B A B B A G E R I V E R D E L T A A N D L A G O O N : H Y D R O L O G Y A N D . S E D I M E N T O L O G Y O F A N A R C T I C E S T U A R I N E S Y S T E M b y D O N A L D L A W R E N C E F O R B E S M . A . , U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o , 1 9 7 3 T H E S I S S U B M I T T E D I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L M E N T O F T H E R E Q U I R E M E N T S F O R T H E D E G R E E O F D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y i n T H E F A C U L T Y O F G R A D U A T E S T U D I E S ( D e p a r t m e n t o f G e o g r a p h y ) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F B R I T I S H C O L U M B I A A p r i l 1 9 8 1 © D o n a l d L a w r e n c e F o r b e s , 1 9 8 1 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . Department n f Geography The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia 2075 Wesbrook P l a c e Vancouver, Canada V6T 1W5 .10 September .1981 i i ABSTRACT I n p u t s , t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s e s , and s t o r a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of water and sediment have been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n a 40-km 2 e s t u a r i n e system on the c e n t r a l Yukon c o a s t . The s e t t i n g i s t r a n s g r e s s i v e , m i c r o t i d a l , and h i g h - l a t i t u d e (69°N). The Babbage E s t u a r y system can be s u b d i v i d e d i n t o f l u v i a l , t i d a l - d i s t r i b u t a r y , d e l t a - p l a i n , i n t e r t i d a l , l a g o o n , m a r g i n a l - s u p r a t i d a l , and b a r r i e r subsystems, each a s s o c i a t e d w i t h one or more d i s t i n c t i v e d e p o s i t i o n a l environments and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l i t h o f a c i e s assemblages. The s t r u c t u r e of the system has been examined i n terms of l i n k s between subsystems and o v e r a l l system response t o i n p u t p e r t u r b a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h the p r o p a g a t i o n of t i d e and surge w i t h i n the e s t u a r y may be t r e a t e d as a q u a s i - l i n e a r s t o c h a s t i c p r o c e s s , t r a n s f e r s of f l u v i a l water and sediment t h r o u g h the system a r e h i g h l y n o n - l i n e a r . F u r t h e r m o r e , the parameters of the system change d r a m a t i c a l l y on an annua l c y c l e . I n p u t s and a s s o c i a t e d system responses a r e dominated i n the s h o r t run by s e a s o n a l - and s y n o p t i c - s c a l e v a r i a n c e , the former r e f l e c t i n g major s e a s o n a l a d j u s t m e n t s i n the phase d i s t r i b u t i o n , c i r c u l a t i o n p r o c e s s , i a n d i n p u t regime of the e s t u a r y . The a n n u a l s a l i n i t y c y c l e , w i t h a range of a t l e a s t 60 p p t , e x h i b i t s a s h o r t r e a c t i o n and l o n g r e l a x a t i o n response t o major snowmelt r u n o f f i n p u t s i n May or June, when s a l t water i s f l u s h e d c o m p l e t e l y out of the e s t u a r y . Wind-generated waves ar e e f f e c t i v e l y absent from the system d u r i n g 8-9 months of the y e a r , but p l a y a major r o l e d u r i n g the open-water season. A l t h o u g h d i r e c t t r a n s p o r t of sediment by i c e i s r e l a t i v e l y u n i m p o r t a n t , i c e e f f e c t s a r e p e r v a s i v e ; they i n c l u d e , i n a d d i t i o n t o r e s t r i c t i o n of w i n t e r r u n o f f and s u r f a c e wave g e n e r a t i o n , c r e a t i o n of h y p e r s a l i n e c o n d i t i o n s , c o n t r o l of the s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t f l o o d e v e n t s on d e l t a i c s u p r a t i d a l f l a t s , enhanced r a t e s of c o a s t a l r e c e s s i o n due t o t h e r m a l d e g r a d a t i o n of ground i c e , and p r o d u c t i o n of d i s t i n c t i v e t h e r m o k a r s t morphology on s u p r a t i d a l s u r f a c e s . Water l e v e l , s t o r a g e volume, s a l i n i t y , and suspended sediment s e r i e s d u r i n g the open-water season i n the lagoon a r e dominated by s y n o p t i c - s c a l e wind e f f e c t s . In the d e l t a , the major s y n o p t i c - s c a l e a n o m a l i e s of sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e r e l a t e d t o storm r u n o f f . F l u v i a l c l a s t i c sediment i n p u t s t o the e s t u a r y exceed 10" kg a - 1 , almost an o r d e r of magnitude g r e a t e r than the e s t i m a t e d l i t t o r a l t r a n s p o r t i n p u t . More than 97% of the f l u v i a l i n p u t may occur i n June; of t h i s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f may be e x p o r t e d d i r e c t l y from the system. At l o n g time s c a l e s , the e s t u a r i n e system has been dominated by r i s i n g sea l e v e l and c o a s t a l r e c e s s i o n ; Holocene c l i m a t i c f l u c t u a t i o n s may a l s o have been i m p o r t a n t . A t r a n s g r e s s i v e sequence has d e v e l o p e d , i n c l u d i n g v a r i o u s d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s , n o t a b l y the absence or l i m i t e d development of a e o l i a n , b a c k b a r r i e r - m a r g i n , t i d a l - d e l t a , ' a n d i n t e r t i d a l marsh f a c i e s , a l a r g e l y a f a u n a l i n t e r t i d a l i v component, and d e l t a i c d e p o s i t s w i t h p o o r l y d e v e l o p e d l e v e e s and abundant l a k e b a s i n s . The b a s a l f l u v i a l component i n c l u d e s a s i n u o u s g r a v e l c h a n n e l assemblage of a h i t h e r t o p o o r l y documented t y p e . The Babbage E s t u a r y b a r r i e r sequence i s p r i m a r i l y t r a n s g r e s s i v e , but i n c o r p o r a t e s l o c a l i z e d elements of p r o g r a d a t i o n a l and i n l e t - m i g r a t i o n models. Examples of major t r a n s g r e s s i v e , p r o g r a d a t i o n a l , and i n l e t - f i l l b a r r i e r sequences o c c u r i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y on the c e n t r a l Yukon c o a s t . V TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i i LIST OF TABLES v i i i LIST OF FIGURES x i i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxx i i i INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Preamble 1 1.1.1 D e f i n i t i o n of study 1 1.2 C o n c e p t u a l approach 4 1.2.1 G e o p h y s i c a l systems 4 1.2.2 Environments and f a c i e s 9 1.2.3 E s t u a r i n e systems 11 1.3 The p r e s e n t study 17 1.3.1 Babbage e s t u a r i n e system 17 REGIONAL CONTEXT: NORTHERN YUKON AND BEAUFORT SEA 26 2.1 Geography and palaeogeography 26 2.1.1 Contemporary geography 26 2.1.2 L a t e - Q u a t e r n a r y palaeogeography 38 2.2 Atmospheric environment 45 2.2.1 Contemporary c l i m a t e 45 2.2.2 Low-frequency v a r i a b i l i t y of c l i m a t e 56 2.3 Oceanographic environment 62 2.3.1 Water and c i r c u l a t i o