of map and student presented no d i f f i c u l t y but as the results show this exercise was extremely poorly done. The dramatic lack of success for Test 9 is attributable to two factors which are not normally considered to be a part of a map s k i l l s program. 46 First, the drawing of even r e l a t i v e l y simple degree o f a r t i s t i c Second, the a b i l i t y t a l e n t which the students not possessed to draw the kind of f o r Test 9 r e q u i r e s the s k i l l of is possessed skill. requires a by many p e o p l e . landscape d e p i c t e d by the map of drawing this landscapes perspectives. This Very few lack of a r t i s t i c ability was a l s o a p p a r e n t . i n Test 6 where many of the students who d i d draw the requi red bui1dings f r o n t and s i d e drew a view showing the f r o n t o_r s i d e views which the e x e r c i s e c a l l e d f o r . the q u a l i t y of the drawings in Test 9 was very poor. attempt was made to keep r e c o r d s , the most f r u s t r a t i n g students. T h i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e of then g i v i n g over top of out. Several to hand o t h e r s of expressed an u n w i l l i n g n e s s can't draw with anyway!". the e x e r c i s e , in an attempt to have anyone e l s e t h e i r poor a r t i s t i c scribbled to b l o c k them the c o n c l u s i o n of the t e s t . look at unwilling They their drawings. performance the raw scores o f the groups show c o n s i d e r a b l e s i m i l a r i t y and the who the Grade 12 students were, at f i r s t , in t h e i r drawings at Because of number o f the drawing a f t e r making an attempt at t h e i r drawings a p p a r e n t l y that l i n e s on the paper and up, u s u a l l y with the comment "I A number of s t u d e n t s , both in the numerical frequency of both p r e - and p o s t - t e s t scores. Only s i x of all value In the Grade 12 experimental group f o r example t h e r e are very few scores show any change from p r e - to p o s t - t e s t . 6, no the Grade 12 students s c r i b b l i n g a few quick than in Test Although e x e r c i s e f o r the g r e a t e s t to make a s u s t a i n e d attempt at many of them simply As i t was noted by the author Test 9 was seemed u n w i l l i n g rather which the twenty six hi scores changes test. test show any c h a n g e - - f o u r scores change by o n l y one mark, one by two and one changes by t h r e e marks.from p r e t e s t to Given the very minor v a r i a t i o n s o f very low scores it is not s u r p r i s i n g l i t t l e or no s t a t i s t i c a l that the s t a t i s t i c a l analysis s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r the r e s u l t s . e f f e c t of the problems with T e s t 9 was that T e s t device for evaluating mental the s t u d e n t s ' 10 asked the students d e p i c t e d by a t o p o g r a p h i c map. The net 10 became the o n l y to form t h r e e dimensional to imagine themselves in a They were asked to imagine Throughout the s e r i e s of t e s t s on the time f a c t o r in completing the t e s t s . to work as q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e . landscape themselves symbols to v i s u a l i z a t i o n s emphasis was p l a c e d Students were encouraged The purpose of t h i s was to t r y to prevent the students emphasis on time from t r a n s l a t i n g map symbols to and to t r y to f o r c e the students move d i r e c t l y from map symbols to v i s u a l i z a t i o n . attempt indicated along a road from one p l a c e to another and to d e s c r i b e what they would see. verbal this images. Test walking ability for post- The success of to this is demonstrated by the wealth of d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l which the successful students i n c l u d e d in t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s w h i l e s t i l l the e x e r c i s e w i t h i n the a l l o t t e d time. The r e s u l t s of T e s t (See Appendix C Part finishing 2.) 10 demonstrate that many students are capable of forming t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l mental images o f mapped landscapes. It should be noted however, that f o r t y - f o u r per cent of the Grade 10 experimental twenty-five. group achieved a s c o r e of ten or The r e s u l t s l e s s out of a possible f o r the Grade 12 experimental group were 48 considerably better, some t h i r t y - f i v e intervention out t h e mean p r e t e s t a n d p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s per cent two f i e l d h i g h e r f o r t h e G r a d e 12 g r o u p . t r i p s were a r r a n g e d v a r i o u s e x e r c i s e s comparing mapped a r e a . results achieved Muehrcke (1978), ( 1 9 7 4 ) who f o u n d improved on T e s t t h a t map DeLucia 10. on t h e s e e x e r c i s e s Goodman (1968) a n d G r o s s symbols i s achieved the a b i l i t y t o form scapes, w i l l difference with skills were c o n s i d e r a b l y in field I f , as communication t h e o r i s t s (1974) a r g u e , by p r a c t i c e competence i n working i t f o l l o w s t h a t map by f i e l d such as in interpreting w i t h symbols and t h e i r interpretation three-dimensional be e n h a n c e d (1941), (1975) a n d S o r r e l 1 when map