CEZANNE AS A "DECORATIVE" PAINTER by DANA ALEXANDRA FREEMAN Diploma i n A r t H i s t o r y , The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1977 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department o f F i n e A r t s ) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA November 19 8 2 (c) Dana A l e x a n d r a Freeman, 19 8 2 In presenting t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t f r e e l y available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. I t i s understood that copying or publication of t h i s thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my written permission. / Department of Fine Arts The University of B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date 18 Oct. 1982 DE-6 (3/81) - r i i -ABSTRACT The thesis focuses on a s i g n i f i c a n t , but neglected aspect of Cezanne's oeuvre: the r e l a t i o n s h i p between Cezanne's pain-tings and the decorative aesthetic of the 1890s. Since the meaning of the term "decorative" underwent s i g -n i f i c a n t changes during the l a s t quarter of the 19th century and the f i r s t decade of the 20th century, p a r t i c u l a r attention i s paid to problems of d e f i n i t i o n i n Chapter I, Part 1. This section shows that the d e f i n i t i o n of what was "true" decoration, and the increasing emphasis on decoration, were related to the process of r e v i t a l i z a t i o n of the i n d u s t r i a l and decorative arts i n France. Chapter I, Part 2 establishes that the general tendency of the avant-garde painting i n the decade 1890-1900 was to be "decorative." The most innovative manifestation of t h i s trend was the introduction of the aesthetics of "decoration" into easel painting. The transformation of painting from tableau into "decoration" was a r e f l e c t i o n of an anti-Natural-i s t , a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t trend. The second chapter of the thesis i s devoted to Cezanne's pos i t i o n v i s - a - v i s the "decorative trend." Chapter II, Part 1 analyses the c r i t i c i s m of Cezanne's contemporaries. Special attention i s given to the writer's p a r t i c u l a r positions on aesthetics, philosophy, r e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c s (whenever possible), as well as to changes i n these positions. Chapter I I , Part 2 analyses Cezanne's l e t t e r s (considered as the only authentic source of true quotations from the a r t i s t ) and paintings. The conclusion i s that Cezanne not only belongs to the general tendency toward the "decorative," but that he can be considered among i t s i n i t i a t o r s . Moreover, the present author proposes that C§zanne was part of the movement that introduced the aesthetic of "decoration" into easel painting. Q u a l i t i e s such as the interplay between two-dimensionality, and three-dimensionality, the accent on contours, the general aspect of b a s - r e l i e f , or even of tapestry (often noticed by his contem-poraries, as well as by l a t e r c r i t i c s ) , can be explained by Cezanne's intention to apply to his paintings a "decoration paradigm." Special attention i s placed on the method of "colour modulation" and i t s possible r e l a t i o n to similar meth-ods used i n 18th century French tapestries, or those recom-mended for tapestries i n t h e o r e t i c a l works by 19th century French reformers of the decorative a r t s . - i v -TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i i LIST OF FIGURES . v i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ix INTRODUCTION . 1 I THE CONCEPT OF DECORATION IN LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY ART AND THE NEW TENDENCIES IN THE PAINTING OF THE 1890s . 8 Introduction . . 8 Part 1: The R e v i t a l i z a t i o n of the In d u s t r i a l Arts i n France and i t s Role i n Redifining the Concept of Decoration.. .,,10 Part 2: The "New Tendencies" i n the Painting of the 1890s 51 Introduction 51 A. The new "decorative" tendency i n the French avant-garde painting of the 1880s and early 1890s and the " I d e a l i s t Renaissance.". 52 B. The new "decorative" tendency as defined by c r i t i c s i n the early 1890s: Aurier versus Lecomte ,60 C. The a r t i s t s who applied decorative - V -v arts p r i n c i p l e s to easel painting by the early 1890s....... 71 D. The mid and late 1890s 76 II CEZANNE AND THE "DECORATIVE" TREND..... 90 Part 1: Cezanne Seen by His Contemporaries as a "Decorative" Painter..... 90 . Introduction;;•.. . . . . 90 Part 2: Cezanne and the "Decoration Paradigm":. 142 Introduction .. 142 A. Did Cezanne f u l f i l the conditions that led easel painters toward V painting-decoration? . 144 B. Do Cezanne's paintings f i t the "Decoration Paradigm"?. 164 Conclusions 180 NOTES 18 4 Introduction 184 Chapter I, Introduction • 186 Chapter I, Part 1. 186 Chapter I, Part 2 201 Chapter I I , Part 1 241 Chapter II, Part 2 274 BIBLIOGRAPHY 293 LIST OF FIGURES P. Cezanne: Ouverture to Tannhauser. Moscow - Museum of Modern Western Art. 1869-71, V.90, 57x92 cm. (Source: L. Brion-Guerry, Paris, 19 66.) E. Bernard. P o r t r a i t of the A r t i s t ' s Grandmother. Rijksmuseum Vincent van Gogh, Amsterdam. 1887, 53x64 cm. (Source: B. Welsh-Ovcharov, Art G a l l , of Ontario, 19 81.) E. Bernard. S t i l l - L i f e with a Tobacco Pot. C o l l . Samuel Josefowitz, Lausanne. 1887, 33x56 cm. (Source: L i l l e , exh. Emile Bernard, 19 67.) P.Cezanne. The Temptation of St. Anthony C o l l . J.V. P e l l e r i n , Paris. 1873-77, V. 241, 47x56 cm. (Source: Th. Reff, "Cezanne, Flaubert, St. A n t h o n y 1 9 6 2 P. Cezanne. Madame Cezanne. 1872-1877, V.229, 55x46 cm. (Source: E. Bernard, Souvenirs.... Une Conversa-t i o n . .., Paris: A - Michel, 1926.) E. Bernard. Pont—Aven Seen From Bois d'Amour. C o l l . Samuel Josefowitz, Lausanne. 1892, 71.5x91 cm. (Source: L i l l e exh.) M. Denis. Hommage a Cezanne. Musee National d'Art Moderne, P a r i s . 1900, approx. 91.5x235 cm. (Source: Bonnard, V u i l l a r d et les Nabis, 19 55.) P..' Cezanne. S t i l l - L i f e.with Compotier. Musee du Luxembourg. 1879-82, V.341, 46x55 cm. (Source: F. Novotny, Cezanne, Phaidon, 1961.) M. Denis. Cezanne sortant de l a messe a Aix en 190 6. Drawing. (Source: M. Denis Du symbolisme au classicisme, Hermann, 19 - V l l -P. Cezanne. The E n v i r o n s o f A i x - e n -P r o v e n c e . W a l l y F i n d l a y G a l l . N.Y. P a i n t e d s c r e e n , 1858-60, V.3, 402x250 cm P. Cezanne. Grotesque d e c o r a t i o n s on the back o f t h e s c r e e n r e p r o d u c e d i n F i g . 10. V . l - 2 . (Source: L. V e n t u r i , Cezanne..., P a r i s , 1936.) P. Cezanne. Rocks a t L'Estaque. Sao P a u l o Museu de A r t e . ( D e t a i l . ) ( 1882-85, V.404, 73x91 cm. (Source: Sandra O r i e n t i , Complete P a i n t i n g s of Cezanne, 1972.) P. Cezanne. House i n Provence. C o l l . P. M e l l o n . 1882-85, V.397, 65x81 cm. (Source: The World o f Cezanne, T i m e - L i f e Books, N.Y.) F r . Boucher. The C h i n e s e F i s h i n g P a r t y . ( D e t a i l . ) B e a u v a i s t a p e s t r y , 1758. (Source: M a d e l e i n e J a r r y , L a T a p i s s e r i e , des o r i g i n e s a nos j o u r s , P a r i s , 1968.) F r . Casanova. Les amusements de l a Cam-pagne: L ' A b r e u v o i r . ( D e t a i l . ) B e a u v a i s t a p e s t r y , 1772. M o b i l i e r N a t i o n a l , P a r i s . ( S o u r c e : P i e r r e V e r l e t e t . a l . , Le Grand L i v r e de l a T a p i s s e r i e , P a r i s , 1965.) P. Cezanne. Mont S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e . V i a d u c t and B i g T r e e s . M e t r o p o l i t a n Mus. o f A r t , N. Y. 1885-87, V.452, 65x81 cm. (Source: s l i d e from C a r l B e l z , Cezanne, Mc Graw- '•" H i l l , 1975.) P. Cezanne. Mont S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e Seen " v from Bibemus. The B a l t i m o r e Mus. o f A r t , bequest o f E t t a and C l a r i b e l Cone. 1898-1900, V.766, 64.8x81.3 cm. (Source: t h e p o s t e r o f the MOMA e x h i b . Cezanne. The L a t e Work, 1977-78.) P. Cezanne. S t i l l - L i f e w i t h Peppermint B o t t l e . N a t i o n a l G a l l , of A r t , Washing-t o n , D.C; C h e s t e r Dale C o l l . 1890-92, V.625, 65x81 cm. (Source: J . W e c h s l e r , Cezanne i n P e r s p e c t i v e , 19 7 5.) P. Cezanne. S t i l l - L i f e w i t h A p p l e s and Oranges. L o u v r e , P a r i s . 189 5-19 00, V - V l l l -.V.732, 73x92 cm. (Source: C. B e t z , Cezanne.) P.. Cezanne. . The Red Rock. L o u v r e , W a l t e r - G u i l l a u m e C o l l . 1895-1900, V.776, 91x66 cm. ( S o u r c e : S. O r i e n t i , Complete P a i n t i n g s o f Cezanne. P. Cezanne. Mont S a i n t e - V i c t o i r e . P r i v a t e C o l l . , S w i t z e r l a n d . 1902-1906, V.802, 65x81 cm. (Source: F. Novotny, Cjzanne.) M. D e n i s . Ctszanne "on the M o t i f . " P r i v a t e C o l l . , F r a n c e . 1906. ( S o u r c e : Cat. o f t h e Bremen exh., M e i s t e r w e r k e des N a c h i m p r e s s i o n i s m u s aus der Sammlung M a u r i c e D e n i s , 17 Oct. 5 Dec. 1971.) - ix -ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am indebted to David H. Splkin and Serge Guibault for th e i r guidance and help i n organizing my material, for asking penetrating questions, and for making useful suggestions. I am thankful to George Knox for teaching me how to "see" Cezanne's paintings and for encouragement. I am g r a t e f u l to Albert Boime, who on very short notice, took the time for a help f u l discussion. My research was helped by the Staff of the UBC Fine Art Library, I n t e r l i b r a r y Loan, and Slid e Library. My special thanks to Melva Dwyer, Diana Cooper, A l i c e McNair, Karen Peplow, Barbara Hopkins and Mary Webb. This thesis would not have been written without Mike's support and patience. - 1 -INTRODUCTION 1. The Key I s s u e o f t h e T h e s i s The p r e s e n t s t a t e o f r e s e a r c h on CSzanne shows a s t r o n g C u b i s t b i a s , w h i c h c l e a r l y emerged i n the e x h i b i t i o n o f h i s l a t e work o r g a n i z e d by t h e Museum o f Modern A r t i n 1977. The purpose o f t h i s e x h i b i t i o n was t o emphasize the " e v o l u t i o n " from the l a t e Cezanne t o Cubism and thence t o t h e o t h e r major a r t i s t i c movements o f t h e 20th c e n t u r y . Modern v i e w s o f Cezanne t e n d t o r e l y t o o h e a v i l y on t h o s e o f t h e C u b i s t p a i n t e r s , a t t h e expense o f t h o s e o f t h e a r t i s t ' s c o n t e mporaries." To sum up the s i t u a t i o n r o u g h l y , on one hand we are p r e s e n t e d w i t h a c u r r e n t image of Cezanne t h a t emphasizes the p e r c e p t u a l c h a r a c t e r o f h i s approach (the C u b i s t v i e w , r e -i n f o r c e d by M e r l e a u - P o n t y ' s i n f l u e n t i a l "Cezanne's Doubt" o f 194 8"*") ; on t h e o t h e r hand, we are c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e o p i n i o n s o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s who a p p l i e d a d e c o r a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n t o h i s p a i n t i n g s . They saw Cezanne's work i n the l i g h t o f t h e " d e c o r a -t i v e i d e a l " as i t was u n d e r s t o o d a t the end o f the 19th c e n t u r y and t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 20th c e n t u r y . The emphasis put on " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " by avant-garde p a i n t e r s and c r i t i c s was an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e s t r o n g r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t r e a l i s m and p o s i t i v i s m t h a t took p l a c e a t t h e end o f the l a s t c e n t u r y . Cezanne d e v e l o p e d h i s mature s t y l e i n t h i s p e r i o d o f r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t N a t u r a l i s m and was c o n s i d e r e d as " i n i t i a t o r " o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e t e n d e n c i e s i n avant-garde p a i n t i n g . R i g h t from the b e g i n n i n g , the C u b i s t s emphasized Cezanne's -i 2 -r o l e as t h e i r " f o r e f a t h e r " i n o r d e r t o " l e g i t i m i z e " t h e i r p a i n t i n g . (Cezanne was a l r e a d y an i d o l o f the avant-garde.) A t t h e same time they gave a "death-blow" t o the concept o f p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n , because t h e y , and e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r d e a l e r , K a h n w e i l e r , were concerned w i t h the s t a t u s o f p a i n t i n g . They f e l t t h a t t h e s t a t u s o f p a i n t i n g had been e r o d e d , l o w e r e d t o the l e v e l o f d e c o r a t i o n . I n 1912, i n t h e i r Cubism, G l e i z e s and M e t z i n g e r s t a t e d t h i s a n t i - d e c o r a t i v e a t t i t u d e v e r y c l e a r l y : Many c o n s i d e r t h a t d e c o r a t i v e p r e o c c u p a t i o n must govern t h e s p i r i t o f the new p a i n t e r s . ... Enough d e c o r a t i v e p l a s t i c a r t and p i c t o r i a l d e c o r a t i o n , enough c o n f u s i o n and a m b i g u i t y . 2 R e f e r r i n g t o 1906, and t o Braque, D e r a i n and M a t i s s e among o t h e r s , t h e i n f l u e n t i a l d e a l e r i n C u b i s t a r t , D a n i e l - H e n r y K a h n w e i l e r , d e c l a r e d i n 1915: " P a i n t i n g t h r e a t e n e d t o debase i t s e l f t o the l e v e l o f o r n a m e n t a t i o n ; i t sought t o be ' dec-o r a t i v e ' t o 'adorn' the w a l l . " Because K a h n w e i l e r c o n s i d e r e d the s t a t u s o f d e c o r a t i o n i n f e r i o r , he d i d n o t l i k e t he d e s i g -n a t i o n o f Cubism as "Geometric A c t . " R e d u c t i o n s t o s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c a l forms such as cubes, spheres and c y l i n d e r s were "seen" by " e a r l y s p e c t a t o r s " o f C u b i s t p a i n t i n g s he remarked, but a c c o r d i n g t o K a h n w e i l e r , C u b i s t p a i n t e r s d i d n o t p r o c e e d from such r e d u c t i o n s w h i c h are commonplace i n a r c h i t e c t u r e and a p p l i e d a r t s . C u b i s t p a i n t e r s r e p r o d u c e d o b j e c t s he s a i d , by means o f s y n t h e s i z i n g v a r i o u s images o f the o b j e c t , o b t a i n e d from v a r i o u s v i e w p o i n t s . ^ I n o t h e r words they were " c o n c e p t u a l r e a l i s t s . " T h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t as i t r e a l l y i s (as opposed t o t h e way i t appears t o be when seen i n l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e ) was a l s o commonplace i n a r c h i t e c t u r e and a p p l i e d - 3 -a r t s c u r r i c u l a i n t h e 19th c e n t u r y , under t h e name o f d e s s i n 5 g e o m e t r a l (as opposed t o d e s s i n p e r s p e c t i f ) . K a h n w e i l e r a c t u a l l y a d m i t s t h a t t h e r e i s "a c e r t a i n resemblance" between the C u b i s t mode o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s o l i d o b j e c t s and t h i s " g e o m e t r i c a l drawing.. " Both Cubism and d e c o r a t i o n - as t h e l a t t e r was u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e second h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y - wanted t o a v o i d i l -l u s i o n i s m and used s i m i l a r methods t o do so. The b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e l a y s i n i n t e n t i o n . Cubism wanted t o r e a c t a g a i n s t p a i n t i n g "debased" t o t h e l e v e l o f d e c o r a t i o n , and thus l a b e l l e d i t s e l f " R e a l i s m " (a "pr o f o u n d , " o r b e t t e r , a " c o n c e p t u a l " o n e ) . D e c o r a t i o n a v o i d e d i l l u s i o n i s m i n o r d e r n o t to. " p i e r c e h o l e s " i n t he w a l l s , i n o r d e r t o r e s p e c t t h e i r p l a n a r s u r f a c e , i n o t h e r words o u t o f s u b m i s s i o n t o a r c h i t e c t u r e . E a s e l p a i n t i n g based on t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n r e a c t e d a g a i n s t the R e a l i s m c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e p o s i t i v i s t , e m p i r i c i s t method, w h i c h o n l y r e p r o d u c e d "appearances." T h i s p a i n t i n g d i d n o t a s p i r e t o a h i g h e r s t a t u s than t h a t o f mur a l p a i n t i n g , o f p a i n t i n g t h a t had a s p e c i f i c d e s t i n a t i o n . When t h e C u b i s t s g a t h e r e d t h e m s e l v e s under t h e banner o f "R e a l i s m , " t h e y d e c l a r e d t h e i r works d e r i v e d from C o u r b e t 1 s (whose r e a l i s m t h e y l a b e l l e d " s u p e r f i c i a l r e a l i s m " ) and Cezanne's ("profound r e a l i s m " ) . Of c o u r s e , Cezanne was not c o n s i d e r e d as " c o n c e p t u a l " as t h e m s e l v e s , because o t h e r w i s e where would have been t h e i n n o v a t i o n ? Thus t h e main d i f f e r e n c e between t h e C u b i s t s and Cezanne has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been c o n s i d e r e d t o r e s i d e i n t he much more c o n c e p t u a l ( v e r s u s p e r c e p t u a l ) c h a r a c t e r o f C u b i s t a r t . Not l o n g ago, however, W i l l i a m Rubin remarked t h a t - 4 -a l o t o f Cezanne's a r t i s a l s o " c o n c e p t u a l . " He t u r n e d t h i s a d m i s s i o n i n t o an argument i n favour, o f a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between Cezanne and the C u b i s t s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e between t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e methods "was as much one o f degree as 8 o f k i n d . " But i f t h e r e a r e s i m i l a r i t i e s i n method, i t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h e r e a re a l s o s i m i l a r i t i e s i n i n t e n t i o n s , i n m o t i v e s . Cezanne's c o n c e p t u a l i s m c o u l d be r o o t e d i n t h e p r i n -c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n , w h i c h were a p p l i e d t o p a i n t i n g as a r e -a c t i o n a g a i n s t r e a l i s m i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . T h i s i s my w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s , w h i c h I hope t o demonstrate by p l a c i n g t h e p a i n t e r i n h i s own. h i s t o r i c a l t i m e . D u r i n g t h e 1890s and t h e f i r s t y e a r s o f t h i s c e n t u r y , t h e d e c o r a t i v e a s p e c t s o f Cezanne's work were c o n s i d e r e d "paramount 9 and new," as George Heard H a m i l t o n has p o i n t e d o u t . A p p a r e n t l y H a m i l t o n i s t h e o n l y modern a r t h i s t o r i a n who has c o n s i d e r e d t h i s as s i g n i f i c a n t . But even he s e p a r a t e d t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " from t h e " a r c h i t e c t u r a l , " when i n f a c t the two n o t i o n s were n ot a t a l l i n c o m p a t i b l e i n t h e c o n t e x t . o f " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " a t the time i n F r a n c e . ^ The p r e s e n t a u t h o r f e e l s t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f Cezanne has been n e g l e c t e d by modern s c h o l a r s h i p : t h e r e l a t i o n -s h i p between Cezanne's p a i n t i n g and the d e c o r a t i v e a e s t h e t i c o f t h e 1890s and t h e f i r s t y e a r s o f t h e 20th c e n t u r y . T h i s i s the key i s s u e o f t h e t h e s i s . 