THE. EMERGENCY AND CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGE IN INDIA by S A R B J I T SINGH JOHAL B.A. U n i v e r s i t y o f R e a d i n g , 1974 A T H E S I S SUBMITTED I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L L M E N T OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department of P o l i t i c a l Science We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g to the required standard THE U N I V E R S I T Y OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA J u n e , 1977 © Sarbjit Singh Johal, 1977 In presenting this an a d v a n c e d degree the shall I Library f u r t h e r agree for scholarly by h i s of this written at make that thesis it freely permission purposes for in p a r t i a l the U n i v e r s i t y may representatives. financial of University PcrUM^oJ of British 2075 Wesbrook P l a c e Vancouver, Canada V 6 T 1W5 Date is vAOy ''97? of British for for extensive be g r a n t e d It fulfilment of available by gain shall Suh^Csj Columbia the that not requirements Columbia, I agree r e f e r e n c e and copying t h e Head o f understood permission. Department The thesis of this or that study. thesis my D e p a r t m e n t copying for or publication be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my ABSTRACT This study i s concerned w i t h the e f f e c t of I n d i a ' s s t a t e of emergency 1975-77, on t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n . A l - t h o u g h t h e s t a t e o f e m e r g e n c y o f J u n e 2 6 , 1 9 7 5 was i n v o k e d u n d e r Article 352 o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , i t r e p r e s e n t e d an i m p o r t a n t b r e a k i n I n d i a ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l 1975, I n d i a largest often was r e f e r r e d democracy." Her p o l i t i c a l for and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y G a n d h i p r o p o s e d a n d p a s s e d c e r t a i n amendments The p u r p o s e o f t h i s t h e s i s ecutive, parties, Minister to the Indian l e g i s l a t i v e and j u d i c i a l government and o p p o s i t i o n o f t h e amendments a r e government-opposition r e l a t i o n s , ex- s o c i a l r e f o r m and f e d e r a l i s m . tions powers, i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s , economic A detailed parties. account i s given of the t h e Congress P a r t y and between I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e recommenda- o f t h e Swaran S i n g h Committee a r e a n a l y z e d . In examining the v i a b i l i t y 26, constitu- i s t o examine t h e r e a s o n s implications c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n debate w i t h i n it where were t h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e amendments. analyzed f o r p o l i t i c a l the countries o f emergency t h e government o f P r i m e The c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d p o l i t i c a l and Prior to collapsed. During the state Constitution. 1947. t o b o t h a t home a n d a b r o a d a s t h e " w o r l d ' s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h other A s i a n and A f r i c a n t i o n a l governments Indira development since i s hypothesized that o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n I n d i a the Indian Constitution, 1950, c o n t a i n e d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s s i o n s and i t s . emergency powers. a s adopted on J a n u a r y between i t s l i b e r a l democratic These b r o a d emergency powers provi proved antithetical t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government. I t i s further hypothesized t h a t the maintenance o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government r e q u i r e s a consensus between the the government and t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m . as t o the r u l e s I n developing these hypotheses K o t h a r l ' s m o d e l o f o n e - p a r t y d o m i n a n c e and t h e M a r x i s t m o d e l o f conflict are u t i l i z e d . Finally, class the h y p o t h e s e s o f the paper and t h e two m o d e l s a r e r e e x a m i n e d i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e e m e r g e n c y p e r i o d of of and t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l changes t h a t o c c u r r e d under i t . i i i TABLE OF CONTENTS Page T i t l e Page . . . i Abstract i Table o f Contents i i v Acknowledgments v Chapter I II III IV V VI INTRODUCTION Scope and P u r p o s e Methods 1 THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION, 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 7 5 . 7 K O T H A R I s MODEL OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE AND THE MARXIST MODEL OF CLASS CONFLICT . . . . . . 18 THE EMERGENCY, 1975 36 THE R E V I S I O N OF THE CONSTITUTION Reasons f o r R e v i s i o n The S w a r a n S i n g h C o m m i t t e e The C o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d P o l i t i c a l o f t h e 4 2 n d Amendment 65 1 Implications CONCLUSION The E m e r g e n c y a n d c o n t i n u i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l development The m o d e l o f o n e - p a r t y d o m i n a n c e a n d t h e M a r x i s t model r e a s s e s s e d 83 Footnotes 92 Select Bibliography 98 iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like t o a c k n o w l e d g e my t h a n k s a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n t o D r . J o h n R. Wood, my t h e s i s s u p e r v i s o r , t o whom I am i n d e b t e d i n more w a y s t h a n o n e , b u t e s p e c i a l l y f o r h i s h e l p f u l c r i t i c i s m s and s u g g e s t i o n s , a n d t o P r o f e s s o r s R o b e r t H. J a c k s o n a n d F r a n k C. Langdon f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s . I would also like t o thank N i t i s h K. D u t t a n d Muhammad G. K a b i r f o r r e a d i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t a n d c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e same. for Lastly, I w i s h t o thank M r s . E. McDonald d o i n g an e x c e l l e n t j o b t y p i n g the manuscript. v 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1a On J u n e 2 6 , 1 9 7 5 t h e P r e s i d e n t o f I n d i a , a c t i n g on t h e a d v i c e o f Prime M i n i s t e r I n d i r a Gandhi, declared India's emergency f o r r e a s o n s o f i n t e r n a l i n s t a b i l i t y . arrested, press censorship the question state of n a t i o n a l Opposition liberties curtailed. were A t the time o f i t s a r o s e o f w h e t h e r t h e e m e r g e n c y r u l e was a temporary suspension o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o r t h e beginning authoritarian leaders imposed, c e r t a i n extreme l e f t and r i g h t w i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s banned and c i v i l imposition, first o f permanent rule. From J u n e 1975 t o t h e l i f t i n g o f t h e emergency a f t e r t h e March 1977 g e n e r a l ' e l e c t i o n , i t a p p e a r e d t h a t t h e p e r i o d o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t b e t w e e n 1950 a n d 1975 h a d b e e n o n l y a n i n t e r l u d e i n I n d i a ' s long h i s t o r y of absolute the l i s t ship. f o r m s o f g o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h a t I n d i a was j o i n i n g o f A f r i c a n and A s i a n c o u n t r i e s w h i c h h a d succumbed to dictator- Thus, i n any a n a l y s i s o f t h e emergency p e r i o d , 1975-77, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o compare and c o n t r a s t i t w i t h t h e p e r i o d 1950-75 t o see w h e t h e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f e m e r g e n c y was a n a b e r r a t i o n o r t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f economic, s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l In the years f o l l o w i n g India's many o b s e r v e r s stability. stances and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s Such s t a b i l i t y since independence. independence i n August 1947, drew a t t e n t i o n t o I n d i a ' s political was a l l t h e m o r e m a r k e d b e c a u s e t h e c i r c u m - i n which I n d i a gained i n d e p e n d e n c e seemed t o make t h e f u t u r e s u r v i v a l of I n d i a as a n a t i o n problematic. communal s t r i f e trends between Hindus, Sikhs These circumstances included: and Moslems; r e f u g e e p r o b l e m s ; d i s l o c a t i o n s caused by t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and m i l i t a r y 2 structures new of the political I n d i a ; and, Yet i n g and former B r i t i s h Empire; the urgent need to develop framework i n t e g r a t i n g the v a r i o u s finally, e c o n o m i c and social s t a t e s and succeeded i n of formulat- a d o p t i n g a working C o n s t i t u t i o n i n which, f o r example, i n d i v i d u a l the j u d i c i a r y independent. r u l e became an system. Moreover, the p r i n c e l y s t a t e s were i n t e g r a t e d most o f the s t a t e s were r e o r g a n i z e d e l e c t i o n s were h e l d , planning and referred t o as had the Indian the i s not by along l i n g u i s t i c government had to suggest, however, t h a t development i n the period language r i o t s i n the political Madras as shown by (now general economic I n d i a came t o as be a significant governments regimes. against unrest i n each of reorga- the decades; on a Internally, 1960s o v e r s t a t e s demonstrations i n urban areas; attacks and two initiated stability. riots conflicts; lines, republic, India's c o n s t i t u t i o n a l communal r i o t i n g and other caste i n t o the 1947-75 t o o k p l a c e 1 9 5 0 s and p r i n c i p l e of political m i l i t a r y d i c t a t o r s h i p s or one-party nization; and Indian A f r i c a where numerous b a c k g r o u n d o f e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l and India faced of ' w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t d e m o c r a c y ' and r e s t o f A s i a and were b e i n g r e p l a c e d political and feature set goals f o r s o c i a l development. the example f o r the This established The civilian sporadic 'Harijans' and s e c e s s i o n i s t movements i n N a g a l a n d , M i z o r a m T a m i l N a d u ) ; and agrarian t h e N a x a l i t e movement. s t a t e governments f e l l u n r e s t i n the Political c u l a r l y marked i n s e v e r a l s t a t e s a f t e r the several regions underdevelopment. a decade a f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e I n d i a had r i g h t s were g u a r a n t e e d and and a l a t e 1960s i n s t a b i l i t y was 1967 after defections general parti- e l e c t i o n when o f M.L.A.s. These 3 manifestations, of the various conflicts i n Indian s o c i e t y had t o be met b y t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t w i t h , t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t ' s i n s e v e r a l s t a t e s and by t h e u s e o f emergency r e g u l a t i o n s Defense of I n d i a Rules, successor The the Preventive Detention Rule such, a s t h e A c t o f 1950 and i t s t h e M a i n t e n a n c e o f I n t e r n a l S e c u r i t y A c t (M.I.S.A.) o f 1 9 7 1 . c e n t r a l government expanded and u t i l i z e d c e n t r a l p o l i c e and special paramilitary forces s u c h as t h e C e n t r a l R e s e r v e P o l i c e and the B o r d e r S e c u r i t y F o r c e . A l a r g e number o f p o l i c e f i r i n g s in s e v e r a l d e a t h s and woundings each Given t h i s catalogue i n asking whether I n d i a ' s apparent than r e a l . arguing year.''" of i n s t a b i l i t y , o n e may w e l l b e justified s t a b i l i t y b e t w e e n 1947 a n d 1975 was m o r e Nevertheless, that the p o l i t i c a l resulted there a r e a number o f r e a s o n s f o r s y s t e m was s t a b l e . In the f i r s t place, economic and s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s d i d n o t a l w a y s r e a c h t h e p o l i t i c a l Many o f t h e s e w e r e s p a s m o d i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n s India's o f urban and r u r a l plane. anomie. f e d e r a l system a l s o tended t o i s o l a t e economic, s o c i a l and 2 political conflicts from s t a t e t o s t a t e . l e v e l the Indian N a t i o n a l Congress served party f r o m 1947 t o 1969 a n d a g a i n Party's Secondly, a t the c e n t r a l continuously from 1971 t o 1975. as t h e m a j o r i t y The C o n g r e s s base o f s u p p o r t c o v e r e d most s e c t i o n s o f I n d i a n s o c i e t y and a wide s e c t i o n of the i d e o l o g i c a l spectrum. Where C o n g r e s s g o v e r n m e n t s w e r e f a c e d political conflict with economic, s o c i a l and t h e y met t h e s e t h r e a t s b y t h e o u t r i g h t u s e o f coer- c i o n , a s mentioned above, o r by t h e m e d i a t i o n o f t h e s e c o n f l i c t s and the b l u n t i n g o f c l e a v a g e s and antagonisms. As a r e s u l t , the provisions 4 of the C o n s t i t u t i o n o p e r a t e d u n i n t e r r u p t e d l y from 1950 to 1975 even though, the C o n s t i t u t i o n remained remote and u n i n t e l l i g i b l e t o the majority population. o f the I n d i a n However, f o l l o w i n g the Congress s p l i t of 1969 e r a l e l e c t i o n the consensus c h a r a c t e r i z i n g I n d i a ' s and the 1971 political p a r t i c u l a r l y i n g o v e r n m e n t - o p p o s i t i o n r e l a t i o n s , broke down. f a c t o r s t h a t have c o n t r i b u t e d gen- system, Of t h e to t h i s breakdown and to the subsequent d e c l a r a t i o n o f the s t a t e o f emergency one can mention the economic c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of power of Mrs. Gandhi i n the Congress P a r t y crisis, and g o v e r n - ment and the r o l e of e x t r a p a r l i a m e n t a r y a g i t a t i o n s which r a i s e d demands f o r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l , p o l i t i c a l , economic and s o c i a l r e f o r m . The d e c l a r a t i o n of the s t a t e of emergency i n June 1975 has had important and f a r — r e a c h i n g consequences f o r the o p e r a t i o n p o l i t i c a l and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l system. emergency, the government Following o f the I n d i a n the d e c l a r a t i o n o f of Prime M i n i s t e r I n d i r a Gandhi f e l t i t n e c e s s a r y to propose c e r t a i n changes to the I n d i a n Constitution. These p r o p o s a l s were f o r m a l l y approved by the Lok Sabha (India's house of P a r l i a m e n t ) on November 2, 1976 as the f o r t y - s e c o n d lower constitu- t i o n a l amendment. The purpose of t h i s s t u d y i s t o examine the p r o c e s s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l change under the emergency and the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n debate w i t h i n the r u l i n g Congress P a r t y Opposition parties. looked a t : Why and between Congress and the In p a r t i c u l a r , the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s w i l l What were the p r o v i s i o n s be of the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments? were t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments proposed and passed? Were they 5 d e s i g n e d t o l e g i t i m i z e t h e Congress P a r t y ' s emergency r u l e ? Or were t h e y , a s t h e g o v e r n m e n t c l a i m e d , d e s i g n e d t o make t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n more p e r f e c t finally, instrument f o r economic and s o c i a l progress? In (a) had i n s u f f i c i e n t development o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n tween i t s l i b e r a l to the D i r e c t i v e of the state. rule. safeguards against the and t h e p r o v i s i o n s The b r o a d e m e r g e n c y p o w e r s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n enabled rule without overthrowing the The l e g i t i m a c y o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n I n d i a o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i - system by t h e government and t h e o p p o s i t i o n parties. consensus i s eroded c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government b r e a k s The following chapter discusses Where s u c h down. these preliminary assertions e x a m i n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government, t h e emergency provisions period two relating P r i n c i p l e s o f S t a t e P o l i c y and t h e emergency powers depends on t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e r u l e s by be- Constitution. (b) tical w i l l be examined: I t contained contradictions democratic provisions Gandhi t o impose a u t h o r i t a r i a n existing hypotheses about the o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n I n d i a The C o n s t i t u t i o n changes system? the course of t h i s study the f o l l o w i n g fragility Mrs, And, what were t h e consequences o f these c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r I n d i a ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l of the C o n s t i t u t i o n and t h e i n i t i a l o f t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly, 1947-50. consensus d u r i n g the Chapter I I I examines m o d e l s w h i c h may b e o f u s e i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p tween c o n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements and t h e p o l i t i c a l in using a these models i s t o o b t a i n an i n s i g h t c o n s t i t u t i o n and i n t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s into which favour system. be- The a i m the legitimacy constitutional of 6 government. The a b i l i t y of these models to predict the emergency period i s also assessed. Chapter IV looks at the reasons for the breakdown of consensus and the declaration of the state of emergency. Chapter V describes and analyzes the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n during the emergency period. In the concluding chapter of this thesis, the hypotheses of the introductory chapter are discussed i n the l i g h t of the descriptive and a n a l y t i c a l chapters on the Indian Constitution, the emergency and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n . 6a CHAPTER I I THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION, 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 7 5 7 In the l i t e r a t u r e on ment t h a t one of is the the constitutions most i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e m p h a s i s t h e y p l a c e on authority, constitutions are and are the c o d i f i e d as w e l l as s o u r c e s , g o a l s , u s e s , and labeled A l i m i t e d government. by political as p r o b l e m a r i s e s , h o w e v e r , when one w h i c h do not provisions constitutions solemn rules constitutions.""'" those constitutions r e s t r a i n g o v e r n m e n t a l p o w e r e v e n t h o u g h t h e y may which are i n t e n d e d t o do s c i e n t i s t s have p r e f e r r e d so. In that o f f i c i a l power national looks at one declarations, uncodified r e s t r a i n t s on authorities agree- A c c o r d i n g to "those c o l l e c t i o n s of i d e o l o g i c a l c o m m i t m e n t s , and identify there i s widespread these cases, t o l a b e l them ' n o m i n a l ' a s contain political opposed to 'real' 2 constitutions. The ment, t h e r e f o r e , i s the in practice. use the freedom of g u a r a n t e e d and constitutional government' i m p l i e s that that g o v e r n m e n t and system w i t h o u t the the Thus t h e r e a r e force provisions and may adult India. possible In the established the non-consti- orderly succession based on suffrage. Having defined c o n s t i t u t i o n s i s now are operate i n other f o r the rights religion procedures are opposition r e c o u r s e to arbitrary individual s p e e c h , e x p r e s s i o n , a s s e m b l y , and Also legitimate the of power-holders through c o m p e t i t i v e democratic e l e c t i o n s universal govern- e x t e n t t o w h i c h g o v e r n m e n t a l power i s l i m i t e d , adhered to. t u t i o n a l methods. and g o v e r n m e n t i s c h e c k e d and under w h i c h b o t h the political a constitution 'Constitutional o f p o w e r by such as t e s t of to examine the introductory and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government, i t nature of c h a p t e r i t was c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government suggested that the in Indian 8 C o n s t i t u t i o n , as incompatible a d o p t e d on J a n u a r y 26, provisions. The 1950, contained several p r o v i s i o n s of the C o n s t i t u t i o n guaran- t e e i n g i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s of freedom of speech, the r i g h t of e q u a l i t y and the r i g h t to property c o n f l i c t e d w i t h the D i r e c t i v e P r i n c i p l e s S t a t e P o l i c y o f P a r t IV o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n and sions of P a r t I t was t h e emergency p r o v i - XVIII. further hypothesized that the l e g i t i m a c y of constitutional government i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the consensus between the and of the o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s . A d i s c u s s i o n of these hypotheses a p r e l i m i n a r y examination of the o b j e c t i v e s of the I n d i a n A s s e m b l y , 1947-50 and i n i t i a l consensus of the Framers. the government requires Constituent This exami- n a t i o n of the C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t s i n c e i t claimed by c e r t a i n members o f t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y d u r i n g t h e t h a t t h e A s s e m b l y was p r o p o s e d t h a t a new unrepresentative a s s e m b l y s h o u l d be emergency o f I n d i a n s o c i e t y ; and called. Moreover, Mrs. f r o m the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government e s t a b l i s h e d by the Framers of of the C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly w i l l lowed by The examined. the i n t e n t i o n s of the the departure the representativeness This w i l l t h e n be fol- Framers. I n d i a n C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y , 1947-50 The to a d i s c u s s i o n of be claims was Gandhi represent In examining these a i t argued t h a t the measures o f t h e emergency d i d not Indian Constitution. was be manner i n w h i c h t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y was a m a t t e r of c o n t r o v e r s y . On t h e one r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f I n d i a n s o c i e t y , w h i l e on seen as b r o a d l y hand i t has elected been seen as the o t h e r hand i t has r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of Indian s o c i e t y . continues un- been I t i s clear that 9 these counter-claims have important of t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly. implications f o r the legitimacy According to Bettelheim: The A s s e m b l y c o n s i s t e d o f 292 e l e c t e d members a n d 93 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e P r i n c e l y S t a t e s . T h e e l e c t e d members w e r e s e n t t o t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y b y members o f t h e P r o v i n c i a l L e g i s l a t i v e A s s e m b l i e s , who w e r e t h e m s e l v e s e l e c t e d b y t h e v o t e s o f a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n , a q u a r t e r o f w h o s e members w e r e n o t e v e n e l e c t e d b u t claimed t h e i r seats by f e u d a l right. 3 W h i l e i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y was indirectly e l e c t e d by a m i n o r i t y o f t h e a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n , i t c o u l d a l s o be a r g u e d t h a t t h e Assembly was, n e v e r t h e l e s s , b r o a d l y society. representative of Indian G r a n v i l l e A u s t i n , f o r example, i n h i s study of the Indian C o n s t i t u t i o n , r e f e r s t o t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly as a 'microcosm India. He a t t r i b u t e s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s special r o l e played diverse, 1 of o f the Assembly t o the b y t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y w h i c h was and which had a broad base o f support ideologically throughout a l l sections of I n d i a s o c i e t y . Moreover, the Congress f o l l o w e d t h e d e l i b e r a t e p o l i c y of ensuring the e l e c t i o n o f m i n o r i t y groups t o t h e Assembly as 4 w e l l a s n o n - C o n g r e s s members. T h e r e a r e a number o f o t h e r assertion. In the f i r s t arguments w h i c h support Austin's p l a c e , t h e f i g u r e s used by B e t t e l h e i m proportion of the adult population voting f o r the p r o v i n c i a l assemblies are average f i g u r e s . adult population that voted Secondly, although I n some p r o v i n c e s f o r the legislative the proportion of the was more t h a n t w e n t y - f o u r p e r cent."* t h e P r i n c e l y S t a t e s were g i v e n n i n e t y - t h r e e s e a t s i n 10 the C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly by t h e terms o f t h e Cabinet the method o f s e l e c t i n g these Mission r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s was l e f t Plan, to consulta- t i o n between t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly and t h e P r i n c e l y S t a t e s . all by of the representatives of the P r i n c e l y States claimed "feudal right"; Congress P a r t y . ^ Not their seats some w e r e e l e c t e d a n d e v e n i n c l u d e d members o f t h e Moreover, i t i s important to note that the p r i n c e l y s t a t e o f Hyderabad d i d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e a t a l l i n the proceedings the C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly. With s i x t e e n seats of a l l o c a t e d t o them, Hyderabad's r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s would have c o n s t i t u t e d t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e b l o c o f p r i n c e l y s t a t e members.