TOWARDS A CREATIVE PROBLEM-ORIENTED APPROACH TO URBAN STUDIES by JULIA B.A., A.L. DREXEL U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1971 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS i n t h e School of Community and Regional P l a n n i n g We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming required t o the standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA December, 1974 In p r e s e n t i n g this thesis in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the requirements f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y that a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f t h i s thesis f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head o f my Department o r by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood that c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l written gain s h a l l permission. School ^ixacrttxieixix of Community and Regional The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada D a t e not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my Dec. 22, 1974 P l a n n i ng ABSTRACT The complexity, p e r v a s i v e n e s s and urgency s o c i a l and b i o p h y s i c a l problems now o f the c o n f r o n t i n g mankind present p l a n n e r s and d e c i s i o n makers a t a l l l e v e l s o f human o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h monumental c h a l l e n g e s . Un- doubtedly some o f the most c h a l l e n g i n g problems are those a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the process o f u r b a n i z a t i o n and the c i t y i t s e l f . Indeed, i t c o u l d be argued t h a t many o f our s o c i a l and b i o p h y s i c a l problems are r e l a t e d t o mankind's p e r s i s t e n t congregation i n r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l geographical areas. T h i s tends t o c o n c e n t r a t e and i n - t e n s i f y problems c o n s i d e r a b l y , c a u s i n g such b a s i c and simple a c t i v i t i e s as the p r o v i s i o n o f one's own food t o become an extremely complex problem, i n v o l v i n g v a s t and interdependent networks o f f a c t o r s such as t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , economics, waste d i s p o s a l , e t c . These are the problems t h a t c u r r e n t l y p e r p l e x urban d e c i s i o n makers . In o r d e r t o d e a l e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h our mounting urban problems, i n d i v i d u a l s must be both knowledge- a b l e about the c i t y and s e n s i t i v e t o i t s a t t r i b u t e s and i t s problems. But even more important , they must be capable o f a d d r e s s i n g these problems i n an open-minded, i n t e l l i g e n t and dynamic manner. They must not be bound by the worn out p r e s c r i p t i o n s and piecemeal approaches environmental problem t h a t have c h a r a c t e r i z e d p a s t solving. It i s this a b i l i t y , which I s h a l l r e f e r t o as 1 creative last problem s o l v i n g ' , t h a t i s most o f t e n n e g l e c t e d at a l l l e v e l s of education. me And i t i s t h i s a b i l i t y which concerns here. I b e l i e v e t h a t p r o p e r l y designed and implemented programs o f u r b a n - o r i e n t e d problem s o l v i n g tremendous importance are o f i n the e d u c a t i o n o f p r o f e s s i o n - a l s and the c i t i z e n r y at l a r g e , t o prepare them f o r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e r o l e s as urban decision-makers. While the a c t u a l d e s i g n of such programs would vary depending o f the age l e v e l and c a r e e r g o a l s o f those f o r whom they are i n t e n d e d , I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e b a s i c concepts i n v o l v e d i n an understanding of the c i t y and the e d u c a t i o n a l approach whereby these may imparted, would be much the be r e g a r d l e s s o f the context. I have t h e r e f o r e attempted t o develop i n t h i s t h e s i s , a c o n c e p t u a l framework f o r programs of u r b a n - o r i e n t e d problem s o l v i n g . From the volumes of work on problem s o l v i n g , c r e a t i v i t y and I have c r y s t a l l i z e d an education, e d u c a t i o n a l approach t o c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g which i s based on the phases of the c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g process i t s e l f . Each phase i s d i s c u s s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o the major a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d by the i n d i v i d u a l d u r i n g t h a t phase, and the e d u c a t i o n a l methods whereby those a b i l i t i e s might b e s t be developed. The applications of these methods t o urban problem s o l v i n g are illus- t r a t e d by numerous suggestions f o r a c t i v i t i e s and e x e r c i s e s which i n v o l v e s p e c i f i c urban concepts, such as t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , communication and urban growth. I have g e n e r a l l y addressed myself, i n these s u g g e s t i o n s , to a secondary school l e v e l of education. However, it should not be d i f f i c u l t f o r an experienced to adapt the i d e a s presented t o e i t h e r lower o f h i g h e r teacher l e v e l s of education. I t i s hoped t h a t these i d e a s w i l l generate i n c r e a s e d i d e a t i o n and a c t i v i t y a t a l l l e v e l s o f educat i o n , and i n p a r t i c u l a r a t the u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l , where tomorrow's urban d e c i s i o n makers a r e now e n r o l l e d i n schools Design. o f P l a n n i n g , A r c h i t e c t u r e , and Environmental CONTENTS ABSTRACT Page i CONTENTS Page v LIST OF TABLES Page vi LIST OF FIGURES Page vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page ix INTRODUCTION Problem Statement Page D e f i n i t i o n o f Problem S o l v i n g and C r e a t i v i t y Page 8 Format Page 14 Introduction Page 16 Problem D e f i n i t i o n Page 25 Information Page 34 CREATIVE URBAN PROBLEM SOLVING: TEACHING THE PROCESS Idea Gathering 38 Generation Page 49 Page 54 Page 60 Page 67 Page 74 BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 80 APPENDIX I : ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ADDITIONAL REFERENCES ON THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT Page 92 APPENDIX I I : ORGANIZATIONS SIMULATION GAMES Page 101 Incubation and I l l u m i n a t i o n Refinement Communication SUMMARY AND and E v a l u a t i o n CONCLUSION FOOTNOTES FOR LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Summary T a b l e Page LIST OF FIGURES F i g u r e 1: SOUND Page 18 Figure 2: WALL Page 21 F i g u r e 3: TIME Page 21 F i g u r e 4: URBAN SURVIVAL Page 28 F i g u r e 5: USES FOR THINGS Page 31 F i g u r e 6: TRANSPORTATION Page 33 F i g u r e 7: MAPPING Page 36 F i g u r e 8: RE-USE Page 41 F i g u r e 9: URBAN GAMES Page 44 F i g u r e 10: GROWTH Page 47a F i g u r e 11: LEARNING SPACE Page 53 F i g u r e 12: WHAT IF...? Page 57 F i g u r e 13: PEOPLE IN THE CITY Page 58 F i g u r e 14: COMMUNICATION Page 62 F i g u r e 15: URBAN GLOSSARY Page 65 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would l i k e t o thank my a d v i s o r , Dr. W. E. Rees f o r h i s i n v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e and support the w r i t i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s . thank Mr. W.W. during I would a l s o l i k e t o Wood, from the School o f A r c h i t e c t u r e f o r h i s patience and i n s p i r a t i o n . I b e l i e v e t h a t e d u c a t i o n i s the fundamental method o f s o c i a l change. Bruner, 1962, p.125 INTRODUCTION Problem Statement We are l i v i n g i n a p e r i o d o f g r e a t s o c i a l c r i s i s — d o m e s t i c a l l y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y — a c r i s i s t h a t i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o i g n o r e . I t used t o be t h a t most o f us were a b l e t o 'tune out' r a t h e r e a s i l y whenever we were too depressed by the s o c i a l dilemmas o f our time. ...Those times o f a l o u g h i n g o f f the problem or blaming others f o r i t seem t o have gone f o r e v e r . There are fewer and fewer p l a c e s t o h i d e . (1) I t seems t h a t mankind i s always i n a 'period o f crisis'. Wars, d e p r e s s i o n s , famines, and plagues ure prominently i n a l l h i s t o r i c a l accounts o f fig- man. The c u r r e n t s o c i a l and environmental c r i s i s , m a n i f e s t i n world wide p o l i t i c a l upheaval, r e s o u r c e s h o r t a g e s , and mounting problems o f p o l l u t i o n and environmental d e g r e d a t i o n i s , however, o f p a r t i c u l a r significance. 2 T h i s i s not because i t i s n e c e s s a r i l y any more s e r i o u s than p r e v i o u s c r i s e s , but because i t i s o c c u r r i n g a t a time when e x t e n s i v e and e f f i c i e n t communications systems have v i r t u a l l y f o r c e d l a r g e numbers o f people t o become aware o f t h e c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n . T h e i r aware- ness i s r e f l e c t e d , a t the l o c a l l e v e l , i n such a c t i v i t i e s as ' p a r t i c i p a t o r y p l a n n i n g * which a l l o w s i n d i v i d u a l c i t i z e n s t o become i n v o l v e d i n t h e d e c i s i o n making a c t i v i t i e s which a f f e c t t h e i r urban and r e g i o n a l 2 environments. Because such a l a r g e percentage o f our n a t i o n a l population l i v e s i n urban a r e a s , the c i t y has become a major f o c u s o f p l a n n i n g and d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a c t i v i ties. I t s s o c i a l and p h y s i c a l development and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the r e s t o f the environment are a major concern o f p l a n n e r s today. But i t has become increasingly c l e a r that i f e f f e c t i v e solutions t o urban problems are t o be found and i f c i t i z e n s a r e t o have a meaningful r o l e i n urban p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a c t i v i t i e s , both p r o f e s s i o n a l s and c i t i z e n s must become more knowledgeable about and more s e n s i t i v e t o the city. They must furthermore become more capable o f d e a l i n g w i t h i t s problems i n an open-minded and dynamic manner. The need f o r programs o f e d u c a t i o n t o h e i g h t e n p u b l i c awareness o f broad environmental i s s u e s and problems was h e a v i l y s t r e s s e d i n the l a t e 1960's by environmentalists such as Menesini: Our environment and i t s r e s o u r c e s are a major concern o f mankind today. That concern can be v o i c e d , l e g i s l a t e d f o r , and e x e r c i s e d , but the one most p o s i t i v e means f o r c r e a t i n g concern f o r — and i n t e l l i g e n t management o f — our world i s through the environmental e d u c a t i o n of those who w i l l i n h e r i t i t . (4) These authors r e p e a t e d l y expressed concern over the d e a r t h o f e d u c a t i o n a l programs d e a l i n g w i t h the n a t u r a l environment and the problems o f r e s o u r c e a l - l o c a t i o n , c o n s e r v a t i o n , and p o l l u t i o n . of them 5 Indeed, many developed programs o f 'environmental t i o n ' which s t r e s s e d a p r o b l e m - o r i e n t e d and d i s c i p l i n a r y approach the student's more a c t i v e involvement i n environmental issues. example, 'Outward Bound' programs have been i n t e g r a t e d i n t o many h i g h s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a . are inter- and e x t e n s i v e use o f the f i e l d t r i p method i n o r d e r t o encourage For educa- These i n t e n d e d t o h e i g h t e n the s t u d e n t ' s understanding of the n a t u r a l environment by i n v o l v i n g him i n dynamic and c h a l l e n g i n g w i l d e r n e s s o r semi-wilderness experiences which demand h i s a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s : he must l e a r n i n order t o survive. At the same time, educators and others concerned g w i t h urban problems made a s t r o n g p l e a f o r the dev- elopment of e d u c a t i o n a l programs, e s p e c i a l l y a t the elementary and secondary l e v e l , which would d e a l w i t h the c i t y and i t s problems: S o c i a l s t u d i e s programs...either i g n o r e c i t i e s and urban l i f e , o r they s t r e s s the f a i l u r e s o f the c i t y and support the r u r a l values of the p a s t . There are h a r d l y any t e a c h i n g programs a v a i l a b l e today t h a t take a p o s i t i v e and p a r t i c i p a t o r y view o f urban l i v i n g and the urban environment o r d e a l c o n s t r u c t i v e l y w i t h p l a n n i n g and change. C i t i e s , the very environment o f urban s c h o o l s , don't seem t o e x i s t i n s i d e o f the classroom as a t o p i c o f d i s c u s s i o n . Yet they shape the l i f e o f every p u p i l and every t e a c h e r i n the s c h o o l . (7) In response, were developed a number of u r b a n - o r i e n t e d programs t o meet the demand. U n f o r t u n a t e l y many o f these programs f a i l t o d e a l w i t h urban i s s u e s i n the dynamic and c h a l l e n g i n g manner t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s the e c o l o g i c a l l y o r i e n t e d programs. According to Ward, urban programs o f t e n s u f f e r from b e i n g . . . d e s c r i p t i v e and s t a t i c , r a t h e r than problem-oriented and dynamic. Even when t h e i n t e n t i o n s are e n l i g h t e n e d , the r e s u l t i s o f t e n wooden and f a c t - s t u f f e d , w i t h l i t t l e f e e l i n g f o r the drama o f c h o i c e and change. Urban s t u d i e s programs have tended t o make l e s s o f the f i e l d t r i p method, perhaps on the t h a t because students use assumption l i v e i n the c i t y and experience i t d a i l y , they need not be d i r e c t l y exposed t o i t i n the e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . Thus urban s t u d i e s have g e n e r a l l y s t r e s s e d the student's courses theoretical knowledge of the c i t y , r e l y i n g on textbook information t o broaden h i s knowledge. T h i s i s e q u a l l y t r u e a t the u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l , i n Schools o f P l a n n i n g , A r c h i t e c t u r e , and Environmental Design, as i t i s a t the h i g h s c h o o l l e v e l . Professors Q and p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n these f i e l d s have r e p e a t e d l y c a l l e d f o r more problem-oriented and dynamic programs which w i l l c h a l l e n g e and e x c i t e both students and teachers. In response t o t h i s need, I have attempted t o deve l o p , from the l i t e r a t u r e i n the f i e l d s o f problem 6. s o l v i n g , c r e a t i v i t y , e d u c a t i o n , and the urban e n v i r o n ment, a c o n c e p t u a l framework from which one might d e s i g n programs of c r e a t i v e problem-oriented urban s t u d i e s a t any l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n . In the f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n , Jerome B r u n e r prominent among those educators who 1 0 is stress a s e l f - d i r e c t e d and problem-oriented approach t o e d u c a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o Bruner i t i s o n l y through the ' e x e r c i s e of problem s o l v i n g ' t h a t one l e a r n s how S i m i l a r l y , Torrance 12 and K o e s t l e r to l e a r n . 13 1 1 have e x e r t e d a major i n f l u e n c e on the f i e l d o f c r e a t i v i t y . While Torrance c o n c e n t r a t e s on the e d u c a t i o n a l aspects of c r e a t i v i t y , d e v e l o p i n g e x e r c i s e s and t e s t s f o r use i n the classroom, K o e s t l e r ' s work i s more r h e t o r i c a l , attempting t o e x p l a i n the phenomenon o f the act'. Both authors s t r e s s the r o l e o f the 'creative subconscious mind i n c r e a t i v i t y and the i m p o r t a n c e of r e l a x i n g one's c o n s c i o u s c o n t r o l o f the thought process when attempting t o c o n s i d e r problems c r e a t i v e l y . T h i s ap- p a r e n t l y allows thought m a t e r i a l t o pass i n t o the subconscious mind, which r e o r g a n i z e s and r e s t r u c t u r e s the m a t e r i a l , f i n a l l y forming i t i n t o a unique whole which i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the and n o v e l solution. 7. T h i s spontaneous r e s t r u c t u r a t i o n i s a l s o s t r e s s e d i n the works o f Moore S Gay 14 and K a r l Duncker 15 , who are p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h the process o f problem solving. While Moore and Gay c o n c e n t r a t e on the de- s c r i p t i o n o f the v a r i o u s phases o f the problem s o l v i n g process and the a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d by an i n d i v i d u a l at each s t a g e , Duncker i s concerned w i t h the o v e r a l l nature o f the p r o c e s s . He emphasizes the importance o f mental e l a s t i c i t y and openness as p r e r e q u i s i t e s t o c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g . I n terms o f urban e d u c a t i o n o r urban s t u d i e s I tended t o r e l y , f o r the m a j o r i t y o f my i d e a s , on t h e works which r e f l e c t e d the a t t i t u d e s and ideas d i s c u s s e d above. These i n c l u d e d books by Jones 18 Warren , Symonds 17 , 19 , and Wurman , a l l o f which attempt t o i n - volve the s t u d e n t i n dynamic programs tion. 16 o f urban educa- But whereas these authors have g e n e r a l l y addressed themselves t o p a r t i c u l a r urban i s s u e s and problems and t o s p e c i f i c audiences (eg. elementary school students, professionals, e t c . ) , I intend to d e v i s e a more g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e approach t o c r e a t i v e p r o b l e m - o i i e n t e d urban s t u d i e s t h a t can be a p p l i e d t o the study o f a wide range o f i s s u e s and problems t h a t can be u t i l i z e d a t any l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n . and 8 D e f i n i t i o n o f Problem S o l v i n g and C r e a t i v i t y 20 Authors i n the f i e l d s o f problem s o l v i n g and 21 creativity share an i n t e r e s t i n t h e dynamics o f human thought, and i n p a r t i c u l a r g o a l - d i r e c t e d thought. I n t h i s process t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s attempting t o r e a c h , through the m a n i p u l a t i o n o f ideas and i n f o r mation, a d e s i r e d o b j e c t i v e . is called This kind o f thinking 'problem s o l v i n g ' , where the problem l i e s 22 i n how t o a t t a i n the d e s i r e d g o a l . Problem s o l v i n g per se i s c u r r e n t l y undergoing e x t e n s i v e research, however many s t u d i e s have a l s o been c a r r i e d out on the nature o f the 'product' ( o r s o l u t i o n ) o f t h e p r o c e s s , the a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d by an i n d i v i d u a l engaging i n the p r o c e s s , t h e e d u c a t i o n a l methods whereby these a b i l i t i e s might be developed, and the environment most conducive t o the occurrence o f the p r o c e s s . I t i s g e n e r a l l y agreed t h a t the problem s o l v i n g 23 process i n c l u d e s f o u r b a s i c phases: 1. Problem D e f i n i t i o n T h i s phase i n v o l v e s t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e problem and the establishment o f a context o r frame o f r e f e r e n c e w i t h i n which i t w i l l be s t u d i e d . 