u s e r s had an o p p o r t u n i t y t o p a r t i c i p a t e then to carry This correlates and S k e l t o n interpretation w o r k u s i n g t o p o g r a p h i c maps. mental skills, including images o f mapped l a n d - w o r k w i t h maps. In a d d i t i o n , t h e i n p e r f o r m a n c e b e t w e e n t h e G r a d e 10 a n d 12 g r o u p s to the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e r e may be a m a t u r a t i o n d e v e l o p m e n t o f symbol early students by t h e T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e G r o u p C o m m i t t e e Phillips, referrents, During the t o p o g r a p h i c maps d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e In most c a s e s , s t u d e n t s who d i d w e l l ( m o s t l y G r a d e 12) a l s o d i d w e l l the t o permit being childhood interpretation effect competency e x t e n d i n g adds i n the beyond t h e years. Implications f o r Teaching First and f o r e m o s t Eliot's (1970, p. 286) a s s e r t i o n that k n o w l e d g e o f s y m b o l i c c o n v e n t i o n s , [does n o t ] n e c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l the a b i l i t y t o v i s u a l i z e the s p a t i a l arrangement of the objects represented. 49 is c l e a r l y supported by .the present s t u d y . equate knowledge of c o n v e n t i o n a l maps and t h i s (1975,P-l) a map is 11 assertion the Surveys and Mapping interpretive s k i l l s . p i c t u r e of In o r d e r f o r the ground" a l s o be necessary to p r o v i d e f o r more o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l e a r n these s k i l l s as photographs, models and o t h e r t h r e e dimensional Assumptions the amount of time f o r comparing r e p l a c e d by an acceptance o f the very r e a l symbols. Learning as complex a process as Successful Implications for Further i n t e r p r e t map symbols to read and i n t e r p r e t verbal One area learning to read books. Research There are two major areas study. have to be achievement of map reading competence may very r e q u i r e as much time and e f f o r t as by t h i s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h which are suggested involves investigation i n t o the e f f e c t e x t e n s i v e f i e l d work with t o p o g r a p h i c maps of f a m i l i a r areas have o n . t h e a b i l i t y with problems and d i f f i c u l t i e s to read and learning stereo and map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques are simple and uncomplicated processes w i l l is e a s i l y f o r map illustrations that the l e a r n i n g of map s k i l l s inherent :.i.n the p r o c e s s . objects. by comparing maps d i r e c t l y with the mapped area as well maps. increasing the instruction have to ensure that map symbols are seen to represent real It. w i l l well interpret to become a r e a l i t y then o b v i o u s l y more a t t e n t i o n must map user to " f o r m a t r u e mental users If to programs that "everyone should be a b l e to use be pa id " t o ' : the development of will symbols with a b i l i t y is c l e a r l y a m i s t a k e . Branch Most map s k i l l s to v i s u a l i z e u n f a m i l i a r landscapes from that would topographic 50 maps. Several studies a l l u d e d to the apparent c o n n e c t i o n between f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e and map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a b i l i t y which s p e c i f i c a l l y s t u d i e d t h i s The second area involves connection. investigation that the stages of development of mapping and o t h e r s but none were found i n t o the skills possibility d e s c r i b e d by P i a g e t f o r e a r l y c h i l d h o o d may in f a c t c o n t i n u e to develop through the l a t e r y e a r s . 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The T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e Group Committee, "An I n v e s t i g a t i o n Into C h i l d r e n ' s A b i l i t y to I n t e r p r e t Contour L i n e s , " Geography, V o l . XXVI, 1941, pp. 131-140. Wood, M., " V i s u a l P e r c e p t i o n and Map D e s i g n , " V o l . 5, No. 1, June, 1968, pp.54-64. The C a r t o g r a p h i c J o u r n a l , 55 Wood, M., "Human F a c t o r s In C a r t o g r a p h i c Communication," The C a r t o g r a p h i c J o u r n a l , V o l . 9, No. 2, December, 1972, pp. 123-132. APPENDIX A The Test Test Instruments #1 Each item in the f o l l o w i of a symbol. Put the number appropriate symbol on the map. 1. 2. 3. k. 5. A A A A A School Church Bridge House Post O f f i c e l i s t is shown on the map by means the item immediately beside the Find o n l y one example o f each. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. A A A A A Railway S t a t i o n Bench Mark Contour L i n e Farm Town Test #2 Each item in the f o l l o w i n g l i s t is shown on the map by means of a symbol. Put the number o f the item immediately beside the a p p r o p r i a t e symbol on the map. F i n d o n l y one example of e a c h . 1. 2. 3. k. 5. A A A A A Lake River Smal1 Stream Railway L i n e Main Highway 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. A A A A A Gravel Road D i r t Road Path Dyke Power T r a n s m i s s i o n Line T e s t #3 A. The blue l i n e numbered 90 d i v i d e s the map approximately in h a l f . Find: t h r e e h i l l s in the southern h a l f of the map and put aii " H " on top of e a c h . 