n i n Mackenzie Bay 62 2.3.2 I c e i n the s o u t h e r n B e a u f o r t Sea 69 2.3.3 T i d e s and storm surges 76 2.3.4 Wave c l i m a t e 84 v i HYDROLOGICAL SUBSYSTEM 94 3.1 F r e s h w a t e r i n p u t s t o the e s t u a r y 94 3.1.1 Runoff and p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n p u t s 94 3.2 Marine i n p u t s t o the e s t u a r y 118 3.2.1 Water l e v e l s a t the marine boundary 118 3.3 System response 144 3.3.1 T i d a l p r o p a g a t i o n w i t h i n the e s t u a r y 144 3.3.2 S u p r a t i d a l f l o o d i n g 155 3.3.3 I c e i n the e s t u a r y 170 3.3.4 P r o p e r t i e s of water i n the e s t u a r y 185 3.3.5 The n o n - t i d a l c i r c u l a t i o n 207 3.3.6 Water budget and s t r u c t u r e of the system 230 SEDIMENTOLOGICAL SUBSYSTEM 243 4.1 F l u v i a l sediment i n p u t s t o the e s t u a r y 243 4.1.1 Sediment s o u r c e s and m a t e r i a l s 243 4.1.2 F l u v i a l t r a n s p o r t p r o c e s s e s 252 4.1.3 T o t a l f l u v i a l sediment i n p u t 289 4.2 M a r i n e sediment i n p u t s t o t h e e s t u a r y 296 4.2.1 Sediment s o u r c e s and m a t e r i a l s 296 4.2.2 L i t t o r a l t r a n s p o r t p r o c e s s e s 303 4.2.3 T o t a l marine sediment i n p u t 314 4.3 System response 317 4.3.1 Sediment t r a n s f e r s w i t h i n the e s t u a r y 317 4.3.2 S e d i m e n t a t i o n and e r o s i o n 347 4.3.3 Sediment budget and s t r u c t u r e of the system 367 4.4 Sediment s t o r a g e component 376 4.4.1 G e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 376 4.4.2 F l u v i a l f a c i e s 392 v i i 4.4.3 D e l t a p l a i n f a c i e s 398 4.4.4 D i s t r i b u t a r y and i n t e r t i d a l f a c i e s 414 4.4.5 Lagoon, b a r r i e r , and m a r g i n a l f a c i e s 422 4.4.6 The t r a n s g r e s s i v e sequence 435 CONCLUSIONS * 447 REFERENCES 457 APPENDICES 495 OF TABLES S c a l e s of v a r i a n c e i n A r c t i c e s t u a r i n e systems Morphometry of lagoons and b a r r i e r s of the Yukon c o a s t M o n t h l y p r e c i p i t a t i o n d a t a , Kay P o i n t S e l e c t e d o b s e r v a t i o n s of s u r f a c e s a l i n i t y i n embayments of the c e n t r a l Yukon c o a s t and i n a d j a c e n t waters of Mackenzie Bay P o t e n t i a l f e t c h w i t h £3/10 i c e , Kay P o i n t , 1975 P o t e n t i a l f e t c h w i t h <3/10 i c e , Kay P o i n t , 1976 P r i n c i p a l t i d a l c o n s t i t u e n t s a t T u k t o y a k t u k and Kay P o i n t Mean sea l e v e l and summer anomaly, T u k t o y a k t u k , 1962-1975 Summary s t a t i s t i c s f o r catchments d r a i n i n g t o Babbage E s t u a r y E s t i m a t e s of annu a l peak d i s c h a r g e , Babbage R i v e r at BI and Deep Creek a t D l , 1974-1977 Major t i d a l c o n s t i t u e n t s a t Kay P o i n t by month 121 Summary of d i s s o l v e d c o n s t i t u e n t s i n water samples from the Babbage E s t u a r y system and P h i l l i p s Bay 189 S t r a t i f i c a t i o n and c i r c u l a t i o n parameters f o r the Babbage E s t u a r y a t s t a t i o n 12 d u r i n g s u c c e s s i v e ten-day i n t e r v a l s i n the summer of 1976. 210 Product-moment c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r mean d e n s i t y , t r a n s v e r s e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and v e r t i c a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n Babbage E s t u a r y e n t r a n c e ( s t a t i o n s 5-7) 223 Comparison of water t r a n s f e r e s t i m a t e s f o r Babbage E s t u a r y e n t r a n c e s e c t i o n (Ml) as o b t a i n e d from c u r r e n t meter d a t a and by e q u a t i o n 3.3.6-1 233 Water budget f o r Babbage E s t u a r y , January 1976 and June-August 1976 240 Summary of d i s s o l v e d c o n s t i t u e n t s i n water samples from the Babbage R i v e r and Deep Creek d r a i n a g e ba s i n s 248 P e t r o g r a p h i c a n a l y s e s of sand and g r a v e l from Babbage R i v e r c h a n n e l between Tulugaq (Crow) R i v e r c o n f l u e n c e and s e c t i o n B l 250 Sediment t r a n s p o r t summary, Babbage R i v e r below Crow R i v e r 290 S e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t s u m m a r y , D e e p C r e e k a b o v e B a b b a g e d i s t r i b u t a r y 2 9 1 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t b y t y p e , B a b b a g e R i v e r a n d D e e p C r e e k 2 9 4 S u m m a r y o f n e t w a v e - g e n e r a t e d l o n g s h o r e s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t f o r p r o x i m a l a n d d i s t a l K a y P o i n t s p i t a n d N i a k o l i k f o r e s h o r e , 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 6 3 1 5 S t a t i s t i c s o f S e c c h i e x t i n c t i o n d e p t h f o r s t a t i o n s i n t h e B a b b a g e E s t u a r y , 1 9 7 6 3 4 1 F l u s h i n g t i m e s f o r t h e B a b b a g e E s t u a r y 3 4 3 T h i c k n e s s o f f r e s h l y d e p o s i t e d s e d i m e n t a t s i t e s o n v e g e t a t e d s u p r a t i d a l f l a t s , B a b b a g e D e l t a , 8 J u n e 1 9 7 6 3 4 9 E r o s i o n a n d s e d i m e n t a t i o n o n i n t e r t i d a l s u r f a c e s o f t h e B a b b a g e D e l t a , s u m m e r 1 9 7 6 3 5 5 S e d i m e n t a c c u m u l a t i o n r a t e s i n t r a p s d e p l o y e d i n B a b b a g e L a g o o n a n d i n l a k e s o f t h e B a b b a g e D e l t a , 1 9 7 6 3 5 8 A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e t o d e t e r m i n e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e d i m e n t t r a p d a t a b e t w e e n s i t e s , B a b b a g e E s t u a r y , 1 9 7 6 3 5 9 A p p r o x i m a t e s e d i m e n t b u d g e t f o r B a b b a g e E s t u a r y s y s t e m , J a n u a r y , J u n e , J u l y , a n d A u g u s t , 1 9 7 6 3 6 9 XI 30 Lit h o f a c i e s types of lower Babbage River and Babbage Estuary 379 31 Benthic invertebrates in Ekman dredge samples from the Babbage Estuary near station 7a, 24 July 1975 425 32 A: Delaware s u r f i c i a l transgressive sequence (adapted from Kraft, 1971); B: Babbage Lagoon s u r f i c i a l transgressive sequence 437 33 Babbage Delta s u r f i c i a l transgressive sequence 444 x i i L I S T OF FIGURES Map o f t h e Yukon c o a s t , s h o w i n g l o c a t i o n o f B abbage E s t u a r y s y s t e m a n d o t h e r t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g m a j o r l a g o o n s and e s t u a r i e s 2 2 Map o f t h e Babbage E s t u a r y s y s t e m , s h o w i n g m a j o r s a m p l i n g s t a t i o n s , l o c a t i o n s o f t i d e a n d s t a g e r e c o r d e r s , h y d r o m e t r i c s e c t i o n s , and l o c a t i o n o f m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n a t Kay P o i n t 3 B a t h y m e t r y o f Babbage E s t u a r y i n 1975; v i e w a c r o s s m a i n e n t r a n c e s e c t i o n t o w a r d Kay P o i n t s p i t , w i t h B abbage L a g o o n t o r i g h t , Kay P o i