2. Overview In t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r I propose t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t the new tendency o f F r e n c h avant-garde p a i n t i n g i n t h e decade 1890 -- 5 -1900 was t o be " d e c o r a t i v e . " T h i s . t e n d e n c y (emphasized by t h e c r i t i c s o f t h e p e r i o d ) encompassed more th a n S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g . I t i n c l u d e d N e o - T m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g , as w e l l as new p a i n t i n g by the. o l d " i m p r e s s i o n i s t s . " I n C h a p t e r I , P a r t 1 I s h a l l d e a l w i t h problems o f d e f i n i -t i o n . A t o p i c o f utmost importance i s , o f c o u r s e , t h e e x a c t meaning o f " d e c o r a t i v e " a t t h a t t i m e . A p p l i e d t o p a i n t i n g i t d i d n o t mean the same t h i n g t o everybody. F o r some ava n t - g a r d e p a i n t e r s i t meant the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f e a s e l p a i n t i n g i n t o " d e c o r a t i o n , " i n o t h e r words i t meant the a b o l u t i o n o f t h e t a b l e a u . I m p r e s s i o n i s m reduced e a s e l p a i n t i n g t o t h e s t a t e o f ebauche o r s k e t c h , b u t p r e s e r v e d t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the t a b l e a u . I m p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g was a l s o " d e c o r a t i v e " i n t h e sense used i n the 1870s, but i t was not a t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n . " " D e c o r a t i o n " i s a g a i n a term t h a t r e q u i r e s d e f i n i t i o n . D ecora-t i o n , as i t was u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e time was s u b s e r v i e n t t o a r c h i t e c t u r e , the most i m p o r t a n t consequence b e i n g t h e p r e s e r -v a t i o n o f t h e f l a t n e s s o f a w a l l . A t a b l e a u would s i m u l a t e a "window" where the a r c h i t e c t d i d not i n t e n d t o p l a c e one. A " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " ( p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n " was not t o make use e i t h e r o f c h i a r o s c u r o o r p e r s p e c t i v e e f f e c t s ( l i n e a r o r atmos-p h e r i c ) . But. t h i s d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s as i n an o r n a m e n t a l d e s i g n . Many " r e f o r m e r s " o f the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n t h e second h a l f o f 1 9 t h c e n t u r y F r a n c e wanted d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g t o r e t a i n something of t h e "Western t r a d i t i o n . " But why d i d t h e a v ant-garde want a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r t ime t o t r a n s f o r m e a s e l p a i n t i n g i n t o d e c o r a t i o n ? The " r e b i r t h , " the f l o u r i s h i n g o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n t h e l a s t decade o f t h e - 6 -19th c e n t u r y does n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y e x p l a i n why t h e a r t i s t s d i d n o t j u s t l i m i t thernselyes t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . " Most o f the r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s a c t i v e i n the second h a l f o f the l a s t c e n t u r y k e p t two s e p a r a t e s e t s o f "laws": one f o r d e c o r a t i o n , a n o t h e r f o r e a s e l p a i n t i n g s , f o r t a b l e a u x . Only V i o l l e t - l e - D u c and o t h e r G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s o r s y m p a t h i s e r s would have p r e f e r r e d the "decadent, 1 1 even "pagan" t a b l e a u a b o l i s h e d a l t o g e t h e r . The avant-garde o f the 1890s, as I w i l l d i s c u s s i n C h a p t e r I , P a r t 2, t u r n e d t o t h e s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s recommended f o r d e c o r a t i o n , m o t i v a t e d by i d e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s . I c o n s i d e r e d i t n e c e s s a r y t o s t r e s s t h e . F r e n c h s o u r c e s o f i n f l u e n c e which c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e a v a n t - g a r d e ' s o r i e n t a t i o n toward d e c o r a t i o n , because t h i s a s p e c t has been n e g l e c t e d by modern s c h o l a r s h i p . I t i s f o r example customary t o mention the i n f l u e n c e o f R u s k i n o r W i l l i a m M o r r i s on t h e r e b i r t h o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n F r a n c e , o r even on t h e N a b i group o f p a i n t e r s , 12 w i t h o u t a word about V i o l l e t - l e - D u c . A f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r what t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d o f the a v a n t - g a r d e p a i n t i n g was a t t h e end o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y and the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f the 20th c e n t u r y , I w i l l d e a l i n the second c h a p t e r o f the t h e s i s w i t h Cezanne's p o s i t i o n v i s - a - v i s t h i s t r e n d . C h a p t e r I I , P a r t 1 w i l l i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e b u l k o f con-temporary c r i t i c i s m emphasized th e " d e c o r a t i v e " f e a t u r e s o f Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p o s i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g what " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " s h o u l d be (some were b o t h e r e d by the f l a t n e s s o f d e c o r a t i o n i n e a s e l p a i n t i n g , f o r i d e o l o g i c a l reasons) th e c r i t i c s can be d i v i d e d i n two main - 7 -groups: those who c o n s i d e r e d Cezanne's " d i s t o r t i o n s " as b e i n g v o l u n t a r y , o f a c o n c e p t u a l n a t u r e , and thos e who blamed them on f a u l t y p e r c e p t i o n o r s k i l l . Both groups remarked though on s i m i l a r i t i e s between Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s and v a r i o u s d e c o r a t i v e a r t s such as c e r a m i c s , O r i e n t a l s i l k s , m o s a i c s , and e s p e c i a l l y t a p e s t r i e s . F i n a l l y , P a r t 2 o f the second c h a p t e r w i l l attempt t o determine i f Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s and h i s own words (I c o n s i d e r as h i s "own words" o n l y what he wrote i n h i s l e t t e r s ) a re com-p a t i b l e w i t h a " d e c o r a t i o n paradigm." My c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e r e i s a s t r o n g enough case f o r the " d e c o r a t i o n paradigm" f i t t i n g Cezanne's p a i n t i n g s o f h i s "mature" p e r i o d ( i . e . s i n c e the 1880s). Many o f t h e s e p a i n t i n g s f i t a c t u a l l y , i n my o p i n i o n , i n t o a " t a p e s t r y paradigm." I r e f e r e s p e c i a l l y t o the 18th c e n t u r y Rococo t a p e s t r i e s , among e x t a n t examples, as w e l l as t o h y p o t h e t i c a l t a p e s t r i e s , as e n v i s a g e d by the r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n France i n the l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y . I s h a l l p l a c e a s p e c i a l emphasis on the c o n n e c t i o n w h i c h can be made between Cezanne's method o f " c o l o u r m o d u l a t i o n s " and s i m i l a r methods recommended by t h e w r i t i n g s o f C h a r l e s B l a n c and M i c h e l Eugene Chevreul-, o r employed i n 18th c e n t u r y B e a u v a i s t a p e s t r y . - 8 -CHAPTER I THE CONCEPT OF DECORATION IN LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY ART AND THE NEW TENDENCIES IN THE PAINTING OF THE 1890s I n t r o d u c t i o n . I n t h e l a s t few y e a r s a r t h i s t o r i a n s have begun t o r e -c o g n i z e t h e r o l e p l a y e d by the " l o w l y , " "merely d e c o r a t i v e " a r t s i n the f o r m a t i o n o f " h i g h " modern art."*" Because t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " i s today a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s , Cezanne has been e x c l u d e d from r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s on 2 t h i s t o p i c . Y et Cezanne was c o n s i d e r e d by many o f h i s con-t e m p o r a r i e s as t h e " i n i t i a t o r " o f the new d e c o r a t i v e t e n d e n c i e s m a n i f e s t e d i n p a i n t i n g i n t h e 1890s. I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c l a r i f y what " d e c o r a t i o n " and " d e c o r a -t i v e " meant a t the time when Cezanne worked, e s p e c i a l l y when he d e v e l o p e d h i s mature s t y l e . One o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n s o f C h a p t e r I , P a r t 1 i s t h e f a c t t h a t when Cezanne d e v e l o p e d h i s mature s t y l e , t h e term " d e c o r a t i v e " was n o t equated w i t h a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s . A c c o r d i n g t o most F r e n c h t h e o r i s t s a t t h e t i m e , a s t r i c t t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l f l a t n e s s was no t r e q u i r e d , n or even c o n s i d e r e d d e s i r a b l e , n e i t h e r i n d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g nor i n a l l the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , such as t a p e s t r y f o r example ( o n l y i n c a r p e t s , w a l l p a p e r s , pavements, s t a i n e d - g l a s s windows). I t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a s o n s b e h i n d the - 9 -a p p a r e n t l y sudden i n t e r e s t o f a v a n t - g a r d e a r t i s t s i n " d e c o r a t i o n " and the " d e c o r a t i v e " i n t h e 1890s i n F r a n c e . The i n t e r e s t i n d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , e x p r e s s e d by a r t i s t s p r a c t i c i n g " h i g h " a r t was not a r o u s e d s u d d e n l y i n the 1890s. I t was the a vant-garde of the 1890s who a p p l i e d d e c o r a t i v e a r t s p r i n c i p l e s (which can be summarized as " f l a t n e s s " ) t o e a s e l p a i n t i n g as w e l l as t o m ural d e c o r a t i o n s . (As w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n C hapter I , P a r t 2, t h i s was r e l a t e d t o the a n t i - n a t u r a l i s t , a n t i - p o s i t i v i s t r e -a c t i o n t h a t began i n t h e 1880s.) Y e t t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n , as w e l l as a r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n d e c o r a t i o n were r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r m u l a t e d and i n i t i a t e d n o t by t h e a v a n t -g arde, b u t by " o f f i c i a l " r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . I w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e s e problems o f a g e n e r a l n a t u r e i n P a r t 1 o f t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r . - 10 -Cha p t e r T, Part' 1 The R e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l A r t s i n France and i t s R o l e i n R e d e f i n i n g t h e Concept o f D e c o r a t i o n . 3 The r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l and/or d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was a c o n s t a n t p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h i n v a r i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s i n the second h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y i n F r a n c e . A t f i r s t o n l y t h e Government and p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y (not a r t i s t s ) s t r o v e toward t h i s g o a l , s i n c e t h e u l t i m a t e m o t i v e b e h i n d t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s r e v i t a l i z a t i o n was o f an economic n a t u r e : F r a n c e was a f r a i d o f l o s i n g the l e a d i n t h i s f i e l d , m a i n l y because o f E n g l i s h com-p e t i t i o n . There was however a s u b s t r a t u m o f a non-economic n a t u r e u n d e r l y i n g t h e r e f o r m s proposed: t h e " o f f i c i a l " r e f o r m e r s were G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s (or s y m p a t h i s e r s ) who wanted t o r e d e f i n e t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n i n such a way as t o c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r v i e w p o i n t . They c o n s i d e r e d a r t s i n c e t h e Re n a i s s a n c e 4 as "decadent" o r even "pagan." Of c o u r s e t h e y knew t h a t t h e Government would be v e r y r e c e p t i v e t o such r e a s o n s as an economic l a g and t h e " p r e s t i g e " o f F r a n c e . T h i s t a c t i c e ( s u b s t i t u t i n g economic r e a s o n s f o r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l ones) worked f i r s t v e r y w e l l i n E n g l a n d , where t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l was a s t r o n g e r movement th a n i n France i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y . The o r i g i n a l m o t i v e s b e h i n d t h i s movement were o f a r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e ( w i t h e t h i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . ) as i s e v i d e n t i n i t s most i m p o r t a n t p r o p a g a n d i s t , t h e a r c h i t e c t and d e s i g n e r A.W.N. P u g i n . He i n s i s t e d on a r e t u r n t o " t r u e " C h r i s t i a n a r t and v i r t u e s w h i c h he found i n the M i d d l e Ages. - 11 -He a l s o found t h e r e a model o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h he ad-v o c a t e d . " O f f i c i a l " r e f o r m e r s , such as the c i v i l s e r v a n t Henry C o l e (1808-1882) and h i s c i r c l e , argued f o r t h e n e c e s s i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e " t r u e " p r i n c i p l e s " o f d e c o r a t i o n , and s t a r t e d a campaign a g a i n s t "bad t a s t e " (read i l l u s i o n i s t i c n a t u r a l i s m ) , 5 based on P u g i n ' s d o c t r i n e s . The Great London E x h i b i t i o n o f 1851 (the World's F a i r a t t h e C r y s t a l P a l a c e ) was s e i z e d upon by t h e s e r e f o r m e r s as a g r e a t o p p o r t u n i t y t o l a u n c h t h e i r s u c c e s s -f u l campaign a g a i n s t r e a l i s t i c i l l u s i o n i s m i n d e c o r a t i o n . The e x h i b i t s o f V i c t o r i a n England i n d e e d p r o v i d e d an abundance o f examples o f what t h e y c o n s i d e r e d "bad t a s t e . " I n t h e formu-l a t i o n o f the " t r u e p r i n c i p l e s " a v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l p e r s o n a l i t y was t h e a r c h i t e c t , i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n e r , and i n t e r i o r d e c o r a t o r Owen Jones (1809-1874) who e s t a b l i s h e d what was " t r u e " and what was " f a l s e " i n the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . He c o n