^ F i n a l l y , w i t h p a r t i t i o n and t h e e x i t o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f M u s l i m League members f r o m t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y , t h e C o n g r e s s - d o m i n a t e d A s s e m b l y was m o r e r a t h e r t h a n l e s s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f I n d i a n s o c i e t y . The s o c i a l composition o f C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y members i s o n l y o n e indication of the representativeness necessary Assembly. and of the Assembly. I t i s also t o examine t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t s i n t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Although t h e A s s e m b l y was d o m i n a t e d b y t h e C o n g r e s s by c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s such as Nehru, Sardar A z a d , i t was p r e p a r e d P a t e l and Maulana t o accommodate t h e w i s h e s o f m i n o r i t y groups. S p e c i a l p r o v i s i o n s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n r e l a t i n g official to the languages o f t h e I n d i a n U n i o n and t h e r i g h t s o f m i n o r i t i e s such as the scheduled political Party c a s t e s and t r i b e s . Thus t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and arrangements adopted by t h e Assembly r e f l e c t e d between these different the balance groups. In a d d i t i o n to the representativeness of the Constituent 11 Assembly, the i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e Framers have a l s o a c q u i r e d added s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f e m e r g e n c y on June 26, 1975. Critics of Prime M i n i s t e r I n d i r a Gandhi charged t h a t had worked outside the s p i r i t in turn, claimed of the Framers. It i s necessary, t o examine Constitution. was Gandhi, t h a t t h e r e h a d b e e n no d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e i n t e n t i o n s the Framers were. study o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n , w h i l e Mrs. she t h e r e f o r e , t o examine I t must be added that i t i s not p o s s i b l e i n t h i s the i n t e n t i o n of the Framers Controversy what the i n t e n t i o n s o f f o r each a r t i c l e i n the C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly, of the f o r example, p a r t i c u l a r l y marked o v e r t h e i s s u e s o f language, s e c u l a r i s m the p r o t e c t i o n o f m i n o r i t i e s ; and t h e s e i s s u e s have r e m a i n e d versial s i n c e 1950. and contro- B u t o f more i m p o r t a n c e h e r e a r e t h o s e i s s u e s that have been thrown i n t o r e l i e f by t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f emergency i n 1975. These i n c l u d e the q u e s t i o n o f what form the s t r u c t u r e s of the Indian p o l i t i c a l for instance, a parliamentary, tem? system should Should there be, f e d e r a l system or a d e c e n t r a l i z e d s y s - Also of importance are the question s o c i a l objectives contained take. institutional of i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s and i n the s e c t i o n of Fundamental R i g h t s t h e D i r e c t i v e P r i n c i p l e s o f S t a t e P o l i c y , and the question and of the emergency p r o v i s i o n s o f the I n d i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n . The C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly's measure o f agreement on f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s ; reasons f o r t h i s b a s i c consensus. first of a l l , p r o c e e d i n g s were marked by a l a r g e The and t h e r e a r e many C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly as a c u l m i n a t i o n o f debate o v e r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c a n be seen, provisions 12 rather than as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t . Even b e f o r e t h e Assembly met, t h e Congress P a r t y had adopted g u i d e l i n e s f o r a f u t u r e order constitutional i n t h e f o r m o f , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e N e h r u R e p o r t o f 1928 and t h e K a r a c h i R e s o l u t i o n on Fundamental R i g h t s and Economic and S o c i a l Change o f 1 9 3 1 . The p o l i t i c a l s h a p e d b y t h e common e x p e r i e n c e movement. a t t i t u d e s o f a s s e m b l y members h a d b e e n o f c o l o n i a l i s m and t h e n a t i o n a l i s t W h i l e they were i n f l u e n c e d by B r i t i s h p a r l i a m e n t a r y demo- c r a c y a n d t h e 1935 C o n s t i t u t i o n o f I n d i a , t h e F r a m e r s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d to prevent period. t h e a r b i t r a r y g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h was a f e a t u r e o f t h e c o l o n i a l T h u s t h e r e was a l s o a g r e e m e n t t h a t a new c o n s t i t u t i o n safeguard individual The should rights. m a j o r i t y o f t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y ' s members b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e aims o f l i m i t i n g g o v e r n m e n t a l power, g u a r a n t e e i n g r i g h t s , and s e c u r i n g economic and s o c i a l p r o g r e s s c o u l d b e s t be a c h i e v e d through a parliamentary individual f o r t h e community system o f government based l a r g e l y upon t h e model o f W e s t m i n s t e r b u t i n c o r p o r a t i n g a f e d e r a l system t o cope w i t h I n d i a ' s It diversity. i s c l e a r , however, t h a t these aims o f g u a r a n t e e i n g d u a l r i g h t s and s e c u r i n g economic and s o c i a l p r o g r e s s each o t h e r . sources The of controversy since the adoption debates have l a r g e l y centered f o r e unamendable by P a r l i a m e n t ? clash? take precedence over with t o the Funda- o f S t a t e P o l i c y have been o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n i n 1950. around the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s : the Fundamental R i g h t s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a b s o l u t e ? Policy conflicted The p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n r e l a t i n g m e n t a l R i g h t s and t h e D i r e c t i v e P r i n c i p l e s indivi- A r e they Are there- Do t h e D i r e c t i v e P r i n c i p l e s o f S t a t e t h e Fundamental R i g h t s i n cases where they 13 The evidence from the debates of the C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly shows t h a t t h e Fundamental R i g h t s were n o t t o be a b s o l u t e o r unamendable. P r o v i s o s were a t t a c h e d to p a r t i c u l a r r i g h t s such as t h e r i g h t o f free speech where t h e s e r i g h t s c o n f l i c t e d w i t h law o r m o r a l i t y . Congress governments s i n c e 1950 h a v e t a k e n t h e p o s i t i o n that t h e f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a r e n o t t r a n s c e n d e n t and that the r i g h t to economic t o p r o p e r t y and c o m p e n s a t i o n must a t t i m e s be and s o c i a l r e f o r m . ive P r i n c i p l e s of State P o l i c y , secondary They have a l s o argued t h a t t h e D i r e c t even though they a r e n o n - j u s t i c i a b l e , s h o u l d i n c e r t a i n c a s e s , such as l a n d r e f o r m and t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n wealth, take precedence over the Fundamental Rights. of l a n d r e f o r m t h e c e n t r a l and s t a t e governments t h e amount o f c o m p e n s a t i o n t o b e p a i d faced moved t o a b o l i s h t h e s t a t e and c u l t i v a t o r s policies the problem of t o owners o f p r o p e r t y . a p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m when t h e g o v e r n m e n t s ( z a m i n d a r s ) , between In their of of land. This was intermediaries The govern- ment t h u s p a s s e d a s e r i e s o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments w h i c h g a v e i t the a u t h o r i t y t o d e c i d e t h e amount o f c o m p e n s a t i o n t o b e p a i d t o owners 9 of property. Land r e f o r m l a w s c o u l d n o t b e c h a l l e n g e d on t h e t h a t they were i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h 31 o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . the r i g h t t o p r o p e r t y under grounds Article Such l a w s o u t s i d e t h e scope o f j u d i c i a l r e - view were p l a c e d i n the N i n t h Schedule of the C o n s t i t u t i o n . The p r o b l e m o f w h e t h e r the Fundamental R i g h t s w e r e t o be l u t e a r o s e n o t o n l y i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s and and s o c i a l r e f o r m b u t a l s o i n t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y ' s the p o s s i b l e c o n f l i c t between of the s t a t e . Here absoeconomic debates i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s and t h e emergency t h e q u e s t i o n was about powers- t h e i m p o r t a n t one o f t h e l i m i t s of 14 c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n times of emergency. r a i s e d by the Wheare i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of This problem i s future of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government: P e r h a p s the most d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m t h a t c o n f r o n t s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n modern t i m e s i s how t o d e f e n d i t s e l f s u c c e s s f u l l y a g a i n s t i t s e n e m i e s and s t i l l s u r v i v e . Are t h e r e cases where a government i s m o r a l l y e n t i t l e d i n order to save the C o n s t i t u t i o n , to break a p a r t of i t , i n order to enforce what i s good i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n t o n e g l e c t what i s bad?; 1 0 The be problem of e x a m i n e d by stitution and provisions. the looking the at limits the intentions Such p r o v i s i o n s tion which states o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government can emergency p r o v i s i o n s of the are of the Indian F r a m e r s when t h e y d r a f t e d included i n Part XVIII of best Con- these the Constitu- that: A P r o c l a m a t i o n of Emergency d e c l a r i n g t h a t the s e c u r i t y o f I n d i a o r o f any p a r t o f t h e t e r r i t o r y t h e r e o f i s t h r e a t e n e d by / war o r by e x t e r n a l a g g r e s s i o n o r b y i n t e r n a l d i s t u r b a n c e may be made b e f o r e t h e a c t u a l o c c u r r e n c e o f war o r o f any such a g g r e s s i o n or d i s t u r b a n c e i f the President i s s a t i s f i e d t h a t t h e r e i s imminent danger thereof.11 f Once a s t a t e o f e m e r g e n c y i s d e c l a r e d , greater powers i n c l u d i n g the subjects of the State L i s t of authority the Constitution thus p r o v i d e s f o r the The on articles the Parliament t o p a s s l a w s on Constitution. suspension of F u n d a m e n t a l R i g h t s may Part the a l s o be obtains the legislative XVIII of federal suspended the system. including 12 the c i t i z e n ' s r i g h t s to c o n s t i t u t i o n a l remedies. In a d d i t i o n President may to the declaration impose ' P r e s i d e n t ' s of a s t a t e of emergency, R u l e ' i n a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e by the issuing 15 a proclamation suspending the normal c o n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements i n 13 the s t a t e and assuming the f u n c t i o n s of the state's Moreover, P a r t X V I I I of the C o n s t i t u t i o n g i v e s authority to i s s u e a proclamation situation threatening to the of executive. the P r e s i d e n t the ' f i n a n c i a l emergency' i n a financial stability of the Indian Union. It i s important political context i n which these t i o n were framed. new to bear i n mind the economic, s o c i a l emergency p r o v i s i o n s of In p a r t i c u l a r , and the C o n s t i t u - the problems of c o n f l i c t w i t h s t a t e o f P a k i s t a n , communal b l o o d s h e d i n t h e P u n j a b a n d the i n t e g r a t i o n of T e l e n g a n a and occupied the p r i n c e l y s t a t e s , the N a g a l a n d , f a m i n e and in administrative dislocation a l l The Framers, i n w r i t i n g the emergency p r o v i s i o n s of the C o n s t i t u t i o n were not f a c e d w i t h an a b s t r a c t p o s s i b i l i t y danger. Accordingly, ranging Bengal, threat of insurgency t h e members o f t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y . therefore, the they took steps of c r i s i s but to reserve a very real to the s t a t e wide- e m e r g e n c y p o w e r s t o d e a l w i t h e x t e r n a l c o n f l i c t and internal disturbance. There were, however, safeguards to l i m i t Article these 352, emergency powers. f o r i n s t a n c e , had l i a m e n t w i t h i n two t i o n of than three i t was years. A d e c l a r a t i o n o f emergency under t o be a p p r o v e d by b o t h h o u s e s o f months o f i t s d e c l a r a t i o n . 'President's Rule' months u n l e s s i n c l u d e d i n the C o n s t i t u t i o n Similarly, a declara- i n a s t a t e w o u l d e x p i r e a t t h e end renewed, and i t c o u l d n o t be Par- of s i x r e n e w e d f o r more 16 The hypothesis of this inadequate i n l i m i t i n g stitution. declared t h e s i s i s that these safeguards were t h e use o f t h e emergency powers o f t h e Con- The F r a m e r s assumed t h a t a s t a t e o f emergency w o u l d be o n l y i f . t h e r e was a c l e a r - c u t t h r e a t t o t h e s t a b i l i t y o f the I n d i a n U n i o n . They d i d n o t e n v i s a g e used by a Prime M i n i s t e r i n o r d e r t h e emergency powers t o remain i n power. being Furthermore, once an emergency i s d e c l a r e d and a p p r o v e d , i t c a n be c o n t i n u e d in- d e f i n i t e l y by t h e Prime M i n i s t e r r e g a r d l e s s o f whether o r n o t t h e o r i g i n a l r e a s o n s f o r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f emergency r e m a i n . Framers a l s o d i d n o t envisage t h e emergency powers b e i n g government t o permanently a l t e r the Constitution. C o n s t i t u t i o n c o n t a i n e d opportunities constitutional The used by the Part XVIII of the therefore, f o r the negation of government. I n summary, t h e p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly were marked by a l a r g e measure o f consensus as t o t h e f e d e r a l and p a r l i a mentary i n s t i t u t i o n a l framework o f t h e I n d i a n R e p u b l i c , the guaran- t e e i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s and t h e statement o f t h e economic, and p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s t o be f o l l o w e d b y f u t u r e governments. social Agree- ment was a l s o r e a c h e d o n t h e n e e d f o r e x t r a o r d i n a r y p r o v i s i o n s t o b e used i n times o f emergency a r i s i n g o u t o f e x t e r n a l a g g r e s s i o n ternal disturbance. due to the fact of i t s proposals Also I t was s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s c o n s e n s u s was or i n partly t h a t t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y h a d a l r e a d y hammered o u t p a r t f o r the Constitution during t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e movement. t h e C o n g r e s s - d o m i n a t e d C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y was p r e p a r e d commodate t h e w i s h e s o f m i n o r i t y groups. to ac- 17 Nevertheless, the C o n s t i t u t i o n a s a d o p t e d on J a n u a r y 2 6 , 1950 c o n t a i n e d a u t h o r i t a r i a n as w e l l as l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c f e a t u r e s . limited i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s such as freedom o f s p e e c h , the r i g h t t o p r o p e r t y and the r i g h t to c o n s t i t u t i o n a l remedies. to the e a r l i e r h y p o t h e s i s t h a t safeguards against shown t h a t limited It the C o n s t i t u t i o n the development the emergency p r o v i s i o n s government. emergency remained The only With reference contained i n s u f f i c i e n t o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e , i t has been were b r o a d and a n t i t h e t i c a l t o p r o b l e m o f how t e m p o r a r y was to ensure that a state l e f t u n r e s o l v e d by the of Framers. CHAPTER III K O T H A R I S MODEL OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE AND THE 1 MARXIST MODEL OF CLASS CONFLICT 18 The p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r examined the consensus A s s e m b l y and the l i m i t s t o i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s and ment c o n t a i n e d i n t h e I n d i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n . supplemented constitutional govern- T h i s e x a m i n a t i o n must b y an a n a l y s i s o f t h e s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l give effect In of the C o n s t i t u e n t be realities which t o t h e f o r m a l p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o r change them. o t h e r w o r d s , a d i s c u s s i o n i s r e q u i r e d o f t h e s o c i a l and political c o n d i t i o n s f a v o u r i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n I n d i a . The f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r r e l a t e s I n d i a ' s l e g a l and arrangements to t h e i r p o l i t i c a l of one-party dominance and e x a m i n a t i o n has c o n t e x t s by the M a r x i s t model. two m a i n a i m s : first, c o n s t i t u t i o n a l system b e t w e e n 1947 c o v e r w h e t h e r t h e s e m o d e l s may K o t h a r i ' s model In p a r t i c u l a r , t o i n q u i r e a s t o how t h e s e m o d e l s a r e i n t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n and and examining constitutional and 1975; and, h e l p us t o u n d e r s t a n d political secondly, to the c r i s i s culmi- the Models n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e the s i m p l i f i c a t i o n a b s t r a c t i o n of the s o c i a l system t h e r e f o r e be and for to i n c l u d e other important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s o c i a l and systems. can limi- criticized political and dis- 1975. u s i n g these models, however, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t a t i o n s of models. failing effective a n a l y s i s of India's n a t i n g i n t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e of emergency i n June In this But by a b s t r a c t i o n and analogy t h e y e n a b l e us d e l i n e a t e t h e r e l e v a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a s o c i a l and i n order to e x p l a i n i t s o p e r a t i o n . these models a c c u r a t e l y correspond they seek The to The problem, political t h e n , i s i n how t o the s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l to system far reality explain. relative stability o f t h e I n d i a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and political 19 system r e c e i v e d i t s t h e o r e t i c a l a r t i c u l a t i o n i n the e a r l y 1960s a number o f s o c i a l to the important most i m p o r t a n t consensual t h e o r i s t s who sought to e x p l a i n i t w i t h r o l e of the Indian N a t i o n a l Congress. w e r e R a j n i K o t h a r i and i t i s important Of these Morris-Jones."'" t o n o t e t h a t h i s m o d e l was v e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h an e x a m i n a t i o n K o t h a r i was the Kothari's political why K o t h a r i argued t h a t the e l i t e ' s and elite c a r r y i n g out At the Indian political development has arisen a elite. T h e s e t a s k s , h o w e v e r , c o u l d o n l y be problems l e d them t o distinctive independence the challenge facing i n t e g r a t i n g I n d i a and t a s k s o f economic and social arran- social i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the consisted of p o l i t i c a l l y formidable Rather, p a r t i c u l a r economic, f o l l o w p a r t i c u l a r s t r a t e g i e s out o f w h i c h has I n d i a n model of development. exclusi- certain institutional s t r a t e g i e s h a v e b e e n f o l l o w e d by of I n d i a n economic, s o c i a l , not of I n d i a ' s p a r t y system. c o n c e r n e d w i t h e x p l a i n i n g why gements h a v e d e v e l o p e d i n I n d i a and political reference model o f o n e - p a r t y dominance r e c e i v e d the most academic a t t e n t i o n but and W.H. by the also development. c a r r i e d o u t by means o f a framework c r e a t i n g consensus. F i r s t , g i v e n i t s g r e a t d i v e r s i t y and p o l y c e n t r i c c h a r a c t e r a n d i t s v e r y y o u n g age a s a u n i f i e d p o l i t y , t h e framework o f i n t e g r a t i o n can be p r o vided only through a democratic order. (In India democracy i s not m e r e l y a m a t t e r of p r e f e r e n c e and value; i t i s also a necessity.) Second, however, the a b i l i t y of the democratic order to p r o v i d e an i n t e g r a t i v e f r a m e w o r k t o a h i g h l y s e g m e n t e d s o c i e t y depends on a s t r u c t u r e o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n and m o b i l i z a t i o n o f e n e r g y f o r i t a t v a r i o u s l e v e l s t h a t i s p r o v i d e d b y an all-encompassing party of consensus—covering a l l r e g i o n s and s e c t i o n s of society.2 political 20 Above a l l , Kothari's aim i s t o achieye comprehensiveness i n d e s c r i b i n g and a n a l y z i n g I n d i a n social reality and t o v i s u a l i z e t h e d i f f e r e n t parts of that r e a l i t y as a connected whole, as a " b a s i c 3 system". I t i s worthwhile, then, t o examine t h e n a t u r e " b a s i c system" and t o see whether i t i s an a c c u r a t e a n a l y s i s of aspects of India's of this d e s c r i p t i o n and economic, s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l system f r o m 1947 t o 1 9 7 5 . In K o t h a r i ' s model the c o m p e t i t i v e o n e - p a r t y dominance c o n s i s t s of a 'party o f consensus' and v a r i o u s The c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n i n t h i s model i s c l e a r l y occupied N a t i o n a l Congress. Kothari f i r s t how i t h a s b e e n a b l e " h i s t o r i c a l legitimacy", derived flexible i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s ; through continuous ability transform to achieve t h r o u g h i t s mass b a s e a n d s u p p o r t a l l regions its to I t was a b l e covering control at the centre by t h e I n d i a n from i t s r o l e i n t h e independence movement, t o a " l e g i t i m a c y i n t h e p r e s e n t " . ^ t h i s " l e g i t i m a c y i n the present" pressure'. of a l l notes the o r i g i n s of the Congress P a r t y and then d e s c r i b e s its 'parties of system and segments o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ; through i t s governmental and i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s t a t e s , and t h r o u g h t o secure consensus w i t h i n Congress i t s e l f Congress and non-Congress p a r t i e s . and between Kothari also stresses the im- portance of the l e a d e r s h i p o f the Congress, p a r t i c u l a r l y of Nehru and other " t a l l men", a n d t h e g r o w t h o f a number o f i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d conventions responsible f o rblunting conflict, sources of cleavage i n the country f a c t i o n a l i s m and t h e as a whole. I n K o t h a r i ' s m o d e l a d v a n c e s a r e made i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n a n d 21 a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e d o m i n a n t p a r t y and of pressure and and i n t h e e f f e c t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l p o w e r on s u r v i v a l of p a r t i e s . ditional The nance of democracy to the Indian p o l i t i c a l 1975 and w i t h one of an experience of e f f e c t i v e two-party states. I n d i a n democracy f u n c t i o n e d western mainte- the b e t w e e n 1947 K o t h a r i ' s model accounts f o r the l o o k i n g at the p e c u l i a r nature tra- competi- a v i r t u a l monopoly o f power a t t h e t i o n s h i p between t h e p a r t y o f c o n s e n s u s and He the i n a d e q u a t e i n e x p l a i n i n g the w o r k i n g s of party having o f d e m o c r a c y by s y s t e m s b a s e d on existence system. i n most of the the s t r u c t u r i n g p l u r a l i s t i c model which a t t r i b u t e s the t i v e system i s obviously parties K o t h a r i ' s model i s p a r t l y a response to t y p o l o g i e s of p a r t y political parties. the centre maintenance of the systemic the p a r t i e s of a r g u e s t h a t t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e p a r t i e s has and rela- pressure. maintained the open d e m o c r a t i c s y s t e m . In h i s a n a l y s i s of t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n , K o t h a r i i n t r o d u c e s important concept of a non-Congress p a r t i e s . in maintaining 'margin of p r e s s u r e ' between the Congress This margin of pressure the responsiveness the has of the Congress a crucial Party. I n s i d e the margin are v a r i o u s f a c t i o n s w i t h i n the p a r t y of consensus. Outside the margin a r e s e v e r a l o p p o s i t i o n g r o u p s and p a r t i e s , d i s s i d e n t g r o u p s and i m p o r t a n t i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e s e g r o u p s o u t s i d e t h e m a r g i n do n o t c o n s t i t u t e a l t e r n a t i v e s to the r u l i n g p a r t y . Their r o l e i s to constantly p r e s s u r i z e , c r i t i c i z e , c e n s u r e and i n f l u e n c e i t by i n f l u e n c i n g o p i n i o n and i n t e r e s t s i n s i d e t h e m a r g i n and, above a l l , e x e r t a l a t e n t t h r e a t t h a t i f t h e r u l i n g g r o u p s t r a y s away t o o f a r f r o m t h e b a l a n c e o f e f f e c t i v e p u b l i c o p i n i o n , and i f the f a c t i o n a l system w i t h i n i t i s not m o b i l i z e d and function 22 to restore the balance, it will be displaced from power by the opposition groups. In summary, dominance has outlined comprehensively cal systems analysis this exposition of Kothari's the approach the operation that he uses special period. emphasis In one-party to explain social and his on the role of elites, the of pressure maintaining of the constitutional the course politi- of Congress Party and parties the legitimacy of in order of India's economic, in the post-independence he has placed model in securing consensus and and political system. In the Marxist model, India's constitutional erence between the institutional The and political to the correlation the struggles question however, of class the various the relative of whether aspects of India's economic, forces during economic society In particular Indian legal and political structure of society with system. to systems transformations of determines and political social and political ref- The outcome such a method can be used the same period. be obtained by relating underlying in India. classes of Indian 1947 and 1975 and the legal and political taken place of system is explained with forms of the constitutional arises stability explain between that have what insights changes its struggle to can the between classes? It would be useful, approach has been applied typified by the writings P. Sharma, Meghnad Desal, first of all, to examine how the to Indian society. of Marxists These analyses Marxist are such as Kathleen Gough, Hari and Charles BettElheim as well as the analyses 23 made o f t h e I n d i a n s i t u a t i o n b y .the I n d i a n Marxist analyses society, and d i f f e r widely communist p a r t i e s t h e m s e l v e s . i n their descriptions of Indian i n their c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of class formation hence i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n s thermore, r e f l e c t t h a t they reach. and c l a s s s t r u g g l e These d i f f e r e n c e s , f u r - the v a r y i n g i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s taken communist p a r t i e s and by o t h e r M a r x i s t and n e o - M a r x i s t do share fundamental p o i n t s o f agreement. by the I n d i a n a n a l y s e s , but they They a l l , f o r i n s t a n c e , t a k e Marx's t h e o r e t i c a l a s s e r t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between economic s t r u c t u r e and s o c i a l consciousness as the s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e i r In p l a c i n g the s t r u g g l e f o r independence i n i t s h i s t o r i c a l method. per- s p e c t i v e , m o s t M a r x i s t s a r g u e t h a t t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e movement c o n s t i t u t e d a 'bourgeois-democratic I t was, they b e l i e v e , essentially a s t r u g g l e between, on t h e one hand, t h e I n d i a n b o u r g e o i s i e and, on t h e o t h e r , B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l i s m and i t s l o c a l a l l i e s , Indian princes. revolution'. In t h i s s t r u g g l e , the p o l i t i c a l bourgeoisie, in of the Indian c l a s s e s opposed t o c o l o n i a l i s m . b a s i s o f t h e movement, h o w e v e r , p o l i t i c a l t h e hands o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e . with expression t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n a l Congress, succeeded i n forming b a s e d movement o f d i f f e r e n t the popular the feudal Despite c o n t r o l remained The C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y , charged t h e d r a f t i n g o f a new c o n s t i t u t i o n , was u n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e a n d was e l e c t e d i n d i r e c t l y b y p r o v i n c i a l assemblies. The p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l i e s dominated by urban and r u r a l landowning Thus f o r M a r x i s t s victorious bourgeoisie the p o l i t i c a l during a broad- were of Indian legislative themselves interests. institutions c r e a t e d by t h e the period of the Constituent Assembly, 24 1947-50, were b o u r g e o i s i n s t i t u t i o n s — a bourgeois f e d e r a l system and p a r l i a m e n t a r y suffrage, reflected democracy based on u n i v e r s a l a d u l t t o M a r x i s t s , t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l forms o f t h e s t a t e t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e d o m i n a n t c l a s s at~ i n d e p e n d e n c e . Although they agree on t h e h i s t o r i c a l bourgeoisie, Marxists differ on t h e q u e s t i o n 'capitalist importance of the Indian i n t h e i r analyses tween t h i s c l a s s and t h e o t h e r of the r e l a t i o n s h i p be- classes of Indian society. o f how f a r t h e I n d i a n R e p u b l i c s t a t e ' when t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n c a p i t a l i s t a c t i v i t y but feudal or semi-feudal p o i n t o u t , however, t h a t a l t h o u g h existed a f r e e e l e c t i o n s and t h e g u a r a n t e e d r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . Thus a c c o r d i n g centers republic with The p r o b l e m c a n be termed a i s n o t engaged agriculture? Marxists t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n h a s s i d e by s i d e w i t h f e u d a l o r s e m i - f e u d a l modes o f p r o d u c t i o n , o n l y o n e , t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode, h a s b e e n d o m i n a n t i n I n d i a s i n c e pendence.