n t i n d i s t a n c e , a n d N i a k o l i k P o i n t i n f o r e g r o u n d 4 A: v i e w o f t h e Babbage D e l t a , s h o w i n g i n t e r t i d a l a n d s u p r a t i d a l s u r f a c e s ; B: l o w e r Babbage R i v e r , l o o k i n g d o w n s t r e a m t o w a r d s e c t i o n B I 21 5 Babbage D e l t a and s o u t h e r n l a g o o n , s h o w i n g c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m , i n t e r t i d a l t r a n s e c t s , s i t e s w here t h e t h i c k n e s s o f f r e s h s e d i m e n t was m e a s u r e d on the d e l t a p l a i n a nd on i c e , and l o c a t i o n s o f s e d i m e n t t r a p s , e x c l u d i n g s i t e s i n t h e n o r t h e r n l a g o o n Babbage E s t u a r y s y s t e m , s h o w i n g g r i d n e t w o r k , b o r e h o l e l o c a t i o n s and l o c a t i o n s o f s h o r t c o r e s o r e x p o s u r e s 24 7 W e s t e r n p a r t o f Yukon C o a s t a l P l a i n w i t h B r i t i s h M o u n t a i n s i n b a c k g r o u n d ; A: B a c k h o u s e L a g o o n ; B: F i r t h R i v e r f a n w i t h N u n a l u k L a g o o n i n f o r e g r o u n d XI 1 1 A : h e a d w a t e r s o f B a b b a g e R i v e r w i t h T e r t i a r y p e d i m e n t a n d i c i n g , 2 9 A u g u s t 1 9 7 6 ; B : u p p e r T r a i l R i v e r b a s i n i n B r i t i s h M o u n t a i n s n e a r M o u n t S e d g e w i c k 2 8 9 M a s s i v e g r o u n d i c e i n i c e - t h r u s t s e d i m e n t s e x p o s e d b e t w e e n K a y P o i n t a n d K i n g P o i n t , M a c k e n z i e B a y c o a s t 3 0 1 0 B a r r i e r s a n d l a g o o n s a t S t o k e s P o i n t ( A ) a n d a t K i n g P o i n t ( B ) , c e n t r a l Y u k o n c o a s t 3 3 1 1 H y p s o m e t r i c c u r v e s f o r B a b b a g e R i v e r a n d D e e p C r e e k d r a i n a g e b a s i n s 36 1 2 T e n t a t i v e l a t e - W i s c o n s i n a n a n d 1 8 2 6 p a l a e o g e o g r a p h y b e t w e e n K a y P o i n t a n d H e r s c h e l I s l a n d 3 9 1 3 P r o f i l e a l o n g a x i s o f B a b b a g e V a l l e y a n d H e r s c h e l B a s i n , s h o w i n g h y p o t h e s i z e d l a t e - W i s c o n s i n a n w a t e r l e v e l i n L a k e H e r s c h e l a n d p r e s e n t , v a l l e y - a x i s s l o p e s o f B a b b a g e R i v e r a n d t r i b u t a r i e s 42 1 4 D a t a b a s e a n d t e n t a t i v e h i s t o r y o f l a t e W i s c o n s i n a n a n d H o l o c e n e s e a l e v e l s i n M a c k e n z i e D e l t a a n d o n t h e Y u k o n c o a s t ( a f t e r F o r b e s , 1 9 8 0 ) 4 4 1 5 M o n t h l y t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p r e c i p i t a t i o n d a t a f o r K o m a k u k B e a c h a n d S h i n g l e P o i n t o n t h e Y u k o n c o a s t a n d f o r O l d C r o w ( s o u t h o f t h e m o u n t a i n s ) 4 6 1 6 C u m u l a t i v e p r e c i p i t a t i o n a t s t a t i o n s i n t h e n o r t h e r n Y u k o n T e r r i t o r y , s u m m e r 1 9 7 4 5 1 XIV 17 V a r i a n c e d e n s i t y spectrum of h o u r l y a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a t Kay P o i n t , summer 1976 18 R e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c i e s of h o u r l y wind speed (m/s) by d i r e c t i o n , 1975 and 1976 summer r e c o r d s , Kay P o i n t . 19 V a r i a n c e d e n s i t y ^ s p e c t r a f o r n o r t h e a s t e r l y and n o r t h w e s t e r l y components of h o u r l y wind s t r e s s . , Kay P o i n t , 1976 20 R e p r e s e n t a t i v e t emperature and s a l i n i t y p r o f i l e s i n Mackenzie Bay 21 Landsat image 1-1422-20185-5, 18 September 1973, showing Mackenzie R i v e r plume s p r e a d i n g n o r t h and e a s t , w i t h an a b r u p t western boundary i n Mackenzie Bay 22 P o r t i o n of Landsat image 1-1460-20292-6, 26 October 1973, showing open water i n Mackenzie Bay and t h i n i c e i n H e r s c h e l B a s i n , i n P h i l l i p s Bay, west of H e r s c h e l I s l a n d , and i n a l l l a g o o n s 23 P o r t i o n of Landsat image 1-1317-20374-6, 5 June 1973, showing narrow band of l a n d f a s t i c e west of H e r s c h e l I s l a n d , e x t e n s i v e l a n d f a s t i c e i n Mackenzie_Bay, and l e a d i n t h e shear-zone between l a n d f a s t i c e and s e a s o n a l pack 52 53 55 64 66 71 71 24 Frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n of extreme monthly water l e v e l s a t Tuktoyaktuk 81 P l o t s of e s t i m a t e d v e r s u s observed wave p e r i o d and h e i g h t , Kay P o i n t s p i t • 88 R e f r a c t i o n of waves a t T=4.2s a p p r o a c h i n g from the NNW and of waves a t T=4.9s a p p r o a c h i n g from the e a s t ; s i t e s f o r which h i n d c a s t c o m p u t a t i o n s and l o n g s h o r e sediment t r a n s p o r t e s t i m a t e s were o b t a i n e d a re a l s o p l o t t e d 90 Frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s of t a n g e n t i a l and normal components of wave power a t the d i s t a l end of Kay P o i n t s p i t , based on h i n d c a s t wave a n a l y s i s 93 D a i l y r u n o f f (Babbage R i v e r at B l ) and d a i l y p r e c i p i t a t i o n a t Kay P o i n t and S h i n g l e P o i n t , 1974-1976 97 C u m u l a t i v e p r e c i p i t a t i o n a t S h i n g l e P o i n t and c u m u l a t i v e r u n o f f i n Babbage R i v e r ( B l ) and Deep Creek ( D I ) , 1975 and 1976 101 Time of d i u r n a l peak f l o w d u r i n g summer r e c e s s i o n i n Babbage R i v e r a t B l , 1975 and 1976 106 Babbage R i v e r d i s c h a r g e , s e c t i o n B l , 21 June t o 2 J u l y 1976 108 Storm hydrographs, Babbage R i v e r , August 1976, showing n o n - e x p o n e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r of r e c e s s i o n s 110 Frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s of d a i l y r u n o f f f o r snowmelt and summer seasons 1974-1976, Babbage R i v e r a t B l 113 x v i 34 Variance d e n s i t y spectra of hourly discharge: Babbage River at BI, summer 1975; Deep Creek at D l , summer 1976 115 35 Hourly water l e v e l at marine boundary of Babbage Estuary: summer 1974, summer 1975, and breakup+summer 1976 119 36 Variance d e n s i t y spectrum of hourly water l e v e l at Kay Point s p i t (gauge A, CHS s t a t i o n 6515), 12 J u l y t o 12 September 1975 37 Cumulative normalized variance spectra for hourly water l e v e l at marine boundary, Babbage Estuary 120 124 38 Variance d e n s i t y spectrum of hourly water temperature at s t a t i o n 5, Babbage Estuary, during 20 days of record in August 1975 128 39 Wind, atmospheric pressure, and water l e v e l at Kay Point during 1975, i l l u s t r a t i n g phase correspondence between low-pass water l e v e l and northwesterly wind speed but v a r i a b l e amplitude of surge response 131 40 Wind, atmospheric pressure, and water l e v e l at Kay Point during 1976, i l l u s t r a t i n g phase correspondence between low-pass water l e v e l and