57 in the southern ha 1f of B. F i n d two v a l l e y s " V " in e a c h . the map and put a C. Mark the s t e e p e s t s l o p e on the map with an X. Test #k The l e t t e r s A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H are p r i n t e d in b l a c k type on the map. Assume that each l e t t e r r e p r e s e n t s a spot on the ground. Answer the f o l l o w i n g by w r i t i n g the l e t t e r of the correct answer f o r each p a i r on the l i n e to the r i g h t of the p a i r . Which is higher 1. 2. 3. k. 5. 6. 7. A E C H H H H or or or or or or or B? F? D? C? D? B? A? T e s t #5 The maps are c o r r e c t l y o r i e n t e d when the arrow p o i n t s away from you. A. Which one o f Answer the f o u r p i c t u r e s matches the map? 58 \x A ^" _. - r- — — H S 59 ' v s X rVic. »-' , 'Tib ft -A I ffl? 'i rev I j MI i 1 I § mm 1 1:1 m \W-y A'- ; If' / • • - I- i* t jk \ 1 3 T e s t #6 Imagine that you are s t a n d i n g on the ground in the area of the map. Draw the f o l l o w i n g b u i l d i n g s as i f you were s t a n d i n g at the.:spot marked X in each case and l o o k i n g due n o r t h . 1. The b u i 1 d i n g at A. 2. The b u i l d i n g at B. 3• The bui1d ing at C. Test #7 1. If a. b. c. 2. If a. b. c. 3. If a. b. c. d. you were s t a n d i n g on the dam a t Blue Lake c o u l d you see Norton? Dixon? Rockville? ' you were s t a n d i n g at the mine on Bald Peak c o u l d you see the top of White Mountain? Rockville? Dixon? you were s t a n d i n g at the top of Summit H i l l , c o u l d you see Norton? Dixon? Blue Lake? Roaring Stream? T e s t #8 If you were s t a n d i n g on the r a i l w a y t r a c k s at the bench mark near H e c t o r , c o u l d you see a. b. c. d. e. f. Ross Lake? Stephen? The Warden's Cabin? The f i r e lookout tower on Paget Peak? Vanguard Peak? The P l a i n of the Six G l a c i e r s ? . ' 63 T e s t #9 Imagine: that you are s t a n d i n g on the r a i l w a y t r a c k s at the bench mark near Hector and f a c i n g toward the s o u t h . Draw what you would see. T e s t #10 Imagine y o u r s e l f s t a r t i n g from the edge of the town of White Rock and walking along the road north from White Rock to the j u n c t i o n of that road and Highway 1. D e s c r i b e as f u l l y as you can what you would s e e " a l o n g the way. 64 APPENDIX B Some Examples of the Topographic Map Development Instructional Skills Program The f o l l o w i n g are some examples of the kinds of t o p i c s and e x e r c i s e s used in the i n t e r v e n t i o n phase of t h i s r e s e a r c h . For the most part the e x e r c i s e s f o l l o w e d a standard format f o r topog r a p h i c map s k i l l s development, r e l y i n g p r i m a r i l y on the works of Graham, Reading Topographic Maps, Kembal1, Canada and The World Book Two; and C h e v r i e r and A i t k e n s , Topographic Map and A i r Photo Interpretation. A d d i t i o n a l e x e r c i s e s , demonstrations and e x p l a n a t i o n s developed by the author were i n s e r t e d where p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e with t h i s type of program i n d i c a t e d that problems would a r i s e . No attempt has been made to p r o v i d e a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of or d e t a i l e d lesson plans f o r the i n t e r v e n t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g is intended o n l y as an o u t l i n e of the t o p i c s and sequence of the lessons taught. Lesson #3 ~ The Map G r i d Purpose: Method: 1. To teach students 2. To enable students g r i d systems. Students will the f u n c t i o n of a g r i d to gain f a c i l i t y system. in the use of work through t h r e e e x e r c i s e s using grid systems. E x e r c i s e #1: Students draw an e i g h t column by e i g h t row g r i d . Rows and columns are l a b e l l e d using numbers f o r one and l e t t e r s f o r the o t h e r . Some students w i l l use l e t t e r s f o r columns and some w i l l use numbers. Students are asked to c o l o u r s e v e r a l squares i d e n t i f i e d by l e t t e r - n u m b e r combinations. Comparison of student responses and teacher i n t e n t w i l l i n d i c a t e the need to s t a n d a r d i z e numbering systems. 65 E x e r c i s e #2: Students draw a second e i g h t by e i g h t g r i d but number both rows and columns. Squares to be c o l o u r e d are i n d i c a t e d by g i v i n g the column number f i r s t f o l l o w e d by the row number E x e r c i s e #3: Students play a game of B a t t l e s h i p. Students number the spaces across the top and down the l e f t s i d e of the paper beginning at the top l e f t in each c a s e . Each student has a " f l e e t " of e i g h t " s h i p s " which can be l o c a t e d anywhere on the graph paper. Larger s h i p s would occupy more than one square. Students attempt to s i n k each o t h e r s s h i p s by c a l l i n g out in turn the number c o o r d i n a t e s of v a r i o u s squares f i r s t g i v i n g the column and then the row number. Lesson #7 - L i n e and P o i n t Purpose: Symbols To f a m i l i a r i z e students with the common l i n e and symbols used on Canadian t o p o g r a p h i c maps. References: 1. 