^ A n d i t h a s b e e n t h i s d o m i n a n t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h h a s been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l t e r i n g economic and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s countryside. property, capitalist inde- i nthe M o r e o v e r , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n i n c l u d e s i n P a r t XX, c o n t r a c t and s u i t r e l a t i o n s framework. financial, that are characteristic of a g A f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e C o n g r e s s g o v e r n m e n t s u n d e r t o o k programmes o f land reform which had the e f f e c t of a b o l i s h i n g the 'zamindari' s i m p l i f y i n g land tenure culture. and system, r e l a t i o n s and encouraging c a p i t a l i s m i n a g r i - A t t h e same t i m e t h e r e d e v e l o p e d a c l a s s o f l a r g e r i c h p e a s a n t s who e n g a g e d i n c a p i t a l i s t farming a n d who landowners consolidated t h e i r economic and hence s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l power i n t h e r u r a l areas. 25 The M a r x i s t e c o n o m i s t Meghnad D e s a i w r i t e s t h a t " t h e i s b y no means f u l l y capitalist. Nearly 75 p e r Indian cent of the i s engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r e , w h i c h remains p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n c h a r a c t e r , stamped by f e u d a l and population pre-capitalist customary r e l a t i o n s . c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s o f e x c h a n g e and economy However, e x p l o i t a t i o n h a v e now achieved a s i g n i f i c a n t p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e r u r a l s e c t o r , e s p e c i a l l y i n the more advanced 9 regions.". This strengthening to the h i s t o r i c a l process from the time f e u d a l i s m and France, he of c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s i n India i s s i m i l a r noted of the French transformed b y M a r x i n F r a n c e when t h e R e v o l u t i o n o f 1789 property relations. onwards, I n The bourgeoisie, attacked C i v i l War in d e s c r i b e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l m i s s i o n o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e and i t s state i n overturning feudalism. The c e n t r a l i s e d s t a t e p o w e r , w i t h i t s u b i q u i t o u s o r g a n s o f s t a n d i n g army, p o l i c e , bureaucracy, c l e r g y , and j u d i c a t u r e - o r g a n s w r o u g h t a f t e r t h e p l a n o f a s y s t e m a t i c and h i e r a r c h i c d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r — o r i g i n a t e s from the days of a b s o l u t e monarchy, s e r v i n g m i d d l e - c l a s s s o c i e t y as a m i g h t y weapon i n i t s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t f e u d a l i s m . S t i l l , i t s development r e m a i n e d c l o g g e d by a l l manner o f m e d i e v a l r u b b i s h , s e i g n o r i a l r i g h t s , l o c a l p r i v i l e g e s , m u n i c i p a l and g u i l d m o n o p o l i e s and p r o v i n c i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s . The g i g a n t i c b r o o m of the French R e v o l u t i o n of the eighteenth century s w e p t away a l l t h e s e r e l i c s o f b y g o n e t i m e s , t h u s c l e a r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y the s o c i a l s o i l of i t s l a s t hindrances to the s u p e r s t r u c t u r e of the modern s t a t e e d i f i c e r a i s e d u n d e r t h e F i r s t Empire.. Post-independence I n d i a , of course, f r o m e i g h t e e n t h and for in nineteenth century France. t h e i r d i f f e r e n t e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l and the nature of the bourgeois differs i n important respects This i s true not political s t r u c t u r e s but r e v o l u t i o n s i n t h e two epochs. only also Whereas 26 Marx r e f e r s t o the French R e v o l u t i o n c l e a r i n g away f e u d a l i s m , be the Indian s e e n as a " g i g a n t i c broom." attribute a s a " g i g a n t i c broom" i n "bourgeois r e v o l u t i o n " can hardly I n d e e d , some M a r x i s t s t h e weakness o f c a p i t a l i s t such as D e s a i development i n I n d i a pendence and t h e post-1971 economic and p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s s t r a i n t s placed feudal has u p o n t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n or semi-feudal sectors o f t h e economy. since inde- t o t h e con- by t h e r e s i l i e n t The c a p i t a l i s t sector been unable t o r a i s e s u f f i c i e n t i n t e r n a l economic s u r p l u s e s f o r growth because o f i t s i n a b i l i t y D e s p i t e t h e p r o g r e s s made, t h e r e to transform entirely the r u r a l i s a s y e t no n a t i o n a l m a r k e t a n d c a p i t a l i s t development has been uneven r e g i o n a l l y . growth remains low; l e a d i n g sector. some M a r x i s t s Hence t h e r a t e o f to describe what they see 11 as the contradictions In the Marxist o f slow c a p i t a l i s t development. analysis, the p o l i t i c a l stability pendence I n d i a has been a f u n c t i o n o f c l a s s r e l a t i o n s . stability owners and r i c h p e a s a n t s d u r i n g there state—the petty classes. flected, The r e l a t i v e bourgeoisie, t h e 1950s and 1960s. b i g land- With t h i s conso- h a s b e e n a c o n c o m i t a n t g r o w t h i n t h e power o f t h e I n d i a n armed f o r c e s , p a r a m i l i t a r y f o r c e s , p o l i c e , i n t e l l i g e n c e s e r v i c e s , b u r e a u c r a c y and j u d i c i a r y — w h i c h capacity post-inde- o f I n d i a has r e f l e c t e d t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e a l l i a n c e between t h e b i g and m i d d l e b o u r g e o i s i e , lidation of of subordinate classes has d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d the to challenge t h e power o f t h e r u l i n g The c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e p o w e r o f t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s r e as a c o r o l l a r y , t h e weakness o f t h e main t h r e a t s c l a s s e s — n a m e l y , t h e working c l a s s and t h e p e a s a n t r y . to the r u l i n g To t h i s weakness 27 o f t h e p r o l e t a r i a t and the peasantry of social organizations. their political has and o f t e n been marked as must be added the fragmentation Sectarian shown, f o r e x a m p l e , b y Communist P a r t y i n the e a r l y 1960s i n t o t h r e e the fragmentation s p l i t of the different, often Indian hostile, parties. A comparison of that they d i f f e r stability and s i n c e 1950. the M a r x i s t significantly l e g i t i m a c y of t h a t of K o t h a r i ' s i n t h e i r accounts of I n d i a ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and conflict. The h a v e two political Kothari's d i f f e r e n t treatments of K o t h a r i ' s model i s concerned w i t h revolution' i n w h i c h the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and political model stability and c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w h i l e K o t h a r i ' s model tends to s t r e s s s t a b i l i t y , harmony. the system M a r x i s t model tends to s t r e s s c l a s s s t r u g g l e t i n u i t y and shows the reasons f o r I n t h e M a r x i s t m o d e l o f c l a s s c o n f l i c t and o f o n e - p a r t y d o m i n a n c e we and a p p r o a c h and con- 'incremental system assim- 12 ilates the f o r c e s o f change i n I n d i a n from that of Kothari's l a r g e degree the can be tend the I n d i a n t h e two differs s t r e s s on c o n t i n u i t y and stability f u n c t i o n a l i s t m e t h o d t h a t he criticized uses. f o r i t s assumption that reflects But to a functionalist 'equilibrium' i s f o r i t s assumption that elements of a a u t o m a t i c a l l y to m a i n t a i n s o c i a l and and processes. n o r m a l s t a t e o f s o c i e t y and order This p i c t u r e the M a r x i s t model which i s concerned w i t h w h o l e s a l e violent revolutionary theory society. political the 'system.' The the social normal state system, however, probably lies of between e x t r e m e s o f s t a b i l i t y and c o n f l i c t . K o t h a r i ' s m o d e l , f o r e x a m p l e , may b e m o r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e period 28 o f o n e - p a r t y d o m i n a n c e b e t w e e n 1950 1967. Before s y s t e m was 1967 responsive the l e g i t i m a c y of maintained the o p e r a t i o n of the by 1967 the than to the p e r i o d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and the mechanisms o f consensus. 'margin of p r e s s u r e ' , Sabha. t h i s p e r i o d were c o n d i t i o n e d by ethnic, religious, The t h e P r a j a S o c i a l i s t s was t h e i r s m a l l s i z e i n the Lok linguistic and the c l a s s s o l i d a r i t y of political a result in India s o c i a l cleavages t h e I n d i a n w o r k i n g c l a s s and the e f f e c t of c o n s t r a i n i n g a r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a l l e n g e t u t i o n a l and was still of India. The after 1967 center larly had Mrs. and political system. embryonic, forming I n any the when t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y ' s In her wealth. s t r u g g l e w i t h the and total reduced at 'Green R e v o l u t i o n ' o f population the particu1960s s o c i a l performance who period the In the Congress 'Syndicate', the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l wing of the Congress, Mrs. d i s t r i b u t i o n of wealth consti- be m o r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e G a n d h i i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r e s s e d e c o n o m i c and than consensus. had the Indian working c l a s s d o m i n a n c e was i n c r e a s e d d i s p a r i t i e s o f i n c o m e and to f o r e - path C l a s s c o n f l i c t became more s a l i e n t i n the c o u n t r y s i d e where the peasantry. to I n d i a ' s a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of the M a r x i s t m o d e l , h o w e v e r , may i n the s t a t e s . case, caste, counter- F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y o f I n d i a ' s d e c i s i o n i n 1951 of the parliamentary than during s u c h as r e g i o n a l d i v i s i o n s which sake v i o l e n t c l a s s s t r u g g l e i n favour of i n f l u e n c e of thus greater Class divisions other As after the government remained to the views of the o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s . o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s s u c h as acted and Party, rather controlled Gandhi s t r e s s e d the income, the n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of banks, rethe 29 a b o l i t i o n of p r i v y purses The o t h e r a t t a c k s on focussed mainly features. the d i s c u s s i o n of the l i m i t a t i o n of on how the C o n s t i t u t i o n contained A c l a s s a n a l y s i s may be of use emergency powers were i n c l u d e d i n the I n the M a r x i s t a n a l y s i s , another. The new only the replacement ruling t h e D e f e n s e o f I n d i a A c t and R u l e s the i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s and right as subordinate t h e r e was classes. no But as these class o f one broad thus borrowed from the o f 1915 contained and statutes. 1939. absolute. con- ruling British The verbatim from I n the M a r x i s t i n the Fundamental R i g h t s the freedom of speech, e x p r e s s i o n , to p r o p e r t y were not o n l y as l o n g as authoritarian Constitution. Defense of I n d i a R u l e s , f o r example, were c o p i e d almost of the C o n s t i t u t i o n such individual i n e x p l a i n i n g why t h e same r e p r e s s i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s a n d analysis, In t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e movement d i d n o t a s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n but c l a s s by interests.' i n the study of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n I n d i a . the previous chapter, stitute 'vested q u e s t i o n a r i s e s o f what o t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e s does the M a r x i s t model o f f e r rights and T h e y w e r e t o be religion maintained c h a l l e n g e to I n d i a ' s r u l i n g c l a s s e s from soon as t h i s c l a s s r u l e was the b o u r g e o i s i e would drop the l i b e r a l democratic facade threatened, and show the 13 a u t h o r i t a r i a n face of the The state. M a r x i s t m o d e l may a l s o be of use i n e x p l a i n i n g the t u t i o n a l changes t h a t have taken p l a c e s i n c e the a d o p t i o n of s t i t u t i o n i n 1950. constithe S i n c e t h e a d o p t i o n o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n i t has amended f o r t y - t w o t i m e s . I t c o u l d be o f amendments f o r t w e n t y - s e v e n y e a r s argued t h a t such Conbeen a l a r g e number demonstrates t h a t the original 30 document was too r i g i d , or a l t e r n a t i v e l y , has been overused by s u c c e s s i v e C o n s t i t u t i o n too l i g h t l y . t h a t t h e amending g o v e r n m e n t s who A legalistic process have t r e a t e d the a n a l y s i s of the defects of the C o n s t i t u t i o n , h o w e v e r , o n l y g i v e s a p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f why two amendments h a v e b e e n p a s s e d i n s u c h a s h o r t A n a n a l y s i s i s r e q u i r e d o f who c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments. ambitions of the Indian bourgeoisie l a t e d and l e g i t i m i z e d b o u r g e o i s i e was those time. b e n e f i t s and l o s e s f r o m The M a r x i s t m o d e l , f o r e x a m p l e , that the Indian C o n s t i t u t i o n r e f l e c t e d the p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s and p o l i c i e s t h a t t h e I n d i a n determined to pursue i n the f u t u r e . However, Thus t h e government's p o l i c i e s o f l a n d r e f o r m the l i m i t a t i o n o f the i n d i v i d u a l ' s r i g h t t o p r o p e r t y and have inter- land- required i n the i n t e r e s t s c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s i n the countryside i n g t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f threatened industrialists than the i n t e r e s t s of the whole of the b o u r g e o i s i e of s t r e n g t h e n i n g the and j u d i c i a l p r e t a t i o n s w h i c h b e n e f i t e d i n d i v i d u a l l a n d o w n e r s and owners. assumes and t h a t the C o n s t i t u t i o n a r t i c u - t h e 1950s and 1960s by a s e r i e s o f l i t i g a t i o n s rather these i n t e r e s t s and b o u r g e o i s i e ' s p o l i c i e s o f l a n d and i n d u s t r i a l r e f o r m w e r e in forty- and entrench- production. In c o n t r a s t , i n K o t h a r i ' s model o f one-party dominance, the government's p o l i c i e s o f s o c i a l and economic r e f o r m r e f l e c t i o n of the class s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y . a r e n o t a mere Rather, there is a reci- p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between economic and l e g a l and p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . For e x a m p l e , u n i v e r s a l a d u l t s u f f r a g e and t h e i m p e r a t i v e s e l e c t o r a l support have d e t e r m i n e d government p o l i c i e s of of obtaining distribution 31 o f w e a l t h and income and t h e a b o l i t i o n o f p o v e r t y . Kothari writes that: . . . i n t h e c a s e o f I n d i a we s e e t h a t i t w i l l n o t do t o l o o k a t p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a s some k i n d o f s u p e r s t r u c t u r e t h a t p r e s i d e s o v e r more b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n s o c i e t y a n d economy, o r t o l o o k a t e l i t e s as s i m p l e r e c i p i e n t s o f i n p u t s from s o c i e t y to which they respond i n the form of v a r i o u s governmental outputs. Instead t h e whole process s t a r t s here through the establishment of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e w h i c h t h e n , t h r o u g h the a c t i o n s o f e l i t e s , p e n e t r a t e s i n t o s o c i e t y a t v a r i o u s l e v e l s and by s t a g e s , l e a d s t o r e s p o n s e s f r o m b e l o w i n t h e f o r m o f new c o a l i t i o n a l s t r u c tures. E l i t e s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l forms c a n be seen here as c r e a t i v e a c t o r s i n the process o f i n t e g r a t i o n and d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n , i n i t i a t o r s o f a f a r r e a c h i n g change i n a l l s p h e r e s o f l i f e , and c a t a l y s t s a n d m o b i l i z e r s o f a new v i t a l i t y a t v a r i o u s levels. 1 4 Finally, an e x a m i n a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d macy a n d c o n s e n s u s i n t h e two m o d e l s . argued that ports of the treatment of l e g i t i - On t h i s q u e s t i o n , t h e consensus produced by the I n d i a n N a t i o n a l t h e s t a t u s quo."'""' K o t h a r i , on t h e o t h e r c a r r y o u t i t s programs o f e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l article con- i n order to development. words i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r s o c i a l change. "The ' C o n g r e s s S y s t e m ' R e v i s i t e d " , K o t h a r i sup- t h a t a c e r t a i n meas- o f consensus has been n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e Congress P a r t y Consensus, i n other have Congress hand, argues t h a t s e n s u s d o e s n o t s u p p o r t t h e s t a t u s quo b u t i n s t e a d ure Marxists Inh i s writes: B u t t h e C o n g r e s s s y s t e m i s f a r more t h a n a m e r e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f p a r t i e s and f a c t i o n s along t h e m e a s u r a b l e s o f v o t e s and s e a t s . I t i s , basically, a s y s t e m o f e v o l v i n g , m a i n t a i n i n g and r e v i e w i n g a framework o f c o n s e n s u s i n an e n o r m o u s l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d society. T h i s i s a dynamic p r o c e s s , i n v o l v i n g continuous response to changing conditions ( i t i s a s e r i o u s mistake to confuse consensus w i t h s t a t u s quo) a n d , t h r o u g h s u c h r e s p o n s e , e v o l v i n g a w i d e r framework o f shared g o a l s and v a l u e s . 32 Despite t h e i r d i s a g r e e m e n t s on t h e f u n c t i o n o f c o n s e n s u s and legitimacy, Marxists and K o t h a r i a g r e e t h a t b o t h c o n s e n s u s and timacy are not a s s u r e d — t h a t of K o t h a r i ' s the they are problematic. model o f o n e - p a r t y dominance 'operative i s that These t h r e e b o t h dependent on and i n d e p e n d e n t o f e a c h o t h e r . the p o l i t i c a l of the system t o the frameworks a r e Thus t h e l e g i t i m a c y s y s t e m i s n o t e n t i r e l y dependent on t h e e l e c t o r a l v i c t o r i e s of the dominant p a r t y . Legitimacy a l s o depends "on a v a r i e t y o f exogenous f a c t o r s — e c o n o m i c and d e m o g r a p h i c s h i f t s , in staying capacity i n the world a t l a r g e and t h e i r i m p a c t on t h e o f a r e g i m e and p s y c h o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s towards H o w e v e r , K o t h a r i d o e s n o t g i v e a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f how three frameworks i n f l u e n c e s the other. he m e n t i o n s i n f l u e n c e n o t o n l y The 'exogenous it"."^ each of the f a c t o r s ' which t h e framework o f l e g i t i m a c y b u t also framework o f c o n s e n s u s and i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e l a t i o n s between government of changes r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c i a l c l a s s e s , wars and n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s , changes t a k i n g p l a c e the strengths i t attempts to r e l a t e framework' o f t h e e l e c t o r a l and p a r t y frameworks o f consensus and l e g i t i m a c y . of One legi- and the o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s . Nevertheless, Kothari's the 'Congress System' i n t o t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f o p e r a t i v e n i s m s , consensus and l e g i t i m a c y p r o v i d e s us w i t h framework w i t h w h i c h t o examine t h e breakdown ment i n I n d i a . division mecha- analytical of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l govern- The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s e t h r e e examined i n g r e a t e r 'exogenous an i m p o r t a n t d e t a i l i n the f o l l o w i n g chapter. dimensions w i l l The a l s o be examined. . be influence of f a c t o r s ' o n c o n s e n s u s and t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e I n d i a n stitution will the Con- 33 The has a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e M a r x i s t m o d e l and pointed counting out some o f t h e strengths and that of weaknesses of each i n f o r t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f I n d i a ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and s y s t e m i n t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1947 and however, a l s o l i e s to p r e d i c t changes i n a s y s t e m , and in i t s ability i t i s now necessary 1975. to consider m o d e l s a r e r e l e v a n t t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g The the I n d i a n p o l i t i c a l l y i n g economic and writing i n 1973 t e s t of a model, political of the p o l i t i c a l above crisis of 1975. in predicting a crisis s y s t e m as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f under- s o c i a l trends. argued ac- political i n what ways t h e S e v e r a l M a r x i s t s have been p e r s p i c a c i o u s in Kothari's The Marxist Desai, f o r example, that: W i t h h e r own i n t e r n a l r i v a l s d e s t r o y e d and I n d i a ' s e x t e r n a l foe d e c i s i v e l y humbled, I n d i r a Gandhi appeared t o have e s t a b l i s h e d an i m p r e g n a b l e p o s i t i o n f o r h e r s e l f . I n any moderately s t a b l e s o c i a l system a s t r i n g of such b r i l l i a n t successes would s u f f i c e to c o n s o l i d a t e t h e p o l i t i c a l o r d e r f o r many y e a r s t o come. In t h e c a s e o f I n d i a s u c h a p r o s p e c t d o e s n o t seem likely. The d i p l o m a t i c , m i l i t a r y a n d e l e c t o r a l t r i u m p s o f 1971-72 c e r t a i n l y r e f l e c t e d a tempor a r y s t r e n g t h e n i n g of I n d i a n c a p i t a l i s m ' s economic p o s i t i o n . But...the long term prospects f o r I n d i a n c a p i t a l i s m r e m a i n b l e a k , and the very f o r c e s which helped to g i v e I n d i r a Gandhi room f o r manoeuvre i n t h i s p e r i o d w i l l c o n f r o n t h e r Government w i t h g r a v e problems a t a l a t e r date." , 1 8 Of is t o be class course, a r g u e d t h a t the p r e d i c t i o n o f instability e x p e c t e d from t h e method o f M a r x i s t s s i n c e they h o l d s t r u g g l e and occupations political i t c o u l d be r e v o l u t i o n are l e a d them t o e x p e c t , systems. inevitable. and that Their ideological hope f o r , c r i s e s pre- i n the s o c i a l But M a r x i s t s have been p r e d i c t i n g a c r i s i s in and the 34 Indian p o l i t i c a l system from a t l e a s t the m i d d l e of the 1960s; h a v e t o e x p l a i n why that c r i s i s occurred i n 1975 a n d why they i t took the form t h a t i t d i d . I t now r e m a i n s f o r us t o c o n s i d e r model i n p r e d i c t i n g the c r i s i s 'Congress System' d i f f e r e d o f 1975. Although the post-1971 be- t o o p p o s i t i o n and f a c t i o n a l i s m w i t h i n the C o n g r e s s , the r e l a t i o n s h i p between his of Kothari's f r o m the p e r i o d o f o n e - p a r t y dominance t w e e n 1 9 5 0 a n d 1967 i n r e g a r d pressure the u t i l i t y t h e government and p a r t i e s o f and c e n t e r - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s , K o t h a r i r e s t a t e d t h e v a l i d i t y of m o d e l o f t h e ' C o n g r e s s System' as l a t e a s December 1974. Before the emergency he d i d p o i n t t o t h e p e r c e p t i b l e d e c l i n e i n t h e legiti- macy o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d p o l i t i c a l to c e r t a i n trends i n India's system, t r a c i n g t h i s s o c i e t y and p o l i t i c s — n o t a b l y , c e n t r a l i z a t i o n i n the l e v e l s of government, popular base f o r the Indian p o l i t i c a l of performance. K o t h a r i , however, and M r s . G a n d h i were l i k e l y decline excessive the absence of a real p a r t i e s , c o r r u p t i o n and failures concluded that the Congress P a r t y to consolidate t h e i r p o s i t i o n but d i d not 19 make c l e a r how this c o n s o l i d a t i o n would take place. I n summary, K o t h a r i ' s m o d e l o f t h e ' C o n g r e s s S y s t e m ' a n d t h e M a r x i s t model o f c l a s s c o n f l i c t differ tions of the r e l a t i v e of India's stability s y s t e m b e t w e e n 1947 a n d 1 9 7 5 . significantly i n their explana- c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and political K o t h a r i ' s model emphasizes the stability and c o n s e n s u s p r o d u c e d b y t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y a n d h i s m o d e l i s c o n c e r n e d with 'incremental revolution.' I n the M a r x i s t model, however, s t r u g g l e i s e m p h a s i z e d and I n d i a ' s r e l a t i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and class political 35 stability rich i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e dominance o f t h e I n d i a n b o u r g e o i s i e l a n d o w n e r s and by t h e weakness o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a l l e n g e s t h i s dominance. contained With regard insufficient tarian rule, to the hypothesis safeguards against the development of a u t h o r i one explanation o f why b r o a d e m e r g e n c y p o w e r s a n t i t h e t i c a l t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f why to that the C o n s t i t u t i o n an a n a l y s i s o f c l a s s i n t e r e s t s p r o v i d e s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . and government A class analysis also provides c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments l i m i t i n g R i g h t s were p a s s e d by C o n g r e s s Governments. an the Fundamental CHAPTER I V THE EMERGENCY, 1975 36 The preceding examination of the Marxist model o f o n e - p a r t y dominance has o f f e r e d spectives several model and Kothari's theoretical per- from which t o a n a l y z e t h e breakdown o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n I n d i a . In analyzing the period leading up t o t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f emergency i n June 1975, t h e f o l l o w i n g questions are p a r t i c u l a r l y relevant: work o f t h e e l e c t o r a l and p a r t y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l How d i d t h e o p e r a t i v e systems a f f e c t the l e g i t i m a c y s y s t e m a f t e r 1971? of t h e consensus between t h e Congress P a r t y s u r e a n d how d i d t h e ' m a r g i n o f p r e s s u r e ' fluence Was t h e r e a revolutionary political class? challenge and t h e p a r t i e s o f p r e s - operate? What was t h e i n - system? to the bourgeois c o n s t i t u t i o n a l merely a struggle w i t h i n the r u l i n g t o what e x t e n t d i d M r s . Gandhi's p o p u l i s t t o t h e economic and p o l i t i c a l The strategy crisis? f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h e breakdown o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l govern- ment b e g i n s w i t h an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t o f economic t r e n d s and Gandhi's p o p u l i s t s t r a t e g y legitimacy. on t h e frameworks o f consensus and T h i s w i l l then be f o l l o w e d by a d e t a i l e d examination o f government-opposition r e l a t i o n s i n the period Despite t h e Congress general What was t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m o r was t h e r e Finally, contribute Mrs. of the o f exogenous f a c t o r s , such as economic t r e n d s mentioned by K o t h a r i , on t h e l e g i t i m a c y and frame- 1971-75. (R)'slarge e l e c t o r a l m a j o r i t i e s i nthe e l e c t i o n o f March 1971 and t h e s t a t e assembly e l e c t i o n s o f F e b r u a r y 1972, t h e government o f P r i m e M i n i s t e r I n d i r a Gandhi found i t difficult to f u l f i l l i t s promises o f economic and s o c i a l reform. 