northwesterly wind speed 132 41 P a r t i a l coherence between water l e v e l and northwesterly wind s t r e s s 135 x v i i 42 Frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s of daily-maximum h o u r l y water l e v e l f o r the l a t e June t o e a r l y September season i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t y e a r s , Kay P o i n t s p i t d a t a 138 43 H i g h - f r e q u e n c y and t r a n s i e n t response of water l e v e l t o wind a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o l d - f r o n t passage, 30 J u l y 1976 140 44 Minor surge w i t h a b r u p t shock f r o n t and h i g h - f r e q u e n c y l o w - a m p l i t u d e v a r i a n c e superimposed on N i a k o l i k P o i n t (gauge-B) t i d a l r e c o r d f o r 6 August 1976 141 45 Water l e v e l s a t gauges A and E, 19-25 August 1975 146 46 Water l e v e l sequence a t gauge C, d i s t a l Babbage D e l t a , l a t e J u l y 1976 146 47 P a r t i a l c o herence: (A) between gauge-A and gauge-E water l e v e l s ; (B) between B l and gauge-E water l e v e l s 148 48 Comparison between v a r i a n c e d e n s i t y s p e c t r a of ?E'(t) and of 5 E ( t ) , showing c l o s e agreement a t f<10" 1 c h " 1 151 49 G a i n f u n c t i o n f o r Babbage E s t u a r y c o o s c i l l a t i n g t i d a l system 152 50 Lag f u n c t i o n f o r Babbage E s t u a r y c o o s c i l l a t i n g t i d a l system 154 x v i i i 51 Complete d u r a t i o n sequences f o r h o u r l y water l e v e l , Babbage E s t u a r y marine boundary, summer 1975 and spring-summer 1976 156 52 D r i f t w o o d d e p o s i t s marking the p r e s e n t t r a n s g r e s s i v e l i m i t near Kay P o i n t and near gauge E i n the v a l l e y 158 53 D i s t r i b u t i o n of major d r i f t w o o d d e p o s i t s i n the Babbage E s t u a r y system, 22 August 1944 and 20 August 1970 159 54 Record of storm-surge e v e n t , 27 August 1975: water l e v e l s a t gauges A and E 162 55 Water l e v e l f u n c t i o n of summer 1976 a t N i a k o l i k P o i n t (gauge B) as a Babbage R i v e r d i s c h a r g e , s p r i n g and 164 56 Babbage R i v e r d i s c h a r g e , gauge-B water l e v e l , and b o t t o m f a s t i c e t h i c k n e s s a t a s i t e i n the Babbage E s t u a r y near gauge B, 1-30 June 1976 57 S u p r a t i d a l f l o o d i n g of Babbage D e l t a w i t h b o t t o m f a s t i c e i n the l a g o o n , 9 t h and 1 0 t h of June 1974 166 167 58 Schematic p l o t of monthly i c e t h i c k n e s s ( a f t e r S c h e l l , 1974) and p r o p o r t i o n s of e s t u a r i n e s t o r a g e volume i n s o l i d and l i q u i d phases 171 59 I c e i n the n o r t h e r n Babbage Lagoon and i n the p r o x i m a l Babbage D e l t a , l a t e May 1974 17.2 x i x 60 61 C h r o n o l o g y of breakup i n the Babbage E s t u a r y , 1974-1976 A: S p r i n g R i v e r , showing snowmelt r u n o f f c o n t a i n e d and d e f l e c t e d by the S p r i n g R i v e r b a r r i e r ; o v e r f l o w of Babbage R i v e r water onto i c e o u t s i d e Babbage E s t u a r y i s v i s i b l e i n the background, 30 May 1974; B: i c e f l o a t i n g i n main d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l of Babbage E s t u a r y between d i s t a l d e l t a and N i a k o l i k P o i n t , 9 June 1974 177 178 62 D r a i n a g e h o l e s through i c e o u t s i d e main e n t r a n c e s e c t i o n and g e n e r a l view of c e n t r a l l a g o o n , showing l i m i t e d e x t e n t of f l o o d i n g o v e r - i c e and open water i n e n t r a n c e c h a n n e l 30 May 1974 182 63 Schematic p l o t of monthly water temperature and s a l i n i t y i n the Babbage E s t u a r y , based on 1976 o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r the summer months and 1974 d a t a ( a f t e r S t e i g e n b e r g e r e t a l . , 1975) f o r A p r i l , w i t h o t h e r v a l u e s i n t e r p o l a t e d 191 64 D a i l y sequence of water t e m p e r a t u r e , s, d e n s i t y , p , and v i s c o s i t y , n , E s t u a r y e n t r a n c e , June-September 1976 65 D a i l y sequence of water t e m p e r a t u r e , s, d e n s i t y , P , and v i s c o s i t y , n , a t Babbage D e l t a , June-September 1976 , s a l i n i t y , i n Babbage 9 , s a l i n i t y , s t a t i o n 12, 194 195 66 D a i l y t e m p e r a t u r e , s a l i n i t y , d e n s i t y , and v i s c o s i t y i n Babbage E s t u a r y , 24 J u l y t o 5 August 1977 197 67 E s t i m a t e s of the v a r i a n c e of water d e n s i t y f o r s e t s of d a t a a t v a r i o u s s a m p l i n g i n t e r v a l s , A t 199 XX 68 Time sequence i n c l u d i n g the storm surge event of 27 August 1975: 12h maximum, minimum, and i n s t a n t a n e o u s a i r t e m p e r a t u r e ; h a l f - h o u r l y water t e m p e r a t u r e ; wind speed and d i r e c t i o n a t Kay P o i n t ; water l e v e l a t gauge A; and Babbage R i v e r d i s c h a r g e a t BI 202 69 S u r f a c e s a l i n i t y i n the Babbage E s t u a r y f o l l o w i n g the storm of 27 August 1975 204 70 Examples of s a l i n i t y s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n main d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l and e n t r a n c e s e c t i o n of Babbage E s t u a r y , 1 September 1976 and 31 J u l y 1975 213 71 Change i n p a t t e r n of s a l i n i t y s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n main d i s t r i b u t a r y and e n t r a n c e s e c t i o n of Babbage E s t u a r y over a 3-4h p e r i o d of ebb f l o w , 30 J u l y 1975 214 72 Changes i n the p a t t e r n of s a l i n i t y s t r a t i f i c a t i o n over n i n e - h o u r i n t e r v a l , 31 J u l y t o 1 August 1975 215 73 S u r f a c e Babbage 1976 v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n Ml s e c t i o n , E s t u a r y , d u r i n g ebb 1423-1603h 10 August 74 S u r f a c e and near-bottom v e l o c i t i e s i n Ml s e c t i o n , Babbage E s t u a r y e n t r a n c e , d u r i n g f l o o d 1200-1330h 3 August 1976, showing c o n t i n u e d ebb f l o w a t a l l depths over the c e n t r a l s h o a l , w i t h water e n t e r i n g a t d e p th v i a c h a n n e l s near s t a t i o n s 5 and 7 218 220 75 Time sequence of s u r f a c e and bottom s a l i n i t y a t s t a t i o n s 2, 5, and 7 i n Babbage E s t u a r y , of gauge-A water l e v e l , and of wind speed and d i r e c t i o n a t Kay P o i n t , showing response of v e r t i c a l s a l i n i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s t o w i n d - i n d u c e d m i x i n g ; wave h e i g h t s a r e superimposed on t h e s a l i n i t y sequence 221 x x i 76 L o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e components of v e l o c i t y a t s t a t i o n 5, low-pass and h i g h - p a s s f i l t e r e d components, and water l e v e l a t gauge A, Babbage E s t u a r y , 12-31 August 1975 225 77 C a p a c i t y of the Babbage E s t u a r y as