2. Information Gathering This phase involves the c o l l e c t i o n and analysis of information deemed relevant to the problem. In addition the problem solver reviews the range of possible strategies or approaches which might best s u i t the p a r t i c u l a r problem. 3. Solution Finding In t h i s phase the problem solver decides on the appropriate strategy or approach, applies i t to the problem, and thereby achieves a preliminary solution to the problem. This solution i s then refined and modified to insure that a l l of the problem variables have been adequately resolved. **• Communication 6 Evaluation This phase involves the communication of the refined s o l u t i o n to an outside audience. The problem solver chooses an appropriate mode of communication (eg. graphic, verbal, e t c . ) , attempting to maximize the p o t e n t i a l impact of his ideas. The communication phase may also include evaluation of the solution, e i t h e r by the problem solver himself, or by external critics. Depending on the nature of both the problem and the i n d i v i d u a l problem solver, t h i s basic process be considerably a l t e r e d . may For example, c e r t a i n tech- n i c a l problems such as those encountered i n the f i e l d s of mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc., might best be approached by a p a r t i c u l a r theorem or p r i n c i p l e which then tends t o dominate t h e problem s o l v i n g activity. Thus the p r i n c i p l e s o f l i n e a r a l g e b r a are a p p l i e d t o a whole c l a s s o f mathematical problems which would otherwise r e q u i r e r a t h e r t e d i o u s and c i r c u i t o u s methods o f s o l u t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , these problems tend t o have unique s o l u t i o n s . That i s , they are not 'open ended' and the problem s o l v i n g a c t i v i t y may specific be h i g h l y l i n e a r , working towards a objective. S i m i l a r l y , an i n d i v i d u a l might be more d i s p o s e d t o p r e c i s e a n a l y t i c a l t h i n k i n g than t o i m a g i n a t i v e ordivergent thinking. He might t h e r e f o r e tend t o c o n c e n t r a t e , f o r example, on the p r e c i s e articulation and d e f i n i t i o n o f a given problem than on the c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e p e r c e p t i o n s and conceptions o f the problem. Indeed these two f a c t o r s the nature o f the problem and the thought p a t t e r n s o f the problem s o l v e r — the serve t o i d e n t i f y or d e f i n e 'kind' o f problem s o l v i n g process t h a t i s o c c u r r i n g . In t h i s paper I am concerned w i t h urban problems which are u s u a l l y o f a complex and open-ended n a t u r e , i n v o l v i n g both h i g h l y t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n and inter- r e l a t e d i s s u e s which defy easy s o l u t i o n . I n this k i n d o f problem s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e may be any number o f appropriate approaches and ' s o l u t i o n s ' , thus ' c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g ' becomes p a r t i c u l a r l y important. Whereas t h e more t r a d i t i o n a l problem s o l v i n g tend t o e s t a b l i s h a f a i r l y r i g i d processes frame o f r e f e r e n c e f o r any given problem and then proceed t o c o n s i d e r the problem w i t h i n t h a t context only, ' c r e a t i v e ' problem s o l v i n g tends t o a p p r e c i a t e the openness o f t h e problem proceeding with a less r e s t r i c t i v e consideration of the v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s which might be app l i e d t o the problem. C r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e same a t t r i b u t e s as t h e c r e a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l — non-conforming i t is ( i e . i t v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e problem b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d ) , c o n t a i n s a c t i v e subconscious and imaginative elements ( i e . i t appears t o be more i n - t u i t i v e than l o g i c a l ) , and tends t o produce unique 25 o r novel i d e a s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y ap- p l i c a b l e t o complex and open-ended urban problems which c e r t a i n l y m e r i t a p r o b l e m - s p e c i f i c and imaginat i v e approach and a s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e methods o f s o l u t i o n . Many r e s e a r c h e r s have s t u d i e d the workings o f the mind d u r i n g problem s o l v i n g , attempting stand how and why some processes c r e a t i v e than o t h e r s . t o under- appear t o be more One o f t h e i r s t r o n g e s t s i o n s i s t h a t t h e process conclu- o f c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g i n v o l v e s , more than t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o c e s s , t h e powers 27 o f the subconscious mind and t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . In- deed many r e s e a r c h e r s b e l i e v e t h a t the subconscious may be b e t t e r a b l e t o r e t a i n , a n a l y z e , and o r g a n i z e thought m a t e r i a l more e f f i c i e n t l y than the conscious 28 mind. However s i n c e so l i t t l e i s definitively known about the subconscious mind, t h e exact nature of i t s r o l e i s s t i l l speculative. While i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t the subconscious mind has some i n p u t d u r i n g a l l phases o f the problem s o l v i n g 29 process, i t i s b e l i e v e d that i t s greatest contribution comes d i r e c t l y a f t e r the phases o f i n f o r m a t i o n and i d e a g e n e r a t i o n , thus modifying as f o l l o w s : 3. Problem D e f i n i t i o n (as p r e v i o u s l y defined) the b a s i c gathering process 2. Information Gathering (as p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d ) 3. Idea Generation T h i s phase i n v o l v e s the conscious generat i o n o f as many ideas as p o s s i b l e r e g a r d i n g the s o l u t i o n s o f the problem. I n c u b a t i o n and Illumination T h i s phase i n v o l v e s subconscious mental a c t i v i t y and culminates i n a sudden r e v e l a t i o n of a conceptual s o l u t i o n to the problem. 5. Refinement In t h i s phase, the c o n c e p t u a l s o l u t i o n p r o v i d e d by the subconscious mind i s m o d i f i e d and r e f i n e d t o s u i t the o r i g i n a l problem c o n d i t i o n s . 6. Communication and E v a l u a t i o n (as p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d ) In the ' c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g p r o c e s s ' then, the t h i r d phase — 'solution finding' — o f the more t r a d i t i o n a l problem s o l v i n g process i s expanded i n t o t h r e e separate stages which d i s t i n g u i s h the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f the conscious and subconscious minds d u r i n g t h i s phase. In attempting t o teach the c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g p r o c e s s , one must c o n s i d e r the a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d by an i n d i v i d u a l engaging i n the p r o c e s s , the e d u c a t i o n a l methods through which these a b i l i t i e s may developed, b e s t be and the e d u c a t i o n a l atmosphere most condu- c i v e t o t h e i r development. I t i s the b e l i e f o f many 30 educators t h a t the most e f f e c t i v e method o f l e a r n i n g a process i s through d i r e c t experience o f i t . It t h e r e f o r e f o l l o w s t h a t the most e f f e c t i v e method o f t e a c h i n g a process i s through the f a c i l i t a t i o n o f t h i s experience. The t e a c h e r , i n t h i s c o n t e x t , assumes a more p a s s i v e r o l e , g u i d i n g the student through the s e l f - i n i t i a t e d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g process by h e l p i n g him 31 t o develop the necessary abilities. Format From these i d e a s on problem s o l v i n g , creativity, and e d u c a t i o n , I i n t e n d t o develop a number o f suggest i o n s r e g a r d i n g the d e s i g n o f programs of creative problem-oriented urban s t u d i e s . My d i s c u s s i o n w i l l focus on the e d u c a t i o n a l methods and techniques which might be used t o enhance the student's c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g a b i l i t i e s i n the urban realm. I n keeping w i t h the e x p e r i e n t i a l approach t o e d u c a t i o n , I w i l l d i s c u s s these a b i l i t i e s and methods i n the approximate o r d e r t h a t they are r e q u i r e d by the student as he through the problem s o l v i n g p r o c e s s . progresses However i t w i l l become e v i d e n t , d u r i n g t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , t h a t a l l o f the a b i l i t i e s are r e q u i r e d , t o some e x t e n t , the p r o c e s s , and furthermore completely or f u l l y developed throughout that, none o f them may i n the course o f a problem s o l v i n g e x e r c i s e s , but w i l l develop be few incremen- t a l l y over the course o f a l i f e t i m e o f problem s o l v i n g . N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s my ability c o n t e n t i o n t h a t the student's t o u t l i z e the c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g pro- cess w i l l be g r e a t l y enhanced i f he i s encouraged t o develop the b a s i c s k i l l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each phase of the process as they are r e q u i r e d . Thus each ex- p e r i e n c i n g o f the process enhances the student's to u t i l i z e i t e f f e c t i v e l y . ability CREATIVE URBAN-ORIENTED PROBLEM SOLVING: TEACHING THE PROCESS Introduction Before he can engage m e a n i n g f u l l y i n the c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g p r o c e s s , the i n d i v i d u a l must a c q u i r e some background knowledge i n the f i e l d o f h i s endea32 vour. In the c o n t e x t o f s o l v i n g urban problems ( o r 'urban problem s o l v i n g ' ) then, the i n d i v i d u a l must become aware o f the ' c i t y ' as a s o c i a l and p h y s i c a l phenomenon and as the s p e c i f i c environment i n which he l i v e s . He must develop h i s p e r c e p t u a l and o b j e c t i v e knowledge o f the c i t y . awareness At t h e same 33 time, the i n d i v i d u a l must become more self-aware , more s e n s i t i v e t o h i s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h the urban environment — how he p e r c e i v e s , r e a c t s t o , and i n - f l u e n c e s the c i t y as w e l l as how influences him. i t r e a c t s t o and To develop t h i s g e n e r a l awareness of the city, the i n d i v i d u a l should p a r t i c i p a t e i n experiences which i n v o l v e not o n l y an e x p l o r a t i o n o f the c i t y , but an e x p l o r a t i o n o f s e l f . also On the f o l l o w i n g pages are suggestions f o r t h r e e ' s e n s i t i c i t y ' e x e r c i s e s which might be designed t o achieve t h i s g o a l . The f i r s t o f t h e s e , 'SOUND' (see F i g u r e 1) i s i n t e n d e d t o s h i f t the student's awareness o f the city from one t h a t i s v i s u a l l y dominated t o one t h a t i s a u d i t o r i a l y dominated. 'sounding' and The suggestions l i s t e d under ' n o i s e ' ( i n F i g u r e 1) encourage the student t o venture i n t o the urban environment, t o experience i t , and t o i n t e r a c t w i t h i t , on a l e v e l o f awareness. ing', 'sound', and Those under 'hearing', new 'listen- 'music* encourage the student t o use h i s i m a g i n a t i o n , t o be more a r e a t i v e i n h i s thinking. E x e r c i s e s designed around these i d e a s should attempt t o develop not o n l y the student's knowledge of the nature o f sound and i t s r o l e i n the c i t y , but a l s o the v a r i o u s i n f l u e n c e s t h a t sound has on urban man. For example, student might be encouraged t o e x p l o r e the r e l a t i o n s h i p between constant background se MOB NEBMIffc f i n d o u t a l l y o u can a b o u t ' e a r s ' .... then d e s i g n an 'urban e a r ' f o r p e o p l e who l i v e i n t h e urb...make a s c a l e model o f y o u r ' u r b e a r ' ...! LISTENIM6 Sauitft what i s t h e sound o f : design: a b u i l d i n g piercing the 1. a new a n d unus k y ? t h e sun as i t r i s e s s u a l sound over the city? t h e 2. a t h i n g t o c i t y growing? suburbia? e l i c i t that sound try to reconstruct your c i t y t h r o u g h sound: g e t e v e r y o n e t o go t o a d i f f e r ent p l a c e i n t h e c i t y and r e c o r d t h e sounds o f t h a t place, then.... 1. t r y t o i d e n t i f y t h e p l a c e s by sound -- make a 'sound map' o f y o u r c i t y , u s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e symbols 2. by e d i t i n g and j o i n i n g the v a r i o u s t a p e s , compose an 'urban sound symphony' around a theme s u c h a s -'urbasia' 'wrecker's r o c k ' '3pm t o 5pm '2120 A.D.' 'silence' go o u t i n t o t h e c i t y and e x p e r i m e n t w i t h sound... try yelling, whispering, whistling, singing... i n . . .an open p l a z a , a t a h i g h r i s e , i n a cement p a r k i n g l o t , t o a lamppost, i n a c l o s e t , i n someone's e a r . . . . ! try to determine the nature o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r i v a c y and sound... 1 tpmimmi *~V=> C7 £yJ(Z.WOO JtofSlC i f a l l o f the bu" d i n g s on t h e mair street o f your c were m u s i c a l notf what song would 1 street play? i f y o u were a mus cal instrument, which one would y be? ....why? n o i s e s , such as t r a f f i c , c o n s t r u c t i o n n o i s e , e t c . , and p h s i c a l f a t i g u e : which areas o f the c i t y do people f i n d most t i r i n g , and what r o l e does n o i s e in this effect? In e x p l o r i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n , might c o n s t r u c t a three dimensional play students 'soundscape' map of t h e c i t y , showing the r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t i e s o f sounds at various places i n the c i t y . An e x e r c i s e on sound might be designed t o p r o v i d e the student with the o p p o r t u n i t y t o experiment with v a r i o u s k i n d 3 o f t e c h n i c a l equipment f o r t h e measurement, p r o d u c t i o n , and r e c o r d i n g o f sound and with d i f f e r e n t kinds o f v e r b a l and non-verbal communication. Again the suggestions l i s t e d under 'noise' i n F i g u r e 1 might be u t i l i z e d t o achieve these o b j e c t i v e s . E x e r c i s e s f o c u s s i n g on t h e sense o f t o u c h , s m e l l , t a s t e , and s i g h t c o u l d s i m i l a r l y be developed. e x e r c i s e s should i n c o r p o r a t e as many aspects sense as p o s s i b l e , prompting the student These o f each t o explore s e v e r a l avenues, t o broaden h i s knowledge base. It might be i n t e r e s t i n g t o c o n s t r u c t a s e r i e s o f o v e r l a y maps (one f o r each sense) t o d e s c r i b e the sensory environment o f t h e c i t y . The second s e t o f s u g g e s t i o n s (see F i g u r e 2) i s i n t e n d e d t o focus t h e student's a t t e n t i o n on one e l e ment o f the c i t y — i n t h i s case the ' w a l l ' — which he has probably n o t c o n s i d e r e d s e r i o u s l y b e f o r e . I t attempts t o i n t r o d u c e the student t o t h e many d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f experience i n v o l v e d i n t h e concept o f 'wall* by r e q u e s t i n g him t o contemplate a wall?' The student s h o u l d be encouraged about a l l kinds o f w a l l s — personal walls — t o think p h y s i c a l , s o c i a l and as w e l l as t h e i r uses — c o n t a i n e r s , and o b j e t s d ' a r t . for 'wallness': 'What i s as b a r r i e r s , An i n t e r e s t i n g p r o j e c t one o r two students might i n v o l v e a study o f t h e h i s t o r y o f walls i n c i v i l i z a t i o n . they b u i l t ? How and why were How have they developed over t h e ages? Students might even t r y changing t h e appearance and/or the f u n c t i o n o f one o f t h e w a l l s i n t h e i r classroom. In d o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e concept o f ' w a l l ' , v a r i o u s r e l a t e d concepts such as space, p r i v a c y , containment, and punishment might be d i s c u s s e d . try Students might t o d e s i g n a p r i s o n without w a l l s 1 Once a g a i n the student should be encouraged t o venture out i n t o the urban environment and t o i n t e r a c t 21, <3? G2) « 3? with i t , d i s c o v e r i n g as much about h i m s e l f as he does about h i s c i t y . Thus, as i n the suggestions i n F i g u r e 1, t h e student might be requested the m u l t i t u d e o f w a l l s i n h i s c i t y t o explore (perhaps r e c o r d i n g h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s with a camera o r pen and i n k ) , and then t o d e s i g n a w a l l f o r h i m s e l f which b e s t reflects h i s p e r s o n a l i t y and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h i s e x t e r n a l environment. S i m i l a r e x e r c i s e s might be designed around concepts such as windows, r o o f - t o p s , edges, chimneys, r e f l e c t i o n s bridges, etc. Because each o f these concepts has some p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n i n t h e c i t y the student can exp e r i e n c e them d i r e c t l y and c o n c r e t e l y , thereby a deeper understanding o f t h e i r nature More a b s t r a c t concepts — s i t y , change, e t c . — stand. gaining and s i g n i f i c a n c