s i d e r e d i t a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y t h a t an ornament s h o u l d p r e s e r v e t h e u n i t y o f t h e o b j e c t t h a t i t d e c o r a t e d . That i m p l i e d r e s p e c t f o r t h e p l a n e s u r f a c e o f w a l l s and f l o o r s . He o b j e c t e d t o w a l l p a p e r p a t t e r n s t h a t were n o t p e r f e c t l y f l a t , and t o c a r p e t s w i t h " p e r s p e c t i v e 7 r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , and p i e r c e d f u l l o f h o l e s . " F l a t n e s s , w h i c h o f t e n meant a s i m p l e , a b s t r a c t g e o m e t r i c a l d e s i g n , was v e r y s u i t a b l e f o r m e c h a n i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n , f o r mass p r o d u c t i o n . The " o f f i c i a l s " I mentioned b e f o r e were v e r y much i n t e r e s t e d i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and i n d u s t r y . Henry C o l e and h i s c i r c l e (as opposed t o W i l l i a m M o r r i s and the l a t e r A r t s and C r a f t s movement, w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d most a r t i s t s ' p o i n t o f view) a c c e p t e d w h o l e h e a r t e d l y t h e r o l e o f t h e machine i n t h e i n d u s -t r i a l a r t s and were i n t e r e s t e d i n b e t t e r d e s i g n s f o r mass-- 12 -produced goods, e s p e c i a l l y w a l l p a p e r s . In a c h i e v i n g t h i s g o a l , e d u c a t i o n was o f paramount importance.. C o l e c r e a t e d t h e famous "S c h o o l s o f D e s i g n " a t t a c h e d t o t h e South K e n s i n g t o n Museum, where th e " t r u e p r i n c i p l e s " o f o r n a m e n t a l d e s i g n were t a u g h t . The r e s u l t s o f t h e o f f i c i a l r e f o r m e r s ' endeavours were seen i n the E n g l i s h e x h i b i t s a t t h e World's F a i r o f 1862. T h i s time the F r e n c h G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s and t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s saw t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c r e a t e " p a n i c . " They found a v e r y s u s c e p t i b l e l i s t e n e r i n t h e p e r s o n o f t h e Emperor Napoleon I I I , who was e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s . He l o o k e d upon t h e r i v a l r y . b e t w e e n F r a n c e and E n g l a n d i n t h i s f i e l d as a " k i n d o f war, w h i c h makes no v i c t i m s " and h e l d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e i n d u s t r y " t e s t i f y t o our m o r a l and 9 p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n . " Even b e f o r e he became emperor, w h i l e s t i l l t h e P r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c e , L o u i s Napoleon had a p p o i n t e d a committee headed by the Comte Leon de Laborde ( c u r a t o r o f m e d i e v a l monuments a t t h e Louvre) t o s t u d y t h e G r e a t London E x h i b i t i o n o f 1851 and the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t s and i n d u s t r y . Not everybody i n the government was p r e p a r e d t o t a k e s e r i o u s l y Laborde's w a r n i n g s c o n c e r n i n g the n e c e s s i t y o f r e f o r m s r i g h t t h e n , s i n c e France r e c e i v e d g o l d and s i l v e r medals a t t h e f i r s t W orld's F a i r , p r o o f t h a t t h e r e was no d e s p e r a t e need f o r improve-ment."'"^ , However, i n 1862, t h e s u c c e s s o f England's e x h i b i t s gave more w e i g h t t o the c o n c l u s i o n r e a c h e d by a n o t h e r m e d i e v a l i s t , P r o s p e r Merimee ( n o v e l i s t and.medieval a r c h a e o l o g i s t , c i v i l s e r v a n t , f r i e n d o f de Laborde and o f V i o l l e t - l e - D u c - t h e b e s t known G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t i n F r a n c e ) , who as a member o f t h e F r e n c h d e l e g a t i o n a t t h e F a i r , d e s c r i b e d t h e s i t u a t i o n as " s e r i o u s , even t h r e a t e n i n g . " The Government of Napoleon I I I became con-v i n c e d t h a t a r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l a r t s . w a s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y . That meant a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between, " h i g h a r t " and i n d u s t r y , r e f o r m s i n a r t e d u c a t i o n a t a l l l e v e l s , as w e l l as the e d u c a t i o n o f m a n u f a c t u r e r s , merchants and the g e n e r a l p u b l i c i n o r d e r t o improve t h e i r , " t a s t e , " and make everybody aware o f "the t r u e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n . " T h i s p r o c e s s o f r e v i t a l i z a t i o n d i d not p r o c e e d smoothly how-e v e r , because o f t h e c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s o f t h e v a r i o u s groups i n v o l v e d . The Government, as I a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , was i n t e r e s t e d i n F r a n c e ' s " p r e s t i g e " and economic growth, and when c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e r e was a r e a l t h r e a t t o t h o s e a r e a s , agreed t o a c t . I t was thus p o s s i b l e f o r V i o l l e t - l e - D u c (whose i d e a s on d e c o r a t i o n , as we s h a l l s ee, w i l l be i m p o r t a n t f o r b o t h S y m b o l i s t p a i n t e r s as w e l l as A r t Nouveau) t o have h i s i d e a s on t h e r e f o r m a t i o n o f -the E c o l e des B e a u x - A r t s a c c e p t e d by t h e Emperor artd h i s a d m i n i s t r a -t i v e body. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c was t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d t h e "Decree o f 1863" which p l a c e d t h e E c o l e des B e a u x - A r t s under d i r e c t government c o n t r o l , u n d e r m i n i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e 12 Academy. The importance o f t h e Decree o f 1863 from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f s t r e s s i n g " o r i g i n a l i t y " and i t s consequences f o r t h e development o f independent a r t i s t i c movements has been v e r y w e l l 13 demonstrated by. A l b e r t Boime.. I would l i k e t o p l a c e more em-p h a s i s on t h e o t h e r main i s s u e r a i s e d by t h e Decree ( a l s o p o i n t e d out by Boime), namely t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t and i n d u s t r y . One o f t h e i m p o r t a n t achievements o f t h e Decree, i n accordance w i t h V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s dream o f u n i t i n g a l l t he a r t s , was t h e -14 r-of p r e p a r a t o r y workshops i n p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , a r c h i t e c t u r e , as w e l l as i n e n g r a v i n g , m e d a l l i o n s and j e w e l e r y , on the p r e m i s e s o f t h e E c o l e des Beaux-Arts.. T h i s i n t r u s i o n o f t h e a p p l i e d a r t s i n t o t h a t b a s t i o n o f h i g h a r t t h a t was the Beaux-A r t s (where s t r a n g e l y enough n o t even p a i n t i n g was p r e v i o u s l y t a u g h t ) , was suppose t o a t t r a c t t h e b e s t a r t i s t s i n t o the f i e l d o f i n d u s t r i a l a r t s . I n the R e p o r t o f t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f B e a u x - A r t s (a t e x t t h a t was p u b l i s h e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Decree i n the G a z e t t e des Beaux A r t s ) , the Comte A l f r e d - E m i l i e n N i e u -werkerke who h e l d t h i s o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n , and who was a l s o co-a u t h o r o f t h e Decree ( w i t h V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ) , d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e E c o l e " w i l l i n s u r e our i n d u s t r y a 14 s u p e r i o r i t y w h i c h i s b e g i n n i n g t o be c o n t e s t e d . " The " o f f i c i a l " r e f o r m e r s ( Nieuwerkerke, V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , de Laborde, Merimee, f o r example) i n the d e s i r e t o r e v i t a l i z e t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s e n t e r e d i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e Academy, because t h e y v i o l a t e d i t s s a c r e d t e r r i t o r y . The p r o t o t y p i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e Academy was I n g r e s . He p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t m i x i n g " a r t " and i n d u s t r y a t t h e E c o l e , w h i c h he c o n s i d e r e d a 15 " t r u e temple o f A p o l l o . " I n g r e s and h i s p u p i l s succeeded i n f o r c i n g t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f V i o l l e t - l e - D u c as p r o f e s s o r o f H i s t o r y o f A r t and A e s t h e t i c s , a f t e r o n l y seven l e c t u r e s . Thus h i s i n f l u e n c e was g r e a t l y d i m i n i s h e d . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c can be c o n s i d e r e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e " o f f i c i a l " s i d e o f t h e above-mentioned c o n f l i c t between the Academy on t h e one s i d e , and t h e o f f i c i a l s on t h e o t h e r . ( T h i s i s a c o n f l i c t t h a t would c o n t i n u e f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e 19th - 15 -16 c e n t u r y . ) He was t h e f a v o u r i t e a r c h i t e c t o f Napoleon I I I , who a p p o i n t e d him I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l . o f d i o c e s a n b u i l d i n g s soon a f t e r he p r o c l a i m e d h i m s e l f Emperor. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c was not t r a i n e d a t the E c o l e (he was l a r g e l y s e l f - t a u g h t ) and h a t e d t h e Academy (a resentment s h a r e d by Napoleon I I I ) and e v e r y t h i n g i t s t o o d f o r . I n s t e a d o f c l a s s i c i s m he p r a i s e d t h e G o t h i c and t h e s o c i a l system t h a t produced i t , i n w h i c h t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r among a r t i s t s , t h a t would o c c u r l a t e r i n "decadent" s o c i e t i e s , d i d n o t y e t e x i s t . He was a g a i n s t t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n o f p a i n t i n g s i n c e t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , and adv o c a t e d the u n i t y o f t h e t h r e e a r t s : a r c h i t e c t u r e , s c u l p t u r e and p a i n t i n g , s i n c e t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e t i e s between them l e d t o the "decadence o f a l l o f them." He p r a i s e d p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t i e s i n w h i c h , he s a i d , "There are not 17 t h r e e v i s u a l a r t s , t h e r e i s o n l y one." V i o l l e t - l e - D u c de-p l o r e d t h e s p l i t between "the b e a u t i f u l " and "the u s e f u l , " between t h e a r c h i t e c t and e n g i n e e r , between " h i g h a r t " and i n -d u s t r y . H i s i d e a s i n the a r t i s t i c r e a l m were a c u r i o u s m i x t u r e o f o l d and new, so t h a t h i s enemies and l a t e r d e t r a c t o r s con-s i d e r e d him mer e l y a " G o t h i c i m i t a t o r " ( w h i l e i n f a c t he op-posed t h e p l a g i a r i s m o f o l d e r s t y l e s ) and among h i s f u t u r e a d m i r e r s he would have such i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e s o f A r t Nouveau as H o r t a , Guimard, G a u d i , and S e r r u r i e r - B o v y . A l o o k a t the d e c o r a t i o n s he d i d f o r the Chateau d'Eu, f o r example ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r o n - w o r k o f t h e g r e a t s t a i r c a s e , the c e i l i n g o r n a m e n t a l m o t i f s w i t h a r a besques , t h e m o t i f s i n s p i r e d by o r g a n i c , f l o r a l shapes t h a t d e c o r a t e the h e a t - c o n v e y i n g system) would t e l l 18 why. G r a s s e t , a n o t h e r well-known A r t Nouveau p e r s o n a l i t y ( m e d i e v a l i s t , s t u d e n t o f Japanese a r t and i n s i s t e n t on u s i n g - 16 -orn a m e n t a l m o t i f s d e r i v e d from n a t u r e ) was V i o l l e t - l e - D u c 1 s p u p i l , and so was V.P. G a l l a n d , who .has o n l y l a t e l y been r e -c o g n i z e d as an i n f l u e n c e on t h e development o f t h e A r t Nouveau 19 s t y l e i n F r a n c e . G a l l a n d was a b l e t o r e i n t r o d u c e V i o l l e t - l e -Duc's i d e a s i n t o t h e E c o l e des Beaux- A r t s i n 1873 (and a f t e r ) , when he was a p p o i n t e d t o t e a c h a c o u r s e i n d e c o r a t i v e a r t . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c g l a d l y would have a b o l i s h e d the t a b l e a u ( i n the Academic sense o f the word) a l t o g e t h e r , s i n c e f o r him i t embodied t i m e s o f decadence, and he would have had mur a l p a i n t i n g resemble m e d i e v a l m a n u s c r i p t i l l u m i n a t i o n s . He r e -p r e s e n t e d one p o s i t i o n on d e c o r a t i o n i n France i n t h e second h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y . There was a n o t h e r , w i d e s p r e a d p o s i t i o n , w h i c h w h i l e i t a c c e p t e d t h a t d e c o r a t i o n s h o u l d r e s p e c t t h e f l a t n e s s o f t h e s u r f a c e i t d e c o r a t e d , wanted t o r e t a i n i n " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " something o f the "Western T r a d i t i o n , " t h a t i s , some m o d e l l i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s r e p r e s e n t e d , and e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e human f i g u r e . (I w i l l come back t o t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i n p o s i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g d e c o r a t i o n l a t e r on, when I w i l l d i s c u s s t h e a c t u a l p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n . ) T h i s w i l l be t h e " o f f i c i a l " p o s i t i o n i n the 1880s. An extreme case o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e "Western t r a d i t i o n " was C h a r l e s B l a n c (1813-1882), V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ' s 20 contemporary. I c o n s i d e r e d him an "extreme c a s e " i n p r e -s e r v i n g the O c c i d e n t a l t r a d i t i o n , because i n mur a l p a i n t i n g he d i d not make any c o n c e s s i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o m o d e l l i n g o f i n -d i v i d u a l forms ( o n l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o p e r s p e c t i v e and c o l o r i n g , r e g a r d i n g t h e g e n e r a l " e f f e c t , " as I s h a l l d i s c u s s l a t e r ) . He was i n t h e p e c u l i a r p o s i t i o n of b e i n g b o t h an " o f f i c i a l " and an - 17 -A c a d e m i c i a n , and i t i s e v i d e n t i n h i s i n f l u e n t i a l w r i t i n g s and a c t i v i t i e s , t h a t he t r i e d t o r e a c h a compromise between th e two s i d e s . He was a f i r m b e l i e v e r i n h i e r a r c h y i n a r t . The h i g h e s t form o f a r t a c c o r d i n g t o him was an a r t t h a t had t h e a b i l i t y t o i n s t i g a t e h e r o i c s e n t i m e n t s i n the v i e w e r , t h a t c o u l d s e r v e ( w i t h o u t a d m i t t i n g t h i s as i t s purpose s i n c e " h i g h a r t " was not supposed t o have u t i l i t a r i a n ends) n o b l e c a u s e s , m o r a l ends. He f a v o u r e d c l a s s i c i s m , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f t h e 21 R e n a i s s a n c e . Thus he was i n tune w i t h t h e Academy. B l a n c h e l d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t o n l y t h e S t a t e s h o u l d have th e monopoly of "grand a r t , " produced f o r t h e " g r e a t e s t g l o r y o f F r e n c h a r t . " M u r a l s were v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h i s k i n d o f a r t i n h i s v i e w , s i n c e when d e c o r a t i n g p u b l i c e d i f i c e s , t h e y had wide exposure t o numerous peop l e who c o u l d t h u s b e n e f i t from t h o s e 23 "noble i d e a s . " I n "grand a r t " m u r a l s , B l a n c would have never a c c e p t e d f i g u r e s r e n d e r e d i n t h e manner o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t i l l u m i n a t i o n s . He s t a t e d t h a t " a t the S a l o n and i n f r o n t o f 24 t h e p u b l i c one must e x h i b i t f i g u r e s and not shadows." T h i s comment was provoked by 'the camaieu p a i n t i n g P u v i s de Chavannes e x h i b i t e d a t t h e S a l o n . o f 1866, whose f i g u r e s , B l a n c s a i d , were "more dreamed th a n p a i n t e d . " But B l a n c had a double s t a n d a r d w i t h r e s p e c t t o d e c o r a t i o n : one r e g a r d i n g p u b l i c a r t , and a n o t h e r one f o r p r i v a t e l y owned a r t . The l a t t e r was supposed t o t r a n s p o r t the v i e w e r " i n t o the i d e a l w o r l d , " t o s e r v e as a means of e s c a p i n g r e a l i t y . I f he owned a p r i v a t e h o t e l , he s a i d , he would have l i k e d t o d e c o r a t e i t s w a