a f u n c t i o n of water l e v e l 231 78 Net exchange f l o w t h r o u g h Ml s e c t i o n , gauge-B water l e v e l , and Babbage R i v e r d i s c h a r g e t h r o u g h BI s e c t i o n , June 1976 234 79 H o u r l y s t o r a g e volume i n the Babbage E s t u a r y d u r i n g summer 1975 235 80 V a r i a n c e d e n s i t y spectrum of h o u r l y s t o r a g e volume i n the Babbage E s t u a r y d u r i n g summer 1975 237 81 P a r t i a l coherence between Babbage R i v e r d i s c h a r g e , Q f ( t ) , and Ml net output sequence, Q n ( t ) , showing extreme n o n - l i n e a r i t y of r u n o f f t r a n s f e r s t h r ough the e s t u a r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the s y n o p t i c f r e q u e n c y band i n which most of the v a r i a n c e of r u n o f f r e s i d e s 238 82 S i m p l i f i e d c a n o n i c a l s t r u c t u r e of the h y d r o l o g i c a l subsystem d u r i n g l a t e - w i n t e r , snowmelt, and summer seasons, showing d r a m a t i c changes i n the number and c h a r a c t e r of i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l l i n k s 242 83 I n c i s e d m i d d l e c o u r s e of Babbage R i v e r : (A) major exposure of C r e t a c e o u s or e a r l i e r sediments a d j a c e n t t o the c h a n n e l ; (B) T e r t i a r y g r a v e l over o l d e r sediments i n a spur above the r i v e r 244 A: s t e e p b r a i d e d c h a n n e l s d r a i n i n g u n v e g e t a t e d r i d g e s i n Barn M o u n t a i n s , e a s t e r n p a r t of Babbage R i v e r b a s i n , August 1976; B: b l o c k slumping due t o t h e r m o - e r o s i o n a l n i c h e development, lower Babbage R i v e r , l a t e J u l y 1976 245 R e p r e s e n t a t i v e p a r t i c l e - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r source m a t e r i a l s and f o r sediments s t o r e d i n the c h a n n e l system, Babbage R i v e r b a s i n 250 A: i n c o m b u s t i b l e suspended sediment and t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (mg/L) i n Babbage R i v e r a t B l , 1975; B: i n c o m b u s t i b l e suspended sediment and t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s t r a n s p o r t (kg/s) 254 A: t o t a l suspended sediment and t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (mg/L) i n Babbage R i v e r a t B l , 1976; B: t o t a l suspended and t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s t r a n s p o r t (kg/s) 255 A: t o t a l suspended sediment and t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (mg/L) i n Deep Creek a t DI, 1976; B: t o t a l suspended and t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s t r a n s p o r t (kg/s) 256 D i s s o l v e d , suspended, and b e d l o a d r a t i n g s , Babbage R i v e r a t B l , 1976 258 D i s s o l v e d , suspended, and b e d l o a d r a t i n g s , Deep Creek a t DI, 1976 259 T o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of d i s c h a r g e , Babbage R i v e r a t B l , 1976 262 T o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of d i s c h a r g e D e e p Creek a t DI, 1976 263 Water d i s c h a r g e and t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( e s t i m a t e d "from s p e c i f i c c o n d u c t i v i t y c o r r e c t e d f o r 0 W ), showing two t r a n s i e n t s of h i g h TDS c o n c e n t r a t i o n d u r i n g .breakup and snowmelt f l o o d of June 1975, Babbage R i v e r 266 Phase r e l a t i o n s between i n c o m b u s t i b l e suspended sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n (mg/L) and d i s c h a r g e ( m 3 s _ 1 ) , Babbage R i v e r a t B l , 1975 and 1976 269 Phase r e l a t i o n s between i n c o m b u s t i b l e suspended sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n (mg/L) and d i s c h a r g e ( m 3 s - 1 ) , Deep Creek a t DI, 1975 and 1976, showing h y s t e r e s i s d u r i n g a n n u a l snowmelt f l o o d s 270 H y s t e r e s i s i n s u s p e n d e d - s e d i m e n t / d i s c h a r g e r e l a t i o n d u r i n g Babbage R i v e r f l o o d of 8 June 1974, showing peaks i n TSS c o n c e n t r a t i o n both b e f o r e and a f t e r peak stage and c o u n t e r - c l o c k w i s e h y s t e r e s i s l o o p f o r the f l o o d as a whole 272 Sample d a t a and t h e o r e t i c a l r a t i n g s f o r b e d l o a d t r a n s p o r t , Babbage R i v e r a t B l , 1976 277 P a r t i c l e - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r v a r i o u s samples of sediment i n c h a n n e l d e p o s i t s or moving as b e d l o a d , Babbage R i v e r a t B l 281 Three s e t s of e m p i r i c a l r e s u l t s f o r the h i d i n g f a c t o r ^ as a f u n c t i o n of D/D 5 Q i n rough t u r b u l e n t f l o w 282 Channel bed p r o f i l e s a t s e c t i o n BI (Babbage R i v e r ) between 28 May and 8 June 1975, showing d e g r a d a t i o n of b o t t o m f a s t i c e 286 Channel bed p r o f i l e s a t s e c t i o n BI (Babbage R i v e r ) ; A, 1975: scour d u r i n g r i s i n g l i m b of an n u a l snowmelt h y d r o g r a p h , showing development of s c o u r - h o l e a g a i n s t bank i n t h a l w e g ; B, 1976: p r o f i l e s s h o r t l y a f t e r peak f l o w on 6 June and 26 June, net f i l l 10-15 June, and net scour 15-19 June 288 C u m u l a t i v e p e r c e n t of t o t a l sediment t r a n s p o r t i n Babbage R i v e r a t BI i n 1975 and 1976 293 A: c o a s t a l segment 1 near Kay P o i n t , showing u n d e r c u t t i n g and f a i l u r e of p o l y g o n a l b l o c k s formed by ice-wedge thaw or f r a c t u r e , J u l y 1976; B: c o a s t a l segment 2, showing major impact of r e t r o g r e s s i v e - t h a w and a s s o c i a t e d mudflow t r a n s p o r t of f i n e sediment a c r o s s the beach, August 1977 298 T u r b i d Mackenzie R i v e r water o f f c e n t r a l Yukon c o a s t ; A: p a r t of Landsat image 1-1089-20020-5, 17 J u l y 1975, showing a d v e c t i o n of suspended sediment p a s t Kay P o i n t ; B: l e a d i n g edge of Mackenzie R i v e r plume o f f Kay P o i n t , 28 J u l y 1976 301 V e r t i c a l photograph of Kay P o i n t and Babbage E s t u a r y , showing l o n g s h o r e t r a n s p o r t of suspended sediment westward p a s t Kay P o i n t and wide shore-normal d i s p e r s i o n i n P h i l l i p s Bay; p a r t of NAPL photograph A22975-56, 4 August 1972 304 D a i l y l o n g s h o r e sediment t r a n s p o r t a t d i s t a l end of Kay P o i n t s p i t , p o s i t i v e toward t h e main e n t r a n c e s e c t i o n ( M l ) , computed from h i n d c a s t wave d a t a u s i n g e q u a t i o n 4.2.2-6 310 P r o x i m a l end of Kay P o i n t s p i t , showing temporary (M3) i n l e t ; p a r t of NAPL photograph A21830-2, 18 August 1970 312 V i s c o s i t y , S t o k e s s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y f o r D=l ym, and t o t a l suspended s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t s t a t i o n 