2. point Graham, Reading Topographic Maps, Chapter 4, pp. 94-98 and Assignment p. 102. Kemball, Canada and The World Book Two, A c t i v i t y 10 pp.24-25. Method: Follow the procedures Lesson #8 - Map i n d i c a t e d by the r e f e r e n c e s . Interpretation Purpose: To g i v e students Method: Detailed analysis of several e x e r c i s e s such as: topographic map sheets Question Sheet 92G/7C 1 p r a c t i c e in a p p l y i n g Map Sheet knowledge a c q u i r e d . using 1. What d i r e c t i o n would you t r a v e l to reach Alpha Secondary School from the area shown in the c e n t r e of t h i s map? 2. What type of t r e e s are found along Coquitlam r i v e r ? 3- Give a g r i d r e f e r e n c e f o r a house near the r i g h t of the Coquitlam r i v e r . 4. What is the contour i n t e r v a l of the banks of t h i s map? the bank 66 Lesson #9 Purpose: 5. How high is the top of Cypress Mountain? (It is west of the Coquitlam R i v e r and approximately four k i l o m e t r e s north of the j u n c t i o n of Hoy and S c o t t Creeks). 6. What is 7. What is the e l e v a t i o n of the top of the dam at south end of Coquitlam Lake? 8. What is 9. What use is made o f the waters o f Buntzen 10. What is the n a t u r a l o f Buntzen Creek? Contour - Method: d i r e c t i o n o f flow o f the waters to contour line symbols. 2. Hubbard S c i e n t i f i c , Topographic Map K i t , model and overhead t r a n s p a r e n c i e s . Plastic i n d i c a t e d by the r e f e r e n c e s and guidebooks. draw contour maps from i n d i c a t e d spot Graham, Reading Topographic Maps, pp. As o u t l i n e d p. 4 1 . Symbols To have students in the heights. 42-45. reference. Patterns To f a m i l i a r i z e students with v a r i o u s the landforms they r e p r e s e n t . References: Lake? Graham, Reading Topographic Maps, Assignment Lesson #12 - Contour Symbol Purpose: the r e f e r e n c e s f o r the dam in 7? 1. Follow procedures Reference: Lake? Symbols. Lesson #10 - Contour Purpose: the g r i d To i n t r o d u c e students References: Method: the e l e v a t i o n of Cypress contour p a t t e r n s 1. Kemball, Canada and The World Book Two, pp. 2. Graham, Reading Topographic Maps, pp. 62-73. and 27~30. 67 Method: 1. Follow procedures o u t l i n e d i n the references. Special emphasis i s g i v e n t o a d e t a i l e d comparison o f photographs, b l o c k diagrams and c o n t o u r diagrams. 2. T h r e e m i n u t e q u i z on i d e n t i f y i n g simple landforms. Certain c h a r a c t e r i s t i c patterns of contour lines represent d i s t i n c t landforms. One o f t h e f i r s t t h i n g s i n t o p o g r a p h i c map s t u d y i s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e s e p a t t e r n s . S t u d y t h e c o n t o u r l i n e s b e l o w a n d s e e how t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e d i f f e r e n t kinds o f landforms. A l l o f these p a t t e r n s a r e taken from actual places throughout the world. Label each. Norrhwesf Montana South France \ ^ S \ _ y / ~ North Scotland 1 6 0 0 1 6 5 0 ' - 17 0 0 I 750 180 0 Martinique France Mart in and South Metres i niaue Southeast- England 600 S7V 550' 52 5, 500 68 Lesson #15 ~ Review of Contour Patterns. Purpose: To a s s e s s s t u d e n t s ' a b i l i t y to s p e c i f i c landforms. Method: 1. 2. Lessons #16, to r e l a t e contour Quiz (see pp. Students match contour diagrams patterns with block diagrams. Complete e x e r c i s e s pp. 87-89 " D e s c r i b i n g S u r f a c e Features from Contour Maps," Graham, Reading Toppg r a p h i c Maps. 17 and 18 - Map Interpretation Purpose: To have students p r a c t i c e map i n t e r p r e t a t i o n Method: 1. A d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f Rosyth Sheet, p. 138 of C h e v r i e r and A i t k i n s , Topographic Map and A i r Photo I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 2. Complete Assignments Topographic Maps. 3. Complete A c t i v i t y 2h, p. 60 of Kemball, Canada and The World Book Two. pp. 103, skills. 106 of Graham, Reading 70 74 APPENDIX C Part 1 TABLE 6 RAW SCORES FOR GRADE 10 CONTROL GROUP P r e t e s t - - C o l u m n A. Test # Student # A B 10C1 10C2 10C3 10C4 7 7 6 7 k 6 7 6 10C5 5 5 k k 10C6 10C7 10C8 10C9 IOC 10 10C11 IOC 12 IOC 13 IOC 14 IOC 15 IOC 16 IOC 17 IOC 18 IOC 19 10C20 10C21 10C22 10C23 10C24 10C25 10C26 10C27 10C28 10C29 10C30 10C31 10C32 10C33 10C34 10C35 10C36 10C37 2 1. 