l l s w i t h P u v i s 1 p a n e l s . W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s ( i n w h i c h he d i d n o t , as a r u l e , i n c l u d e - 18 -m u r a l s ) , d e s t i n e d m o s t l y f o r the p r i v a t e enjoyment of an e l i t e , he recommended the form and c o n t e n t o f an I d e a l i s t a r t , as i s e v i d e n t i n h i s Gramma i r e : des a r t s : d e c o r a t i f s, t h e s e q u e l t o 25 t h e Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n . B l a n c was an adept o f t h e I d e a l i s t a e s t h e t i c o f Kant and S c h i l l e r , Hegel and S c h e l l i n g , i n t h e form p r o p a g a t e d i n F r ance by V i c t o r C o u s i n , w h i c h was 2 6 q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e t h e o r y of. " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake." A t t h e same time he was i n f l u e n c e d by the w r i t i n g s o f Lamennais, as w e l l as by Proudhon. The l a s t two p e r s o n a l i t i e s were p o l e s a p a r t i n p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , but t h e y b o t h f o u g h t the c o n c e p t o f a r t f o r a r t ' s sake. The c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Proudhon i s easy t o u n d e r s t a n d , s i n c e L o u i s B l a n c , C h a r l e s ' b r o t h e r was -an a r d e n t b e l i e v e r i n the s o c i a l r o l e o f a r t . L i k e Proudhon, who s a i d t h a t "The a r t i s t whose work ... p l e a s e s the g r e a t e s t number w i l l be r a t e d the g r e a t e s t o f a l l C h a r l e s B l a n c c o n s i d e r e d t h a t the work o f a r t " i s ennobled by t h e number o f 27 s p e c t a t o r s who e n j o y x t . " But u n l x k e Proudhon, B l a n c was a g a i n s t r e a l i s m . He admired Lamennais, who was a C a t h o l i c L i b e r a l , and who i n 1830 and 1831 p u b l i s h e d t o g e t h e r w i t h 28 L a c o r d a i r e and Montalembert th e j o u r n a l L ' A v e n i r . Lamennais s a i d t h a t " a r t i s o n l y the e x t e r i o r shape o f i d e a s , the ex-p r e s s i o n o f r e l i g i o u s dogma, and o f the dominant s o c i a l 29 p r i n c i p l e i n c e r t a i n epochs." He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t " A r t f o r a r t ' s sake i s an a b s u r d i t y . " L i k e the S a i n t - S i m o n i a n s , he saw i n " i n d u s t r y " an a c t i v i t y t h a t s h o u l d e n j o y the same d i g n i t y as t h e a r t s and the s c i e n c e s . Thus, as A l b e r t Cassagne p o i n t e d o u t i n 1905 i n h i s book La T h e o r i e de l ' a r t pour l ' a r t , Lamennais ^ r e a c h e d c o n c l u s i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f L o u i s B l a n c , Proudhon - 19 -and t h e S a i n t - S i m o n i a n s . Whatever e c l e c t i c i n f l u e n c e s B l a n c a c c e p t e d , i t i s . c l e a r t h a t he b e l i e v e d i n the p r a c t i c a l u t i l i t y o f a r t (as d e c o r a t i o n of homes or o b j e c t s ) as l o n g as i t was not "grand a r t . " As an a c t i v e s u p p o r t e r o f the r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f the i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , he b e l i e v e d i n a " r e j u v e n a t i o n o f f i n e a r t s w i t h t h e purpose o f a p p l y i n g them t o i n d u s t r y , " and i n "wedding the b e a u t i f u l and 31 *1 t h e u s e f u l . " B l a n c s h a r e d Merimee's, de L a b o r d e ' s , and f o r t h a t m a t t e r t h e Emperor's (who d e c o r a t e d Henry C o l e i n 1855) a d m i r a t i o n f o r England's achievements, e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e South K e n s i n g t o n system. I n e s t a b l i s h i n g the p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a -t i v e a r t s i n h i s Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s (which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d more i n d e t a i l l a t e r ) , B l a n c was i n agreement w i t h Owen Jones,' g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s , f a i t h f u l t o the " o f f i c i a l " 32 l i n e . But he d i d not d e a l m o s t l y w i t h ornamental a b s t r a c t d e s i g n , as Jones and C o l e ' s c i r c l e d i d , and as I mentioned b e f o r e , he d i d u p h o l d t h e "Western t r a d i t i o n " e x p r e s s e d e s -p e c i a l l y by h i s p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r c o l o u r " g r a d a t i o n , " as opposed t o f l a t t i n t s . As c o n c e r n s t h e q u e s t i o n o f " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" (a key i s s u e i n t h i s p a p e r ) , even i f B l a n c a v o i d s u s i n g t h i s term w h i c h he h a l f - d r e a d e d , u l t i m a t e l y t h i s i s what he recommends f o r the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . D e c o r a t i v e a r t s such as t h e a r t o f t a p e s t r y , i n v o l v e scenes w i t h f i g u r e s , and t h e y were not supposed t o convey p o w e r f u l e m o t i o n s , t o be e l o q u e n t , t o s e r v e any m o r a l i z i n g purpose. They s i m p l y had t o t r a n s p o r t t h e v i e w e r i n t o a w o r l d o f dreams, i n t o an i d e a l w o r l d , t o p l e a s e t h e eye and the " s p i r i t . " He r e q u i r e d e l o q u e n c e , as we have - 20 -a l r e a d y seen, o n l y from the "grand a r t " w h i c h was supposed t o i n s p i r e n o b l e s e n t i m e n t s . As much as he wanted t o p r e s e r v e t h e K a n t i a n autonomy o f a work o f a r t , he c o u l d . n o t f o r s a k e h i s b e l i e f o f a 1848 " r e v o l u t i o n a r y . " These b e l i e f s r e q u i r e d a r t t o have a m o b i l i z i n g , example s e t t i n g r o l e (by p o r t r a y i n g h e r o i c a c t s ) i n s o c i e t y . B l a n c found h i m s e l f a t the t h r e s h o l d o f c h a n g i n g c o n c e p t s : t h e dichotomy o f "pure a r t " v e r s u s " a p p l i e d a r t " w i l l soon be-come o f l e s s importance than the dichotomy o f " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" v e r s u s m o r a l a r t and " l i t e r a t u r e " ( l i t e r a r y a r t ) . So f a r the d i s c u s s i o n has been f o c u s s e d on t h e c o n f l i c t between "Academy" and t h e " O f f i c i a l s . " The i n t e r e s t s o f two o t h e r i m p o r t a n t groups i n v o l v e d i n the a c t u a l r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s t s and t h e a r t i s t s , were i n c o n f l i c t w i t h each o t h e r . The I n d u s t r i a l i s t s , t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , j o i n e d t h e i r e f f o r t s t o form a p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e (which d i d , however, g e t s u p p o r t from the Government), the Union C e n t r a i e des B e a u x - A r t s a p p l i q u e s a l ' i n d u s t r i e ; founded on J u l y 1864, t h i s was renamed Union C e n t r a i e des A r t s D g c o r a t i f s a f t e r un-i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e S o c i e t y o f t h e Museum o f D e c o r a t i v e A r t s , i n 1880. The purpose o f t h e Union C e n t r a i e was t o c e n t r a l i z e the i n d u s t r i a l and d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , t a k i n g t h e South K e n s i n g t o n System as i t s model. I t o r g a n i z e d a museum o f a r t o b j e c t s o f v a r i o u s p e r i o d s , p e r i o d i c a l e x h i b i t i o n s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s ( r e t r o s p e c t i v e and c o n t e m p o r a r y ) , p u b l i c l e c t u r e s and a l i b r a r y . The i n t e n t i o n t o c r e a t e a C o l l e g e de b e a u x - a r t s a p p l i q u € s a l ' i n d u s t r i e n ever q u i t e m a t e r i a l i z e d . Because o f t o o z e a l o u s s u p p o r t on the p a r t - 21 -o f Ch. B l a n c and E. G u i l l a u m e , t h e Union C e n t r a l e was i n f i l -33 t r a t e d w i t h academic t r a d i t i o n . I n s t e a d o f a s i m p l e form o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n f l a t o r n a m e n t a l d e s i g n as most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r w a l l p a p e r s , l i k e t h a t o f f e r e d i n H. C o l e ' s s c h o o l s o f d e s i g n , t h e Union C e n t r a l e o f f e r e d l e c t u r e s i n geometry and p e r s p e c t i v e , as w e l l as i n o t h e r s c i e n c e s , and a e s t h e t i c t h e o r i e s such as i n t h e l e c t u r e s d e l i v e r e d by Ch. B l a n c h i m s e l f , c o n t a i n i n g e x c e r p t s from h i s y e t u n p u b l i s h e d book, Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n . Union C e n t r a l e d i d n o t f u l f i l one o f the main purposes f o r w h i c h i t was c r e a t e d , t h a t i s t o a t t r a c t a r t i s t s i n v o l v e d i n f i n e a r t s i n t o t h e f i e l d o f i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , p r e c i s e l y because i t was i n t h e hands of " i n d u s t r i a l i s t s , " and d i d not r e p r e s e n t 34 t h e a r t i s t s ' i n t e r e s t s . The A r t i s t s who s p e c i a l i z e d i n " h i g h a r t " were the p r o d u c t o f a p r o c e s s o f " d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r " t h a t gave them a v e r y s p e c i a l s t a t u s , w h i c h t h e y wanted t o m a i n t a i n . Academic a r t i s t s f o r a l o n g time r e s i s t e d t h e i n v a s i o n o f the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n t o t h e S a l o n , on "an e q u a l f o o t i n g w i t h t h e f i n e a r t s . As l o n g as t h e s t a t u s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d " i n f e r i o r " t o t h a t o f " h i g h a r t , " the j u s t e m i l i e u a r t i s t s o r t h e a v a n t -35 garde a r t i s t s were not i n t e r e s t e d e i t h e r . To a t t r a c t a r t i s t s who d i d not a l r e a d y have th e s t a t u s o f " d e c o r a t o r " i n t o the f i e l d o f i n d u s t r i a l o r d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n o r d e r t o "improve th e s t a n d a r d s " , . w o u l d have been p o s s i b l e o n l y i n one of t h e f o l l o w i n g two s i t u a t i o n s : 1) The a r t i s t s are committed t o t h e s o c i a l r o l e o f a r t , t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e " b e a u t i f u l " and. t h e " u s e f u l " - 22 -s h o u l d be u n i t e d , and a r e even p r e p a r e d t o d e s i g n f o r i n d u s t r i a l m a s s - p r o d u c t i o n , (thus a c c e p t i n g the r o l e o f "the machine" i n o r d e r t o r e a c h more p e o p l e , w i t h cheaper p r o d u c t s ) . 2) The d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a t u s between " h i g h a r t " and . " d e c o r a t i v e a r t " i s a b o l i s h e d , t h u s a r t i s t s h e l d back by s c r u p l e s c onnected w i t h " s t a t u s - , " can now t a k e advantage o f a n o t h e r m a r k e t i n g o u t l e t , w i t h o u t f e e l i n g t h e y a r e " p r o s t i t u t i n g " t h e m s e l v e s . I t i s even b e t t e r i f i t i s emphasized t h a t t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s " a re " e l i t i s t , " " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake," as opposed t o the so-c a l l e d " f i n e a r t " e x h i b i t e d a t t h e S a l o n , t h a t c a t e r e d t o t h e t a s t e o f the p e t i t - b o u r g e o i s crowd. Thus t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s " c o u l d even be c o n s i d e r e d as s u p e r i o r t o S a l o n a r t . The f i r s t s i t u a t i o n never q u i t e m a t e r i a l i z e d i n France i n the second h a l f o f the 19th c e n t u r y . A t f i r s t , o f f i c i a l p r o -paganda, i n t h e 1860s t r i e d t o a t t r a c t a r t i s t s w i t h the s l o g a n o f " u n i t i n g the b e a u t i f u l w i t h the u s e f u l , " a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f an o u t d a t e d U t o p i a n S a i n t - S i m o n i s m . (The i d e a s o f u n i t i n g a r t and i n d u s t r y o r i g i n a t e d i n f a c t i n the 1830s i n F r a n c e , prompted by such i d e a l s . ) Such propaganda was not v e r y s u c c e s s f u l , e s p e c i a l l y when i t was c l e a r t h a t t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s , t h e " i n d u s t r i a l i s t s " were the ones r e a p i n g t h e p r o f i t s . The a r t i s t s - i n d u s t r i a l i s t s c o n f l i c t became more a c u t e i n the l a t e r p a r t o f t h e c e n t u r y , when many a r t i s t s , i n s p i r e d by the example o f W i l l i a m M o r r i s and t h e B r i t i s h A r t s and C r a f t s movement r e a l i z e d t h a t by the m s e l v e s p r o d u c i n g " a r t o b j e c t s " f o r amateurs, a p o t e n t i a l market was open t o them. But t h e r e are s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between the r e v i v a l o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n E n g l a n d and B e l g i u m on one hand, and i n France on t h e o t h e r . M o r r i s and h i s group, as w e l l as t h e B e l g i a n a r t i s t s (such as H e n r i Van de V e l d e ) , b e l i e v e d i n the s o c i a l r o l e o f a r t . The f a c t t h a t F r e n c h a r t i s t s became i n t e r e s t e d i n M o r r i s 1 achievements (and n o t i n Henry C o l e ' s , as t h e Government and t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s t s were) had n o t h i n g t o do w i t h R u s k i n ' s " G o t h i c " h u m i l i t y " t h a t M o r r i s p r o f e s s e d , w h i c h i n f a c t i m p l i e d t h e l o w e r i n g o f t h e s p e c i a l s t a t u s t h e a r t i s t g a i n e d i n t h e c a p i -t a l i s t s o c i e t y . I r o n i c a l l y , t h e s o c i a l i s t M o r r i s , l a r g e l y be-cause o f h i s h a t r e d o f t h e machine o r any p o s t - m e d i e v a l methods of p r o d u c t i o n , produced " a r t o b j e c t s " t h a t o n l y a w e a l t h y e l i t e c o u l d e n j o y . I t was t h i s p r o s p e c t o f " a r t i s t i c " v e r s u s i n d u s t r i a l m a s s - p r o d u c t i o n t h a t a p p e a l e d t o t h e F r e n c h a r t i s t s , and n o t t h e v i r t u e s o f t h e humble m e d i e v a l a r t i s a n . J u s t t h e o p p o s i t e , t h e y s e i z e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o r a i s e t h e s t a t u s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s t o t h a t o f f i n e a r t s . The f a c t t h a t d u r i n g t h e 1890s t h e r e was a renewed a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e a r t i s t i c ( v i s u a l ) a v ant-garde w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l a v a n t - g a r d e , w i t h s o c i a l r a d i c a l i s m i n F r a n c e , d i d n o t a f f e c t the a r t i s t s ' p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s . F r a n c e d i d n o t produce a H e n r i van de V e l d e , B e l g i u m d i d , even though t h e r e were i n F rance l o u d v o i c e s t h a t t r i e d t o m o b i l i s e a r t i s t s t o p u t t h e i r a r t i n the s e r v i c e o f t h e p e o p l e , such as H. Nocq's: J 1 a t t e n d avec i m p a t i e n c e l e r e t o u r des a r t i s t e s a 1 ' I n d u s t r i e . Grace a l a p r o d u c t i o n mecanique l e u r s o e u v r e s s e r o n t m i s e s a l a p o r t e e du p l u s grand nombre e t a i n s i s e r v i r o n t au p r o g r e s s o c i a l . ^ 6 - 2:4 -I do n o t i n t e n d t o d i s c u s s B e l g i u m h e r e , b u t the c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between the a r t i s t s and the Worker's p a r t y i n t h a t c o u n t r y can throw a l i g h t on t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between F r e n c h and B e l g i a n a v a n t - g a r d e s . (For t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e " c o l l e c t i v i s t " movements i n France and B e l g i u m , and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p o s i t i o n s toward a r t , see Eugenia H e r b e r t , The A r t i s t and S o c i a l Reform, 1961.) Not o n l y was t h e s o c i a l i s t movement weaker t h a n t h e a n a r c h i s t movement a t the t i m e i n F r a n c e , b u t a l s o i t d i d not g i v e a r t s u f f i c i e n t t h o u g h t . On th e o t h e r hand, t h e a n a r c h i s t movement made a s p e c i a l e f f o r t t o a t t r a c t a r t i s t s , and i t s emphasis on " i n d i v i d u a l i s m " a l s o a p p e a l e d t o F r e n c h a r t i s t s , most o f them.coming from b o u r g e o i s 37 backgrounds. Thus t h e N e o 7 l m p r e s s i o n i s t s among p a i n t e r s were a n a r c h i s t s y m p a t h i s e r s . They b e l i e v e d t h a t e v e n t u a l l y , i n t h e f u t u r e , a r t s h o u l d be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h the whole s o c i e t y , but f o r t h e time b e i n g , i n t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i e t y t h e y d i d not c o n s i d e r t h i s p o s s i b l e . T h e i r a r t was produced e s s e n t i a l l y f o r an e l i t e o f amateurs, and as Eugenia and R o b e r t H e r b e r t have p o i n t e d o u t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , i t was p r e c i s e l y i n the 1890s, when t h e i r c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e a n a r c h i s t movement became most m i l i t a n t , t h a t the a r t i s t s adopted a more pronounced " a r t 3 8 f o r a r t ' s sake" p o s i t i o n . S i g n a c , f o r example, was w e l l aware o f the d i s c r e p a n c y between h i s p o l i t i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s and the a e s t h e t i c ones, and t r i e d a t v a r i o u s o c c a s i o n s t o j u s t i f y i t . F o r example, i n June 1891, i n the a r t i c l e " I m p r e s s i o n i s t e s e t R e v o l u t i o n n a i r e s , " s i g n e d "an I m p r e s s i o n i s t Comrade," Si g n a c s a i d : - 25 -I t would t h u s be an e r r o r , i n t o w h i c h the b e s t i n t e n t i o n e d r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , l i k e , Proudhon, a l l t o o o f t e n have f a l l e n , s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o r e q u i r e a p r e c i s e s o c i a l i s t tendency i n works o f a r t , f o r t h i s tendency w i l l be found much more p o w e r f u l and e l o q u e n t i n t h e pure a e s t h e t e s , r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s by temperament, who, moving f a r o f f the b e a t e n p a t h , p a i n t what t h e y see as t h e y f e e l i t , and v e r y o f t e n u n c o n s c i o u s l y g i v e a h a r d blow o f t h e p i c k - a x e t o t h e o l d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . 3 ^ C a m i l l e P i s s a r r o was a n o ther a n a r c h i s t s y m p a t h i s e r , a member o f t h e C l u b de 1'Art S o c i a l , and p r o f e s s e d h a t r e d o f the c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . Y e t h i s a t t i t u d e was t h a t o f the F r e n c h a v a n t - g a r d e i n g e n e r a l , t h a t i s e l i t i s t . He was i n t e r e s t e d i n e d u c a t i n g o n l y t h e a r t i s t i c t a s t e o f an e l i t e o f " b uyers," as opposed t o C a r r i e r e (a " j u s t e m i l i e u " p a i n t e r ) , o r t o t h e c r i t i c Gustave G e f f r o y ( a l s o not e x a c t l y an a v a n t - g a r d e . w r i t e r ) , who wanted t o e ducate the w o r k e r s . ^ , I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t , as Chesneau remarked, F r e n c h a r t i s t s 41 had the tendency t o a s p i r e toward th e l o f t i e r l e v e l s o f a r t . As l o n g as t h e i n d u s t r i a l and d e c o r a t i v e a r t s were c o n s i d e r e d as a c t i v i t i e s o f a l e s s e r s t a t u s (an a t t i t u d e s u p p o r t e d by t h e Academy) t h e a r t i s t s ' r esponse was l e s s t h a n e n t h u s i a s t i c . T h i s f a c t was u n d e r s t o o d by t h e non-Academic o f f i c i a l s and o t h e r p a r t i e s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , and t h e campaign t h e y l a u n c h e d s i n c e the l a t e 1870s was based on the e q u a l i z a t i o n i n s t a t u s . I n v o l v e d i n t h i s campaign were I n s p e c t o r s of B e a u x - A r t s , such as Roger B a l l u and Henry Havard, V i c t o r Champier, t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e Revue des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s (founded i n 1880 as an organ o f t h e Union C e n t r a l e ) / v and o f f i c i a l i n the B e a u x - A r t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and Roger Marx, who was a c r i t i c and e d i t o r o f t h e G a z e t t e des Beaux A r t s . Marx - 2.6 -was a l s o an exemplar of a new s p e c i e s : "the e n l i g h t e n e d amateur o f modern a r t , " who formed t h a t " e l i t e " o f c o n n o i s s e u r s , t h a t s p e c i a l group o f the b o u r g e o i s i e f o r whom the avant-garde was c r e a t i n g . He was w e l l aware o f t h e r o l e o f t h e " W r i t e r " i n i n -f l u e n c i n g t h e d e s t i n y o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n F r ance i n the 19th c e n t u r y , and w h i l e r e m i n d i n g h i s r e a d e r s o f the "movements o f o p i n i o n " i n c i t e d by V i c t o r Hugo, V i o l l e t T l e - D u c o r de Laborde, he c a r r i e d on h i s own propaganda t o b r i n g f i n e a r t s and d e c o r -42 . . . a t i v e a r t s t o an e q u a l s t a t u s . T h i s e q u a l i z a t i o n i n s t a t u s d i d n o t mean t h e " d e b a s i n g " o f t h e f i n e a r t s , but j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e , r a i s i n g t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s t o the h i g h e r l e v e l o c c u p i e d by a s t a t u e , and e s p e c i a l l y by a t a b l e a u . Roger Marx c o n t r i b u t e d h i s o r g a n i s i n g s k i l l s t o t h e o p ening o f a s e c t i o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s a t t h e S a l o n o f t h e S o c i e t e N a t i o n a l e des 43 B e a u x - A r t s , h e l d a t t h e Champ-de-Mars. T h i s was a second S a l o n , o r g a n i z e d by. a second " s o c i e t y o f a r t i s t s , " t h a t e x h i b i t e d n o n - j u r i e d works, awarded no p r i z e s , and promoted m a i n l y t h e p a i n t e r s o f t h e j u s t e m i l i e u . T h i s second s o c i e t y (the f i r s t one b e i n g , o f c o u r s e , t h e academic o r i e n t e d S o c i e t e des A r t i s t e s F r a n c a i s t h a t h e l d S a l o n s on t h e Champs-E l y s e e s ) was formed i n 1890 a t t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f M e i s s o n i e r (as P r e s i d e n t ) and P u v i s de Chavannes ( V i c e - P r e s i d e n t ) . The i d e a o f a S a l o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was n o t new; i t had been t r i e d i n 1882 by the Union C e n t r a i e , w h i c h had opened such a S a l o n , s i d e by s i d e and s i m u l t a n e i o u s l y w i t h t h e r e g u l a r 44 • S a l o n . But Union C e n t r a i e was not p o p u l a r w i t h t h e a r t i s t s . The a r t i s t s - i n d u s t r i a l i s t s c o n f l i c t was r e f l e c t e d i n t h e a r t i s t s ' b i t t e r n e s s towards th e Union C e n t r a i e (which was c o n t r o l l e d by - 27 -t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s t s ) , whose p e r i o d i c a l e x h i b i t i o n s a t t h e P a l a i s de l ' i n d u s t r i e t h e y c o n s i d e r e d " e x c l u s i v e l y c o m m e r c i a l " and as s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t i o n f o r t h e s e c t i o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s a t t h e S a l o n o f t h e Champ-de-Mafs. The a r t i s t s f e l t t h a t t h e Union C e n t r a l e d i d not d e s e r v e the f i n a n c i a l h e l p i t r e c e i v e d from the Government, e s p e c i a l l y when i t r e p r e s e n t e d a p o r t i o n o f t h e budget o f t h e B e a u x - A r t s . T h i s resentment was p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g i n t h e e a r l y 1890s, when a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o c r e a t e a new s t y l e i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was h i n d e r e d by t h e i n d u s -t r i a l i s t s and merchants, who c o n s i d e r e d i t more p r o f i t a b l e t o i m i t a t e o l d e r s t y l e s . The a r t i s t s wanted more p e r s o n a l r e -c o g n i t i o n , t h e y wanted t o s i g n t h e i r a r t o b j e c t , t h e y wanted s t a t u s . T h i s was e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e avant-garde a r t i s t s . The F r e n c h a r t i s t i c a v a nt-garde was e l i t i s t by d e f i n i t i o n , a l i e n a t e d from t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e d o m i n a t i n g c l a s s -the b o u r g e o i s i e - as w e l l as from mass c u l t u r e . The a v a n t -garde c o u l d have been a t t r a c t e d o n l y by t h e p r o s p e c t o f p r o d u c i n g an e l i t i s t a r t , an a r t wh i c h they, c o u l d judge " s u p e r i o r " because i t was not making any c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e v u l g a r " t a s t e " o f the crowd. F o r the a v a n t - g a r d e , " a r t f o r 45 a r t ' s sake" became a "code o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e t h i c s . " I f members o f t h e F r e n c h avant-garde p a i n t i n g were a t t r a c t e d i n t o t h e f i e l d o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , i t was not because t h e y wanted t o u n i t e "the b e a u t i f u l " and "the u s e f u l , " but because t h e y were a t t r a c t e d by t h e " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" a s p e c t o f t h e de-c o r a t i v e a r t s . I n d o i n g so, t h e " u t i l i t a r i a n " s i d e o f the de-c o r a t i v e a r t s became secondary. T h i s approach t o d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was emphasized d u r i n g the 188 0s and 1890s by a n t i - a c a d e m i c - 28 -w r i t e r s such as E r n e s t Chesneau or. Henry Havard, who a l s o s h a r e d an a n t i p a t h y f o r the B r i t i s h , and a b e l i e f i n t h e super-46 i o r i t y o f F r e n c h a r t i s t i c g e n i u s . As Chesneau p u t i t , F r e n c h " 47 a r t i s above t h e , " s t a t i s t i c s c o n c e r n i n g commercial e x p o r t . He was a g a i n s t the F r e n c h Government's a d o p t i n g B r i t i s h - t y p e s c h o o l s o f i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n , w h i c h o f c o u r s e were i n t e n d e d f o r 48 t h e development o f mass-produced i n d u s t r i a l a r t s . I n F r a n c e , " i n d u s t r i a l a r t " became more and more a p e j o r a t i v e term i n a r t i s t i c c i r c l e s , w h i l e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t " was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h 49 " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake." I n t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s " the accent:'' was on the f o r m a l elements (shapes, c o l o u r s ) d i s p o s e d i n such 50 way as t o gxve p l e a s u r e t o t h e eye and " s p i r i t . " Havard c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t t h e a r t i s t s p r a c t i c i n g t h e Be a u x - A r t s were e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d by t h e crowd (la. f o u l e ) , w h i l e t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s "can be a p p r e c i a t e d o n l y by an e l i t e o f c o n o i s s e u r s . " He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e " f a l s e h i e r a r c h y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e a r t s " comes from t h e f a c t t h a t " i n a l l 51 txmes t h e i g n o r a n t s were more numerous." To i l l u s t r a t e the a v a n t - g a r d e ' s i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s I w i l l m ention Gauguin, E m i l e B e r n a r d and t h e a r t i s t s o f t h e N a b i group. When Gauguin a p p l i e d h i m s e l f t o c e r a m i c s (he worked w i t h t h e famous c e r a m i c i s t C h a p e l e t ) f o r example, he d i d n o t t h i n k i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e o f p r o d u c i n g " u s e f u l o b j e c t s , " b u t " a r t o b j e c t s . " T h i s i s e v i d e n t from a l e t t e r he w r o t e h i s w i f e i n 1886: I am engaged i n making a r t p o t t e r y . S c h u f f e n e c k e r says t h e y a re m a s t e r p i e c e s and so does the maker, b u t t h e y a r e p r o b a b l y t o o a r t i s t i c t o be s o l d . However, he says t h a t i f t h i s i d e a c o u l d e v e r be i n t r o d u c e d i n -t o an e x h i b i t i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , i t would have an amazing success.52 Thus Gauguin was t h i n k i n g i n terms o f " a r t p o t t e r y , " "master-p i e c e s . " He a l s o l e f t no doubt as f o r whom he i n t e n d e d h i s work; a n s w e r i n g an i n q u i r y whose purpose was t o probe th e e x i s t e n c e o f a "Renaissance o f t h e a r t - i n d u s t r i e s " and t h e e v e n t u a l emergence of a "new s t y l e , " Gauguin d e c l a r e d : Ne'. c h e r c h e z pas l a s o l u t i o n de v o t r e probleme dans l a r u e , p r e s des monuments p u b l i c s , dans l e s b o u t i q u e s des marchands. Chez 1." amateur seulement vous v e r r e z ce q u i a € t e f a i t . E t pour c e l a , n u l b e s o i n d'un grand nombre, du r e s t e l e s c h e f s - d ' o e u v r e ne se remuent pas a l a p e l l e . ^ 3 H i s " m a s t e r p i e c e s , " d e c o r a t i v e a r t o b j e c t s produced i n l i m i t e d q u a n t i t y , were d e s t i n e d f o r an e l i t e o f amateurs. Of c o u r s e , one s h o u l d n o t n e g l e c t the economic r e a s o n s , t h e poor f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n t h a t l e d some ava n t - g a r d e a r t i s t s i n t o t h e f i e l d o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . E m i l e B e r n a r d , f o r example, even t r i e d h i s hand a t i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n i n 1890 ( w i t h o u t much 54 s u c c e s s ) i n o r d e r t o e a r n a l i v i n g . He a l s o took c o u r s e s a t t h e E c o l e des A r t D e c o r a t i f s b e f o r e he e n t r e d Acadgmie Cormon 55 i n 1885. B e r n a r d was one o f t h e f i r s t a v a nt-garde p a i n t e r s t o be i n v o l v e d i n the d e c o r a t i v e a r t s : s t a i n e d - g l a s s windows, t a p e s t r y , e m b r o i d e r y , e t c . But e v e r y t h i n g was done i n t h e name of a r t f o r a r t ' s sake. I n 1891 (as i s e v i d e n t from a l e t t e r t o S c h u f f e n e c k e r ) , B e r n a r d proposed i n f a c t t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a s o c i e t y w i t h , t h e s l o g a n 1' A r t pour 1' A r t . ~*^ T a p e s t r i e s and o t h e r d e c o r a t i v e a r t s were on t h e l i s t o f t h e a r t o b j e c t s t o be produced by t h i s s o c i e t y . The N a b i s ' i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s was e x t e n s i v e . D enis and Ranson even d e s i g n e d " a r t i s t i c " w a l l -57 p a p e r s . Most o f the N a b i s ' work (except f o r c h u r c h com-m i s s i o n s ) was d e s t i n e d f o r t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f t h e apartments - 3D -o f w e l l - t o - d o amateurs (such as Thadee Natanson f o r example), 58 not o f w o r k e r s . The propaganda aimed a t b r i n g i n g f i n e a r t s and d e c o r a t i v e a r t s onto an equal: f o o t i n g i n o r d e r t o r e v i v e (and e v e n t u a l l y t o c r e a t e a new s t y l e o f ) F r e n c h d e c o r a t i o n , t h u s a t t r a c t e d a v a nt-garde a r t i s t s , such as t h e members of Pont-Aven o r N a b i groups. They e x h i b i t e d t h e i r d e c o r a t i v e a r t a t t h e Tndependants, a t t h e S a l o n o f Champ-de-Mars, o r a t B i n g ' s , and r i g h t from t h e s t a r t t h e y had t h e s u p p o r t o f Roger Marx, who as I i n d i c a t e d , had an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n the campaign t h a t r a i s e d t h e s t a t u s 59 o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . I n t r y i n g t o c o n c l u d e t o what e x t e n t t h e d e s i r e d r e -v i t a l i z a t i o n (even a " R e n a i s s a n c e " as some c a l l e d i t ) o f F r e n c h d e c o r a t i o n was r e a l i z e d i n p r a c t i c e , one can say t h a t i t was a c h i e v e d i n t h e d e c o r a t i v e r a t h e r than i n i n d u s t r i a l a r t s per s e , and t h a t i t r e a c h e d i t s peak i n the decade o f t h e 1890s. The home-grown " A r t Nouveau", t h a t a s s i m i l a t e d Japanese and Rococo i n f l u e n c e s i n t o a new s t y l e i n s p i r e d by n a t u r a l , o r g a n i c shapes, e x c e l l e d e s p e c i a l l y i n " a r t o b j e c t s , " o n e - o f - a k i n d , o r l i m i t e d e d i t i o n s . T h i s new, s p e c i f i c a l l y F r e n c h , d e c o r a t i v e s t y l e s h o u l d n o t be equated w i t h the a b s o l u t e l y f l a t A r t Nouveau s t y l e t h a t f i r s t appeared i n B e l g i u m and became more or l e s s an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t y l e . The l a t t e r , w h i l e i t drew from F r e n c h s o u r c e s , was i n t e n d e d f o r m a s s - p r o d u c t i o n , and was a l s o s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e s by E n g l i s h i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n . The r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n F r ance im-p l i e d a r e d e f i n i t i o n o f the p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n , as i t d i d i n England. I s h a l l f o c u s t h e d i s c u s s i o n f o r a w h i l e on - 31 -th e s e " t r u e " p r i n c i p l e s , s i n c e t h e y were i m p o r t a n t n o t o n l y f o r the c o n v e n t i o n a l d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , but a l s o f o r t h e development o f e a s e l p a i n t i n g (as i t w i l l be e v i d e n t i n Chapter I , P a r t 2) . I would a l s o l i k e t o emphasize t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c way t h e r e -v i t a l i z a t i o n was p r o c e e d i n g i n F r a n c e , was r e f l e c t e d i n t h e s p e c i f i c way d e c o r a t i o n was d e f i n e d . E q u a t i n g d e c o r a t i o n w i t h a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s i s c o r r e c t o n l y f o r t he or n a m e n t a l d e s i g n o f f l a t p a t t e r n s , b e s t s u i t e d f o r w a l l -p a p e r s , such as f i r s t t a u g h t i n C o l e ' s s c h o o l s o f d e s i g n . I n f a c t , i n my o p i n i o n , here l i e s t he o r i g i n o f the m i s c o n c e p t i o n t h a t " d e c o r a t i v e " e q u a l s a f l a t l i n e a r d e s i g n and smooth c o l o u r . I n F r a n c e , as i n E n g l a n d , t h e r e s p e c t f o r the i n t e g r i t y o f t h e d e c o r a t e d o b j e c t became t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f d e c o r a t i o n . Thus a d e c o r a t i o n i n t e n d e d f o r a f l a t s u r f a c e such as a w a l l o r a f l o o r had t o a v o i d " p i e r c i n g h o l e s " i n i t w i t h i l l u s i o n i s t i c d e v i c e s . But i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r l i n e t h a t F r e n c h r e -for m e r s d e f i n e d s p e c i f i c p r i n c i p l e s f o r each b r a n c h o f d e c o r a -t i v e a r t s , a l l o w i n g f o r v a r i o u s degrees o f " f l a t n e s s " among them. W a l l p a p e r s f o r example were suppose t o have f l a t d e s i g n s , b u t s i n c e t h e w a l l p a p e r i n d u s t r y was not t h e " n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y " t h e r e t o t h e e x t e n t i t was i n E n g l a n d , t h i s k i n d o f d e s i g n was not so p r o m i n e n t l y emphasized. I n France t a p e s t r y weaving was c o n s i d e r e d the " n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y , " and t h e r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a -t i v e a r t s i n t h i s c o u n t r y were v e r y much i n t e r e s t e d i n a " r e n a i s s a n c e " o f t h e t a p e s t r y i n d u s t r y based on t h e t r u e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n ( i n s t e a d o f i m i t a t i n g i l l u s i o n i s t i c t a b l e a u x ) , and a c c o r d e d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s s u b j e c t . B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g the i s s u e o f " t a p e s t r y f l a t n e s s " I would - 32 -l i k e t o mention a few words about t h e r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n t h i s d e c o r a t i v e a r t . I n the second h a l f o f the 19th c e n t u r y , e s p e c i a l l y i n the l a t e 1870s, t h e a f f l u e n t F r e n c h B o u r g e o i s i e became i n t e r e s t e d i n t a p e s t r i e s f o r home d e c o r a t i o n . In h i s r e p o r t on t a p e s t r y a t t h e U n i v e r s a l E x h i b i t i o n o f 1878, D e n u e l l e remarked t h a t t h e use o f t a p e s t r i e s i n p r i v a t e homes 6 0 had become q u i t e w i d e s p r e a d . I n t h e l a t e 1870s - e a r l y 1880s, t h e r e was an " i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h t h e t a p e s t r i e s done a f t e r t h e c a r t o o n s o f Boucher and C o y p e l " w h i c h l e d t o a tremendous i n -61 c r e a s e i n t h e i r p r i c e . The A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e G o b e l i n s r e a l i z e d t h e r e was a p o t e n t i a l market f o r modern t a p e s t r y among the l e s s w e a l t h y amateurs who c o u l d not a f f o r d t h e a n t i q u e s . Also, v a r i o u s p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s r e q u i r e d contemporary t a p e s t r i e s . The problem was t o f i n d good models, t h a t i s c a r t o o n s p a i n t e d i n accordance w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a -6 2 t i o n . " O f f i c i a l " a e s t h e t i c i a n s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , i n d u s t r i -a l i s t s , showed c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e r n i n t h i s r e s p e c t . I n 1876 Union C e n t r a i e o r g a n i z e d an e x h i b i t i o n o f t a p e s t r i e s w h i c h , as t h e M a r q u i s de C h e n n e v i e r e s ( B l a n c ' s s u c c e s s o r as d i r e c t o r o f t h e B e a u x - A r t s p o i n t e d o u t , "would become the s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f so many s t u d i e s and p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e a r t , o f w h i c h the o r i g i n s and t h e laws were i n the p r o c e s s o f b e i n g e s -63 t a b l i s h e d . " A t t h e t i m e o f the e x h i b i t i o n t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e G o b e l i n s was A l f r e d D a r c e l , and he p u b l i s h e d i n t h e G a z e t t e des B e a u x - A r t s a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s e n t i t l e d " E x p o s i t i o n de 64 l ' h i s t o i r e de l a t a p i s s e r i e . " He l o o k e d a t t h e e x h i b i t i o n 65 as a t a " l e s s o n i n d e c o r a t i v e a r t t h r o u g h t a p e s t r y . " D a r c e l was i n complete a c c o r d on t h i s s u b j e c t w i t h C h a r l e s B l a n c , from - 33 -whose a r t i c l e "Le Musee des t a p i s . s e r . i e s " (Le Temps, 4 September 66 187 6) he a c t u a l l y quoted. The p r i n c i p l e s a d vocated f o r t h e modern t a p e s t r y drew upon o l d e r p e r i o d s , as l o n g as t h o s e p e r i o d s a v o i d e d t h e r e a l i s t i c trompe l ' o e i l and the "window" e f f e c t . The g e n e r a l consensus was t h a t t a p e s t r y s h o u l d n ot i m i t a t e t a b l e a u x . T h i s c r i t i c i s m was e s p e c i a l l y d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e t a p e s t r i e s weaved i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y , which had t r i e d t o reproduce n o t " d e c o r a t i v e t a b l e a u x , " as t h e Rococo t a p e s t r i e s d i d ( i n f a c t a t the time t h e r e was a r e v i v a l o f b o t h M e d i e v a l and Rococo t a p e s t r i e s ) , b u t " e x p r e s s i v e " .tableaux such as The Pesthouse o f J a f f a by Gros, w i t h a l l i t s s u b t l e t i e s o f m o d e l l i n g . ^ ' 7 C h a r l e s B l a n c ' s Grammaire des a r t s d e c o r a t i f s (1882) i s one o f t h e b e s t s o u r c e s f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g the s p e c i f i c d i f -f e r e n c e s i n t h e r u l e s e s t a b l i s h e d by most r e f o r m e r s f o r v a r i o u s d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , such as: pavements, m e t a l work, w a l l p a p e r , t a p e s t r i e s , c a r p e t s , f u r n i t u r e , g l a s s - w o r k , c e r a m i c s , e t c . C a r p e t s , f o r example, were t o be f l a t and t h e i r d e s i g n were t o e x c l u d e the human f i g u r e . W a l l p a p e r s d e s i g n s c o u l d i n c l u d e human f i g u r e s , b u t r e n d e r e d i n f l a t t i n t s and s i l h o u e t t e d . I n t h e t a p e s t r i e s scenes w i t h f i g u r e s a nd.landscapes were a l l o w e d . The g e n e r a l g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s recommended by B l a n c f o r t a p e s t r y were t h e f o l l o w i n g : a v o i d a n c e o f t h e e f f e c t s o f l i n e a r and a t m o s p h e r i c p e r s p e c t i v e , and av o i d a n c e o f c h i a r o s c u r o e f f e c t , w h i c h was t o be r e p l a c e d w i t h a " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t " t h a t gave 68 an i m p r e s s i o n o f o v e r a l u n i f o r m i t y o f v a l u e . I n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h e p e r s p e c t i v e e f f e c t , one b a s i c r u l e , a c c o r d i n g t o B l a n c , was t o choose a v e r y h i g h v i e w p o i n t , w h i c h would a l s o 69 a v o i d . d i s p l a y i n g t o o much " s k y . " A good i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p e r s p e c t i v e i n a t a p e s t r y and t h e one i n a t a b l e a u i s g i v e n i n Havard's La D e c o r a t i o n (c.1891, i n which he r e p a t e d much o f what B l a n c s a i d ) . He i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s d i s -t i n c t i o n w i t h two f i g u r e s : one r e p r e s e n t e d a 16th c e n t u r y F l e m i s h t a p e s t r y , the o t h e r t h e same t a p e s t r y "mise en p e r -70 s p e c t i v e . " Havard commented: "The f i r s t one g i v e s the sen-s a t i o n o f a t a p e s t r y , t h e second one p i e r c e s t h e w a l l and has " 71 the a s p e c t o f a t a b l e a u . A v o i d i n g t h e p e r s p e c t i v e " e f f e c t " r e f e r s t o the scene as a whole, i t means a v o i d i n g t h e i l l u s i o n o f d e p t h , but i t does not e x c l u d e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s seen i n p e r s p e c t i v e . A l s o , t h e " d e c o r a t i v e e f f e c t " d i d not e x c l u d e m o d e l l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l volumes ( a l b e i t r u d i m e n t a r i l y and n o t by s u b t l e g r a d a t i o n s as i n p a i n t i n g ) , i n o t h e r words d i d 72 n o t e x c l u d e an e f f e c t o f r e l i e f . Even w i t h o u t an o u t l i n i n g o f t h e c o n t o u r s , a t a p e s t r y g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f o u t l i n i n g shapes w i t h a l o s t - a n d - f o u n d c o n t o u r , due t o i t s s l i t s . B l a n c d i d not s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u i r e a f i r m o u t -l i n i n g o f shapes (he, as I w i l l d i s c u s s l a t e r , s t i l l b e l i e v e d i n th e o l d academic p r e j u d i c e about the i r r e c o n c i l a b i l i t y o f " l i n e " , and " c o l o u r , " and b e l i e v e d c o l o u r s h o u l d dominate i n d e c o r a t i o n ) , b u t most r e f o r m e r s r e q u i r e d a c l e a r d e f i n i t i o n o f forms i n d e c o r a t i o n , t a p e s t r y i n c l u d e d . I n D e n u e l l e ' s r e p o r t o f 1877, l e t r a i t de r e d e s s i n e e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o 73 a l l d e c o r a t i v e a r t s d e r i v i n g from a r c h i t e c t u r e . " D a r c e l (who was d i r e c t o r o f t h e G o b e l i n s between 1871 - 1885) a l s o r e q u i r e d " f i r m n e s s i n d r a w i n g , " and C a l m e f t e s (a v e r y thorough h i s t o r i a n - 35 -o f t h e a r t o f t a p e s t r y i n t h e 19th c.) would say a few y e a r s l a t e r t h a t t h e most i m p o r t a n t r u l e i n t a p e s t r y was the r e n -74 d e r i n g o f t h e p u r i t y o f form, e x p r e s s e d by f i r m c o n t o u r s . Edouard D i d r o n (who f o r a c o u p l e o f y e a r s r a n the A n n a l e s - a r c h e o l o g i q u e s , d e s c r i b e d as "the most e f f e c t i v e mouthpiece" f o r t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l i n France)., a l s o l i s t e d t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t 75 among the p r i n c i p l e s he f o r m u l a t e d f o r t a p e s t r y . S i n c e h i s f o r m u l a t i o n (which he extended a l s o t o mosaics) summarizes q u i t e w e l l t h e p r e v a i l i n g t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g t a p e s t r i e s i n the l a t e 1870s, I w i l l r e produce i t i n a s l i g h t l y s h o r t e n e d v e r s i o n : 1) A c o m p o s i t i o n t h a t l e a v e s v e r y few s p a c e s . 2) S i m p l i c i t y o f e x e c u t i o n , i n w h i c h th e t r a i t i s predominant and t h e s i l h o u e t t e s are a c c e n t u a t e d . 3) "A sober m o d e l l i n g o f a t r u e d e c o r a t i v e c h a r a c t e r . " 4) An a l m o s t complete l a c k o f p e r s p e c t i v e . I t s h o u l d be c l e a r by how t h a t " t a p e s t r y f l a t n e s s " was not u n d e r s t o o d t o be t h e same as " w a l l p a p e r f l a t n e s s " (or as " s t a i n e d g l a s s window f l a t n e s s " ) by t h o s e who were i n t h e f o r e -f r o n t of t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s r e v i v a l i n F r a n c e . The t a p e s t r y - d e c o r a t i o n v e r s u s t a p e s t r y - t a b l e a u c o n f l i c t had a p a r a l l e l i n the d i s t i n c t i o n between " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " ( i n t h e sense o f monumental p a i n t i n g o r d e c o r a t i o n ) and t a b l e a u . I n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f the 19th c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g had emancipated i t s e l f from a r c h i t e c t u r e t o such degree, t h a t m u r a l d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s became n o t h i n g e l s e b u t l a r g e s c a l e t a b l e a u x . The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e r e s i d e d i n the f a c t t h a t b e i n g i n t e n d e d f o r a s p e c i f i c d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e u s u a l shape of a t a b l e a u was m o d i f i e d (and even t h i s was not always n e c e s s a r y ) . But d e f i n i n g d e c o r a -t i o n o n l y as a work w i t h a s p e c i f i c d e s t i n a t i o n was not good enough for. t h e r e f o r m e r s o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c was u n e q u i v o c a l on t h i s s u b j e c t : De ce que on p e i n t s u r un mur au l i e u de p e i n d r e s u r une t o i l e , 11 ne s ' e n s u i t pas que 1'oeuvre s o i t une p e i n t u r e monumentale, e t presque t o u t e s l e s p e i n t u r e s m urales p r o d u i t e s de n o t r e temps, ne sont t o u j o u r s , malgre l a d i f f e r e n c e du p r o c e d e , que des t a b l e a u x ; 7 6 D e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g , i n o r d e r t o be a " t r u e " d e c o r a t i o n ( l i k e any o t h e r d e c o r a t i v e a r t ) had t o f u l f i l l t h e " t r u e " p r i n c i p l e s o f d e c o r a t i o n . Of c o u r s e , t h e r e were s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p a i n t i n g as d e c o r a t i o n , j u s t as t h e r e were s p e c i f i c r e -qui r e m e n t s for. d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e v a r i o u s d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . The g e n e r a l consensus among r e f o r m e r s was t h a t p a i n t i n g as d e c o r a t i o n s h o u l d be s u b o r d i n a t e d t o a r c h i t e c t u r e . S i n c e most d e c o r a t i o n s were i n t e n d e d f o r f l a t w a l l s , f l a t n e s s was t h e most common r e q u i r e m e n t . But how f l a t ? " F l a t n e s s " i n d e c o r a t i o n was o r i g i n a l l y a d v o c a t e d and i n t r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l and t h e N e o - C a t h o l i c movements, as a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t 77 what was c o n s i d e r e d t o be "paganism" and "decadence." S i n c e t h i s f l a t n e s s (which was a b s o l u t e ) , and s i m p l i f i e d d e s i g n , were a l s o v e r y c o n v e n i e n t f o r m e c h a n i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n , i t became w i d e l y a c c e p t e d e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i e l d o f i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n , and t h e i n i t i a l i d e o l o g i c a l m o t i v a t i o n f o r g o t t e n . I n t h e 1880s 7 " f l a t n e s s " i n d e c o r a t i o n was r e q u i r e d as a "common sense law." Of. c o u r s e , i n t h e f i e l d o f d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g t h e r e was no q u e s t i o n o f f a c i l i t a t i n g t he p r o c e s s o f r e p r o d u c t i o n , and t h e "common s e n s e " . d i d not d i c t a t e a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s . T h i s i s why i n t h i s a r e a t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f o p i n i o n s between t h e G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t s and t h o s e whom I e a r l i e r . c a l l e d u p h o l d e r s o f t h e 79 "Western t r a d i t i o n " i s most o b v i o u s . - 37 -I n t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y b e l o n g s o f c o u r s e V i o l l e t - l e - D u c ( G o t h i c R e v i v a l i s t ) , who d i e d i n 1879. I w i l l a l s o i n c l u d e here Henry Havard, c o n s i d e r e d an a u t h o r i t y i n d e c o r a t i o n i n the 1880s and 1890s, who, l i k e V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , b e l i e v e d i n t h e "decadence" brought about i n monumental a r t by the e m a n c i p a t i o n 8 0 o f p a i n t i n g s i n c e the R e n a i s s a n c e . A c c o r d i n g t o V i o l l e t - l e -Duc a monumental p a i n t i n g s h o u l d always p r e s e r v e "the a s p e c t o f a d e c o r a t e d p l a n e s u r f a c e " ("1'aspect d'une s u r f a c e p l a n e 81 d e c o r e e " ) . T h i s was t r u e not o n l y f o r o r n a m e n t a l p a i n t i n g p r o p e r , t h a t i s , t h e p a i n t i n g o f o r n a m e n t a l m o t i f s t h a t do n o t i n v o l v e t h e human f i g u r e and a s u b j e c t , b u t a l s o f o r monumental p a i n t i n g o f v a r i o u s s c e n e s . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c d e c l a r e d : "Les p e u p l e s a r t i s t e s n'ont vu dans l a p e i n t u r e monumentale q u 1 on ». 8 2 d e s s i n enlumine e t t r e s - l e g e r e m e n t modele." He p r e f e r r e d t o see t h e m o d e l l i n g reduced o n l y t o t h e l i n e a r m o d e l l i n g a c h i e v e d by "more o r l e s s a c c e n t u a t e d t r a i t s , " and c o l o u r as n o t h i n g more than an " i l l u m i n a t i o n . " He c o n s i d e r e d t h a t the apogee of m e d i e v a l a r c h i t e c t u r a l p a i n t i n g was a t t a i n e d i n t h e 12th c e n t u r y i n F r a n c e , when t h e i n f l u e n c e of the h i e r a t i c B y z a n t i n e 8 3 s t y l e was v e r y pronounced. V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , as has o n l y l a t e l y been acknowledged, d i d n o t advocate a l i t e r a l " i m i t a t i o n " o f t h e G o t h i c s t y l e , b u t o n l y t h e b o r r o w i n g o f c e r t a i n g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s . Henry Havard, who was u s u a l l y , i n agreement w i t h V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , campaigned more o p e n l y f o r a modern s t y l e t o f i t the needs o f the modern way o f l i f e . L i k e V i o l l e t - l e - D u c , E avard would have p r e f e r r e d a ban on m o d e l l i n g (which g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f r e l i e f ) as w e l l as on t h e i l l u s i o n o f deep s p a t i a l r e c e s s i o n . H i s o p i n i o n - 38 -was t h a t i n a d e c o r a t i o n , n o t o n l y " i t i s awkward t o s i m u l a t e h o l e s and grooves where t h e demands o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r b i d them," but i t i s j u s t as i n c o r r e c t " t o s i m u l a t e r e l i e f s i n a 84 p l a c e where the w a l l s h o u l d remain f i a t . " But even he, who o f c o u r s e banned any " i d e a o f r e l i e f " i n pavements and c a r p e t s , t o l e r a t e d i t e v e n t u a l l y i n mur a l d e c o r a t i o n , because a t l e a s t , he s a i d , one can keep a d i s t a n c e from a w a l l , w h i l e w a l k i n g o v e r s i m u l a t e d r e l i e f s i s v e r y u n p l e a s a n t . H a v a r d 1 s d e s i r e f o r a b s o l u t e f l a t n e s s i n d e c o r a t i o n , even when he does not r e f e r t o p a i n t i n g , i s not r e l a t e d t o t h e problems o f m a s s - p r o d u c t i o n , w h i c h he a c t u a l l y d e p l o r e d . He was a g a i n s t t h e " d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f l u x u r y , " and as I mentioned b e f o r e , he f a v o r e d t h e e l i t i s t d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . Havard s h a r e d V i o l l e t - l e - D u c 1 s i n c l i n a t i o n toward a u s t e r i t y (he was a l s o a g a i n s t b r i g h t , pure c o l o u r s i n d e c o r a t i o n ) and h i s p o s i t i o n a g a i n s t p a i n t i n g b e i n g o v e r l y a s s e r t i v e i n d e c o r a t i o n . There were o t h e r s , though, who a c c e p t e d as a "common sense" r u l e t h a t i n d e c o r a t i o n p a i n t i n g had t o be s u b o r d i n a t e d t o a r c h i t e c t u r e , b u t d i d not want t o renounce t h e "Western" h e r i t a g e (which f a v o r e d m o d e l l i n g i n t h e round) c o m p l e t e l y . As Alphonse Germain (La Plume, 1891) put i t , "A t r u l y sane O c c i -8 5 d e n t a l eye w i l l always f e e l t h e n e c e s s i t y o f g r a d a t i o n s . " (Germain, a r e a c t i o n a r y c r i t i c , s u p p o r t e r o f P e l a d a n , c r i -t i c i s e d t he f l a t n e s s of S y m b o l i s t p a i n t i n g which d i d not r e s p e c t t h e "form" i n the name o f t h e s l o g a n " a r t i s not r e a l i t y > " and whic h would t h u s reduce t o a. " m a g n i f i c e n t a b e r r a t i o n " a l l t h e m a t e r p i e c e s produced s i n c e the Re n a i s s a n c e . ) The c r i t i c c on-s i d e r e d t h a t t h e i m i t a t i o n o f t h e i m p e r f e c t i o n s o f " b a r b a r i a n s " - 3 9 -(among whom he seems t o i n c l u d e t h e B y z a n t i n e s ) would o n l y l e a d t o an " i n f e r i o r d e c o r a t i v e a r t , because i t was w i t h o u t r a p p o r t w i t h our r a c e and our m o d e r n i t y . " But i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t he a c c e p t e d " a r c h a i s m s " i n book d e c o r a t i o n s f o r example (such as D e n i s 1 i l l u s t r a t i o n s f o r Sagesse by V e r l a i n e ) . T h i s was so because a t t h e t i m e , i n p a i n t i n g (which had a s p e c i a l s t a t u s s i n c e R e n a i s s a n c e ) , f l a t n e s s was s t i l l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an I d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y , w i t h r e p r e s e n t i n g the "dream" and t h e 1'au-dela. I mentioned b e f o r e t h a t an extreme case o f "Western t r a -d i t i o n a l i s m " can be found i n C h a r l e s B l a n c . He d i d p r e f e r " g r a d a t i o n s " (to f l a t t i n t s ) i n d e c o r a t i o n s i n g e n e r a l , b u t h i s "extremism" i s m a n i f e s t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n . In f a c t he d i d not i n c l u d e p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n (except f o r p a i n t i n g on g l a s s . a n d m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g - such as were the en l u m i n u r e s o f t h e 14th c e n t u r y - , w h i c h b e l o n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o him " r a t h e r t o o r n a m e n t a t i o n t h a n t o t h e a r t o f t h e p a i n t e r " ) • 8 6 among t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , as d i d Havard and V i o l l e t - l e - D u c . B l a n c d i d a c c e p t . f o r p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n t h e b a s i c r u l e o f "not s i m u l a t i n g h o l e s where the a r c h i t e c t wanted t o have s o l i d s t r u c t u r e s , " i . e . t h e r e s p e c t f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r o f the d e c o r a t e d 8 7 s u r f a c e . But the c o n c e s s i o n s t h a t p a i n t i n g s h o u l d make t o th e f l a t n e s s o f t h e w a l l r e f e r r e d t o the g e n e r a l e f f e c t , and not t o the m o d e l l i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s and f i g u r e s i n the p a i n t i n g , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t the m o d e l l i n g had t o be done i n c o l o u r . To: u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r what were the d i f f e r e n c e s between a d e c o r a t i o n and a t a b l e a u i n B l a n c ' s v i e w (as w e l l as a c c o r d i n g t o o t h e r s ) , I w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e f i r s t on t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f the t a b l e a u . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c answered t h e q u e s t i o n "What i s - 40 -a t a b l e a u ? " w i t h the f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n : C'est une scene qu'on f a i t v o i r au s p e c t a t e u r a t r a v e r s un c a d r e , une f e n e t r e o u v e r t e . U n i t e de p o i n t de vue, u n i t e de d i r e c t i o n de l a l u m i e r e , u n i t e d 1 e f f e c t . 8 8 S i m i l a r l y , C h a r l e s B l a n c wrote i n h i s Grammaire des a r t s du d e s s i n (1867): M a i n t e n a n t , q u ' e s t - c e qu'un t a b l e a u dans l a p e i n t u r e proprement d i t e ? C'est l a r e p r e -s e n t a t i o n d'une scene dont 1'ensemble peut e t r e embrasse d'un coup d ' o e i l . 8 9 T h i s u n i t o f e f f e c t ( i n o t h e r words the u n i t y p e r c e i v e d i n the p a i n t i n g a t one g l a n c e ) was a c h i e v e d f i r s t o f a l l i n a t a b l e a u (understood s i n c e A l b e r t i as a "window") by the observance of t h e . r u l e s o f l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i c h r e q u i r e d a u n i t y o f v i e w p o i n t . A n o t h e r f a c t o r t h a t a l l o w e d t h e scene r e p r e s e n t e d i n a t a b l e a u t o be p e r c e i v e d a t one g l a n c e was the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i g h t , w h i c h had t o a c h i e v e what B l a n c c a l l e d "the u n i t y o f c h i a r o s c u r o . " C h i a r o s c u r o was used not o n l y f o r the m o d e l l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l , f o r m s i n a t a b l e a u , but a l s o t o "model the t a b l e a u , " c o n s i d e r e d as a s i n g l e e n t i t y . The u n i t y o f c h i a r o s c u r o r e f e r s t o t h e l a t t e r , and i t means t h a t i n a t a b l e a u t h e r e i s one p r i n c i p a l l i g h t and one dominant dark a r e a . T h i s u n i t y o f 90 c h i a r o s c u r o i n d u c e d an u n i t y or " e f f e c t . " A d e c o r a t i o n was n o t supposed t o s i m i l a t e "windows" i n t h e w a l l , t h r o u g h w h i c h one c o u l d e x p e r i e n c e t h e i l l u s i o n o f d e p t h . I n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h i s , l i b e r t i e s t a k e n w i t h the r u l e s 91 o f l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e were a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y . S i n c e t h e c h i a r o s c u r o e f f e c t a l s o " p i e r c e d " t h e . w a l l , B l a n c recommended i t s r e p l a c e m e n t w i t h a polychrome e f f e c t , t h e u n i t y o f w h i c h i s a c h i e v e d by an even, l i g h t t o n a l i t y . B l a n c a l s o a s s o c i a t e d t h i s k i n d o f e f f e c t , c o n s i s t i n g o f a " d i f f u s e d and generous l i g h t " o b t a i n e d by such c o l o r i s t s as Veronese and Rubens, w i t h 92 th e p a i n t i n g of. scenes t h a t t a k e . p l a c e i n p l a i n a i r . U n i t y i n c o l o r i n g was i n f a c t t h e o n l y way o f a c h i e v i n g t h e " u n i t y o f e f f e c t " i n d e c o r a t i o n , and t h i s u n i t y was s t i l l a r e q u i r e m e n t i n d e c o r a t i o n a l s o , o n l y a c h i e v e d by d i f f e r e n t means th a n i n a t a b l e a u . Other w r i t e r s were s a t i s f i e d w i t h a more summary m o d e l l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l forms t h a n B l a n c was, and i n f a c t such a v i e w w i l l be t h e predominant one i n the 1880s and 1890s, w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n . I w i l l g i v e as examples o f such w r i t e r s , D a r c e l and Champier. A l f r e d D a r e e l (1818-1893) had been a s s o c i a t e d a t f i r s t w i t h the G o t h i c R e v i v a l , and he was con-s i d e r e d an a u t h o r i t y on the a r c h e o l o g y o f the F r e n c h M i d d l e 93 Ages, as w e l l a s . o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e . He was an o f f i c i a l i n th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e B e a u x - A r t s , d i r e c t o r o f the G o b e l i n s , as I a l r e a d y mentioned, as w e l l as o f the Musee de C l u n y , and he was a member of the A d m i n i s t r a t i v e C o u n c i l o f t h e Union C e n t r a l e des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s . He campaigned f o r t h e i n t r o -d u c t i o n o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s i n t o t h e S a l o n as e a r l y as 1882, when t h e Union C e n t r a l e h e l d i t s own S a l o n o f d e c o r a t i v e a r t s . On t h i s o c c a s i o n he wrote "Le S a l o n des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s , " an a r t i c l e i n wh i c h he s t a t e d t h a t a " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " ( i n t h e sense o f d e c o r a t i o n ) s h o u l d s a t i s f y the f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s : Dans l a c o m p o s i t i o n une c e r t a i n e e u r y t h m i e ; dans l e d e s s i n une c e r t a i n e a b r e v i a t i o n , q u i e s t une des c o n d i t i o n s du s t y l e a t q u i n ' e x c l u t p o i n t l a gra c e elle-meme; dans l a c o u l e u r une c e r t a i n e u n i t € q u i r e s u l t e souvent de l a d e c o l o r a t i o n des l u m i a r e s e t une tenue q u i p r o v i e n t de ce que chaque chose e s t simplement modelee p a r l e s d i f f e r e n t s t o n s d'une - 42 -I w i l l come back l a t e r t o D a r c e l ' s r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p a i n t i n g -d e c o r a t i o n ; f o r the moment I would l i k e t o p o i n t out t h a t D a r c e l h e l d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i n such a p a i n t i n g e v e r y t h i n g s h o u l d be a t l e a s t summarily m o d e l l e d . He c o n t r a s t e d t h i s m o d e l l i n g w i t h t h e e v e n l y a p p l i e d c o l o u r ( l e s a - p l a t ) o f Japonisme, o f w h i c h he d i d not approve. L i k e B l a n c , D a r c e l d i d n o t want a m o d e l l i n g o f t h e p a i n t i n g as a whole ( c h i a r o s c u r o e f f e c t ) , b u t a u n i t y i n c o l o u r i n g ("which o f t e n i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e d i s c o l o r a t i o n s o f l i g h t " ) , most i m p o r t a n t l y i n v a l u e . Thus t h e a s p e c t o f a p a i n t e d d e c o r a t i o n was not t o be as f l a t as a Japanese p r i n t , o r as a m a n u s c r i p t i l l u m i n a t i o n , b u t more l i k e an e v e n l y l i t b a s - r e l i e f . The i l l u s i o n o f a h i g h r e l i e f was t o be e x p e c t e d o n l y i n a t a b l e a u . D a r c e l touched upon another d i s t i n c t i o n t h a t was t o be made between a d e c o r a t i o n and a t a b l e a u , r e l a t e d t o the problem of " f i n i s h . " D e c o r a t i o n d i d n o t , r e q u i r e t h e same amount of 95 " f i n i s h " as a t a b l e a u . B u t , on t h e o t h e r hand D a r c e l p o i n t e d o u t , the l a c k o f f i n i s h a l o n e , an ebauche, does not make a d e c o r a t i o n > no\more than t h e shape of the p a i n t i n g does: P a r c e qu'en un panneau une des deux d i m e n s i o n s domine, ou p a r c e que l e p e i n t r e s ' e s t c o n t e n t e de b r o s s e r une ebauche, i l ne f a u d r a i t pas supposer que l a forme du c a d r e , pas p l u s que 1'inacheve, s ' u f f i s e n t . a donner l e c a r a c t e r e de d e c o r a t i o n a une p e i n t u r e ; ^ 0 " Of c o u r s e , what gave a p a i n t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a d e c o r a t i o n , as s h o u l d be c l e a r by now, was a s e t of r u l e s , a l l a i m i n g t o p r e s e r v e more o r l e s s t h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l i t y o f the s u r f a c e decorated..... These r u l e s were g a t h e r e d , t o g e t h e r , i n an even more o r g a n i z e d f a s h i o n than i n D a r c e l ' s a r t i c l e , by V i c t o r - 43 -Champier, t h e d i r e c t o r o f the Revue des A r t s D e c o r a t i f s , and 97 a l s o an o f f i c i a l i n the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e B e a u x - A r t s . I n t h e second p a r t o f h i s "M.P.