e . such as time, space, den- a r e much more d i f f i c u l t t o under- They have only i n d i r e c t p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , y e t they a r e o f c r u c i a l importance t o t h e c i t y . This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f time, which i s such an import a n t f a c t o r i n any c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the c i t y . The student exercises should be exposed, through a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e h o u r l y , d a i l y , and seasonal changes which occur i n the c i t y . Photographs o r drawings o f some p a r t i c u l a r 23. place i n the c i t y at various times of the day or year might be displayed as a mural or collage. In addition, the c i t y ' s influence on our notion of time should be explored: why do we f e e l rushed when we are i n the downtown core? how does a windowless environment a f f e c t our sense of the passage of time? And of course the long-term influence of time on the c i t y must also be studied, the physical and s o c i a l changes that have taken place over the history of the c i t y , the changes that are l i k e l y to take place i n years to come. I t i s t h i s issue which i s addressed i n the poem i n Figure 3 , 'TIME'. The student i s r e - quested to explore h i s urban environment f o r vestiges of times gone by — o l d landmarks, a wooden paving stone showing through the ashphalt — and to attempt to recreate i n h i s imagination what might once have been there and what might be there i n the future. The value of such s e n s i t i c i t y exercises i s that they may be undertaken on a number of d i f f e r e n t levels from the physical or perceptual l e v e l through to the c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l l e v e l . In addition, they may be used to develop such s p e c i f i c s k i l l s as mapping, sketching, photography, etc., as well as a b i l i t i e s i n 24 KE passage, of-kms. re-ueak fWlf •^ne SUYL -fcVve. mooyi tir\£ t i d i e r ars a l l -time's rnixiums tlr\s passage. o9~tuAas toWcdb is - t h e urban c l o c k s Lfid on wboua c ghosV — ecomt a a ubfbarb clock. Figure TIME 3 the communication and p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i d e a s . the student has been Once ' i n t r o d u c e d ' t o the c i t y , he i s b e t t e r able t o engage i n urban problem s o l v i n g activities. These b e g i n w i t h problem d e f i n i t i o n . Problem D e f i n i t i o n As the i n d i v i d u a l e x p l o r e s t h e urban environment, he w i l l encounter s i t u a t i o n s which he f i n d s ing or 'problematical'. disturb- Hopefully h i s previous i n - volvement i n urban e x p e r i e n c e s w i l l prompt him t o c o n s i d e r these s i t u a t i o n s more c a r e f u l l y , t o t r y t o r e s o l v e them. I n t h i s endeavour the i n d i v i d u a l ' s f i r s t task i s t o i d e n t i f y the problem — to establish i t s c o n t e x t , i t s scope, and i t s complexity o r depth to d e f i n e the problem. — Quite o b v i o u s l y t h i s t a s k demands the use o f r e a s o n : the i n d i v i d u a l must analyze and e v a l u a t e the s i t u a t i o n , d i s c r i m i n a t i n g between r e l e v e n t and i r r e l e v e n t i n f o r m a t i o n , i n o r d e r t o come up w i t h a l o g i c a l and comprehensive problem statement. But a p a r t from the a b i l i t y t o reason, the c r e a t i v e problem s o l v e r r e q u i r e s two a d d i t i o n a l a b i l i t i e s : a t o l e r a n c e o f ambiguity 34 and ' c o g n i t i v e f l e x i b i l i t y ' 35 A c c o r d i n g t o the poet K e a t s , an i n d i v i d u a l ' s 0 0 a b i l i t y t o t o l e r a t e ambiguity may be d e s c r i b e d as a 'negative c a p a b i l i t y : he e x p e r i e n c e s 1 'uncertainties, mysteries [and] doubts, without any i r r i t a b l e r e a c h i n g a f t e r f a c t and r e a s o n . ' the advantage I n c h a o t i c problem situations, of this c a p a b i l i t y i s evident. an i n s e c u r e i n d i v i d u a l tends t o i n h i b i t the Whereas problem s o l v i n g process by imposing a premature s t r u c t u r e on the s i t u a t i o n ( t o p r o v i d e s e c u r i t y ) , a more t o l e r ant i n d i v i d u a l r e f r a i n s from imposing a s t r u c t u r e and thus 'keeps the problem open'. I n o r d e r t o take advantage o f t h i s openness, the c r e a t i v e problem s o l v e r must a l s o possess flexibilty'. 'cognitive This refers to h i s a b i l i t y to perceive a s i t u a t i o n from a v a r i e t y o f mental p e r s p e c t i v e s and t o s h i f t q u i c k l y from the c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f one 37 t i v e t o another. perspec- 38 I t i s believed t h a t the i n d i v i - dual's c o g n i t i v e f l e x i b i l i t y d u r i n g problem definition i s o f c r u c i a l importance t o the o v e r a l l c r e a t i v i t y o f t h e ensuing problem s o l v i n g a c t i v i t y . I f the i n d i v i d u a l i s a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h , from the o u t s e t , a wide v a r i e t y o f p e r s p e c t i v e s on the problem, he w i l l l i k e l y be a b l e t o generate more i d e a s towards i t s s o l u t i o n a t a l a t e r stage i n the p r o c e s s . It is my contention that the student's tolerance of ambiguity may best be developed by confronting him 39 with complex and challenging situations. These must be structured in such a way that they do not overwhelm and intimidate the student, but rather stimulate his interest and involvement, thereby facilitating the development of his ability to tolerate ambiguous problem situations. For example, an older high school or university student might be asked to 'survive' in the city for a given period of time and with a limited amount of money (see Figure 4, 'URBAN SURVIVAL'). No additional instructions need to be given, and no specific problem or project need be assigned. Thus the student must deal with both a complex and perhaps c confusing physical and social situation (the unknown environment) and an ambiguous problem assignment (to survive). Depending on a teacher's educational ob- jectives and the environment involved, an 'urban survival' exercise might be developed to suit almost any group of students. Even youngsters could be left, perhaps in pairs, in strange urban environments (such as a department store, an unknown suburb, etc.) for short periods of time. 28. An i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n which might be c o n s i d e r e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h urban s u r v i v a l i s what similarities and d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t between urban and w i l d e r n e s s s u r v i v a l : what are the i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r i o r i t i e s i n each situation? The t e a c h e r may a l s o wish t o have h i s s t u - dents c o n s i d e r s u r v i v a l as a way o f l i f e , t o compare i t w i t h the more decadent and l u x u r i o u s l i f e s t y l e s l i v e d i n v a r i o u s o t h e r p a r t s o f the c i t y . Or students might e x p l o r e the concept o f s u r v i v a l from the viewp o i n t o f the e n t i r e c i t y : how does the c i t y ' s u r v i v e ' ? where does i t s food and water come from? where does i t s waste go? A number o f e x e r c i s e s have been developed to un enhance the i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o g n i t i v e f l e x i b i l i t y . The ' f i g u r e completion' e x e r c i s e , developed by Torrance , r e q u i r e s the student t o complete a g r a p h i c o r w r i t t e n i d e a (eg. a f i g u r e , s t o r y , poem, e t c . ) i n as many d i f f e r e n t ways as p o s s i b l e . For example, a sheet o f paper p r i n t e d w i t h 30 i d e n t i c a l c i r c l e s might be i s s u e d to the student w i t h the i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t he make these c i r c l e s i n t o a3 many d i f f e r e n t and should original urban forms as he can t h i n k o f (eg. a p a r k i n g meter, stop s i g n , s t r e e t l i g h t , e t c . ) . Or the student might be asked t o p r o v i d e a n o v e l c o n c l u s i o n t o an incomplete poem o r s t o r y about some urban i n c i d e n t o r phenomenon (eg. the d e s c r i p t i o n o f a c i t y i n 2050 A.D.). S i m i l a r l y Torrance's 'uses f o r t h i n g s ' e x e r c i s e r e q u i r e s t h e student t o suggest as many o r i g i n a l uses as p o s s i b l e f o r an o r d i n a r y o b j e c t such as a t i n can, a brick, a paper-clip, etc. As i n t h e sample suggested e x e r c i s e s on the f o l l o w i n g page (see F i g u r e 5, 'USES FOR THINGS'), an urban s t u d i e s c l a s s might c o n s i d e r the range o f p o s s i b l e uses f o r empty p a r k i n g l o t s , t h e spaces under b r i d g e s , r o o f - t o p s , o l d telephone poles, etc. Both f i g u r e completion' and 'uses f o r t h i n g s ' pro- mote c o g n i t i v e f l e x i b i l i t y by r e q u i r i n g the student t o p e r c e i v e the same p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n from a variety of perspectives. They a r e g e n e r a l l y intended as s h o r t (15 t o 30 minute) mental warm-ups, t o be used a t frequent i n t e r v a l s d u r i n g t h e problem s o l v i n g process and e s p c i a l l y d u r i n g the e a r l y phases o f problem d e f i n i t i o n and i d e a The student's generation. a b i l i t i e s i n problem d e f i n i t i o n may a l s o be developed simply by r e q u e s t i n g him t o c o n s i d e r OaO6 aoo ooo tAcK such complex urban i s s u e s as t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , housing, p o v e r t y , and zoning. While problems abound i n a l l of these a r e a s , i t i s o f t e n extremely d i f f i c u l t to d e f i n e a problem because there are so many f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n each i s s u e . This becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y apparent as one the v a r i o u s aspects o f , f o r explores example, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . and The suggested p r o j e c t s d e s c r i b e d i n Figure do not 6, exercises 'TRANSPORTATION', formulate o r d e f i n e a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n problem per se. Instead the student i s r e q u i r e d t o formulate f o r h i m s e l f the problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h urban t r a n s p o r t a t i o n (such as the c o n f l i c t between and v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c ) , and pedestrian t o t r y t o understand a r t i c u l a t e these problems as he e x p l o r e s modes o f urban t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . According s i g n o f t h i s e x e r c i s e , the student may s o l v e one ply or more o f the problems he to l i s t the r e a l and various to the de- be r e q u i r e d to d i s c o v e r s or sim- p o t e n t i a l problems as he counters them d u r i n g h i s e x p l o r a t i o n s . may the and The en- exercise a l s o be designed t o develop c e r t a i n s k i l l s , such as photography, g r a p h i c s , mapping, e t c . , and courage o r i g i n a l and imaginative thinking. to en- v 33. Is d i 1 C9 mm CAT) <£> (kfitf 5s CD a* J 05* fe fe? WD £3 mis GP Oaf) ^=9 <£><?0 w <3 IStf'S^S* © o«2> Sis? [<» ^ <&D <3 <3<» Figure 6 TRANSPORTATK Information Gathering Having determined the g e n e r a l context o f h i s problem, the i n d i v i d u a l commences the r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t forward but o f t e n t e d i o u s and time consuming task o f c o l l e c t i n g the r e l e v e n t i n f o r m a t i o n for i t s solution. The importance o f t h i s stage t o the o v e r a l l problem s o l v i n g process i s acknowledged by most authors , however t h e r e i s some debate over the amount o f e f f o r t t h a t should be expended i n t h i s phase. A c c o r d i n g t o Gagne nil : One person i s b e t t e r a t s o l v i n g a problem than another because he knows more — because he has more i n f o r m a t i o n o f the s o r t t h a i u l t i m a t e l y t u r n s out t o be r e l e v a n t t o the problem o r t o the process o f s o l v i n g i t . T h e r e f o r e a prolonged p e r i o d o f i n f o r m a t i o n gatheri n g s h o u l d r e s u l t i n b e t t e r problem s o l v i n g . On the 4-5 o t h e r hand, some authors contend t h a t an overabun- dance o f i n f o r m a t i o n may s t i f l e c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g by imposing unnecessary r e s t r i c t i o n s on the problem. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t some i n f o r m a t i o n must be c o l l e c t e d , and i n t h i s endeavour the problem s o l v e r r e q u i r e s such s k i l l s as are i n v o l v e d i n the u t i l i z a t i o n o f equipment (eg. v i d e o and tape recorders., cameras, e t c . ) arid techniques (eg. i n t e r v i e w i n g , s u r - veying, etc.) associated with information gathering. In a d d i t i o n , t h i s phase r e q u i r e s not only the powers o f l o g i c and reason t o conduct the student's necessary a n a l y s i s and e v a l u a t i o n o f incoming i n f o r m a t i o n , a l s o h i s more s u b j e c t i v e powers o f sensory t o a p p r e c i a t e the s o c i a l and emotional but perception overtones o f the problem. While t r a d i t i o n a l problem s o l v i n g tends t o concent r a t e on the student's critically a b i l i t y t o reason and think , c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g tends t o b a l - ance t h i s approach by i n c l u d i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l y s u b j e c t i v e component i n t h i s stage. which may hod exercise be used to enhance both o f these as w e l l as the student's me An s k i l l s i n one greater abilities particular o f i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r i n g i s 'mapping'. In t h i s e x e r c i s e the student i s r e q u i r e d t o d e s i g n a map of h i s c i t y o r some p a r t o f i t and t o a r t i c u l a t e c e r t a i n k i n d s o f i n f o r m a t i o n on i t . Some suggested ideas f o r the k i n d s o f i n f o r m a t i o n which might be mapped appear on the f o l l o w i n g page (see F i g u r e 7, "MAPPING ). 1 on d e v e l o p i n g The t e a c h e r may the student's abilities concentrate i n collecting, o r g a n i z i n g , and p r e s e n t i n g such f a c t u a l information as the l o c a t i o n o f underground s e r v i c e s , the f r e quency o f cars i n an area o f the c i t y , c i v i c boundaries, topographical features, etc. focus on the student's emotional Or he may and p e r c e p t u a l s e n s i t i v i t y t o the c i t y , r e q u e s t i n g him t o i n d i c a t e on h i s map the 'moods' o f v a r i o u s communities, t h e smells and t e x t u r e s most p r e v a l e n t i n c e r t a i n areas, the l e a s t s e n s i t i v e b u i l d i n g s , e t c . The map itself might be a s m a l l notebook s k e t c h o r a l a r g e s c a l e w a l l map i n c l u d i n g three dimensional features. Students should be encouraged t o make t h e i r maps o r i g i n a l and unusual, adding i n f o r m a t i o n a l , v i s u a l , and t e x t u r a l v a r i e t y whenever p o s s i b l e . Over o f time a classroom wap adorned i n t h i s a period fashion c o u l d e a s i l y become a community a t t r a c t i o n as w e l l as a v a l u a b l e source of information. While i t i s not necessary t h a t the i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g mapping r e l a t e t o a s p e c i f i c pro- blem ( i e . i t might be u t i l i z e d simply t o enhance t h e student's g e n e r a l a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the c i t y ) , i t i s o f t e n u s e f u l t o approach problems through mapping. For example, i n c o n s i d e r i n g the problem o f p r o v i d i n g more amenable p u b l i c spaces i n a g i v e n a r e a o f c i t y , students might map the the v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s which occur i n t h a t area and then t r y t o determine these i n t e r a c t w i t h each o t h e r . how H o p e f u l l y , some f o c a l p o i n t s w i l l be d i s c o v e r e d which may then be e x p l o r e d w i t h design o b j e c t i v e s i n mind. The dent's s k i l l s i n i n t e r v i e w i n g , graphing, d i n g equipment, e t c . c o u l d s i m i l a r l y be stu- using recordeveloped through a p p r o p r i a t e l y designed e x e r c i s e s i n v o l v i n g these Idea skills. Generation I t i s i n t h i s phase o f problem s o l v i n g t h a t the c r e a t i v e approach d i f f e r s most s u b s t a n t i a l l y from the more t r a d i t i o n a l approach. Whereas the tradi- t i o n a l problem s o l v i n g approach proceeds with a conv e n t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f i n f o r m a t i o n , d e c i s i o n on appropriate the s t r a t e g y , and s o l u t i o n o f the problem a c c o r d i n g t o the format o f the chosen s t r a t e g y , c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g proceeds w i t h what has 47 been c a l l e d ' l a t e r a l ' or 'divergent' These terms r e f e r t o an expansive and thought process thinking free-wheeling as opposed t o a more focussed and controlled ('convergent') p r o c e s s . Divergent t h i n k i n g makes g r e a t e r use o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n as a b r i d g e i n t o the r e s e r v o i r o f i d e a s s t o r e d i n t h e subconscious mind. I t s o b j e c t i s t o generate as many ideas as p o s s i b l e about the problem, n o t t o f i n d t h e one i d e a which s a t i s f i e s t h e problem requirements. By u s i n g d i v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g , t h e c r e a t i v e problem s o l v e r i n c r e a s e s h i s l i k e l i h o o d o f d i s c o v e r i n g an unusual s o l u t i o n which, though i t s a t i s f i e s t h e problem requirements, i s not n e c e s s a r i l y a ' l o g i c a l ' s o l u t i o n i n t h a t i t may i n v o l v e the use o f o b j e c t s and i d e a s n o t normally a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the problem 48 context. Authors i n t h e f i e l d o f c r e a t i v i t y have a number o f e x e r c i s e s t o h e l p t h e i n d i v i d u a l h i s a b i l i t i e s i n divergent t h i n k i n g . designed develop These u t i l i z e t h r e e main t e c h n i q u e s : b r a i n s t o r m i n g , p l a y , and metaphorical t h i n k i n g . 