37 Abolishing poverty slogans of was, i n p r a c t i c e , more d i f f i c u l t ' g a r i b i hatao' ( a b o l i s h poverty) measures d u r i n g e l e c t i o n campaigns. new regards were t h r e a t e n e d 72 b y populist political i n the years f o l l o w i n g the impediments. l a n d s l i d e v i c t o r i e s of p o o r h a r v e s t s , and the a l s o f u e l l e d by w o r l d w i d e i n f l a t i o n . t h a t the The s e c o n d h a l f o f 1974 sharpest r a t e of i n c r e a s e of p r i c e s i n I n d i a s i n c e 1945.^ harvests i n 1970-71, a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r i a l production supply bottlenecks o f raw had 1971- inflation government on J u l y 3 0 , p e r i o d 1972-75 w h i l e 1975 consequent admitted Power s h o r t a g e s , the the economic impediments, the government's programs successive droughts, w h i c h was other formulating In implementing i t s p o l i c i e s , government f a c e d b o t h economic and As and than itself seen the A f t e r good declined sharply i n the showed u n e v e n g r o w t h . m a t e r i a l s , and u n s a t i s f a c - t o r y g r o w t h o f a g r i c u l t u r e a l l l e d t o a s l o w i n g down o f t h e r a t e growth of i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n and of the r a t e of investment proves i n - 2 adequate f o r s u s t a i n e d growth. no significant i n c r e a s e and Per c a p i t a i n c o m e i n 1 9 7 2 - 7 5 showed the e f f e c t of these a g e n e r a l d e c l i n e i n the l i v i n g standards economic trends o f t h e mass o f t h e was Indian population. I n i t s a n n u a l r e p o r t f o r 1974-75, p u b l i s h e d Planning Commission admitted unworkable. The in April that the d r a f t F i f t h Five-Year 1975, the Plan was Commission a t t r i b u t e d the " s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e s non-developmental expenditure" and c o s t o f d e v e l o p m e n t programmes and i n d o m e s t i c p r i c e s and the " s i g n i f i c a n t e s c a l a t i o n i n expenditures" the cost of imported raw to the sharp m a t e r i a l s and in the increases fuel such 38 as o i l . However, t h e r e were t h o s e who laid of p l a n n i n g a t t h e door o f t h e government P l a n n i n g Commission i t s e l f . the blame f o r t h e and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , D r . B.S. M i n h a s , who the resigned from the b o d y i n 1 9 7 5 , c h a r g e d t h a t t h e P l a n n i n g C o m m i s s i o n was p a r t l y for failure t o blame the d e t e r i o r a t i n g economic s i t u a t i o n because o f i t s u n r e a l i s t i c 3 p l a n n i n g a s s u m p t i o n s and methods. The C o m m i s s i o n , f o r e x a m p l e , u s e d i n a c c u r a t e f o r e i g n a i d and t r a d e s t a t i s t i c s p r i c e s of c r u c i a l imports. Furthermore, the Commission the l e v e l of domestic savings. lations, the d r a f t Five-Year and u n d e r - e s t i m a t e d As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e Plan bore l i t t l e the over-estimated optimistic calcu- r e l a t i o n t o economic reality. Worsening economic c o n d i t i o n s were n o t t h e o n l y r e a s o n f o r t h e government's f a i l u r e o f p e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r March 1971. l i e s w i t h the government's i n i t i a l P a r t o f t h e blame d e l a y i n the p e r i o d between the g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n s o f 1971 and t h e s t a t e a s s e m b l y e l e c t i o n s o f David H. Bayley plementing p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e government 1972. l o s t much t i m e i n i m - i t s programs. One o f t h e g r e a t c u r i o s i t i e s o f I n d i a n p o l i t i c s i n 197.1 was how. l i t t l e M r s . G a n d h i c h o s e t o do w i t h her dramatic March v i c t o r y . New p r o g r a m s o f economic development were n o t announced; t h e 197172 b u d g e t was a c o p y o f t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r ' s ; a n d c a b i n e t c h a n g e s w e r e m i n o r . The v a s t p a r l i a m e n t a r y m a j o r i t y h a s b e e n m o b i l i z e d on o n l y t h r e e m e a s u r e s . T h e s e a r e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments, and t h e y a r e n e i t h e r i d e o l o g i c a l l y r a d i c a l n o r do t h e y p l a c e new demands o n t h e c o u n t r y . 4 The c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n I n d i a a n d P a k i s t a n o v e r B a n g l a d e s h may have d i v e r t e d t h e government's a t t e n t i o n f r o m economic and social 39 reform b u t o f more i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e f a i l u r e o f p e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r 1 9 7 1 were t h e c o n t i n u i n g p o l i t i c a l ment. c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e p o l i c i e s of the govern- T h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s h a d n o t b e e n r e m o v e d b y t h e " I n d i r a Wave" o f 1971-72 a l t h o u g h t h e e l e c t i o n s had c e r t a i n l y widened t h e parameters w i t h i n w h i c h t h e government c o u l d act."* A t t h e s t a t e and l o c a l level, c o n t r o l o f C o n g r e s s P a r t y u n i t s was i n t h e h a n d s o f a c o a l i t i o n o f u r b a n and r u r a l economic and p o l i t i c a l e l i t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y r i c h and middle peasants. wealth Party's Mrs. Gandhi's programs f o r t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o f income were t h e r e f o r e p r e v e n t e d by t h e n a t u r e s o c i a l base. As Susanne R u d o l p h p o i n t e d of the Congress out, "Indian states, l i k e American, l i e c l o s e r than t h e i r c e n t r a l governments t o t h e o r g a n i z e d i n t e r e s t s , w h i c h a r e u s u a l l y t h e more p r o s p e r o u s . apt t o be l e s s r e s p o n s i v e t o the l e s s organized S t a t e governments a r e underprivileged sectors t h a n a f e d e r a l government, f r e e r f r o m t h e need f o r l o c a l s u p p o r t and f r o m l o c a l c o n s t r a i n t s and a b l e t o a p p e a l t o n a t i o n a l c o n s t i t u e n c i e s of the underprivileged."^ By the beginning the Congress been r e p l a c e d o f 1 9 7 3 i t was c l e a r t h a t t h e e u p h o r i c ( R ) ' s e l e c t i o n v i c t o r i e s and t h e defeat by a p e r i o d o f economic c r i s i s the government. days o f o f P a k i s t a n had and d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h T h e y e a r s 1 9 7 3 a n d 1974 saw a n e r o s i o n o f t h e c o n s e n s u s i n I n d i a p o l i t i c s between t h e government and o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s t h a t had been c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n K o t h a r i ' s model of one-party dominance. accused the other questioned of Each side o f u n d e m o c r a t i c and u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t i o n s and each other's f a i t h i n democratic p r i n c i p l e s . t h e c o n s e n s u s was a c c e l e r a t e d This i n 1975 t o s u c h a n e x t e n t breakdown that both the 40 government and to impose the o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s claimed that the other intended a d i c t a t o r s h i p on I n d i a . down o f c o n s e n s u s , t h e r e was this break- i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine g o v e r n m e n t - o p p o s i t i o n r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n 1972 the frameworks To s e e why a n d 1975 o f consensus and a n d t o show how these r e l a t i o n s affected l e g i t i m a c y d e s c r i b e d by K o t h a r i . Of p a r t i c u l a r importance i n t h i s examination i s the operation of the 'margin o f p r e s s u r e ' and The Breakdown o f The t h e i m p a c t o f t h e J P movement. Consensus breakdown o f consensus g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n a n d t h e 1972 c a n be d i r e c t l y s t a t e assembly elections. e l e c t i o n s i n c r e a s e d the m a j o r i t i e s of Congress tically traced to the ( 0 ) , S w a t a n t r a and i n the s t a t e s . and t h e C o n g r e s s p o p u l i s m and as consider- found t h e i r strengths diminished at the Moreover, the methods used by Mrs. Gandhi (R) t o r e d u c e t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s s u p p o r t b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e 1 9 7 1 - 7 2 e l e c t i o n s a l i e n a t i o n from P a r t i e s such t h e J a n a Sangh w h i c h had e n j o y e d a b l e i n f l u e n c e b e f o r e 1 9 7 1 now c e n t e r and While the (R), they also d r a s - reduced the strength of o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s . Congress 1971 'Congress c o n t r i b u t e d t o 'the o p p o s i t i o n system'. As a r e s p o n s e t o M r s . parties Gandhi's to c o r r u p t i o n i n the e l e c t o r a l system, the non-communist opposition parties came t o r e l y i n c r e a s i n g l y on extra—parliamentary methods.^ I n G u j a r a t i n J a n u a r y 1974 student discontent over increased h o s t e l and f o o d c h a r g e s l e d t o s t u d e n t d e m o n s t r a t i o n s and r i o t i n g that ultimately resulted the i n the d o w n f a l l of the Congress i m p o s i t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t ' s R u l e and (R) M i n i s t r y , the d i s s o l u t i o n of the State Assembly. 41 The disturbances i n Gujarat o r i g i n a t e d from the l i m i t e d s e c t i o n a l demands o f s t u d e n t s b u t r a p i d l y d e v e l o p e d i n t o a n e x p r e s s i o n middle class discontent among G u j a r a t i s who p r o t e s t e d of urban against high food p r i c e s , s h o r t a g e s and government i n a c t i o n and c o r r u p t i o n . The y e a r 1974 a l s o s a w t h e r e e m e r g e n c e o f J a y a p r a k a s h N a r a y a n , the veteran popularly reform. 'sarvodaya' leader from B i h a r . N a r a y a n , o r ' J P ' a s he was c a l l e d , had i n 1973 c a l l e d f o r e l e c t o r a l and In this campaign f o r s o c i a l , educational economic and p o l i t i c a l regenera- t i o n he a p p e a l e d t o t h e y o u t h o f I n d i a t o p l a y a p i v o t a l r o l e . fically, h e made o v e r t u r e s In the country paign against t o s t u d e n t s i n h i s home s t a t e o f B i h a r . a s a w h o l e , many I n d i a n s person of s u f f i c i e n t Sped- believed s'tature and i n t e g r i t y t h a t h e was t h e o n l y to lead a nationwide cam- corruption. A f t e r the Gujarat disturbances had subsided i n March 1974, op- p o s i t i o n t o C o n g r e s s d e v e l o p e d i n J P ' s home s t a t e o f B i h a r . Again the i s s u e s were c o r r u p t i o n and t h e f a i l i n g s o f t h e government i n t h e e c o nomic s p h e r e . had Similarly, t h e a c t i o n committee formed by JP i n B i h a r a s o n e o f i t s demands t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e s t a t e a s s e m b l y a n d the replacement o f t h e C h i e f M i n i s t e r , Abdul Ghafoor. not In i t s decision t o d i s s o l v e t h e a s s e m b l y a n d c a l l new e l e c t i o n s , t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n - ment t o o k t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e a s s e m b l y h a d b e e n d e m o c r a t i c a l l y i n 1972 a n d s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be a l l o w e d elected t o run i t s normal course. combined non-communist o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s , however, argued t h a t t h e Congress should (R) g o v e r n m e n t o f B i h a r t h u s s e e k a new m a n d a t e . had l o s t touch with Besides t h i s , t h e p e o p l e and t h e J P movement also The 42 declared as one o f i t s aims t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the representatives tional of the people. of the right of r e c a l l T h i s was a n i m p o r t a n t constitu- i s s u e t h a t was t o b e f r e q u e n t l y r a i s e d b y t h e n o n - c o m m u n i s t o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s i n t h e p e r i o d l e a d i n g up t o t h e e m e r g e n c y . It figured prominently, submitted by f o r example, i n t h e 'Charter o f Demands' t h e n o n — c o m m u n i s t o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s a f t e r t h e mass r a l l y D e l h i o n M a r c h 6, 1 9 7 5 . F o r t h e G o v e r n m e n t t h e s e demands a n d t h e methods used by t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s o n l y democratic i n New served t o undermine t h e process. A c o n s i s t e n t demand o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s t h r o u g h o u t 1 9 7 2 75 was t h a t t h e s t a t e o f e m e r g e n c y d e c l a r e d 1971 should be l i f t e d o f 1971 s h o u l d the by t h e P r e s i d e n t i n December and t h a t t h e M a i n t e n a n c e o f I n t e r n a l S e c u r i t y A c t be e i t h e r a b o l i s h e d or modified i n i t s application. o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s , t h e e m e r g e n c y a n d MISA s t o o d Damocles' over t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . For a s a 'sword o f As l o n g as b o t h t h e emergency and t h e MISA r e m a i n e d , t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a d a n u n f a i r a d v a n t a g e in that i tcould p o t e n t i a l l y r e s t r i c t their activities. Nor were t h e op- p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s i n Parliament impressed by t h e government's •for c o n t i n u i n g The o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s a r g u e d t h a t t h e t h e emergency. e x t e r n a l threat invoked nuance had l e s s e n e d as a r e a s o n f o r t h e emergency and i t s c o n t i - s i n c e t h e war w i t h Pakistan. T h e s e demands f o r t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e e m e r g e n c y added impetus f o l l o w i n g developments i n I n d i a ' s n e i g h b o u r i n 1974—75. arguments Sheikh Mujib received Bangladesh Rahman, t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f B a n g l a d e s h , h a d on D e c e m b e r 2 8 , 1974 i s s u e d a p r o c l a m a t i o n o f emergency w h i c h suspended 43 the fundamental r i g h t s of the C o n s t i t u t i o n . t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n i t s e l f was I n New other of the replaced by that the J a n u a r y 27, 1975 a conference of Narayan o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s decided that the to prevent a s i m i l a r a u t h o r i t a r i a n regime being made by visits the a p p r e h e n s i o n s were i n t e n s i f i e d by Delhi. Ghafoor threatened drastic action against t i o n on h i s r e t u r n t o t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s and given approval Party asked: s t a t e of B i h a r . i t was "Do attacks on ister's advisers these statements democratic rights? are intensified i n India. he one 1975 of his to take restart his agita- These t h r e a t s angered rumored t h a t Mrs. to Ghafoor's warnings. be c e r t a i n statements on J a n u a r y 2 9 , Jayaprakash Narayan should and Bihar-type established C h i e f M i n i s t e r o f B i h a r , A b d u l G h a f o o r , on t o New parlia- a p r e s i d e n t i a l one-party movement f o r t h e r e a s s e r t i o n o f d e m o c r a t i c r i g h t s s h o u l d These o p p o s i t i o n 1975 l i b e r t i e s were c u r t a i l e d . D e l h i on leaders J a n u a r y 25, amended i n s u c h , a way m e n t a r y f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t was system i n which c i v i l On Gandhi h e r s e l f Madhu L i m a y e o f t h e the had Socialist l o f Ghafoor] presage f u r t h e r massive I t i s being engaged i n a s e c r e t s a i d t h a t the Prime M i n - exercise the purpose of which i s u l t i m a t e l y t o c l a m p down a B a n g l a d e s h - t y p e a u t h o r i t a r i a n r e g i m e i n t h i s country. S u c h an a t t e m p t w i l l , n a t u r a l l y , be s c a l e a r r e s t s of O p p o s i t i o n and trade union leaders p r e c e d e d by and large- above a l l , of 9 Mr. Narayan." The o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s , t h e r e f o r e , demanded t h e r e v o c a t i o n s t a t e o f e m e r g e n c y o f D e c e m b e r 1971 and the repeal cr m o d i f i c a t i o n the Maintenance of I n t e r n a l S e c u r i t y A c t . " ^ of the of Developments i n Bangladesh 44 and v e i l e d w a r n i n g s f r o m the. C o n g r e s s t h e i r r e s o l v e to press It i s not c l u d i n g t h e CPM, 7, 1975 f o r an to the emergency r e g u l a t i o n s . s u r p r i s i n g , t h e n , that the o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s , i n reacted to introduce an s t r o n g l y when t h e years i n places detention designated t o a d v i s o r y boards."'*"'" g o v e r n m e n t a t t e m p t e d on amendment t o M I S A i n t h e L o k ment w o u l d h a v e p e r m i t t e d two end (R.) l e a d e r s h i p o n l y s t i f f e n e d as Because of under the Act strong The amend- f o r a p e r i o d o f up 'disturbed areas' the Sabha. May and without appeal r e a c t i o n from the opposi- t i o n b e n c h e s t h e Home M i n i s t e r , B r a h m a n a n d a R e d d y , a n n o u n c e d l a t e r the b i l l w o u l d be w i t h d r a w n b u t proposal w o u l d be introduced :he i n the d i d make i t c l e a r t h a t a future. This b i l l , would have been a s e t b a c k to the O p p o s i t i o n ' s excluding the i f passed, campaign f o r the relaxthe I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e t h a t the o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s , the CPI, at this time were p l a n n i n g amendment t o M I S A w o u l d h a v e t h r e a t e n e d T h e r e was, h o w e v e r , one c o n s e n s u s seemed l i k e l y t o r a l reform. out that similar a t i o n o f t h e emergency s i n c e i t gave more d i s c r e t i o n a r y powers t o government. to t o be area more B i h a r - t y p e these i n which a achieved and plans. government-opposition t h a t was the A t B h u b a n e s h w a r , O r i s s a , on M a r c h 3 1 , the o f f e r o f an a l l - p a r t y cuss e l e c t o r a l reform and c o n f e r e n c e t o be i n v i t e d Mrs. movements; held G a n d h i and issue of 1975, i n New other elec- Narayan D e l h i to leaders of held disthe 12 Congress Party. The o p p o s i t i o n on i s s u e was this o f meetings were h e l d tion's proposals i d e a of a dialogue i n New a c c e p t e d by between the g o v e r n m e n t and t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r and Delhi in April and May. Among t h e f o r a change i n the e l e c t o r a l system were: the the a series Opposilowering 45 o f t h e v o t i n g age and t h e q u a l i f y i n g age f o r c a n d i d a t e s ; recall; the right c h a n g e s i n t h e s i z e o f t h e E l e c t o r a l C o m m i s s i o n and t h e m e t h o d of appointing penditures counting i t s members; c h a n g e s i n t h e l a w s r e g a r d i n g e l e c t i o n ex- a n d u s e o f t h e mass m e d i a ; a n d c h a n g e s i n t h e m e t h o d s o f at polling stations. The 13 G o v e r n m e n t a g r e e d t o make c e r t a i n c h a n g e s i n t h e e l e c t o r a l system b u t these were o n l y minor reforms t h a t d i d n o t i n v o l v e any changes i n s t a t u t e s b u t c o u l d be s e c u r e d t h r o u g h e x e c u t i v e Despite orders. t h e s e m i n o r changes, t h e j s e r i e s o f a l l - p a r t y m e e t i n g s on e l e c t o r a l r e f o r m b r o k e up w i t h o u t a n y s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s t o t h e electoral the system. Both s i d e s accused each other of obstruction i n t a l k s a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , was c h a r g e d w i t h vague i n i t s proposals. In the period l e a d i n g up t o t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f emergency i n June 1975, t h e government and t h e o p p o s i t i o n i n Parliament took d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s . its activities, The o p p o s i t i o n parties argued that f a r from weakening t h e democratic system, i n f a c t strengthened i t by p o s i n g popular discontent. raising being such b a s i c t h e key i s s u e s o f r e f o r m and by T h e y a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e was n o t h i n g issues. Otherwise, without serious articulating undemocratic about c h e c k s on t h e a c t i o n s o f an i n c r e a s i n g l y a u t h o r i t a r i a n government, d e m o c r a t i c r i g h t s and freedoms w o u l d be e r o d e d . ernment t o e x p e c t t h a t i t c o u l d actions. T h e y f e l t t h a t i t was w r o n g o f t h e g o v o p e r a t e w i t h o u t any s c r u t i n y o f i t s Furthermore, they argued t h a t the Prime M i n i s t e r could not justifiably c l a i m t h a t t h e o p p o s i t i o n was h i n d e r i n g t h e s o c i a l and 46 economic programs o f t h e government s i n c e she a l r e a d y had had n i n e years o f o f f i c e i n which The position t o implement these government, however, argued programs. 14 t h a t t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e Op- i n P a r l i a m e n t a n d t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s a n d t h e J P movement undermined the l e g i t i m a c y of d e m o c r a t i c a l l y - e l e c t e d governments. This c h a r g e p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i e d t o t h e J P movement's demand f o r t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f the B i h a r s t a t e assembly. The g o v e r n m e n t ' s c a s e was t h a t t h e o p p o s i t i o n , h a v i n g been d e f e a t e d c o n v i n c i n g l y a t t h e p o l l s i n 1971 and 1972, was r e s o r t i n g t o u n d e m o c r a t i c p r a c t i c e s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i r frustration. A s r e g a r d s t h e J P movement, t h e g o v e r n m e n t q u e s t i o n e d i t s mass b a s e . N o t o n l y was t h a t b a s e l i m i t e d b u t t h e O p p o s i t i o n w a s a l s o duping i t s s u p p o r t e r s and Narayan h a d a l l o w e d h i s movement t o b e i n f i l t r a t e d by ' a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c elements*. s u c h a s J a g j i v a n Ram a l s o p o u r e d Congress P a r t y l e a d e r s s c o r n on J P ' s i d e a o f 'party-less d e m o c r a c y ' w h i c h t h e y saw a s b e i n g i m p r a c t i c a l a n d a n t i t h e t i c a l t o parliamentary The democracy.^ g o v e r n m e n t a l s o t o o k n o t e o f c e r t a i n v a g u e a p p e a l s made from time t o time by Narayan towards t h e army a n d t h e p o l i c e . u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a p p e a l s and t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f t h e U n i o n for These Minister R a i l w a y s , L.N. M i s h r a , a n d t h e a t t e m p t e d a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f C h i e f J u s t i c e R a y seemed t o i n d i c a t e a s e r i o u s b r e a k d o w n i n l a w a n d o r d e r . In response to this law and o r d e r . terms t h e g o v e r n m e n t saw i t s e l f In particular, I n d i r a Gandhi as the guardian o f p u b l i c saw h e r s e l f i n G a u l l e s q u e as t h e o n l y p e r s o n c a p a b l e o f s a v i n g t h e R e p u b l i c from It chaos. i s clear i n this examination of government-opposition t i o n s b e t w e e n 1 9 7 1 a n d 1975 t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e ' m a r g i n o f rela- 47 pressure' differed s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m t h e p e r i o d s . 1950-67 and I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p e r i o d s 1950-67 and 1967-71, (except the p a r t i e s of t h e C.P.I.) were n o t s u c c e s s f u l i n m a i n t a i n i n g ness of the dominant p a r t y . been n o t e d — n a m e l y , 1967-71. the pressure responsive- Some o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s h a v e already t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e s t r e n g t h and e f f i c a c y o f t h e non-communist o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s and t h e i r a l i e n a t i o n from t h e System'; t h e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f power b y M r s . G a n d h i and h e r on p e r f o r m a n c e r a t h e r t h a n c o n s e n s u s ; a n d c h a n g e s s i t i o n norms o f b e h a v i o u r i n w h i c h t h e r e was and o r d e r methods by t h e government the non-communist O p p o s i t i o n . in 'Congress emphasis government-oppo- a greater r e s o r t to law and e x t r a - p a r l i a m e n t a r y methods by The O p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s ' criticisms t h e dominant p a r t y c a n t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t be e x p l a i n e d as rhetoric and t h e n o r m a l t e n d e n c y o f o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s t o t a k e a d v e r s a r y t i o n s a g a i n s t the government. t o l e r a n c e by t h e government viewpoint. The criticisms However, a f t e r 1971.. t h e r e was and o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s o f e a c h posi- less other's t o o k o n a more h i g h - p i t c h e d c h a r a c t e r shown, f o r e x a m p l e , b y e a c h s i d e a c c u s i n g of as the other of u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l actions. I l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e changes r e l a t i o n s between the government i n t h e 'Congress System' a r e t h e a n d t h e J P movement. Besides t h r e a t to the p o p u l a r i t y of the Congress P a r t y i n the country t h e J P movement was also, specifically, w e l l aware o f t h e f a c t posi- Mrs. t h a t a c e r t a i n number o f C o n g r e s s P a r t y members w e r e r e c e p t i v e t o J P ' s movement and o p p o s e d a as a w h o l e , a t h r e a t to Mrs. Gandhi's t i o n i n t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y , and h e r a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e C . P . I . G a n d h i was being to the 48 Congress' a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e Communist P a r t y o f I n d i a . 