-V. G a l l a n d e t 1'enseignement de l ' a r t d e c o r a t i f , " (1888) Champier f o r m u l a t e d "the p r i n c i p l e s o f t r u e d e c o r a t i o n " f o r " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " - a n e c e s s a r y t a s k , because as he put i t , " i n s p i t e o f common sense, r e a s o n and good t a s t e , " t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s were v i o l a t e d i n p r a c t i c e . The most b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t was o f c o u r s e , "not t o s i m u l a t e o p e n i n g s " i n the s o l i d i t y o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , because t h i s would " t r o u b l e " our eye, i n d u c i n g i t t o "doubt" t h i s s o l i d i t y . I n o t h e r words, a degree o f f l a t n e s s was a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y . Then he added the f o l l o w i n g " l a w s " : La f r a n c h i s e dans l a c o l o r a t i o n s , une f a c t u r e s i m p l e e t l a r g e , presque j a m a i s de t o n s n e u t r e s , des masses b i e n e q u i l i b r e e s , pas de t r o m p e - 1 1 o e i l s e r r a n t de p r e s l a n a t u r e , n i de modele p r e c i e u x e t d e l i c a t comme dans l e s t a b l e a u x , v o i l a q u e l l e s s o n t , pour c e t t e forme d ' a r t , l e s l o i s c o n s a c r e e s p a r 1 ' e x p e r i e n c e e t l e bon sens. Champier t r i e d t o be above i d e o l o g i e s and p r e s e n t e d t h e s e "laws" as d e r i v i n g s i m p l y from "common sense." He c o n s i d e r e d them as " t r u t h s , " " p r o c l a i m e d by a l l a e s t h e t i c i a n s , " and which c o u l d be 99 found i n h i s day " i n most books." He gave V i o l l e t - l e - D u c a s p e c i a l m e n t i o n , but he combined i n f a c t t h e a r c h i t e c t ' s p o i n t o f v i e w w i t h B l a n c ' s , and p r a i s e d m e d i e v a l a r t as w e l l as t h e d e c o r a t i o n s o f Raphael and M i c h e l a n g e l o i n the V a t i c a n . H i s a n t i p a t h y f o r t h e Academy was o b v i o u s , though, i n h i s remarks about n o t w a n t i n g t o sound "dogmatic" a n d . e s t a b l i s h a "program" l i k e t h e "grammarians o f a r t " (most l i k e l y an a l l u s i o n t o B l a n c ' s two "grammars"). Champier wanted o n l y t o make i t c l e a r t h a t " D e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g and e a s e l p a i n t i n g a re two t o t a l l y d i s t i n c t g e n r e s , w i t h s e p a r a t e laws and a d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e . " " L U ± T h i s i s i n f a c t t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n t o be r e t a i n e d so f a r . As I w i l l i n d i c a t e i n t h e second p a r t o f t h i s , c h a p t e r , t h e most avant-garde t r e n d s i n t h e p a i n t i n g o f t h e 1890s would make use of t h e s e "laws" o f d e c o r a t i o n , but a t the same time t h e y would a b o l i s h the double s t a n d a r d s w h i c h the " o f f i c i a l " a e s t h e t i c i a n s o f t h e second p a r t o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y m a i n t a i n e d f o r d e c o r a -t i o n and t a b l e a u . By a p p l y i n g t h e "laws o f d e c o r a t i o n " even t o t h e e a s e l p a i n t i n g , t h e y w i l l i n f a c t a b o l i s h t h e t a b l e a u . B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e new " d e c o r a t i v e " t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e p a i n t i n g o f . t h e 1890s, i t i s n e c e s s a r y , because o f a c o n f u s i n g t e r m i n o l o g y , t o d e f i n e D e c o r a t i v e as opposed t o D e c o r a t i o n . By t h e 1880s (and a l r e a d y q u i t e o f t e n i n t h e 1870s) the term " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " became i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e w i t h " p a i n t i n g -d e c o r a t i o n " (as i s e v i d e n t i n Champier's a r t i c l e f o r example). Thus " d e c o r a t i v e " became a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " d e c o r a t i o n , " t h a t i s , w i t h d e s i g n i n g a work o f a r t produced f o r a s p e c i f i c des-t i n a t i o n , w h i c h i m p l i e d o b e y i n g s p e c i f i c r u l e s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g (not o n l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a i n t i n g ) any d e c o r a t i o n was t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , " a s t a n d a r d d e f i n i t i o n o f which was g i v e n i n H a v a r d 1 s book La D e c o r a t i o n : B i e n que t o u s l e s a r t s p l a s t i q u e s c o n c o u r e n t dans une mesure p l u s ou moins l a r g e a l a d e c o r a t i o n , on donne p l u s s p e c i a l e m e n t l e nom d ' a r t s d e c o r a t i f s a ceux q u i o n t pour b u t , non pas l a c r e a t i o n d'une oeuvre d ' a r t i n d e p e n d a n t e , mais 1 1 o r n e m e n t a t i o n d'un ensemble de c o n s t r u c t i o n , d'une p i e c e , d'une s u r f a c e ou d'un o b j e t p r e a l a b l e m e n t e x i s t a n t . 1 ^ 2 R e t u r n i n g j u s t t o p a i n t i n g (because t h i s i s o f immediate i n t e r e s t ) , s i n c e t h e s u r f a c e f o r w h i c h i t was i n t e n d e d was u s u a l l y a f l a t w a l l , f l a t n e s s (a f o r m a l element) was t h e most - 45 -i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h i c h d e f i n e d p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n . I t was a~ consequence o f i t s dependence on a r c h i t e c t u r e . Thus d e c o r a t i o n means f i r s t o f a l l s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o a r c h i t e c t u r e . A t a b l e a u , w h i c h i s "independent" of a r c h i t e c t u r e , i s n o t a d e c o r a t i o n . Yet the term " d e c o r a t i v e " was a l s o used t o q u a l i f y some t a b l e a u x . D u r i n g the 1860s and.1870s t h e g e n e r a l consensus was t h a t " d e c o r a t i v e " a r t was an a r t a p p e a l i n g o n l y t o the s e n s e s , i . e . p u r e l y " e x t e r n a l . " D u r i n g t h e 1880s and e a r l y 1890s i t was s a i d t h a t i t p l e a s e d t h e eye, b u t t h a t i t was a l s o r e s t f u l f o r t h e mind, o r p l e a s e d t h e " s p i r i t " , a s w e l l . I n any e v e n t , used i n t h i s s ense, t h e a d j e c t i v e " d e c o r a t i v e " d i d not r e f e r t o t h e f a c t t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r work d e c o r a t e d a p a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e (even though i t c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o a d e c o r a t i o n as w e l l as t o a t a b l e a u ) b u t t o t h e enjoyment bro u g h t t o the v i e w e r , t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t i t had o n h i m . T h i s e f f e c t was such as not t o i n v o l v e him e m o t i o n a l l y , b u t r a t h e r a e s t h e t i c a l l y . Chesneau f o r example gave t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f " d e c o r a t i v e " a r t (I w i l l use t h e n o t a t i o n " d e c o r a t i v e " a r t and " d e c o r a t i v e a r t " t o d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e two meanings o f " d e c o r a t i v e " ! ) as i t was commonly u n d e r s t o o d i n the 1960s and 1970s: " I c a l l work of d e c o r a t i v e a r t any work made s o l e l y f o r t he p l e a s u r e o f the eyes , w i t h o u t any thought o f emotion." He a l s o s a i d t h a t i n t h e f i e l d o f " p l a s t i c a r t s , " " d e c o r a t i v e " 104 a r t i s t h e same as " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake", ( l ' a r t pour l ' a r t ) . Thus d e c o r a t i v e was synonymous w i t h a r t f o r a r t ' s sake, because i t emphasized n ot a s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t would i n d u c e i n t h e v i e w e r p o w e r f u l e m o t i o n s , but f o r m a l , and t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s , t h e m e t i e r . There were " d e c o r a t i v e " t a b l e a u x (which d i d not have t o - 46 -renounce a e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e f o r example, s i n c e i t d i d not m a t t e r i f t h e y gave the i l l u s i o n o f d e p t h ) , as t h e r e were " d e c o r a t i v e " d e c o r a t i o n s . E v e n t u a l l y , as I a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , i n t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s " t h e ' • u t i l i t a r i a n " : a s p e c t was pushed a s i d e , c o n s i d e r e d s e condary, and t h e i r " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" c h a r a c t e r ( a r t w i t h o u t m o r a l ends) emphasized. D u r i n g t h e 1860s and most o f the 1870s, the term " d e c o r a -t i v e " p a i n t i n g had a p e j o r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n , because i t was d e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o academic t r a d i t i o n , i n o p p o s i t i o n t o " e x p r e s s i v e " p a i n t i n g , t h e p a i n t i n g o f " S t y l e , " c a p a b l e o f e x p r e s s i n g "noble emotions" ( r e l i g i o u s i n n a t u r e , o r h e r o i c , e t c . ) , i n o t h e r words c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h "grand" a r t . The Academy ( l e a n i n g . h e a v i l y toward C l a s s i c i s m ) , c o n s i d e r e d t h e r e t o be a s u p e r i o r a r t , one w h i c h a p p e a l s t o t h e i n t e l l e c t (which c o u l d i n c l u d e a l s o m u r a l s ) , and an i n f e r i o r one, w h i c h a p p e a l s t o t h e s e n s e s , i t i s d e c o r a t i v e (which c o u l d . i n c l u d e " d e c o r a t i v e " t a b l e a u x ) . Such c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p e r p e t u a t e d the o l d P o u s s i n i s t / R u b e n i s t , C l a s s i c a l / R o m a n t i c , d r a w i n g o r l i n e ( r e l a t e d t o " S t y l e " ) / c o l o u r s q u a b b l e s . The " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g t h u s d e f i n e d had a " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " c o n n o t a t i o n , because i t was suppose t o p l e a s e o n l y t h e senses (not t h e " s p i r i t " o r t o i n -v o l v e t h e i n t e l l e c t ) and t o emphasize the " m a t e r i a l " s i d e o f p a i n t i n g . Thus, i n " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g t h e form i s r e n d e r e d by i n t e r i o r m o d e l l i n g (as opposed t o c o n t o u r , w h i c h d i s p l a y e d "the i n t e l l i g e n t arabesque o f t h e l i n e , " i n t h e p a i n t i n g o f " S t y l e " ) and by "the movement o f l a p a t e . " The p a i n t e r s who produced t h i s k i n d o f p a i n t i n g were m o s t l y " c o l o r i s t s " and p a i n t e r s o f "temperament" (as opposed t o p a i n t e r s o f i n t e l l e c t - 47 -10 b o r e s p r i t ) . The p e r s o n a l " t o u c h " ( l a t o u c h e ) , o f t e n i n heavy i m p a s t o , was i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s " d e c o r a t i v e " or. " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" p a i n t i n g . A N a t u r a l i s t . - ; p a i n t i n g such as an Im-p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g o f t h e 1870s f i t s v e r y w e l l i n t o t h i s c a t e g o r y o f " d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g . C h a r l e s B l a n c i n f a c t up-d a t e d t h e s e t o f c o n t r a r i e s p e r p e t u a t e d by the Academy, mentioned above, by r e d u c i n g them t o t h e dichotomy of S t y l e .T , , .. 106 v e r u s N a t u r a l i s m . As I i n d i c a t e d , i n t h e l a t e 1870s and e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e 1880s, th e term " d e c o r a t i v e " was used more and more t o d e s i g -n a t e a " d e c o r a t i o n " (thus t h e e x p r e s s i o n " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " meant p a i n t i n g - d e c o r a t i o n ) . T h i s was done i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h o s e who wanted t o r a i s e t h e s t a t u s o f t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s ; t h e y l o o s e l y used th e e x p r e s s i o n " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " t o i n -d i c a t e any m u r a l , p a s t o r p r e s e n t (be i t " d e c o r a t i v e " i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sense or n o t ) , because t h e y wanted t o be a b l e t o say t h a t " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " was p r a c t i c e d by such g i a n t s as M i c h e l a n g e l o o r R a p h a e l . T h i s t e r m i n o l o g y brought p r o t e s t s from C h a r l e s B l a n c f o r example, who c o n s i d e r e d d e p l o r a b l e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m u r a l s of Mantegna, M i c h e l a n g e l o o r Raphael ( a l l p a i n t i n g s o f S t y l e and i n d u c i n g p o w e r f u l emotions i n t h e 107 v i e w e r ) as " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g . " Of c o u r s e , one can h a r d l y d e s c r i b e The L a s t Judgement of M i c h e l a n g e l o as " d e c o r a t i v e , " w h i c h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sense meant s i m p l y p l e a s i n g t h e eye. I n f a c t such a d e c o r a t i o n d i d not even f i t t h e c a t e g o r y "de-c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " as d e f i n e d by a l l r e f o r m e r s , because t h e y f o r b a d e i n d e c o r a t i o n s scenes e x p r e s s i n g s t r o n g e motions. To resume, now ( i n t h e 1880s) " d e c o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g " meant - 4 8 " -" d e c o r a t i v e " p a i n t i n g w h i c h was a l s o " d e c o r a t i o n " ( t h a t i s f i r s t o f a i l , q u i t e " f l a t " ) . . But t h e meaning o f t h e term " d e c o r a t i v e " ( t h a t meaning w h i c h r e l a t e s t o t h e e f f e c t t h e work has on t h e v i e w e r ) was changed. A " d e c o r a t i v e " work o f a r t was not a d d r e s s e d now o n l y t o t h e se n s e s , b u t a l s o t o t h e mind, even t o t h e " s o u l . " Thus t h e " d e c o r a t i v e " was n o t t o be de-f i n e d o n l y i n a m a t e r i a l i s t i c framework, w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t a N a t u r a l i s t p a i n t i n g was n o t " d e c o r a t i v e " by t h e new s t a n d a r d s . A l s o , t h e term " d e c o r a t i v e " d i d n o t have a p e j o r a t i v e con-n o t a t i o n anymore. I w i l l d i s c u s s b r i e f l y t h e l a s t two p o i n t s . " D e c o r a t i o n " and t h e " d e c o r a t i v e a r t s , " were d e f i n e d by th e o r i g i n a l r e f o r m e r s i n an i d e a l i s t i c framework, b o t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o form and c o n t e n t . F o r m a l l y , a r e a l i s t i c , i l l u s i o n -i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n was f o r b i d d e n . T h i s c o u l d (as l a t e r be-came the norm) be j u s t i f i e d by a "common sense law" o f subor-d i n a t i o n t o a r c h i t e c t u r e , w h i c h r e q u i r e d " f l a t n e s s . " Of c o u r s e , t h i s "law" does not n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y a s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f i d e a l i s t c o n t e n t , u n l e s s one b e l i e v e s t h e r e s h o u l d be such correspondence between form and c o n t e n t . T h i s i s e x a c t l y what the o r i g i n a l r e f o r m e r s had b e l i e v e d . 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Cezanne as a "decorative" painter Freeman, Dana Alexandra 1982
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| Title | Cezanne as a "decorative" painter |
| Creator |
Freeman, Dana Alexandra |
| Publisher | University of British Columbia |
| Date Issued | 1982 |
| Description | The thesis focuses on a significant, but neglected aspect of Cezanne's oeuvre: the relationship between Cezanne's paintings and the decorative aesthetic of the 1890s. Since the meaning of the term "decorative" underwent significant changes during the last quarter of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century, particular attention is paid to problems of definition in Chapter I, Part 1. This section shows that the definition of what was "true" decoration, and the increasing emphasis on decoration, were related to the process of revitalization of the industrial and decorative arts in France. Chapter I, Part 2 establishes that the general tendency of the avant-garde painting in the decade 1890-1900 was to be "decorative." The most innovative manifestation of this trend was the introduction of the aesthetics of "decoration" into easel painting. The transformation of painting from tableau into "decoration" was a reflection of an anti-Naturalist, anti-positivist trend. The second chapter of the thesis is devoted to Cezanne's position vis-a-vis the "decorative trend." Chapter II, Part 1 analyses the criticism of Cezanne's contemporaries. Special attention is given to the writer's particular positions on aesthetics, philosophy, religion, politics (whenever possible), as well as to changes in these positions. Chapter II, Part 2 analyses Cezanne's letters (considered as the only authentic source of true quotations from the artist) and paintings. The conclusion is that Cezanne not only belongs to the general tendency toward the "decorative," but that he can be considered among its initiators. Moreover, the present author proposes that C§zanne was part of the movement that introduced the aesthetic of "decoration" into easel painting. Qualities such as the interplay between two-dimensionality, and three-dimensionality, the accent on contours, the general aspect of bas-relief, or even of tapestry (often noticed by his contemporaries, as well as by later critics), can be explained by Cezanne's intention to apply to his paintings a "decoration paradigm." Special attention is placed on the method of "colour modulation" and its possible relation to similar methods used in 18th century French tapestries, or those recommended for tapestries in theoretical works by 19th century French reformers of the decorative arts. |
| Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
| Type |
Text |
| Language | eng |
| Date Available | 2010-03-30 |
| Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
| Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
| DOI | 10.14288/1.0095378 |
| URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/23087 |
| Degree |
Master of Arts - MA |
| Program |
Fine Arts |
| Affiliation |
Arts, Faculty of Art History, Visual Art and Theory, Department of |
| Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
| Campus |
UBCV |
| Scholarly Level | Graduate |
| AggregatedSourceRepository | DSpace |
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