7, Babbage E s t u a r y , 1976 319 Scanning e l e c t r o n m i c r o g r a p h s of sediment from the Babbage E s t u a r y ( s i t e 021125), showing s i l t - and c l a y - s i z e m i n e r a l p a r t i c l e s and v a r i o u s composite p a r t i c l e s of s i l t s i z e 322 Scanning e l e c t r o n m i c r o g r a p h s of sediment from the Babbage E s t u a r y ( s i t e 010140), showing both p e l l e t i z e d and a n g u l a r forms of a g g l o m e r a t i o n 323 P a r t i c l e - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r bottom sediment and f o r suspended sediment c o l l e c t e d i n t r a p s a t s i t e 010140, Babbage Lagoon, showing e f f e c t s of v a r i o u s t r e a t m e n t s 325 L o n g i t u d i n a l t h a l weg p r o f i l e s i n the main d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l of the Babbage D e l t a , showing (A) predominance of e b b - d i r e c t e d t r a n s p o r t and (B) r a r e o c c u r r e n c e of f l o o d - d i r e c t e d bedforms downstream from s t a t i o n 10 329 H o r i z o n t a l r e f l e c t o r s i n c r o s s - s e c t i o n s of lower Deep Creek c h a n n e l , s u g g e s t i n g presence of f l u i d - m u d 331 Time sequence of t o t a l suspended s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t s t a t i o n 12, Babbage D e l t a , w i t h wind speed and d i r e c t i o n a t Kay P o i n t and Babbage R i v e r d i s c h a r g e , s p r i n g and summer 1976 333 x x v i 115 D i s t r i b u t i o n of C T ( 0 ) i n the Babbage E s t u a r y d u r i n g the storm-surge of 27 August 1975 (A) and on 14 August 1976 ( B ) , when a plume of t u r b i d water f i l l e d P h i l l i p s Bay as f a r n o r t h e a s t as Kay P o i n t 116 Water l e v e l and l o n g i t u d i n a l v e l o c i t y ( s t a t i o n 5; h-z=0.9 m), second h a l f of August 1975; uppermost r e c o r d i s time sequence c u r r e n t speed, showing d i s t r i b u t i o n of v a l u e s e x c e e d i n g an approximate e n t r a i n m e n t t h r e s h o l d of 0.15 m/s 117 E s t i m a t e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t o t a l suspended sediment, based on h o u r l y S e c c h i e x t i n c t i o n d a t a a t s t a t i o n s 5, 6, and 7 i n the e n t r a n c e s e c t i o n and s t a t i o n 12 i n the d e l t a d u r i n g a 48-h p e r i o d i n J u l y 1976 118 119 120 337 338 340 I c e r a f t i n g of sediment p l a i n , June 1976 onto s u p r a t i d a l d e l t a 346 I c e i n Babbage D e l t a l a k e s a f t e r s p r i n g f l o o d i n g , showing b a s i n s w i t h and w i t h o u t sediment on i c e ; (A) 15 June 1974; (B) 18 June 1976 Sediment on i c e , f o r m e r l y b o t t o m f a s t ; (A) i n lagoon near the d i s t a l end of the s p i t (015080), a p p a r e n t l y r a f t e d from a l o c a t i o n c l o s e r t o the d e l t a ; and (B) i n P h i l l i p s Bay near s e c t i o n Ml ( s i t e 000050) 351 353 121 Sediment t r a p l o c a t i o n s and d i s t r i b u t i o n of a c c u m u l a t i o n r a t e s (kg m " 2 d a y _ 1 ) f o r the i n t e r v a l 24 June t o 16 J u l y i n 1976 357 Rates of sediment a c c u m u l a t i o n (kg m _ 2 d a y " 1 ) i n t r a p s d e p l o y e d a t l a g o o n - and l a k e - b o t t o m s i t e s i n the Babbage E s t u a r y system, June-September 1976 360 D i s t r i b u t i o n of sediment a c c u m u l a t i o n (kg m " 2 d a y _ 1 ) i n t r a p s i n the Babbage E s t u a r y , 8/9-14/15 August 1976 362 Area of s u p r a t i d a l f l a t l o s t t o bank e r o s i o n a l o n g west e r n and main d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s of the Babbage D e l t a , August 1944 t o August 1970, de t e r m i n e d from a i r p h o t o g r a p h s ; e x t e n t of e r o s i o n i n d i c a t e d by s h a d i n g 365 D e g r a d a t i o n of v e g e t a t e d s u p r a t i d a l f l a t s , d i s t a l Babbage D e l t a , August 1975 366 T o t a l suspended sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t s e c t i o n B l , Babbage R i v e r , and e s t i m a t e d t o t a l suspended sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n , based on S e c c h i e x t i n c t i o n d e p t h , a t s t a t i o n s 5, 6, 7, and 7a i n the e s t u a r y d u r i n g June 1976 371 P a r t of NAPL photograph A13383-151, 1952, showing c o n f i g u r a t i o n of d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s seaward of the d i s t a l d e l t a margin v e r y d i f f e r e n t from the 1972 morphology ( c f . F i g u r e 105) 373 C a n o n i c a l s t r u c t u r e of the sedi m e n t a r y component of the Babbage E s t u a r y system, showing s e a s o n a l changes i n the l i n k a g e network 374 Map of Babbage E s t u a r y system showing d i s t r i b u t i o n of major d e p o s i t i o n a l environments and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e l i t h o f a c i e s t y p e s 378 x x v i i i 130 Sediment s a m p l i n g l o c a t i o n s i n the Babbage E s t u a r y , c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i ronment 381 131 T e r n a r y diagrams showing p r o p o r t i o n s of sand p l u s g r a v e l , s i l t , and c l a y , f o r v a r i o u s components of the Babbage E s t u a r y system 132 T e r n a r y diagram showing p r o p o r t i o n s of g r a v e l , sand, and mud i n sediments of the Babbage R i v e r and E s t u a r y 382 386 133 R e l a t i o n between g r a p h i c s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s and g r a p h i c mean D f o r s u r f a c e sediments of the Babbage D e l t a and E s t u a r y 134 B o r e h o l e d a t a , Babbage E s t u a r y and D e l t a 388 390 135 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Holocene c h a n n e l d e p o s i t s i n the lower v a l l e y , as i n t e r p r e t e d from s u r f a c e morphology and l i m i t e d e x p o s u r e s , showing major impact of Tulugaq r i v e r f a n on s e d i m e n t a t i o n i n t h i s p a r t of the v a l l e y 393 136 Lower Babbage R i v e r between T r a i l R i v e r and f u r t h e s t - s e a w a r d g r a v e l r i f f l e , i n 1954 ( l e f t ) and 1976 ( r i g h t ) ; p a r t s of NAPL photographs A14406-48 and A24502-170 394 137 D i s t r i b u t i o n of l i t h o f a c i e s t y p e s a t the s u r f a c e , Babbage R i v e r and d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l i m m e d i a t e l y downstream from s e c t i o n B I ; p a r t of NAPL photograph A21826-87, August 1970 395 x x i x 138 A i r and ground views of Babbage D e l t a , showing d i s t r i b u t a r y , l a c u s t r i n e , and s u p r a t i d a l components of the sediment system 139 Topographic p r o f i l e of c e n t r a l Babbage D e l t a a l o n g g r i d l i n e yyy=040 (see F i g u r e 5 ) ; p r o x i m a l d e l t a a t l e f t , d i s t a l margin w i t h anomalous e l e v a t e d s u r f a c e a t r i g h t 3 9 9 400 140 Frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s