1975, t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r d i s m i s s e d H o u s i n g , Mohan D h a r i a , dialogue with On M a r c h 2, t h e S t a t e M i n i s t e r f o r W o r k s and a f t e r he had p u b l i c l y u r g e d . h e r t o o p e n a Narayan. Narayan responded t o the d i s m i s s a l of Dharia ment on M a r c h 4, 1975 by i s s u i n g a s t a t e - i n w h i c h he u r g e d t h e t o p l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e Con- 16 gress Party to r e p l a c e Mrs. Gandhi. T h e r e a c t i o n o f members o f t h e Congress P a r t y t o t h i s p l e a was the O p p o s i t i o n of meddling i n the i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s of the Congress On M a r c h 5, 1975 a n e m e r g e n c y Parliamentary "the meeting of the executive members o f r e s o l u t i o n a t t a c k i n g t h e a c t i o n s o f N a r a y a n was Mrs. Gandhi's d i s m i s s a l of Dharia A similar p a s s e d by t h e C.P.I. and h e r r e j e c t i o n o f a w i t h N a r a y a n and N a r a y a n ' s a p p e a l s t o t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y remove M r s . G a n d h i a l l d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e government f r o m t h e norms o f t h e C o n g r e s s and t o l e r a n c e had been r e p l a c e d deplored f o r c e s t o d i s r u p t t h e p a r t y " and w h i c h 17 i t s f a i t h i n the leadership of Mrs. Gandhi. p a r t i e s had d e v i a t e d Party. of the Congress P a r t y unanimously approved a r e s o l u t i o n which attempt of anti-democratic reiterated t o a c c u s e N a r a y a n and o t h e r dialogue leadership and to opposition 'System'; consensus by i n f l e x i b l e p o s i t i o n s between govern- ment a n d o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s . A Marxist was a n a l y s i s o f t h e breakdown o f c o n s e n s u s shows t h a t there a c o n t r a d i c t i o n between M r s . G a n d h i ' s p o p u l i s t p o l i c i e s and t h e b a s e of support f o r the Congress P a r t y . Mrs. Gandhi's programs f o r economic a n d s o c i a l r e f o r m c o u l d n o t be i m p l e m e n t e d b e c a u s e t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y the s t a t e and l o c a l l e v e l r e m a i n e d u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f u r b a n a n d at rural 49 landowning interests.. performance increased the p o l i t i c a l crisis, the system. T h e gap b e t w e e n Mrs:. Gandhi's promises and r e s u l t i n g i n the erosion of the legitimacy of This f a i l u r e o f performance and t h e economic t h e c o r r u p t i o n i n t h e e l e c t o r a l system and t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f 'parties of pressure' reduction from t h e 'Congress System' a l l l e d t o a i n t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f I n d i a ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l system. Immediate Causes o f t h e Emergency H a v i n g examined t h e breakdown o f consensus and e r o s i o n o f t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l system, i t i s necessary now t o c o n s i d e r i n June 1975. why t h e e m e r g e n c y was d e c l a r e d introductory chapter, stitutional isting and i t was h y p o t h e s i z e d that the maintenance of con- government i n I n d i a depends on t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e e x - c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l the opposition p a r t i e s . framework by b o t h t h e government What t h e n w e r e t h e s p e c i f i c w h i c h l e d t h e government t o t e m p o r a r i l y In other In the suspend t h i s circumstances common f r a m e w o r k ? w o r d s , why d i d t h e g o v e r n m e n t f e e l t h a t t h e u n l i m i t e d p o w e r s of a s t a t e o f emergency were required? I n a n a l y z i n g t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e s t a t e o f emergency s e v e r a l k e y questions arise: the Gujarat What p a r t d i d t h e A l l a h a b a d election results play To w h a t e x t e n t gency m o t i v a t e d i n t h e d e c i s i o n o f J u n e 2 6 , 1975? was M r s . G a n d h i ' s d e c i s i o n t o d e c l a r e by p u r e l y p e r s o n a l What was t h e n a t u r e the opposition? H i g h C o u r t d e c i s i o n and considerations a s t a t e o f emer- o f s t a y i n g i n power? o f t h e t h r e a t t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government What was t h e r o l e o f t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y from leadership, 50 t h e P r e s i d e n t , t h e bureaucracy-, t h e army and t h e p o l i c e ? emergency Could the have been a v e r t e d ? From p r e s s i n g i t s demands f o r e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l r e f o r m , t h e o p p o s i t i o n ' s f o c u s o f a t t a c k changed I n d i r a Gandhi. t o that of removing The o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s a p p e a r e d t o have a c h i e v e d t h i s o b j e c t i v e when two e v e n t s o f i m p o r t a n c e a f f e c t i n g the personal position of t h e Prime M i n i s t e r o c c u r r e d i n June 1975. A t 1 0 : 0 0 a.m. o n J u n e 1 2 , 1 9 7 5 , J u s t i c e J a g Mohan L a i S i n h a o f t h e A l l a h a b a d H i g h C o u r t announced t h a t M r s . Gandhi had been g u i l t y on two c o u n t s o f e l e c t o r a l v i o l a t i o n s Sabha i n 1971. M r s . G a n d h i was now b a r r e d found i n her election to the Lok from h o l d i n g e l e c t i v e office f o r s i x y e a r s a n d was t o v a c a t e h e r s e a t i n t h e L o k S a b h a w i t h i n s i x months. H o w e v e r , s h e was a l s o g i v e n a " s t a y o r d e r " d e l a y i n g t h e e x e c u - t i o n o f J u s t i c e Sinha's sentence f o r twenty days, a l l o w i n g h e r time t o a p p e a l t h e judgement i n t h e Supreme C o u r t o f I n d i a . On t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , M r s . G a n d h i r e c e i v e d a f u r t h e r s e t b a c k when t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e G u j a r a t S t a t e e l e c t i o n s h e l d o n J u n e 8-11 w e r e a n nounced. The C o n g r e s s P a r t y was d e c i s i v e l y b e a t e n b y a c o a l i t i o n o f o p - position parties, t h e J a n a t a F r o n t , w h i c h won e i g h t y - s e v e n s e a t s a n d formed a m i n i s t r y headed by Babubhai P a t e l . s t r e n g t h i n t h e 182-member a s s e m b l y f e l l i n 1974 t o s e v e n t y - f i v e s e a t s . The C o n g r e s s Party's f r o m 140 s e a t s a t d i s s o l u t i o n The e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s were a p e r s o n a l d e f e a t f o r M r s . Gandhi s i n c e she had s t a k e d h e r p r e s t i g e on t h e r e s u l t s and h a d c a m p a i g n e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n "the s t a t e m a k i n g n u m e r o u s and h e l i c o p t e r t o u r s i n a l l n i n e t e e n d i s t r i c t s of the state. speeches Moreover, 51 d u r i n g the e l e c t i o n campaign she had Congress P a r t y was s t r e s s e d the argument t h a t t h e the o n l y p a r t y capable of g i v i n g s t a b i l i t y and u n i t y to I n d i a . In h i s a n a l y s i s of the impact of the G u j a r a t e l e c t i o n , K o t h a r i argues t h a t the Congress P a r t y m i s i n t e r p r e t e d the e l e c t i o n results. The Congress i t s e l f d i d not f a r e b a d l y , g e t t i n g 44 p e r cent of the v o t e which had been the normal s t r e n g t h of the Congress a l l a l o n g . T h i s happened i n s p i t e of the f a c t t h a t the a n t i - C o n g r e s s movement had o r i g i n a l l y s t a r t e d i n G u j a r a t and the s t o c k of l o c a l Congressmen was v e r y low. To no s m a l l e x t e n t t h i s was due to the Prime M i n i s t e r ' s own massive campaign on b e h a l f of the Congress and the f a c t t h a t the poor, the t r i b a l and other u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d s t r a t a of the p e o p l e were s t i l l w i t h the Congress. And G u j a r a t was by no means r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the c o u n t r y and t h e r e was more than a f a i r chance t h a t the Congress would once a g a i n emerge triumphant i n the n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n which was b a r e l y e i g h t months ahead. While i t i s c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t the Congress r e c e i v e d f o r t y f o u r p e r cent o f the p o p u l a r v o t e , a f i g u r e h i g h e r than t h a t of the J a n a t a F r o n t , the f a c t remains t h a t the winning on the number of s e a t s won vote. The of e l e c t i o n s depends r a t h e r than the p r o p o r t i o n of the Congress P a r t y c o u l d have taken comfort share of the p o p u l a r v o t e remained approximately not have been s a t i s f i e d w i t h the f a c t t h a t i t had and was now a minority party. popular i n the f a c t t h a t i t s the same, but i t c o u l d lost sixty-five Moreover, the Congress (R) i n the c r u c i a l urban areas of the s t a t e such as R a j k o t , lost seats ground S u r a t , Baroda and Ahmedabad where the J a n a t a F r o n t o b t a i n e d a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of the t o t a l v o t e . C l e a r l y , urban d i s c o n t e n t w i t h the Congress C ) not l e s s e n e d s i n c e R 1974. had 52 For the Congress P a r t y , the e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s b e f o r e b e e n m i x e d and they i n d i c a t e d that the declined. i n s t a n c e , i n t h e F e b r u a r y 1974 For ' I n d i r a Wave' o f 1 9 7 1 - 7 2 i n U t t a r P r a d e s h t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y had the S t a t e government but U.P. e l e c t i o n was history. Lok o f Madhya P r a d e s h . ported gress by The l e a d e r s h i p o f an Thus the of Jabalpur, one of i t s strongholds e f f e c t o f t h i s v i c t o r y o f an t o q u a s h any a cumulative t w i n e v e n t s had t i m i n g o f t h e s e two ceived each c r i s i s separately. and Gujarat Party the Congress Party. The ' v a c a t i o n judge' of the High Court the p o s i t i o n of a matter was had Gandhi twofold: F i r s t , i t gave to a t t a c k the non-communist o p p o s i t i o n s u f f e r e d an T h i s u n c e r t a i n t y was Supreme C o u r t , of What i s c e r t a i n , t h o u g h , Secondly, the events of June placed i n a p e r i o d of u n c e r t a i n t y . significant, Perhaps Mrs. t h a t t h e p r e s t i g e o f t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r had v e r s i b l e setback. Con- emergency d e c l a r a t i o n the o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s an u n p a r a l l e l e d o p p o r t u n i t y the thought i n the I t i s , of course, events been d i f f e r e n t . that the e f f e c t of Allahabad M i n i s t e r and state sup- i m p a c t on s p e c u l a t i o n w h e t h e r t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n an is the independent a f t e r the Allahabad the Congress P a r t y . c o u l d have d e a l t w i t h i n the election results is decision. the in early general e l e c t i o n . t i m i n g of the Gujarat G a n d h i and the i n post-independence s u f f e r e d a shock defeat day Mrs. And (R) e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e y came one The seats. Congress t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s was had managed t o r e t a i n c o n t r o l o f r e g a r d e d as t h e most c o r r u p t Sabha c o n s t i t u e n c y had s t a t e assembly e l e c t i o n s w i t h a m a j o r i t y o f o n l y two I n J a n u a r y 1975, Gujarat J u s t i c e V.R. the not Prime per- irre- Congress e n d e d when Krishna Iyer, 53 on J u n e 2 4 , 1 9 7 5 , t u r n e d down M r s . G a n d h i ' s r e q u e s t and absolute stay of j u s t i c e . " f o r a "complete J u s t i c e I y e r d i d , however, grant c o n d i t i o n a l s t a y i n g order which enabled a M r s . Gandhi t o c o n t i n u e as Prime M i n i s t e r but n o t t o take p a r t i n parliamentary proceedings, vote 19 o r d r a w h e r p a y a s a member o f t h e L o k S a b h a . A f t e r t h e Allahabad High Court results, Mrs. d e c i s i o n and t h e G u j a r a t election t h e non-communist o p p o s i t i o n was unanimous i n t h e v i e w t h a t Gandhi should r e s i g n . J u s t i c e Sinha's j u d g e m e n t was h a i l e d a s a great a c t showing t h e independence o f t h e j u d i c i a r y . The o p p o s i t i o n argued t h a t t h e Prime M i n i s t e r c o u l d n o t j u s t i f i a b l y remain i n o f f i c e a f t e r b e i n g c o n v i c t e d o n e l e c t o r a l o f f e n c e s no m a t t e r o f f e n c e s were. how m i n o r R e m a i n i n g i n o f f i c e w o u l d o n l y weaken h e r c r e d i b i l i t y and w e a k e n t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e o f f i c e o f P r i m e M i n i s t e r . the o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s c a l l e d and those began a n a t i o n - w i d e Accordingly, f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a new g o v e r n m e n t campaign f o r h e r r e s i g n a t i o n . On t h e - o t h e r h a n d , s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r s t r e s s e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e l e c t o r a l c o n v i c t i o n s were minor and t h a t o t h e r of e l e c t o r a l o f f e n c e s had been thrown out by J u s t i c e Sinha. s i t i o n was a c c u s e d of having double standards d e c i s i o n s o f t h e c o u r t s o n l y when t h e y They were a l s o accused charges The oppo- i n that they accepted the suited their p o l i t i c a l interests. of e x p l o i t i n g t h e r u l i n g a g a i n s t Mrs. Gandhi i n order t o create discontent i n the country. Moreover, Mrs. Gandhi's sup- p o r t e r s a r g u e d t h a t s h e was n o t l e g a l l y o b l i g e d t o r e s i g n s i n c e s h e h a d been g i v e n a c o n d i t i o n a l s t a y i n g o r d e r ; t h e q u e s t i o n o f M r s . Gandhi's r e s i g n a t i o n w o u l d o n l y a r i s e o n c e t h e Supreme C o u r t h a d made i t s 54 judgement on t h e matter of her a p p e a l . ^ it that the question of the continuance of the s o o n became a p p a r e n t Prime M i n i s t e r The i n o f f i c e was a p o l i t i c a l Whatever t h e l e g a l arguments, issue. non-communist o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s b e l i e v e d t h a t M r s . Gandhi c o u l d n o t r e c o v e r from She r e t a i n e d w i d e s p r e a d these setbacks, but i n t h i s they m i s c a l c u l a t e d . s u p p o r t i n h e r own p a r t y . H e r dominance o f t h e p a r t y a n d t h e f a c t t h a t m o s t C o n g r e s s m e n a n d C h i e f M i n i s t e r s owed p o s i t i o n s t o h e r meant t h a t t h e r e was n o l i k e l y Minister i f she r e s i g n e d . their successor t o t h e Prime P r e s i d e n t Ahmed was c a r e f u l t o t a k e a n o n - committal p o s i t i o n i n t h e whole matter o f h e r r e s i g n a t i o n ; andM r s . Gandhi r e t a i n e d t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e army, t h e p o l i c e , the intelligence s e r v i c e s and t h e upper echelons o f t h e s t a t e and c e n t r a l b u r e a u c r a c i e s . ' In l i n e w i t h t h e i r d e c i s i o n t o b e g i n a n a t i o n w i d e campaign f o r the r e s i g n a t i o n o f I n d i r a Gandhi, rally the opposition parties held a massive i n New D e l h i o n t h e a f t e r n o o n o f J u n e 2 5 , 1 9 7 5 . L e a d i n g t h e rally, Jayaprakash Narayan c a l l e d s t r u g g l e and once a g a i n appealed illegal f o r a nation-wide c i v i l disobedience t o t h e army a n d t h e p o l i c e n o t t o o b e y orders. Government s e r v a n t s s h o u l d n o t obey any u n j u s t orders; the m i l i t a r y ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s to p r o t e c t I n d i a n democracy; t h e i r duty i s t o protect the Constitution...the police are t r a i n e d t o a c t i n a b l i n d way; t h e y s h o u l d a l s o t h i n k — t h e p o l i c e , don't they have s e l f - r e s p e c t , a r e they j u s t there f o r the sake o f bread?^2 N a r a y a n h a d made s i m i l a r a p p e a l s b e f o r e a n d t h e y h a d b e e n d u l y r e c o r d e d by t h e p o l i c e and i n t e l l i g e n c e s e r v i c e s . However, h i s a p p e a l on J u n e 25 t o o k o n a n a d d e d s i g n i f i c a n c e b e c a u s e i t was made o n t h e 55 eve o f a n a t i o n w i d e c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e campaign and i t f u r n i s h e d Gandhi w i t h a f u r t h e r reason f o r imposing a s t a t e of n a t i o n a l The d e c i s i o n t o d e c l a r e a s t a t e o f n a t i o n a l emergency b y M r s . G a n d h i o n t h e e v e n i n g o f t h e same d a y . six 1975. was a.m. w h i c h was at then 26, The C e n t r a l R e s e r v e P o l i c e h a d a l r e a d y a r r e s t e d a number o f op- i n c l u d i n g Jayaprakash Narayan, D e s a i , R a j N a r a i n , P i l o o Mody, A.B. p r e s s c e n s o r s h i p was i m m e d i a t e l y imposed and most m o r n i n g t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e emergency promulgated which l i m i t e d Ram Strict newspapers D e l h i d i d not appear because of ' e l e c t r i c a l f a i l u r e s ' . days a f t e r Morarji V a j p a y e e , C h a n d r a S e k h a r and Dhas u n d e r t h e M a i n t e n a n c e o f I n t e r n a l S e c u r i t y A c t o f 1 9 7 1 . New reached on T h u r s d a y June p o s i t i o n l e a d e r s and Congressmen in emergency. The U n i o n c a b i n e t met o ' c l o c k t h e n e x t m o r n i n g t o approve t h e emergency p r o c l a i m e d b y t h e P r e s i d e n t o f I n d i a a t 7:00 Mrs. Three a P r e s i d e n t i a l order the r i g h t s of i n d i v i d u a l s , groups was and f o r e i g n e r s t o d e f e n d t h e i r r i g h t s and freedoms i n t h e c o u r t s . These initial measures o f t h e emergency w e r e f o l l o w e d on J u l y 1 by t h e announcement o f t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f a ' T w e n t y - P o i n t P r o gramme' o f e c o n o m i c of and s o c i a l r e f o r m s , a n d o n J u l y 4, b y t h e b a n n i n g twenty-six organizations including t h e R a s h t r i y a Swayamsevak Sangh ( R . S . S . ) , A n a n d M a r g a n d a number o f N a x a l i t e g r o u p s u n d e r t h e D e f e n c e of India Rules. larged These were soon f o l l o w e d by o t h e r measures t h e scope o f e x e c u t i v e power and c u r t a i l e d civil which en- liberties an a s c e n d i n g l i n e o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m . First, the so t h a t q u e s t i o n h o u r was r u l e s o f p r o c e d u r e o f t h e L o k Sabha c o n t i n u e d and o n l y government 2 3 , 1975 t h e government motions were a l l o w e d . on suspended S e c o n d l y , on disJuly t h e L o k Sabha p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n a p p r o v i n g t h e d e c l a r a t i o n 56 o f t h e s t a t e o f emergency by thus f u l f i l l e d has a v o t e o f 336 the requirements to 5 9 T h e of the C o n s t i t u t i o n i n which Parliament t o a p p r o v e a s t a t e o f e m e r g e n c y w i t h i n two m o n t h s o f i t s p r o c l a m a t i o n . With c e r t a i n o p p o s i t i o n members and Congressmen e i t h e r i n j a i l b o y c o t t i n g t h e s e s s i o n o f P a r l i a m e n t , t h e government had m a j o r i t y to rush through the Lok vote resolution Sabha. On necessary a s e r i e s o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments J u l y 23, the t h i r t y - n i n t h the 1975 the Lok Sabha a p p r o v e d by through a 342 c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendment w h i c h b a r r e d l a w from hearing p e t i t i o n s to The amendment a l s o g a v e 1 courts c h a l l e n g i n g e i t h e r t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f an gency or the r u l e s imposed under i t . or emer- the 2 P r e s i d e n t t h e r i g h t t o p r o c l a i m any On A u g u s t 7, 1975 Parliament number o f e m e r g e n c i e s approved the f o r t i e t h amendment; t h e c o u r t s c o u l d n o t c o n s i d e r c a s e s constitutional concerning o f t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r , t h e P r e s i d e n t , V i c e - P r e s i d e n t and the Lok Sabha. judicial Act of review 1975. Mrs. I t also excluded i n c l u d i n g M.I.S.A. and c e n t r a l and t h e E l e c t i o n Laws the election speaker of s t a t e laws from (Amendment) 2 6 G a n d h i ' s p o s i t i o n was t h e Supreme C o u r t on November 7. e l e c t o r a l o f f e n c e s and from e l e c t i v e o f f i c e was thirty-eight simultaneously. also strengthened by This reversed her c o n v i c t i o n on the Allahabad High for s i x years. n o t , however, an u n q u a l i f i e d t o t h r e e v o t e , t h e Supreme C o u r t The success Court's the d e c i s i o n of r u l i n g b a r r i n g her d e c i s i o n o f t h e Supreme f o r Mrs. two Gandhi. In a a l s o n u l l i f i e d p a r t of the Court five fortieth c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendment w h i c h p l a c e d t h e e l e c t i o n o f t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r o u t s i d e the scope of j u d i c i a l review. Thus i n t h e p o s t - J u n e 26 period 57 the c o u r t s r e m a i n e d an i m p o r t a n t h r a k e on the a c t i v i t i e s of the executive. In analyzing executive—judicial relations i n this period, d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n emerges. There were, f i r s t o f a l l , a number o f a court d e c i s i o n s w h i c h i n v a l i d a t e d p a r t s o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments o r which l e d to the r e l e a s e of c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l j o u r n a l i s t K u l d i p Nayar. government r e s p o n d e d by to initiative r e s u l t of these p a s s i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments, amendments the c o u r t s ' d e c i s i o n s . always remained w i t h the e x e c u t i v e . e x e c u t i v e - j u d i c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s was power o f t h e e x e c u t i v e and an In short, the increase i n the a p r o g r e s s i v e d i m i n u t i o n o f t h e power of courts. Finally, one o f the most i m p o r t a n t t h e e m e r g e n c y p e r i o d was important the r i g h t s without the suspension r i g h t s g u a r a n t e e d by A r t i c l e t o f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h and a c t i o n s of the government i n on J a n u a r y a 8 , 1976 19 of the arms, to form a s s o c i a t i o n s o r u n i o n s , o f I n d i a , t o a c q u i r e , h o l d and p r o f e s s i o n o r t o c a r r y on the P r e s i d e n t i a l order b a r r i n g appeals dispose these t o move f r e e l y peaceably throughout p a r t of. t h e territory t o p r a c t i c e any trade or business. rights seven Constitution—namely, o f p r o p e r t y , and occupation, suspending to the Courts S i g n i f i c a n c e and I t now any of e x p r e s s i o n , to assemble t h e t e r r i t o r y o f I n d i a , t o r e s i d e o r s e t t l e i n any The the A f t e r t a k i n g stock of these d e c i s i o n s , the statutes or executive orders which overturned Thus t h e the p r i s o n e r s s u c h as Once again, included a provision to enforce A r t i c l e 19. C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y of the Emergency remains to consider the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the d e c l a r a t i o n 58 o f t h e s t a t e o f emergency and s u b s e q u e n t government measures f o r t h e operation of India's questions arise: government? c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l Was systems. Several t h e emergency c o n s i s t e n t w i t h c o n s t i t u t i o n a l Were t h e emergency m e a s u r e s an o v e r r e a c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t — a n a t t e m p t , a s i t was s a i d , t o c r a c k a n u t w i t h sledgehammer? I n w h a t s e n s e was a the d e c l a r a t i o n of the s t a t e of emergency c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y unprecedented? And, finally, how do t h e M a r x i s t m o d e l o f c l a s s c o n f l i c t a n d K o t h a r i ' s m o d e l o f o n e p a r t y dominance e x p l a i n t h e s u s p e n s i o n o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government? The J u n e 26 p r o c l a m a t i o n legality raised important questions of Mrs. Gandhi's a c t i o n s . regarding the I t c o u l d be a r g u e d t h a t t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r d i d n o t e x c e e d t h e bounds o f h e r l e g a l and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y s i n c e t h e e m e r g e n c y m e a s u r e s w e r e b a s e d o n a l a r g e number o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s such as A r t i c l e as 352 a n d o n l e g a l s t a t u t e s such t h e M a i n t e n a n c e o f I n t e r n a l S e c u r i t y A c t o f 1971 and t h e D e f e n c e o f India Rules. T h e s e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s g i v e t h e e x e c u t i v e b r o a d powers i n times o f c r i s i s . political crisis o f 1975, R i c h a r d In h i s evaluation of the L. P a r k a r g u e s t h a t " I n d i r a G a n d h i c o u l d n o t have embarked on t h e c o u r s e o f a c t i o n she has t a k e n J u n e 26 h a d s h e n o t h e l d l e g i t i m a t e m a j o r i t i e s i n P a r l i a m e n t since a n d i n 19 o f t h e 22 s t a t e s . The moves s h e h a s f o s t e r e d a p p e a r t o be l e g a l ; it t h a t they have been c o n s t i t u t i o n a l . i s questionable between what i s " l e g a l " but The d i f f e r e n c e and what i s " c o n s t i t u t i o n a l " c a n be a m a t t e r of o p i n i o n , b u t i n t h e end t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s what t h e Supreme C o u r t says i t i s . This i s a most f r u s t r a t i n g f a c t t h a t c o n c e r n s members o f 59 t h e e x i s t i n g Government, and One by and the of the s u b j e c t t as w e l l . the nature, Constitution. 'spirit' In arguing 'constitutionality' of M / the the emergency i s t h a t i t f a c t t h a t the emergency p r o v i s i o n s o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n were, t h e i r very the scholars of the problems of making t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between 'legality' ignores serious designed to suspend the normal workings of A more s u i t a b l e d i s t i n c t i o n , of the C o n s t i t u t i o n and t h a t d e m o c r a c y was still 1975, the government p o i n t e d still meeting amidst a m u l t i - p a r t y t o be l a t u r e s of were s t i l l the States t h e r e f o r e , w o u l d be 'letter' between of i t s p r o v i s i o n s . f u n c t i o n i n g i n I n d i a a f t e r June out- t h e the C a b i n e t continued the the following: that Parliament was system; t h a t the Prime M i n i s t e r answerable to Parliament; i n session; and t h a t the 26, and legis- that opposition gov- 28 e r n m e n t s w e r e i n p o w e r i n Goa, Gujarat T h e s e a s s e r t i o n s , h o w e v e r , do not and T a m i l Nadu. take i n t o account the t u t i o n a l amendments t h a t w e r e p a s s e d a f t e r J u n e 1975 or the President's and R u l e was I n C h a p t e r I I i t was t h a t the s u b s e q u e n t l y i m p o s e d on argued t h a t a r b i t r a r y use cession the that there G a n d h i had the a r r e s t i n g important opposition party, 'spirit' leaders i n imposing press censorship, implies and of indi- f o r the suc- democratic e l e c t i o n s . function i n India during gone a g a i n s t T a m i l Nadu. are provisions t h i s d e f i n i t i o n - . o f ' c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government' as Mrs. that government i s checked, t h a t of power-holders through c o m p e t i t i v e , t h a t democracy d i d not fact ' c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government' o f p o w e r by v i d u a l r i g h t s a r e m a i n t a i n e d and Gujarat consti- a standard, the emergency. Using i t i s clear Where t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n was c e r t a i n members o f h e r postponing national elections in own and 60 reducing t h e power o f t h e c o u r t s . Arguments o v e r t h e emergency a l s o c e n t e r on t h e appropriateness o f M r s . G a n d h i ' s m e a s u r e s a n d w h e t h e r t h e y were*.an o v e r r e a c t i o n t o events. The g o v e r n m e n t h a d a l a r g e m a j o r i t y i n P a r l i a m e n t , t h e m a j o r i t y o f s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s , a n d i t was control of a l s o armed w i t h t h e d e c l a - r a t i o n o f emergency o f December 1971 and w i t h t h e M a i n t e n a n c e o f I n t e r n a l S e c u r i t y A c t o f 1 9 7 1 and t h e D e f e n c e o f I n d i a R u l e s . ment, t h e r e f o r e , have d e a l t w i t h t h e c r i s i s w i t h o u t o f an emergency a p p l i e d t o t h e w h o l e o f I n d i a ? Gandhi and h e r s u p p o r t e r s was that these Could the govern- t h e extreme measure The a r g u m e n t o f M r s . resources at the d i s p o s a l of the government were i n a d e q u a t e t o d e a l w i t h a r e a l t h r e a t t o I n d i a ' s political stability. Tougher measures designed ernment's d e t e r m i n a t i o n to demonstrate the gov- t o d e a l w i t h t h i s t h r e a t were needed i n order 29 to save I n d i a n democracy from c o l l a p s e . The g o v e r n m e n t ' s b a n o f t w e n - t y - s i x e x t r e m e l e f t a n d r i g h t w i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e R.S.S., A n a n d M a r g a n d N a x a l i t e s was a l s o a n a t t e m p t t o s t r e n g t h e n democracy by c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e moderate c e n t e r o f I n d i a n I t i s necessary to consider emergency were u n p r e c e d e n t e d . declared before designed Indian politics. i n what ways t h e measures o f t h e S t a t e s o f n a t i o n a l emergency has been i n O c t o b e r 1962 a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 1 b u t t h e s e had been t o d e a l w i t h an e x t e r n a l t h r e a t and had been l i m i t e d application. For instance, during the f i r s t emergency i n t h e S i n o - I n d i a n b o r d e r war, a r r e s t s had l a r g e l y been c o n f i n e d communists. its. successor to pro-Peking And s i n c e i n d e p e n d e n c e t h e P r e v e n t i v e D e t e n t i o n M.I.S.A. h a d b e e n u s e d m a i n l y i n their against A c t and 'anti-social 61 e l e m e n t s ' s u c h as 'goondas' ( u r b a n t o u g h s ) , d a c o i t s , s m u g g l e r s and speculators. The s t a t e o f e m e r g e n c y o f J u n e 2 6 , 1 9 7 5 , h o w e v e r , was emergency t o be d e c l a r e d crisis. the f o r reasons of i n t e r n a l rather The e m e r g e n c y was a l s o u n i q u e i n t h a t imposition of extensive arrest of opposition leaders Samyutka S o c i a l i s t P a r t y , U n p r e c e d e n t e d a l s o was Lok press censorship than external accompanied by and by t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s f r o m p a r t i e s s u c h as t h e J a n a Sangh, t h e t h e C.P.M. a n d t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y the f i r s t itself. l a r g e - s c a l e a r r e s t o f members o f t h e Sabha. Finally, Kothari's how u s e f u l a r e t h e M a r x i s t model o f c l a s s c o n f l i c t I n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s i t was hypothesized that the C o n s t i t u t i o n contained liberal-democratic o f why Class features. a u t h o r i t a r i a n as w e l l as A class analysis offered t h e b r o a d emergency powers were i n c l u d e d interest also offered c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government. one explanation i n the Constitution. an e x p l a n a t i o n of the conditions In the Marxist analysis the i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n were c o n d i t i o n a l on t h e absence o f a challenge and model o f one-party dominance i n e x p l a i n i n g t h e s u s p e n s i o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n : I n d i a ? of i t was the f i r s t t o t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l favouring revolutionary power o f t h e d o m i n a n t c l a s s e s of India. The a n a l y s e s o f t h e breakdown o f c o n s e n s u s and o f t h e i m m e d i a t e c a u s e s o f t h e e m e r g e n c y , h o w e v e r , h a v e shown t h a t the outcome o f a r e v o l u t i o n a r y and political system. challenge The i n s t a b i l i t y t h e e m e r g e n c y was n o t to the Indian c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n Gujarat, f o r e x a m p l e , was 62 caused by a middle class revolt against Congress governments at the state l e v e l and at the center. The organized working class played only a marginal r o l e i n these disturbances. p r i o r to the emergency was Rather, the i n s t a b i l i t y caused by c o n f l i c t between bourgeois parties such as the Congress (R), Congress (0), Jana Sangh and Swantantra. In this c o n f l i c t between the bourgeois p a r t i e s , the Indian communist parties took d i f f e r e n t sides; the C.P.I, a l l i e d i t s e l f with the r u l i n g Congress Party while the C.P.M. sided with the opposition p a r t i e s . Yet a class analysis may was explain the ease with which the emergency imposed and i n p a r t i c u l a r the l o y a l t y of the police, army, bureau- cracy and paramilitary forces to Mrs. Gandhi. these instruments In the Marxist analysis, of state power are controlled by the r u l i n g classes; their function i s to maintain the dominance of the r u l i n g classes. However, a f t e r the declaration of the state of emergency i n June the j u d i c i a r y was one exception to the Marxist analysis. 