49 'Brainstorming' r e f e r s t o t h e group process o f g e n e r a t i n g as many i d e a s as p o s s i b l e r e g a r d i n g a concept o r object. G e n e r a l l y t h i s concept i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a l a r g e r problem. one were attempting r e p r e s e n t s an. F o r example, i f t o d e s i g n a new system o f r a p i d t r a n s i t , one might b r a i n s t o r m portation — the concept o f t r a n s - how many d i f f e r e n t kinds o f t r a n s p o r t a - t i o n a r e there? how do they operate? Participants are g e n e r a l l y i n s t r u c t e d t o express t h e i r ideas f r e e l y , without p a s s i n g judgement on t h e i r apparent relevence o r u l t i m a t e value as s o l u t i o n s t o t h e problem. T h i s i s r e f e r r e d t o as t h e method o f d e f 50 f e r r e d judgement' . When new ideas a r e exhausted, the group c o n s i d e r s each i d e a more c a r e f u l l y , iden- t i f y i n g i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o t h e problem (eg. common p r i n c i p l e s and i d e a s ) and how these might a i d i n i t s solution. I n terms o f t h e p r e v i o u s example, t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f p i p e l i n e t r a n s p o r t might be found t o be a p p l i c a b l e t o the r a p i d t r a n s i t o f i n d i v i d u a l s — people pipes? As i l l u s t r a t e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g page ( F i g u r e 8, 'REUSING'), t h e problem o f r e - u s i n g o b j e c t s and events might w e l l be approached by t h e b r a i n s t o r m i n g method. The f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s problem i s f a r i l y s t r a i g h t forward. The student chooses an o b j e c t , such as an o l d p a r k i n g m e t e r ( s ) , plastic container(s), g a s - s t a t i o n , o r f i r e h a l l , and attempts t o t h i n k o f a l l o f t h e ways i n which t h i s o b j e c t might be r e - u s e d . The second p a r t o f t h e problem — r e - u s i n g an ' e x p e r i - Approx. 10 acs. cleared, fenced view ppty.. barn, horse & few beef cattle. Langley area, close to freeway to Vane. Phone now re terms etc. RUSS WICKS, 581-1181 (eves. 531-4785) HILLTOP AGENCIES LTD. —2 bdrm. full basement, V . L . A . sized lot, newly renovated, only $25,000. —2 br, full basement, half acre lot, Nicely treed property In the Cari- fireplace, some ocean view, broadboo. Excellent hunting & fishing loom thrcighout. $31,000. area. Existing mortgage at 8 ' » % . —3 br., ; '11 basement, right In the royd Jantzen, Beaver Rltv. '.M., ••«. f r t»vwt s»»r" r r . r f , n» 228-0(529 or 736-2544. . -toe? QUALICUM RETIREMENT SPECIALS 10ACRES-$9800 30 ACRE- 5 mi., east of Blain, 'j t.the border part., treed, acre tracts. $1800 per terms at 8% int.. Disco 206-332-8970 3 bdrm., full bsmt. Iv enste. plumbing, built I er, 4.75 acres lot, big buildings, land all clear Baker 1 mtns., offers eves. 856-6691. Hugh & McKinnon R Cloverdale, White Roc INVEST IN WASH 20 ac. $297500. (206)7, 160 acres lake from area . 531-7834. 2.37 ac. treed, 61/24C Country Squire Rlty. 354 WESTSECHELT Large lots (75'xl50'>, paved roads, water & power. F.P. $11,000. Financing at 10 ' ! % • phone Owner, Ron Williams, 987-0154. SOUTH PENDER 330' gravel beach 1- ac. treed privacy in sheltered harbour. Dandy bldg. site. $32,900.Offers. Terms. No inter- 50x150' at Belcarra Park. 1 est till 1975! E. C . Weber Co. view of Inlet 4 Deep Cove, Ltd., 943-9371. road access and ample water, available. F.P. $55,000. Ric yon, 942-0150 or Kenyon 1 T>/>":SBY—SVCHFV Ltd.. 588-6591 • _ '• ' ••• . .'*•>•:.viced. Beautiful 2 level lakefront 3 BR, rec rm., boat garage., '/-;..':.;";:?,>: ': ,o?z; . :lent 5 9 . dock. Prime property. Goodwin. 50 mlns. south of I ham. Close to Wenberg State $45,000. 206-676-0821 or 652-7150 Vancouver Island Waterfro 'cialists. Thor Peterson, Coi Realty Ltd., Box 489, Ca River, B.C. Lakeside cabin. $8000. 594-4016. Waterfront Okanagan Lak rlfic value. Private. 526-8214 OCEAN FRONT U 361 RECREATIONAL PROP! ISLAND PROPERTY LACLAHACHE FARMS & R/ 18 waterfront lots averaging1 Price range from $7,500-$ 10% down, balance over six y 9%. Payments $95 per mo. Secord Lampman Capilano Highlands Ltd 1575 West Georgia Stre< Vancouver, B.C. 682-3764 or call colled Goldbrldge 224 Camano Is. Wash. Here Is your golden opporti Wooded homesMe , 2 ij acres . 3 acres bluff wtrfront . . . . $ 5 acres Take your pick. EZ terms, low est, free bridge, no ferry. 9( south of Vancouver. Call Coc Estate, 112-206-387-5611.- LYNDEN.SU/ FERNDAL WASHING" 6 dairy farms from 401 with or without cow. and quota. Call Pete B strap Realtors 206-73 nings 206-398-9205) 3 " Belflngham, WA 98225 By owner — Apprr , Cariboo Ranch land wl serviced trailer horn small bldgs. Located Big Lake. Includes sci vice, electricity, ex< abundant water for s 250 acres cleared, hay a small lake full of r F.P. $175,000. Forfui . tlon phone Parksville • SALESMEN WAN! 100% comm. paid, $200 per 1st month ln advance. J. Ft 874-1866 or 327-8315. BLUEBER M.A.R.S. REALTY L 19 'j acre farm, 7 acr ries. Just coming int Tremendous potentia home and 16x34' sv, . also 3 bedroom home John Stegeman, 465*5 * Haney Realty Ltd. PEACE RIVER COUN 640 acres — 200 t-.variable. Good 3 b Water & power, shop, etc. Good ac Fort St. John. $60 neft 929-2023. Cr« .-. 1381 Marine Drive, ver. 922-6196. Only8%In 7027 264 St., Langh acres, large 3 bean house, hog sheds & o George Mukanik • Raymar Realty Lt< LESS THAN $3,000 Approx. 52 acre farn home hugh barn & mostly fenced. Term 10%. Call Milt Hunn or 381-3321. • WOLSTENC: Since 19: 900 ACR With 500 acres de River. There is al expansion potentia. ner 733.8671: K 732.3640. Squire : 736.2461. BEAT INFLA Buy this beautiful 4 nestled down on the large hill. Modern ho Lots of pure water. 1 miles to town of T\ $90,000. Phone eves Peace River blocl farmland, 300 acres b.r. home, power pi school bus, fair outbuildings. Must sell. $30,000. Phone 112-351-2226. H. J. Hlndmarch Spirit River, Alta. Delta — 40 Acres 5 room Pan-A-Bode home, barn, suitable for riding stables. Gillis Investments, 321-6424, ' eves. 3257821. 320 acres of ranchland, 14 mi, from town of St. Pauls, Alta., 2 mi. off pavement. Older type buildings. $35,000. Call eves.. 403-645-2398. j . ' ' Pni-m llstfnaa..wanted I 74 CD I A 175' beach, boat house, elec. park-like setting, salmon fisl your own front yard. Home 4 cotltage. Nr. Anacortes, W,ash Prop Research Co. Nr. Anac Wash. SUDDEN VALLEY Exceptional view lot fronting < course at Sudden Valley OF Whatcom, Wash. Closing cost sume contract or best offer. C John Anderson. 206-284-8661 $2950 1T Beautifully timbered view lot tastic potential. Lake Whatcoi lingham. Terms. 681-2162. FREE CATALOGUE . SUNSHINE COAST In Vane. Phone 689-5831 Sechelt Agencies Ltd. Box 128, Sechelt, B.C. Sudden Valley, view lot Bellingham. Wash. Close tn to ational facilities. Includes go membership. Reasonable. Ct lecteves; Seattle, (206) 282-! M O U N T B A K E R >« acre serviced lot, by ovvnei Land Option of lot Sat. 24th., 1 to 4 p.m., with proci Bellingham.Boys Club. Cai PAridlse 8 ml. S. Abbotsford/ border station. . . BLACK MOUNTAIN RAN Choice cleared river view lot \ without new 23' Trailer $6,000, Trailer, $3,500. ' 736-4698._ PITT LAKE 490 Trans-Canada Highway, Duncan, B.C., 746-4175 C0WICHAN VALLEY ONE ACRE OF PRIVACY Charming older home with a character all its own sitting i n the midst of a lovely secluded garden. This 4 bedrm. home with bsmt. & separate 2 car garage is situated on a quiet Beautifully ' treed waterfront Bus. 936-0484 res. 941-2306, Big Gun Lake ,100* waterfront lots, 1 with Back lots with access to watei 9109 or 437-0046. $2000 down, $103 mo., beautiful creek-side lot ln i Valley, Full price, $9,900, 6216. POINT ROBERTS Boundary,Hgts. , 2 service 65x120, call Les & make an 733-6520. Chioce p » b n T j i k A l n t . aoo ing & hun . on hydro. irlgure oHil RE-USING Whistl« 8 G u n n Lane,, z/OLjicns. o » ence' — of i s somewhat more d i f f i c u l t , p a r t l y because i t s ambiguity (how does one 're-use' an e x p e r i e n c e ? ) , and p a r t l y because experiences are o f t e n more complex and a b s t r a c t than o b j e c t s . v i s u a l i z e d and manipulated They are thus l e s s i n the mind. The easily student must f i r s t d e f i n e the experience he wishes t o c o n s i d e r (eg. shopping, r i d i n g on a bus, e t c . ) and then t r y t o a l t e r t h a t experience i n such a manner t h a t i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e o r meaning i s changed. second dimension In e f f e c t , a i s added t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e . In both cases the b r a i n s t o r m i n g method h e l p s the student t o generate numerous and unusual i d e a s f o r the re-use o f o b j e c t s and experiences. During b r a i n s t o r m i n g even the w i l d e s t and ideas should be encouraged i f o n l y f o r t h e i r value. catalytic A f t e r the b r a i n s t o r m i n g s e s s i o n , i n d i v i d u a l students of silliest ( o r groups o f s t u d e n t s ) c o u l d develop one the i d e a s i n t o a v i a b l e s o l u t i o n t o the problem o f r e c y c l i n g the o r i g i n a l o b j e c t . The value o f p l a y — licking — p h y s i c a l and mental f r o - t o l e a r n i n g and t h i n k i n g has l o n g been 51 r e c o g n i z e d by both educators and p s y c h o l o g i s t s In the process o f i d e a g e n e r a t i o n , an a t t i t u d e o f p l a y f u l n e s s enhances the powers o f the i m a g i n a t i o n by a l l o w i n g the i n d i v i d u a l t o escape the bounds o f r a t i o n - a l i t y imposed hy the conscious mind and t o b e n e f i t more d i r e c t l y from the i n f l u e n c e o f t h e l e s s subconscious mind. inhibited During t h i s phase o f problem sol- v i n g , then, t h e t e a c h e r might encourage the use o f games i n v o l v i n g both p h y s i c a l and mental a c t i v i t y , which promote an atmosphere o f f u n and r e l a x a t i o n . Some g e n e r a l i d e a s f o r a game which might be used i n an urban s t u d i e s course appear as ' r u l e s ' i n F i g u r e 9, 'URBAN GAMES'. Any number o f games c o u l d be developed from t h i s b a s i s , f o c u s s i n g , f o r example, on t h e p o l i t i c a l systems which operate w i t h i n a c i t y , o r on t h e v a s t communications networks t h a t operate both w i t h i n and between c i t i e s . The games may be extremely complex, r e q u i r i n g students t o develop i n t r i c a t e s t r a t e g i e s o f play. Or they may s t r e s s p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e c i t y , as i n a game o f urban b a s k e t b a l l , where t h e c i t y i s the c o u r t I During t h e p l a y i n g o f games, students s h o u l d be encouraged t o assume the r o l e s o f o t h e r people, o f animals, and o f inanimate o b j e c t s — t o "become the 52 thing' . While such sympathetic r o l e - p l a y i n g i s r e l a t i v e l y easy i n a game s i t u a t i o n , i t may be some- RULES• I n v e n t a n u r b a n game t h a t : 1. c a n b e p l a y e d b y 2 0 o r more p e o p l e a t one time (individually or i n teams) 2. t a k e s o n e h a l f t o o n e day t o p l a y 3. e n h a n c e s t h e p l a y e r ' s knowledge o f the c i t y 4. r e q u i r e s p l a y e r s t o g o out i n t o t h e c i t y (optional) 5. a l l o w s f o r t h e p a r t i cipation o fthe 'public' (optional) 6. i s f u n t o p l a y ! (not o p t i o n a l ) T r y p l a y i n g t h e name i n your c l a s s . . . i n other classes. Invent aopropriate p r i z e s f o r winners...and losers! what more d i f f i c u l t ' d u r i n g the more s e r i o u s a c t i v i t y o f problem s o l v i n g . Yet r o l e - p l a y i n g tremendous a s s i s t a n c e can be o f i n the problem s o l v i n g process. I f p r o p e r l y undertaken, i t can p r o v i d e the i n d i v i d u a l w i t h v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t s i n t o the essences o f inanimate objects, i n t o the thoughts and f e e l i n g s o f o t h e r i n - d i v i d u a l s , and i n t o h i s own thoughts and f e e l i n g s . For example, t h e student might assume the g u i s e o f an o l d b u i l d i n g , f e e l i n g i t s i n n e r l i f e and form i n o r d e r t o g a i n some i n s i g h t i n t o the problem o f r e v i t a l i z i n g o r remodeling the b u i l d i n g . The for v i r t u a l l y any using role-playing are u n l i m i t e d : opportunities problem i n c l u d e s some aspect which may be approached i n t h i s manner. I t s use b r i n g s a welcome element o f fun and s p o n t a n e i t y i n t o t h e problem s o l v i n g A s p e c i a l kind process. o f game which deserves separate mention i s t h e ' s i m u l a t i o n game'. T h i s has been deS f i n e d by Maidment and B r o n s t e i n as f o l l o w s 3 : A s i m u l a t i o n game, as t h e name i m p l i e s , c o n t a i n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f both a simul a t i o n and a game. I t i s an a c t i v i t y i n which p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t e r a c t w i t h i n an a r t i f i c i a l l y produced environment which r e c r e a t e s some aspect o f s o c i a l r e a l i t y . The p a r t i c i p a n t s , termed p l a y e r s , assume the r o l e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s o r groups who e x i s t i n the p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l system b e i n g s i m u l a t e d . T h e i r goals and those of t h e a c t o r s they r e p r e s e n t are t h e same. The s i m u l a t i o n game i s p a r t i c u l a r l y v a l u a b l e then, i n s i t u a t i o n s where d i r e c t experience i s i m p o s s i b l e or i m p r a c t i c a l because o f time o r space constraints, expense, p o l i t i c s , e t c . S i m u l a t i o n games are b e l i e v e d t o have some part i c u l a r e d u c a t i o n a l advantages, ty such as ' t h e i r t o focus a t t e n t i o n , t h e i r requirement abili- f o r action r a t h e r than merely p a s s i v e o b s e r v a t i o n , t h e i r abs t r a c t i o n o f simple elements from the complex conf u s i o n o f r e a l i t y , and the i n t r i n s i c rewards they h o l d f o r mastery' . In a d d i t i o n they p r o v i d e 'a new and non-authoritan r o l e f o r the t e a c h e r , a more r e a l i s t i c and r e l e v a n t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s , and an i n c r e a s e i n student m o t i v a t i o n and i n t e r e s t ' In ss the mid I960's the value o f s i m u l a t i o n games i n the e d u c a t i o n o f urban planners and decision-makers 56 became e v i d e n t . The i n c r e a s i n g complexity o f t h e c i t y and the growing amount o f i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e to urban decision-makers were making the t a s k o f under57 s t a n d i n g the c i t y almost i m p o s s i b l e . games which reduced The use o f the c i t y and i t s systems t o a com- p r e h e n s i b l e whole allowed both p l a n n e r and student a l i k e t o develop an understanding o f the c i t y . A number o f games i n v o l v i n g v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f the c i t y have been developed, many o f which a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r classroom u s e (see l i s t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s a t end o f paper). Of t h e s e , perhaps the b e s t known are CLUG and CITY I I , which have undergone, s i n c e t h e i r con- c e p t i o n i n the e a r l y 1960 s, a g r e a t d e a l o f r e f i n e f ment . While commercially developed games may s u i t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e t e a c h e r , i t may be more d e s i r a b l e t o have students d e s i g n t h e i r own l o c a l l y 1 based games. F o r example, i n F i g u r e 10, 'GROWTH', students a r e requested t o d e s i g n a ' c i v i c development game'. T h i s game c o u l d h e l p t o acquaint the student w i t h t h e complex decision-making processes t h a t occur a t t h e m u n i c i p a l and r e g i o n a l l e v e l s . By • p l a y i n g out' the r o l e s o f t h e people I n v o l v e d i n such decision-making a c t i v i t i e s , the student gains an app r e c i a t i o n o f t h e myriad development. factors involved i n c i v i c While i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t the game de- s i g e n d by t h e students w i l l have many i m p e r f e c t i o n s , both as a game and as a s i m u l a t i o n , i t i s becoming c l e a r t h a t the g r e a t e s t e d u c a t i o n a l b e n e f i t t o be gained from s i m u l a t i o n games l i e s i n t h e i r d e s i g n a what is growth 9 o what 'stage o f growth i s your c i t y at... o o assume t h a t the run-away p o p u l a t i o n growth has c a u s e d the c i t y ' s population to t r i p l e ; c i t y c o u n c i l has d e c r e e d t h a t e v e r y r e s i d e n t i a l b l o c k must t r i p l e i t s p r e s e n t popu l a t i o n ( e s t i m a t e d a t 5.5 p e o p l e per house) make a map o f y o u r b l o c k and f i g u r e o u t how y o u c o u l d accomodate t h i s growth w i t h o u t d e m o l i shing e x i s t i n g housing. remem, b e r -- more I people will require (more amenities, such ,as s h o p s , parks, ceenage, infanthood, o r senility.. CIVIC M V wha t is progress get a group p e o p l e to assume 'key' r o l e s i n the development o f a c i t y -- mayor, b u s i n e s s m e n , developers, 'environmentalists', etc. get a l a r g e b l a n k map o f y o u r c i t y , p l a y money f o r each p l a y e r , and ' b l o c k s ' o r symbols t o as b u i l d i i r a t h e r than i n t h e i r p l a y i n g . The value o f m e t a p h o r i c a l t h i n k i n g i n t h e generat i o n o f i d e a s has l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d by poets and a r t i s t s , but has only r e c e n t l y become p o p u l a r i n t h e educational context. utilizes In m e t a p h o r i c a l t h i n k i n g , one symbols t o ' j o i n d i s s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e s ' a t 60 some l e v e l o f meaning. In a r t i s t i c endeavours, i t i s most o f t e n used t o add an e x t r a dimension to a f a m i l i a r o b j e c t o r i d e a , t o make something more colourful. U t i l i z i n g the p r i n c i p l e s o f metaphorical 61 t h i n k i n g , the Synectics Corporation an e x e r c i s e c a l l e d has developed 'Making i t Strange' which encourages students t o t h i n k o f f a m i l i a r o b j e c t s i n unusual terms, thereby promoting objects. more n o v e l p e r c e p t i o n s o f o r d i n a r y For example, the student might be asked such q u e s t i o n s a s : 'What i s a l u g u b r i o u s lamp-post?', 'How i s the c i t y l i k e a camera?', and 'How i s w a l k i n g downtown l i k e p l a y i n g a m u s i c a l instrument?'