of s u r f a c e a r e a f o r v a r i o u s s u b s e t s of the pond and l a k e p o p u l a t i o n on the Babbage D e l t a ; a l s o p l o t t e d a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r an a r e a of lagoon-margin s u p r a t i d a l f l a t s , f o r anomalous s u r f a c e w i t h rugged m i c r o r e l i e f on d i s t a l d e l t a , and f o r a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a r e a i n the lower v a l l e y 402 141 Long p r o f i l e of t i d a l c h a n n e l and c r o s s - p r o f i l e s of t h r e e l a k e s i n the c e n t r a l Babbage D e l t a 403 142 Levees i n the Babbage D e l t a ; A: prominent l e v e e b e s i d e minor d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l , n o r t h e r n d i s t a l margin of d e l t a p l a i n ; B: bank w i t h n e g l i g i b l e l e v e e development, more t y p i c a l of t h e d i s t a l d e l t a , r i g h t bank of main d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l between s t a t i o n s 10 and 12 405 143 P r o x i m a l d e l t a p l a i n ; (A) l o o k i n g u p v a l l e y , showing v e g e t a t e d s u p r a t i d a l s u r f a c e w i t h l a k e s a t l e f t and f l o o d - s p l a y u n i t a t bottom r i g h t ; note abandonned Babbage R i v e r c h a n n e l i n m i d d l e d i s t a n c e ; (B) s p a r s e l y v e g e t a t e d s u p r a t i d a l f l o o d - s p l a y s u r f a c e 406 144 F l o o d - s p l a y s e d i m e n t a t i o n s u r f a c e a d j a c e n t t o main d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l , c e n t r a l Babbage D e l t a ; p a r t of NAPL photograph A21826-81, August 1970 407 XXX 145 A: spruce l o g s ( d r i f t w o o d ) i n s u p r a t i d a l sediments of the Babbage D e l t a ; B: s t r a t i f i e d o r g a n i c s i l t s of the s u p r a t i d a l d e l t a p l a i n , p a r t of s e c t i o n 405 i n the c e n t r a l d e l t a 146 Anomalous r a i s e d s u r f a c e of rugged m i c r o r e l i e f a t d i s t a l margin of c e n t r a l d e l t a p l a i n , June 1976 147 M a r g i n a l s u p r a t i d a l f l a t s of Babbage D e l t a , showing t h e r m o k a r s t morphology a r i s i n g i n p a r t , a t l e a s t , from d e g r a d a t i o n of ice-wedge p o l y g o n n e t s 409 411 412 148 A: 7-kHz r e c o r d from main d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l , p r o x i m a l d e l t a ; B: i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of 7-kHz r e c o r d from main d i s t r i b u a r y , d i s t a l d e l t a near s t a t i o n 10 415 149 A: f l o o d - d i r e c t e d dune- and r i p p l e - s c a l e bedforms on d i s t r i b u t a r y - m a r g i n s u r f a c e near t r a n s e c t 4, p r o x i m a l Babbage D e l t a ; B: i c e - r a f t e d g r a v e l on d i s t r i b u t a r y - m a r g i n i n t e r t i d a l - s u r f a c e , c e n t r a l d e l t a 416 150 Channel-margin and lagoon-margin i n t e r t i d a l s u r f a c e s i n the Babbage D e l t a , August 1974 418 151 A: i n t e r t i d a l f l a t s near t r a n s e c t 8, d i s t a l Babbage D e l t a , showing t i d a l c h a n n e l network, w i t h p a t c h e s of c o l o n i z i n g P u c c i n e l l i a on l e v e e s , and e r o s i o n of s u p r a t i d a l s u r f a c e , September 1976; B: d e s s i c a t i o n c r a c k s , a s s o c i a t e d s m a l l - s c a l e s c o u r , and d r a i n a g e v e n t s on low i n t e r t i d a l s u r f a c e . 419 152 Core s e c t i o n s from h i g h i n t e r t i d a l s u r f a c e i n s h a l l o w b a s i n , d i s t a l d e l t a p l a i n ( s i t e 406, F i g u r e 6) 420 P r o f i l e of Ml (main e n t r a n c e ) s e c t i o n , Babbage E s t u a r y marine boundary 423 G r a v e l f o r m i n g low i n t e r t i d a l s h o a l i n Babbage Lagoon ( s i t e 032080), showing l i n e a r grooves a t t r i b u t e d t o i c e scour 425 A: Kay P o i n t b a r r i e r , w i t h P h i l l i p s Bay a t r i g h t and Babbage Lagoon a t l e f t , showing wide backshore s u r f a c e l a r g e l y snow-free, May 1976; B: S h i n g l e P o i n t s p i t , showing e x t e n s i v e and complex b a c k b a r r i e r d e p o s i t s 427 A: D i s t a l Kay P o i n t s p i t , 27 August 1975, f o l l o w i n g a severe storm and moderate s u r g e , showing l i m i t e d e x t e n t of washover d e p o s i t s , a e o l i a n sand a c c u m u l a t i o n near l a r g e l o g s on berm, and i c e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n f o r e s h o r e s e d i m e n t s ; (B) d i s t a l end of s p i t , 2 August 1974, showing s u b t i d a l b a c k b a r r i e r p l a t f o r m and post-1972 e x t e n s i o n of the s p i t 428 Schematic s e c t i o n t h r o u g h Kay P o i n t s p i t , showing d i s t r i b u t i o n of upper b a r r i e r l i t h o f a c i e s 429 A: lagoon-margin s u p r a t i d a l f l a t s a t n o r t h end of Babbage Lagoon, showing numerous l a k e s and ponds, l o c a l rugged m i c r o r e l i e f , and m a r g i n a l beach and washover f a c i e s ; B: C a r e x - P u c c i n e l l i a and Elymus communities and the landward l i m i t of m a r g i n a l washover sand 432 P a r t s of c o r e taken i n ephemeral pond near edge of s u p r a t i d a l f l a t s , showing ( a t l e f t ) n e a r - s u r f a c e i n t e r l a m i n a t e d a l g a l mud, p e a t , and sand, and (at r i g h t ) p e b b l y sand washover u n i t a t a depth of 400 mm 433 x x x i i 160 S e c t i o n t h r ough Babbage Lagoon, Kay P o i n t s p i t , and P h i l l i p s Bay, showing the d i s t r i b u t i o n of sand and g r a v e l l y - s a n d l i t h o f a c i e s and the t r a n s g r e s s i v e c h a r a c t e r of the b a r r i e r sequence 438 161 Changes i n the K i n g P o i n t b a r r i e r , 1954-1972, showing development of an i n l e t - f i l l sequence by d i s t a l e x t e n s i o n of the s p i t ; p a r t s of NAPL photographs A14363-54 (1954) and A22879-105 (1972) 440 162 A: l o w - l e v e l o b l i q u e photograph of s u r f a c e morphology on the K i n g P o i n t b a r r i e r b a c k s h o r e , August 1975; B: Running R i v e r d e l t a near S h i n g l e P o i n t , showing beach and washover f a c i e s a t the seaward margin of d e l t a i c s u p r a t i d a l f l a t s 441 163 S p r i n g R i v e r b a r r i e r i n 1952 ( p a r t of NAPL photograph A13383-155) and changes o c c u r r i n g between 1952 and 1970 442 164 Schematic diagram showing h y p o t h e t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of l i t h o f a c i e s f o r m i n g t r a n s g r e s s i v e sequence beneath the Babbage D e l t a 445 x x x i i i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I t i s a p l e a s u r e t o acknowledge the h e l p of many i n d i v i d u a l s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s d u r i n g the cour s e of t h i s s t u d y . The p r o j e c t was s u p p o r t e d by the G e