1975, I t was still wedded to l i b e r a l democratic p r i n c i p l e s , and served as a brake on the actions of the executive. I t could thus be argued that the emergency was not the c r i s i s of India's dominant classes but rather of one section of the r u l i n g c l a s s . It could also be argued that the emergency was, of one p e r s o n — I n d i r a Gandhi. above a l l , the c r i s i s One of the strengths of Kothari's model of one-party dominance i s the importance i t gives to the role of India's p o l i t i c a l leaders i n securing consensus i n the p o l i t i c a l system. For example, i n his model of the 'Congress System' Kothari stressed the importance of leaders such as Nehru and other ' t a l l men' i n blunting 63 conflict and c l e a v a g e s i n I n d i a . The f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s : o f the p e r i o d l e a d i n g up to the d e c l a r a - t i o n of the s t a t e o f emergency has shown t h a t Mrs. Gandhi came to p l a c e more emphasis on economic and s o c i a l performance, even a t the expense of consensus. 'vested In her p o p u l i s t s t r a t e g y Mrs. Gandhi a t t a c k e d i n t e r e s t s ' of Indian s o c i e t y and she saw h e r s e l f as the cham- p i o n of the disadvantaged s e c t i o n s of s o c i e t y . p a r t i e s resorted to extra-parliamentary the g u a r d i a n o f law and the And as the o p p o s i t i o n a g i t a t i o n s she saw h e r s e l f as order. However, Mrs. Gandhi's p e r s o n a l i t y and a t t i t u d e s towards democ r a c y and o p p o s i t i o n g i v e o n l y a p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government on K o t h a r i ' s frameworks i n 1975. A t t e n t i o n must a l s o be focussed o f o p e r a t i v e mechanisms, consensus and imacy and i n p a r t i c u l a r the o p e r a t i o n A l t h o u g h the o p e r a t i o n o f the s u s p e n s i o n of t h e 'margin o f o f the 'margin of p r e s s u r e ' openness o f the p o l i t i c a l system b e f o r e d i d not operate a f t e r t h i s p e r i o d . agreement between the p a r t y 1969, pressure.' contributed the 'margin o f B e f o r e 1969 t h e r e was legit- to the pressure' a t l e a s t some o f consensus and the p a r t i e s of p r e s s u r e to the r u l e s o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l system. But a f t e r the Congress s p l i t and the 1971-72 e l e c t i o n s the p a r t i e s o f p r e s s u r e were reduced i n importance and a l i e n a t e d from the 'Congress System.' The o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s demanded the r e f o r m o f the e l e c t o r a l system, the r i g h t of r e c a l l of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s emergency d e c l a r e d and t h e l i f t i n g of the s t a t e o f i n December 1971. as They b e l i e v e d t h a t the e x i s t i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l framework unduly favoured the r u l i n g 64 Congress Party. In the terminology become dysfunctional This of functionalism, to the constitutional examination of the period opposition and political leading up to the system. declaration of the state of emergency has shown that the maintenance of tional government opposition requires parties. consensus between I t has also shown that to the Marxist model since revolutionary do n o t account f o r the suspension maintenance of constitutional the dominant classes Following ment made i t clear a modification of constitutional government that and i s political the required to class dominance government. and political of the state of emergency, i t would not allow features o f the pre-June 1975 constitu- The also requires agreement as to the constitutional the declaration the government challenges had a return framework. the to some of system, particularly extra-constitutional methods adopted by the non-communist within governthe i n the and CPM op- 30 position parties. intended up to the to prevent emergency. The f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r examines how a recurrence of the political the instability government leading CHAPTER V THE R E V I S I O N OF THE CONSTITUTION 65 Soon a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of the state June 1975, I n d i a ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l unprecedented state raised tary Some w e s t e r n o b s e r v e r s a r g u e d t h a t and t h a t this civilian r e p l a c e d b y a m i l i t a r y one."'" intended to use the state fresh a dictatorship dictatorship would sooner o r l a t e r Mrs. Gandhi h e r s e l f made i t c l e a r that o f emergency a s an o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e a s s e s s institutions; and as p a r t o f t h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n on t h e grounds t h a t I n p a r t i c u l a r , she argued that She i t was l o n g and needed t o s e c u r e t h e s o c i a l economic and p o l i t i c a l India. ever had been i m - s t a r t a r e v i s i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n would be n e c e s s a r y . justified of i n an T h e way i n w h i c h t h e E m e r g e n c y was i m p o s e d I n d i a ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l due s y s t e m was p l a c e d democracy a n d w h e t h e r t h e o l d norms o f I n d i a n p o l i t i c s w o u l d posed on I n d i a she emergency i n questions o f whether I n d i a would continue t o remain a p a r l i a m e n - return. be of flux. of national over- transformation constitutional revision would remove o b s t a c l e s t o t h e government's economic and s o c i a l p r o g r a m s , primarily, the rulings o f t h e c o u r t s on p r o p e r t y r i g h t s and t h e a c t i v i - 2 t i e s of 'vested It interests'. c o u l d be argued t h a t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n was n o t n e c e s s a r y and that t h e o b s t a c l e s t o t h e government r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e j u d i c i a r y and t h e 'vested i n t e r e s t s ' were n o n - i s s u e s by 1975. R a t h e r , 'obstacles' her populist c o n t i n u e d t o be o f u s e t o Mrs. strategy. S i n c e 1971, Gandhi as whipping boys i n P a r l i a m e n t had passed a s e r i e s o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e Supreme C o u r t ' s r u l i n g s on l a n d and these conservative r e f o r m and p r o p e r t y r i g h t s , t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n the a b o l i t i o n of p r i v y purses. o f banks On A u g u s t 1 1 , 1 9 7 1 , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e 66 Lok Sahba approved the the Supreme C o u r t ' s 1967 A r t i c l e s 13 and 368 2 4 t h amendment t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n i n r e s p o n s e s e c t i o n on 1972 and the c e n t r a l and court Why, J u n e 1975? Fundamental R i g h t s . s t a t e laws o u t s i d e 24, 1973, the Fundamental t h e n , was Parliament could first Constitution. not The Also the r u l i n g i n the place, settle alter the review. case of 9, of Further- 'Kesavananda 'Golaknath' case. a l t e r the the controversy While the The to 'basic s t r u c t u r e ' or 'framework' of over the Parliament's Supreme C o u r t d i d Fundamental R i g h t s , i t a l s o added state that 'framework' o f the make c l e a r w h a t i t meant the C o n s t i t u t i o n . Thus by c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s s u e of P a r l i a m e n t ' s a u t h o r i t y C o n s t i t u t i o n remained by the to unresolved. These i n c l u d e d : the powers of r u l i n g s on c e n t r a l l a w s and the i s s u e of list i t i s important to note that problems. the added t o the constitutional authority There were a l s o o t h e r o u t s t a n d i n g and including 2 9 t h amendment o f J u n e 1-974 C o u r t , however, d i d not the Constitution scope of j u d i c i a l Constitution. structure!, or m i d d l e o f 1975, the reaffirming further c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n necessary after that Parliament could r e v i s e the of Punjab'. Rights. a u t h o r i t y t o amend t h e 'basic part t h a t P a r l i a m e n t d i d have the In the 'Golaknath v Supreme C o u r t i n t h e 'Kesavananda' d e c i s i o n d i d not the the overturned i t s e a r l i e r ruled amend t h e t o amend any 3 4 t h amendment o f A u g u s t 2 6 , m o r e , on A p r i l v Kerala' case of o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n w e r e amended, t h u s Parliament's authority the r u l i n g i n the to use c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and the P r e s i d e n t ; of high court political high w r i t s ; land 'benami t r a n s f e r s ' , i n w h i c h some l a n d o w n e r s court reform 67 registered land t h e i r h o l d i n g s w i t h r e l a t i v e s and c e i l i n g laws; the m a t t e r s s u c h as i n order to problem of j u d i c i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n e m p l o y m e n t and whether the D i r e c t i v e friends conditions P r i n c i p l e s of service; State Policy the l e g a l s y s t e m i n o r d e r t o make i t m o r e e f f i c i e n t and the However, the was Mrs. the earlier the e l e c t i o n of The of consolidating Prime section (Amendment) A c t chronological c o n s i d e r why On the account of traces the reforming accessible 1975, p e r s o n a l power as the c o u r t s from revision shown by considering to government's p r o p o s a l s the i n November 2, the genesis of i n an the passing of 1976. the for 42nd It is largely 4 2 n d amendment and forward, m o d i f i e d or interview Bombay n e w s m a g a z i n e ' B l i t z ' , M r s . guidelines her s p e c i f i c p r o p o s a l s were put A u g u s t 16, more over Minister. c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e f o r m f r o m J u n e 1975 stitutional problem of over population. f o r t i e t h amendment w h i c h b a r r e d following the most i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n f o r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l Gandhi's aim the and service took precedence Fundamental R i g h t s of the m a j o r i t y of Constitution; in civil controversy the to the of evade w i t h the w h a t c h a n g e s w e r e b e i n g c o n t e m p l a t e d by Replying to the a i t will withdrawn. editor-in-chief G a n d h i made known some o f for constitutional revision. Con- the her question governments. Mrs. said: I am n o t t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s o f a C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y o r a new C o n s t i t u t i o n . A second look d o e s n o t mean an a l t e r n a t i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n . N e i t h e r the s p i r i t of our C o n s t i t u t i o n nor i t s e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n c h a n g e . We c a n n o t b u t be a d e m o c r a c y , a s e c u l a r d e m o c r a c y and a d e m o c r a c y s t r i v i n g s t e a d i l y t o e n l a r g e of Gandhi of 68 i t s s o c i a l i s t content. The i m p o r t a n c e o f representative institutions or the place of P a r l i a m e n t cannot change e i t h e r . Nor can there b e a n y f u n d a m e n t a l d e p a r t u r e i n t h e scheme o f Centre—State r e l a t i o n s which our founding f a t h e r s d e v i s e d t o serve t h e needs o f a country of our v a s t d i v e r s i t y . B u t we c a n a n d s h o u l d have a l o o k a t t h e p r o v i s i o n s and p r o c e d u r e s we h a v e t o g i v e e f f e c t t o t h e a d o p t e d o b j e c t ives of the Constitution. Many o f t h e s e procedures and p r o v i s i o n s have i n e f f e c t worked a g a i n s t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n and g i v e n enormous scope f o r s m a l l o b s t r u c t i v e groups t o c r e a t e t r o u b l e and e n g i n e e r c r i s i s . I want l a w y e r s , p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s , leaders of the i n t e l l e c t t u a l world, e a r n e s t l y t o study t h e problems t h a t h a v e come up a n d g i v e u s s u g g e s t i o n s . 3 I n t h e Congress P a r t y , t h e debate about c o n s t i t u t i o n a l had a l r e a d y begun by t h e time M r s . Gandhi gave t h i s A s e t of wide-ranging t i o n " was b e i n g to i l l u s t r a t e proposals circulated entitled among the C o n g r e s s P a r t y l e a d e r s h i p . s t i t u t i o n s o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s such of t h i s interview to I n order t o s e c t i o n s o f t h e con- as t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , France, Guatemala, Japan and A r g e n t i n a . system o f government. system The P r e s i d e n t o f I n d i a w o u l d be the C h i e f E x e c u t i v e b u t would have broader i n the United States. Italy, Among t h e s u g g e s t i o n s d r a f t was a p r o p o s a l t o r e p l a c e t h e I n d i a n p a r l i a m e n t a r y by a p r e s i d e n t i a l 'Blitz'. "A F r e s h L o o k a t o u r C o n s t i t u - i t s proposals, the draft referred Greece, Belgium, revision powers t h a n h i s c o u n t e r p a r t The C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s w o u l d be a c c o u n t a b l e t o 4 t h e P r e s i d e n t who w o u l d a l s o b e e l e c t e d d i r e c t l y f o r a term o f s i x years. A n o t h e r p r o p o s a l o f t h i s d r a f t was t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t C o u n c i l o f J u d i c i a r y ' w h i c h w o u l d r e p l a c e t h e Supreme C o u r t authority The of a 'Superior as t h e s o l e t o i n t e r p r e t t h e laws and C o n s t i t u t i o n o f the I n d i a n R e p u b l i c . C o u n c i l w o u l d be c h a i r e d by t h e P r e s i d e n t and be c o m p r i s e d o f two 69 V i c e - C h a i r m e n c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e C h i e f J u s t i c e o f I n d i a and f o r Law and J u s t i c e , two j u s t i c e s the M i n i s t e r f r o m t h e Supreme C o u r t and two chief judges from the s t a t e h i g h c o u r t s , four persons e l e c t e d By P a r l i a m e n t and f o u r p e r s o n s n o m i n a t e d review the conduct of a l l them."' I t i s clear By t h e P r e s i d e n t . The C o u n c i l would also j u d g e s and h e a r c a s e s o f c o m p l a i n t s a g a i n s t t h a t t h i s p r o p o s a l w o u l d have ended t h e independence o f t h e j u d i c i a r y and would have g i v e n t h e e x e c u t i v e t h e power t o r u l e on t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y o f I t s own Constitution. l e g i s l a t i o n a n d amendments t o t h e Thus, by l i m i t i n g j u d i c i a l r e v i e w , t h e p r o p o s a l would have been a n t i t h e t i c a l t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government. Several of these proposals, p a r t i c u l a r l y presidential s y s t e m and t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y and those advocating a t h e S u p e r i o r C o u n c i l , met with criticism f r o m t h e C . P . I , and were q u i e t l y d r o p p e d . ^ proposals of the d r a f t r e l a t i n g t o changes The i n the wording of the p r e - amble o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n and e x t e n d i n g t h e t e r m o f t h e L o k five within to s i x y e a r s were, however, i n c o r p o r a t e d i n l a t e r Sabha from constitutional proposals. At the Congress P a r t y ' s December 1 9 7 5 — t h e political first r e s o l u t i o n was postponement of e l e c t i o n s 75th annual conference at Chandigarh i n s i n c e t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f emergency i n a d o p t e d o n D e c e m b e r 3 1 , 1975 calling t o t h e L o k Sabha and f o r a t h o r o u g h of the I n d i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n . In line with this p o l i t i c a l t h e C o n g r e s s P r e s i d e n t , D.K. Borooah, a committee m i t t e e was f o r the revision resolution, on F e b r u a r y 2 6 , 1 9 7 6 , t o s u g g e s t amendments t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . June—a appointed The p a r t y c o m - t o be headed by S a r d a r Swaran S i n g h , 69, a v e t e r a n U n i o n 70 M i n i s t e r and t h e M i n i s t e r o f D e f e n c e u n t i l h e was dropped from the 7 Cabinet o n November 3 0 , The 1975. c o m m i t t e e ' s p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t on p r o p o s e d c h a n g e s was approved i n p r i n c i p l e by A p r i l 26. The e r n m e n t was any t h e one best suited 0-) i n q u e s t i o n i n any legislation the Congress Working Committee r e p o r t r e a f f i r m e d that the parliamentary system of f o l l o w i n g recommendations: be c a l l e d constitutional t o I n d i a n c o n d i t i o n s and no s e v e n Supreme C o u r t judges, should r e q u i r e the support and gov- i t made t h e amendment t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n s h o u l d c o u r t ; C2) s h o u l d be d e c i d e d by any the cTonstitutional v a l i d i t y a bench c o n s i s t i n g of at least d e c i s i o n to d e c l a r e the law of at l e a s t of invalid t w o - t h i r d s of the bench; (3) the h i g h c o u r t s s h o u l d e x e r c i s e t h e i r power t o i s s u e w r i t s o n l y t o force fundamental r i g h t s ; over civil on (4) t h e c o u r t s s h o u l d h a v e no en- jurisdiction s e r v i c e m a t t e r s , w h i c h s h o u l d be d e c i d e d b y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e tribunals; (5) a p p e a l s f r o m l a b o u r and i n d u s t r i a l courts should be t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e h i g h c o u r t s t o an a l l - I n d i a n l a b o u r a p p e l a t e tri- bunal; con- (6) no w r i t j u r i s d i c t i o n should l i e i n r e l a t i o n cerning the revenue, land reforms, g r a i n s , or e l e c t i o n s ; p r o c u r e m e n t and d i s t r i b u t i o n of (7) a l l q u e s t i o n s o f t h e d i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n members o f P a r l i a m e n t o r o f t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s s h o u l d be a b o d y c o n s i s t i n g o f t h r e e members c h o s e n f r o m t h e L o k n o m i n a t e d by t h e P r e s i d e n t ; (8) a g r i c u l t u r e and s t a t e s u b j e c t s , s h o u l d be p l a c e d o n w h i c h b o t h P a r l i a m e n t and C9) to matters food- of settled S a b h a and by three e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h were the Concurrent List of subjects the s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s might l e g i s l a t e ; t h e U n i o n government s h o u l d have t h e power t o d e p l o y p o l i c e on and (or 71 other similar f o r c e s u n d e r i t s own superintendance or c o n t r o l ) in any at a meeting of the g s t a t e or territory of the Union. T h e s e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s w e r e t o Be discussed A l l - I n d i a C o n g r e s s C o m m i t t e e ( A . I . C . C . ) i n New A week b e f o r e t h e scheduled meeting of Committee r e l e a s e d a modified 12. This included two s h o u l d be declared a "sovereign, in new d r a f t of the preamble i n s t e a d order to r e a f f i r m the secularism to the and proposals. of o n l y The the A . I . C . C , the i t s preliminary The the that report of April republic" objectives i n t e g r i t y " w o u l d a l s o be The India democratic r e p u b l i c " i n government to the w o r d s "and 1976. Swaran S i n g h Committee proposed t h a t a "sovereign, preamble a f t e r the word " u n i t y " . S w a r a n S i n g h C o m m i t t e e was 28-29, democratic, secular, s o c i a l i s t commitment o f socialism. D e l h i on May added o t h e r recommendation of the P r e s i d e n t s h o u l d be able to of the restrict 9 a d e c l a r a t i o n of emergency t o o n l y The o f May 2 8 - 2 9 , 1976 amendment moved b y D r . Family Planning, country. their rights. The and were then unanimously and the C o n s t i t u t i o n should also o b l i g a t i o n s o f c i t i z e n s as amendment i n t h e f o r m o f an the endorsed. Karan S i n g h , the Union M i n i s t e r of H e a l t h proposed that c e r t a i n fundamental duties resolution of the S w a r a n S i n g h C o m m i t t e e ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s w e r e amended by A.I.C.C. s e s s i o n An a part and include a balance a d d i t i o n to the said: The A . I . C . C . s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o m m i t t e e a p p o i n t e d by t h e C o n g r e s s P r e s i d e n t t o s u g g e s t amendments t o the C o n s t i t u t i o n of I n d i a should a l s o f o r m u l a t e p r o p o s a l s f o r i n c l u s i o n i n the C o n s t i t u t i o n of c e r t a i n f u n d a m e n t a l d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s w h i c h e v e r y c i t i z e n owes t o t h e n a t i o n , i n t e r a l i a , t o f u n c t i o n i n s u c h a m a n n e r a s t o s u s t a i n and s t r e n g t h e n t h e i n t e g r i t y and u n i t y o f t h e n a t i o n ; to official 72 t o a c t i n a c c o r d a n c e with, t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n and t h e laws o f t h e l a n d ; t o m a i n t a i n d i s c i p l i n e i n every s p h e r e ; t o h o n e s t l y p e r f o r m a l l p u b l i c d u t i e s and t o s a f e g u a r d p u b l i c p r o p e r t y . J-0 The A.I.C.C. s e s s i o n a l s o m o d i f i e d Singh Committee r e l a t i n g Lists Although education current their objections chief ministers proposals t o i n c l u d i n g a g r i c u l t u r e as a con- I t would continue consider to con- i n d i v i d u a l s and a s s o c i a t i o n s such as t h e c e n t r a l l e a d e r s h i p , Pradesh Congress Committee P r e s i d e n t s , lawyers, Singh t o o p e r a t e a f t e r May 1 9 7 6 a n d i t w o u l d forconstitutional revision. sult with various Chief party Ministers, j u d g e s , b a r a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d o t h e r members o f t h e i n t e l l i g e n t - There would be a n a t i o n - w i d e debate on c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n i n New D e l h i , t h e s t a t e c a p i t a l s , a n d o t h e r the a t t h e A.I.C.C. t h e A.I.C.C. s e s s i o n d e c i d e d t h a t t h e Swaran Committee would c o n t i n u e sia. that agriculture subject. Finally, other Several and C o n c u r r e n t was t o b e i n c l u d e d , i n i t was d e c i d e d a t t h e s e s s i o n would remain a s t a t e s u b j e c t . s e s s i o n had v o i c e d o f t h e Swaran t o changes i n t h e U n i o n , S t a t e of the Constitution. the Concurrent L i s t , the proposals large c i t i e s and towns o f nation. M o r e c o v e r a g e waa - g i v e n i n government announcements and i n t h e press t o the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l debate w i t h i n the top l e a d e r s h i p gress Party o f t h e Con- t h a n t o t h e d e b a t e among t h e l o w e r r a n k s o f t h e C o n g r e s s , i t h e r u r a l a r e a s a n d among t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s . The e v i d e n c e does s u g g e s t t h a t t h e n o n - c o m m u n i s t o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s a n d t h e C.P.M. d i d not p a r t i c i p a t e i n the government—initiated d e b a t e on c o n s t i t u t i o n a l 11 revision. Instead they held t h e i r own f o r u m s f o r d i s c u s s i n g t h e n 73 c o n s t i t u t i o n a l changes. p a r t i e s was A two-day One s u c h forum sponsored by t h e o p p o s i t i o n t h e ' N a t i o n a l Committee seminar organized by- t h e C o m m i t t e e and a t t e n d e d by o p p o s i t i o n l e a d e r s E.M.S. N a m b o o d i r i p a d (C.P.M.), (Congress-O), S h a n t i Bhushan s u c h a s A.K. i n New Gopalan, (C.P.M.), of the proposed c o n s t i t u - c o n d i t i o n s under w h i c h they were They argued t h a t t h e p r o p o s e d changes f o r w a r d by a committee Delhi 12 o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s were c r i t i c a l discussed. held ( C o n g r e s s - O ) , E r a S e z h i y a n (D.M.K.) a n d t i o n a l amendments a n d o f t h e p o l i t i c a l being was P. R a m a m u r t h y (C.P.M.), A s o k a M e h t a Chowdhury Charan S i n g h ( B . L . D . ) . The f o r Review of the C o n s t i t u t i o n ' . had been p u t o f t h e r u l i n g C o n g r e s s P a r t y and t h a t t h e ruling p a r t y h a d no m a n d a t e t o p a s s t h e amendments s i n c e t h e L o k S a b h a ' s t e r m had been extended by d e c r e e i n March 1976. The opposition parties pro- posed e i t h e r f r e s h e l e c t i o n s t o the Lok Sabha o r a r e f e r e n d u m i n o r d e r to t e s t the a p p r o v a l The government's n e i t h e r needed f o r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l changes by t h e e l e c t o r a t e . r e p l y t o t h e s e demands was that a referendum was n o r f e a s i b l e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e l a r g e number o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l 13 m e a s u r e s t h a t w o u l d h a v e t o be a p p r o v e d b y s u c h a p r o c e d u r e . ernment a l s o p o i n t e d The gov- out t h a t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e f o r m had been p a r t o f t h e manifesto of the Congress (R) i n t h e g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n and, i n any case, 14 it had the necessary m a j o r i t y i n Parliament t o p a s s t h e amendments. T h e r e w e r e a l s o demands f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a new constituent assembly f r o m t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s and f r o m w i t h i n t h e C o n g r e s s (R) i t s e l f M r s . of Gandhi o f t e n r e f e r r e d to the Constituent Assembly 1947-50 i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e d e b a t e s on c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n , saying 74 t h a t the assembly had Indian population. a new been i n d i r e c t l y e l e c t e d by a m i n o r i t y T h i s d i d not mean t h a t she was c o n s t i t u e n t assembly. t h i n k i n g of R a t h e r , the i n t e n t i o n was c o n t r a s t s between an i n d i r e c t l y - e l e c t e d C o n s t i t u e n t democratically-elected Lok Sabha and to r e v i s e the c o n s t i t u t i o n . of to p o i n t out Assembly and C e r t a i n l y , Mrs. constitution. w i t h i t s l a r g e numbers o f s t a t u t e s p l a c e d amendments. But as w e l l as b e n e f i t s f o r Mrs. s e r i o u s l y considered t i o n a l neatness. a new A new the a Gandhi c o u l d have c a l l e d A new constitution would p r o b a b l y have been more i n t e l l i g i b l e than the p r e v i o u s forty-one calling so demonstrate P a r l i a m e n t ' s r i g h t a c o n s t i t u e n t assembly to d r a f t a new its the Constitution i n the N i n t h Schedule and t h i s would have i n v o l v e d p o l i t i c a l Gandhi. with costs I t i s d o u b t f u l whether Mrs. Gandhi C o n s t i t u t i o n merely f o r the sake of c o n s t i t u - C o n s t i t u t i o n would have generated more o p p o s i t i o n from the non-communist o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s and amendment to the e x i s t i n g C o n s t i t u t i o n . note t h a t the Congress P a r t y the C.P.M. than an omnibus F i n a l l y , i t i s important to i n making the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n s a s - sumed t h a t i t would c o n t i n u e i n power. On proposals September 1, 1976, were f o r m a l l y i n t r o d u c e d 59-clause b i l l intense the b i l l had i n the Lok c r i t i c i s m from the o p p o s i t i o n . would be considered This The The i n d e t a i l by A d r a f t of the had met government announced t h a t the Lok Sabha i n a s p e c i a l ten-day s e s s i o n began on October 25, each, of the f i f t y - n i n e c l a u s e s was November 1, 1976. Sabha. a l r e a d y been c i r c u l a t i n g i n P a r l i a m e n t and session i n October. and the government's s e r i e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l discussed 44th amendment b i l l was 1976 on October 30 and approved by the Lok 75 Sahba on November 2, 1976 by a v o t e o f 366 t o 4. Since other constitu- t i o n a l amendment b i l l s were on P a r l i a m e n t ' s agenda, t h e 44th Constitution CAmendment) B i l l was then renumbered the 42nd C o n s t i t u t i o n CAmendment) Act. The C o n s t i t u t i o n a l and P o l i t i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s It o f t h e 42nd Amendment i s n e c e s s a r y now t o examine the p r o v i s i o n s of t h e 5 9 - c l a u s e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendment and t o a n a l y z e i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l implications. S i n c e the A c t i s on 'omnibus' amendment, o n l y major c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s examined: ecutive, changes i n r e l a t i n g t o t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s w i l l be p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s and government-opposition r e l a t i o n s ; e x l e g i s l a t i v e and j u d i c i a l powers; i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s ; economic and s o c i a l r e f o r m ; and f e d e r a l i s m . The f i r s t part o f the Indian C o n s t i t u t i o n t h a t was amended by t h e 42nd amendment was t h e preamble. I n d i a was now o f f i c i a l l y as "a s o v e r e i g n s o c i a l i s t democratic r e p u b l i c " . i t would appear t h a t secular At f i r s t glance, t h e i n s e r t i o n o f ' s e c u l a r ' and ' s o c i a l i s t ' i n t h e preamble was merely a q u e s t i o n o f semantics. The change, however, was intended by t h e government t o r e a f f i r m the p r i n c i p l e s o f and designated 'secularism' ' s o c i a l i s m ' as p a r t o f t h e ' b a s i c s t r u c t u r e ' o f the C o n s t i t u t i o n . The changes i n the preamble a l s o had i m p l i c a t i o n s political parties. f o r India's I n June 1976, a f o r e i g n correspondent posed t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether t h e proposed changes i n the preamble would oblige a l l p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s t o pledge adherence t o the p r i n c i p l e s o f s e c u l a r i s m 16 and socialism. Constitution, Under A r t i c l e s 75, 99 and t h e T h i r d Schedule o f t h e any person who seeks e l e c t i o n to t h e I n d i a n P a r l i a m e n t and 76 the s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s must t a k e an tion. Thus t h e changes i n the o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e preamble could h a v e made t h e t i o n a l p o s i t i o n o f n o n — s o c i a l i s t p a r t i e s s u c h as and the i n the J a n a Sangh u n t e n a b l e . p r e a m b l e as munal p a r t i e s , the mitment to the Of that clause t o ban of Congress P a r t y p r i n c i p l e s of greater the cession or disrupt the s t a t e or u n i t y of the and the by secession the intended to bring India, the to overthrow the declaration about s e c u r i t y of Government by the Thus the s t a t e or The government would d e a l or the force; to lanclause territory law and e m e r g e n c y i n J u n e 1975. clause. the organizations "anti-national" the was power s e r v i c e s , or breakdown of p o l i c e , army a n d a l s o have been d e a l t w i t h under the i n d i c a t i o n that of the com- to threaten government to p a r t i e s or of a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n , c o n s t i t u t i o n a l appeals to the com- "Anti-national t e r r i t o r y of I n d i a , intended to prevent a r e c u r r e n c e of an changes government the associations". A p a r t f r o m a s e c e s s i o n i s t movement, t h e b e f o r e the Dal p a r t i e s , however, g r o u p s , o r c a s t e s o r communities'."'"^ have been a p p l i e d i n the p e r i o d was opposition i n t e g r i t y of nation; the o r d i s r u p t harmony between d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o n s , r a c i a l , a d v o c a t i n g the was and of Lok socialism. i n t e r n a l disturbance or d i s r u p t i o n of p u b l i c guage o r r e g i o n a l India. and 'activities of p a r t sovereignty the to create threaten secession Bharatiya than using 4 2 n d amendment w h i c h g a v e t h e as constitu- i n t e n d e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e i t s own secularism "anti-national activities the Constitu- f o r b a n n i n g n o n - s o c i a l i s t and s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r the a c t i v i t i e s " were d e f i n e d could However, r a t h e r a justification to the of clause order Un- bureaucracy would p a s s i n g of t h i s firmly with measure civil 77 d i s o b e d i e n c e such as f a s t s and ' h a r t a l s ' T h e 4 2 n d amendment a l t e r e d strikes). t h e powers o f t h e e x e c u t i v e , l a t u r e and t h e j u d i c i a r y i n s e v e r a l cleared (general i m p o r t a n t ways. the l e g i s - T h e amendment up o n e o f t h e " g r e y a r e a s ' o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n — n a m e l y , t h e powers o f t h e P r e s i d e n t . include The F r a m e r s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a provision obliging the President d i d not to follow the advice of 18 the P r i m e M i n i s t e r and t h e C o u n c i l the P r e s i d e n t to be l e f t generally Minister, of of Ministers. and t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r and C o u n c i l to constitutional practice. followed of Ministers tacit and C o u n c i l have the possibility the e l e c t i o n of a p r e s i d e n t i a l candidate, Sanjiva the P r i m e - M i n i s t e r were on t h e a d v i c e o f t h e P r i m e M r s . Gandhi was, however, faced w i t h 42nd amendment t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s between S i n c e 1950, P r e s i d e n t s the convention of acting known h i s i n t e n t i o n n o t t o f o l l o w t h i s the Relations i n 1969 R e d d y , who made c o n v e n t i o n once e l e c t e d . Under obligation to follow the advice of o f M i n i s t e r s was now made e x p l i c i t . c o n v e n t i o n was t r a n s f o r m e d A i n t o a w r i t t e n p r o v i s i o n and i n t h i s r e s p e c t t h e 4 2 n d amendment d i d n o t a l t e r constitutional practice. The amendment d i d e n l a r g e t h e f o r m a l p o w e r s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t . He c o u l d s e t t l e disputes a r i s i n g o u t o f t h e e l e c t i o n o f members o f P a r l i a m e n t and o f t h e s t a t e national could l e g i s l a t u r e s ; he could declare a state of emergency i n a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e o r t e r r i t o r y o f I n d i a ; and he revise the provisions where t h e s e were f e l t of the Constitution t o be n e c e s s a r y . o n h i s own Since the President authority was to a c t on t h e a d v i c e o f t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r and t h e Council:?of obliged Ministers, t h i s e n l a r g e m e n t o f p o w e r was i n f a c t a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e p o w e r s o f t h e Prime M i n i s t e r . 78 As regards t h e powers: o f P a r l i a m e n t , t h e 42nd amendment r e a s s e r t e d P a r l i a m e n t ' s a u t h o r i t y t o amend t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . that " f o r t h e removal of doubts, Clause 55 d e c l a r e d i t i s hereby declared that there shall be n o l i m i t a t i o n w h a t e v e r o n t h e c o n s t i t u e n t p o w e r o f P a r l i a m e n t t o amend, b y w a y o f a d d i t i o n , v a r i a t i o n o r r e p e a l t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s 19 C o n s t i t u t i o n under A r t i c l e 368." Amendments made b y P a r l i a m e n t C o n s t i t u t i o n were a l s o p l a c e d o u t s i d e t h e scope o f j u d i c i a l Clauses tothe review. 2 1 a n d 22 o f t h e 4 2 n d amendment m o d i f i e d t h e a r t i c l e s o f t h e Constitution relating t o t h e quorum f o r m e e t i n g s o f P a r l i a m e n t and t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s , a n d t h e p o w e r s a n d p r i v i l e g e s o f t h e members a n d committees of Parliament. the T h e 4 2 n d amendment a l s o c h a n g e d t h e d u r a t i o n o f terms o f t h e L o k Sabha and t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s from f i v e to s i x years. Besides tion, limiting j u d i c i a l r e v i e w o f amendments t o t h e C o n s t i t u - t h e 42nd amendment f u r t h e r l i m i t e d t h e powers o f t h e j u d i c i a r y i n t h a t c e n t r a l l a w s c o u l d now o n l y b e d e c l a r e d i n v a l i d b y t h e S u p r e m e Court i n s t e a d o f by both t h e Supreme a n d H i g h C o u r t s . Clause 25 s t a t e d t h a t a t w o - t h i r d s m a j o r i t y v e r d i c t o f a minimum o f s e v e n j u d g e s of the Supreme C o u r t was r e q u i r e d f o r v a l i d a t i n g a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g c e n t r a l a n d state laws* '"' 2 In order to prevent a recurrence of j u d i c i a l obstacles tothe g o v e r n m e n t ' s e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l p r o g r a m s , t h e 42nd amendment a l s o made it c l e a r 'that t h e D i r e c t i v e P r i n c i p l e s o f S t a t e P o l i c y w e r e t o t a k e precedence over t h e Fundamental R i g h t s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . ment was t h u s i n t e n d e d T h e amend- t o r e s o l v e t h e argument about t h e p r e c e d e n c e o f 79 the D i r e c t i v e P r i n c i p l e s over t h e Fundamental R i g h t s ; has been a k e y i s s u e 1950. since an argument that t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n was a d o p t e d o n J a n u a r y 2 6 , I t i s important to note that t h e r e was o n e e x c e p t i o n U n d e r t h e 42nd amendment n o l a w c o u l d to this. b e made g i v i n g e f f e c t t o t h e D i r e c t i v e P r i n c i p l e s o f P a r t IV o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n i f i t c o n f l i c t e d with the s p e c i a l safeguards or r i g h t s conferred the scheduled castes, Fundamental Rights t r i b e s or other backward c l a s s e s Section f o r e , were t o be t h e o n l y The the operation equal opportunity Article of Part III. entrenched p o r t i o n Policy. Article under t h e These s p e c i a l p r o v i s i o n s , of the Fundamental 42nd amendment a d d e d s e v e r a l new a r t i c l e s P r i n c i p l e s of State that on m i n o r i t i e s such as 39(a) r e q u i r e d there- Rights. t o the D i r e c t i v e the state t o secure o f t h e l e g a l system promoted j u s t i c e on t h e b a s i s o f and i t o b l i g e d the state to provide free legal aid. 43(a) sought t o secure t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f workers i n t h e 21 management o f i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . the T h e 42nd amendment r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e A.I.C.C. s e s s i o n s e c t i o n on t h e f u n d a m e n t a l d u t i e s o f May 1976 b y i n c l u d i n g a of c i t i z e n s . This section of the C o n s t i t u t i o n was i n t e n d e d t o b a l a n c e t h e F u n d a m e n t a l R i g h t s accordance w i t h Mrs. Gandhi's b e l i e f that as w e l l as r i g h t s . The of seats the 4 2 n d amendment a l s o f r o z e u n t i l a n d was i n democracy e n t a i l s o b l i g a t i o n s t h e y e a r 2001 t h e a l l o c a t i o n i n t h e L o k S a b h a t o t h e s t a t e s , t h e t o t a l number o f s e a t s i n s t a t e a s s e m b l i e s , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f L o k Sabha a n d s t a t e seats followed reserved f o r the scheduled castes and t r i b e s . i n t e n d e d t o f u r t h e r t h e government's f a m i l y p l a n n i n g This assembly clause program. 22 was 80 Districts and s t a t e s t h a t were s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e i r family planning programs w o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , n o t Be p e n a l i z e d By h a v i n g t h e i r repre- s e n t a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e a s s e m b l i e s and t h e L o k Sabha r e d u c e d . The g o v e r n m e n t ' s m a j o r j u s t i f i c a t i o n C o n s t i t u t i o n was t h a t i t w o u l d f a c i l i t a t e f o r the revision of the economic and s o c i a l reform by r e m o v i n g j u d i c i a l o b s t a c l e s t o s u c h r e f o r m and a l s o b y s t r e n g t h e n i n g the s t a b i l i t y of the p o l i t i c a l progress a r e dependent. itself system on w h i c h s o c i a l and economic However, c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n would n o t by u s h e r i n a p e r i o d o f economic and s o c i a l p r o g r e s s . depend on p o l i t i c a l , T h i s would economic and s o c i a l as w e l l as c o n s t i t u t i o n a l facto Much w o u l d depend, f o r e x a m p l e , on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e c e n t r a l and . s t a t e governments and t h e b u r e a u c r a c y and on economic f a c t o r s such as the r a t e o f growth o f i n d u s t r i a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l t h and income. The 42nd amendment m o d i f i e d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l e g i s l a t i v e powers between t h e c e n t e r and t h e s t a t e s by t r a n s f e r r i n g c e r t a i n m a t t e r s such as e d u c a t i o n and t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e to the Concurrent L i s t . Center, p a r t i c u l a r l y ties", from t h e S t a t e List T h e amendment s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e p o w e r s o f t h e i n t h e powers r e l a t i n g to "anti-national t h e r e g i o n a l i z a t i o n o f s t a t e s o f emergency activi- and the deployment of c e n t r a l p o l i c e and s p e c i a l f o r c e s by t h e c e n t e r w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r state. On t h e l a t t e r , t h e amendment g a v e t h e C e n t e r t h e a u t h o r i t y t o u s e c e n t r a l p o l i c e and s p e c i a l f o r c e s w i t h o u t p r i o r c o n s u l t a t i o n with the s t a t e government; once d e p l o y e d , t h e s e f o r c e s were t o r e m a i n under the c o n t r o l o f the Center. M o r e o v e r , t h e amendment e x t e n d e d f r o m s i x 81 m o n t h s t o one in force the structure of the Indian thermore, the an at importance of s t i t u t i o n regarding t o amend t h e powers of the s e c t i o n was and new on ment, P r i m e M i n i s t e r she ister. Minister The by 1976, o f May 1976 i n India's the ended ended illustrated federal Fur- i t sees f i t and the Prime Parliament's addition use o f p o l i c e and the powers of powers of the the of the own 4 2 n d amendment i n c r e a s e d removing i n s t i t u t i o n a l the Con- the Funa latter region- other s p e c i a l forces executive. e x e c u t i v e by c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amend- I n d i r a Gandhi hoped to a c h i e v e s e v e r a l sought to s a f e g u a r d her by authority P o l i c y , and "anti-national activities", the the Minister further restricted The the approved made i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e s i n t h e I t reasserted and system. '(Amendment) A c t , Fondamental D u t i e s . regarding In increasing author- C h a n g e s w e r e made i n t h e p r e a m b l e , t h e the Center a l l increased First, not the D i r e c t i v e P r i n c i p l e s of S t a t e inserted provisions as a l i z a t i o n o f e m e r g e n c i e s and by states of M i n i s t e r s . d a m e n t a l R i g h t s and Supreme C o u r t ' s powers o f t t h e P r e s i d e n t , judiciary. federal the p r o p o s a l f o r adding a g r i c u l t u r e i n the Constitution remain f e d e r a l system remained. 42nd C o n s t i t u t i o n the The s t a t e l a w s i n v a l i d was S a b h a on N o v e m b e r 2, Council system. the A.I.C.C. s e s s i o n I n summary, t h e the r a d i c a l changes i n the a r b i t e r i n the dropping of Concurrent L i s t continuing as r u l e would Parliament. political c e n t r a l and thus i t s f u n c t i o n and i n which President's 42nd amendment made no to d e c l a r e the Lok period a f t e r b e i n g a p p r o v e d by But ity y e a r the objectives. p e r s o n a l p o s i t i o n as P r i m e M i n the powers of the o f f i c e of r e s t r a i n t s from the P r e s i d e n t Prime and the 82 courts. by S e c o n d l y , s h e s o u g h t t o make t h e s t a t e o f e m e r g e n c y p e r m a n e n t widening the already large emergency powers o f t h e s t a t e , by strength- ening t h e powers o f the Center v i s - a - v i s t h e s t a t e s , and by l i m i t i n g t h e Fundamental R i g h t s of the C o n s t i t u t i o n . t o e s t a b l i s h new n o r m s o f o p p o s i t i o n activities" i n s t a b i l i t y that 42nd amendment in India. activity c l a u s e o f t h e 42nd amendment. p o s i t i o n o f t h e Congress P a r t y tical T h i r d l y , Mrs. Gandhi attempted through the " a n t i - n a t i o n a l T h e a i m was t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e and t o p r e v e n t a r e c u r r e n c e o f t h e p o l i - l e d to the state thus provided the b a s i s o f emergency i n June 1975. The f o r a " d i s c i p l i n e d democracy" F i n a l l y , M r s . Gandhi sought t o l e g i t i m i z e t h e emergency. government argued t h a t The c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n would promote s o c i a l j u s t i c e by removing o b s t a c l e s t o t h e government's economic and s o c i a l programs. S p e a k i n g i n t h e L o k S a b h a o n t h e Amendment argued that And that "a C o n s t i t u t i o n i s the scrutiny lenges of h i s t o r i c a l and that Mrs. Gandhi a judicial o f h i s t o r y and i t s c a p a c i t y forces. i s the nation has a b i g g e r t e s t . t h a n Bill, scrutiny. t o meet t h e c h a l - There i s something bigger than a l l of us and i t s f u t u r e . That i s the importance of t h i s 23 Bill." I t was i n o r d e r t o f i n d o u t t h e v e r d i c t at l e a s t , that Mrs. Gandhi c a l l e d . t h e cluding of the Indian March e l e c t i o n i n 1977. people, The c o n - c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t h e i m p a c t o f t h e M a r c h 1977 e l e c t i o n a n d a s - s e s s e s M r s . G a n d h i ' s e m e r g e n c y r u l e a n d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments passed under i t . CHAPTER V I Conclusion 83 With, t h e v i c t o r y o f t h e J a n a t a P a r t y and t h e C o n g r e s s f o r Democracy (C.F.D.) i n t h e M a r c h 1977 g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n , C o n g r e s s d o m i n a n c e h a v e come t o a n e n d . t h i r t y years of During the e l e c t i o n campaign t h e J a n a t a a n d C.F.D. c o a l i t i o n p l e d g e d t h e m s e l v e s t o d i s m a n t l e t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n s y s t e m u n d e r t h e e m e r g e n c y , w h i l e t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y made s u p p o r t f o r t h e e m e r g e n c y a n d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments a k e y p a r t o f i t s own m a n i f e s t o . T h e M a r c h 1977 e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s thus constitute a d e c i s i v e judgment o f t h e I n d i a n e l e c t o r a t e a g a i n s t M r s . Gandhi's e m e r g e n c y r u l e a n d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments p a s s e d u n d e r it. I t r e m a i n s now t o c o n c l u d e w i t h a n a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e e m e r g e n c y and w i t h a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c o n t i n u i t i e s a n d c h a n g e s i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l Finally, the v a l i d i t y s y s t e m i n t h e p e r i o d s 1950-75 and 1975-77. o f K o t h a r i ' s model o f o n e - p a r t y dominance and t h e M a r x i s t model w i l l be r e - e x a m i n e d i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e emergency and i t s e n d i n g i n March 1977. D u r i n g t h e e m e r g e n c y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a r g u e d t h a t t h e new amend- ments t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n d i d n o t change t h e " b a s i c s t r u c t u r e " o f t h a t document. R a t h e r , t h e amendments r e a f f i r m e d t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h i s structure". "basic The P r i m e M i n i s t e r a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e v i s i o n o f t h e C o n s t i - t u t i o n was m o r e o f a ' r e n o v a t i o n ' t h a n a ' r e b u i l d i n g ' a n d t h a t t i o n s a r e n o t meant t o be r i g i d and s a c r o s a n c t b u t need t o be constitucontinually r e a s s e s s e d i n t h e l i g h t o f c h a n g i n g e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l cir- c u m s t a n c e s .""" The government's c l a i m t h a t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n d i d n o t a l t e r t h e " b a s i c s t r u c t u r e " o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n was somewhat d u b i o u s . The 84 r e a f f i r m a t i o n of the p r i n c i p l e of s e c u l a r i s m and P a r l i a m e n t ' s authority t o amend t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , t h e s a f e g u a r d i n g o f m i n o r i t y r i g h t s and t h e President's of the Council o b l i g a t i o n to f o l l o w the advice c e r t a i n l y represented practice. of M i n i s t e r s , no r a d i c a l b r e a k i n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d But the c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of the p o l i t i c a l ment o f i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s a n d t h e r e d u c t i o n political system, the curtail- i n t h e powers o f t h e j u d i c i a r y d i d c o n s t i t u t e important departures from the "basic structure" o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n b e t w e e n 1950 a n d 1 9 7 5 . A s shown i n C h a p t e r I V , M r s . G a n d h i f o l l o w e d C o n s t i t u t i o n but not i t s ' s p i r i t ' . the 'letter' of the C o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n t h e s e n s e o f l i m i t e d government d i d n o t o p e r a t e during the period o f emer- gency because n o r m a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s were t e m p o r a r i l y p e n d e d and t h e g o v e r n m e n t o b t a i n e d wider powers. u s e d t h e emergency as an o p p o r t u n i t y of the executive. sus- However, M r s . G a n d h i to permanently enlarge The 42nd amendment, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e powers added t o t h e a l - r e a d y l a r g e emergency powers a t t h e d i s p o s a l o f t h e government such as the Maintenance of I n t e r n a l S e c u r i t y A c t , the Defense o f I n d i a and President's the government t o l i f t gency powers. sition Rule. Rules I t would, t h e r e f o r e , have been p o s s i b l e f o r t h e s t a t e o f emergency y e t r e t a i n l a r g e I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g then that emer- t h e non-communist oppo- a n d t h e C.P.M. saw t h e 42nd Amendment a s a c o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e measures o f t h e emergency. This i s not t o suggest that become u n l i m i t e d d u r i n g t h e power o f t h e I n d i a n t h e emergency. government A d i s t i n c t i o n must be drawn between c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and n o n - c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e s t r a i n t s on t h e government . E v e n t h o u g h t h e e m e r g e n c y m e a s u r e s a n d amendments t o t h e 85 C o n s t i t u t i o n removed c e r t a i n f o r m a l r e s t r a i n t s on t h e powers o f t h e government, o t h e r i m p o r t a n t economic, s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l remained. Among t h e s e w e r e t h e r e s t r a i n t s on t h e c e n t r a l restraints government e x c e r c i s e d b y t h e s t a t e s w h i c h c o n t i n u e d t o have i m p o r t a n t r e s o u r c e s v i s - a - v i s New D e l h i . political L i m i t a t i o n s o n e x e c u t i v e power also a r o s e f r o m t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f m a t e r i a l a n d s k i l l e d human r e s o u r c e s a t the d i s p o s a l o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e b u r e a u c r a c y , a s shown f o r example, b y t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e government's f a m i l y p l a n n i n g F i n a l l y , what a r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e emergency program. period f o r K o t h a r i ' s model o f o n e - p a r t y dominance and t h e M a r x i s t model? t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e model o f o n e — p a r t y dominance In the i t was s e e n t h a t K o t h a r i was c o n c e r n e d w i t h e x p l a i n i n g why c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l insti- t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s h a v e d e v e l o p e d i n I n d i a a n d why p a r t i c u l a r econo- mic, s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l elite. s t r a t e g i e s have been pursued by t h e I n d i a n He a r g u e d t h a t a d i s t i n c t i v e I n d i a n model o f development had a r i s e n w h i c h c o n t r a s t e d s h a r p l y w i t h t h e model o f development lowed by, f o r example, t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a . And K o t h a r i p o i n t e d out the unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e I n d i a n model. The p o i n t a b o u t I n d i a n d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h g i v e s i t t h e c h a r a c t e r o f an unprecendented undertaking i s t h a t w h i l e economic and s o c i a l change i s i n i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s p l a n n e d and d i r e c t e d from above, i t i s n o n e t h e l e s s c a r r i e d on w i t h i n t h e framework o f an open and undirected polity. T h i s means t h a t m a n i p u l a t i o n o f change i n t h e image o f a few dominant i d e a s gets c o n d i t i o n e d by an a c c e l e r a t e d pace o f p o l i t i c a l c o m p e t i t i o n , a c h a n g i n g s t r u c t u r e o f power and i n f l u e n c e , and a w i d e n i n g b a s e o f p o l i t i c a l c o n s u l t a t i o n and p e r s u a s i o