. In h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f these q u e s t i o n s , as the student draws a n a l o g i e s between t h e two i d e a s i n v o l v e d , he may d i s c o v e r n o v e l i d e a s which, i f not o f immediate v a l u e , may be u s e f u l i n f u t u r e problem s o l v i n g activities. I n c u b a t i o n and I l l u m i n a t i o n I t i s d u r i n g i n c u b a t i o n and i l l u m i n a t i o n t h a t the subconscious mind makes i t s g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o 6 2 the problem s o l v i n g p r o c e s s . But because t h e sub- conscious s t i l l eludes man's complete understanding, the exact nature o f i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n can o n l y be guessed from the outward m a n i f e s t a t i o n s d u r i n g t h i s phase. Of t h e many e x p l a n a t i o n s which have been offered, 63 one o f the c l e a r e s t i s by Kubie: 64 P r e c o n s c i o u s l y we process many t h i n g s a t a time. By processes o f f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n s , we take i d e a s and approximate r e a l i t i e s a p a r t and make s w i f t condensations o f t h e i r m u l t i p l e a l l e g o r i c a l and emotional import. Preconscious processes make f r e e use o f analogy and a l l e g o r y , superimposing d i s s i m i l a r i n g r e d i e n t s i n t o new p e r c e p t u a l and c o n c e p t u a l p a t t e r n s , thus r e s h u f f l i n g experience t o achieve t h a t e x t r a o r d i n a r y degree o f condensation without which c r e a t i v i t y i n any f i e l d would be i m p o s s i b l e . Kubie's term 'preconscious' r e f e r s t o t h a t p o r t i o n o f the subconscious mind t h a t i s 'open t o r e c a l l when 65 the ego i s r e l a x e d ' . Or, i f we c o n s i d e r t h e human mind as a continuum o f v a r i o u s s t a t e s o f consciousness 'preconsciousness* i s t h e l i a i s o n between subconscious ness and c o n s c i o u s n e s s : i t i s the medium through which the subconscious communicates t o the conscious mind. During ' i n c u b a t i o n * the i n d i v i d u a l ' f o r g e t s ' the problem and o t h e r matters, apparently shifts his attention to a l l o w i n g the p r e v i o u s l y a c q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n and i d e a s t o be t r a n s f e r r e d t o the sub- 66 conscious mind. Here they are r e o r g a n i z e d along with otfeer p r e v i o u s l y a c q u i r e d and perhaps l o n g since 'forgotten' ideas, i n t o various patterns configurations. and T h i s a c t i v i t y seems t o proceed i n a haphazard manner, without r e g a r d f o r the o f r e a l i t y , but a c c o r d i n g t o i t s 'own 'logic' autonomous 67 laws'. In a d d i t i o n , i t i s by d e f i n i t i o n beyond the c o n t r o l o f the i n d i v i d u a l i n whom i t i s occurr i n g , and h i s attempts t o i n f l u e n c e i t g e n e r a l l y 68 have a c o n s t i p a t i n g , r a t h e r than c a t a l y t i c effect. F i n a l l y the subconscious mind a r r i v e s a t p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l which it one 'satisfies' and ceases i t s problem s o l v i n g a c t i v i t i e s . It is a t t h i s time t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l becomes aware o f 69 the ' s o l u t i o n ' d i s c o v e r e d by the subconscious mind. There i s a sudden r e v e l a t i o n o r ' i l l u m i n a t i o n ' d u r i n g which the v i t a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s t r a n s f e r r e d ( a c c o r d i n g t o Kubie through 'preconscious' why processes). t h i s occurs remains a mystery. How and However, many de- s c r i p t i o n s o f the event have been advanced. According to Wehrli: The stage o f i l l u m i n a t i o n i s f r e q u e n t l y d e s c r i b e d as a p e r i o d o f e x h i l i r a t i o n , excitement and e l a t i o n . The l o n g awaited s y n t h e s i s o r i n s i g h t may come i n a f l a s h o f c l a r i t y , but as o f t e n i t comes i n a s w i r l o f ideas and images, tumbling upon each o t h e r i n a f r e n z y o f groupings and regroupings t h a t g r a d u a l l y achieves a coherence and order t h a t sparks o f f implications i n a l l directions. The experience o f i l l u m i n a t i o n i s common enough i n every day problem s o l v i n g — s o l u t i o n t o a problem. one suddenly 'sees 1 the But i t s i n t e n s i t y i s p a r t i c u - l a r l y s t r o n g l y f e l t by an i n d i v i d u a l who has expended a great d e a l o f time and energy c o n s i d e r i n g a s p e c i f i c problem. Obviously be 'taught' i n a d i r e c t f a s h i o n . o f the process the student's him n e i t h e r i n c u b a t i o n o r i l l u m i n a t i o n can A t b e s t t h i s phase may be f a c i l i t a t e d through i n c r e a s i n g awarenss o f what i s o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n and through the maintenance o f a r e l a x e d , b u t expectant atmosphere. 71 According t o H a r o l d Rugg: 72 There i s emphatic agreement t h a t t h e f l a s h comes when the person i s i n a s t a t e o f r e l a x e d t e n s i o n ; being o f f - g u a r d seems t o be a central condition. The teacher should t h e r e f o r e r e f r a i n from demanding immediate 'answers' t o problems, encouraging s t u dents t o keep t h e i r p a t i e n c e frustrating stage. during t h i s 73 E x e r c i s e s such as game p l a y i n g , mapping, and often 'sensiticity , 1 'uses f o r t h i n g s ' , which can be t o promote an a t t i t u d e o f p l a y f u l n e s s and r e l a x a t i o n , might again be u t i l i z e d d u r i n g phase o f the problem s o l v i n g p r o c e s s . which may An designed relative this exercise be w e l l s u i t e d t o t h i s phase of the pro- cess i s the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a 'LEARNING SPACE' as suggested i n F i g u r e designing and 11 on the f o l l o w i n g page. In c o n s t r u c t i n g an a c t u a l environment, students are allowed the p l e a s u r e and r e l a x a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y and handiwork as w e l l as the opport u n i t y t o d e a l , i n a concrete f a s h i o n , w i t h such s t r a c t concepts as community, p r i v a c y , and of learning. To i n c r e a s e the e d u c a t i o n a l the value t h i s e x e r c i s e a number o f l i m i t a t i o n s could be on the b a s i c d e s i g n problem. ab- nature of placed For example, students might be requested t o use modular c o n s t r u c t i o n or t o d e s i g n t h e i r spaces a c c o r d i n g t o an a p p r o p r i a t e theme. Or the problem might be c a s t i n terms o f group i n t e r a c t i o n : students might be r e q u i r e d t o work i n the context o f a l a r g e r group, conforming t o i t s standards 8 o & O 0!b c3 O 0 <3 o £2 6> (0 eg 8 & * f w B (3 w © g § ° g £ <52 0 D oo ^ op 0 © (r> g © 0® G O Q 3 g 8 ^ ^ o fe o c£) © C D ° o OS CP O 8 ? > t o Q 3 ^ ^ 3 o % 1^ ° © g « o GP o §> © ^ o f d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n . The 'LEARNING SPACE* e x e r c i s e may be designed t o p r o v i d e a c o n t i n u i n g f o c u s o f classroom a c t i v i t y , w i t h constant a d d i t i o n s , r e n o v a t i o n s , and e m b e l l i s h ments o f the b a s i c s t r u c t u r e . Thus a whole range o f h a n d i c r a f t a c t i v i t i e s such as weaving, b a t i k , woodwork, p o t t e r y , e t c . c o u l d be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the l a r g e r design exercise. The main value o f such an e x e r c i s e i s as an o u t l e t f o r f r u s t r a t i o n : i t h e l p s the student t o ' f o r g e t ' h i s problem, t o r e l a x , and t o a l l o w h i s subconscious mind t o continue i t s problem s o l v i n g a c t i v i t i e s unimpeded. Refinement During refinement t h e i n d i v i d u a l v e r i f i e s , dev e l o p s , and r e f i n e s the crude p a t t e r n p r o v i d e d by the subconscious mind d u r i n g ' i l l u m i n a t i o n ' i n t o a v i a b l e s o l u t i o n t o h i s problem. Depending on the i n - t r i c a c y and magnitude o f the o r i g i n a l problem, the s t a t e o f development o f t h e p a t t e r n s u p p l i e d by the subconscious mind, and the d e s i r e d form o f communication, t h i s stage o f the process may take a great d e a l o f time o r almost none a t a l l . If, for example, the o r i g i n a l problem i n v o l v e d the d e s i g n o f a new housing development and the i d e a p r o v i d e d by the subconscious mind i n v o l v e d u s i n g the s t r u c t u r e o f the honeycomb as a model, then the task of a c t u a l l y a p p l y i n g the i d e a , a d a p t i n g i t t o f i t the con- d i t i o s o f s i t e , m a t e r i a l s , economics, e t c . , and of d r a f t i n g p r e l i m i n a r y p l a n s , may be lengthy and t e - dious . T h i s d e t a i l e d and c o n c e n t r a t e d work r e q u i r e s the mind's powers o f a n a l y s i s , reason, and judgement t o analyze the v a r i o u s elements o f the s o l u t i o n , t o determine the r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f these elements t o the whole and t o each o t h e r , and t o v e r i f y the adequacy o f the s o l u t i o n . I n o t h e r words, the individual must be able t o t h i n k l o g i c a l l y and c r i t i c a l l y h i s problem. about H i s a c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g t h i s phase then, are not s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from those which would occur a t a comparable stage i n the problem s o l v i n g p r o c e s s . sentially The traditional ' c r e a t i v e a c t ' i s es- complete. In t e a c h i n g f o r t h i s phase o f the p r o c e s s , the t e a c h e r should continue t o encourage open-mindedness w h i l e a t the same time h e l p i n g h i s students t o develop t h e i r s k i l l s i n i d e a refinement. A rather fun kind o f e x e r c i s e which might be employed a t t h i s time i s e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e 'What i f . . . ? ' questions which appear 75 in F i g u r e 12 on the f o l l o w i n g page. By c o n s i d e r i n g the f u l l range o f consequences o f such f a n c i f u l p o s i t i o n s as 'What i f houses looked b i t a n t s ? ' , the student like their inha- may develop h i s s k i l l s i n l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g and i d e a refinement w h i l e same time m a i n t a i n i n g pro- a t the an a t t i t u d e o f f u n and p l a y - fulness . More s e r i o u s e x e r c i s e s a c c o m p l i s h i n g o b j e c t i v e s should in cit a l s o be developed. similar For example, F i g u r e 13, 'PEOPLE IN THE CITY', one o f the i m p l i 'What i f . . . ? ' questions i s 'What i f more people l i v e d i n t h e city...where would they l i v e ? ' student i s requested The t o f i n d a s u i t a b l e space w i t h i n the urban core and t o design w i t h i n t h i s space a 'personal l i v i n g space' f o r h i m s e l f . the student engages i n t h e process To ensure t h a t of refining h i s i d e a s , a s c a l e model should be r e q u i r e d , showing i n t e r i o r space a l l o c a t i o n and d e s i g n a g a i n , any number o f r e s t r i c t i o n s features. Once (eg. l o c a t i o n , space, m a t e r i a l s , c o s t , e t c . ) may be p l a c e d on t h e problem t o i n c r e a s e i t s d i f f i c u l t y and t o f o r c e the 57. • • • 1 9 CEM DID E THE NT Z°NlNG HOUSES LQ)KED E IKE : 3 DAYVQRK WEEK BECAME NOT EXIST © ? WERE REALITY ? ABOLISHED ? THE CITY MADE WERE OF O O PERSONAL •find LIVING a space 'downtown' city 1. SPACE area •what of your you that: you would in like to into live to place within a invent t o g e t more people the inner city ... t o v i s i events, building live in your activities, considerations •how c o u l d living et made m o r e the c i t y be amenable to people? make a d r a w i n g your could designs, space' of of 'things' include this 'personal kinds in i s being used, p a r t time, f o r purposes o t h e r than strictly residential design SPACES i n the 2 . i s n o t now l i v e d 3. A M E N A B L E URBAN o r model -also space the keep different people city •• m i n mind that kinds of live -- y o u n g , lonely, a l l of i n the o l d , thin active, weird... 00 ft K ire l student t o r e f i n e and modify h i s f a n c i f u l n o t i o n s to the a c t u a l problem c o n d i t i o n s . The ideas l i s t e d i n F i g u r e 13 under 'amenable urban spaces' suggest avenues o f e x p l o r a t i o n which might a l s o be used t o enhance the student's i n i d e a refinement. I f , f o r example, the abilities student f e l t t h a t c i t i e s should be made more i n v i t i n g youngsters, he might be requested some o f the p h y s i c a l and be e f f e c t e d t o achieve student to elaborate to on s o c i a l changes t h a t c o u l d this objective. Perhaps the c o u l d f i n d a means o f i n t e g r a t i n g c h i l d - s i z e d b u i l d i n g s i n t o the urban environment (between h i g h r i s e s ? ) o r making w r i t t e n s i g n s more meaningful t o children ( c o n v e r t i n g them t o p i c t u r e s ? ) . E x e r c i s e s and problems may be developed around any number o f urban i s s u e s t o enhance the student's urban awareness as w e l l as h i s s k i l l s o f refinement. They must simply a r t i c u l a t e and r e q u i r e the student t o produce an f i n i s h e d p i e c e o f work r a t h e r than a s e r i e s of conceptual ideas. Communication and E v a l u a t i o n The a c t i v i t y o f communication occurs throughout the e n t i r e problem s o l v i n g p r o c e s s : the i n d i v i d u a l receives 'communications' from h i s environment and undertakes a k i n d o f i n n e r 'communication' w i t h h i s subconscious mind t o develop a c r e a t i v e s o l u t i o n t o the problem. But once the problem i s s o l v e d , the i n d i v i d u a l must communicate h i s new d i s c o v e r y t o others. Depending on the nature o f the o r i g i n a l problem and on the problem s o l v e r ' s p a r t i c u l a r tal- ents and a b i l i t i e s , the f i n a l stage o f the process may take s e v e r a l forms (eg. a book, p a i n t i n g , scientific or for film, paper, e t c . ) and may be more o r l e s s r e f i n e d 'polished'. In any case, t o prepare h i s s o l u t i o n communication, the problem s o l v e r must choose a format which i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o both h i s problem and his own t a l e n t s . Then he must express h i s i d e a s as e f f e c t i v e l y as p o s s i b l e t o achieve a maximum impact on h i s audience. In order t o broaden the student's communications s k i l l s , the t e a c h e r should expose students t o the techniques and equipment a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v a r i o u s forms of communication and a s s i g n e x e r c i s e s which emphasize some form o f communication. various f i e l d s Experts i n any o f the o f communication (dance, s c u l p t u r e , computer programming, e t c . ) might be i n v i t e d t o give workshops i n which students c o u l d become f a m i l i a r w i t h the ' b a s i c s ' o f the g i v e n medium. Following (or during) the workshop, e x e r c i s e s based on the p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f communication b e i n g s t u d i e d should be i s s u e d . For example, i f g r a p h i c s were the focus o f a workshop, the t e a c h e r might a s s i g n a simple e x e r c i s e t i t i l i z i n g g r a p h i c s , such as the d e s i g n o f a p o s t e r f o r some p a r t o f the c i t y o r some event i n the c i t y . The student should attempt to communicate i n g r a p h i c form, h i s i d e a s o r f e e l i n g s about the city. During a more g e n e r a l workshop on the v a r i o u s forms o f communication, the t e a c h e r might w i t h some unusual experiment 'communications' such as that irep- r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 14 on the f o l l o w i n g page. The t e a c h e r c o u l d simply i s s u e each student w i t h a provocative picture (poem, o b j e c t , e t c . ) , perhaps i d e n - t i f y i n g i t as the week's assignment, and then w a i t f o r t h e i r response. I f the content o f the t e a c h e r ' s communication t o each student were kept s e c r e t , i t might be i n t e r e s t i n g t o have the students attempt, at 62. the end o f t h e assignment, t o i d e n t i f y which present a t i o n s a r e responses t o which communications. the e n t i r e e x e r c i s e i s i n v o l v e d w i t h Thus, communications and counter-communications o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . E x e r c i s e s and p r o j e c t s i n v o l v i n g d i f f e r e n t o f communication forms s h o u l d be a s s i g n e d whenever p o s s i b l e . These may d e a l w i t h any s u b j e c t matter and may t h e r e f o r e be used t o develop s k i l l s o t h e r than those d i r e c t l y associated with communication. An important element i n t h e student's a b i l i t y t o communicate, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e l a t i o n t o a c e r t a i n f i e l d o r d i s c i p l i n e , i s h i s knowledge o f the 'jargon' or 'lingo' that characterizes that d i s c i p l i n e . In many cases t h i s w i l l be developed d u r i n g the problem d e f i n i t i o n and i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r i n g s t a g e s , as t h e i n d i v i d u a l encounters s p e c i a l i s t s and p r i n t e d matter i n t h e f i e l d , however i t o f t e n r e q u i r e s a s p e c i a l e f f o r t t o ' l e a r n the l i n g o ' . During t h i s stage ( o r perhaps somewhat e a r l i e r ) , the t e a c h e r s h o u l d attempt t o make h i s students aware o f the f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s , indeed, a language t h a t must be mastered. A good way o f a c h i e v i n g t h i s o b j e c t i v e might be t o have the students compile a ' g l o s s a r y ' of terms, i n c l u d i n g s u b j e c t i v e as w e l l as o b j e c t i v e comments ( i e . the emotional and p o l i t i c a l overtones o f t h e words), and perhaps i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e terms approp r i a t e l y with cartoons or graphics. A t t h e end o f term, a mimeographed copy o f t h e g l o s s a r y c o u l d be d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e c l a s s and/or kept f o r t h e use o f future students. A p r e l i m i n a r y l i s t o f terms which might r e q u i r e d e f i n i t i o n i n an urban s t u d i e s c l a s s i s found i n F i g u r e 15, URBAN GLOSSARY', on t h e 1 f o l l o w i n g page. To encourage a l l forms o f communication, b u t i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e student's s k i l l s o f v e r b a l communicaiion, the t e a c h e r might o r g a n i z e , w i t h each problem o r proj e c t undertaken, a s e t o f formal p r e s e n t a t i o n s made by t h e students t o t h e i r classmates, t o the school, o r perhaps even t o the whole community. Over t h e y e a r s , such p r e s e n t a t i o n s c o u l d be developed i n t o a major s c h o o l undertaking, providing a stronger liaison between s c h o o l and community. The p r e s e n t a t i o n method a l s o o f f e r s a p e r f e c t v e h i c l e f o r classroom evaluation. After presentation, students might d i s c u s s t h e m e r i t s and drawbacks o f both the p r e s e n t a t i o n and t h e student's approach. problem s o l v i n g T h i s g i v e s the problem s o l v e r v a l u a b l e 65. ''URBAN GLOSSARY" DEVELOPMENT B L > ENV1ROMMENT INC\ i r s u r os? FIVE YEAR PUN , n r G R E ^ N BELT HIGH D E N S J T Y LOW R l S E OPEN S P A C E MASS TRANSIT PARTICIPATION SLUM UNDERGROUND URBAN MALL RENEWAL SO*ING ,^ feedback from a number o f persons advantage o f u t i l i z i n g and has the peer r e l a t i o n s h i p s additional i n the learn- 76 ing process. Such d i s c u s s i o n s should prompt the problem s o l v e r t o undertake more r i g o u r o u s and meaningf u l s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n o f the way i n which he handled h i s problem and the c o n c l u s i o n s he reached. evaluation, has learned. Throughout the emphasis s h o u l d be on what the student Problem s o l v i n g i s e s s e n t i a l l y a subjec- t i v e a c t i v i t y : the student must l e a r n t o e s t a b l i s h de- manding goals f o r h i m s e l f and t o e v a l u a t e f a i r l y h i s progress towards those g o a l s . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The p r o c e e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n has been summarized i n Table 1 (page 68), which i n c l u d e s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f ; 1. the a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d d u r i n g each phase o f the 2. c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g p r o c e s s ; the e x e r c i s e s and methods whereby these a b i l i t i e s might be developed; 3. and examples o f concepts and techniques which might be c o n s i d e r e d u s i n g these methods i n the context o f urban e d u c a t i o n . T h i s t a b l e r e p r e s e n t s a p o i n t - f o r m o u t l i n e o f the c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g approach t o e d u c a t i o n . It i s not a course o r even an o u t l i n e f o r a c o u r s e , i n itself. of As an approach, i t may be a p p l i e d t o a range s u b j e c t a r e a s , from the most simple o f o b j e c t s , such as boxes, t o complex i s s u e s such as t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , t o whole fields o f endeavour, such as urban TABLE 1: SUMMARY TABLE PHASE ABILITIES REQUIRED E D U C A T I O N A L METHODS Pre-process K n o w l e d g e o f a n d s e n s i - . ' S e n s i t i c i t y ' e x e r c i s e s : e x p l o r a t i o n s i n - SOUND t i v i t y to the general t o v a r i o u s w a y s o f p e r c e i v i n g t h e g e n e r a l WALL problem area p r o b l e m a r e a a n d i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e l f TIME : ' • • ' CONCEPTS-. Self-awareness Problem Definition Tolerance o f ambiguity Cognitive flexibility Information Gathering U t i l i z a t i o n o f e q u i p m e n t P r o b l e m s w h i c h demand u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e and t e c h n i q u e s o f i n f o r - t e c h n i q u e s and equipment as w e l l a s t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f both o b j e c t i v e and s u b j e c mation gathering tive information Critical thinking Challenging Figure and ambiguous completion; 'uses problems f o r things' URBAN S U R V I V A L TRANSPORTATION U S E S FOR T H I N G S MAPPING Sensitivity to subjective aspects o f problems Idea Generation Divergent thinking Brainstorming Play (role playing and s i m u l a t i o n games). Metaphorical'thinking Incubation S I m a g i n a t i o n and t h e a b i - P l a y f u l Illumination lity to relax Refinement Logical thinking Cognitive Communication 8 Evaluation Skills flexibility i n communication Knowledge o f language exercises and p h y s i c a l Problems and i d e a s which ment a n d a d a p t a t i o n activity require refine- RECYCLING URBAN GAMES GROWTH MAKING I T STRANGE LEARNING PEOPLE CITY F u n p r o b l e m s w h i c h r e q u i r e a n i m a g i n a t i v e WHAT consideration of possible solutions SPACE IN THE IF...? P r e s e n t a t i o n and workshop methods and ' p r o b l e m s i n v o l v i n g u n u s u a l modes o f communication POSTER DESIGN COMMUNICATION• Deliberate GLOSSARY study o f the language studies. In a d d i t i o n , i t may be employed w i t h v a r i o u s emphases t o achieve d i f f e r e n t e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s . For example the teacher may wish t o develop h i s s t u d e n t s ' s k i l l s i n problem d e f i n i t i o n may (phase 1) and t h e r e f o r e r e f r a i n from a s s i g n i n g s p e c i f i c pro- blems, i n s t e a d i n v o l v i n g h i s students i n c h a l l e n g i n g experiences and s i t u a t i o n s and r e q u i r i n g them t o d e f i n e the problem(s) themselves. Or he might focus on t h e s k i l l s r e q u i r e d i n phase f i v e , 'Refinement', by p r o v i d i n g students w i t h a c o n c e p t u a l s o l u t i o n t o a g i v e n problem and r e q u e s t i n g them t o r e f i n e i t t o conform t o c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s or standards. In t h i s case the student must f e e l f r e e t o move backwards through the problem s o l v i n g process i f he t h a t inadequate feels c o n s i d e r a t i o n has been g i v e n t o the problem a t an e a r l i e r phase. blem s o l v i n g approach may Thus the c r e a t i v e pro- be u t i l i z e d t o achieve l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s a t v i r t u a l l y any of education. The unlevel format o f a program or course de- veloped from t h i s approach w i l l depend on the educat i o n a l c o n t e x t f o r which i t i s designed — o b j e c t i v e s , age o f s t u d e n t s , space and time etc. educational constraints, I have not, i n t h i s t h e s i s , designed such a spe- c i f i c program because i t i s by d e f i n i t i o n o f such 70. limited applicability. g e n e r a l approach, By p r e s e n t i n g i n s t e a d a more I hope t o make a more e f f e c t i v e con- t r i b u t i o n t o the development o f e d u c a t i o n a l c u r r i c u l a . In d e s i g n i n g a program which u t i l i z e s the c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g approach t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s which should be kept i n mind. F i r s t , t h i s approach i s e s s e n t i a l l y a ' s e l f - d i r e c t e d ' l e a r n i n g approach: role. t h e student should take an a c t i v e The t e a c h e r , on t h e o t h e r hand, should assume a more p a s s i v e r o l e , g u i d i n g the student through the process by s u g g e s t i n g a c t i v i t i e s and problems which w i l l h e l p t h e student t o develop the s k i l l s and a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d d u r i n g each phase. C e n t r a l t o t h e d e s i g n o f any program o f c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g i s t h e t e a c h e r ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n and i d e a s . T h i s i s c r u c i a l t o t h e student's p e r c e p t i o n and consequent h a n d l i n g o f the v a r i o u s problems w i t h i n t h e f i e l d . I t has o f t e n been noted t h a t 77 a c r e a t i v e approach y i e l d s c r e a t i v e r e s u l t s . f o r e the t e a c h e r should attempt There- t o m a i n t a i n an atmos- phere o f openness and e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , encouraging students t o become i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r work and t o approach i t i m a g i n a t i v e l y . T h i s may r e q u i r e a more c a s u a l a t t i t u d e towards classroom o r g a n i z a t i o n : i n d i v i d u a l students w i l l tend t o experiment more w i t h d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f techniques f o r g a t h e r i n g and communicating t h e i r i d e a s . In a d d i t i o n , c e r t a i n k i n d s of a c t i v i t i e s may r e q u i r e p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y o r access t o v a r i o u s environments (eg. a darkroom, c i t y or t h e community a t l a r g e ) . hall, A t e a c h e r who wishes t o have an e f f e c t i v e program o f c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g must accomodate the i n d i v i d u a l needs o f 78 students a t t h e i r v a r i o u s stages o f p r o g r e s s . In p r e s e n t i n g problems and i n f o r m a t i o n t h e t e a cher may f i n d t h a t more c r e a t i v e work i s produced when i n s t r u c t i o n s are kept t o a minimum and students are r e q u i r e d t o c o l l e c t i n f o r m a t i o n themselves. By remaining somewhat n o n - d i r e c t i v e o r even s e c r e t i v e about a problem the t e a c h e r may c a p i t a l i z e on the i n h e r e n t ambiguity o f t h e problem t o produce d i v e r s e 79 results. Each student w i l l i n t e r p r e t the problem d i f f e r e n t l y and w i l l t h e r e f o r e d e a l w i t h i t i n a unique and i n d i v i d u a l manner. I n c o l l e c t i n g h i s own i n f o r m a t i o n t h e student w i l l become more a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n problem s o l v i n g , w i l l experience i t more f u l l y , and w i l l t h e r e f o r e l e a r n how t o use i t more effectively. 8 0 F i n a l l y , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t programs o f c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g appeal t o the student's t i o n and t o h i s powers o f subconscious imagina- thought. To t h i s end the t e a c h e r should t r y t o c r e a t e an atmosphere o f fun and r e l a t i v e r e l a x a t i o n i n which students f e e l f r e e t o l e t t h e i r minds wander i n t h e i r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f problems. I t i s a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t v i s u a l images are more s t r o n g l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the processes o f subcon81 s c i o u s thought than are words. According to Koestler t h i s i s because v i s u a l images p r o v i d e a more f l u i d medium o f thought: they are not bound by the systems o f l o g i c t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e language. I t may therefore be a p p r o p r i a t e t o u t i l i z e more v i s u a l m a t e r i a l i n the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i d e a s , s e a r c h i n g f o r r i c h and unusual images which appeal t o the student's i m a g i n a t i o n and subconscious I f we mind. are t o capture the i n t e r e s t o f young problem s o l v e r s i t w i l l not be w i t h s e r i o u s , ' f a c t - s t u f f e d ' , and d i d a c t i c programs o f e d u c a t i o n which o f t e n serve o n l y t o depress and overwhelm the s t u d e n t , but w i t h fun and c h a l l e n g i n g problem-oriented programs which a l l o w the student t o assume a more a c t i v e r o l e i n the , l e a r n i n g process. I t i s intended t h a t t h e ideas presented i n t h i s t h e s i s w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o the d e v e l opment o f such programs a t a l l l e v e l s o f e d u c a t i o n , and i n p a r t i c u l a r a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l , where f u t u r e urban problem s o l v e r s a r e c u r r e n t l y e n r o l l e d i n Schools o f P l a n n i n g , Design. A r c h i t e c t u r e , and Environmental FOOTNOTES 1 F a n t i n i 8 W e i n s t e i n , 1968, p . l . 2 Here and throughout the r e s t o f t h i s paper the word 'environment' w i l l r e f e r t o the p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l m i l i e u i n which man e x i s t s . I t i n c l u d e s both the n a t u r a l o r b i o p h y s i c a l environment and the man-made o r urban environment. 3 These i n c l u d e Cook, 1970; E h r l i c h , 1970; Fyson, S c h o e n f e l d , 1971; Stapp, 1971; and Ward, 1971. 4 S c h o e n f e l d , 1971, p>.42. 5 F o r example i n S c h o e n f e l d , 1971; Shomon, 1964; Stapp, 1971. 6 H a l p r i n , 1963; H a r r i s , 1969; Hosken, 1971; Jones, 1972; Lynch, 1960; T o f f l e r , 1968; Symonds, 1971; Warren, 1955 Wurman, 1966, 1971, 1972. 7 Hosken, 1970, p . l . 8 Ward, 1971, p.222. 9 E h r l i c h , 1970; E l d e r , 1966; F e l d t , 1966; Fyson, 1971; Goodman, 1972; Gutkind, 1962; H a l p r i n , 1969; Hosken, 1970; Lynch, 1960; M i c h e l s o n , 1970; Mumford, 1968; R i t t e r , 1966; S c h o e n f e l d , 1971; Symonds, 1971; Ward, 1971, Warren, 1955; Wurman, 1971. 10 Bruner, 1962, 1966. 11 Bruner, 1962, p.94. 12 Torrance, 1963, 1964a, 1964b. 13 Koestler, 1964. 1971; and 75. 14 Moore 8 Gay, 1967. 15 Duncker, 1945. 16 Jones, 1972. 17 Symonds, 1971. 18 Warren, 19 Wurman, 1971, 20 T h i s i n c l u d e s B l a c k , 1952; D a v i s , 1966; Duncker, 1945; E b e r l e , 1973; Emmett, 1960; 1965; Hudgins, 1966; Kleinmuntz, 1966; Maier, 1970; Osborn, 1963; Wason, 1968; Wertheimer, 1959; W i l s o n , 1969; W e h r l i , 1968. 21 T h i s i n c l u d e s B a r n e t t , 1953; Barron, 1968; De Bono, 1969, 1971, 1972; G e t z e l s 8 Jackson, 1962; Gordon, 1961; G u i l f o r d , 1971; Kagan, 1967; K o e s t l e r , 1964; 1969; Osborn, 1963; Parnes, 1961; Rugg, 1963; T a y l o r , 1964, 1972; T o r r a n c e , 1963, 1964, 1965. 22 Dewey, 1916; Duncker, 1945; Hudgins, 1966; Robinson e t a l , 1972; Wertheimer, 1959. 23 D a v i s , 1966; Dewey, 1916; Duncker, 1945; E l d e r , 1966; Gordon, 1961; H i n t o n , 1968; M a i e r , 1970; M e r r i f i e l d , 1970; Osborn, 1963; P a t r i c k , 1935; Parnes, 1961; Rugg, 1963; Torrance S Myers, 1970; Wertheimer, 1959; W e h r l i , 1968; Whitehead, 1959. 24 Wehrli, 25 B a r n e t t , 1953; C r o p l e y , 1967; E l d e r , 1966; Jackson 8 Messnick, i n Kagan, 1967; Lowenfeld, i n Parnes 8 Hard i n g , 1962; MacKinnon, i n Smith, 1966; Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1969; Wakin, i n Perryman, 1966. 26 Barron, 1968; C r u t c h f i e l d , i n Brim, 1966; De Bono, 1967; Duncker, 1945; G e t z e l s 8 Jackson, 1962; Gordon, 1961; K o e s t l e r , 1964, 1967; Kubie, i n Mooney 8 Razik, 1967; Maier, 1970; Moore, 1967; Osborn, 1963; Parnes 8 H a r d i n g , 1962; S y n e c t i c s C o r p o r a t i o n , 1970; T a y l o r , 1964; Torrance, 1964; W e h r l i , 1968; Wertheimer, 1959. 1955. 1972. 1968. 76. 27 Bruner, 1962; Caudwell, 1953; C r a i k , i n W e h r l i , 1968; De Bono, 1967; 1971; E l d e r , 1966; Gordon, 1961; H a l l man, 1963; K n e l l e r , 1965; K o e s t l e r , 1964, 1967; Kubie, i n Mooney 8 Razik, 1967; MacKinnon, i n Roslansky, 1970; Maslow, 1968; Moore, 1967; Mock, 1970; Rugg, 1963; R u s s e l l , 1932; S e i d e l , 1966; S y n e c t i c s C o r p o r a t i o n , 1970; T o r r a n c e , 1964; W e h r l i , 1968. 28 De Bono, 1967; Gordon, 1961; K o e s t l e r , 1964; K n e l l e r , 1965; Kubie, i n Mooney 8 R a z i k , 1967; LeNowitz, i n Burnshaw, 1970; Osborn, 1963; Rugg, 1963; S e i d e l , 1966; S y n e c t i c s C o r p o r a t i o n , 1970; T a y l o r , 1964; Torrance, 1964, 1965. 29 Barron, 1968; C r a i k , i n W e h r l i , 1968; De Bono, 1967; E l d e r , 1966; Gordon, 1961; G u i l f o r d , 1971; Kagan, 1967; K o e s t l e r , 1967; Moore, 1967; Osborn, 1963; Parnes, i n Parnes 6 Harding, 1963; Roe, 1953; T a y l o r , 1964; Torrance, 1964, 1965; W e h r l i , 1968; 30 Bruner, 1966; Dewey, 1916, 1967; Hudgins, 1966; Leona r d , 1968; Rogers, 1969; Taba, i n S e a r s , 1971; Wendel, 1970; Whitehead, 1959. 31 Hudgins, 1966; Leonard, 1968; Robinson e t a l , 1972; Smith, 1966; Taba, i n Sears, 1971; Wendel, 1970; Whitehead, 1959. 32 B a r n e t t , 1953; Bruner, 1965; Duncker, 1945; E l d e r , 1966; Gagne, i n Kleinmuntz, 1966; K o e s t l e r , 1964; Ojemann, i n Aschner 8 B i s h , 1965; Rugg, 1963; T a y l o r , 1964, 1972. 33 K n e l l e r , 1965; Maslow, 1968; P l a t o , i n Bumbaugh 8 Lawr e n c e , 1963; Rogers, 1969; Whitehead, 1959. 34 B a r n e t t , 1953; Barron, 1968; Brim, i n Covington, 1966; Dewing, 1968; E l d e r , 1966; Hudgins, 1966; Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1969. 35 Duncker, 1945; Gagne, i n Kleinmuntz, 1966; Gough, i n Parnes 6 Harding, 1972; Lowenfeld, i n Parnes 8 Harding, 1972; MacKinnon, i n Roslansky, 1970. 36 Keats, i n Noyes, 1956, 37 MacKinnon, i n Roslansky, p.1213. 1970. 77. 38 G u i l f o r d , i n C r o p l e y , 1967; MacKinnon, i n Roslansky, 1970; Maslow, 1968; Torrance, 196 3. 39 T h i s i s based on the works o f Dewey, 1916; Gowan, 1967; K n e l l e r , 1965; and MacKinnon, i n Aschner 8 B i s h , 1965. 40 These have been developed by such authors as: Getz e l s 8 Jackson, 1962; Gough, i n Parnes 8 Harding, 1962; G u i l f o r d , i n C r o p l e y , 1967; MacKinnon, i n R o s l a n s k y , 1970; Myers 8 T o r r a n c e , 1964; Parnes, i n T a y l o r , 1972; S y n e c t i c s C o r p o r a t i o n , 1970; Torrance, i n C r o p l e y , 1967; and Wallach 8 Kogan, i n C r o p l e y , 1967. 41 T o r r a n c e , i n C r o p l e y , 1967. 42 Developed by Torrance, i n C r o p l e y , 1967; a l s o used by Goodnow, 1969; G u i l f o r d , 1967; and Wallach 8 Kogan, i n C r o p l e y , 1967. 43 Bruner, 1966; C r o p l e y , 1967; Hudgins, 1966; K o e s t l e r , 1964, 1967; MacKinnon, i n Roslansky, 1970; Rugg, 1963; T a y l o r , 1964, 1972. 44 Gagne, i n Kleinmuntz, 1966, 45 A r n o l d , i n Parnes 8 Harding, 1962; De Bono, 1967; G u i l f o r d , i n Mooney 8 Razik, 1967; H o l t , 1972; Koestl e r , 1964; MacKinnon, i n Roslansky, 1970; Osborn, 1963; S e i d e l , 1966; Torrance, 1964. 46 For example the works o f B l a c k , 19 52; Emmett, 1965; Wertheimer, 1959; and Wilson, 1969. 47 The term 'divergent t h i n k i n g ' was c o i n e d by Bruner i n 1966; the term ' l a t e r a l t h i n k i n g ' was c o i n e d by De Bono i n 1972. These terms are used by s e v e r a l authors t o r e f e r t o two d i s t i n c t modes o f thought which o c c u r d u r i n g problem s o l v i n g , i n c l u d i n g G u i l f o r d , i n Mooney 8 R a z i k , 1967; G e t z e l s 8 Jackson, 1972; Rugg, 1963; and Wertheimer, 1959. 