o l o g i c a l Survey of Canada, T e r r a i n S c i e n c e s D i v i s i o n . M a jor c o n t r i b u t i o n s were a l s o r e c e i v e d from the N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l of Canada (now NSERC) t h r o u g h g r a n t s t o Dr M. Church and from the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C olumbia. P e r s o n a l s u p p o r t was p r o v i d e d by the G e o l o g i c a l Survey, by a N a t i o n a l R esearch C o u n c i l P o s t g r a d u a t e S c h o l a r s h i p , and by a M a c M i l l a n F a m i l y F e l l o w s h i p . L o g i s t i c a l s u p p ort was p r o v i d e d by T e c h n i c a l F i e l d Support S e r v i c e s , by the P o l a r C o n t i n e n t a l S h e l f P r o j e c t , and by the I n u v i k R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y (now ISRC). I w i s h t o e x p r e s s p a r t i c u l a r a p p r e c i a t i o n t o two i n d i v i d u a l s f o r t h e i r w i d e - r a n g i n g support and g e n e r a l encouragement over the y e a r s . I am g r a t e f u l t o M. Church, who a c t e d as r e s e a r c h s u p e r v i s o r , f o r h i s c o n c e r n , h e l p f u l c r i t i c i s m , and p e r s i s t e n t c o n f i d e n c e ; and t o C P . L e w i s , f o r h i s p a r t i n i n i t i a t i n g t he s t u d y , f o r i n v a l u a b l e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and t e c h n i c a l . s u p p o r t , and f o r h e l p and c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n the f i e l d . I thank F. Stephenson, I n s t i t u t e of Ocean S c i e n c e s , P a t r i c i a Bay, f o r p r o v i s i o n of water l e v e l r e c o r d e r s and c u r r e n t meters and f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n the f i e l d ; Dr J.W. Murray, x x x i v U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C olumbia, f o r l e n d i n g c o r i n g equipment; L. V e t o , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, f o r SEM imagery; H. Wood, Water Survey of Canada, I n u v i k , f o r l e n d i n g h y d r o m e t r i c equipment; and Dr W. B l a k e , J r , G e o l o g i c a l Survey of Canada, f o r r a d i o c a r b o n a n a l y s e s . For major a s s i s t a n c e i n the f i e l d , under c o n d i t i o n s t h a t were a t times v e r y d i f f i c u l t and a t t i m e s i d y l l i c , I am e s p e c i a l l y g r a t e f u l t o B i l l B a r r i e , L i n d a F o r
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Babbage River delta and lagoon : hydrology and sedimentology of an Arctic estuarine system Forbes, Donald Lawrence 1981
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Title | Babbage River delta and lagoon : hydrology and sedimentology of an Arctic estuarine system |
Creator |
Forbes, Donald Lawrence |
Publisher | University of British Columbia |
Date Issued | 1981 |
Description | Inputs, transfer processes, and storage characteristics of water and sediment have been investigated in a 40-km² estuarine system on the central Yukon coast. The setting is transgressive, microtidal, and high-latitude (69°N). The Babbage Estuary system can be subdivided into fluvial, tidal-distributary, delta-plain, intertidal, lagoon, marginal-supratidal, and barrier subsystems, each associated with one or more distinctive depositional environments and characteristic lithofacies assemblages. The structure of the system has been examined in terms of links between subsystems and overall system response to input perturbations. Although the propagation of tide and surge within the estuary may be treated as a quasi-linear stochastic process, transfers of fluvial water and sediment through the system are highly non-linear. Furthermore, the parameters of the system change dramatically on an annual cycle. Inputs and associated system responses are dominated in the short run by seasonal- and synoptic-scale variance, the former reflecting major seasonal adjustments in the phase distribution, circulation process, iand input regime of the estuary. The annual salinity cycle, with a range of at least 60 ppt, exhibits a short reaction and long relaxation response to major snowmelt runoff inputs in May or June, when salt water is flushed completely out of the estuary. Wind-generated waves are effectively absent from the system during 8-9 months of the year, but play a major role during the open-water season. Although direct transport of sediment by ice is relatively unimportant, ice effects are pervasive; they include, in addition to restriction of winter runoff and surface wave generation, creation of hypersaline conditions, control of the sedimentologically important flood events on deltaic supratidal flats, enhanced rates of coastal recession due to thermal degradation of ground ice, and production of distinctive thermokarst morphology on supratidal surfaces. Water level, storage volume, salinity, and suspended sediment series during the open-water season in the lagoon are dominated by synoptic-scale wind effects. In the delta, the major synoptic-scale anomalies of sediment concentration are related to storm runoff. Fluvial clastic sediment inputs to the estuary exceed 10⁸ kg A⁻¹ almost an order of magnitude greater than the estimated littoral transport input. More than 97% of the fluvial input may occur in June; of this, approximately half may be exported directly from the system. At long time scales, the estuarine system has been dominated by rising sea level and coastal recession; Holocene climatic fluctuations may also have been important. A transgressive sequence has developed, including various distinctive features, notably the absence or limited development of aeolian, backbarrier-margin, tidal-delta, and intertidal marsh facies, a largely afaunal intertidal component, and deltaic deposits with poorly developed levees and abundant lake basins. The basal fluvial component includes a sinuous gravel channel assemblage of a hitherto poorly documented type. The Babbage Estuary barrier sequence is primarily transgressive, but incorporates localized elements of progradational and inlet-migration models. Examples of major transgressive, progradational, and inlet-fill barrier sequences occur in close proximity on the central Yukon coast. |
Subject |
Estuarine oceanography -- Yukon Territory -- Babbage River Estuary Estuarine sediments -- Yukon Territory -- Babbage River Estuary Babbage River Estuary (Yukon) |
Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
Type |
Text |
Language | eng |
Date Available | 2010-03-26 |
Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
DOI | 10.14288/1.0095397 |
URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/22782 |
Degree |
Doctor of Philosophy - PhD |
Program |
Geography |
Affiliation |
Arts, Faculty of Geography, Department of |
Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
Campus |
UBCV |
Scholarly Level | Graduate |
AggregatedSourceRepository | DSpace |
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