n . ^ fol- 86 The major emergency and t h e r e v i s i o n o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n denoted change f r o m an open c o m p e t i t i v e polity w h i c h t h e government had w i d e r p o w e r s and cipline. B u t a s l a t e as. D e c e m b e r 1974 a to a guided system i n s t r e s s e d d u t i e s and K o t h a r i r e s t a t e d the dis- validity 3 of h i s model o f the 'Congress point System'. Before t h e e m e r g e n c y he d i d to a p e r c e p t i b l e d e c l i n e i n the l e g i t i m a c y of the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m and t r a c e d s o c i e t y and p o l i t i c s — n o t a b l y , government* the absence t h i s d e c l i n e to c e r t a i n trends excessive of a r e a l popular i n Indian c e n t r a l i z a t i o n i n the l e v e l s of base f o r the Indian political 4 parties, c o r r u p t i o n and f a i l u r e s of performance. K o t h a r i , however, c o n c l u d e d t h a t the Congress P a r t y and M r s . Gandhi were l i k e l y solidate would t h e i r p o s i t i o n b u t d i d n o t make i t c l e a r how take the question of whether P a r t y and the Congress t h e r e w i l l b e a new System'—a 'Congress features of the p o l i t i c a l remain. Given India's system under Congress s i z e and d i v e r s i t y , and r u l i n g party or c o a l i t i o n w i l l And i t i s important System' w i t h o u t f e r e n t i d e o l o g i c a l components r a n g i n g It i s therefore similar Party. doubt The emphasis Will there t h e Congress? to aggregate now Certain Party the i s a c o a l i t i o n of to to interests. dif- socialists. t o t h e i d e o l o g i c a l amorphousness of t h e of India's a dominance a r e l i k e l y from conservatives on p e r f o r m a n c e w i l l that the v i a b i l i t y party, the f e d e r a l system, have t o c o n t i n u e to note that the Janata f o r Democracy dominant two-party system, or a fragmented m u l t i - p a r t y system. be a ' J a n a t a consolidation place. The v i c t o r y o f t h e J a n a t a poses this to con- a l s o r e m a i n and t h e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l order w i l l Congress i s no depend 87 to a great of e x t e n t on t h e economic, s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l performance t h e government. The legitimacy o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l order a l s o depend on t h e frameworks o f consensus and t h e o p e r a t i v e of the p o l i t i c a l system described M a r c h 1977 g e n e r a l operative e l e c t i o n i s that (one o f t h e t h e former non-communist and p a r t i e s i n t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l t h e March e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s w i l l n o t ensure t h e l e g i t i m a c y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l 1971 mechanisms The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e t h e e l e c t o r a l system mechanisms) has r e — i n t e g r a t e d C.P.M. o p p o s i t i o n But by K o t h a r i . general strated this. system. system. of India's The a n a l y s i s o f t h e e f f e c t o f t h e e l e c t i o n a n d t h e 1 9 7 2 s t a t e a s s e m b l y e l e c t i o n s h a s demonAlthough Mrs. Gandhi and t h e Congress P a r t y l a r g e e l e c t o r a l m a j o r i t i e s i n 1971-72, c o r r u p t served will to reduce t h e l e g i t i m a c y of t h e non-communist o p p o s i t i o n electoral practices of the p o l i t i c a l reform, p a r t i c u l a r l y the financing obtained system. also Electoral o f e l e c t i o n s became a k e y demand p a r t i e s a n d t h e C.P.M. a f t e r 1971-72. An a n a l y s i s o f g o v e r n m e n t - o p p o s i t i o n r e l a t i o n s between 1971 and 1975 has proved t h e hypothesis of Chapter I that the legitimacy o f con- s t i t u t i o n a l government i s dependent on t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e r u l e s o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l system by t h e government and o p p o s i - tion parties. The 1971 study of government-opposition r e l a t i o n s i n t h e period and t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f emergency a l s o 'margin o f p r e s s u r e ' political system. between showed t h a t t h e d i d n o t operate t o m a i n t a i n t h e openness o f t h e I t remains t o be seen whether t h e post-emergency 88 period w i l l b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a new ' m a r g i n o f pressure' between t h e J a n a t a P a r t y , t h e C.F.D. a n d t h e o p p o s i t i o n parties. I t depends, f i r s t o n w h e t h e r t h e C o n g r e s s ( R ) , now out o f power, l o s e s of a l l , i t s s t r e n g t h , and becomes a ' p a r t y o f pressure'. S e c o n d l y , much d e p e n d s o n t h e f a c t i o n a l a l i g n m e n t s w i t h i n t h e d o m i n a n t c o a l i t i o n and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s , and on whether t h e J a n a t a P a r t y i s prepared t o seek consensus w i t h the op- position parties. K o t h a r i ' s model o f o n e - p a r t y dominance and t h e M a r x i s t the common a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r i c a l l y necessary f o r t h e i r and political time. model share institutions are But i n the Marxist i n s t i t u t i o n s are l o g i c a l l y necessary given model l e g a l theparticular economic s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y and t h e p r e v a i l i n g c l a s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s . In the Marxist as model t h e r e a l s t r u g g l e the executive, i s n o t between i n s t i t u t i o n s l e g i s l a t u r e and t h e j u d i c i a r y but between i n s t i t u t i o n s are transformed or abolished social i n t e r e s t s of t h e dominant c l a s s e s . a n a l y s i s , arose from the c r i s i s facade of l i b e r a l as they s u i t facing India's this ruling c l a s s e s and t h e m o d e l some o f t h e class analysis to the period T h e s t u d y o f t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n t h e 1971 t h e s t a t e o f e m e r g e n c y o f J u n e 1975 c l a s s and economic d e t e r m i n i s t ficulties t h e economic and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e m o c r a c y was q u i c k l y d r o p p e d . problems o f applying and classes; The emergency, i n t h i s In the t h e o r e t i c a l discussion of the Marxist mentioned. such general elections a l s o showed t h e i n a d e q u a c i e s o f explorations. of i d e n t i f y i n g the r u l i n g 1947-75 w e r e Not only are there dif- c l a s s , b u t a l s o t h e breakdown o f 89 consensus i n v o l v e d the opposition difficult b o u r g e o i s p a r t i e s s u c h , a s t h e C o n g r e s s (R) a n d B.L.D., J a n a Sangh. a n d C o n g r e s s t o speak o f t h e emergency s t r u g g l e because of the r e f o r m i s t support f o r the Congress existence I t i s also a s t h e outcome o f a p u r e class p o s i t i o n o f t h e C.P.I, and i t s (R) a n d a l s o b e c a u s e o f t h e s o c i a l i s t p o p u l i s t r h e t o r i c of the Congress But the M a r x i s t (0). and Party. a n a l y s i s o f d i c t a t o r s h i p does n o t r e l y on t h e o f an open c l a s s s t r u g g l e . Dictatorships are seen to a r i s e when ' b o u r g e o i s ' i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e t h r e a t e n e d b u t r e v o l u t i o n a r y weak. 1977 But i s t h e emergency general a prelude to revolutionary e l e c t i o n seems t o h a v e g i v e n 'bourgeois democracy'. w h i c h w i l l e s t a b l i s h i t s own and p o l i t i c a l institutions t o r e m a i n so as l o n g reformist of l i f e i s , however, The to March India's revolu- alternative constitutional absent i n I n d i a today. It is a s t h e C . P . I , a n d t h e C.P.M. c o n t i n u e t h e i r policies. Although i t i s s t i l l of lease change? A r e v o l u t i o n a r y movement g u i d e d b y a tionary party likely a new movements the Janata Party too e a r l y to assess the e f f e c t of the v i c t o r y a n d t h e C.F.D. o n I n d i a ' s system, c e r t a i n trends are c l e a r . The new c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and government political h a s made known i t s i n t e n t i o n t o dismantle the a u t h o r i t a r i a n system of Mrs. Gandhi's emer- gency r u l e . the I t has been seen t h a t the Congress P a r t y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments s i n c e J u n e 1975 i n power i n d e f i n i t e l y . now the Congress Party revised constitution. assumed t h a t I r o n i c a l l y , with the s h i f t i n passing i t would i n fortunes, remain i tis w h i c h i s i n a disadvantaged p o s i t i o n under The new government of Prime M i n i s t e r Desai, the 90 however, h a s announced t h a t civil the j u d i c i a r y w i l l be r e s t o r e d . liberties I n Chapter the C o n s t i t u t i o n had i n s u f f i c i e n t of a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e . C.F.D. w i l l reduce and t h e independence I i t was h y p o t h e s i z e d safeguards against I t remains of that t h e development t o be seen whether t h e J a n a t a and t h e emergency powers o f t h e e x e c u t i v e — p a r t i c u l a r l y the emergency p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n and s t a t u t e s such as M.I.S.A. a n d t h e D e f e n c e o f I n d i a R u l e s — w h i c h e n a b l e d M r s . G a n d h i to impose h e r a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e i n t h e f i r s t The repeal of statutes S e c u r i t y A c t and t h e Defense place. such as the Maintenance of India Rules i s l i k e l y f o r w a r d f o r t h e J a n a t a government t h a n t h e r e p e a l 41st a n d 42nd c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments. will require a majority of two-thirds members p r e s e n t a n d v o t i n g legislatures. of Internal t o be more s t r a i g h t - of the 39th, 40th, R e p e a l o f t h e s e amendments o f L o k Sabha and R a j y a and r a t i f i c a t i o n by a m a j o r i t y Sabha of the state I n o r d e r t o re-amend t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , t h e J a n a t a gov- e r n m e n t h a s , a t t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g , announced t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f n i n e s t a t e a s s e m b l i e s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e Congress e l e c t i o n s and t h e a b i l i t y sary m a j o r i t i e s Party. The outcome o f t h e s e o f t h e J a n a t a government t o s e c u r e t h e n e c e s - i n Parliament w i l l , therefore, determine the success of t h e new g o v e r n m e n t i n a b o l i s h i n g t h e s e amendments t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . The emergency t h u s appears c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l Gandhi has l e f t leaders, t o have been an a b e r r a t i o n system since independence. i n India's But Mrs. important precedents e s p e c i a l l y the a r r e s t of opposition p r e s s c e n s o r s h i p and t h e p r e c e d e n t s o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n under emergency r u l e . An e x a m i n a t i o n o f I n d i a ' s future constitutional 91 a n d p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t may the of therefore emergency was i n f a c t an a b e r r a t i o n answer t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r o r w h e t h e r i t was t h e p r e c u r s o r further periods of a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e In India. 91a FOOTNOTES 92 FOOTNOTES CHAPTER I "'"For a d i s c u s s i o n o f i n s t a b i l i t y i n I n d i a s e e A l a n W e l l s , "Mass V i o l e n c e i n I n d i a s i n c e 1960," I n d i a n P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e Review 7 ( O c t o b e r 1972 - S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 3 ) : 125-130 and B a l d e r Raj N a y a r , " V i o l e n c e , " S e m i n a r 173 ( J a n u a r y 1 9 7 4 ) : 33-37. 2 R o b e r t L. H a r d g r a v e , J r . , I n d i a : a D e v e l o p i n g N a t i o n , 2nd e d . (New Y o r k : 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 8 7 . Government and P o l i t i c s i n Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, CHAPTER I I """Tvo D. D u c h a c e k , " N a t i o n a l C o n s t i t u t i o n s : A F u n c t i o n a l p r o a c h , " C o m p a r a t i v e P o l i t i c s 1 ( O c t o b e r 1968) p. 9 1 , n . l . Ap- 2 See, f o r example, B e n j a m i n A k z i n ' s c o m p a r a t i v e s u r v e y o f t h e ' n o m i n a l i t y ' o f c o n s t i t u t i o n s , "On t h e S t a b i l i t y and R e a l i t y o f C o n s t i t u t i o n s , " i n S t u d i e s i n E c o n o m i c a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , V o l . 3, p p . 313-339. E d i t e d by R o b e r t B a c h i ( J e r u s a l e m : Magnes P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 ) . 3 Charles Bettelheim, I n d i a I n d e p e n d e n t (New Y o r k : Monthly R e v i e w P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 106. 4 G r a n v i l l e A u s t i n , The I n d i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n : C o r n e r s t o n e o f a Nation (Oxford: C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1966, pp. 8-17. 5 Ibid., p. ^ I b i d . , p. 10, n. 5, n . 38. 19. ^ S h i v a B. Rao, The F r a m i n g o f I n d i a ' s C o n s t i t u t i o n ( N a s i k : G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 1 0 1 . 8 A u s t i n , The 9 ment I n d i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n , pp. 68-69. 1 s t Amendment ( 1 9 5 1 ) ; 4 t h Amendment ( 1 9 5 5 ) ; (1964). "'"^K.C. W h e a r e , M o d e r n C o n s t i t u t i o n s , 2nd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 ) , p. 1 4 0 . ed., and 17th (London: AmendOxford """"'"Article 352 (3) . R e f e r e n c e s t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a r e t o I n d i a , M i n i s t r y o f Law a n d J u s t i c e , The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f I n d i a as M o d i f i e d up t o t h e 1 5 t h o f May, 1972 (New D e l h i : M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n and Broadcasting, 1972). 93 12 A u s t i n , The I n d i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n , p p . 1 3 Article 356. 1 4 Article 360 207-8. CHAPTER I I I "*"Rajni K o t h a r i , "The C o n g r e s s ' S y s t e m ' i n I n d i a , " A s i a n S u r v e y 4 ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 6 4 ) : 1 1 6 1 - 1 1 7 3 ; W.H. M o r r i s - J o n e s , " P a r l i a m e n t a n d Dominant P a r t y : The I n d i a n E x p e r i e n c e , " P a r l i a m e n t a r y A f f a i r s 17 (Summer 1 9 6 4 ) : 296-307. 2 R a j n i K o t h a r i , "The C o n g r e s s S y s t e m R e v i s i t e d : R e v i e w , " A s i a n S u r v e y 14 (December 1 9 7 4 ) : p. 1 0 5 2 . 3 Ibid., p. 1036. 4 Ibid., p. 1036. 5 K o t h a r i , "The C o n g r e s s ' S y s t e m ' i n I n d i a , " p . A Decennial 1162. K a r l Marx. "Preface to a C o n t r i b u t i o n to the C r i t i q u e of P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y , 1 8 5 9 , " i n K. M a r x a n d F. E n g e l s , S e l e c t e d W o r k s i n One V o l u m e ( L o n d o n : L a w r e n c e a n d W i s h a r t , 1 9 7 0 ) , p. 1 8 1 ; ^J.D. S e t h i , I n d i a i n C r i s i s 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 21. Q Articles (Delhi: V i k a s P u b l i s h i n g House, 264-300. 9 Meghnad D e s a i , " I n d i a : E m e r g i n g C o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f S l o w C a p i t a l i s t Development," i n E x p l o s i o n i n a Sub-Continent, ed. Robin Blackburn (London: P e n g u i n P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 23. " ^ K a r l M a r x , "The C i v i l War i n F r a n c e , " i n M a r x a n d E n g e l s S e l e c t e d W o r k s i n One V o l u m e , p . 2 8 5 . "''"'"Desai, " I n d i a : E m e r g i n g C o n t r a d i c t i o n s , " pp. 17-18. 12 p. 424. K o t h a r i , P o l i t i c s i n I n d i a (New D e l h i : O r i e n t Longman, 1 9 7 2 ) , 13 R a n a j i t Guha, " I n d i a n Democracy: L o n g D e a d , Now J o u r n a l o f Contemporary A s i a 6 (1976) pp. 40-41. 14 K o t h a r i , P o l i t i c s i n I n d i a , p . 6. Buried," "*"^See, f o r e x a m p l e , C P . B h a m b r i ' s c r i t i c i s m o f K o t h a r i ' s f r a m e work i n " F u n c t i o n a l i s m i n P o l i t i c s : A R e j o i n d e r , " I n d i a n J o u r n a l o f P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e 35 ( A p r i l - J u n e 1 9 7 4 ) " 1 8 6 - 1 8 7 . 94 """ """Kothari, "The 1 7 Ibid., p. C o n g r e s s S y s t e m R e v i s i t e d , " pp. 1047-8. 1051. 18 Desai, "India: Emerging Contradictions,', 1 p. 13. 19 Kothari, A p r i l 10, Delhi) CHAPTER "The F a i l u r e o f 1975. a System," Times o f India (New IV "'"Minister o f F i n a n c e , " R e v i e w o f C u r r e n t E c o n o m i c S i t u a t i o n , " J u l y 3 0 , 1975. Y o j a n a 19 (15 A u g u s t 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 8 1 . Wholesale prices i n c r e a s e d by 9.9 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 7 2 - 7 3 , 22.7 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 7 3 - 7 4 and 23.1 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 7 4 - 7 5 . The A l l - I n d i a c o n s u m e r p r i c e i n d e x f o r i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s i n c r e a s e d b y 6.3 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 7 2 , 15.8 p e r c e n t i n 1973 and b y 28.8 p e r c e n t i n 1974. E c o n o m i c and P o l i t i c a l W e e k l y V o l . X I , No. 16, ( A p r i l 17, 1976) p. 610. 2 Government of I n d i a , M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e , Economic Survey: 1 9 7 2 - 7 3 (New D e l h i : G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a P r e s s , 1 9 7 3 ) , p. '4. 3 The S t a t e s m a n ( D e l h i ) , A p r i l 24, 1975. 4 D a v i d H. B a y l e y , " I n d i a : War a n d P o l i t i c a l A s s e r t i o n , " A s i a n S u r v e y 12 ( F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 9 1 . "^Susanne H o e b e r R u d o l p h , "The W r i t f r o m D e l h i : The Indian G o v e r n m e n t ' s C a p a b i l i t i e s a f t e r t h e 1971 E l e c t i o n , " A s i a n S u r v e y ( O c t o b e r 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 958. Ibid., 6 p. 961. ^ J o h n R. Wood, " E x t r a - P a r l i a m e n t a r y Opposition i n India: A n a l y s i s o f P o p u l i s t A g i t a t i o n s i n G u j a r a t and B i h a r , " P a c i f i c 48 ( F a l l 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 314. 8 I b i d . , pp. 9 The 11 An Affairs 320-1. Statesman ( D e l h i ) , J a n u a r y 30, 1975. """^For e x a m p l e , on A p r i l 7, 1975 M o r a r j i D e s a i b e g a n a f a s t t o t h e d e a t h u n l e s s two o f h i s c o n d i t i o n s w e r e met b y M r s . G a n d h i — t h a t f r e s h e l e c t i o n s be h e l d i m m e d i a t e l y i n G u j a r a t a n d t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l e m e r g e n c y d e c l a r e d i n D e c e m b e r 1971 s h o u l d be l i f t e d . The S t a t e s m a n ( D e l h i ) A p r i l 8, 1975. "'""'"Times o f I n d i a ( A h m e d a b a d ) , May 8, 1975. 12 Times of I n d i a (New Delhi), April 1, 1975. 95 13 The S t a t e s m a n ( D e l h i ) , A p r i l 2 3 , 1 9 7 5 . 14 The S t a t e s m a n ( D e l h i ) , J a n u a r y 6, 1 5 T h e S t a t e s m a n ( D e l h i ) , M a r c h 8, 1975. 1975. 1 f\ 1 7 The S t a t e s m a n ( D e l h i ) , M a r c h 5, 1975. T h e S t a t e s m a n ( D e l h i ) , M a r c h 6, 1975. 18 pp. Rajni Kothari, 22-23. 19 Times o f I n d i a 20 Times o f I n d i a " E n d o f a n E r a " , S e m i n a r 197 (Ahmedabad), June 25, 1975. (Ahmedabad), June 16, 1975. (January 1976), M a r c u s F. 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I n d i r a G a n d h i , Democracy and D i s c i p l i n e : S p e e c h e s o f I n d i r a G a n d h i (New D e l h i : Government o f I n d i a , M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n and B r o a d c a s t i n g , n . d . ) , p. 37. 30 Speech i n Lok Sabha, J u l y 22, 1975, i n G a n d h i , Democracy and D i s c i p l i n e , p. 3 6 . CHAPTER V "''See, f o r e x a m p l e , C l a i r e S t e r l i n g ' s a r t i c l e , " R u l e r o f 600 M i l l i o n , and A l o n e , " The New Y o r k T i m e s M a g a z i n e , A u g u s t 1 0 , 1 9 7 5 ; a n d N e v i l l e M a x w e l l , "Woman o n a W h i t e H o r s e : I n d i a 1 9 7 5 , " R o u n d T a b l e No. 2 6 0 . (October 1975): 357-368. 96 2 3 G a n d h i , Democracy a n d D i s c i p l i n e , pp. 63-64. I b i d . , pp. 103-4. "A Fresh Look a t our C o n s t i t u t i o n : Some S u g g e s t i o n s " , d i s t r i b u t e d b y C T . D a r u , A d v o c a t e Ahmedabad, D e c e m b e r 9, 1975 (Mimeog r a p h e d ) , p . 1. 4 ^Ibid., p . 2. Manchester G u a r d i a n Weekly, J a n u a r y 1 1 , 1976. ^ O t h e r members o f t h e C o m m i t t e e w e r e : A.R. A n t u l a y , C o n g r e s s G e n e r a l S e c r e t a r y ; S i d d h a r t h a S h a n k a r R a y , C h i e f M i n i s t e r o f West B e n g a l ; H.R. G o k h a l e , U n i o n Law M i n i s t e r ; R a j n i P a t e l , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e Bombay P r a d e s h C o n g r e s s C o m m i t t e e ; V.A. S e y e d Mohammed, M i n i s t e r o f S t a t e f o r Law; V.N. G a d g i l , M i n i s t e r o f S t a t e f o r D e f e n s e P r o d u c t i o n ; a n d t h e M.P.s C M . S t e p h e n , V . P . S a t h e , D . C G o s w a m i , K r i s h n a M a n i , B.N. B a n n e r j i , a n d D.P. S i n g h . T i m e s o f I n d i a ( B o m b a y ) , May 2 3 , 1 9 7 6 . g Keesing's Contemporary A r c h i v e s 9 Times 1 0 of India (London), A p r i l 1976, p. 27783. ( B o m b a y ) , May 2 3 , 1 9 7 6 . A s i a n R e c o r d e r (New D e l h i ) J u n e 2 4 - 3 0 , 1 9 7 6 , p . 1 3 2 2 1 . ''""'"For e x a m p l e , t h e L a w M i n i s t e r , H.R. G o k h a l e , o n i n t r o d u c i n g t h e 4 4 t h C o n s t i t u t i o n (Amendment) B i l l i n t h e L o k S a b h a i n O c t o b e r 1976, c r i t i c i z e d t h e o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s f o r f a i l i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e forums f o r d e b a t i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v i s i o n . Gokhale a l s o s a i d t h a t t h e S w a r a n S i n g h C o m m i t t e e h a d r e c e i v e d f o u r t h o u s a n d memor a n d a a n d h a d i n t e r v i e w e d a l a r g e number o f p e o p l e b e f o r e f i n a l i z i n g i t s r e p o r t i n May 1 9 7 6 . " P a r l i a m e n t A p p r o v e s C o n s t i t u t i o n Amendments", I n d i a n a n d F o r e i g n R e v i e w , V o l . 1 4 , N o . 3, ( 1 5 N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 5-6. 12 13 14 Times o f I n d i a (Bombay) O c t o b e r 1 7 , 1 9 7 6 . Times o f I n d i a (Bombay) O c t o b e r 1 0 , 1 9 7 6 . Ibid. " ^ K e e s i n g ' s Contemporary A r c h i v e s , J a n u a r y 14, 1977, p. 28142. 16 C h r i s t i a n S c i e n c e M o n i t o r , J u n e 7, 1 9 7 6 . "^Keesing's Contemporary A r c h i v e s , J a n u a r y 14, 1977, p. 281^1. 18 A r t i c l e 74 ( 1 ) s t a t e s o n l y t h a t " T h e r e s h a l l b e a C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s w i t h t h e Prime M i n i s t e r a t t h e head t o a i d and a d v i s e t h e President i n the exercise of h i s functions". 97 Indian a n d F o r e i g n R e v i e w , V o l . 1 4 , No. 2 ( 1 November 1 9 7 6 ) , p. 22. 20 Keesing's Contemporary A r c h i v e s , J a n u a r y 14, 1977, p. 28141. 21 Indian S.C. 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E d i t e d b y J o h n H. H a l l o w e l l . Durham, N.C.: D u k e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 . W h e a r e , K.C. M o d e r n C o n s t i t u t i o n s . U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966. 2nd e d . London: Oxford 99 THE I N D I A N CONSTITUTION A g r a w a l , S.C. Indian Austin, " P r o p o s e d C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Amendments: A Comment." and F o r e i g n R e v i e w 14 ( 1 N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 6 ) . G r a n v i l l e . The I n d i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n : Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966. G a j e n d r a g a d k a r , P.B. The Basic Postulates. Cornerstone of a Nation. C o n s t i t u t i o n of India: I t s P h i l o s o p h y and Nairobi: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1969. K o g e k a r , S.V. R e v i s i o n of the L e c t u r e , 1976. Poona: Economics, 1976. Constitution. R.R. Kale Memorial G o k h a l e I n s t i t u t e o f P o l i t i c s and M i n o c h a , O.P. 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"Law a n d P o l i t i c a l C r i s i s : I n d i a n L e g a l System's P o t e n t i a l R o l e . " (September 1976): 879-897. An Assessment o f t h e A s i a n S u r v e y 26 K o c h a n e k , S t a n l e y A. " M r s . G a n d h i ' s P y r a m i d : The New C o n g r e s s . " I n I n d i r a G a n d h i ' s I n d i a , pp. 93-124. E d i t e d b y H e n r y C. H a r t . B o u l d e r , Co.: Westview P r e s s , 1976. Kothari, Rajni. (December . "The "The C o n g r e s s ' S y s t e m ' i n I n d i a . " 1964): 1161-1173. Congress System R e v i s i t e d : A s i a n S u r v e y 14 . (December ''End o f a n E r a . " 1974): S e m i n a r 197 A s i a n Survey 4 A D e c e n n i a l Review." 1035-1054. (January 1976): 22-28. . "The F a i l u r e o f a S y s t e m : P o l i t i c s as a P r i v a t e E n t e r p r i s e , " T i m e s o f I n d i a , (New D e l h i ) A p r i l 1 0 , 1 9 7 5 . . P o l i t i c s i n India. New D e l h i : O r i e n t Longman, 1 9 7 2 . Marx, K a r l . 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The emergency and constitutional change in India Johal, Sarbjit Singh 1977
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Title | The emergency and constitutional change in India |
Creator |
Johal, Sarbjit Singh |
Date Issued | 1977 |
Description | This study is concerned with the effect of India's state of emergency 1975-77, on the operation of the Indian Constitution. Although the state of emergency of June 26, 1975 was invoked under Article 352 of the Constitution, it represented an important break in India's constitutional and political development since 1947. Prior to 1975, India was referred to both at home and abroad as the "world's largest democracy." Her political and constitutional stability were often contrasted with other Asian and African countries where constitutional governments collapsed. During the state of emergency the government of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi proposed and passed certain amendments to the Indian Constitution. The purpose of this thesis is to examine the reasons for this constitutional revision and the nature of the amendments. The constitutional and political implications of the amendments are analyzed for political parties, government-opposition relations, executive, legislative and judicial powers, individual rights, economic and social reform and federalism. A detailed account is given of the constitutional revision debate within the Congress Party and between the government and opposition parties. In particular, the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee are analyzed. In examining the viability of constitutional government in India it is hypothesized that the Indian Constitution, as adopted on January 26, 1950, contained contradictions between its liberal democratic provisions and its emergency powers. These broad emergency powers proved antithetical to constitutional government. It is further hypothesized that the maintenance of constitutional government requires a consensus between the government and the opposition parties as to the rules of the constitutional and political system. In developing these hypotheses Kothari's model of one-party dominance and the Marxist model of class conflict are utilized. Finally, the hypotheses of the paper and the two models are reexamined in the light of the emergency period and of the constitutional and political changes that occurred under it. |
Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
Type |
Text |
Language | eng |
Date Available | 2010-02-21 |
Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
DOI | 10.14288/1.0094143 |
URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/20615 |
Degree |
Master of Arts - MA |
Program |
Political Science |
Affiliation |
Arts, Faculty of Political Science, Department of |
Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
Campus |
UBCV |
Scholarly Level | Graduate |
Aggregated Source Repository | DSpace |
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