8 8 5 5 3 9 7 0 k 1 5 5 k k 3 0 7 5 8 6 5 8 9 7 6 3 10 8 1 4 2 5 8 4 5 3 2 7 5 10 7 5 k 4 3 3 7 8 k 4 1 7 6 6 5 6 7 7 6 6 8 8 3(a) 3(b) 3(c) A _B A B A B 8 8 6 3 2 1 0 2 2 0 2 1 0 2 0 2 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 6 4 8 6 4 5 4 10 9 9 6 5 4 10 7 4 5 4 7 5 9 5 5 .4 7 7 4 5 3 5 4 7 8 5 6 6 ,6 4 4 1 2 7 "7 5 5 9 6 7 5 5 9 6 7 5 5 8 8 3 3 8 6 i 8 7 5 8 6 8 6 9 8 Posttest--Column 3 3 3 0 0 3 3 3 3 0 0 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 0 0 3 3 3 3 0 0 3 3 0 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 3 3 3 3 0 0 3 3 0 0 3 2 3 3 0 0 3 3 A B 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B 4 5 6 A B A B A B A 5 6 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 3 1 0 2 2 0 3 5 1 2 0 4 2 0 2 0 0 2 2 3 0 0 2 1 8 4 4 3 3 5 5 4 4 2 5 4 1 4 1 6 4 3 4 2 3 6 4 4 3 1 4 4 6 3 5 3 2 6 1 2 5 4 1 4 1 6 4 3 4 2 3 6 4 4 2 1 4 4 7 3 5 3 2 6 1 4 4 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 5 2 4 6 1 2 0 1 3 0 3 1 0 2 0 3 3 1 0 2 2 0 3 5 1 2 0 4 2 1 2 0 0 2 1 3 0 0 2 2 7 2 2 0 1 4 0 5 1 0 2 0 3 8 9 B A B A B A B 7 7 6 6 4 1 0 1 0 2 2 4 0 1 1 2 0 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 2 2 1 0 1 0 0 4 1 3 1 0 3 8 6 6 7 7 6 6 7 6 5 7 6 3 7 1 10 7 6 7 5 6 7 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 6 8 6 5 4 4 5 5 4 4 3 3 5 5 2 2 6 6 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 4 6 6 5 3 6 6 4 5 3 3 6 6 5 5 6 6 5 5 6 6 5 5 5 4 9 9 6 6 7 7 5 4 2 5 2 5 5 7 6 2 7 1 9 7 6 7 5 7 9 9 7 8 6 5 7 6 7 8 6 6 7 5 9 9 6 8 6 2 2 5 6 4 4 7 , 7 3 3 6 6 3 3 5 4 2 5 2 5 3 1 0 2 0 2 1 3 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 2 2 1 2 1 0 1 3 1 3 1 0 3 10 7 5 6 4 5 8 5 8 8 10 11 15 15 0 1 5 5 5 7 10 10 2 3 0 0 8 10 2 2 2 4 7 7 6 5 6 5 2 1 2 2 6 9 3 3 10 10 8 10 6 8 4 7 4 3 6 7 6 4 13 8 8 8 4 3 11 13 2 5 11 8 75 APPENDIX C — P a r t 1 Table 7 RAW SCORE RESULTS FOR GRADE 10 EXPERIMENTAL GROUP P r e t e s t - - C o l u m n A. 2 3(a) 3(b) 3(c) A B/ A B A B 8 9 7 10 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 2 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Test. # udent # A 10E1 10E2 10E3 10E4 10E5 10E6 10E7 10E8 10E9 10E10 10E1 1 10E12 10E13 10E14 10E15 10E16 10E17 10E18 10E19 10E20 10E21 10E22 10E23 10E24 10E25 10E26 10E27 10E28 10E29 10E30 10E31 10E32 10E33 10E34 10E35 10E36 10E37 10E38 10E39 10E40 10E41 7 6 5 3 4 6 8 5 3 6 V 10 10 10 8 9 10 9 9 9 10 8 5 9 2 3 6 10 4 10 4 8 3 9 9 9 6 10 5 10 7 10 3 6 6 5 6 9 10 9 7 6 6 7 8 3 8 4 10 2 5 5 10 9 3 10 4 7 6 10 8 6 10 5 10 4 7 2 9 Posttest--Column B 5 10 2 4 9 6 10 9 10 8 3 6 7 8 3 7 6 8 0 6 3 2 2 9 6 6 8 2 7 8 5 7 3 8 2 4 8 7 6 7 9 7 6 8 4 6 8 5 7 5 9 8 8 1 6 6 9 5 10 1 6 4 6 8 8 3 7 7 8 6 8 5 8 0 4 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 0 0 3 3 0 0 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 1 1 3 3 3 3 0 0 3 3 0 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 2 1 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 0 2 3 3 1 1 3 3 3 3 1 2 0 3 A B 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 '0 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 1 1 1 01 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 2 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 4 5 6 A B A B A B 77 57 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 2 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 2 2 0 1 0 2 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 4 6 2 4 45 1 3 77 34 2 7 45 37 it 6 2 4 6 7 34 34 13 67 it 6 2 3 57 2 3 3 V 57 5 47 3 3 6 67 2 5 36 1 it 57 45 47 2 3 it 6 2 5 56 45 34 0 3 2 8 9 1 5 7 1 4 5 1 0 7 0 2 5 1 2 3 2 9 9 1 3 6 2 0 0 2 5 8 1 0 0 1 3 7 2 0 0 2 8 9 1 2 6 0 0 0 1 0 5 2 7 9 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 5 8 0 0 1 2 1 7 2 7 8 1 1 3 2 2 5 1 0 it 2 7 9 1 0 6 1 1 2 0 0 2 1 5 8 1 3 6 1 2 it 1 0 0 1 3 6 1 Oi 0 1 5" 7 1 4 7 1 2 it 1 0 0 ' 8 i 7 A B • A B 10 10 ' '.•6 6 8 8 7 8 5 5 7 8 1 5 10 10 6 6 5 5 7 8 6 6 7 7 3 .,'5 9 9 7 7 7 7 1 8 7 6 8 3 7 8 6 8 7 5 7 7 6 9 5 7 6 6 9 8 10 10 5 7 7 8 3 9 8 8 6 7 6 9 8 7 2 5 •10 7 9 6 8 6 9 9 8 3 io 9I A B' A ,. 0 0 10 16 5 5 3 3 7 it 3 3 1 1 3 13 3 3 0 0 1 11 5 5 0 0 2 1 2 2 1 1 7 13 6 6 it it 15 19 it it 2 2 8 19 3 2 1 1 it 6 5 5 2 2 9 10 3 it 1 1 6 ;•*4 5 5 1 1 7 'l 2 5 0 0 8 17 6 6 5 it it 5 1 it it 0 0 0 it 0 1 0 it 2 0 2 0 5 5 3 3 it 1 it 5 0 5 5 1 2 6 0 5 5 3 3 5 5 2 3 2 2 it 5 it 5 6 6 3 it it 5 3 it 6 6 5 5 5 5 3 3 it it 3 3 6 6 5 5 it it 1 2 1 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 2 0 it 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 13 2 4 3 5 1 9 1 5 16 17 9 15 3 9 11 18 2 12 12 17 10 16 5 12 8 13 1 5 3 9 6 2 2 1 16 8 6 4 1 4 1 5 1 7 11' 12 2 15 6 8/ 13 5 3 6 18 it 76 APPENDIX C — P a r t 1 Table 8 RAW SCORE RESULTS FOR GRADE 12 CONTROL GROUP P r e t e s t - - C o l u m n A. 1 Test # Student # 12C1 12C2 12C3 12C4 12C5 12C6 12C7 12C8 12C9 12C10 12C1 1 12C12 12C13 12C14 12C15 12C16 12C17 12C18 12C19 12C20 12C21 12C22 12C23 12C24 12C25 12C26 12C27 12C28 2 Posttest—Column B 3(ia) 3(b) 3(c 4 5 6 7 B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A 3 7 ,8 7 8 6 7 9 9 8 9 4 5 2 2 6 6 0 0 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 2 2 1 2 2 0 1 0 0 2 1 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 1 1 0 1 1 0 2 2 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 3 3 6 6 3 3 7 5 5 5 10 10 8 10 A 1 1 7 7 8 8 6 10 10 5 5 8 8 6 7 9 10 7 7 5 3 5 5 7 7 6 5 9 10 4 4 9 8 8 3 3 8 8 6 5 8 8 9 5 8 2 6 4 3 6 6 '3 10 7 7 5 5 8 8 5 6 8 9 7 8 6 9 7 10 2 2 4 5 6 3 2 8 10 3 3 7 8 5 5 6 7 6 5 5 5 8 8 3 3 2 2 0 0 3 3 2 2 0 0 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 1 3 3 0 3 2 3 3 1 3 0 3 2 3 3 1 3 0 2 2 1 2 2 0 1 0 0 2 1 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 6 6 4 2 0 5 4 7 2 3 1 5 0 4 2 0 5 4 6 2 3 1 5 0 6 6 0 0 4 3 1 1 6 6 1 3 2 5 2 1 5 1 3 3 5 2 1 5 2 0 2 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 2 1 0 2 5 B 5 7 7 8 8 6 6 2 3 4 2 2 3 4 2 8 8 2 2 0 0 7 7 7 6 3 3 9 9 8 8 10 10 7 7 5 3 5 3 4 4 0 0 8 8 2 1 2 2 1 5 0 5 2 3 4 3 2 2 6 7 9 9 