48 De Bono, 1972; 49 Parnes, 1961. p.143. Rugg, 1963; Wertheimer, 1959. 1960, 78, 50 Parnes, 1961, 1963. 51 Dewey, 1916; Dunfee 8 S a g l , 1966; G e t z e l s 8 Jackson, 1962; Gordon, 1961; Gowan, 1972; H o l t , 1972; K o e s t l e r , 196H; K n e l l e r , 1965; Kubie, 1958; Lieberman, 1967; Mock, 1970; P i a g e t , 1959; P l a t o , i n Bumbaugh 8 Lawrence, 196 3; S a d l e r , 1969. 52 Synectics Corporation, 53 Maidment 8 B r o n s t e i n , 1973, 54 Coleman, i n Boocock 6 S c h i l d , 196 8, 55 Maidment 8 B r o n s t e i n , 1973, p.20. 56 B e r k e l e y , 1968; F e l d t , 1966; M i e i r 8 Duke, 1966. Inbar 57 F e l d t , 1966, 58 Berkeley, 1968, 59 Gamson, i n Inbar 60 Bruner, 1962, 61 Gordon, 1961; 62 Craik, i n Wehrli, 63 Barron, 1968; C r a i k , i n W e h r l i , 1968; K o e s t l e r , 196»+; Kubie, i n Mooney £ Razik, 1967; Maslow, i n Mooney 8 Razik, 1967; Maslow, 1969; Rugg, 196 3. 64 Kubie, i n Mooney 8 Razik, 1967, p.38. 65 Kubie, i n Mooney 6 Razik, 1967, p.11. 66 De Bono, 1969; 1971a; K o e s t l e r , 1961; Maslow, Rogers, 1969; S e i d e l , 1966; Torrance, 1963. 67 Hallman, i n Gowan, 1972, 68 K o e s t l e r , 196U; 1970. p.6. p.29. 8 Stoll, 1972; p.17. p.58. 8 S t o l l , 1972, p.68. p.63. Synectics Corporation, 1970. 1968. p.22. K n e l l e r , 1965; Osborn, 1963. 1968; 79. 69 Barron, 1968; C r a i k , i n W e h r l i , 1968; De Bono, 1971; E l d e r , 1966; Gordon, 1961; Kagan, 1967; K o e s t l e r , 1964; Maslow, 1968; Rugg, 1963; S e i d e l , 1966; T o r r a n c e , 1963, 1964, 1965; Wertheimer, 1959. 70 Wehrli, 71 B a r n e t t , 1953; Bruner, 1962; Gowan, 1972; K o e s t l e r , 1964; Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1969; Rugg, 1963; S e i d e l , 1966. 72 Rugg, 1963; 73 E l d e r , 1966; Hudgins, 1966; 1970; Whitehead, 1959. 74 See C r a i k , i n W e h r l i , 1968; Black, 1952; Emmett, 1960, 1965; Moore, 1967; Wertheimer, 1959; and Wilson, 1969. 75 G u i l f o r d , i n Cropley, 76 Athey 8 Rubadeau, 1970; 77 C r o p l e y , 1967; De Bono, 1967; E l d e r , 1966; Gowan, 1967; Kagan, 1967; K o e s t l e r , 1964; M c K e l l a r , 1957; Osborn, 1963; Parnes 6 Harding, 1962; Roslansky, 1970; T a y l o r , 1972; Torrance, 1964, 1965; Whitehead, 1959. 78 Bruner, 1962; Dewey, 1959; Kagan, 1967; Rogers, 1969; 79 Bruner, 1962; De Bono, 1972a; E l d e r , 1966; Kagan, 1967; K o e s t l e r , 1964; M c K e l l a r , 1957; S t o r r , 1970; T o r r a n c e , 1964. 80 Bruner, 1962, 1966; Dewey, 1916, 1959; Dunfee 8 S a g l , 1966; Gowan, 1967; K o e s t l e r , 1964; Raths, 1965; Robi n s o n , 1972; Schoenfeld, 1971; Whitehead, 19 59. 81 K o e s t l e r , 1964, 1968, p.20. p.11. p.193. 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"Some M i s c o n c e p t i o n s Regarding Measurement o f C r e a t i v e T a l e n t s " , J o u r n a l o f C r e a t i v e Behaviour, 1971. V o l . 5, No. 2, pp 77 - 87. Gunn, Angus M. P a t t e r n s i n Urban Geography. Canada, W.J. Gage L t d . , 1970. Gutkind, E.A. The T w i l i g h t of C i t i e s r C o l l i e r - M a c M i l l a n L t d . , 1962. H a l p r i n , Lawrence. 1963. Cities. New Vancouver, London, York, Reinhold Pub.Co. I b i d . The R.S.V.P. C y c l e s : C r e a t i v e Processes i n the Human Environment. New York, George B r a z i l l e r I n c . , 1969. Harris, Britton. " I n v e n t i n g the Future M e t r o p o l i s " , Shaping the Urban F u t u r e , eds., B. F r i e d e n and M. Nash, Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. P r e s s , 1969. Haworth, Lawrence. The Good C i t y . Indiana U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963. Bloomington, H i n t o n , Bernard L. "Environmental F r u s t r a t i o n and C r e a t i v e Problem S o l v i n g " , J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d Psychology, 1968, V o l . 54, No. 3, pp 211 - 217. H o l t , John. Freedom and Beyond. Dutton 8 Co., 1972. New York, E.P. Hosken, Fran P. "Education f o r Urban L i v i n g ; 1970". S t . P a u l , M i n n e a p o l i s . AIP C o n f e r - I n , 197 0. House, P e t e r 8 P.D. P a t t e r s o n . "An Environment Gaming - S i m u l a t i o n L a b o r a t o r y " , J o u r n a l o f the American I n s t i t u t e o f P l a n n e r s , 1961, V o l . 35, No. pp 383 - 388. Hudgins, Bryce B. Problem S o l v i n g i n the New York, MacMillan Co., 1966. 6, Classroom. Hungerford, H. S C . Knapp. "Conservation E d u c a t i o n : Problems and S t r a t e g i e s " , The Science Teacher. May 1969, V o l . 36, No. 5, I l l i c h , Ivan. Deschooling S o c i e t y . Books, Harper 8 Row, 1972. New York, Harrow 35. Isaacs,, Nathan. The Growth o f Understanding i n the Young C h i l d ; A B r i e f I n t r o d u c t i o n t o P i a g e t ' s Work. London, Ward Lock E d u c a t i o n Co. L t d . , 1972. Jones, W. Ron. Your C i t y Has Been Kidnapped: Deschool Primer #3. San F r a n c i s c o , Zephyrus, 1972. Kagan, Jerome. C r e a t i v i t y and L e a r n i n g . Houghton M i f f l i n Co., 1967. Boston, Kepes, Gyorgy. The E d u c a t i o n o f V i s i o n . New York, George B r a z i l l e r Inc., 1965. Ibid. The Language o f V i s i o n . 8 Co., 1967. Chicago, Paul TheoVold Kleinmuntz, Benjamin, ed. Problem S o l v i n g ; Research, Method, and Theory. New York, John Wiley 8 Sons, 1966. K n e l l e r , G.F. The A r t and Science o f C r e a t i v i t y . New York, H o l t , R i n e h a r t S Winston, 1965. K o e s t l e r , Authur. The A c t o f C r e a t i o n . MacMillan Co., 1964. I b i d . The Ghost i n t h e Machine. Co., 1967. New York, M a c M i l l a n Leonard, G.B. E d u c a t i o n and E c s t a c y . P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1968. L o f l a n d , Lyn H. Books, 1973. Lynch, K e v i n . 1960. Ibid. 1972. A World o f S t r a n g e r s . Image o f t h e C i t y . What Time i s t h i s Place? New York, New York, D e l l New York, B a s i c Cambridge, M.I.T. P r e s s , Cambridge, M.I.T. P r e s s , M c K e l l a r , P e t e r . Imagination and T h i n k i n g . B a s i c Books I n c . , 1957. New York, MaLeish, John. " F o s t e r i n g C r e a t i v i t y " . J o u r n a l o f t h e Royal I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h A r c h i t e c t s , V o l . 73, No. 8, August 1966, pp. 366-369. Mager, Robert F. P r e p a r i n g I n s t r u c t i o n a l O b j e c t i v e s . Palo A l t o , Fearon Pubs., 1971. Maidment, R. 8 R.H. B r o n s t e i n . S i m u l a t i o n Games: Des i g n and Implementation. Columbus, Ohio, C h a r l e s E. M e r r i l l P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1973. M a i e r , Norman R.F. Problem S o l v i n g and C r e a t i v i t y . Belmont, C a l i f o r n i a , Brooks/Cole Pub. Co., 1960. Malt, Harold. H i l l , 1970. F u r n i s h i n g the C i t y . New York, McGraw- Maslow, Abraham H. Toward A Psychology o f Being. York, Van Nostrand Rexnhold Co., 1968. New M e i e r , R i c h a r d L. 6 R.D. Duke. "Gaming S i m u l a t i o n f o r Urban P l a n n i n g " . J o u r n a l o f the American I n s t i t u t e o f P l a n n e r s . V o l . 32, No. 1, 1966, pp. 3-17. M e r r i f i e l d , P.R. e t a l . A F a c t o r - A n a l y t i c Study o f Problem S o l v i n g A b i l i t i e s " Reports from the L a b o r a t o r y of the U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , March, 1960. M i c h e l s o n , W i l l i a m . Man and h i s Urban Environment: A S o c i o l o g i c a l Approach" Cambridge, Mass., Addison-Wesley Pub. CoT, 1970. M i l l e r , H.L. 8 M.B. Smiley. E d u c a t i o n i n the M e t r o p o l i s . New York, The F r e e P r e s s , 1967T Mock, Ruth. E d u c a t i o n and the Imagination. Chatto 8 Windus, 1970. London, Mooney, Ross L. 8 T.A. Razik, eds. E x p l o r a t i o n s i n C r e ativity. New York, Harper 8 Row Pubs., 1967. Moore, Gary 8 L.M. Gay. C r e a t i v e Problem S o l v i n g i n A r c h i t e c t u r e : A P i l o t Study. U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y , Department o f A r c h i t e c t u r e , September, 1967. Mumford, Lewis. The C i t y i n H i s t o r y : I t s O r i g i n s , I t s T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , and I t s P r o s p e c t s . New YorkT H a r c o u r t , Brace 8 World, 1961. Ibid. The Urban P r o s p e c t. World, 1968. New York, H a r c o u r t , Brace 8 Myers, R i c h a r d 8 E.Paul T o r r a n c e . I n v i t a t i o n s t o Thinki n g and Doing. Boston, Ginn 6 Co., 1964. Nixon, G.P. S M.A. Campbell. M c C l e l l a n d S Stewart, 1971. Four C i t i e s . Toronto, Noyes, R u s s e l l , ed. E n g l i s h Romantic Poetry 6 Prose. Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1956. Osborn, A.F. A p p l i e d Imagination: P r i n c i p l e s and Procedures o f C r e a t i v e Problem S o l v i n g . New York, C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons, 1963. Parnes, Sidney J . " E f f e c t s of Extended E f f o r t i n Crea t i v e Problem S o l v i n g " . J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l Psychol o g y , V o l . 52, No. 3, June 1961, pp. 117-122. Parnes, Sidney J . S H.F. Harding, eds. A Source-Book f o r C r e a t i v e T H i n k i n g . New York, C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons, 1962. Raths, A . J . e t a l . Teac&ing f o r T h i n k i n g : Theory and Application. Columbus, Ohio, C h a r l e s E. M e r r i l l Pub. Co., 1967. Reps, J.W. The Making o f Urban America. P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965. P r i n c e t o n , N.J., Richardson, Boyce. The Future o f Canadian Toronto, New P r e s s , 1972. Cities. Rioux, J.C. 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New York, Doubleday 8 Co., 1964. Ibid. 1969. S t r e e t s f o r People. New York, Doubleday 8 Co., R u s s e l l , B e r t r a n d . E d u c a t i o n and t h e S o c i a l Order. London, George A l l e n 8 Unwin Co., 1932. S a a r i n e n , T.F. P e r c e p t i o n o f t h e Environment. Washi n g t o n D.C., A s s o c i a t i o n o f American Geographers, 1969. Schoenfeld, C l a y , ed. O u t l i n e s o f Environmental Educ a t i o n . Madison Wisconson, Dembar E d u c a t i o n a l Research S e r v i c e s , 1971. Sears, P a u l i n e S., e d . I n t e l l e c t u a l Development. York, John Wiley 6 Sons, 1971. S e i d e l , G.J. C r i s i s i n C r e a t i v i t y . o f Notre Dame P r e s s , 1966. New London, U n i v e r s i t y Shomon, Joseph. Manual o f Outdoor C o n s e r v a t i o n Educat i o n . New York, N a t i o n a l Audobon S o c i e t y , 1964. Shjalman, Lee S. 8 E.R. K e i s l a r , eds. L e a r n i n g by D i s covery: A C r i t i c a l A p p r a i s a l . 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Wason, P.C. 6 P.W. Johnson, eds. Thinking and Reasoning: Selected Readings. Middlesex, England, Penguin Books, 196 8. Wehrli, Robert. Open-Ended Problem Solving in Design. Doctoral Thesis, University of Utah, August 196 8. Wendel, Robert L. "Developing Climates for Learning." Journal of Secondary Education, Nov. 1970, Vol. 45, pp.329-334. Wertheimer, Max. Productive Thinking. Ed. Michael Wertheimer. New York, Harper 6 BrosT Pubs., 1959. Whitehead, Alfred N. Aims of Education. MacMillan Co., 1959. New York, Whyte, William H. The Last Landscape. Doubleday 8 Co., 1968. New York, Wilson, John. Thinking with Concepts. Cambridge University Press, 1969. Cambridge, Winter, Eric, ed. Urban Landscapes. tario, Bellhaven House, 1971. Ibid. Urban Areas. House, 1971. Scarborough On- Scarborough, Ontario, Bellhaven W o l f o r t h , J . 6 R. L e i g h . Urban P r o s p e c t s . M c C l e l l a n d 8 Stewart L t d . , 1971. Toronto, Wurman, R i c h a r d S a u l . Making t h e C i t y Observable. Cambridge, Massachusetts, M.I.T. P r e s s , 1971. I b i d . The Yellow Pages o f L e a r n i n g . Massachusetts, M.I.TT P r e s s , 1972. Cambridge, Wurman, R.S. S J.R. Passonneau. Urban A t l a s . b r i d g e , Massachusetts, M.I.T. P r e s s , 1966. Zucker, P a u l . Town and Square. s e t t s , M.I.T. P r e s s , 1970. Cam- Cambridge, Massachu- APPENDIX I : ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ADDITIONAL REFERENCES ON THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT Annotated B i b l i o g r a p h y The books d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y are c o n s i d e r e d c e n t r a l t o t h e concepts developed w i t h i n the t h e s i s and a r e s t r o n g l y recommended t o those who i n end t o d e s i g n e d u c a t i o n a l programs u t i l i z i n g t h e c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g approach. Education: Bruner, Jerome. On Knowing: Essays f o r t h e L e f t Hand. Cambridge, Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1962. Bruner attempts t o d e a l , i n t h i s book, w i t h t h e nature o f c r e a t i v i t y . He d e f i n e s t h e c r e a t i v e a c t as 'an a c t t h a t produces e f f e c t i v e s u r p r i s e ' and t h a t takes 'one beyond t h e common ways o f e x p e r i e n c i n g the world' (p.22). He proaeeds t o d e s c r i b e t h e v a r i ous ' c o n d i t i o n s ' o f c r e a t i v i t y o r , more a c c u r a t e l y , the i n d i v i d u a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s which may be i d e n t i f i e d t h a t l e a d t o c r e a t i ve behaviour. I n the l a s t h a l f o f the book Bruner d i s c u s s e s d i s c o v e r y l e a r n i n g (problem s o l v i n g ) as the most e f f e c t i v e means o f t e a c h i n g an individual to u t i l i z e h i s creative potential. He a l s o deals a t l e n g t h w i t h the uee o f metaphor i n both t h e l e a r n i n g and t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s e s . In t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , metaphor i s used t o ' j o i n d i s s i m i l a r e x p e r i ences' o r i d e a s i n order t o g a i n an i n s i g h t i n t o t h e i r separate n a t u r e s . I n c r e a t i v e endeavours t h e same procedure i s used t o add another dimension t o an experience o r i d e a , t a k i n g i t beyond i t s common l e v e l o f meaning. The book i s a f a s c i n a t i n g study o f t h e l i t t l e understood phenomenon o f c r e a t i v i t y . 93. Bruner, Jerome. Toward a Theory o f I n s t r u c t i o n . Cambridge, Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966. In t h i s book Bruner s e t s f o r t h h i s theory on human i n t e l l e c t u a l growth and on i n s t r u c t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o Bruner a theory o f i n s t r u c t i o n must i n clude a s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f : 3. t h e kinds o f experiences which most e f f e c t i v e l y implant i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l a p r e d i s p o s i t i o n toward l e a r n i n g ; ^ 2. t h e ways i n which a body o f knowledge should be s t r u c t u r e d so t h a t i t c a n be most r e a d i l y absorbed by t h e l e a r n e r ; 3. t h e most e f f e c t i v e sequence o f p r e s e n t i n g i d e a s and i n f o r m a t i o n ; and 4. t h e nature and p a c i n g o f rewards and punishments. Bruner d i s c u s s e s these requirements i n some d e t a i l , s t r e s s i n g t h e importance o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e student's sense o f involvement i n t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s . He suggests t h a t student p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s f a c i l i t a t e d through a problem s o l v i n g approach t o l e a r n i n g which h e l p s t h e student t o p e r s o n a l i z e and t h e r e f o r e i n t e r n a l i z e what he l e a r n s . Bruner i l l u s t r a t e s h i s educat i o n a l methodology by d e v e l o p i n g , a t t h e end o f h i s book, a course on 'man', aimed a t the secondary l e v e l s t u d e n t . The book p r o v i d e s a comprehensive statement o f Bruner's e d u c a t i o n a l theory which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n t h e d e s i g n o f problem o r i e n t e d programs o f education. Creativity: K o e s t l e r , A r t h u r . The A c t o f C r e a t i o n . New York, MacMillan Co., 1964. The A c t o f C r e a t i o n i s a l e n g t h y and w e l l - d o c u mented d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c r e a t i v e process as i t occurs i n nature and i n t h e human mind. The author attempts t o e x p l a i n t h e c r e a t i v e a c t as a ' b i s o c i a t i o n ' o f 'two independent m a t r i c e s o f p e r c e p t i o n o r r e a s o n i n g ' (p.45). In o t h e r words, the c r e a t i v e a c t u n i t e s two separate e n t i t i e s i n t o new wholes. K o e s t l e r contends t h a t t h i s a c t i s p r e c i p i t a t e d by the random a s s o c i a t i o n s o f thoughts and images which occur w i t h i n t h e subconscious mind o f t h e problem s o l v e r . A l l o f a sudden t h e r e i s a f u s i o n o f two s e t s o f f a c t s o r ideas and the c r e a t i o n i s born. In many cases t h i s c r e a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s the s o l u t i o n t o a problem. Throughout h i s book, K o e s t l e r s t r e s s e s the importance o f the subconscious mind as the arena f o r c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g and the n e c e s s i t y o f ' r e l i n q u i s h i n g ' one's conscious c o n t r o l over one's thoughts t o a l l o w the subconscious mind t o operate more f r e e l y . He a l s o d i s c u s s e s the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s theory on educ a t i o n , c o n c l u d i n g t h a t e d u c a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n the s c i e n c e s , ought t o take the form o f problem s o l v i n g . Students should be presented w i t h the 'paradoxes' t h a t b a f f l e d such s c i e n t i s t s as Newton, Harvey and > Darwin. T h i s w i l l c r e a t e an atmosphere o f g r e a t e r excitement and involvement, an atmosphere which the author contends i s more conducive t o c r e a t i v e t h i n k ing. Torrance, E. P a u l . C r e a t i v i t y : What Research Says t o the Teacher. U.S. N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , 196 3b. In t h i s pamphlet, Torrance p r e s e n t s a b r i e f b u t c o n c i s e d e f i n i t i o n o f c r e a t i v i t y and d e s c r i p t i o n o f r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s i n the f i e l d . He then d i s c u s s e s the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h on e d u c a t i o n and the r o l e o f t h e t e a c h e r . In the f i n a l few pages, the author l i s t s t e n g u i d e l i n e s f o r c r e a t i v e t e a c h i n g which should h e l p any t e a c h e r t o develop an a t t i t u d e which i s more conducive t o c r e a t i v i t y . Torrance, E. P a u l . G u i d i n g C r e a t i v e T a l e n t . New J e r s e y , P r e n t i c e - H a l l I n c . , 1964. T h i s book p r o v i d e s a more e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n o f the nature o f c r e a t i v i t y and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s on education; Torrance i d e n t i f i e s s e v e r a l problems which may a r i s e when the student's c r e a t i v i t y i s suppressed and suggests methods f o r r e c t i f y i n g t h i s s i t u a t i o n . He a l s o d e a l s a t some l e n g t h w i t h the q u e s t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n t e l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v i t y , c o n c l u d i n g t h a t the i n t e l l i g e n t c h i l d , as i d e n t i f i e d by c u r r e n t systems o f e v a l u a t i o n , i s not n e c e s s a r i l y c r e a t i v e , and t h a t new testfcs should be developed t o t r y t o i d e n t i f y those students w i t h h i g h c r e a t i v e potential. Problem S o l v i n g : Duncker, K a r l . Trans. Lynne S. Lees. "On Problem Solving". P s y c h o l o g i c a l Monographs, V o l . 