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Abstract

Despite its use in numerous domains, motor imagery (MI) can be less effective than physical practice for learning. One reason for this gap may be a lack of feedback during MI. The current research aimed to determine whether visual feedback in virtual reality (VR) impacted learning of a complex novel skill through MI. This aim is addressed through two experiments: in Experiment 1, healthy novice participants engaged in four MI sessions of a VR golf task. Immediately after each MI trial, experimental group participants watched a ball appear and roll down the green to the hole. The Perfect Feedback (PF) group observed 100% successful trials, the Erroneous Feedback (EF) group saw 30% erroneous trials randomized across block and day, and the Control group performed MI in the VR environment without observation of the ball. Performance (percentage of successful putts, mean radial error and bivariate variable error) was captured in three physical test blocks before (pre), after session four (post) and >24 hours after the final training block (retention). The purpose was to determine if knowledge of results visual feedback in VR modulated learning of a complex motor skill. Results from Experiment 1 showed that MI effectively drove learning across all groups and that EF improved task goal success to a greater extent than both PF and Control. Experiment 2 succeeded Experiment 1 and explored if inter-individual differences contributed to differences in learning using MI in VR. Specifically, the purpose was to determine if MI ability and state attention were related to differences in motor learning of the golf task in the Control group from Experiment 1. Results from Experiment 2 showed poor MI ability was related to greater improvement in task accuracy (mean radial error). Collectively, feedback in VR improves overall task success; however, since MI ability modulates task accuracy, individual MI proficiency should be considered when using VR as an adjunct to MI practice to optimize outcomes. Overall, this research advances our understanding of the individualistic nature of learning through MI practice and underscores the importance of tailoring MI interventions to user-specific cognitive profiles particularly when using VR.