2 2 2 4 0 5 2 3 3 3 7 7 5 5 8 8 4 / '4 8 .8 7 7 8 8 5 4 4 4 8 7 7 7 8 9 A B A B A 4 3 5 3 4 3 5 3 0 5 4 3 11 5 4 2 5 4 5 4 2 5 4 0 2 1 1 4 2 0 2 1 0 4 1 0 3 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 0 3 1 1 3 6 6 6 6 3 3 2 4 1 3 3 2 4 2 2 5 3 5 3 5 4 5 3 2 3 2 5 3 4 3 5 4 6 6 6 2 1 3 0 2 1 1 4 2 0 2 1 0 4 2 0 3 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 4 1 1 3 10 B 1 6 3 4 10 8 8 2 22 7 7 5 5 2 1 13 13 6 3 4 6 7 8 7 9 0 0 6 7 3 1 0 3 3 3 0 1 4 2 2 10 4 4 13 2 11 4 4 14 8 8 77 APPENDIX C — P a r t 1 Table 9 RAW SCORE RESULTS FOR GRADE 12 EXPERIMENTAL GROUP P r e t e s t — C o l u m n A. 2 1 Test # Student # A B A 12E1 12E2 12E3 12E4 12E5 12E6 12E7 12E8 12E9 12E10 12E11 12E12 12E13 12E14 12E15 12E16 12E17 12E18 12E19 12E20 12E21 12E22 12E23 12E24 12E25 12E26 9 5 9 8 6 7 6 7 9 10 10 10 9 9 10 8 8 8 10 10 5 10 8 9 8 10 7 10 5 9 7 10 8 10 6 10 9 9 2 10 10 7 5 8 8 9 5 10 6 10 7 9 3 9 6 9 8 5 9 5 8 B 8 9 9 8 9 7 8 10 10 it 7 8 8 8 5 8 8 8 8 7 8 10 10 6 7 9 3 10 6 9 8 8 9 8 8 5 7 9 9 6 9 6 8 Postest—Column B 3(a) 3(b) 3(c) k 5 6 A B A B A B A B A B A B A 33 2 3 33 33 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 0 ,0 2 2 0 2 1 1 2 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 0 1 2 2 1 2 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 7 3 7 5 3 7 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 11 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 1 0 2 2 0 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 0 1 9 4 8 8 9 6 8 9 9 5 9 8 7 8 5 8 9 5 8 5 8 7 7 0 2 33 3 3 3 3 0 2 0 0 2 3 3 3 33 1 2 33 3 3 33 33 0 3 3 3 33 33 0 3 33 2 3 13 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 7 5 7 7 7 5 5 6 6 7 2 1 6 7 0 5 5 6 2 7 3 6 1 7 3 7 7 0 2 1 4 4 6 4 7 2 4 6 7 1 7 3 6 8 9 B A B A B 10 6 5 6 5 4 5 3 5 6 3 7 2 6 8 9 1 4 6 7 8 9 0 3 2 7 7 8 5 7 1 7 6 8 8 9 4 8 7 8 0 0 7 9 7 9 8 7 9 5 8. 9 5 9 5 .8 7 7 10 9 4 4 8 9 5 7 5 8 8 7 9 7 0 2 6 7 9 8 3 6 6 3 7 7 6 8 10 A 6 4 4 15 5 1 1 2 6 3 3 16 5 3 3 9 4 1 1 4 5 2 2 8 4 0 3 4 5 1 1 7 6 4 5 5 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 6 6 2 4 4 0 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 5 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 5 5 4 4 3 4 1 1 B 19 15 16 12 14 11 20 17 17 17 4 10 8 12 9 15 11 21 4 8 8 15 11 14 5 13 15 19 1 12 8 7 8 9 9 11 5 5 4 8 2 5 3 4 13 20 4 4 1 2 3 5 6 6 1 1 7 17 8 4 5 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 2 4 1 2 0 0 5 2 16 16 78 APPENDIX C — ( P a r t 2) The f o l l o w i n g are some examples of student responses to T e s t 10, the f i r s t t h r e e from the Grade 10 Experimental Group and the o t h e r s from the Grade 12 Experimental Group. In each case the s t u d e n t ' s p r e t e s t response is f o l l o w e d by h i s or her p o s t t e s t response. The p r e t e s t s a r e f o r the most part merely l i s t s of the symbols on the map whereas the p o s t - t e s t s i n d i c a t e in v a r y i n g degrees that the students have developed some a b i l i t y to p e r c e i v e a real landscape represented by the map. 10 E 3 1. Houses, barns, s c h o o l , dam and, to the l e f t y o u ' d see c a r t t r a c k , h i l l s , farms along the road a t r a i l almost to the highway, a h o r i z o n t a l c o n t r o l p o i n t r i g h t when you get to the highway. Two s c h o o l s a c r o s s the highway is a g r a v e l p i t . Also you'd see a g r a v e l road j u s t b e f o r e the highway—two of them. A r i v e r along the road, g o l f course and a stream. 2. S t a r t i n g out north you would f i r s t see a c l u s t e r of houses on both s i d e s of the road. Then the road bends west to where you meet a small stream. Back n o r t h e a s t you go c l i m b i n g a g e n t l e s l o p e . The road bends back and f o r t h . A few houses on the west s i d e are seen as you cut a c r o s s the s l o p e of the mountain. More houses then a s l i g h t downhill s l o p e . The road is now s t r a i g h t e n e d out and we a r e heading n o r t h . Coming up to a small v i l l a g e with houses l i n i n g both s i d e s of the road. A h i l l is v i s i b l e on the r i g h t . Now you approach the p o i n t where another road cuts a c r o s s our road. A few more houses on the e a s t s i d e , i n c l u d i n g a school then Highway 1. 10 E 19 1. From White Rock we walk n o r t h . I'm going up i n t o some hills, 79. the road goes up and down. A f t e r a b r i e f walk, I come a c r o s s a barn in the process o f being b u i l t . I keep going north u n t i l I come a c r o s s another barn. The d i s t a n c e of houses are few and f a r between. I see few p e o p l e . I hear the n o i s e of c a r s coming from my r i g h t but I see none. I proceed up u n t i l I come a c r o s s another house, here I hear the s l i g h t movement of water. I go to my r i g h t (south) to see where i t is coming from. I found the stream and w i l l f o l l o w along i t s banks up n o r t h . Following i t along I am now approaching a group of farms o r maybe houses. They a r e b u i l t near the stream. I w i l l now depart from t h i s stream and get back onto my o r i g i n a l c o u r s e . I proceed up and meet up with a loose s u r f a c e road. 2. As I s t a r t at White Rock I proceed north on an unmarked road. T h i s road