58, No. 5, Whole o f No. 270, 1945. Duncker d e s c r i b e s the process of problem s o l v i n g as a s e r i e s o f r e s t r u c t u r a t i o n s o f the problem which b r i n g i t c l o s e r t o the d e s i r e d ( s o l u t i o n ) s t a t e . These r e s t r u c t u r i n g s tend t o u n i t e f o r m e r l y separated p a r t s o f the problem s i t u a t i o n i n t o new wholes, (p 29). They are c r e a t e d , a c c o r d i n g t o Duncker, out o f an open and ' e l e s t i c ' mind, one which i s not r i g i d i n i t s p a t t e r n s o f thought. In c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s e l a s t i c i t y , Duncker d e s c r i b e s the phenomenon of ' f u n c t i o n a l f i x e d n e s s ' i n which the problem s o l v e r cannot r e s t r u c t ure the problem because the problem m a t e r i a l i s , i n * h i s mind, imbued w i t h c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s or a t t r i b u t e s which he has d i f f i c u l t y i n s e p a r a t i n g from the m a t e r i a l itself. I t i s o n l y when the problem-solver can break f r e e o f t h i s f i x e d n e s s t h a t the sudden r e f o r m a t i o n o f i d e a s , the 'aha' e x p e r i e n c e , takes p l a c e . Duncker i l l u s t r a t e s h i s theories with discussions of s e v e r a l e x p e r i m e n t a l problem s o l v i n g a c t i v i t i e s , mostly o f a mathematical n a t u r e . H i s a r t i c l e r e p r e s e n t s one of the f i r s t d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s o f c r e a t i v e problem solving. Moore, Gary 8 L.M. Gay. C r e a t i v e Problem S o l v i n g i n Architecture: A P i l o t Study. U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y , Department o f A r c h i t e c t u r e , September, 196 7. T h i s study attempts t o i d e n t i f y , by o b s e r v i n g the problem s o l v i n g a c t i v i t i e s o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l students as they g r a p p l e w i t h d e s i g n problems, the d i s c r e t e stages of the problem s o l v i n g process and the a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d by the problem s o l v e r d u r i n g each o f these stages. The stages i d e n t i f i e d by Moore a r e : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Problem R e c o g n i t i o n , Problem D e f i n i t i o n , S t r a t e g y Development, Problem A n a l y s i s Solution Generation, S o l u t i o n S e l e c t i o n , and E v a l u a t i o n and V e r i f i c a t i o n . Under each of these headings, the authors p r o v i d e an e x t e n s i v e l i s t of the a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d . Many of these are concerned w i t h the n o t i o n of p e r c e p t u a l and c o g n i t i v e f l e x i b i l i t y (the a b i l i t y t o see t h i n g s and t h i n k o f t h i n g s i n new and unusual ways), and w i t h the a b i l i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g . T h i s study i s o f tremendous v a l u e t o a t e a c h e r who wishes t o d e s i g n a program o f c r e a t i v e problem s o l v i n g as i t h e l p s t o e s t a b l i s h the e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s which should be achieved a t each stage i n the p r o c e s s . Urban E d u c a t i o n : Jones, W. Ron. Your C i t y Has Been Kidnapped: Primer #3. San F r a n c i s c o , Zephyrus, 1972. Deschool T h i s book i s b a s i c a l l y a c o l l e c t i o n of s u g g e s t i o n s f o r a c t i v i t i e s i n the c i t y which w i l l h e l p the part i c i p a n t t o view h i s c i t y i n d i f f e r e n t and unusual ways. Many o f these suggestions c o u l d be r e a d i l y adapted t o f i t the e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . Most are i m a g i n a t i v e and f u n , though the concepts they d e a l w i t h may be somewhat more s e r i o u s . I t i s w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d , w i t h drawings and cartoons t h a t h e l p the r e a d e r to view the c i t y i n a more i m a g i n a t i v e way. Symonds, H i l d a , ed. The Teacher Toronto, Methuen Pubs., 1971. i n the C i t y . The Teacher i n the C i t y i s a more s e r i o u s attempt t o p r o v i d e the t e a c h e r w i t h l e s s o n o u t l i n e s which d e a l w i t h important urban i s s u e s and concepts. P r o j e c t s and a c t i v i t i e s are suggested f o r each l e s s o n , as are p o s s i b l e q u e s t i o n s f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n by the s t u d e n t s . The book thus p r o v i d e s the t e a c h e r w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l framework f o r a course of urban s t u d i e s . I t i s p r i m a r i l y intended f o r the secondary l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n , however an experienced t e a c h e r c o u l d adapt the i d e a s presented t o almost any age l e v e l . This book a l s o i n c l u d e s an annotated b i b l i o g r a p h y o f r e f e r e n c e s on the c i t y , i t s h i s t o r y , geography, economy, s o c i o l o g y and d e s i g n , which i s i n v a l u a b l e t o the t e a c h e r . Wurman, R i c h a r d S a u l . The Yellow Pages o f L e a r n i n g . Cambridge, Massachusetts, M.I.T. P r e s s , 1972. T h i s book i s p r i m a r i l y intended f o r use a t the elementary s c h o o l l e v e l . I t suggests a number o f f i e l d t r i p s t h a t students c o u l d take t o l e a r n more about t h e i r c i t y - f o r example t h e a i r p o r t , a bakery, a f i r e h a l l , e t c . The book's format i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e y e l l o w pages o f a telephone book, l i s t i n g the suggested f i e l d t r i p s i n a l p h a b e t i c a l order f o r easy r e f e r e n c e . Wurman, R i c h a r d S a u l . Making t h e C i t y Observable. Cambridge, Massachusetts, M.I.T. P r e s s , 19 71. Making t h e C i t y Observable i s a c o m p i l a t i o n o f i d e a s f o r making t h e c i t y more understandable t o the average c i t i z e n . Wurman p l a c e s a g r e a t d e a l o f emphasis on the development o f maps and systems o f g r a p h i c symbols w i t h i n t h e c i t y i t s e l f t o promote an i n c r e a s e d v i s u a l understanding o f the c i t y . The book i s i l l u s t r a t e d with s e v e r a l examples o f g r a p h i c and mapping techniques which r e l a y i n f o r m a t i o n i n a much more c o n c i s e and e f f e c t i v e manner than do t h e t a b l e s o f s t a t i s t i c s and w r i t t e n r e p o r t s which one i s o f t e n f a c e d w i t h i n one's attempt t o become more knowledgeable about t h e c i t y . While Wurman does n o t , i n t h i s book, suggest how h i e ideas might be adapted f o r classroom use, an experienced t e a c h e r should have l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y i n doing t h i s f o r himself. Warren, Roland L. Studying Your Community. New York, The Free P r e s s , C o l l i e r - M a c m i l l a n L t d . , 19 55. Studying Your Community i s undoubtedly the most comprehensive and e x t e n s i v e work i n t h e f i e l d o f urban s t u d i e s . The book i s d i v i d e d i n t o g e n e r a l areas o f concern ( s o c i a l , p h y s i c a l , economic, p o l itical). W i t h i n each o f these a r e a s , more s p e c i f i c i s s u e s and problems a r e c o n s i d e r e d - f o r example the s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s o c i a l w e l f a r e system i n t h e community. Warren c o n s i d e r s t h e s e , n o t by d i s c u s s i n g t h e i r g e n e r a l nature i n most communities, b u t by p r e s e n t i n g a l i s t o f v e r y s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r nature i n your community. In o t h e r words, t h e book enumerates s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s which should be asked i n any community study. I t i s an a b s o l u t e l y i n v a l u a b l e t e a c h i n g a i d , p r o v i d i n g as i t does, a l e s s o n o u t l i n e f o r almost any avenue o f i n q u i r y i n t o the c i t y . I t i s p r i m a r i l y intended 98. f o r secondary s c h o o l and u n i v e r s i t y students and f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s who wish t o e x p l o r e an a s p e c t o f the c i t y i n which they have no e x p e r t i s e . A d d i t i o n a l References on the Urban Environment Bacon, Edmund. The Design o f C i t i e s New York, V i k i n g P r e s s , 1967. Blumenfeld, Hans. The Modern M e t r o p o l i s : Its Origins, Growth C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and P l a n n i n g , ed. Paul D. S p r e i r e g e n , M o n t r e a l , Harvest HouseT 1967. Blake, P e t e r . God's Own Junkyard. New York, H o l t , R i n e h a r t 8 Winston, 1964. Chermayeff, Serge and C. A l e x a n d e r . Community and P r i v a c y . Garden C i t y , Doubleday, 196 3. Eckbo, G a r r e t . Landscape f o r L i v i n g . New York, F.W. Dodge Corp., 1950. Ewald, W i l l i a m R., ed. Urban Landscape Design. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1964. G e r t l e r , L.O., ed. P l a n n i n g the Canadian Environment. M o n t r e a l , H a r v e s t House, 1968. Goodman, Robert. A f t e r the P l a n n e r s . New York, Simon 6 S c h u s t e r , 19 72. Gutkind, E.A. The T w i l i g h t o f C i t i e s . London, C o l l i e r M a c M i l l a n L t d . , 1962. H a l l , P e t e r . The World C i t i e s . London, Weidenfeld 8 N i c o l s o n , 1966. H a l p r i n , Lawrence. Cities. New York, R e i n h o l d Pub. Co., 196 3. Hosken, Fran. The Language o f C i t i e s . Cambridge, Schenkmann, 1972. Howarth, Lawrence. The Good C i t y . Bloomington, I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963. J a c k s o n , John N. The Canadian C i t y : Space, Form, Q u a l i t y . Toronto, McGraw-Hill ftyerson, I S 7 3 . J a c o b s , Jane. The Economy o f c i t i e s . New York, Random House, 1969. L i t h w i c k , N.H. Urban Canada: Ottawa, CMHC, 19701 Problems and P r o s p e c t s . —*~" L o f l a n d , Lyn H. A World o f S t r a n g e r s : Order and A c t i o n i n Urban P u b l i c Space. New York, B a s i c Books, wnr. — Lynch, K e v i n . Image o f the C i t y . Cambridge, M.I.T. P r e s s , 1960. I b i d . What Time i s t h i s P l a c e ? Cambridge, M.I.T. P r e s s , 1972. M a l t , H a r o l d . F u r n i s h i n g the C i t y . New York, McGraw-Hill, 1970. M i c h a l s o n , W i l l i a m . Man and H i s Urban Environment: A S o c i o l o g i c a l Approach*! Cambridge, Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1970. Mumford, Lewis. The C i t y i n H i s t o r y . New York, H a r c o u r t , Brace and J o v a n o v i c h , 1961. I b i d . Urban P r o s p e c t . New York, H a r c o u r t , Brace and World, 1968. P o w e l l , A l l e n , ed. The C i t y ; A t t a c k i n g Modern Myths. Toronto, M c C l e l l a n d and Stewart, 1972. Reps, J.W. The Making o f Urban America. P r i n c e t o n , P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1935. R i c h a r d s o n , Boyce. The F u t u r e o f Canadian C i t i e s . Toronto, New P r e s s , 1972. Rudofsky, Bernard. S t r e e t s f o r People. New York, Doubleday 8 Co., 1939. I b i d . A r c h i t e c t u r e Without A r c h i t e c t s . New York, Doubleday 8 Co., 1964. S a a r i n e n , T.F. P e r c e p t i o n s o f the Environment. A s s o c i a t i o n o f American Geographers, Washington, D. 1969. Simmons, James 6 R. Simmons. Toronto, Copp-Clark, 1969. Urban Canada. S p r e i r e g a n , P a u l . Urban Design; The A r c h i t e c t u r e o f Towns and C i t i e s T New York, McGraw-Hill, 1965. Spyer, G e o f f r e y . A r c h i t e c t and Community: Environmental Design i n an Urban S o c i e t y . London, P e t e r 6wen Pubs., 19 71. Whyte, W i l l i a m H. The L a s t Landscape. New York, Doubleday g Co., 196 8* Zucker, P a u l . Town and Square. Cambridge, M.I.T. P r e s s , 1970. APPENDIX I I : ORGANIZATIONS TOR SIMULATION GAMES The f o l l o w i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s are c u r r e n t l y i n v o l v e d with the p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s i m u l a t i o n games i n the urban f i e l d . The games a v a i l a b l e through each o r g a n i z a t i o n are l i s t e d i n b r a c k e t s . 1. Abt A s s o c i a t e s L t d . , 55 Wheeler S t . , Cambridge., Mass. ( P o l l u t i o n , Neighbourhood, S i m p o l i s , Manchester 6 Urbcoin) 2. Applied Simulations I n t e r n a t i o n a l Inc., #900, 1100 Seventeenth S t . N.W., Washington D.C. (City II) 3. The Free P r e s s , 866 T h i r d Ave., New York, New York. (Simsoc) 4. Interact, P.O. Box 26 2, Lakeside, California. (Sunshine) 5. Science Research A s s o c i a t e s I n c . , 259 E a s t E r i e S t . , Chicago, I l l i n o i s . (Interurban 6. 7. Simulation) Simile I I , P.O. Box 1023, 1150 S i l v e r a d o , La J o l l a , (Napoli, Plans, Sitte) LaClede Town Co., St. L o u i s , M i s s o u r i . (Trade-Off) California. 102. 8. Systems Gaming A s s o c i a t e s , A 1-2 Lansing Apts., 20 Triphammer Rd., I t h i c a , N.Y. (Clug) 9. Urbandyne, 5659 South Woodlawn Ave., Chicago I l l i n o i s . (Edge C i t y 10. College) Western P u b l i s h i n g Co. I n c . , School S L i b r a r y Dept., 850 T h i r d Ave., New ( D i s a s t e r , Ghetto) York.
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Towards a creative problem-oriented approach to urban studies Drexel, Julia A. L. 1974
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Title | Towards a creative problem-oriented approach to urban studies |
Creator |
Drexel, Julia A. L. |
Date Issued | 1974 |
Description | The complexity, pervasiveness and urgency of the social and biophysical problems now confronting mankind present planners and decision makers at all levels of human organization with monumental challenges. Undoubtedly some of the most challenging problems are those associated with the process of urbanization and the city itself. Indeed, it could be argued that many of our social and biophysical problems are related to mankind's persistent congregation in relatively small geographical areas. This tends to concentrate and intensify problems considerably, causing such basic and simple activities as the provision of one's own food to become an extremely complex problem, involving vast and interdependent networks of factors such as transportation, economics, waste disposal, etc. These are the problems that currently perplex urban decision-makers. In order to deal effectively with our mounting urban problems, individuals must be both knowledgeable about the city and sensitive to its attributes and its problems. But even more important, they must be capable of addressing these problems in an open-minded, intelligent and dynamic manner. They must not be bound by the worn out prescriptions and piecemeal approaches that have characterized past environmental problem solving. It is this last ability, which I shall refer to as ‘creative problem solving', that is most often neglected at all levels of education. And it is this ability which concerns me here. I believe that properly designed and implemented programs of urban-oriented problem solving are of tremendous importance in the education of professionals and the citizenry at large, to prepare them for their respective roles as urban decision-makers. While the actual design of such programs would vary depending of the age level and career goals of those for whom they are intended, I believe that the basic concepts involved in an understanding of the city and the educational approach whereby these may be imparted, would be much the same regardless of the context. I have therefore attempted to develop in this thesis, a conceptual framework for programs of urban-oriented problem solving. From the volumes of work on problem solving, creativity and education, I have crystallized an educational approach to creative problem solving which is based on the phases of the creative problem solving process itself. Each phase is discussed with reference to the major abilities required by the individual during that phase, and the educational methods whereby those abilities might best be developed. The applications of these methods to urban problem solving are illustrated by numerous suggestions for activities and exercises which involve specific urban concepts, such as transportation, communication and urban growth. I have generally addressed myself, in these suggestions, to a secondary school level of education. However, it should not be difficult for an experienced teacher to adapt the ideas presented to either lower of higher levels of education. It is hoped that these ideas will generate increased ideation and activity at all levels of education, and in particular at the university level, where tomorrow's urban decision makers are now enrolled in schools of Planning, Architecture, and Environmental Design. |
Subject |
Cities and towns - Research |
Genre |
Thesis/Dissertation |
Type |
Text |
Language | eng |
Date Available | 2010-02-02 |
Provider | Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library |
Rights | For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use. |
IsShownAt | 10.14288/1.0093503 |
URI | http://hdl.handle.net/2429/19550 |
Degree |
Master of Arts - MA |
Program |
Planning |
Affiliation |
Applied Science, Faculty of Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of |
Degree Grantor | University of British Columbia |
Campus |
UBCV |
Scholarly Level | Graduate |
AggregatedSourceRepository | DSpace |
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