s o r t of meanders a l o n g , back and f o r t h , back and forth. The s i d e s r i s e up and kind o f leave me in a v a l l e y . There are two houses on my l e f t . As I proceed f u r t h e r north I come to two more houses on my r i g h t and one on my l e f t . I am now at Deep Hollow. As I keep going north I meet another house to my l e f t . By the s i d e of the road t h e r e is a b i t of a stream. As I proceed north s t i l l , I am meeting up with more homes, f i v e on the r i g h t and f i v e on my l e f t . As I proceed along t h i s road a s i d e road i n t e r c e p t s i t to my l e f t and another s i d e road does the same to the r i g h t a l i t t l e more up. I am now going past t h r e e houses, a l l in a row to my r i g h t . They are q u i t e near the highway which must be n o i s y . I have now h i t Highway number 1. North a c r o s s the f i e l d is a school with many k i d s p l a y i n g on the play ground s i n c e i t is break time. 10 E 13 1. You would have h i l l s on both s i d e s o f the road. Through the f i r s t part t h e r e are a few b u i l d i n g s both r i g h t and l e f t . Then you ome a c r o s s s i x b u i l d i n g s on the r i g h t and r i g h t a c r o s s from them t h e r e are f i v e b u i l d i n g s on the l e f t . F a r t h e r up there is a j u n c t i o n where a g r a v e l road merges from the l e f t . On the r i g h t another g r a v e l road merges. These two roads j o i n in almost the same p l a c e . J u s t before Highway 1 t h e r e a r e t h r e e b u i l d i n g s on the r i g h t . 2. Heading northwest out of town t h e r e are two b u i l d i n g s on both s i d e s of the road. A sharp r i g h t turn north east o c c u r s with a s l i g h t e l e v a t i o n on both s i d e s . An i n t e r m i t t e n t stream c r o s s e s the road from l e f t to r i g h t and c o n t i n u e s along the r i g h t s i d e of the road. A gradual north-west turn with the land g e t t i n g h i g h e r on both s i d e s . Where the road bends again (W) the i n t e r m i t t e n t stream c r o s s e s from r i g h t to l e f t between two b u i l d i n g s on the l e f t . Steep s l o p e s on e i t h e r s i d e of the road. 80 (Passing through a small v a l l e y ) Heading north you come a c r o s s one b u i l d i n g on the l e f t and two b u i l d i n g s d i r e c t l y across on the r i g h t . The i n t e r m i t t e n t stream c r o s s e s again s t a y i n g c l o s e to the road. Passing a house on the l e f t and f a r t h e r up two b u i l d i n g s on the r i g h t . Across from these there is another house d i r e c t i y a c r o s s . It looks 1ike a small town because t h e r e are f i v e houses r i g h t and f o u r houses l e f t grouped c l o s e c l o s e together. A gravel road i n t e r s e c t s on the l e f t and f a r t h e r up one j o i n s in on the r i g h t . J u s t before Highway 1 you pass three houses on the r i g h t . 12 E 7 1. houses school church dam to my r i g h t houses,barns along the road deep hoi low more b u i 1 d i n g s o n - j o i n i n g highway r i g h t b e f o r e Highway 1, I would a school to my r i g h t . along part of the way, I would see a gravel road on my l e f t . 2.. At White Rock 1 am s t a n d i n g in the middle i n t e r s e c t i o n where the two main roads meet. Behind me to the south are houses. To my r i g h t is a church and to m y . l e f t is a s c h o o l . There is a l s o a small body of water behind me. I head north and the road curves s l i g h t l y to the l e f t . The e l e v a t i o n is not too high up approx. 2 5 0 . The road then curves to the r i g h t . My e l e v a t i o n s t a y s the same. I then c r o s s an i n t e r m i t t e n t stream. The road curves to the l e f t with i t on my l e f t there are two houses and f u r t h e r up b e f o r e I reach Deep Hollow are three more b u i l d i n g s (houses). The road then f o l l o w s a l o n g s i d e a stream ( i n t e r m i t t e n t at some p a r t s ) . The e l e v a t i o n is approx. 150. There are more houses and other b u i l d i n g s as I get c l o s e r to where the road j o i n s the highway. Right b e f o r e I get to the j o i n t e d area, two g r a v e l roads merge i n t o the main road. To my r i g h t there is a school and as I get to the j o i n i n g , to my l e f t is another s c h o o l . The e l e v a t i o n is now about 100. The v e g e t a t i o n along the way has mainly been f l a t g r a s s l a n d or very low v e g e t a t i o n . 12 E 13 1. see the r i v e r by the road some bu i 1 d i ngs the land has steep s i d e s on both s i d e s of the road the s i d e s of the h i l l are g e t t i n g l e s s steep and there are more houses going downhi 11 81 d i r t road cuts a c r o s s paved one r i v e r separates and flows away from road houses and school on my r i g h t 2. In the beginning I see houses on both s i d e s of the road and there are no t r e e s on the r i g h t s i d e . Then t h e r e are t r e e s a l l around and as t h e r e is a bend in the road, you can see the r i v e r as i t now flows beside the road. A f t e r a few more bends there appear two houses on the l e f t s i d e and the road e n t e r s the canyon. The stream is i n t e r m i t t e n t . There are more houses on both s i d e s as I walk out of the canyon and s t a r t walking down h i l l . Two d i r t roads merge on to the paved one. And with forest o n l y on the l e f t s i d e the r i v e r veers o f f to the r i g h t . The road c r o s s e s another r i v e r (that merges i n t o the f i r s t ) . As you reach Highway one you can a s c h o o l , some l a r g e r b u i l d i n g s , t r e e s , the r i v e r , dykes and a g r a v e l p i t . 12 E 22 1. There's a stream running beside the road at a b u i l d i n g t h e r e ' s another one j u s t ahead the s l o p e to my r i g h t is steep and the one to my l e f t i s n ' t . at a s e r i e s o f three b u i l d i n g s now. The s l o p e s r i s e s t e e p l y on both s i d e s . T h i s p l a c e is Deep Hollow. The b u i l d i n g s are g e t t i n g more densely packed and the s l o p e s are more g e n t l e . The road f o r k s with two d i r t roads here and again up the road a l i t t l e . The r i v e r changes to a n o r t h - e a s t d i r e c t i o n h e r e . T h e r e ' s t h r e e b u i l d i n g s and a school to my r i g h t and I'm at the highway. 2. The road s t a r t s out going north-west and there are f i v e b u i l d i n g s three to my l e f t and two to my r i g h t . The road is t u r n i n g in a more w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n and t h e r e is a sharp bend ahead. I'm going n o r t h - e a s t now and a l i t t l e stream flows along (beside) the road. It j o i n e d the road at the sharp bend and is winding roughly along the roadway. The land to my r i g h t r i s e s up q u i t e s t e e p l y and i t a l s o r i s e s on my l e f t . I seem to be in a v a l l e y . There are two houses ahead of me on the l e f t and a stream j o i n s the one along the road in between the houses. The stream c r o s s e s from the r i g h t s i d e to the l e f t s i d e of the road here ( i t is f l o w i n g southward). I'm going i n t o Deep Hollow and t h e r e are two houses on my r i g h t and one on my l e f t . The road is g e t t i n g more populated as I p r o c e e d . The stream went away from the road a q u a r t e r m i l e back. There are many houses along the road now on both s i d e s and the land is becoming f l a t t e r . I am at the l a s t three houses on the road before the highway and t h e r e is a school o f f to the r i g h t behind these houses. I'm at the highway.
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Map reading : the object is to form a true mental picture of the ground Smith, Gordon E. 1982
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Title | Map reading : the object is to form a true mental picture of the ground |
Creator |
Smith, Gordon E. |
Date Issued | 1982 |
Description | The purpose of this study was to determine if student map users create a three-dimensional mental image of the landscape depicted by a topographic map. A review of previous research clearly indicates that human beings can and do form three-dimensional mental images. Since a topographic map is a form of cartographic communication in which the cartographer using an appropriate symbol system attempts to represent a real landscape, it follows that a map user who shares the same symbol system should be able to transform the symbols into a three-dimensional mental image of the original landscape. To be successful this cartographic communication requires that both cartographer and map-user share a common symbol system and, further, that the map-user is able to make the transformation from map to three-dimensional mental image. It is hypothesized that both of these requirements can be met. To test these hypotheses a quasi-experimental research design using an experimental and a control group and a pretest-posttest format was chosen. Two groups of Grade 10 and two groups of Grade 12 students participated in the study with one group from each grade in the experimental group and the other acting as a control group. To evaluate the mental image formed students were asked to draw a representation of a mental image and also to write a description of one. The results of the research clearly support the hypothesis that cartographer and map user can share a common symbol system. While the attempt to draw a representation of a mental image was largely unsuccessful, the written descriptions clearly support the hypothesis that map users can and do form three-dimensional mental images of landscapes depicted by topographic maps. The results also suggest a possibility that the ability to form complex three-dimensional, mental images may in part be a function of maturation. |
Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
Type |
Text |
Language | eng |
Date Available | 2010-03-29 |
Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
DOI | 10.14288/1.0095555 |
URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/22998 |
Degree |
Master of Arts - MA |
Program |
Social Studies Education |
Affiliation |
Education, Faculty of Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of |
Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
Campus |
UBCV |
Scholarly Level | Graduate |
Aggregated Source Repository | DSpace |
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